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{ "description": [ "The Nobel Prize in Literature 1930 Sinclair ... The Nobel Prize in Literature 1930 was awarded to ... nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1930/>", "Why Don’t More Americans Win the Nobel Prize? By . ... When the Nobel Prize in Literature was awarded to Sinclair ... In 1930, Lewis told his Nobel audience that ...", "... Sauk Centre native Sinclair Lewis became the first American to be awarded a Nobel Prize for Literature. ... in 1930, Sauk Centre native Sinclair Lewis became the ...", "Sinclair Lewis - Nobel Prize in Literature, 1930 (20 books) Type ... Literature Fiction Classics Short Stories Essays American literature Nobel Prize Uploaded: 2015 ...", "The Nobel Prize in Literature 1930 Sinclair Lewis. ... as janitor of Upton Sinclair's abortive co ... nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1930/lewis ...", "Sinclair Lewis Becomes the First American to be Awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature. ... In 1930, Lewis won the Nobel Prize in Literature, ... 1930, Sinclair Lewis ...", "Download Sinclair Lewis - Nobel Prize in Literature, 1930 ... Sinclair Lewis - Nobel Prize in Literature, 1930 (20 books) seeders: 4. leechers: 3. Download torrent." ], "filename": [ "46/46_46.txt", "194/194_50.txt", "127/127_51.txt", "112/112_52.txt", "36/36_53.txt", "83/83_54.txt", "188/188_55.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 ], "title": [ "The Nobel Prize in Literature 1930", "Why Don’t More Americans Win the Nobel Prize? - The New Yorker", "Sinclair Lewis Wins Nobel Prize – on ‘This Date in Central ...", "Sinclair Lewis - Nobel Prize in Literature, 1930 (20 books ...", "Sinclair Lewis - Biographical - Nobel Prize", "Sinclair Lewis Becomes the First American to be Awarded ...", "Download Sinclair Lewis - Nobel Prize in Literature, 1930 ..." ], "url": [ "http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1930/", "http://www.newyorker.com/books/page-turner/why-dont-more-americans-win-the-nobel-prize", "http://wjon.com/sinclair-lewis-wins-nobel-prize-on-this-date-in-central-minnesota-history/", "https://piratebay.bid/torrent/11997302/Sinclair_Lewis_-_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature__1930_(20_books)", "http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1930/lewis-bio.html", "https://worldhistoryproject.org/1930/sinclair-lewis-becomes-the-first-american-to-be-awarded-the-nobel-prize-for-literature", "http://kickasstorrents.ee/sinclair-lewis-nobel-prize-in-literature-1930-20-books-t10761358.html" ], "search_context": [ "The Nobel Prize in Literature 1930\nThe Nobel Prize in Literature 1930\nSinclair Lewis\nThe Nobel Prize in Literature 1930\nSinclair Lewis\nPrize share: 1/1\nThe Nobel Prize in Literature 1930 was awarded to Sinclair Lewis \"for his vigorous and graphic art of description and his ability to create, with wit and humour, new types of characters\".\nPhotos: Copyright © The Nobel Foundation\nShare this:\nTo cite this page\nMLA style: \"The Nobel Prize in Literature 1930\". Nobelprize.org. Nobel Media AB 2014. Web. 18 Jan 2017. <http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1930/>", "Why Don’t More Americans Win the Nobel Prize? - The New Yorker\nWhy Don’t More Americans Win the Nobel Prize?\nBy\n  \nOctober 8, 2013\nWhen the Nobel Prize in Literature was awarded to Sinclair Lewis, in 1930, it was the first time in the prize’s three-decade history that it had been given to an American. Lewis’s acceptance lecture was a not-especially-gracious missive aimed at his critics in the United States. Yet the curmudgeonly writer managed more expansive moments, gesturing toward the historic nature of that year’s award and remarking upon the state of American literature at the time, and on its status in the world.\nLewis argued that writing in the U.S. had been stunted in the years after Whitman and Twain, and mostly ignored; only architecture and film were taken seriously as popular arts among Americans. The authors who did manage to attract notice were mostly sentimental and blandly patriotic, while cultural critics, like Lewis himself, who were honest enough to express that the country had “not yet produced a civilization good enough to satisfy the deepest wants of human creatures,” were disparaged. “The American novelist or poet or dramatist or sculptor or painter must work alone, in confusion, unassisted save by his own integrity,” Lewis said.\nThis might have sounded familiar to an audience of European intellectuals—the notion of Americans as either “a puerile backwoods clan,” in Lewis’s phrase, or else a boorish mass of humanity enthralled by industry, science, and high finance. By recognizing Lewis with the Nobel, the committee was at once endorsing his political critiques of his home country, and also marking American literature as having come of age. Lewis noted that the award could have gone to one of his contemporaries—Willa Cather or Theodore Dreiser or Eugene O’Neill—but he also predicted that future committees would have many talented writers to chose from among a group of young Americans that was hard at work giving the United States “a literature worthy of her vastness.”\nSince 1930, ten other Americans have received the Nobel Prize in Literature, including a few whom Lewis mentioned in his lecture—O’Neill, William Faulkner, Ernest Hemingway. Others, whom he couldn’t have predicted—John Steinbeck, Saul Bellow, Toni Morrison—have become central writers in a national literary canon worthy of the vastness of this, or any other, country. Still others—Isaac Bashevis Singer, Czeslaw Milosz, and Joseph Brodsky—came to the United States as adults, and wrote primarily in their native languages, which reflected another step toward cosmopolitanism among American letters. (The work of the other American winner, Pearl Buck, who won the Nobel in 1938, has not aged well, and her award has become a frequently cited example of the committee’s idiosyncratic choices.) Through the twentieth century, the idea of the American literary scene as an overlooked backwater faded, owing to the artistry of these writers and scores of others, but also because the United States became a haven for exiled Europeans during the Second World War and its Cold War aftermath, and, perhaps most especially, because of the economic dominance of the American publishing industry.\nNowadays, New York is the world’s publishing capital for books written in English, and American literature has joined film and music as one of the country’s principal artistic exports. And yet, echoes of the intellectual situation that Lewis identified in 1930 can still be heard today. Take the controversy that has attached itself to another high-profile international literary award: the Man Booker Prize. In September, the chairman of the Booker Prize Foundation announced that, beginning in 2014, his organization would no longer limit consideration to English-language submissions from the U.K., Ireland, Zimbabwe, and British Commonwealth countries, but would begin considering any novel written in English that had been published in the U.K. On its face, this seemed to be a modern, egalitarian decision. But the response, at least from some in the U.K., was to complain that the prize would be contaminated by an influx of submissions from the United States. That is a fair point: the judges will surely be seeing a lot of American novels next year, and because publishers are limited in the number of books they can submit, fewer will likely come from Commonwealth countries. It is also perfectly fair to argue, as the novelist Jim Crace has , that the Booker’s specific limitations accounted for much of its meaning and relevance. (British writers have noted that they likely won’t be eligible for the Pulitzer anytime soon.)\nPart of the backlash has to do with business, since one of the primary functions of a literary prize—and the long and short lists that precede it—is to sell books. And a more crowded international field means that books from the U.K. and the Commonwealth may have less of a chance to receive a Booker bump. There is another business argument, which connects back to what Sinclair Lewis meant when he described America, in 1930, as “a land that produces eighty-story buildings, motors by the million, and wheat by the billions of bushels.” It was what the English novelist Jeanette Winterson was suggesting when she told the London Evening Standard , “This country is so in thrall to America. We’re such lapdogs to them, and that will skew things with the judges.” Images of Tony Blair following George W. Bush around came to mind, but so, too, did Lewis’s Nobel remarks about the brute force of American export capitalism. Americans would win more Bookers because they win more of everything.\nBehind the complaints about the Booker decision, there was another flavor of criticism, perhaps a kind of Old World snobbery, namely about the quality and nature of American literature itself. The British novelist Philip Hensher faults American novels for their broadness, telling the New York Times , “The big novel that speaks to all the world is not at the heart of literary achievement. Some very fine novels seem to speak much more to one culture than another and are rooted in something local.” Hensher may be conflating American novels with American blockbuster films, which are often constructed to appeal to global audiences in order to maximize profits. But it’s tough to imagine any novel speaking “to all the world”; certainly no recent American examples come to mind. Or, to put it another way, a novelist who begins with the hope of speaking to a global audience is very unlikely to produce a book that resonates with anyone. There is sometimes grumbling that American literary awards tend to value large, sprawling social-commentary novels, but a glance at the list of recent Pulitzer and National Book Award winners makes any kind of generalization seem difficult. Regardless, all good novels, whether epics or miniaturist portraits, whether American or not, are “local,” to use Hensher’s word; they are local to the author’s consciousness, and to the particular physical and emotional landscapes it contains.\nPerhaps what offends Hensher is America itself as a setting, as if there is something not meaningfully local about American locales. In a blog post for the Guardian , he laments that the Booker had become Americanized even before it changed its official rules, since three of this year’s finalists—Ruth Ozeki, Jhumpa Lahiri, and NoViolet Bulawayo—now live and work in the United States at least part-time. Each of their novels tells a story about other countries through what Hensher dismisses as the “reassuring” filter of North American suburban culture. Or, as he told the Times: “Novels about Indians who leave their exotic homeland and live in New Jersey are fine, but they shouldn’t crowd out those who write about their own culture.” (Lahiri’s latest novel, “The Lowland,” is partly set in Rhode Island.) Hensher writes as if foreign writers ought to be protected from the banality of American suburbia—and world readers must be shielded from any literary output that might result from the mixing of the two. As for the future of the Booker, he writes, “the novel written by an Indian, living in India, about India, without reference to his later life in Cincinnati” doesn’t stand a chance.\nMany have seen the Nobel Prize in Literature, meanwhile, as a kind of international referendum on American literary hegemony. The prize hasn’t been awarded to an American since 1993, when Toni Morrison won. The sniping about years of snubs might just have been chalked up to sour grapes, had it not been for the comments, in 2008, by Horace Engdahl, who was at that time the permanent secretary of the Swedish Academy. “The U.S. is too isolated, too insular. They don’t translate enough and don’t really participate in the big dialogue of literature. That ignorance is restraining,” he said. Not everything in the remark was outrageous; American publishers do translate too few books from other languages into English—just three per cent of books published each year are translations. Yet his remarks overlooked the fact that more than sixty million Americans speak a primary language other than English—meaning that the United States is far from being backwardly monocultural or monolingual. Philip Roth’s New Jersey is also Junot Díaz’s New Jersey.\nCritics in this country responded angrily , to which later Engdahl expressed his surprise, and noted that he had perhaps been speaking too generally. He stepped down as permanent secretary in 2009, and his replacement, Peter Englund, has walked back his predecessor’s indictment of American writing. But the damage was done, and commentators began to see the Nobel Prize in Literature as being actively denied to American writers, and on the same grounds that American intellectuals have long been dismissed by Europeans. Perhaps the best way to insult an American with aspirations to cosmopolitanism is to call him and his fellows ignorant rustics, functional only in English and kept safely away from real intellectual rigor and debate by geographical isolation, local peace, and relative material abundance. The Swedes had decided that we were, as Sinclair Lewis remarked back in 1930, still “a puerile backwoods clan.”\n“Well,” a well-lettered American might ask, “Which is it? Are we too disengaged with the world to be taken seriously, or else too deeply engaged with it to be distinct?” In 1930, Lewis told his Nobel audience that his home country was “coming out … of the stuffiness of safe, sane, and incredibly dull provincialism.” He was right, but, all these years later, he might be surprised to hear European intellectuals still saying those things about its literature.\nIllustration by Maximilian Bode.", "Sinclair Lewis Wins Nobel Prize – on ‘This Date in Central Minnesota History’\nSinclair Lewis Wins Nobel Prize – on ‘This Date in Central Minnesota History’\nBy Jim Maurice December 10, 2011 7:30 AM\nSinclair Lewis (Stearns History Museum)\nSAUK CENTRE – December 10th, 1930 – Sauk Centre native, Sinclair Lewis, receives the Nobel Prize for Literature\nOn this date, December 10th, in 1930, Sauk Centre native Sinclair Lewis became the first American to be awarded a Nobel Prize for Literature.\nBorn in 1885 in the village of Sauk Centre, Lewis was the third and youngest son of Edwin and Emma Lewis. Young Sinclair Lewis was not like his two older brothers who excelled in sports; Sinclair preferred reading books to playing sports. This atypical personality caused Lewis to be lonely through much of his growing-up years. At one point, a 13 year-old Lewis attempted to run away from home and become a drummer in the Spanish-American War.\nLewis' boyhood home in Sauk Centre in 1970 (Stearns History Museum)\nLewis attended Oberlin Academy and then Yale. It was at Yale that he first became truly published. Lewis wrote for the Yale Literary Magazine, turning out poetry and short stories, and later becoming editor. As Lewis continued to write, his works became better-known. Before long, magazines were buying Lewis’ stories, and Jack London even bought a plot from him.\nLewis struggled with the personal side of life from the time he was a boy, and his problems continued throughout his two marriages. He first married a magazine editor in 1914. The couple had one son, and divorced in 1925. Lewis’ second marriage to a newspaper columnist in 1928 resulted in another son, and lasted until 1942.\nLewis reflected back on his time growing up to find most of his inspiration for his best-known work, Main Street, which was published in 1920. Lewis had hoped to sell 25,000 copies of Main Street, but sales surpassed 150,000 copies in the first few years alone. Lewis went on to write several more books, including Babbitt in 1922 which helped win Lewis his Nobel Prize for Literature.\nAfter receiving his Nobel Prize, Lewis continued writing, and produced eleven more works. Ten of those works were published while he was still alive, the eleventh would be published after his death in 1951. Lewis died in Rome, due to advanced alcoholism, a problem that had troubled his life since the mid 1930s. Lewis’ remains were buried in his hometown of Sauk Centre, where his boyhood home still stands.\nThanks to the Stearns History Museum , and their volunteer Spencer Brown, for their help with our series, “This Date in Central Minnesota History” on WJON.", "Sinclair Lewis - Nobel Prize in Literature, 1930 (20 books) (download torrent) - TPB\n Get this torrent\n(Problems with magnets links are fixed by upgrading your torrent client !)\nSINCLAIR LEWIS (1885-1951) was an American novelist, short-story writer, and playwright. In 1930, he became the first American writer to receive the Nobel Prize in Literature, which was awarded \"for his vigorous and graphic art of description and his ability to create, with wit and humor, new types of characters.\" His works are known for their insightful and critical views of American capitalism and materialism between the wars. He is also respected for his strong characterizations of modern working women. H.L. Mencken wrote of him, \"[If] there was ever a novelist among us with an authentic call to the trade ... it is this red-haired tornado from the Minnesota wilds.\" His first novel, OUR MR. WRENN (1914) is a gently satiric account of a meek New York clerk traveling in Europe. Lewis wrote four more novels and achieved only modest success. But MAIN STREET (1920) caused a sensation and brought him immediate fame. The book is a withering satire on the dullness and lack of culture that exist in a \"typical\" American small town, and the narrow-mindedness and self-satisfaction of its inhabitants. BABBITT (1922) focuses even more effectively Lewis' idea of a \"typical\" small city businessman, George F. Babbitt. The novel describes the futile attempt of its central character to break loose from the confining life of a \"solid American citizen\" -- a middle-class, middle-aged realtor, civic booster, and club joiner. Possibly no two works of literature did more to make Americans aware of the limitations of their national life and culture than did MAIN STREET and BABBITT. With a sharp, satiric eye and a superb gift for mimicry, Lewis continued to examine other aspects of what he considered national inadequacy. ARROWSMITH (1925) describes the frustrations of an idealistic young doctor in conflict with corruption, jealousy, meanness, and prejudice. The novel won the 1926 Pulitzer Prize, which Lewis declined because he felt that it was not awarded for literary merit but for the best presentation of \"wholesome\" American life. Lewis closed out the decade with DODSWORTH (1929), a novel about the most affluent and successful members of American society. He portrayed them as leading essentially pointless lives in spite of great wealth and advantages. After winning the Nobel Prize in 1930, Lewis wrote eleven more novels. The best remembered is IT CAN'T HAPPEN HERE (1935), a novel about the election of a fascist to the American presidency. In addition to his major novels, this torrent includes a selection of Lewis' short stories (I'M A STRANGER HERE MYSELF) and essays (THE MAN FROM MAIN STREET), the latter of which reproduces the text of his Nobel Prize address. The following books are in PDF or ePUB format as indicated: * ARROWSMITH (HarperPerennial, 2012) -- ePUB * BABBITT (Bantam Classics, 1998). Introduction by John Wickersham. -- ePUB * BABBITT (Barnes & Noble, 2005). Introduction and Notes by Kenneth Krauss. -- ePUB * BABBITT (HarperPerennial, 2012) -- ePUB * BABBITT (Oxford World's Classics, 2010). Edited with an Introduction and Notes by Gordon Hutner. -- PDF * BETHEL MERRIDAY (Jonathan Cape, 1940) -- PDF * DODSWORTH (HarperPerennial, 2012) -- ePUB * FREE AIR (HarperPerennial, 2012) -- ePUB * GIDEON PLANISH (Jonathan Cape, 1943) -- PDF * THE GOD-SEEKER (Popular Library, 1948) -- PDF * I'M A STRANGER HERE MYSELF & OTHER STORIES (Dell, 1962). Selected by Mark Schorer. -- PDF * IT CAN'T HAPPEN HERE (Signet, 2014). Introduction by Michael Meyer and a New Afterword by Gary Scharnhorst. -- ePUB * MAIN STREET (Barnes & Noble, 2003). Introduction and Notes by Brooke Allen. -- ePUB * MAIN STREET (HarperPerennial, 2012) -- ePUB * MAIN STREET (Modern Library, 1999). Introduction by Carol Kennicott. -- ePUB * THE MAN FROM MAIN STREET: Selected Essays & Other Writings, 1904-1950 (Pocket Books, 1963). Edited by Harry E. Maule and Melville H. Cane. -- PDF * OUR MR. WRENN (Grosset & Dunlap, 1914) -- PDF * PREMIUM COLLECTION: 7 Novels: Our Mr. Wrenn / The Trail of the Hawk / The Job / The Innocents / Free Air / Main Street / Babbitt (Timeless Wisdom, 2014) -- ePUB * THE PRODIGAL PARENTS (Doubleday, 1934) -- PDF * WORK OF ART (Collier, 1934) -- PDF _____________________________________________________________________________ >> CONTACT ME You may reach me with comments, suggestions, requests, error reports, etc., at TPB's forum, SuprBay (you will need to register an account): https://pirates-forum.org/User-workerbee >> PLEASE HELP TO SEED! If you like these books and want others to have access to them, please consider seeding for as long as you can. The more you seed, the longer the torrent will live, and the easier it will be for me to upload new content. Thank you!", "Sinclair Lewis - Biographical\nSinclair Lewis\nThe Nobel Prize in Literature 1930\nSinclair Lewis\nShare this:\nSinclair Lewis - Biographical\nTo recount my life for the Nobel Foundation, I would like to present it as possessing some romantic quality, some unique character, like Kipling 's early adventures in India, or Bernard Shaw 's leadership in the criticism of British arts and economics. But my life, aside from such youthful pranks as sailing on cattleships from America to England during university vacations, trying to find work in Panama during the building of the Canal, and serving for two months as janitor of Upton Sinclair's abortive co-operative colony, Helicon Hall, has been a rather humdrum chronicle of much reading, constant writing, undistinguished travel à la tripper, and several years of comfortable servitude as an editor.\nI was born in a prairie village in that most Scandinavian part of America, Minnesota, the son of a country doctor, in 1885. Until I went East to Yale University I attended the ordinary public school, along with many Madsens, Olesons, Nelsons, Hedins, Larsons. Doubtless it was because of this that I made the hero of my second book, The Trail of the Hawk, a Norwegian, and Gustaf Sondelius, of Arrowsmith, a Swede - and to me, Dr. Sondelius is the favorite among all my characters.\nOf Carl Ericson of The Trail of the Hawk, I wrote -back in 1914, when I was working all day as editor for the George H. Doran Publishing Company, and all evening trying to write novels - as follows:\n«His carpenter father had come from Norway, by way of steerage and a farm in Wisconsin, changing his name (to Americanize it) from Ericsen... Carl was second-generation Norwegian; American-born, American in speech, American in appearance, save for his flaxen hair and china-blue eyes... When he was born the ‹typical Americans› of earlier stocks had moved to city palaces or were marooned on run-down farms. It was Carl Ericson, not a Trowbridge or a Stuyvesant or a Lee or a Grant, who was the ‹typical American› of his period. It was for him to carry on the American destiny of extending the Western horizon; his to restore the wintry Pilgrim virtues and the exuberant October, partridge-drumming days of Daniel Boone; then to add, in his own or another generation, new American aspirations for beauty.»\nMy university days at Yale were undistinguished save for contributions to the Yale Literary Magazine. It may be interesting to say that these contributions were most of them reeking with a banal romanticism; that an author who was later to try to present ordinary pavements trod by real boots should through university days have written nearly always of Guinevere and Lancelot - of weary bitterns among sad Irish reeds - of story-book castles with troubadours vastly indulging in wine, a commodity of which the author was singularly ignorant. What the moral is, I do not know. Whether imaginary castles at nineteen lead always to the sidewalks of Main Street at thirty-five, and whether the process might be reversed, and whether either of them is desirable, I leave to psychologists.\nI drifted for two years after college as a journalist, as a newspaper reporter in Iowa and in San Francisco, as - incredibly - a junior editor on a magazine for teachers of the deaf, in Washington, D.C. The magazine was supported by Alexander Graham Bell, inventor of the telephone. What I did not know about teaching the deaf would have included the entire subject, but that did not vastly matter, as my position was so insignificant that it included typing hundreds of letters every week begging for funds for the magazine and, on days when the Negro janitress did not appear, sweeping out the office.\nDoubtless this shows the advantages of a university education, and it was further shown when at the age of twenty-five I managed to get a position in a New York publishing house at all of fifteen dollars a week. This was my authentic value on the labor market, and I have always uncomfortably suspected that it would never have been much higher had I not, accidentally, possessed the gift of writing books which so acutely annoyed American smugness that some thousands of my fellow citizens felt they must read these scandalous documents, whether they liked them or not.\nFrom that New York position till the time five years later when I was selling enough short stories to the magazines to be able to live by free-lancing, I had a series of typical white-collar, unromantic, office literary jobs with two publishing houses, a magazine (Adventure), and a newspaper syndicate, reading manuscripts, writing book advertising, writing catalogues, writing uninspired book reviews - all the carpentry and plumbing of the city of letters. Nor did my first five novels rouse the slightest whispers: Our Mr. Wrenn, The Trail of the Hawk, The Job, The Innocents, and Free Air they were called, published between 1914 and 1919, and all of them dead before the ink was dry. I lacked sense enough to see that, after five failures, I was foolish to continue writing.\nMain Street, published late in 1920, was my first novel to rouse the embattled peasantry and, as I have already hinted, it had really a success of scandal. One of the most treasured American myths had been that all American villages were peculiarly noble and happy, and here an American attacked that myth. Scandalous. Some hundreds of thousands read the book with the same masochistic pleasure that one has in sucking an aching tooth.\nSince Main Street, the novels have been Babbitt (1922); Arrowsmith (1925); Mantrap (1926); Elmer Gantry (1927); The Man Who Knew Coolidge (1928); and Dodsworth (1929). The next novel, yet unnamed, will concern idealism in America through three generations, from 1818 till 1930-an idealism which the outlanders who call Americans «dollar-chasers» do not understand. It will presumably be published in the autumn of 1932, and the author's chief difficulty in composing it is that, after having received the Nobel Prize, he longs to write better than he can.\nI was married, in England, in 1928, to Dorothy Thompson, an American who had been the Central European correspondent and chef de bureau of the New York Evening Post. My first marriage, to Grace Hegger, in New York, in 1914, had been dissolved.\nDuring these years of novelwriting since 1915, I have lived a quite unromantic and unstirring life. I have travelled much; on the surface it would seem that one who during these fifteen years had been in forty states of the United States, in Canada, Mexico, England, Scotland, France, Italy, Sweden, Germany, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Jugoslavia, Greece, Switzerland, Spain, the West Indies, Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, Poland, and Russia must have been adventurous. That, however, would be a typical error of biography. The fact is that my foreign travelling has been a quite uninspired recreation, a flight from reality. My real travelling has been sitting in Pullman smoking cars, in a Minnesota village, on a Vermont farm, in a hotel in Kansas City or Savannah, listening to the normal daily drone of what are to me the most fascinating and exotic people in the world - the Average Citizens of the United States, with their friendliness to strangers and their rough teasing, their passion for material advancement and their shy idealism, their interest in all the world and their boastful provincialism - the intricate complexities which an American novelist is privileged to portray.\nAnd nowadays, at forty-six, with my first authentic home - a farm in the pastoral state of Vermont - and a baby born in June 1930, I am settled down to what I hope to be the beginning of a novelist's career. I hope the awkward apprenticeship with all its errors is nearly done.\n \nBiographical note on Sinclair Lewis\nSinclair Lewis (1885-1951) continued to be a prolific writer, but none of his later writings equalled the success or stature of his chiefworks of the twenties. After his divorce from his second wife in 1942, Sinclair Lewis lived chiefly in Europe. His later novels include Ann Vickers (I933), It Can't Happen Here (1935), The Prodigal Parents (1938), Gideon Planish (1943), Cass Timberlane (1945), Kingsblood Royal ( 1947), The God-Seeker (1949), and World So Wide (1951). From Main Street to Stockholm: Letters of Sinclair Lewis 1919-1930 was published in 1952, one year after his death in Rome.\nFrom Nobel Lectures , Literature 1901-1967, Editor Horst Frenz, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1969\nThis autobiography/biography was written at the time of the award and first published in the book series Les Prix Nobel . It was later edited and republished in Nobel Lectures . To cite this document, always state the source as shown above.\n \nSinclair Lewis died on January 10, 1951.", "Sinclair Lewis Becomes the First American to be Awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature | World History Project\n1930\nSinclair Lewis Becomes the First American to be Awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature\nIn 1930, Lewis won the Nobel Prize in Literature, the first writer from the United States to receive the award.\nIn the Swedish Academy's presentation speech, special attention was paid to Babbitt. In his Nobel Lecture, Lewis praised Theodore Dreiser, Willa Cather, Ernest Hemingway, and other contemporaries, but also lamented that \"in America most of us — not readers alone, but even writers — are still afraid of any literature which is not a glorification of everything American, a glorification of our faults as well as our virtues,\" and that America is \"the most contradictory, the most depressing, the most stirring, of any land in the world today.\" He also offered a profound criticism of the American literary establishment: \"Our American professors like their literature clear and cold and pure and very dead.\"\nSource: Wikipedia Added by: Colin Harris\nIn 1925 Lewis divorced from his first wife and married three years later Dorothy Thompson, a newspaper correspondent, with whom he traveled to London, Berlin, Vienna, and Moscow. At that time Lewis was drinking heavily, and managed to offend most of his friends. Theodore Dreiser, the other American finalist for the Nobel Prize, was bitterly disappointed, when Lewis won the award. Hwmingway said that the prize should have gone to Ezra Pound or James Joyce.\nSource: '(Harry) Sinclair Lewis (1885-1951)'; Petri Liukkonen, http://kirjasto.sci.fi/slewis.htm Added by: Colin Harris\nOn the morning of November 5, 1930, Sinclair Lewis got up very late, and he was wandering about his rented Westport house when the telephone rang and an excited voice with a Swedish accent announced to him that he had been awarded the Nobel Prize in literature. The voice was that of a Swedish newspaper correspondent in New York who had managed to track down Lewis for the Swedish Embassy, but Lewis thought that it was the voice of his friend Ferd Reyher, who liked to do imitations and play jokes. “Oh, yeah?” he replied. “You don’t say! Listen, Ferd, I can say that better than you. Your Swedish accent’s no good. I’ll repeat it to you.” And he repeated it, “You haf de Nobel Brize,” and more. The bewildered Swede protested in vain and finally called an American to the telephone to confirm the news. Lewis fell into a chair.", "Download Sinclair Lewis - Nobel Prize in Literature, 1930 (20 books) Torrent - kickasstorrents\nLewis, Sinclair - Work of Art (Collier, 1934).pdf\n5.13 MB\nDescription\nSINCLAIR LEWIS (1885-1951) was an American novelist, short-story writer, and playwright. In 1930, he became the first American writer to receive the Nobel Prize in Literature, which was awarded \"for his vigorous and graphic art of description and his ability to create, with wit and humor, new types of characters.\"\nHis works are known for their insightful and critical views of American capitalism and materialism between the wars. He is also respected for his strong characterizations of modern working women. H.L. Mencken wrote of him, \"[If] there was ever a novelist among us with an authentic call to the trade ... it is this red-haired tornado from the Minnesota wilds.\"\nHis first novel, OUR MR. WRENN (1914) is a gently satiric account of a meek New York clerk traveling in Europe. Lewis wrote four more novels and achieved only modest success. But MAIN STREET (1920) caused a sensation and brought him immediate fame. The book is a withering satire on the dullness and lack of culture that exist in a \"typical\" American small town, and the narrow-mindedness and self-satisfaction of its inhabitants.\nBABBITT (1922) focuses even more effectively Lewis' idea of a \"typical\" small city businessman, George F. Babbitt. The novel describes the futile attempt of its central character to break loose from the confining life of a \"solid American citizen\" -- a middle-class, middle-aged realtor, civic booster, and club joiner. Possibly no two works of literature did more to make Americans aware of the limitations of their national life and culture than did MAIN STREET and BABBITT.\nWith a sharp, satiric eye and a superb gift for mimicry, Lewis continued to examine other aspects of what he considered national inadequacy. ARROWSMITH (1925) describes the frustrations of an idealistic young doctor in conflict with corruption, jealousy, meanness, and prejudice. The novel won the 1926 Pulitzer Prize, which Lewis declined because he felt that it was not awarded for literary merit but for the best presentation of \"wholesome\" American life.\nLewis closed out the decade with DODSWORTH (1929), a novel about the most affluent and successful members of American society. He portrayed them as leading essentially pointless lives in spite of great wealth and advantages. After winning the Nobel Prize in 1930, Lewis wrote eleven more novels. The best remembered is IT CAN'T HAPPEN HERE (1935), a novel about the election of a fascist to the American presidency.\nIn addition to his major novels, this torrent includes a selection of Lewis' short stories (I'M A STRANGER HERE MYSELF) and essays (THE MAN FROM MAIN STREET), the latter of which reproduces the text of his Nobel Prize address.\nThe following books are in PDF or ePUB format as indicated:\n* ARROWSMITH (HarperPerennial, 2012) -- ePUB\n* BABBITT (Bantam Classics, 1998). Introduction by John Wickersham. -- ePUB\n* BABBITT (Barnes & Noble, 2005). Introduction and Notes by Kenneth Krauss. -- ePUB\n* BABBITT (HarperPerennial, 2012) -- ePUB\n* BABBITT (Oxford World's Classics, 2010). Edited with an Introduction and Notes by Gordon Hutner. -- PDF\n* BETHEL MERRIDAY (Jonathan Cape, 1940) -- PDF\n* DODSWORTH (HarperPerennial, 2012) -- ePUB\n* FREE AIR (HarperPerennial, 2012) -- ePUB\n* GIDEON PLANISH (Jonathan Cape, 1943) -- PDF\n* THE GOD-SEEKER (Popular Library, 1948) -- PDF\n* I'M A STRANGER HERE MYSELF & OTHER STORIES (Dell, 1962). Selected by Mark Schorer. -- PDF\n* IT CAN'T HAPPEN HERE (Signet, 2014). Introduction by Michael Meyer and a New Afterword by Gary Scharnhorst. -- ePUB\n* MAIN STREET (Barnes & Noble, 2003). Introduction and Notes by Brooke Allen. -- ePUB\n* MAIN STREET (HarperPerennial, 2012) -- ePUB\n* MAIN STREET (Modern Library, 1999). Introduction by Carol Kennicott. -- ePUB\n* THE MAN FROM MAIN STREET: Selected Essays & Other Writings, 1904-1950 (Pocket Books, 1963). Edited by Harry E. Maule and Melville H. Cane. -- PDF\n* OUR MR. WRENN (Grosset & Dunlap, 1914) -- PDF\n* PREMIUM COLLECTION: 7 Novels: Our Mr. Wrenn / The Trail of the Hawk / The Job / The Innocents / Free Air / Main Street / Babbitt (Timeless Wisdom, 2014) -- ePUB\n* THE PRODIGAL PARENTS (Doubleday, 1934) -- PDF\n* WORK OF ART (Collier, 1934) -- PDF" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "England.txt", "Judi_Dench.txt" ], "title": [ "England", "Judi Dench" ], "wiki_context": [ "England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west. The Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south. The country covers much of the central and southern part of the island of Great Britain, which lies in the North Atlantic; and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight.\n\nThe area now called England was first inhabited by modern humans during the Upper Palaeolithic period, but takes its name from the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes who settled during the 5th and 6th centuries. England became a unified state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery, which began during the 15th century, has had a significant cultural and legal impact on the wider world. The English language, the Anglican Church, and English law – the basis for the common law legal systems of many other countries around the world – developed in England, and the country's parliamentary system of government has been widely adopted by other nations. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the world's first industrialised nation. \n\nEngland's terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north (for example, the mountainous Lake District, Pennines, and Yorkshire Dales) and in the south west (for example, Dartmoor and the Cotswolds). The capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union.According to the European Statistical Agency, London is the largest Larger Urban Zone in the EU, a measure of metropolitan area which comprises a city's urban core as well as its surrounding commuting zone. London's municipal population is also the largest in the EU. England's population of over 53 million comprises 84% of the population of the United Kingdom, largely concentrated around London, the South East, and conurbations in the Midlands, the North West, the North East, and Yorkshire, which each developed as major industrial regions during the 19th century.[http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_270487.pdf 2011 Census – Population and household estimates for England and Wales, March 2011]. Accessed 31 May 2013.\n\nThe Kingdom of England—which after 1535 included Wales—ceased being a separate sovereign state on 1 May 1707, when the Acts of Union put into effect the terms agreed in the Treaty of Union the previous year, resulting in a political union with the Kingdom of Scotland to create the Kingdom of Great Britain. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.\n\nToponymy\n\nThe name \"England\" is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means \"land of the Angles\". The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages. The Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as \"Engla londe\", is in the late ninth century translation into Old English of Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People. The term was then used in a different sense to the modern one, meaning \"the land inhabited by the English\", and it included English people in what is now south-east Scotland but was then part of the English kingdom of Northumbria. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle recorded that the Domesday Book of 1086 covered the whole of England, meaning the English kingdom, but a few years later the Chronicle stated that King Malcolm III went \"out of Scotlande into Lothian in Englaland\", thus using it in the more ancient sense. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its modern spelling was first used in 1538. \n\nThe earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, in which the Latin word Anglii is used. The etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars; it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. How and why a term derived from the name of a tribe that was less significant than others, such as the Saxons, came to be used for the entire country and its people is not known, but it seems this is related to the custom of calling the Germanic people in Britain Angli Saxones or English Saxons. In Scottish Gaelic, another language which developed on the island of Great Britain, the Saxon tribe gave their name to the word for England (Sasunn); similarly, the Welsh name for the English language is \"Saesneg\".\n\nAn alternative name for England is Albion. The name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo: \"Beyond the Pillars of Hercules is the ocean that flows round the earth. In it are two very large islands called Britannia; these are Albion and Ierne\". But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, i.e. it was written later in the Graeco-Roman period or afterwards. The word Albion (Ἀλβίων) or insula Albionum has two possible origins. It either derives from a cognate of the Latin albus meaning white, a reference to the white cliffs of Dover, the only part of Britain visible from the European Continent, or from the phrase the \"island of the Albiones\" in the now lost Massaliote Periplus, that is attested through Avienus' Ora Maritima to which the former presumably served as a source. Albion is now applied to England in a more poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, and made popular by its use in Arthurian legend.\n\nHistory\n\nPrehistory and antiquity\n\nThe earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago. Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years. \nAfter the last ice age only large mammals such as mammoths, bison and woolly rhinoceros remained. Roughly 11,000 years ago, when the ice sheets began to recede, humans repopulated the area; genetic research suggests they came from the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula. The sea level was lower than now and Britain was connected by land bridge to Ireland and Eurasia. \nAs the seas rose, it was separated from Ireland 10,000 years ago and from Eurasia two millennia later.\n\nThe Beaker culture arrived around 2,500 BC, introducing drinking and food vessels constructed from clay, as well as vessels used as reduction pots to smelt copper ores. It was during this time that major Neolithic monuments such as Stonehenge and Avebury were constructed. By heating together tin and copper, which were in abundance in the area, the Beaker culture people made bronze, and later iron from iron ores. The development of iron smelting allowed the construction of better ploughs, advancing agriculture (for instance, with Celtic fields), as well as the production of more effective weapons. \n\nDuring the Iron Age, Celtic culture, deriving from the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures, arrived from Central Europe. Brythonic was the spoken language during this time. Society was tribal; according to Ptolemy's Geographia there were around 20 tribes in the area. Earlier divisions are unknown because the Britons were not literate. Like other regions on the edge of the Empire, Britain had long enjoyed trading links with the Romans. Julius Caesar of the Roman Republic attempted to invade twice in 55 BC; although largely unsuccessful, he managed to set up a client king from the Trinovantes.\n\nThe Romans invaded Britain in 43 AD during the reign of Emperor Claudius, subsequently conquering much of Britain, and the area was incorporated into the Roman Empire as Britannia province. The best-known of the native tribes who attempted to resist were the Catuvellauni led by Caratacus. Later, an uprising led by Boudica, Queen of the Iceni, ended with Boudica's suicide following her defeat at the Battle of Watling Street. This era saw a Greco-Roman culture prevail with the introduction of Roman law, Roman architecture, aqueducts, sewers, many agricultural items and silk. In the 3rd century, Emperor Septimius Severus died at Eboracum (now York), where Constantine was subsequently proclaimed emperor. \n\nThere is debate about when Christianity was first introduced; it was no later than the 4th century, probably much earlier. According to Bede, missionaries were sent from Rome by Eleutherius at the request of the chieftain Lucius of Britain in 180 AD, to settle differences as to Eastern and Western ceremonials, which were disturbing the church. There are traditions linked to Glastonbury claiming an introduction through Joseph of Arimathea, while others claim through Lucius of Britain. By 410, during the Decline of the Roman Empire, Britain was left exposed by the end of Roman rule in Britain and the withdrawal of Roman army units, to defend the frontiers in continental Europe and partake in civil wars. Celtic Christian monastic and missionary movements flourished: Patrick (5th-century Ireland) and in the 6th century Brendan (Clonfert), Comgall (Bangor), David (Wales), Aiden (Lindisfarne) and Columba (Iona). This period of Christianity was influenced by ancient Celtic culture in its sensibilities, polity, practices and theology. Local \"congregations\" were centred in the monastic community and monastic leaders were more like chieftains, as peers, rather than in the more hierarchical system of the Roman-dominated church. \n\nMiddle Ages\n\nRoman military withdrawals left Britain open to invasion by pagan, seafaring warriors from north-western continental Europe, chiefly the Angles, Saxons and Jutes who had long raided the coasts of the Roman province and began to settle, initially in the eastern part of the country. Their advance was contained for some decades after the Britons' victory at the Battle of Mount Badon, but subsequently resumed, over-running the fertile lowlands of Britain and reducing the area under Brythonic control to a series of separate enclaves in the more rugged country to the west by the end of the 6th century. Contemporary texts describing this period are extremely scarce, giving rise to its description as a Dark Age. The nature and progression of the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain is consequently subject to considerable disagreement. Roman-dominated Christianity had in general disappeared from the conquered territories, but was reintroduced by missionaries from Rome led by Augustine from 597 onwards. Disputes between the Roman- and Celtic-dominated forms of Christianity ended in victory for the Roman tradition at the Council of Whitby (664), which was ostensibly about haircuts and the date of Easter, but more significantly, about the differences in Roman and Celtic forms of authority, theology, and practice (Lehane).\n\nDuring the settlement period the lands ruled by the incomers seem to have been fragmented into numerous tribal territories, but by the 7th century, when substantial evidence of the situation again becomes available, these had coalesced into roughly a dozen kingdoms including Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex, East Anglia, Essex, Kent and Sussex. Over the following centuries this process of political consolidation continued. The 7th century saw a struggle for hegemony between Northumbria and Mercia, which in the 8th century gave way to Mercian preeminence. In the early 9th century Mercia was displaced as the foremost kingdom by Wessex. Later in that century escalating attacks by the Danes culminated in the conquest of the north and east of England, overthrowing the kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia and East Anglia. Wessex under Alfred the Great was left as the only surviving English kingdom, and under his successors it steadily expanded at the expense of the kingdoms of the Danelaw. This brought about the political unification of England, first accomplished under Æthelstan in 927 and definitively established after further conflicts by Eadred in 953. A fresh wave of Scandinavian attacks from the late 10th century ended with the conquest of this united kingdom by Sweyn Forkbeard in 1013 and again by his son Cnut in 1016, turning it into the centre of a short-lived North Sea Empire that also included Denmark and Norway. However the native royal dynasty was restored with the accession of Edward the Confessor in 1042.\n\nA dispute over the succession to Edward led to the Norman conquest of England in 1066, accomplished by an army led by Duke William of Normandy. The Normans themselves originated from Scandinavia and had settled in Normandy in the late 9th and early 10th centuries. This conquest led to the almost total dispossession of the English elite and its replacement by a new French-speaking aristocracy, whose speech had a profound and permanent effect on the English language. \n\nSubsequently the House of Plantagenet from Anjou inherited the English throne under Henry II, adding England to the budding Angevin Empire of fiefs the family had inherited in France including Aquitaine. They reigned for three centuries, some noted monarchs being Richard I, Edward I, Edward III and Henry V. The period saw changes in trade and legislation, including the signing of the Magna Carta, an English legal charter used to limit the sovereign's powers by law and protect the privileges of freemen. Catholic monasticism flourished, providing philosophers, and the universities of Oxford and Cambridge were founded with royal patronage. The Principality of Wales became a Plantagenet fief during the 13th century and the Lordship of Ireland was given to the English monarchy by the Pope.\n\nDuring the 14th century, the Plantagenets and the House of Valois both claimed to be legitimate claimants to the House of Capet and with it France; the two powers clashed in the Hundred Years' War. The Black Death epidemic hit England; starting in 1348, it eventually killed up to half of England's inhabitants. From 1453 to 1487 civil war occurred between two branches of the royal family—the Yorkists and Lancastrians—known as the Wars of the Roses. Eventually it led to the Yorkists losing the throne entirely to a Welsh noble family the Tudors, a branch of the Lancastrians headed by Henry Tudor who invaded with Welsh and Breton mercenaries, gaining victory at the Battle of Bosworth Field where the Yorkist king Richard III was killed. \n\nEarly Modern\n\nDuring the Tudor period, the Renaissance reached England through Italian courtiers, who reintroduced artistic, educational and scholarly debate from classical antiquity. England began to develop naval skills, and exploration to the West intensified. \n\nHenry VIII broke from communion with the Catholic Church, over issues relating to his divorce, under the Acts of Supremacy in 1534 which proclaimed the monarch head of the Church of England. In contrast with much of European Protestantism, the roots of the split were more political than theological. He also legally incorporated his ancestral land Wales into the Kingdom of England with the 1535–1542 acts. There were internal religious conflicts during the reigns of Henry's daughters, Mary I and Elizabeth I. The former took the country back to Catholicism while the latter broke from it again, forcefully asserting the supremacy of Anglicanism.\n\nCompeting with Spain, the first English colony in the Americas was founded in 1585 by explorer Walter Raleigh in Virginia and named Roanoke. The Roanoke colony failed and is known as the lost colony, after it was found abandoned on the return of the late-arriving supply ship. With the East India Company, England also competed with the Dutch and French in the East. In 1588, during the Elizabethan period, an English fleet under Francis Drake defeated an invading Spanish Armada. The political structure of the island changed in 1603, when the King of Scots, James VI, a kingdom which was a longtime rival to English interests, inherited the throne of England as James I — creating a personal union. He styled himself King of Great Britain, although this had no basis in English law. Under the auspices of King James VI and I the Authorised King James Version of the Holy Bible was published in 1611. It has not only been ranked with Shakespeare's works as the greatest masterpiece of literature in the English language but also was the standard version of the Bible read by most Protestant Christians for four hundred years, until modern revisions were produced in the 20th century.\n\nBased on conflicting political, religious and social positions, the English Civil War was fought between the supporters of Parliament and those of King Charles I, known colloquially as Roundheads and Cavaliers respectively. This was an interwoven part of the wider multifaceted Wars of the Three Kingdoms, involving Scotland and Ireland. The Parliamentarians were victorious, Charles I was executed and the kingdom replaced by the Commonwealth. Leader of the Parliament forces, Oliver Cromwell declared himself Lord Protector in 1653; a period of personal rule followed. After Cromwell's death and the resignation of his son Richard as Lord Protector, Charles II was invited to return as monarch in 1660, in a move called the Restoration. After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, it was constitutionally established that King and Parliament should rule together, though Parliament would have the real power. This was established with the Bill of Rights in 1689. Among the statutes set down were that the law could only be made by Parliament and could not be suspended by the King, also that the King could not impose taxes or raise an army without the prior approval of Parliament. Also since that time, no British monarch has entered the House of Commons when it is sitting, which is annually commemorated at the State Opening of Parliament by the British monarch when the doors of the House of Commons are slammed in the face of the monarch's messenger, symbolising the rights of Parliament and its independence from the monarch. With the founding of the Royal Society in 1660, science was greatly encouraged.\n\nIn 1666 the Great Fire of London gutted the City of London but it was rebuilt shortly afterwards with many significant buildings designed by Sir Christopher Wren. In Parliament two factions had emerged — the Tories and Whigs. Though the Tories initially supported Catholic king James II, some of them, along with the Whigs, deposed him in the Revolution of 1688 and invited Dutch prince William of Orange to become William III. Some English people, especially in the north, were Jacobites and continued to support James and his sons. After the parliaments of England and Scotland agreed, the two countries joined in political union, to create the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. To accommodate the union, institutions such as the law and national churches of each remained separate. \n\nLate Modern and contemporary\n\nUnder the newly formed Kingdom of Great Britain, output from the Royal Society and other English initiatives combined with the Scottish Enlightenment to create innovations in science and engineering, while the enormous growth in British overseas trade protected by the Royal Navy paved the way for the establishment of the British Empire. Domestically it drove the Industrial Revolution, a period of profound change in the socioeconomic and cultural conditions of England, resulting in industrialised agriculture, manufacture, engineering and mining, as well as new and pioneering road, rail and water networks to facilitate their expansion and development. The opening of Northwest England's Bridgewater Canal in 1761 ushered in the canal age in Britain. In 1825 the world's first permanent steam locomotive-hauled passenger railway—the Stockton and Darlington Railway—opened to the public.\n\nDuring the Industrial Revolution, many workers moved from England's countryside to new and expanding urban industrial areas to work in factories, for instance at Manchester and Birmingham, dubbed \"Warehouse City\" and \"Workshop of the World\" respectively. England maintained relative stability throughout the French Revolution; William Pitt the Younger was British Prime Minister for the reign of George III. During the Napoleonic Wars, Napoleon planned to invade from the south-east. However this failed to manifest and the Napoleonic forces were defeated by the British at sea by Lord Nelson and on land by the Duke of Wellington. The Napoleonic Wars fostered a concept of Britishness and a united national British people, shared with the Scots and Welsh. \n\nLondon became the largest and most populous metropolitan area in the world during the Victorian era, and trade within the British Empire—as well as the standing of the British military and navy—was prestigious. Political agitation at home from radicals such as the Chartists and the suffragettes enabled legislative reform and universal suffrage. Power shifts in east-central Europe led to World War I; hundreds of thousands of English soldiers died fighting for the United Kingdom as part of the Allies. Two decades later, in World War II, the United Kingdom was again one of the Allies. At the end of the Phoney War, Winston Churchill became the wartime Prime Minister. Developments in warfare technology saw many cities damaged by air-raids during the Blitz. Following the war, the British Empire experienced rapid decolonisation, and there was a speeding up of technological innovations; automobiles became the primary means of transport and Frank Whittle's development of the jet engine led to wider air travel. Residential patterns were altered in England by private motoring, and by the creation of the National Health Service (NHS) in 1948. The UK's NHS provided publicly funded health care to all UK permanent residents free at the point of need, being paid for from general taxation. Combined, these changes prompted the reform of local government in England in the mid-20th century. \n\nSince the 20th century there has been significant population movement to England, mostly from other parts of the British Isles, but also from the Commonwealth, particularly the Indian subcontinent. Since the 1970s there has been a large move away from manufacturing and an increasing emphasis on the service industry. As part of the United Kingdom, the area joined a common market initiative called the European Economic Community which became the European Union. Since the late 20th century the administration of the United Kingdom has moved towards devolved governance in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. England and Wales continues to exist as a jurisdiction within the United Kingdom. Devolution has stimulated a greater emphasis on a more English-specific identity and patriotism. There is no devolved English government, but an attempt to create a similar system on a sub-regional basis was rejected by referendum.\n\nGovernance\n\nPolitics\n\nAs part of the United Kingdom, the basic political system in England is a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary system. There has not been a government of England since 1707, when the Acts of Union 1707, putting into effect the terms of the Treaty of Union, joined England and Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain. Before the union England was ruled by its monarch and the Parliament of England. Today England is governed directly by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, although other countries of the United Kingdom have devolved governments. In the House of Commons which is the lower house of the British Parliament based at the Palace of Westminster, there are 532 Members of Parliament (MPs) for constituencies in England, out of the 650 total. \n\nIn the United Kingdom general election, 2015, the Conservative Party won an absolute majority in the 650 contested seats with 10 seats more than all other parties combined (the Speaker of the House not being counted as a Conservative). The Conservative party, headed by the prime minister David Cameron, won 98 more seats than the Labour Party, whose leader Ed Miliband subsequently stood down. The Scottish National Party (Scotland only) won 56 out of 59 Scottish seats in the House of Commons replacing the Liberal Democrats as the third largest party overall in the UK. \n\nAs the United Kingdom is a member of the European Union, there are elections held regionally in England to decide who is sent as Members of the European Parliament. The 2014 European Parliament election saw the regions of England elect the following MEPs: 22 UK Independence Party (UKIP), 17 Conservatives, 17 Labour, 3 Greens, and one Liberal Democrat.\n\nSince devolution, in which other countries of the United Kingdom—Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland—each have their own devolved parliament or assemblies for local issues, there has been debate about how to counterbalance this in England. Originally it was planned that various regions of England would be devolved, but following the proposal's rejection by the North East in a referendum, this has not been carried out.\n\nOne major issue is the West Lothian question, in which MPs from Scotland and Wales are able to vote on legislation affecting only England, while English MPs have no equivalent right to legislate on devolved matters. This when placed in the context of England being the only country of the United Kingdom not to have free cancer treatment, prescriptions, residential care for the elderly and free top-up university fees, has led to a steady rise in English nationalism. Some have suggested the creation of a devolved English parliament, while others have proposed simply limiting voting on legislation which only affects England to English MPs. \n\nLaw\n\nThe English law legal system, developed over the centuries, is the basis of common law legal systems used in most Commonwealth countries and the United States (except Louisiana). Despite now being part of the United Kingdom, the legal system of the Courts of England and Wales continued, under the Treaty of Union, as a separate legal system from the one used in Scotland. The general essence of English law is that it is made by judges sitting in courts, applying their common sense and knowledge of legal precedent—stare decisis—to the facts before them. \n\nThe court system is headed by the Senior Courts of England and Wales, consisting of the Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice for civil cases, and the Crown Court for criminal cases. The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the highest court for criminal and civil cases in England and Wales. It was created in 2009 after constitutional changes, taking over the judicial functions of the House of Lords. A decision of the Supreme Court is binding on every other court in the hierarchy, which must follow its directions. \n\nCrime increased between 1981 and 1995, but fell by 42% in the period 1995–2006. The prison population doubled over the same period, giving it the highest incarceration rate in Western Europe at 147 per 100,000. Her Majesty's Prison Service, reporting to the Ministry of Justice, manages most prisons, housing over 85,000 convicts. \n\nRegions, counties, and districts\n\nThe subdivisions of England consist of up to four levels of subnational division controlled through a variety of types of administrative entities created for the purposes of local government. The highest tier of local government were the nine regions of England: North East, North West, Yorkshire and the Humber, East Midlands, West Midlands, East, South East, South West, and London. These were created in 1994 as Government Offices, used by the UK government to deliver a wide range of policies and programmes regionally, but there are no elected bodies at this level, except in London, and in 2011 the regional government offices were abolished. The same boundaries remain in use for electing Members of the European Parliament on a regional basis.\n\nAfter devolution began to take place in other parts of the United Kingdom it was planned that referendums for the regions of England would take place for their own elected regional assemblies as a counterweight. London accepted in 1998: the London Assembly was created two years later. However, when the proposal was rejected by the northern England devolution referendums, 2004 in the North East, further referendums were cancelled. The regional assemblies outside London were abolished in 2010, and their functions transferred to respective Regional Development Agencies and a new system of local authority leaders' boards. \n\nBelow the regional level, all of England is divided into 48 ceremonial counties. These are used primarily as a geographical frame of reference and have developed gradually since the Middle Ages, with some established as recently as 1974. Each has a Lord Lieutenant and High Sheriff; these posts are used to represent the British monarch locally. Outside Greater London and the Isles of Scilly, England is also divided into 83 metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties; these correspond to areas used for the purposes of local government and may consist of a single district or be divided into several.\n\nThere are six metropolitan counties based on the most heavily urbanised areas, which do not have county councils. In these areas the principal authorities are the councils of the subdivisions, the metropolitan boroughs. Elsewhere, 27 non-metropolitan \"shire\" counties have a county council and are divided into districts, each with a district council. They are typically, though not always, found in more rural areas. The remaining non-metropolitan counties are of a single district and usually correspond to large towns or sparsely populated counties; they are known as unitary authorities. Greater London has a different system for local government, with 32 London boroughs, plus the City of London covering a small area at the core governed by the City of London Corporation. At the most localised level, much of England is divided into civil parishes with councils; they do not exist in Greater London. \n\nGeography\n\nLandscape and rivers\n\nGeographically England includes the central and southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain, plus such offshore islands as the Isle of Wight and the Isles of Scilly. It is bordered by two other countries of the United Kingdom—to the north by Scotland and to the west by Wales. England is closer to the European continent than any other part of mainland Britain. It is separated from France by a 21 mi sea gap, though the two countries are connected by the Channel Tunnel near Folkestone. England also has shores on the Irish Sea, North Sea and Atlantic Ocean.\n\nThe ports of London, Liverpool, and Newcastle lie on the tidal rivers Thames, Mersey and Tyne respectively. At 220 mi, the Severn is the longest river flowing through England. It empties into the Bristol Channel and is notable for its Severn Bore tidal waves, which can reach 2 m in height. However, the longest river entirely in England is the Thames, which is 215 mi in length. There are many lakes in England; the largest is Windermere, within the aptly named Lake District. \n\nIn geological terms, the Pennines, known as the \"backbone of England\", are the oldest range of mountains in the country, originating from the end of the Paleozoic Era around 300 million years ago. Their geological composition includes, among others, sandstone and limestone, and also coal. There are karst landscapes in calcite areas such as parts of Yorkshire and Derbyshire. The Pennine landscape is high moorland in upland areas, indented by fertile valleys of the region's rivers. They contain three national parks, the Yorkshire Dales, Northumberland, and the Peak District. The highest point in England, at 978 m, is Scafell Pike in Cumbria. Straddling the border between England and Scotland are the Cheviot Hills.\n\nThe English Lowlands are to the south of the Pennines, consisting of green rolling hills, including the Cotswold Hills, Chiltern Hills, North and South Downs—where they meet the sea they form white rock exposures such as the cliffs of Dover. The granite Southwest Peninsula in the West Country includes upland moorland, such as Dartmoor and Exmoor, and enjoys a mild climate; both are national parks. \n\nClimate\n\nEngland has a temperate maritime climate: it is mild with temperatures not much lower than 0 °C in winter and not much higher than 32 °C in summer. The weather is damp relatively frequently and is changeable. The coldest months are January and February, the latter particularly on the English coast, while July is normally the warmest month. Months with mild to warm weather are May, June, September and October. Rainfall is spread fairly evenly throughout the year.\n\nImportant influences on the climate of England are its proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, its northern latitude and the warming of the sea by the Gulf Stream. Rainfall is higher in the west, and parts of the Lake District receive more rain than anywhere else in the country. Since weather records began, the highest temperature recorded was on 10 August 2003 at Brogdale in Kent, while the lowest was on 10 January 1982 in Edgmond, Shropshire. \n\nMajor conurbations\n\nThe Greater London Urban Area is by far the largest urban area in England and one of the busiest cities in the world. It is considered a global city and has a population larger than other countries in the United Kingdom besides England itself. Other urban areas of considerable size and influence tend to be in northern England or the English Midlands. There are fifty settlements which have been designated city status in England, while the wider United Kingdom has sixty-six.\n\nWhile many cities in England are quite large in size, such as Birmingham, Sheffield, Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds, Newcastle, Bradford, Nottingham and others, a large population is not necessarily a prerequisite for a settlement to be afforded city status. Traditionally the status was afforded to towns with diocesan cathedrals and so there are smaller cities like Wells, Ely, Ripon, Truro and Chichester. According to the Office for National Statistics the ten largest, continuous built-up urban areas are:\n\nEconomy\n\nEngland's economy is one of the largest in the world, with an average GDP per capita of £22,907. Usually regarded as a mixed market economy, it has adopted many free market principles, yet maintains an advanced social welfare infrastructure. The official currency in England is the pound sterling, whose ISO 4217 code is GBP. Taxation in England is quite competitive when compared to much of the rest of Europe – the basic rate of personal tax is 20% on taxable income up to £31,865 above the personal tax-free allowance (normally £10,000), and 40% on any additional earnings above that amount. \n\nThe economy of England is the largest part of the UK's economy, which has the 18th highest GDP PPP per capita in the world. England is a leader in the chemical and pharmaceutical sectors and in key technical industries, particularly aerospace, the arms industry, and the manufacturing side of the software industry. London, home to the London Stock Exchange, the United Kingdom's main stock exchange and the largest in Europe, is England's financial centre—100 of Europe's 500 largest corporations are based in London. London is the largest financial centre in Europe, and is the second largest in the world. \n\nThe Bank of England, founded in 1694 by Scottish banker William Paterson, is the United Kingdom's central bank. Originally established as private banker to the government of England, since 1946 it has been a state-owned institution. The bank has a monopoly on the issue of banknotes in England and Wales, although not in other parts of the United Kingdom. The government has devolved responsibility to the bank's Monetary Policy Committee for managing the monetary policy of the country and setting interest rates. \n\nEngland is highly industrialised, but since the 1970s there has been a decline in traditional heavy and manufacturing industries, and an increasing emphasis on a more service industry oriented economy. Tourism has become a significant industry, attracting millions of visitors to England each year. The export part of the economy is dominated by pharmaceuticals, cars (although many English marques are now foreign-owned, such as Land Rover, Lotus, Jaguar and Bentley), crude oil and petroleum from the English parts of North Sea oil along with Wytch Farm, aircraft engines and alcoholic beverages. \n\nMost of the UK's £25 billion aerospace industry is primarily based in England. The wings for the Airbus A380 and the Airbus A350 XWB are designed and manufactured at Airbus UK's world-leading facility in Broughton. GKN Aerospace – an expert in metallic and composite aerostructures is involved in almost every civil and military fixed and rotary wing aircraft in production is based in Redditch. \n\nBAE Systems makes large sections of the Typhoon Eurofighter at its sub-assembly plant in Salmesbury and assembles the aircraft for the RAF at its Warton plant, near Preston. It is also a principal subcontractor on the F35 Joint Strike Fighter – the world's largest single defence project – for which it designs and manufactures a range of components including the aft fuselage, vertical and horizontal tail and wing tips and fuel system. As well as this it manufactures the Hawk, the world's most successful jet training aircraft.\n\nRolls-Royce PLC is the world's second-largest aero-engine manufacturer. Its engines power more than 30 types of commercial aircraft, and it has more 30,000 engines currently in service across both the civil and defence sectors. With a workforce of over 12,000 people, Derby has the largest concentration of Rolls-Royce employees in the UK. Rolls-Royce also produces low-emission power systems for ships; makes critical equipment and safety systems for the nuclear industry and powers offshore platforms and major pipelines for the oil and gas industry. \n\nMuch of the UK's space industry is centred on EADS Astrium, based in Stevenage and Portsmouth. The company builds the buses – the underlying structure onto which the payload and propulsion systems are built – for most of the European Space Agency's spacecraft, as well as commercial satellites. The world leader in compact satellite systems, Surrey Satellites, is also part of Astrium. Reaction Engines Limited, the company planning to build Skylon, a single-stage-to-orbit spaceplane using their SABRE rocket engine, a combined-cycle, air-breathing rocket propulsion system is based Culham.\n\nAgriculture is intensive and highly mechanised, producing 60% of food needs with only 2% of the labour force. Two thirds of production is devoted to livestock, the other to arable crops. \n\nScience and technology\n\nProminent English figures from the field of science and mathematics include Sir Isaac Newton, Michael Faraday, Robert Hooke, Robert Boyle, Joseph Priestley, J. J. Thomson, Charles Babbage, Charles Darwin, Stephen Hawking, Christopher Wren, Alan Turing, Francis Crick, Joseph Lister, Tim Berners-Lee, Paul Dirac, Andrew Wiles and Richard Dawkins. Some experts claim that the earliest concept of a metric system was invented by John Wilkins, the first secretary of the Royal Society, in 1668. \n\nAs the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution, England was home to many significant inventors during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Famous English engineers include Isambard Kingdom Brunel, best known for the creation of the Great Western Railway, a series of famous steamships, and numerous important bridges, hence revolutionising public transport and modern-day engineering. Thomas Newcomen's steam engine helped spawn the Industrial Revolution. The Father of Railways, George Stephenson, built the first public inter-city railway line in the world, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, which opened in 1830. With his role in the marketing and manufacturing of the steam engine, and invention of modern coinage, Matthew Boulton (business partner of James Watt) is regarded as one of the most influential entrepreneurs in history. The physician Edward Jenner's smallpox vaccine is said to have \"saved more lives ... than were lost in all the wars of mankind since the beginning of recorded history.\" \n\nInventions and discoveries of the English include: the jet engine, the first industrial spinning machine, the first computer and the first modern computer, the World Wide Web along with HTML, the first successful human blood transfusion, the motorised vacuum cleaner, the lawn mower, the seat belt, the hovercraft, the electric motor, steam engines, and theories such as the Darwinian theory of evolution and atomic theory. Newton developed the ideas of universal gravitation, Newtonian mechanics, and calculus, and Robert Hooke his eponymously named law of elasticity. Other inventions include the iron plate railway, the thermosiphon, tarmac, the rubber band, the mousetrap, \"cat's eye\" road marker, joint development of the light bulb, steam locomotives, the modern seed drill and many modern techniques and technologies used in precision engineering. \n\nTransport\n\nThe Department for Transport is the government body responsible for overseeing transport in England. There are many motorways in England, and many other trunk roads, such as the A1 Great North Road, which runs through eastern England from London to Newcastle (much of this section is motorway) and onward to the Scottish border. The longest motorway in England is the M6, from Rugby through the North West up to the Anglo-Scottish border, a distance of 232 mi. Other major routes include: the M1 from London to Leeds, the M25 which encircles London, the M60 which encircles Manchester, the M4 from London to South Wales, the M62 from Liverpool via Manchester to East Yorkshire, and the M5 from Birmingham to Bristol and the South West.\n\nBus transport across the country is widespread; major companies include National Express, Arriva and Go-Ahead Group. The red double-decker buses in London have become a symbol of England. There is a rapid rail network in two English cities: the London Underground; and the Tyne and Wear Metro in Newcastle, Gateshead and Sunderland. There are several tram networks, such as the Blackpool tramway, Manchester Metrolink, Sheffield Supertram and Midland Metro, and the Tramlink system centred on Croydon in South London.\n\nRail transport in England is the oldest in the world: passenger railways originated in England in 1825. Much of Britain's 10000 mi of rail network lies in England, covering the country fairly extensively, although a high proportion of railway lines were closed in the second half of the 20th century. There are plans to reopen lines such as the Varsity Line between Oxford and Cambridge. These lines are mostly standard gauge (single, double or quadruple track) though there are also a few narrow gauge lines. There is rail transport access to France and Belgium through an undersea rail link, the Channel Tunnel, which was completed in 1994.\n\nEngland has extensive domestic and international aviation links. The largest airport is London Heathrow, which is the world's busiest airport measured by number of international passengers. Other large airports include Manchester Airport, London Stansted Airport, Luton Airport and Birmingham Airport. By sea there is ferry transport, both local and international, including to Ireland, the Netherlands and Belgium. There are around 4400 mi of navigable waterways in England, half of which is owned by the Canal and River Trust, however water transport is very limited. The Thames is the major waterway in England, with imports and exports focused at the Port of Tilbury in the Thames Estuary, one of the United Kingdom's three major ports.\n\nHealthcare\n\nThe National Health Service (NHS) is the publicly funded healthcare system in England responsible for providing the majority of healthcare in the country. The NHS began on 5 July 1948, putting into effect the provisions of the National Health Service Act 1946. It was based on the findings of the Beveridge Report, prepared by economist and social reformer William Beveridge. The NHS is largely funded from general taxation including National Insurance payments, and it provides most of its services free at the point of use, although there are charges for some people for eye tests, dental care, prescriptions and aspects of personal care. \n\nThe government department responsible for the NHS is the Department of Health, headed by the Secretary of State for Health, who sits in the British Cabinet. Most of the expenditure of the Department of Health is spent on the NHS—£98.6 billion was spent in 2008–2009. In recent years the private sector has been increasingly used to provide more NHS services despite opposition by doctors and trade unions. The average life expectancy of people in England is 77.5 years for males and 81.7 years for females, the highest of the four countries of the United Kingdom.\n\nDemography\n\nPopulation\n\nWith over 53 million inhabitants, England is by far the most populous country of the United Kingdom, accounting for 84% of the combined total. England taken as a unit and measured against international states has the fourth largest population in the European Union and would be the 25th largest country by population in the world. With a density of 407 people per square kilometre, it would be the second most densely populated country in the European Union after Malta. \n\nThe English people are a British people. Some genetic evidence suggests that 75–95% descend in the paternal line from prehistoric settlers who originally came from the Iberian Peninsula, as well as a 5% contribution from Angles and Saxons, and a significant Scandinavian (Viking) element. However, other geneticists place the Germanic estimate up to half. Over time, various cultures have been influential: Prehistoric, Brythonic, Roman, Anglo-Saxon, Viking (North Germanic), Gaelic cultures, as well as a large influence from Normans. There is an English diaspora in former parts of the British Empire; especially the United States, Canada, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand. Since the late 1990s, many English people have migrated to Spain. \n\nIn 1086, when the Domesday Book was compiled, England had a population of two million. About ten per cent lived in urban areas. By 1801 the population had grown to 8.3 million, and by 1901 had grown to 30.5 million. Due in particular to the economic prosperity of South East England, it has received many economic migrants from the other parts of the United Kingdom. There has been significant Irish migration. The proportion of ethnically European residents totals at 87.50%, including Germans and Poles.\n\nOther people from much further afield in the former British colonies have arrived since the 1950s: in particular, 6% of people living in England have family origins in the Indian subcontinent, mostly India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. 2.90% of the population are black, from both the Caribbean and countries in Africa itself, especially former British colonies. There is a significant number of Chinese and British Chinese. In 2007, 22% of primary school children in England were from ethnic minority families, and in 2011 that figure was 26.5%. About half of the population increase between 1991 and 2001 was due to immigration. Debate over immigration is politically prominent; according to a 2009 Home Office poll, 80% of people want to cap it. The ONS has projected that the population will grow by six million between 2004 and 2029. \n\nLanguage\n\nAs its name suggests, the English language, today spoken by hundreds of millions of people around the world, originated as the language of England, where it remains the principal tongue spoken by 98% of the population.[http://www.nomisweb.co.uk/census/2011/QS205EW/view/2092957699?cols\nmeasures QS205EW – Proficiency in English], ONS 2011 census. Out of the 51,005,610 residents of England over the age of three, 50,161,765 (98%) can speak English \"well\" or \"very well\". Retrieved 20 July 2015. It is an Indo-European language in the Anglo-Frisian branch of the Germanic family. After the Norman conquest, the Old English language was displaced and confined to the lower social classes as Norman French and Latin were used by the aristocracy.\n\nBy the 15th century, English was back in fashion among all classes, though much changed; the Middle English form showed many signs of French influence, both in vocabulary and spelling. During the English Renaissance, many words were coined from Latin and Greek origins. Modern English has extended this custom of flexibility, when it comes to incorporating words from different languages. Thanks in large part to the British Empire, the English language is the world's unofficial lingua franca. \n\nEnglish language learning and teaching is an important economic activity, and includes language schooling, tourism spending, and publishing. There is no legislation mandating an official language for England, but English is the only language used for official business. Despite the country's relatively small size, there are many distinct regional accents, and individuals with particularly strong accents may not be easily understood everywhere in the country.\n\nAs well as English, England has two other indigenous languages, Cornish and Welsh. Cornish died out as a community language in the 18th century but is being revived, and is now protected under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. It is spoken by 0.1% of people in Cornwall, and is taught to some degree in several primary and secondary schools. \n\nWhen the modern border between Wales and England was established by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542, many Welsh-speaking communities found themselves on the English side of the border. Welsh was spoken in Archenfield in Herefordshire into the nineteenth century. Welsh was spoken by natives of parts of western Shropshire until the middle of the twentieth century if not later. \n\nState schools teach students a second language, usually French, German or Spanish. Due to immigration, it was reported in 2007 that around 800,000 school students spoke a foreign language at home, the most common being Punjabi and Urdu. However, following the 2011 census data released by the Office for National Statistics, figures now show that Polish is the main language spoken in England after English. \n\nReligion\n\nAccording to the 2011 census, 59.4% of the population is Christian, 24.7% non-religious, 5% is Muslim while 3.7% of the population belongs to other religions and 7.2 did not give an answer. Christianity is the most widely practised religion in England, as it has been since the Early Middle Ages, although it was first introduced much earlier in Gaelic and Roman times. This Celtic Church was gradually joined to the Catholic hierarchy following the 6th-century Gregorian mission to Kent led by St Augustine. The established church of England is Church of England, which left communion with Rome in the 1530s when Henry VIII was unable to annul his divorce to the aunt of the king of Spain. The religion regards itself as both Catholic and Reformed.\n\nThere are High Church and Low Church traditions, and some Anglicans regard themselves as Anglo-Catholics, following the Tractarian movement. The monarch of the United Kingdom is the Supreme Governor of the church, which has around 26 million baptised members (of whom the vast majority are not regular churchgoers). It forms part of the Anglican Communion with the Archbishop of Canterbury acting as its symbolic worldwide head. Many cathedrals and parish churches are historic buildings of significant architectural importance, such as Westminster Abbey, York Minster, Durham Cathedral, and Salisbury Cathedral.\n\nThe 2nd-largest Christian practice is the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church. Since its reintroduction after the Catholic Emancipation, the Church has organised ecclesiastically on an England and Wales basis where there are 4.5 million members (most of whom are English). There has been one Pope from England to date, Adrian IV; while saints Bede and Anselm are regarded as Doctors of the Church.\n\nA form of Protestantism known as Methodism is the third largest Christian practice and grew out of Anglicanism through John Wesley. It gained popularity in the mill towns of Lancashire and Yorkshire, and amongst tin miners in Cornwall. There are other non-conformist minorities, such as Baptists, Quakers, Congregationalists, Unitarians and The Salvation Army. \n\nThe patron saint of England is Saint George; his symbolic cross is included in the flag of England, as well as in the Union Flag as part of a combination. There are many other English and associated saints; some of the best-known are: Cuthbert, Edmund, Alban, Wilfrid, Aidan, Edward the Confessor, John Fisher, Thomas More, Petroc, Piran, Margaret Clitherow and Thomas Becket. There are non-Christian religions practised. Jews have a history of a small minority on the island since 1070. They were expelled from England in 1290 following the Edict of Expulsion, only to be allowed back in 1656.\n\nEspecially since the 1950s, religions from the former British colonies have grown in numbers, due to immigration. Islam is the most common of these, now accounting for around 5% of the population in England. Hinduism, Sikhism and Buddhism are next in number, adding up to 2.8% combined, introduced from India and South East Asia.\n\nA small minority of the population practice ancient Pagan religions. Neopaganism in the United Kingdom is primarily represented by Wicca and Witchcraft religions, Druidry, and Heathenry. According to the 2011 UK Census, there are roughly 53,172 people who identify as Pagan in England, and 3,448 in Wales, including 11,026 Wiccans in England and 740 in Wales.\n\nEducation\n\nThe Department for Education is the government department responsible for issues affecting people in England up to the age of 19, including education. State-run and state-funded schools are attended by approximately 93% of English schoolchildren. Of these, a minority are faith schools (primarily Church of England or Roman Catholic schools). Children who are between the ages of 3 and 5 attend nursery or an Early Years Foundation Stage reception unit within a primary school. Children between the ages of 5 and 11 attend primary school, and secondary school is attended by those aged between 11 and 16. After finishing compulsory education, students take GCSE examinations. Students may then opt to continue into further education for two years. Further education colleges (particularly sixth form colleges) often form part of a secondary school site. A-level examinations are sat by a large number of further education students, and often form the basis of an application to university.\n\nAlthough most English secondary schools are comprehensive, in some areas there are selective intake grammar schools, to which entrance is subject to passing the Eleven-Plus exam. Around 7.2% of English schoolchildren attend private schools, which are funded by private sources. Standards in state schools are monitored by the Office for Standards in Education, and in private schools by the Independent Schools Inspectorate. \n\nHigher education students normally attend university from age 18 onwards, where they study for an academic degree. There are over 90 universities in England, all but one of which are public institutions. The Department for Business, Innovation and Skills is the government department responsible for higher education in England. Students are generally entitled to student loans to cover the cost of tuition fees and living costs. The first degree offered to undergraduates is the Bachelor's degree, which usually takes three years to complete. Students are then able to work towards a postgraduate degree, which usually takes one year, or towards a doctorate, which takes three or more years.\n\nEngland's universities include some of the highest-ranked universities in the world; Cambridge University, Imperial College London, Oxford University, University College London and King's College London are all ranked in the global top 20 in the 2014–2015 QS World University Rankings. The London School of Economics has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research. The London Business School is considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2010 its MBA programme was ranked best in the world by the Financial Times. Academic degrees in England are usually split into classes: first class (1st), upper second class (2:1), lower second class (2:2), third (3rd), and unclassified.\n\nThe King's School, Canterbury and King's School, Rochester are the oldest schools in the English-speaking world. Many of England's most well-known schools, such as Winchester College, Eton, St Paul's School, Harrow School and Rugby School are fee-paying institutions. \n\nCulture\n\nArchitecture\n\nMany ancient standing stone monuments were erected during the prehistoric period, amongst the best-known are Stonehenge, Devil's Arrows, Rudston Monolith and Castlerigg. With the introduction of Ancient Roman architecture there was a development of basilicas, baths, amphitheaters, triumphal arches, villas, Roman temples, Roman roads, Roman forts, stockades and aqueducts. It was the Romans who founded the first cities and towns such as London, Bath, York, Chester and St Albans. Perhaps the best-known example is Hadrian's Wall stretching right across northern England. Another well-preserved example is the Roman Baths at Bath, Somerset.\n\nEarly Medieval architecture's secular buildings were simple constructions mainly using timber with thatch for roofing. Ecclesiastical architecture ranged from a synthesis of Hiberno—Saxon monasticism, to Early Christian basilica and architecture characterised by pilaster-strips, blank arcading, baluster shafts and triangular headed openings. After the Norman conquest in 1066 various Castles in England were created so law lords could uphold their authority and in the north to protect from invasion. Some of the best-known medieval castles are the Tower of London, Warwick Castle, Durham Castle and Windsor Castle.\n\nThroughout the Plantagenet era an English Gothic architecture flourished—the medieval cathedrals such as Canterbury Cathedral, Westminster Abbey and York Minster are prime examples. Expanding on the Norman base there was also castles, palaces, great houses, universities and parish churches. Medieval architecture was completed with the 16th-century Tudor style; the four-centred arch, now known as the Tudor arch, was a defining feature as were wattle and daub houses domestically. In the aftermath of the Renaissance a form of architecture echoing classical antiquity, synthesised with Christianity appeared—the English Baroque style, architect Christopher Wren was particularly championed. \n\nGeorgian architecture followed in a more refined style, evoking a simple Palladian form; the Royal Crescent at Bath is one of the best examples of this. With the emergence of romanticism during Victorian period, a Gothic Revival was launched—in addition to this around the same time the Industrial Revolution paved the way for buildings such as The Crystal Palace. Since the 1930s various modernist forms have appeared whose reception is often controversial, though traditionalist resistance movements continue with support in influential places.\n\nFolklore\n\nEnglish folklore developed over many centuries. Some of the characters and stories are present across England, but most belong to specific regions. Common folkloric beings include pixies, giants, elves, bogeymen, trolls, goblins and dwarves. While many legends and folk-customs are thought to be ancient, for instance the tales featuring Offa of Angel and Wayland the Smith, others date from after the Norman invasion; Robin Hood and his Merry Men of Sherwood and their battles with the Sheriff of Nottingham being, perhaps, the best known. \n\nDuring the High Middle Ages tales originating from Brythonic traditions entered English folklore—the Arthurian myth. These were derived from Anglo-Norman, Welsh and French sources, featuring King Arthur, Camelot, Excalibur, Merlin and the Knights of the Round Table such as Lancelot. These stories are most centrally brought together within Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain). Another early figure from British tradition, King Cole, may have been based on a real figure from Sub-Roman Britain. Many of the tales and pseudo-histories make up part of the wider Matter of Britain, a collection of shared British folklore.\n\nSome folk figures are based on semi or actual historical people whose story has been passed down centuries; Lady Godiva for instance was said to have ridden naked on horseback through Coventry, Hereward the Wake was a heroic English figure resisting the Norman invasion, Herne the Hunter is an equestrian ghost associated with Windsor Forest and Great Park and Mother Shipton is the archetypal witch. On 5 November people make bonfires, set off fireworks and eat toffee apples in commemoration of the foiling of the Gunpowder Plot centred on Guy Fawkes. The chivalrous bandit, such as Dick Turpin, is a recurring character, while Blackbeard is the archetypal pirate. There are various national and regional folk activities, participated in to this day, such as Morris dancing, Maypole dancing, Rapper sword in the North East, Long Sword dance in Yorkshire, Mummers Plays, bottle-kicking in Leicestershire, and cheese-rolling at Cooper's Hill. There is no official national costume, but a few are well established such as the Pearly Kings and Queens associated with cockneys, the Royal Guard, the Morris costume and Beefeaters. \n\nCuisine\n\nSince the early modern period the food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce. During the Middle Ages and through the Renaissance period, English cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation, though a decline began during the Industrial Revolution with the move away from the land and increasing urbanisation of the populace. The cuisine of England has, however, recently undergone a revival, which has been recognised by the food critics with some good ratings in Restaurants best restaurant in the world charts. An early book of English recipes is the Forme of Cury from the royal court of Richard II. \n\nTraditional examples of English food include the Sunday roast, featuring a roasted joint (usually beef, lamb, chicken or pork) served with assorted vegetables, Yorkshire pudding, and gravy. Other prominent meals include fish and chips and the full English breakfast (generally consisting of bacon, sausages, grilled tomatoes, fried bread, black pudding, baked beans, mushrooms, and eggs). Various meat pies are consumed such as steak and kidney pie, steak and ale pie, cottage pie, pork pie (the latter usually eaten cold) and the Cornish Pasty.\n\nSausages are commonly eaten, either as bangers and mash or toad in the hole. Lancashire hotpot is a well known stew in the northwest. Some of the more popular cheeses are Cheddar, Red Leicester and Wensleydale together with Blue Stilton. Many Anglo-Indian hybrid dishes, curries, have been created such as chicken tikka masala and balti. Traditional English dessert dishes include apple pie or other fruit pies; spotted dick – all generally served with custard; and, more recently, sticky toffee pudding. Sweet pastries include scones (either plain or containing dried fruit) served with jam and/or cream, dried fruit loaves, Eccles cakes and mince pies as well as a wide range of sweet or spiced biscuits. Common drinks include tea, whose popularity was increased by Catherine of Braganza, whilst frequently consumed alcoholic drinks include wines, ciders and English beers, such as bitter, mild, stout, and brown ale. \n\nVisual arts\n\nThe earliest known examples are the prehistoric rock and cave art pieces, most prominent in North Yorkshire, Northumberland and Cumbria, but also feature further south, for example at Creswell Crags. With the arrival of Roman culture in the 1st century, various forms of art utilising statues, busts, glasswork and mosaics were the norm. There are numerous surviving artefacts, such as those at Lullingstone and Aldborough. During the Early Middle Ages the style favoured sculpted crosses and ivories, manuscript painting, gold and enamel jewellery, demonstrating a love of intricate, interwoven designs such as in the Staffordshire Hoard discovered in 2009. Some of these blended Gaelic and Anglian styles, such as the Lindisfarne Gospels and Vespasian Psalter. Later Gothic art was popular at Winchester and Canterbury, examples survive such as Benedictional of St. Æthelwold and Luttrell Psalter.\n\nThe Tudor era saw prominent artists as part of their court, portrait painting which would remain an enduring part of English art, was boosted by German Hans Holbein, natives such as Nicholas Hilliard built on this. Under the Stuarts, Continental artists were influential especially the Flemish, examples from the period include—Anthony van Dyck, Peter Lely, Godfrey Kneller and William Dobson. The 18th century was a time of significance with the founding of the Royal Academy, a classicism based on the High Renaissance prevailed—Thomas Gainsborough and Joshua Reynolds became two of England's most treasured artists.\n\nThe Norwich School continued the landscape tradition, while the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood with their vivid and detailed style revived the Early Renaissance style—Holman Hunt, Dante Gabriel Rossetti and John Everett Millais were leaders. Prominent amongst 20th-century artists was Henry Moore, regarded as the voice of British sculpture, and of British modernism in general. Contemporary painters include Lucian Freud, whose work Benefits Supervisor Sleeping in 2008 set a world record for sale value of a painting by a living artist. \n\nLiterature, poetry and philosophy\n\nEarly authors such as Bede and Alcuin wrote in Latin. The period of Old English literature provided the epic poem Beowulf and the secular prose of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, along with Christian writings such as Judith, Cædmon's Hymn and hagiographies. Following the Norman conquest Latin continued amongst the educated classes, as well as an Anglo-Norman literature.\n\nMiddle English literature emerged with Geoffrey Chaucer, author of The Canterbury Tales, along with Gower, the Pearl Poet and Langland. William of Ockham and Roger Bacon, who were Franciscans, were major philosophers of the Middle Ages. Julian of Norwich, who wrote Revelations of Divine Love, was a prominent Christian mystic. With the English Renaissance literature in the Early Modern English style appeared. William Shakespeare, whose works include Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, Macbeth, and A Midsummer Night's Dream, remains one of the most championed authors in English literature. \n\nChristopher Marlowe, Edmund Spenser, Philip Sydney, Thomas Kyd, John Donne, and Ben Jonson are other established authors of the Elizabethan age. Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes wrote on empiricism and materialism, including scientific method and social contract. Filmer wrote on the Divine Right of Kings. Marvell was the best-known poet of the Commonwealth, while John Milton authored Paradise Lost during the Restoration.\n\nSome of the most prominent philosophers of the Enlightenment were John Locke, Thomas Paine, Samuel Johnson and Jeremy Bentham. More radical elements were later countered by Edmund Burke who is regarded as the founder of conservatism. The poet Alexander Pope with his satirical verse became well regarded. The English played a significant role in romanticism: Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lord Byron, John Keats, Mary Shelley, Percy Bysshe Shelley, William Blake and William Wordsworth were major figures. \n\nIn response to the Industrial Revolution, agrarian writers sought a way between liberty and tradition; William Cobbett, G. K. Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc were main exponents, while the founder of guild socialism, Arthur Penty, and cooperative movement advocate G. D. H. Cole are somewhat related. Empiricism continued through John Stuart Mill and Bertrand Russell, while Bernard Williams was involved in analytics. Authors from around the Victorian era include Charles Dickens, the Brontë sisters, Jane Austen, George Eliot, Rudyard Kipling, Thomas Hardy, H. G. Wells and Lewis Carroll. Since then England has continued to produce novelists such as George Orwell, D. H. Lawrence, Virginia Woolf, C. S. Lewis, Enid Blyton, Aldous Huxley, Agatha Christie, Terry Pratchett, J. R. R. Tolkien, and J. K. Rowling. \n\nPerforming arts\n\nThe traditional folk music of England is centuries old and has contributed to several genres prominently; mostly sea shanties, jigs, hornpipes and dance music. It has its own distinct variations and regional peculiarities. Wynkyn de Worde printed ballads of Robin Hood from the 16th century are an important artefact, as are John Playford's The Dancing Master and Robert Harley's Roxburghe Ballads collections. Some of the best-known songs are Greensleeves, Pastime with Good Company, Maggie May and Spanish Ladies amongst others. Many nursery rhymes are of English origin such as Twinkle Twinkle Little Star, Roses are red, Jack and Jill, London Bridge Is Falling Down, The Grand Old Duke of York, Hey Diddle Diddle and Humpty Dumpty. Traditional English Christmas carols include \"We Wish You a Merry Christmas\", \"The First Noel\" and \"God Rest You Merry, Gentlemen\". \n\nEarly English composers in classical music include Renaissance artists Thomas Tallis and William Byrd, followed up by Henry Purcell from the Baroque period. German-born George Frideric Handel became a British subject and spent most of his composing life in London, creating some of the most well-known works of classical music, The Messiah, Water Music, and Music for the Royal Fireworks. One of his four Coronation Anthems, Zadok the Priest, composed for the coronation of George II, has been performed at every subsequent British coronation, traditionally during the sovereign's anointing. There was a revival in the profile of composers from England in the 20th century led by Edward Elgar, Benjamin Britten, Frederick Delius, Gustav Holst, Ralph Vaughan Williams and others. Present-day composers from England include Michael Nyman, best known for The Piano, and Andrew Lloyd Webber, whose musicals have achieved enormous success in the West End and worldwide. \n\nIn the field of popular music, many English bands and solo artists have been cited as the most influential and best-selling musicians of all time. Acts such as The Beatles, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, Elton John, Queen, Rod Stewart and The Rolling Stones are among the highest selling recording artists in the world. Many musical genres have origins in (or strong associations with) England, such as British invasion, progressive rock, hard rock, Mod, glam rock, heavy metal, Britpop, indie rock, gothic rock, shoegazing, acid house, garage, trip hop, drum and bass and dubstep. \n\nLarge outdoor music festivals in the summer and autumn are popular, such as Glastonbury, V Festival, and the Reading and Leeds Festivals. The most prominent opera house in England is the Royal Opera House at Covent Garden. The Proms – a season of orchestral classical concerts held at the Royal Albert Hall in London – is a major cultural event in the English calendar, and takes place yearly. The Royal Ballet is one of the world's foremost classical ballet companies, its reputation built on two prominent figures of 20th-century dance, prima ballerina Margot Fonteyn and choreographer Frederick Ashton.\n\nCinema\n\nEngland (and the UK as a whole) has had a considerable influence on the history of the cinema, producing some of the greatest actors, directors and motion pictures of all time, including Alfred Hitchcock, Charlie Chaplin, David Lean, Laurence Olivier, Vivien Leigh, John Gielgud, Peter Sellers, Julie Andrews, Michael Caine, Gary Oldman, Helen Mirren, Kate Winslet and Daniel Day-Lewis. Hitchcock and Lean are among the most critically acclaimed of all-time. Hitchcock's first thriller, The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog (1926), helped shape the thriller genre in film, while his 1929 film, Blackmail, is often regarded as the first British sound feature film. \n\nMajor film studios in England include Pinewood, Elstree and Shepperton. Some of the most commercially successful films of all time have been produced in England, including two of the highest-grossing film franchises (Harry Potter and James Bond). Ealing Studios in London has a claim to being the oldest continuously working film studio in the world. Famous for recording many motion picture film scores, the London Symphony Orchestra first performed film music in 1935. \n\nThe BFI Top 100 British films includes Monty Python's Life of Brian (1979), a film regularly voted the funniest of all time by the UK public. English producers are also active in international co-productions and English actors, directors and crew feature regularly in American films. The UK film council ranked David Yates, Christopher Nolan, Mike Newell, Ridley Scott and Paul Greengrass the five most commercially successful English directors since 2001. Other contemporary English directors include Sam Mendes, Guy Ritchie and Steve McQueen. Current actors include Tom Hardy, Daniel Craig, Benedict Cumberbatch and Emma Watson. Acclaimed for his motion capture work, Andy Serkis opened The Imaginarium Studios in London in 2011. The visual effects company Framestore in London has produced some of the most critically acclaimed special effects in modern film. Many successful Hollywood films have been based on English people, stories or events. The 'English Cycle' of Disney animated films include Alice in Wonderland, The Jungle Book and Winnie the Pooh. \n\nMuseums, libraries, and galleries\n\nEnglish Heritage is a governmental body with a broad remit of managing the historic sites, artefacts and environments of England. It is currently sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. The charity National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty holds a contrasting role. 17 of the 25 United Kingdom UNESCO World Heritage Sites fall within England. Some of the best-known of these are: Hadrian's Wall, Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites, Tower of London, Jurassic Coast, Saltaire, Ironbridge Gorge, Studley Royal Park and various others. \n\nThere are many museums in England, but perhaps the most notable is London's British Museum. Its collection of more than seven million objects is one of the largest and most comprehensive in the world, sourced from every continent, illustrating and documenting the story of human culture from its beginning to the present. The British Library in London is the national library and is one of the world's largest research libraries, holding over 150 million items in all known languages and formats; including around 25 million books. The most senior art gallery is the National Gallery in Trafalgar Square, which houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900. The Tate galleries house the national collections of British and international modern art; they also host the famously controversial Turner Prize. \n\nSports\n\nEngland has a strong sporting heritage, and during the 19th century codified many sports that are now played around the world. Sports originating in England include association football, cricket, rugby union, rugby league, tennis, boxing, badminton, squash, rounders, hockey, snooker, billiards, darts, table tennis, bowls, netball, thoroughbred horseracing, greyhound racing and fox hunting. It has helped the development of golf, sailing and Formula One.\n\nFootball is the most popular of these sports. The England national football team, whose home venue is Wembley Stadium, played Scotland in the first ever international football match in 1872. Referred to as the \"home of football\" by FIFA, England hosted the 1966 FIFA World Cup, and won the tournament by defeating West Germany 4–2 in the final, with Geoff Hurst scoring a hat-trick. With a British television audience peak of 32.30 million viewers, the final is the most watched television event ever in the UK. \n\nAt club level England is recognised by FIFA as the birthplace of club football, due to Sheffield F.C. founded in 1857 being the world's oldest club. The Football Association is the oldest governing body in the sport, with the rules of football first drafted in 1863 by Ebenezer Cobb Morley. The FA Cup and The Football League were the first cup and league competitions respectively. In the modern day the Premier League is the world's most-watched football league, most lucrative, and amongst the elite. \n\nAs is the case throughout the UK, football in England is renowned for the intense rivalries between clubs and the passion of the supporters, which includes a tradition of football chants, such as, \"You're Not Singing Any More\" (or its variant \"We Can See You Sneaking Out!\"), sung by jubilant fans towards the opposition fans who have gone silent (or left early). The European Cup (now UEFA Champions League) has been won by Liverpool, Manchester United, Nottingham Forest, Aston Villa and Chelsea, while Arsenal, and Leeds United have reached the final. Other English clubs have enjoyed success, Tottenham Hotspur, Ipswich Town, Chelsea, and Liverpool have won the UEFA Cup, renamed UEFA Europa League.\n\nCricket is generally thought to have been developed in the early medieval period among the farming and metalworking communities of the Weald. The England cricket team is a composite England and Wales team. One of the game's top rivalries is The Ashes series between England and Australia, contested since 1882. The climax of the 2005 Ashes was viewed by 7.4 million as it was available on terrestrial television. England has hosted four Cricket World Cups (1975, 1979, 1983, 1999) and will host the 2019 edition, but never won the tournament, reaching the final 3 times. However they have hosted the ICC World Twenty20 in 2009, winning this format in 2010 beating rivals Australia in the final. In the domestic competition, the County Championship, Yorkshire are by far the most successful club having won the competition 31 times. Lord's Cricket Ground situated in London is sometimes referred to as the \"Mecca of Cricket\". \n\nWilliam Penny Brookes was prominent in organising the format for the modern Olympic Games. In 1994, then President of the IOC, Juan Antonio Samaranch, laid a wreath on Brooke's grave, and said, \"I came to pay homage and tribute to Dr Brookes, who really was the founder of the modern Olympic Games\". London has hosted the Summer Olympic Games three times, in 1908, 1948, and 2012. England competes in the Commonwealth Games, held every four years. Sport England is the governing body responsible for distributing funds and providing strategic guidance for sporting activity in England.\n\nRugby union originated in Rugby School, Warwickshire in the early 19th century. The England rugby union team won the 2003 Rugby World Cup, the country was one of the host nations of the competition in the 1991 Rugby World Cup and is set to host the 2015 Rugby World Cup. The top level of club participation is the English Premiership. Leicester Tigers, London Wasps, Bath Rugby and Northampton Saints have had success in the Europe-wide Heineken Cup.\n\nRugby league was born in Huddersfield in 1895. Since 2008, the England national rugby league team has been a full test nation in lieu of the Great Britain national rugby league team, which won three World Cups but is now retired. Club sides play in Super League, the present-day embodiment of the Rugby Football League Championship. Rugby League is most popular among towns in the northern English counties of Lancashire, Yorkshire and Cumbria. All eleven English clubs in Super League are based in the north of England. Some of the most successful clubs include Wigan Warriors, St Helens, Leeds Rhinos and Huddersfield Giants; the former three have all won the World Club Challenge previously.\n\nGolf has been prominent in England; due in part to its cultural and geographical ties to Scotland, the home of Golf. There are both professional tours for men and women, in two main tours: the PGA and the European Tour. England has produced grand slam winners: Cyril Walker, Tony Jacklin, Nick Faldo, and Justin Rose in the men's and Laura Davies, Alison Nicholas, and Karen Stupples in the women's. The world's oldest golf tournament, and golf's first major, is The Open Championship, played both in England and Scotland. The biennial golf competition, the Ryder Cup, is named after English businessman Samuel Ryder who sponsored the event and donated the trophy. Nick Faldo is the most successful Ryder Cup player ever, having won the most points (25) of any player on either the European or U.S. teams. \n\nTennis was created in Birmingham, England in the late 19th century, and the Wimbledon Championships is the oldest tennis tournament in the world, and widely considered the most prestigious. Fred Perry was the last Englishman to win Wimbledon in 1936. He was the first player to win all four Grand Slam singles titles and helped lead the Great Britain team to victory over France in the Davis Cup in 1933. English women who have won Wimbledon include: Ann Haydon Jones won in 1969 and Virginia Wade in 1977.\n\nIn boxing, under the Marquess of Queensberry Rules, England has produced many world champions across the weight divisions internationally recognised by the governing bodies. World champions include Bob Fitzsimmons, Ted \"Kid\" Lewis, Randolph Turpin, Nigel Benn, Chris Eubank, Frank Bruno, Lennox Lewis, Ricky Hatton, Naseem Hamed, Amir Khan, Carl Froch, and David Haye. In women's boxing, Nicola Adams became the world's first woman to win an Olympic boxing Gold medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics.\n\nThe 1950 British Grand Prix at Silverstone was the first race in the newly created Formula One World Championship. Since then, England has produced some of the greatest drivers in the sport, including; John Surtees, Stirling Moss, Graham Hill (only driver to have won the Triple Crown), Nigel Mansell (only man to hold F1 and IndyCar titles at the same time), Damon Hill, Lewis Hamilton and Jenson Button. It has manufactured some of the most technically advanced racing cars, and many of today's racing companies choose England as their base of operations for its engineering knowledge and organisation. McLaren Automotive, Williams F1, Team Lotus, Honda, Brawn GP, Benetton, Renault, and Red Bull Racing are all, or have been, located in the south of England. England also has a rich heritage in Grand Prix motorcycle racing, the premier championship of motorcycle road racing, and produced several World Champions across all the various class of motorcycle: Mike Hailwood, John Surtees, Phil Read, Geoff Duke, and Barry Sheene.\n\nDarts is a widely popular sport in England; a professional competitive sport, darts is a traditional pub game. The sport is governed by the World Darts Federation, one of its member organisations is the BDO, which annually stages the Lakeside World Professional Championship, the other being the Professional Darts Corporation (PDC), which runs its own world championship at Alexandra Palace in London. Phil Taylor is widely regarded as the best darts player of all time, having won 187 professional tournaments, and a record 16 World Championships. Trina Gulliver is the ten-time Women's World Professional Darts Champion of the British Darts Organisation. Another popular sport commonly associated with pub games is Snooker, and England has produced several world champions, including Steve Davis and Ronnie O'Sullivan.\n\nThe English are keen sailors and enjoy competitive sailing; founding and winning some of the worlds most famous and respected international competitive tournaments across the various race formats, including the match race, a regatta, and the America's Cup. England has produced some of the world's greatest sailors, including, Francis Chichester, Herbert Hasler, John Ridgway, Robin Knox-Johnston, Ellen MacArthur, Mike Golding, Paul Goodison, and the most successful Olympic sailor ever Ben Ainslie. \n\nNational symbols\n\nThe St George's Cross has been the national flag of England since the 13th century. Originally the flag was used by the maritime Republic of Genoa. The English monarch paid a tribute to the Doge of Genoa from 1190 onwards, so that English ships could fly the flag as a means of protection when entering the Mediterranean.\nA red cross was a symbol for many Crusaders in the 12th and 13th centuries. It became associated with Saint George, along with countries and cities, which claimed him as their patron saint and used his cross as a banner. Since 1606 the St George's Cross has formed part of the design of the Union Flag, a Pan-British flag designed by King James I.\n\nThere are numerous other symbols and symbolic artefacts, both official and unofficial, including the Tudor rose, the nation's floral emblem, and the Three Lions featured on the Royal Arms of England. The Tudor rose was adopted as a national emblem of England around the time of the Wars of the Roses as a symbol of peace. It is a syncretic symbol in that it merged the white rose of the Yorkists and the red rose of the Lancastrians—cadet branches of the Plantagenets who went to war over control of the nation. It is also known as the Rose of England. The oak tree is a symbol of England, representing strength and endurance. The Royal Oak symbol and Oak Apple Day commemorate the escape of King Charles II from the grasp of the parliamentarians after his father's execution: he hid in an oak tree to avoid detection before safely reaching exile.\n\nThe Royal Arms of England, a national coat of arms featuring three lions, originated with its adoption by Richard the Lionheart in 1198. It is blazoned as gules, three lions passant guardant or and it provides one of the most prominent symbols of England; it is similar to the traditional arms of Normandy. England does not have an official designated national anthem, as the United Kingdom as a whole has God Save the Queen. However, the following are often considered unofficial English national anthems:\nJerusalem, Land of Hope and Glory (used for England during the 2002 Commonwealth Games), and I Vow to Thee, My Country. England's National Day is 23 April which is St George's Day: St George is the patron saint of England.", "Dame Judith Olivia \"Judi\" Dench, (born 9 December 1934) is an English actress and author. Dench made her professional debut in 1957 with the Old Vic Company. Over the following few years she performed in several of Shakespeare's plays in such roles as Ophelia in Hamlet, Juliet in Romeo and Juliet and Lady Macbeth in Macbeth. Although most of her work during this period was in theatre, she also branched into film work, and won a BAFTA Award as Most Promising Newcomer. She drew strong reviews for her leading role in the musical Cabaret in 1968.\n\nOver the next two decades, Dench established herself as one of the most significant British theatre performers, working for the National Theatre Company and the Royal Shakespeare Company. She achieved success in television during this period, in the series A Fine Romance from 1981 until 1984, and in 1992 with a starring role in the romantic comedy series As Time Goes By. Her film appearances were infrequent and included supporting roles in major films such as A Room with a View (1986) supporting Maggie Smith, before she rose to international fame as M in GoldenEye (1995), a role she continued to play in James Bond films until Spectre (2015). She received her first Oscar nomination for Best Actress for her role as Queen Victoria in Mrs Brown (1997) and the following year won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for Shakespeare in Love. A seven-time Oscar nominee, she has also received nominations for her roles in Chocolat (2000), Iris (2001), Mrs Henderson Presents (2005), Notes on a Scandal (2006), and Philomena (2013).\n\nDench has received many award nominations for her acting in theatre, film and television; her competitive awards include six British Academy Film Awards, four BAFTA TV Awards, seven Olivier Awards, two Screen Actors Guild Awards, two Golden Globes, an Academy Award, and a Tony Award. She has also received the BAFTA Fellowship (2001) and the Special Olivier Award (2004). In June 2011, she received a fellowship from the British Film Institute (BFI). Dench is also a Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts (FRSA).\n\nEarly life\n\nDench was born in Heworth, North Riding of Yorkshire. Her mother, Eleanora Olive (née Jones), was born in Dublin. Her father, Reginald Arthur Dench, a doctor, was born in Dorset, and later moved to Dublin, where he was raised. He met Dench's mother while he was studying medicine at Trinity College, Dublin. \n\nDench attended The Mount School, a Quaker independent secondary school in York, and became a Quaker. Her brothers, one of whom was actor Jeffery Dench, were born in Tyldesley, Lancashire. Her niece, Emma Dench, is a Roman historian and professor previously at Birkbeck, University of London, and currently at Harvard University. \n\nCareer\n\nIn Britain, Dench has developed a reputation as one of the greatest actresses of the post-war period, primarily through her work in theatre, which has been her forte throughout her career. She has more than once been named number one in polls for Britain's best actor.\n\nEarly years\n\nThrough her parents, Dench had regular contact with the theatre. Her father, a physician, was also the GP for the York theatre, and her mother was its wardrobe mistress. Actors often stayed in the Dench household. During these years, Judi Dench was involved on a non-professional basis in the first three productions of the modern revival of the York Mystery Plays in the 1950s. In 1957, in one of the last productions in which she appeared during this period, she played the role of the Virgin Mary, performed on a fixed stage in the Museum Gardens. Though she initially trained as a set designer, she became interested in drama school as her brother Jeff attended the Central School of Speech and Drama. She applied and was accepted, where she was a classmate of Vanessa Redgrave, graduating with a first class degree in drama and four acting prizes, one being the Gold Medal as Outstanding Student.\n\nIn September 1957, she made her first professional stage appearance with the Old Vic Company, at the Royal Court Theatre, Liverpool, as Ophelia in Hamlet. A recent history of Britain in the years 1957-1962, one volume in a series, cites a contemporaneous review of her performance: \"has talent which will be shown to better advantage when she acquires some technique to go with it.\" Dench then made her London debut in the same production at the Old Vic. She remained a member of the company for four seasons, 1957–1961, her roles including Katherine in Henry V in 1958 (which was also her New York debut), and as directed and designed by Franco Zeffirelli.tr During this period, she toured the United States and Canada, and appeared in Yugoslavia and at the Edinburgh Festival. She joined the Royal Shakespeare Company in December 1961 playing Anya in The Cherry Orchard at the Aldwych Theatre in London, and made her Stratford-upon-Avon debut in April 1962 as Isabella in Measure for Measure. She subsequently spent seasons in repertory both with the Playhouse in Nottingham from January 1963 (including a West African tour as Lady Macbeth for the British Council), and with the Playhouse Company in Oxford from April 1964. That same year, she made her film debut in The Third Secret.\n\nProminence\n\nThe 1966 BAFTA Award for Most Promising Newcomer to Leading Film Roles was made to Dench for her performance in Four in the Morning and this was followed in 1968 by a BAFTA Television Best Actress Award for her role in John Hopkins' 1966 BBC drama Talking to a Stranger.\n\nIn 1968, she was offered the role of Sally Bowles in the musical Cabaret. As Sheridan Morley later reported: \"At first she thought they were joking. She had never done a musical and she has an unusual croaky voice which sounds as if she has a permanent cold. So frightened was she of singing in public that she auditioned from the wings, leaving the pianists alone on stage\". But when it opened at the Palace Theatre in February 1968, Frank Marcus, reviewing for Plays and Players, commented that: \"She sings well. The title song in particular is projected with great feeling.\"\n\nAfter a long run in Cabaret, she rejoined the RSC making numerous appearances with the company in Stratford and London for nearly twenty years, winning several \"best actress\" awards. Among her roles with the RSC, she was the Duchess in John Webster's The Duchess of Malfi in 1971. In the Stratford 1976 season, and then at the Aldwych in 1977, she gave two comedy performances, first in Trevor Nunn's musical staging of The Comedy of Errors as Adriana, then partnered with Donald Sinden as Beatrice and Benedick in John Barton's \"British Raj\" revival of Much Ado About Nothing. As Bernard Levin wrote in The Sunday Times: \"...demonstrating once more that she is a comic actress of consummate skill, perhaps the very best we have.\" One of her most notable achievements with the RSC was her performance as Lady Macbeth in 1976. Nunn's acclaimed production of Macbeth was first staged with a minimalist design at The Other Place theatre in Stratford. Its small round stage focused attention on the psychological dynamics of the characters, and both Ian McKellen in the title role, and Dench, received exceptionally favourable notices. \"If this is not great acting I don't know what is\", wrote Michael Billington in The Guardian. \"It will astonish me if the performance is matched by any in this actress's generation\", commented J C Trewin in The Lady. The production transferred to London, opening at the Donmar Warehouse in September 1977, and was adapted for television, later released on VHS and DVD. Dench won the SWET Best Actress Award in 1977.\n\nDench was nominated for a BAFTA for her role as Hazel Wiles in the 1979 BBC drama On Giant's Shoulders. In 1989, she was cast as Pru Forrest, the long-time silent wife of Tom Forrest, in the BBC soap opera The Archers on its 10,000th edition. She had a romantic role in the BBC television film Langrishe, Go Down (1978), with Jeremy Irons and a screenplay by Harold Pinter from the Aidan Higgins novel, directed by David Jones, in which she played one of three spinster sisters living in a fading Irish mansion in the Waterford countryside. Dench made her debut as a director in 1988 with the Renaissance Theatre Company's touring season, Renaissance Shakespeare on the Road, co-produced with the Birmingham Rep, and ending with a three-month repertory programme at the Phoenix Theatre in London. Dench's contribution was a staging of Much Ado About Nothing, set in the Napoleonic era, which starred Kenneth Branagh and Emma Thompson as Benedick and Beatrice. She has made numerous appearances in the West End including the role of Miss Trant in the 1974 musical version of The Good Companions at Her Majesty's Theatre. In 1981, Dench was due to play Grizabella in the original production of Cats, but was forced to pull out due to a torn Achilles tendon, leaving Elaine Paige to play the role. She has acted with the National Theatre in London where, she played an unforgettable Cleopatra in Antony and Cleopatra (1987). In September 1995, she played Desiree Armfeldt in a major revival of Stephen Sondheim's A Little Night Music, for which she won an Olivier Award.\n\nPopular success\n\nAfter the long period between James Bond films Licence to Kill (1989) and GoldenEye (1995), the producers brought in Dench to take over as the role of M, James Bond's boss. The character was reportedly modeled on Dame Stella Rimington, the real-life head of MI5 between 1992 and 1996,; Dench became the first woman to portray M, succeeding Robert Brown. The seventeenth spy film in the series and the first to star Pierce Brosnan as the fictional MI6 officer, GoldenEye marked the first Bond film made after the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, which provided the plot's back story. The film earned a worldwide gross of US$350.7 million, with critics viewing the film as a modernisation of the series. \n\nIn 1997, Dench appeared in her first starring film role as Queen Victoria in John Madden's teleplay Mrs Brown which depicts Victoria's relationship with her personal servant and favourite John Brown, played by Billy Connolly. Filmed with the intention of being shown on BBC One and on WGBH's Masterpiece Theatre, it was eventually acquired by Miramax mogul Harvey Weinstein, who felt the drama film should receive a theatrical release after seeing it and took it from the BBC to US cinemas. Released to generally positive reviews and unexpected commercial success, going on to earn more than $13 million worldwide, the film was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1997 Cannes Film Festival. For her performance, Dench garnered universal acclaim by critics and was awarded her fourth BAFTA and first Best Actress nomination at the 70th Academy Awards. In 2011, while accepting a British Film Institute Award in London, Dench commented that the project launched her Hollywood career and joked that \"it was thanks to Harvey, whose name I have had tattooed on my bum ever since.\"\n\nDench's other film of 1997 was Roger Spottiswoode's Tomorrow Never Dies, her second film in the James Bond series. The spy film follows Bond, played by Brosnan, as he tries to stop a media mogul from engineering world events and starting World War III. Shot in France, Thailand, Germany, the United Kingdom, Vietnam and the South China Sea, it performed well at the box office and earned a Golden Globe nomination despite mixed reviews. The same year, Dench reteamed with director John Madden to film Shakespeare in Love (1998), a romantic comedy-drama that depicts a love affair involving playwright William Shakespeare, played by Joseph Fiennes, while he was writing the play Romeo and Juliet. On her performance as Queen Elizabeth I, The New York Times commented that \"Dench's shrewd, daunting Elizabeth is one of the film's utmost treats.\" The following year, she was nominated for most of the high-profile awards, winning both the Academy Award and the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role. On her Oscar win, Dench joked on-stage, \"I feel for eight minutes on the screen I should only get a little bit of him.\" \n\nAlso in 1999, Dench won the Tony Award for her 1999 Broadway performance in the role of Esme Allen in Sir David Hare's Amy's View. The same year, she co-starred along with Cher, Joan Plowright, Maggie Smith, and Lily Tomlin in Franco Zeffirelli's semi-autobiographical period drama Tea with Mussolini which tells the story of young Italian boy Luca's upbringing by a circle of British and American women, before and during World War II. 1999 also saw the release of Pierce Brosnan's third Bond film, The World is Not Enough. This film portrayed M in a larger role with the main villain, Renard, coming back to haunt her when he engineers the murder of her old friend Sir Robert King and seemingly attempts to kill his daughter Electra.\n\n2001–2005\n\nIn January 2001, Dench's husband Michael Williams died from lung cancer. Dench went to Nova Scotia, Canada, almost immediately after Williams's funeral to begin production on Lasse Hallström's drama film The Shipping News, a therapy she later credited as her rescue: \"People, friends, kept saying, 'You are not facing up to it; you need to face up to it,' and maybe they were right, but I felt I was – in the acting. Grief supplies you with an enormous amount of energy. I needed to use that up.\" In between, Dench finished work on Richard Eyre's film Iris (2001), in which she portrayed novelist Iris Murdoch. Dench shared her role with Kate Winslet, both actresses portraying Murdoch at different phases of her life. Each of them was nominated for an Academy Award the following year, earning Dench her fourth nomination within five years. In addition, she was awarded both an ALFS Award and the Best Leading Actress Award at the 55th British Academy Film Awards.\n\nFollowing Iris, Dench immediately returned to Canada to finish The Shipping News alongside Kevin Spacey and Julianne Moore. Based on the Pulitzer Prize winning novel by E. Annie Proulx, the drama revolves around a quiet and introspective typesetter (Spacey) who, after the death of his daughter's mother, moves to Newfoundland along with his daughter and his aunt, played by Dench, in hopes of starting his life anew in the small town where she grew up. The film earned mixed reviews from critics, and was financially unsuccessful, taking in just US$24 million worldwide with a budget of US$35 million. Dench however, received BAFTA and SAG Award nominations for her performance.\n\nIn 2002, Dench was cast opposite Rupert Everett, Colin Firth and Reese Witherspoon in Oliver Parker's The Importance of Being Earnest, a comedy about mistaken identity set in English high society during the Victorian Era. Based on Oscar Wilde's classic comedy of manners of the same name, she portrayed Lady Bracknell, a role she had repeatedly played before, including a stint at the Royal National Theatre in 1982. The film was released to lukewarm reactions by critics – who called it \"breezy entertainment, helped by an impressive cast\", but felt that it also suffered \"from some peculiar directorial choices\" – and earned just US$17.3 million during its limited release. Dench's other film of 2002 was Die Another Day, the twentieth installment in the James Bond series. The Lee Tamahori–directed spy film marked her fourth appearance as MI6 head M and the franchise's last performance by Pierce Brosnan as Bond. Die Another Day received generally mixed reviews by critics who praised Tamahori's work on the film, but claimed the plot was damaged by excessive use of CGI. Regardless, it became the highest-grossing James Bond film up to that time. \n\nIn 2004, Dench appeared as Aereon, an ambassador of the Elemental race who helps uncover the mysterious past of Richard B. Riddick, played by Vin Diesel, in David Twohy's science fiction sequel, The Chronicles of Riddick. Selected by Diesel, who prompted writers to re-create the character to fit a female persona because he wanted to work with the actress, she called filming \"tremendous fun\", although she \"had absolutely no idea what was going on in the plot.\" The film was a critical and box office failure. In his review of the film, James Berardinelli from ReelViews remarked that he felt that Dench's character served no more \"useful purpose than to give [her] an opportunity to appear in a science fiction movie.\" \n\nShe followed Riddick with a more traditional role in Charles Dance's English drama Ladies in Lavender, also starring friend Maggie Smith. In the film, Dench plays one half of a sister duo and takes it upon herself to nurse a washed up stranger to health, eventually finding herself falling for a man many decades younger than she. The specialty release garnered positive reviews from critics, with Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times calling it \"perfectly sweet and civilized [and] a pleasure to watch Smith and Dench together; their acting is so natural it could be breathing.\" Also in 2004, Dench provided her voice for several smaller projects. In Walt Disney's Home on the Range, she, along with Roseanne Barr and Jennifer Tilly, voiced a mismatched trio of dairy cows who must capture an infamous cattle rustler, for his bounty, in order to save their idyllic farm from foreclosure. The film was mildly successful for Disney. \n\nA major hit for Dench came with Joe Wright's Pride & Prejudice, a 2005 adaptation of the novel by Jane Austen, starring Keira Knightley and Donald Sutherland. Wright persuaded Dench to join the cast as Lady Catherine de Bourgh by writing her a letter that read \"I love it when you play a bitch. Please come and be a bitch for me.\" Dench had only one week available to shoot her scenes, forcing Wright to make them his first days of filming. With both a worldwide gross of over US$121 million and several Academy Award and Golden Globe nominations, the film became a critical and commercial success. \n\n2006–2010\n\nDench, in her role as \"M\", was the only cast member carried through from the Brosnan films to appear in Casino Royale (2006), Martin Campbell's reboot of the James Bond film series, starring Daniel Craig in his debut performance as the fictional MI6 agent. The thriller received largely positive critical response, with reviewers highlighting Craig's performance and the reinvention of the character of Bond. It earned over US$594 million worldwide, ranking it among the highest-grossing James Bond films ever released.\n\nIn April 2006, Dench returned to the West End stage in Hay Fever alongside Peter Bowles, Belinda Lang and Kim Medcalf. She finished off 2006 with the role of Mistress Quickly in the RSC's new musical The Merry Wives, a version of The Merry Wives of Windsor.\n\nDench appeared opposite Cate Blanchett as a London teacher with a dedicated fondness for vulnerable women in Richard Eyre's 2006 drama film Notes on a Scandal, an adaption from the 2003 novel of the same name by Zoë Heller. A fan of Heller's book, Dench \"was thrilled to be asked to ... play that woman, to try to find a humanity in that dreadful person.\" The specialty film opened to generally positive reviews and commercial success, grossing US$50 million worldwide, exceeding its £15 million budget. In his review for Chicago Sun-Times film critic Roger Ebert declared the main actresses \"perhaps the most impressive acting duo in any film of 2006. Dench and Blanchett are magnificent.\" The following year, Dench earned her sixth Academy nomination and went on to win a BIFA Award and an Evening Standard Award.\n\nDench, as Miss Matty Jenkyns, co-starred with Eileen Atkins, Michael Gambon, Imelda Staunton and Francesca Annis in the BBC One five-part series Cranford. The first season of the series began transmission in November 2007.\n\nDench became the voice for the narration for the updated Walt Disney World Epcot attraction Spaceship Earth in February 2008. The same month, she was named as the first official patron of the York Youth Mysteries 2008, a project to allow young people to explore the York Mystery Plays through dance, film-making and circus. Her only film of 2008 was Marc Forster's Quantum of Solace, the twenty-second Eon-produced James Bond film, in which she reprised her role as M along with Daniel Craig. A direct sequel to the 2006 film Casino Royale, Forster felt Dench was underused in the previous films, and wanted to make her part bigger, having her interact with Bond more. The project gathered generally mixed reviews by critics, who mainly felt that Quantum of Solace was not as impressive as the predecessor Casino Royale, but became another hit for the franchise with a worldwide gross of US$591 million. For her performance, Dench was nominated for a Saturn Award the following year. \n\nDench returned to the West End in mid-2009, playing Madame de Montreuil in Yukio Mishima's play Madame de Sade, directed by Michael Grandage as part of the Donmar season at Wyndham's Theatre. The same year, she appeared in Sally Potter's experimental film Rage, a project that featured 14 actors playing fictional figures in and around the fashion world, giving monologues before a plain backdrop. Attracted to the fact that it was unlike anything she had done before, Dench welcomed the opportunity to work with Potter. \"I like to do something that's not expected, or predictable. I had to learn to smoke a joint, and I set my trousers alight,\" she said about filming. Her next film was Rob Marshall's musical film Nine, based on Arthur Kopit's book for the 1982 musical of the same name, itself suggested by Federico Fellini's semi-autobiographical film 8½. Also starring Daniel Day-Lewis, Marion Cotillard, Penélope Cruz, and Sophia Loren, she played Lilli La Fleur, an eccentric but motherly French costume designer, who performs the song \"Folies Bergères\" in the film. Despite mixed to negative reviews, Nine was nominated for four Academy Awards, and awarded both the Satellite Award for Best Film and Best Cast.\n\nAlso in 2009, Dench reprised the role of Matilda Jenkyns in Return to Cranford, the two-part second season of a Simon Curtis television series. Critically acclaimed, Dench was nominated for a Golden Globe Award, a Primetime Emmy Award, and a Satellite Award. In 2010, she renewed her collaboration with Peter Hall at the Rose Theatre in Kingston upon Thames in A Midsummer Night's Dream, which opened in February 2010; she played Titania as Queen Elizabeth I in her later years – almost 50 years after she first played the role for the Royal Shakespeare Company. In July 2010, Dench performed \"Send in the Clowns\" at a special celebratory promenade concert from the Royal Albert Hall as part of the proms season, in honour of composer Stephen Sondheim's 80th birthday. \n\n2011–present\n\nIn 2011, Dench starred in Jane Eyre, My Week with Marilyn and J. Edgar. In Cary Joji Fukunaga's period drama Jane Eyre, based on the 1847 novel of the same name by Charlotte Brontë, she played the role of Alice Fairfax, housekeeper to Rochester, the aloof and brooding master of Thornfield Hall, where main character Jane, played by Mia Wasikowska, gets employed as a governess. Dench reportedly signed to the project after she had received a humorous personal note from Fukunaga, in which he \"promised her that she'd be the sexiest woman on set if she did the film.\" Acclaimed among critics, it was a mediocre arthouse success at the box office, grossing US$30.5 million worldwide. \n\nIn Simon Curtis' My Week with Marilyn, which depicts the making of the 1957 film The Prince and the Showgirl starring Marilyn Monroe and Laurence Olivier, Dench played actress Sybil Thorndike. The film garnered largely positive reviews, and earned Dench a Best Actress in a Supporting Role nomination at the 65th BAFTA Awards. \n\nDench's last film of 2011 was Clint Eastwood's J. Edgar, a biographical drama film about the career of FBI director J. Edgar Hoover, played by Leonardo DiCaprio, from the Palmer Raids onwards, including an examination of his private life as a closeted homosexual. Hand-picked by Eastwood to play Anna Marie Hoover, Hoover's mother, Dench initially thought a friend was setting her up upon receiving Eastwood's phone call request. \"I didn't take it seriously to start with. And then I realised it was really him and that was a tricky conversation,\" she stated. Released to mixed reception, both with critics and commercially, the film went on to gross US$79 million worldwide. The same year, Dench reunited with Rob Marshall and Johnny Depp for a cameo appearance in Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides, playing a noblewoman who is robbed by Captain Jack Sparrow, played by Depp. She made a second cameo that year in Ray Cooney's Run for Your Wife. \n\nIn 2011, Dench reunited with director John Madden on the set of the comedy-drama The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel (2012), starring an ensemble cast also consisting of Celia Imrie, Bill Nighy, Ronald Pickup, Maggie Smith, Tom Wilkinson and Penelope Wilton, as a group of British pensioners moving to a retirement hotel in India, run by the young and eager Sonny (Dev Patel). Released to positive reviews by critics, who declared the film a \"sweet story about the senior set featuring a top-notch cast of veteran actors,\" it became a surprise box-office hit following its international release, eventually grossing $US134 million worldwide, mostly from its domestic run. Best Exotic Marigold Hotel was ranked among the highest-grossing specialty releases of the year, and Dench, who Peter Travers from Rolling Stone called \"resilient marvel\", garnered a Best Actress nod at both the British Independent Film Awards and Golden Globe Awards. \n\nAlso in 2012, Friend Request Pending, an indie short film which Dench had filmed in 2011, received a wide release as part of the feature films Stars in Shorts and The Joy of Six. In the 12-minute comedy, directed by My Week with Marilyn assistant director Chris Foggin on a budget of just £5,000, she portrays a pensioner grappling with a crush on her church choirmaster and the art of cyber-flirting via social networking. Dench made her seventh and final appearance as M in the twenty-third James Bond film, Skyfall (2012), directed by Sam Mendes. In the film, Bond investigates an attack on MI6; it transpires that it is part of an attack on M by former MI6 operative, Raoul Silva (played by Javier Bardem) to humiliate, discredit and kill M as revenge against her for betraying him. Dench's position as M was subsequently filled by Ralph Fiennes' character. Coinciding with the 50th anniversary of the James Bond series, Skyfall was positively received by critics and at the box office, grossing over $1 billion worldwide, and became the highest-grossing film of all-time in the UK and the highest-grossing film in the James Bond series. Critics called Dench's Saturn Awards-nominated performance \"compellingly luminous\". \n\nIn 2013, Dench starred as the title character in the Stephen Frears directed film, Philomena, a filmed inspired by true events of a woman looking for the son which the Catholic Church took from her a half-century before. The film was screened in the main competition section at the 70th Venice International Film Festival, where it was very favorably received by critics. On Dench's performance, The Times commented that \"this is Dench's triumph. At 78, she has a golden career behind her, often as queens and other frosty matriarchs. So the warmth under pressure she radiates here is nearly a surprise [...] Dench gives a performance of grace, nuance and cinematic heroism.\" She was subsequently nominated for many major acting awards, including a seventh Academy Award nomination. \n\nIn January 2014, principal photography began in Jaipur on The Second Best Exotic Marigold Hotel with Dench reprising the role of Evelyn. The film was released in March 2015. In October 2014 she began filming as Cecily, Duchess of York to Benedict Cumberbatch's Richard III in the second series of The Hollow Crown. From 24 April 2015 to 7 May 2015; Dench played a mother, with her real-life daughter Finty Williams playing her character's daughter, in The Vote at the Donmar Warehouse. The final performance was broadcast live on More4 at 8:25 pm; the time when the events in the play take place. The appearance marked her first performance at the theatre since 1976. On 20 September 2015 she was the guest on BBC Radio 4's Desert Island Discs for the third time, in which she revealed that her first acting performance was as a snail. She reprised her role as M in the 2015 James Bond film, Spectre, in the form of a recording that was delivered to Bond. \n\nPersonal life\n\nOn 5 February 1971, Dench married British actor Michael Williams. They had their only child, Tara Cressida Frances Williams, an actress known professionally as Finty Williams, on 24 September 1972. Dench and her husband starred together in several stage productions and on the Bob Larbey British television sitcom, A Fine Romance (1981–84). Michael Williams died from lung cancer in 2001, aged 65. They have one grandchild, Finty's son Sam Williams (born in 1997). \n\nDench has been in a relationship with conservationist David Mills since 2010. During a 2014 interview with The Times magazine, she discussed how she never expected to find love again after her husband's death, \"I wasn't even prepared to be ready for it. It was very, very gradual and grown up ... It's just wonderful.\" \n\nIn early 2012, Dench discussed her macular degeneration, with one eye \"dry\" and the other \"wet\", for which she has been treated with injections into the eye. She said that she needs someone to read scripts to her. She also underwent knee surgery in 2013, but stated that she recovered from the procedure well and \"It's not an issue for me.\" \n\nDench has been critical of prejudice in the movie industry against older actresses. She stated in 2014, \"I'm tired of being told I'm too old to try something. I should be able to decide for myself if I can't do things and not have someone tell me I'll forget my lines or I'll trip and fall on the set\"; and \"Age is a number. It's something imposed on you ... It drives me absolutely spare when people say, 'Are you going to retire? Isn't it time you put your feet up?' Or tell me [my] age.\" \n\nIn 2013, she spoke about her personal religious faith. Dench, a Quaker, said \"I think it informs everything I do ... I couldn't be without it\". \n\nHonours and charity\n\nDench was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 1970 and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in 1988. She was appointed Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) in 2005. In June 2011, she became a fellow of the British Film Institute (BFI).\n\nDench is a patron of the Leaveners, Friends School Saffron Walden, [http://www.archwaytheatre.co.uk The Archway Theatre], Horley, Surrey and OnePlusOne Marriage and Partnership Research, London. She became president of Mountview Academy of Theatre Arts in London in 2006, taking over from Sir John Mills, and is president of Questors Theatre, Ealing. In May 2006, she became an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts (FRSA). She was also patron of Ovingdean Hall School, a special day and boarding school for the deaf and hard of hearing in Brighton, which closed in 2010, and Vice President of The Little Foundation.\n\nDench is an Honorary Fellow of Lucy Cavendish College, Cambridge. In 1996, she was awarded a DUniv degree from Surrey University and in 2000–2001 she received an honorary DLitt degree from Durham University. In July 2000, she was awarded a DLitt degree by Queen Margaret University, Edinburgh, whose Drama School at the Gateway Theatre on Elm Row she has actively supported.\n\nOn 24 June 2008, she was honoured by the University of St Andrews, receiving an honorary DLitt degree at the university's graduation ceremony. On 26 June 2013, she was honoured by the University of Stirling, receiving an honorary doctorate at the university's graduation ceremony in recognition of her outstanding contribution to the Arts, particularly to film. In March 2013, she was listed as one of the fifty best-dressed over 50s by The Guardian. \n\nPolitical and social interests and involvement\n\nDench has worked with the non-governmental indigenous organisation, Survival International, campaigning in the defence of the tribal people, the San of Botswana and the Arhuaco of Colombia. She made a small supporting video saying the San are victims of tyranny, greed and racism. Dench is also a patron of the Karuna Trust, a charity that supports work amongst some of India's poorest and most oppressed people, mainly though not exclusively Dalits. \n\nOn 22 July 2010, Dench was awarded an honorary degree of Doctor of Letters (DLitt) by Nottingham Trent University. The Dr. Hadwen Trust announced on 15 January 2011 that Dench had become a patron of the trust, joining, among others, Joanna Lumley and David Shepherd. On 19 March 2012 it was announced that Dench was to become honorary patron of the charity Everton in the Community, the official charity of Everton F.C. and it was revealed that Dench is an Everton supporter. \n\nDench is an advisor to the American Shakespeare Center. She is a patron of the Shakespeare Schools Festival, a charity that enables school children across the UK to perform Shakespeare in professional theatres. She is patron of East Park Riding for the Disabled, a riding school for disabled children at Newchapel, Surrey. Dench is also a Vice-President of national charity [http://www.revitalise.org.uk Revitalise], that provides accessible holidays for those with disabilities. In 2011, along with musician Sting and billionaire entrepreneur Richard Branson, she publicly urged policy makers to adopt more progressive drug policies by decriminalizing drug use. \n\nDench was one of 200 celebrities to sign an open letter to the people of Scotland asking them to vote No to independence, published in August 2014, a few weeks before the Scottish referendum. \n\nFilmography\n\nDiscography\n\n* Pericles (1968) Shakespeare Recording Society, Caedmon Records\n* Cabaret (1968), Original London cast album CBS (1973)\n* The Good Companions (1974), Original London cast recording (1974)\n* A Midsummer Night's Dream (1995); from Felix Mendelssohn as Recitant. Conducted by Seiji Ozawa\n* A Little Night Music (1995) by Stephen Sondheim, Royal National Theatre Cast\n* Nine (2009) Original Motion Picture Soundtrack\n*\"Spaceship Earth (Epcot)\" narrator of the current version of the attraction . (2008)\n\nAwards and nominations" ] }

{ "description": [ "Judi Dench, Actress: Skyfall. Judi Dench was born in York, ... Judi Dench was born in York, England, to Eleanora Olive ... 2011 My Week with Marilyn Dame Sybil Thorndike.", "A short biography of Dame Judi Dench. Born and schooled in York England. A short biography of Dame Judi Dench. The York England born star ... Dame Judi created the ...", "Dame Judi Dench, original name in full Judith Olivia Dench (born December 9, 1934, York, North Yorkshire, England) ...", "Judi Dench biography, ... credits,quotes and more... Judi Dench was born on 9th December, 1934, in York, England. After gra... Search. Shows; News ... Dame Judi, aged ...", "Born: 12/09/1934 in York, England, GB. Jump to. Related Articles. ... Dame Judi Dench spent much of her career concentrating on stage and ... Met Judi's mother while ...", "Judi Dench was born in York, England, to Eleanora Olive ... Judi is the proud owner of a racehorse ... was named Dame Judi Dench Walk in honour of the city being ..." ], "filename": [ "100/100_1957043.txt", "109/109_2592361.txt", "116/116_398048.txt", "175/175_1302408.txt", "124/124_2592363.txt", "14/14_34129.txt" ], "rank": [ 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8 ], "title": [ "Judi Dench - IMDb", "Dame Judi Dench a star from York England", "Dame Judi Dench | British actress | Britannica.com", "Judi Dench - TV.com", "Judi Dench | Biography and Filmography | 1934", "Judi Dench - Biography - IMDb" ], "url": [ "http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0001132/", "http://www.york-united-kingdom.co.uk/damejudidench/", "https://www.britannica.com/biography/Judi-Dench", "http://www.tv.com/people/judi-dench/", "http://www.hollywood.com/celebrities/judi-dench-57297328/", "http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0001132/bio" ], "search_context": [ "Judi Dench - IMDb\nIMDb\nActress | Music Department | Soundtrack\nJudi Dench was born in York, England, to Eleanora Olive (Jones), who was from Dublin, Ireland, and Reginald Arthur Dench, a doctor from Dorset, England. She attended Mount School in York, and studied at the Central School of Speech and Drama. She has performed with Royal Shakespeare Company, the National Theatre, and at Old Vic Theatre. She is a ... See full bio »\nBorn:\na list of 35 people\ncreated 02 Jul 2011\na list of 35 people\ncreated 19 Apr 2012\na list of 35 people\ncreated 28 May 2014\na list of 25 people\ncreated 05 Aug 2014\na list of 26 people\ncreated 18 May 2015\nDo you have a demo reel?\nAdd it to your IMDbPage\nHow much of Judi Dench's work have you seen?\nUser Polls\nWon 1 Oscar. Another 59 wins & 163 nominations. See more awards  »\nKnown For\n 2016 The Hollow Crown (TV Series)\nCecily, Duchess of York\n 2015 The Vote (TV Movie)\nChristine Metcalfe\n- Total War (1996) ... Narrator (voice)\n- Stalemate (1996) ... Narrator (voice)\n 1992 The Torch (TV Mini-Series)\nAba\n 1990 Screen One (TV Series)\nAnne\n 1989 Behaving Badly (TV Mini-Series)\nBridget\n 1981 BBC2 Playhouse (TV Series)\nSister Scarli\n 1976 Arena (TV Series documentary)\nSweetie Simpkins\n 1973 Ooh La La! (TV Series)\nAmélie\n 1966 Court Martial (TV Series)\nMarthe\n 1963 Z Cars (TV Series)\nElena Collins\n 1963 Love Story (TV Series)\nPat McKendrick\n 1960 The Terrible Choice (TV Series)\nGood Angel\nMusic department (1 credit)\n  A Fine Romance (TV Series) (theme sung by - 14 episodes, 1981 - 1983) (theme song sung by - 12 episodes, 1983 - 1984)\n- A Romantic Meal (1984) ... (theme song sung by)\n- Problems (1984) ... (theme song sung by)\n 2013 Fifty Years on Stage (TV Movie) (performer: \"Send in the Clowns\")\n 2009 Nine (performer: \"Folies Bergère\")\n- What's Wrong with Mrs Bale? (1997) ... (performer: \"Raindrops Keep Fallin' On My Head\" - uncredited)\n- Misunderstandings (1993) ... (performer: \"Walkin' My Baby Back Home\" - uncredited)\n 1982-1984 A Fine Romance (TV Series) (performer - 2 episodes)\n- The Telephone Call (1984) ... (performer: \"Boogie Woogie Bugle Boy\" - uncredited)\n- Furniture (1982) ... (performer: \"Rule, Britannia!\" - uncredited)\nHide \n 2009 Waiting in Rhyme (Video short) (special thanks)\n 2007 Expresso (Short) (special thanks)\n 1999 Shakespeare in Love and on Film (TV Movie documentary) (thanks - as Dame Judi Dench)\nHide \n 2016 Rio Olympics (TV Mini-Series)\nHerself\n 2015 In Conversation (TV Series documentary)\nHerself\n 2015 Entertainment Tonight (TV Series)\nHerself\n 2015 CBS This Morning (TV Series)\nHerself - Guest\n 2015 The Insider (TV Series)\nHerself\n 1999-2014 Cinema 3 (TV Series)\nHerself\n 2013 Good Day L.A. (TV Series)\nHerself - Guest\n 2013 Arena (TV Series documentary)\nHerself\n 2013 At the Movies (TV Series)\nHerself\n 2013 Shooting Bond (Video documentary)\nHerself\n 2013 Bond's Greatest Moments (TV Movie documentary)\nHerself\n 2012 Made in Hollywood (TV Series)\nHerself\n 1999-2012 Charlie Rose (TV Series)\nHerself - Guest\n 2008-2012 This Morning (TV Series)\nHerself - Guest\n 2012 The Secrets of Skyfall (TV Short documentary)\nHerself\n 2012 Anderson Live (TV Series)\nHerself\n 2012 J. Edgar: A Complicated Man (Video documentary short)\nHerself\n 2011 The Many Faces of... (TV Series documentary)\nHerself / Various Characters\n 2011 Na plovárne (TV Series)\nHerself\n 2010 BBC Proms (TV Series)\nHerself\n 2010 The South Bank Show Revisited (TV Series documentary)\nHerself\n- Episode #6.68 (2009) ... Herself - Guest (as Dame Judi Dench)\n 2007-2009 Breakfast (TV Series)\n 2009 Larry King Live (TV Series)\nHerself - Guest\n 2009 The One Show (TV Series)\nHerself\n 2009 Cranford in Detail (Video documentary short)\nHerself / Miss Matty Jenkins (as Dame Judi Dench)\n 2005-2008 The South Bank Show (TV Series documentary)\nHerself\n 2008 Tavis Smiley (TV Series)\nHerself - Guest\n 2007 ITV News (TV Series)\nHerself - BAFTA Nominee\n 2007 The Making of Cranford (Video documentary short)\nHerself / Miss Matty Jenkyns (as Dame Judi Dench)\n 2006 Becoming Bond (TV Movie documentary)\nHerself\n 2006 Corazón de... (TV Series)\nHerself\n 2006 Directing Bond: The Martin Chronicles (Video documentary short)\nHerself / M (Barbara Mawdsley)\n 2006 Mrs Henderson Presents: Making Of (Video documentary short)\nHerself\n 2005 Film 2016 (TV Series)\nHerself\n 2005 HBO First Look (TV Series documentary)\nHerself\n 2003 Inside 'Die Another Day' (Video documentary short)\nHerself\n 2002 Richard Rodgers: Some Enchanted Evening (TV Special documentary)\nHerself - Performer\n 2002 James Bond: A BAFTA Tribute (TV Movie documentary)\nHerself\n 2002 Billy Connolly: A BAFTA Tribute (TV Movie documentary)\nHerself\n 2002 Happy Anniversary Mr. Bond (TV Movie documentary)\nHerself / M\n 2002 Best Ever Bond (TV Movie documentary)\nHerself\n 2002 Premiere Bond: Die Another Day (TV Movie documentary)\nHerself\n 2002 Bond Girls Are Forever (TV Movie documentary)\nHerself\n 2002 60 Minutes (TV Series documentary)\nHerself - Actress (segment \"Dame Judi\")\n 2002 Judi Dench: A BAFTA Tribute (TV Movie documentary)\nHerself\n 2001 The BAFTA TV Awards 2001 (TV Special documentary)\nHerself\n 2001 A Look at Iris (Video documentary short)\nHerself\n 1999 The Bond Cocktail (TV Movie documentary)\nHerself\n 1997 James Bond: Shaken and Stirred (TV Movie documentary)\nHerself\n 1996 Very Important Pennis (TV Series)\nHerself\n 1995 GoldenEye: The Secret Files (TV Short documentary)\nHerself\n 1995 Westminster Abbey (TV Movie documentary)\nHerself\n 1989 The London Programme (TV Series documentary)\nHerself\n 1988 Caught in the Act (TV Movie documentary)\nHerself\n 1988 An Audience with Victoria Wood (TV Special documentary)\nHerself - Audience Member (uncredited)\n 1988 Aspel & Company (TV Series)\nHerself - Guest\n 1988 Good Morning Britain (TV Series)\nHerself - Guest\n 1983 Children in Need (TV Series)\nHerself\n 1982 Playing Shakespeare (TV Mini-Series documentary)\nHerself\n 1982 The Bafta Awards (TV Special)\nHerself - Winner: Best Actress in a TV Series\n 1976 My Homeland (TV Movie documentary)\nReader\n 1974 2nd House (TV Series)\nHerself, in scenes from 'Antony and Cleopatra'\n- Frank's for the Memory (1974) ... Herself, in scenes from 'Antony and Cleopatra'\n 1969 Omnibus (TV Series documentary)\nHerself - Reading poetry\n 1969 An Evening with... (TV Series)\nHerself - Guest Reader\n 1968 Call My Bluff (TV Series)\nHerself\n 2015 Inside Spectre with Richard Wilkins (TV Movie documentary)\nHerself\n 2013 Six by Sondheim (TV Movie documentary)\nHerself\n 2013 American Dad! (TV Series)\nHerself\n 2012 Top Gear (TV Series)\nM\n 2008 Bond on Location (TV Short documentary)\nHerself\n 2007 The Story of Jackanory (TV Movie documentary)\nHerself - 'Jackanory' Storyteller\n 2007 Canada A.M. (TV Series)\nHerself\n 2007 Film 2016 (TV Series)\nHerself\n 2007 In Character with Cate Blanchett (Video documentary short)\nBarbara Covett (uncredited)\n 2006 Premiere Bond: Opening Nights (Video documentary short)\nHerself\n 2002 After They Were Famous (TV Series documentary)\nCat Burglar\n 2002 The Unforgettable Joan Sims (TV Special documentary)\nElizabeth (uncredited)\n 1999 And the Word Was Bond (TV Movie documentary)\nHerself\n 1999 Heroes of Comedy (TV Series documentary)\n- Norman Wisdom (1999) ... (as Dame Judi Dench)\n 1998 Best of British (TV Series)\nHerself - Audience Member\n 1986 Breakfast Time (TV Series)\nEleanor Lavish, a novelist\nPersonal Details\nOther Works:\nShe acted in Hugh Whitemore's play, \"Pack of Lies,\" at the Lyric Theatre in London, England with Michael Williams, Barbara Leigh-Hunt, Richard Vernon, and Larry Hoodekoff in the cast. Clifford Williams was director. See more »\nPublicity Listings:\n5 Print Biographies | 11 Interviews | 14 Articles | 3 Pictorials | 16 Magazine Cover Photos | See more »\nAlternate Names:\nDid You Know?\nPersonal Quote:\nOnce, a long time ago, I read some bad reviews and I made the decision not to read the reviews. You get some critics who don't like you, or the play. But they don't have to do it every night. I don't want to be affected like that. I loved doing \"Madame de Sade. A friend told me not to apologise for myself or the play, and I won't. Then I cast it all off and go and put my feet up under the chimney... See more »\nTrivia:\nWhen she started training at the Central School of Speech and Drama, she admits she wasn't taking it as seriously as she ought to have done. She was caught out during an improvisation scene at which point she realised that that was what it was all about and studied harder than she had ever done in her life. See more »\nTrademark:\nKnown for often playing dignified, strong willed women in positions of authority who are sometimes opposed or criticised by those under her.\nStar Sign:", "Dame Judi Dench a star from York England\nYorkshire links\nDame Judi Dench\nJudi Dench as a young actress playing the virgin Mary in the 1957 York Festival of Mystery Plays. The plays were performed in St Mary's Abbey, the museum gardens, York, England.\nTrivia\nWhen Royal Shakespeare Company Director Peter Hall asked Judi Dench to play the title role in a staged, and then later televised, production of Cleopatra, Dench refused, saying that her Cleopatra would be a \"menopausal dwarf\". Director Hall was later successful in coaxing Dench into the role, of which she won rave reviews from both theatre critics and tv audiences.\nHer first stage appearance was as a snail in a play at her Quaker junior school.\n1947 Judi went to the Mount boarding school in York.\nJudi turned out once for the Settlement Players. An amature dramatics group from York who are still up and running. Other Settlement players have also performed in the Mystery Plays such as City Councilor Roger Farrington who played God to Robson Green's Jesus in 1992.\nShe made history in 1996 as the first person to win two Olivier awards (for British theatre) for different roles.\nHer 1999 Oscar was awarded for an 8 minute performance in Shakespeare in Love (1998)\nDaughter, with Williams, Finty Williams\nDame Judi created the role of Sally Bowles in the London premire of the musical, CABARET.\nJudi Dench was to play \"Grizabella\" in the original \"CATS\" West End production, but an ailment forced her out of the play. Elaine Paige replaced her.\nAwards Judi Dench\n2005 Oscars / Acadamy Awards Nominated Best Actress Judi Dench in Mrs. Henderson Presents\n2001 Nominated Oscar Best Actress in a Supporting Role for: Chocolat (2000)\n1999 Won Oscar Best Actress in a Supporting Role for: Shakespeare in Love (1998)1998 Nominated Oscar Best Actress in a Leading Role for: Mrs. Brown (1997) and Iris (2001)\nAmerican Comedy Awards, USA\n2001 Nominated American Comedy Award Funniest Female Performer in a TV Special (Leading or Supporting) Network, Cable or Syndication for: Last of the Blonde Bombshells, The (2000) (TV)\nBritish Academy Awards\n2001 Won BAFTA TV Award Best Actress for: Last of the Blonde Bombshells, The (2000) (TV)\nNominated BAFTA Film Award Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role for: Chocolat (2000)\n1999 Won BAFTA Film Award Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role for: Shakespeare in Love (1998)\n1998 Won BAFTA Film Award Best Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role for: Mrs. Brown (1997)\nNominated BAFTA TV Award Best Comedy Performance for: \"As Time Goes By\" (1992)\n1990 Nominated BAFTA TV Award Best Actress for: Behaving Badly (1988) (TV)\n1989 Nominated BAFTA Film Award Best Actress in a Supporting Role for: Handful of Dust, A (1988)\n1988 Nominated BAFTA Film Award Best Actress in a Supporting Role for: 84 Charing Cross Road (1986)\n1987 Won BAFTA Film Award Best Actress in a Supporting Role for: Room with a View, A (1986)\n1986 Nominated BAFTA Film Award Best Actress in a Supporting Role for: Wetherby (1985)\n1984 Won BAFTA TV Award Best Light Entertainment Performance for: \"Fine Romance, A\" (1981)\nNominated BAFTA TV Award Best Actress for: Saigon: Year of the Cat (1983) (TV)\n1966 Won BAFTA Film Award Most Promising Newcomer to Leading Film Roles for: Four in the Morning (1966)\nChicago Film Critics Association Awards\n1998 Won CFCA Award Best Actress for: Mrs. Brown (1997)\nEmmy Awards\n2001 Nominated Emmy Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie for: Last of the Blonde Bombshells, The (2000) (TV)\nGolden Globes, USA\n2001 Won Golden Globe Best Performance by an Actress in a Mini-Series or Motion Picture Made for TV for: Last of the Blonde Bombshells, The (2000) (TV)\nNominated Golden Globe Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role in a Motion Picture for: Chocolat (2000)\n1999 Nominated Golden Globe Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role in a Motion Picture for: Shakespeare in Love (1998)\n1998 Won Golden Globe Best Performance by an Actress in a Motion Picture - Drama for: Mrs. Brown (1997)\nGolden Satellite Awards\n2001 Nominated Golden Satellite Award Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role, Drama for: Chocolat (2000)\n1998 Won Golden Satellite Award Best Performance by an Actress in a Motion Picture - Drama for: Mrs. Brown (1997)\nNational Society of Film Critics Awards, USA\n1999 Won NSFC Award Best Supporting Actress for: Shakespeare in Love (1998)\nOnline Film Critics Society Awards\n1998 Won OFCS Award Best Actress for: Mrs. Brown (1997)\nScreen Actors Guild Awards\n2001 Won Actor Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role for: Chocolat (2000)\nNominated Actor Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Television Movie or Miniseries for: Last of the Blonde Bombshells, The (2000) (TV)\nOutstanding Performance by the Cast of a Theatrical Motion Picture for: Chocolat (2000)\nNomination shared with:Juliette Binoche,Leslie Caron,Johnny Depp,Alfred Molina,Carrie-Anne Moss,Hugh O'Conor,Lena Olin,Peter Stormare,John Wood\n1999 Won Actor Outstanding Performance by a Cast for: Shakespeare in Love (1998)\nAward shared with:Ben Affleck,Simon Callow,Jim Carter,Martin Clunes,Joseph Fiennes,Colin Firth,Gwyneth Paltrow,Geoffrey Rush,Antony Sher,Imelda Staunton, Tom Wilkinson,Mark Williams\nNominated Actor Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role for: Shakespeare in Love (1998)\n1998 Nominated Actor Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role for: Mrs. Brown (1997)\nShoWest Convention, USA\n2001 Won ShoWest Award Supporting Actress of the Year\nFilmography\n\"A Study in Terror\" (1965)\n\"Days to Come\" (1966)\n\"Four in the Morning\" (1966)\n\"A Midsummer Night's Dream\" (1968)\n\"Luther\" (1973)\n\"The Comedy of Errors\" (1978)\n\"Macbeth\" (1979)\n\"Saigon: Year of the Cat\" (1983)\n\"The Browning Version\" (1985)\n\"84 Charing Cross Road\" (1986)\n\"Ghosts\" (1986)\n\"A Room with a View\" (1986)\n\"Behaving Badly\" (1988)\n\"A Handful of Dust\" (1988)\n\"Henry V\" (1989)\n\"The Chronicles of Riddick\" (2004)\n\"Ladies in Lavender\" (2004)", "Judi Dench | British actress | Britannica.com\nBritish actress\nAlternative Title: Dame Judith Olivia Dench\nJudi Dench\nJudi Dench, in full Dame Judith Olivia Dench (born December 9, 1934, York , North Yorkshire , England ), British actress known for her numerous and varied stage roles and for her work in television and in a variety of films.\nJudi Dench and Colin Firth in Shakespeare in Love (1998).\nCopyright © 1999 Miramax Films\nDench studied at the Central School of Speech Training and Dramatic Art in London . In 1957 she gave her first important critically acclaimed performance, as Ophelia in the Old Vic production of Hamlet. The following year she made her Broadway debut in Twelfth Night. Her performance as Lady Macbeth in the Royal Shakespeare Company ’s Macbeth (1977) earned her a Laurence Olivier Award from the Society of West End Theatre Managers (now the Society of London Theatre). It was her first of eight Olivier Awards; she also won for Juno and the Paycock (1980), Pack of Lies (1983), Antony and Cleopatra (1987), Absolute Hell (1996), A Little Night Music (1996), and The Winter’s Tale (2016), and in 2004 she received a special Olivier Award.\nJudi Dench appearing in a National Theatre production of Anton Chekhov’s The …\nRobbie Jack/Corbis\nFrom the beginning of her career, Dench frequently acted on television, in adaptations of plays as well as in series. Among her notable credits were two romantic comedy series that aired on the BBC : A Fine Romance (1981–84), which she starred in with her husband, Michael Williams, whom she had married in 1971 and who died in 2001; and As Time Goes By (1992–2005). She later starred in the BBC miniseries Cranford (2007–09), based on works by Elizabeth Gaskell .\nAfter making her big-screen debut in the crime drama The Third Secret (1964), Dench acted in such films as A Room with a View (1985) and A Handful of Dust (1988). She took the role of James Bond ’s boss, M, in GoldenEye (1995)—the first of several Bond movies in which she appeared—and subsequently played two British queens, the recently widowed Queen Victoria in Mrs. Brown (1997) and Queen Elizabeth I in the comedy Shakespeare in Love (1998). For her role as Elizabeth I, she won an Academy Award for best supporting actress, and, for that of Queen Victoria, she won an Academy Award nomination and the Golden Globe Award for best actress in a drama. Additional Oscar nominations for best actress came for her portrayals of British writer Iris Murdoch in Iris (2001), an eccentric theatre owner in Mrs. Henderson Presents (2005), and the lonely teacher Barbara Covett in Notes on a Scandal (2006).\nDaniel Craig (left) as James Bond and Judi Dench as M in Casino Royale …\n© 2006 Sony Pictures Entertainment. All rights reserved.\nBritannica Stories\nScientists Ponder Menopause in Killer Whales\nAfter appearing in the musical Nine (2009), Dench played Mrs. Fairfax in Jane Eyre (2011), an adaptation of the Charlotte Brontë novel. In Clint Eastwood ’s biopic J. Edgar (2011), she portrayed the mother of J. Edgar Hoover (played by Leonardo DiCaprio ), and, in the drama My Week with Marilyn (2011), she appeared as actress Sybil Thorndike . She was featured in The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel (2011) and its 2015 sequel, both of which concern the comic hijinks of a group of British retirees in India . Dench also starred alongside Steve Coogan in Philomena (2013), based on the true story of a woman’s search for a child she had given up for adoption in her youth. She earned another Oscar nomination for best actress for her work on that film . In 2015 Dench paired with Dustin Hoffman in a BBC adaptation of Roald Dahl ’s Esio Trot (1990). The following year she had a cameo in Tim Burton ’s Miss Peregrine’s Home for Peculiar Children.", "Judi Dench - TV.com\nJudi Dench\n12/9/1934, York, North Yorkshire, England UK\nBirth Name\nEDIT\nJudi Dench was born on 9th December, 1934, in York, England. After graduating from drama school she went on to act in a number of professional stage productions, the first playing Ophelia in Shakespeare's 'Hamlet'. She remained a stage actor for many years, before her debut film role… more\nCredits\nS 37: Ep 18 Cranford (1)\n5/4/08\nS 1: Ep 3 November 1842\n12/2/07\nS 1: Ep 1 June 1842\n11/18/07\nS 1: Ep 2 August 1842\n11/25/07\nS 9: Ep 6 As Time Goes By: Reunion\n12/3/05\nS 9: Ep 5 You Must Remember This\n8/11/02\nS 9: Ep 4 What Now?\n8/4/02\nS 9: Ep 2 Another Proposal\n7/14/02\nS 2: Ep 5 Anya's Visit / Henry's Halloween\n6/7/03\nS 2: Ep 1 The Proposal / William the Conjuror\n5/10/03\nS 4: Ep 8 Episode Twenty Six\n2/17/84\nS 4: Ep 7 Episode Twenty Five\n2/10/84\nS 4: Ep 6 Episode Twenty Four\n2/3/84\nS 4: Ep 5 Episode Twenty Three\n1/27/84\nS 4: Ep 4 Episode Twenty Two\n1/20/84\nS 1: Ep 8 In Love and War\n12/17/80\nS 1: Ep 7 Monsieur Le Duc\n12/10/80\nS 1: Ep 6 Foreigners Are Fiends\n12/3/80\nS 1: Ep 5 Heir Apparent\n11/26/80\nS 1: Ep 4 The Merry Widower\n11/19/80\nS 86: Ep 1 The 86th Annual Academy Awards\n3/2/14\nS 2: Ep 281 November 21, 2013\n11/21/13\nS 33: Ep 45 November 8, 2013\n11/8/13\nS 1: Ep 6 Series 1 Episode 6\n6/10/13\nS 8: Ep 22 10th February, 2013\n2/10/13\nS 6: Ep 18 16th January, 2011\n1/16/11\nS 25: Ep 44 November 2, 2012\n11/2/12\nS 22: Ep 71 December 16, 2009\n12/16/09\nS 14: Ep 114 May 29, 2012\n5/29/12\nS 6: Ep 68 Judi Dench/Michelle Rodriguez\n12/18/09\nS 1: Ep 69 Thursday 17/12/09\n12/17/09\nS 3: Ep 19 January 25, 2007\n1/25/07\nS 78: Ep 1 The 78th Annual Academy Awards\n3/5/06\nS 8: Ep 52 December 6 2005\n12/6/05\nS 53: Ep 20 June 10, 2004\n6/10/04\nS 74: Ep 1 The 74th Annual Academy Awards\n3/24/02\nS 73: Ep 1 The 73rd Annual Academy Awards\n3/25/01\nS 72: Ep 1 The 72nd Annual Academy Awards\n3/26/00\nS 3: Ep 135 Show #566\n4/6/99\nS 71: Ep 1 The 71st Annual Academy Awards\n3/21/99\nS 70: Ep 1 The 70th Annual Academy Awards\n3/23/98\nS 35: Ep 15 Edward Woodward\n2/1/95\nS 1: Ep 6 Episode 6\n5/15/94\nS 6: Ep 1 April 7th 1988\n4/7/88\nS 2: Ep 6 1983 [4 Parts]\n11/25/83\nS 2: Ep 2 Days to Come\n10/25/66\nS 1: Ep 3 Safety Man\n7/21/65\nS 1: Ep 6 Dishonoured Bones\n5/4/64\nS 3: Ep 2 Made for Each Other\n9/11/63\nS 1: Ep 25 Treviso Dam\n2/27/60\nS 4: Ep 20 An Audience With Neil Diamond\n5/31/08\nS 2: Ep 9 An Audience With Victoria Wood\n12/10/88\nBecome a contributor\nImportant: You must only upload images which you have created yourself or that you are expressly authorised or licensed to upload. 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Remember: Abuse of the TV.com image system may result in you being banned from uploading images or from the entire site – so, play nice and respect the rules!\nChoose background:", "Judi Dench | Biography and Filmography | 1934\nCo-starred in \"The Second Best Exotic Marigold Hotel\"\n2012\nReprised character of M opposite Daniel Craig's James Bond in \"Skyfall\"\n2012\nCo-starred in the ensemble comedy drama \"The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel\"\n2011\nNominated for the 2011 Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actress in a Mini-series or Motion Picture Made for Television (\"Return to Cranford\")\n2011\nMade a cameo in \"Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides\"\n2011\nCast as the title character's mother in the biographical drama \"J. Edgar,\" directed by Clint Eastwood and starring Leonardo DiCaprio\n2011\nPlayed Dame Sybil Thorndike in \"My Week with Marilyn\"\n2010\nEarned an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or Movie for \"Return to Cranford\"\n2010\nNominated for the 2010 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress In A Miniseries Or A Movie (\"Return to Cranford\")\n2009\nPlayed Daniel Day-Lewis' confidant and costume designer in Rob Marshall's musical adaptation of the Broadway play, \"Nine\"\n2008\nReprised her role as M for the 22nd Bond adventure \"Quantum Of Solace\"; second collaboration with Craig as Bond\n2008\nCo-starred in the BBC One five-part series \"Cranford\" (aired on PBS in the US); earned Emmy and Golden Globe nominations for Best Actress in a Miniseries\n2006\nReprised her role as M for \"Casino Royale\" opposite Daniel Craig in his first film as James Bond\n2006\nPlayed a London schoolteacher opposite Cate Blanchett in Richard Eyre's \"Notes on a Scandal\"; received Golden Globe, SAG and Oscar nominations for Lead Actress\n2005\nCast as Lady Catherine de Bourg in Joe Wright's adaptation of the Jane Austen classic \"Pride and Prejudice\"\n2005\nPortrayed Laura Henderson in the Stephen Frears directed \"Mrs. Henderson Presents\"; received Oscar, Golden Globe and SAG nominations for Lead Actress\n2002\nReprised role of M for \"Die Another Day\"; final collaboration with Pierce Brosnan as Bond\n2002\nPlayed Lady Bracknell in Oliver Parker's remake of Oscar Wilde's \"The Importance of Being Earnest\"\n2002\nCo-starred with Maggie Smith in David Hare's West End play \"The Breath Of Life\"\n2001\nPortrayed Irish novelist Iris Murdoch in her later life (the younger version played by Kate Winslet) in Richard Eyre's \"Iris\"; earned a Best Actress Oscar nomination\n2001\nRe-teamed with director Lasse Hallstrom for \"The Shipping News\" playing Kevin Spacey's aunt\n2000\nStarred in the HBO original film \"The Last of the Blonde Bombshells\"; received SAG and Emmy nomination for Lead Actress\n2000\nFeatured as a crusty old woman in Lasse Hallstrom's \"Chocolat\"; received Best Supporting Actress Oscar nomination\n1999\nAppeared with an ensemble cast in Franco Zeffirelli's \"Tea With Mussolini\"\n1999\nAgain reprised role of M for \"The World Is Not Enough\"; third collaboration with Pierce Brosnan as Bond\n1998\nEarned critical acclaim and several awards for her brief role as Elizabeth I in \"Shakespeare in Love\"\n1997\nStarred in David Hare's London play \"Amy's View\"; production moved to Broadway in 1999\n1997\nFirst leading role in a feature, portraying Queen Victoria in \"Mrs. Brown\"; earned a Best Actress Academy Award nomination\n1997\nReprised role of M in \"Tomorrow Never Dies\"; second collaboration with Brosnan as Bond\n1996\nMade cameo appearance as Hecuba in Kenneth Branagh's full-length film of \"Hamlet\"\n1995\nTook over the role of M in \"GoldenEye\" opposite Pierce Brosnan in his first film as James Bond\n1992\nCo-starred with Geoffrey Palmer in the British sitcom \"As Time Goes By\"\n1989\nPlayed Gertrude, opposite Daniel Day-Lewis in the title role of \"Hamlet\" at the National Theatre\n1989\nDirected by Branagh's for the stage production of \"Henry V\"\n1989\nStage directing debut \"Look Back in Anger\" for Kenneth Branagh's Renaissance Theater Company; also starred with Branagh and Emma Thompson (aired on Bravo in 1993)\n1987\nPortrayed Cleopatra in an acclaimed stage production of \"Antony and Cleopatra\" at The National Theatre\n1987\nCo-starred with Ian Holm in the British adaptation of Noel Coward's \"Mr. and Mrs Edgehill\"\n1986\nFeatured as Miss Eleanor Lavish in the Merchant-Ivory film \"A Room With a View\"\n1985\nCo-starred with Vanessa Redgrave in \"Wetherby\"; written and directed by David Hare\n1983\nAppeared in the British TV production \"Saigon: Year of the Cat\"; directed by Stephen Frears and written by David Hare\n1983\nOriginated the role of Barbara in the West End production of \"Pack of Lies\"\n1982\nWon critical praise for her stage role as Lady Bracknell in Oscar Wilde's \"The Importance of Being Earnest\"\n1981\nAppeared opposite her husband Michael Williams in the British comedy series \"A Fine Romance\"; also performed the series' theme song\n1978\nPlayed one of three spinster sisters, opposite Jeremy Irons in the BBC television film \"Langrishe, Go Down\"; adapted for the screen by Harold Pinter\n1976\nCast opposite Ian McKellen, who played the title role of Nunn's acclaimed production of \"Macbeth\"\n1968\nPlayed Titania in Peter Hall's film version of \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\"\n1968\nWon critical praise as Sally Bowles in the London stage version of \"Cabaret\"\n1967\nMade TV debut in the BBC's four-part serial \"Talking to a Stranger\"\n1965\nBreakthrough screen role in \"Four in the Morning\"\n1964\nMade feature film debut in \"The Third Secret\"\n1961\nJoined the Royal Shakespeare Company playing Anya in \"The Cherry Orchard\"; first collaboration with Ian Holm\n1960\nPortrayed the female lead in Old Vic Company's production of \"Romeo and Juliet\"\n1958\nMade New York debut as Katherine in \"Henry V\"\n1957\nPlayed the Virgin Mary in the revival of the York Mystery Plays; appeared with her father and older brother\n1957\nBecame a member of the Old Vic Company in London\n1957", "Judi Dench - Biography - IMDb\nJudi Dench\nBiography\nShowing all 115 items\nJump to: Overview  (3) | Mini Bio  (1) | Spouse  (1) | Trade Mark  (1) | Trivia  (82) | Personal Quotes  (27)\nOverview (3)\n5' 1\" (1.55 m)\nMini Bio (1)\nJudi Dench was born in York, England, to Eleanora Olive (Jones), who was from Dublin, Ireland, and Reginald Arthur Dench, a doctor from Dorset, England. She attended Mount School in York, and studied at the Central School of Speech and Drama. She has performed with Royal Shakespeare Company, the National Theatre, and at Old Vic Theatre. She is a ten-time BAFTA winner including Best Actress in a Comedy Series for A Fine Romance (1981) in which she appeared with her husband, Michael Williams , and Best Supporting Actress in A Handful of Dust (1988) and A Room with a View (1985) . She received an ACE award for her performance in the television series Star Quality: Mr. and Mrs. Edgehill (1985). She was made an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 1970, and was created Dame of Order of the British Empire in 1988.\n- IMDb Mini Biography By: dh\nSpouse (1)\n( 5 February  1971 - 11 January  2001) (his death) (1 child)\nTrade Mark (1)\nKnown for often playing dignified, strong willed women in positions of authority who are sometimes opposed or criticised by those under her.\nTrivia (82)\nWhen Royal Shakespeare Company Director Peter Hall asked Judi Dench to play the title role in a staged, and then later televised, production of Cleopatra, Dench refused, saying that her Cleopatra would be a \"menopausal dwarf.\" Director Hall was later successful in coaxing Dench into the role, of which she won rave reviews from both theatre critics and TV audiences.\nHer first stage appearance was as a snail in a play at her Quaker junior school.\nShe made history in 1996 as the first person to win two Laurence Olivier awards (for British theatre) for different roles.\nHer 1999 Oscar was awarded for an six-minute performance in only four scenes as \"Queen Elizabeth I\" in Shakespeare in Love (1998). It is the second shortest performance ever to win a Best Supporting Actress Oscar, the only shorter one being Beatrice Straight 's five-minute performance in Network (1976).\nMother, with Michael Williams , of Finty Williams .\nCreated the role of Sally Bowles in the London premiere of the musical, Cabaret.\nShe was cast to play \"Grizabella\" in the original West End production of \"CATS\", but she tore her Achilles Tendon and was forced to quit the musical. Elaine Paige replaced her.\nShe was ranked second in the 2001 Orange Film Survey of the greatest British Film Actresses.\nReceived the Film Actress Award for her role in Chocolat at The Variety Club Showbusiness Awards 2002. Unfortunately Ms Dench was in attendance at the Berlin Film Festival and couldn't attend the Awards ceremony, but was able to send a televised message congratulating the charity on its 50th anniversary.\nAwarded an honorary DLitt by Oxford University on 28 June 2000.\nWas awarded an honourary Litt.D. (Doctor in Letters) from Trinity College on Friday, 11th July, 2003.\nShe was awarded the Laurence Olivier Theatre Award in 1984 (1983 season) for Best Actress in a New Play for Pack of Lies.\nShe was awarded the Laurence Olivier Theatre Award in 1988 (1987 season) for Best Actress in a New Play for Antony and Cleopatra.\nPresented with The Society's Special Award for her outstanding contribution to British theatre at the 2004 Laurence Olivier Awards. [February 2004]\nShe was awarded the Laurence Olivier Theatre Award in 1996 (1995 season) for Best Actress in a Musical for her performance in A Little Night Music at the Royal National Theatre Olivier Stage.\nShe was awarded the Laurence Olivier Theatre Award in 1996 (1995 season) for Best Actress in a Play for her performance in Absolute Hell at the Royal National Theatre Lyttleton Stage.\nShe was nominated for a Laurence Olivier Theatre Award in 1999 (1998 season) for Best Actress for her performance in Filumena.\nShe was nominated for a 1998 Laurence Olivier Theatre Award for Best Actress of the 1997 season for her performance in Amy's View at the Royal National Theatre: Lyttelton and then Aldwych theatres.\nYounger sister of Jeffery Dench .\nShe was awarded the 2004 Laurence Olivier Theatre Special Award for her Outstanding Contributions to British Theatre.\nShe was awarded the 1982 London Critics' Circle Theatre Award (Drama Theatre Award) for Best Actress of 1981 for A Kind Of Alaska and The Importance of Being Earnest.\nShe was awarded the 1987 London Critics Circle Theatre Award (Drama Theatre Award) for Best Actress for her performance in Anthony and Cleopatra.\nShe was awarded the 1987 London Evening Standard Theatre Award for Best Actress for her performance in Anthony and Cleopatra.\nShe was awarded the 1982 London Evening Standard Award for Best Actress for her performance in A Kind of Alaska and The Importance of Being Earnest.\nDuring the filming of As Time Goes By (1992) , she used to direct everybody to hide from the director when he left the set.\nEven after winning so many acting awards, she still admits to being insecure and wanting to improve the next performance. She admits that she prefers stage first, television second and film in third place.\nShe was awarded the 1997 London Critics Circle Theatre Award (Drama) for Best Actress for her performance in Amy's View at the Royal National Theatre.\nShe was awarded the 1997 London Evening Standard Theatre Award: The Patricia Rothermere Award for her contributions to theatre.\nAn Associate Member of RADA.\nWon Broadway's 1999 Tony Award as Best Actress (Play) for \"Amy's View.\"\nVoted Best British Actress of all time in a poll for Sky TV [Feb 2005].\nWas listed as a potential nominee on the 2005 Razzie Award nominating ballot. She was listed as a suggestion in the Worst Supporting Actress category for her performance in the film The Chronicles of Riddick (2004), she failed to receive a nomination however.\nShe was awarded a Companion of Honour in the 2005 Queen's Birthday Honours List for her services to drama.\nCurrently supporting the Theatre Royal, Bury St. Edmunds Restoration Appeal (2005).\nTopped the poll in Britain's Finest Actresses, July 2005\nAttended the Mount School and at the Central School of Speech and Drama in London.\nShe and Vanessa Redgrave were in the same class at drama school.\nAs of 2014, received seven Oscar nominations, all of them when she was already over the age of 60. No other actor or actress collected more nominations when older than 60, the closest runner-ups being Katharine Hepburn, Paul Newman, Laurence Olivier, Spencer Tracy, Melvyn Douglas and Edith Evans with a mere three nominations each.\nWhen she started training at the Central School of Speech and Drama, she admits she wasn't taking it as seriously as she ought to have done. She was caught out during an improvisation scene at which point she realised that that was what it was all about and studied harder than she had ever done in her life.\nWas not able to attend the Oscars in 2007, because she had to undergo a knee surgery.\nShares two roles with both Kate Winslet and Cate Blanchett . She and Winslet both played the title role in Iris (2001), and she and Blanchette have both played Queen Elizabeth. All three of them have played Ophelia in Hamlet.\nAt the opening of the Judi Dench Theatre in London in 1986 she was introduced as \"Here she is, Miss Judy Geeson '.\nShe and her The Shipping News (2001) and Notes on a Scandal (2006) co-star Cate Blanchett both received Oscar-nominations for playing Queen Elizabeth I in 1999. Dench won for her supporting role in Shakespeare in Love (1998) while Blanchett was nominated for Elizabeth (1998).\nProvides the narration for Spaceship Earth at Walt Disney World's Epcot in the 4th version (soft opening December 2007, final opening scheduled for February 2008).\nJudi Dench is the new narrator of \"Spaceship Earth\", the dark ride at EPCOT. She replaced Jeremy Irons after Walt Disney World and Siemens decided to update the classic ride housed inside the infamous golf-ball.\nShe is a frequent co-star of her close friend Geoffrey Palmer .\nFirst woman to portray the 007 series character \"M\", which she did in GoldenEye (1995).\nGood friend of Paul Scofield .\nAwarded honorary D.Litt from the University of St Andrews, June 2008.\nShe was awarded the OBE (Officer of the Order of the British Empire) in the 1970 Queen's Birthday Honours List and awarded the DBE (Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire) in the 1988 Queen's New Year Honours List for her services to drama.\nIn a 2004 opinion poll of the Royal Shakespeare Company, Dame Dench's performance as \"Lady Macbeth\" in Trevor Nunn 's 1976 production of \"Macbeth\" was voted the second greatest Shakespearean performance of all time. Only Paul Scofield 's masterful \"King Lear\" was ranked higher.\nIn her autobiography \"And Furthermore,\" Dench says that she never really understood what was going on in the movie The Chronicles of Riddick (2004), but she enjoyed the experience of making the movie, and she thought the sets were great.\nHas twice been nominated for an Oscar in the same year that another actress was nominated for playing the same role. She received Best Supporting Actress for playing Queen Elizabeth I in Shakespeare in Love (1998), while Cate Blanchett was nominated for Elizabeth (1998). She was later nominated for Best Actress in Iris (2001), for which Kate Winslet was also nominated for the title role.\nWhilst training at the Old Vic Theatre in the 1950s, Dench shared a flat with Barbara Leigh-Hunt .\nWas six months pregnant with her daughter, Finty Williams , when she completed her run of the play \"London Assurance\".\nFollowing the birth of her daughter, Finty Williams , Dench and her husband immediately began trying for another child. However, having been unsuccessful, the couple looked into adoption when Dench was in her 40s, but they were turned down.\nBecame engaged to Michael Williams during Christmas 1970 after he proposed to her on a beach in Australia.\nHas had custody of her grandson, Sammy Williams (b. 1997), since 2004 following her daughter Finty Williams 's rehabilitation for alcoholism.\nGoing blind due to condition called macular degeneration. Does not plan to retire [February 19, 2012].\nA lifelong animal lover, Judi is the proud owner of a racehorse named Smokey Oakey. Also owns a dog, 4 cats, 2 Guinea pigs and some fish.\nCounts Mrs Brown (1997) as the movie that became the quintessential breakthrough event of her career as a film actress, winning her her first Oscar nomination. Even though she'd performed regularly on stage in the US in Old Vic productions almost 40 years earlier, it wasn't until after this movie that Hollywood really came calling.\nDench is a supporter of Everton Football Club and she has been named as a patron of the soccer team's official charity \"Everton in the Community\".\nShe played a Countess in William Shakespeare 's \"All's Well That Ends Well\" in London West End. [February 2004]\nShe visited Staunton, Virginia to promote the Shenandoah Shakespeare Theatre. [May 2004]\nPlaying Mistress Quickly in a production of The Merry Wives of Windsor - The Musical at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre in Stratford-upon-Avon, UK. [January 2007]\nHer father, Reginald Arthur Dench, was from Dorset, England, and her mother, Eleanora Olive (Jones), was from Dublin, Ireland.\nThe longest she has gone without an Oscar nomination is the 7 years between Notes on a Scandal (2006) and Philomena (2013).\nAs of 2014, has appeared in four films that were nominated for the Best Picture Oscar: A Room with a View (1985), Shakespeare in Love (1998), Chocolat (2000) and Philomena (2013). The only film to win in the category was Shakespeare in Love (1998).\nWas the 114th actress to receive an Academy Award; she won the Best Supporting Actress Oscar for Shakespeare in Love (1998) at The 71st Annual Academy Awards (1999) on March 21, 1999.\nIs one of 26 actresses who have received an Academy Award for their performance in a comedy; hers being for Shakespeare in Love (1998). The others in chronological order, are: Claudette Colbert ( It Happened One Night (1934)), Loretta Young ( The Farmer's Daughter (1947)), Josephine Hull ( Harvey (1950)), Judy Holliday ( Born Yesterday (1950)), Audrey Hepburn ( Roman Holiday (1953)), Goldie Hawn ( Cactus Flower (1969)), Glenda Jackson ( A Touch of Class (1973)), Lee Grant ( Shampoo (1975)), Diane Keaton ( Annie Hall (1977)), Maggie Smith ( California Suite (1978)), Mary Steenburgen ( Melvin and Howard (1980)), Jessica Lange ( Tootsie (1982)), Anjelica Huston ( Prizzi's Honor (1985)), Olympia Dukakis ( Moonstruck (1987)), Cher ( Moonstruck (1987)), Jessica Tandy ( Driving Miss Daisy (1989)), Mercedes Ruehl ( The Fisher King (1991)), Marisa Tomei ( My Cousin Vinny (1992)), Dianne Wiest ( Bullets Over Broadway (1994)), Mira Sorvino ( Mighty Aphrodite (1995)), Frances McDormand ( Fargo (1996)), Helen Hunt ( As Good as It Gets (1997)), Gwyneth Paltrow ( Shakespeare in Love (1998)), Penelope Cruz ( Vicky Cristina Barcelona (2008)), and Jennifer Lawrence ( Silver Linings Playbook (2012)).\nShe has two roles in common with Helen Mirren : (1) Dench played Titania in A Midsummer Night's Dream (1968), in which Mirren also appeared, while Mirren played her in A Midsummer Night's Dream (1981) and (2) Dench played Queen Elizabeth I in Shakespeare in Love (1998) while Mirren played her in Elizabeth I (2005).\nA section of the paved river bank alongside the River Ouse in York, upstream of Lendal Bridge near the Museum Gardens, was named Dame Judi Dench Walk in honour of the city being her birthplace.\nIs one of 13 actresses who won their Best Supporting Actress Oscars in a movie that also won the Best Picture Oscar (she won for Shakespeare in Love (1998)). The others are Hattie McDaniel for Gone with the Wind (1939), Teresa Wright for Mrs. Miniver (1942), Celeste Holm for Gentleman's Agreement (1947), Mercedes McCambridge for All the King's Men (1949), Donna Reed for From Here to Eternity (1953), Eva Marie Saint for On the Waterfront (1954), Rita Moreno for West Side Story (1961), Meryl Streep for Kramer vs. Kramer (1979), Juliette Binoche for The English Patient (1996), Jennifer Connelly for A Beautiful Mind (2001), Catherine Zeta-Jones for Chicago (2002) and Lupita Nyong'o for 12 Years a Slave (2013).\nThe only person to always be credited \"and Judi Dench as M\" in all her James Bond opening credits sequences for her appearances. Bernard Lee did not get the credit in Dr. No (1962). Robert Brown never got the credit. Ralph Fiennes was credited as Gareth Mallory in Skyfall (2012).\nFollowing her Oscar win for Shakespeare in Love (1998), the producers of the Bond franchise gave her character M a much larger role -- one central to the film's plot -- for the first time in the Bond franchise. While M had typically only been seen in Bond films in bookend scenes at the very beginning and end, this time around the writers made her past actions the primary motive for the film's two main villains. They did the same thing with M in Skyfall (2012), purportedly because they were planning to kill off her character and wanted her (platonic) relationship with Bond to come full circle.\nStarred in two film adaptations of Anton Chekhov 's The Cherry Orchard. First in 1962, in the Royal Shakespeare Company production, The Cherry Orchard (1962), in which she played Anya, and in the 1981 BBC production The Cherry Orchard (1981), in which she played the lead, Mme. Ranevsky.\nShares a role with her Nine (2009) co-star Marion Cotillard : both played Lady Macbeth. Dench on stage in the '70s and Cotillard in the 2015 film adaptation, Macbeth (2015). They both co-starred opposite an actor who played Magneto in the X-Men franchise; Dench with Ian McKellen and Cotillard with Michael Fassbender .\nDaughter of Reginald Arthur Dench (1897-1964) and Eleanora Olave Dench (née Jones) (1897-1983).\nGreat aunt of Jacob Bowker." ] }

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{ "description": [ "Song chart US Billboard. The Billboard magazine has published various music charts starting ... the first \"Music Hit Parade\" was published in 1936, ... Decade: Number ...", "The first British singles chart was published in the November 14, ... The Billboard Charts started in 1940, ... The results are published in Billboard magazine." ], "filename": [ "112/112_148.txt", "24/24_151.txt" ], "rank": [ 5, 8 ], "title": [ "The US Billboard song chart - TsorT", "Old-Charts" ], "url": [ "http://tsort.info/music/chart_song_usbullfrog.htm", "http://www.old-charts.com/" ], "search_context": [ "The US Billboard song chart\nThe US Billboard song chart\nSearch this site with Google\nSong chart US Billboard\nThe Billboard magazine has published various music charts starting (with sheet music) in 1894, the first \"Music Hit Parade\" was published in 1936 , the first \"Music Popularity Chart\" was calculated in 1940 . These charts became less irregular until the weekly \"Hot 100\" was started in 1958 . The current chart combines sales, airplay and downloads.\nA music collector that calls himself Bullfrog has been consolidating the complete chart from 1894 to the present day. he has published this information in a comprehenive spreadsheet (which can be obtained at bullfrogspond.com/\n).\nThe Bullfrog data assigns each song a unique identifier, something like \"1968_076\" (which just happens to be the Bee Gees song \"I've Gotta Get A Message To You\"). This \"Whitburn Number\" is provided to match with the books of Joel Whitburn and consists of the year and a ranking within the year. A song that first entered the charts in December and has a long run is listed the following year. This numbering scheme means that songs which are still in the charts cannot be assigned a final id, because their ranking might change. So the definitive listing for a year cannot be final until about April. In our listing we only use songs with finalised IDs, this means that every year we have to wait until last year's entries are finalised before using them.\n(Source bullfrogspond.com/ , the original version used here was 20090808 with extra data from:\nthe 2009 data from 20091219\nthe 2010 data from 20110305\nthe 2011 data from 20120929\nthe 2012 data from 20130330\nthe 2013 data from 20150328\nThe 20150328 data was the last one produced before the Billboard company forced the data to be withdrawn. As far as we know there are no more recent data sets available. This pattern of obtaining the data for a particular year in the middle of the following one comes from the way that the Bullfrog project generates the identifier for a song (what they call the \"Prefix\" in the spreadsheet). Recent entries are identified with keys like \"2015-008\" while older ones have keys like \"2013_177\". In the second case the underscore is significant, it indicates that this was the 177th biggest song released in 2013. Now, of course, during the year no one knows where a particular song will rank, so the underscore names can't be assigned until every song from a particular year has dropped out of the charts, so recent records are temporarily assigned a name with a dash. In about May of the following year the rankings are calculated and the final identifiers are assigned. That is why we at the Turret can only grab this data retrospectively.\nAttributes\nThe original spreadsheet has a number of attributes, we have limited our attention to just a few of them:\n134\n9\nThe songs with the most entries on the chart were White Christmas (with 33 versions and a total of 110 weeks) and Stardust (with 19 and a total of 106 weeks).\nposition\nThe peak position that songs reached in the charts should show an smooth curve from number one down to the lowest position. This chart has more songs in the lower peak positions than one would expect. Before 1991 the profile of peak positions was exactly as you would expect, that year Billboard introduced the concept of \"Recurrent\" tracks, that is they removed any track from the chart which had spent more than twenty weeks in the chart and had fallen to the lower positions.\nweeks\nThe effect of the \"Recurrent\" process, by which tracks are removed if they have spent at least twenty weeks in the chart and have fallen to the lower reaches, can clearly be seen in the strange spike in this attribute. This \"adjustment\" was intended to promote newer songs and ensure the chart does not become \"stale\". In fact since it was introduced in 1991 the length of long chart runs has increased, this might reflect the more conscious efforts of record companies to \"game\" the charts by controlling release times and promotions, or it could be that the decline in chart turnover reflects a reduced public interest in the singles charts.\nWhen we plot the average length of a song's run for songs over the period covered it is clear that the chart has changed in the last 100 years. Except for a short period in the late 1960s and early 1970s the average length of chart run increased steadily from the 1920s to the 1990s .\nThis contrasts with other charts, such as the UK one where the recent trend has been for runs to get shorter. We have no good idea why this is.\nyearpos & bfid\nA formula is applied to each entry to assign it a ranking within the year it was released. This allows followers of the Billboard chart to use a combination of the year and position to uniquely identify every entry. This formula takes into account the total success of the song, so it cannot be finally calculated until every song released in a given year has completed it's chart run (which might be well into the following year of course). As a result the final IDs for a particular year cannot be assigned until the end of the following year. This is one of the reasons why this site does not hold much information for the current year.\nNo. 1 song on December 24 1936\nLooking for the No. 1 song on the day I was born--December 24, 1936.\nThanks.\nThe charts didn't really exist in the 1930s, that's why our listing of number one records starts in 1940\n25 Sep 2011\nBillboard info for songs listed from 1901 - 1929\nHi, again, this is my fifth time sending message to this site...What a spectacular site. Love it!! First, the comprehensive info, then, the nitty-gritty details on every songs. Thirdly (and most importantly) the forever responsive reply. Irregardless its a meaningful questions, corrections or downright simple questions.\nSome sites don't reply at all..its annoying.\nAnyway, my questions is during the period from 1901 to 1929, has billboard exist yet? Do they have charts and radios doing the counting of the song rotation? I thought billboard only start in the late 50's, wasn't it? I'm a music aficionado, songs and info from the 30's is hard to find, and yet you have the effort to go beyond the 20's.. May i know where in other sites i can search for 20's music info (other than wiki)?\nArnaz\nWe're glad to see that you enjoy the site. Your comments encourage us to keep putting in the effort.\nTo answer your question:\nBillboard magazine started publishing in 1894. They published their first music \"hit parade\" in 1936 and their first \"Hot 100\" in 1958. We understand that from 1936 to 1958 the charts were irregular and didn't have a consistent form. In addition the focus was on \"sheet music\" sales so while the chart will say, for example, that the song \"Sentimental Journey\" was a hit in 1945 it won't tell you if the version by the Merry Macs, Hal McIntyre or Les Brown & Doris Day was the most popular.\nA US music historian called Joel Whitburn has used the information from the irregular charts, the Billboard magazine contents and other sources to retrospectively calculate the charts from 1890 to 1958. This is published as a spreadsheet by a guy calling himself \"Bullfrog\" (the source is listed in the chart entry).\nThat is the listing we base our information on.\n© 2007-16, Steve Hawtin et al. Generated 15 Jan 2017 16:56 GMT. This data may be freely copied provided that first the source is acknowledged, second a link to the tsort.info site is prominently incorporated and third the version number is attached (this data is version 2.6.0013). If you cannot, or do not wish to, follow these three restrictons then you must licence the data (inquire via the contact form).", "Old-Charts\nHistory\nUK\nThe first British singles chart was published in the November 14, 1952 edition of the New Musical Express. It was at first little more than a gimmick, a tool in the circulation war against NME's much older (and more popular) rival Melody Maker. The chart, at first a top 12, was the creation of the paper's advertising manager, Percy Dickins, who compiled it by telephoning around 20 major record stores and aggregating their sales reports. He would continue to personally oversee the compilation of the chart well into the 1960s.\nThe chart rapidly became one of the paper's most popular features. After only a few weeks, it started being quoted in record company advertisements and press releases. The chart also spawned imitators - Record Mirror launched its own chart in 1955 and Melody Maker in 1958.\nThe forerunner of today's official chart first appeared in the music trade publication Record Retailer (now Music Week) in 1960 as a Top 50, but was not immediately recognised as the definitive chart in the country. Arguably, the NME chart was still the most recognised chart, and had the advantage of widespread exposure due to its use by Radio Luxembourg. Throughout the sixties, the various different charts vied for public recognition, leading to some historical anomalies � for example, The Beatles' second single \"Please Please Me\" was a number one on most charts, but not in Record Retailer. To add to the confusion, the chart used by the BBC on their popular shows Pick of the Pops and Top Of The Pops was actually calculated by averaging out all the others, and so didn't agree with any of them, and was prone to tied positions.\nIt wasn't until 1969 that a truly reliable, official chart emerged, from an alliance between the BBC and Record Retailer. For the first time a professional polling organisation, BMRB, was commissioned to oversee the chart, and a pool of 500 record shops was used - more than twice as many as had been used for any previous chart. The new Official Top 50 was inaugurated in the week ending 12 February 1969.\nIn 1978, the singles chart was extended from a Top 50 to a Top 75.\nIn 1982, BMRB lost their contract to Gallup, who arranged for electronic data gathering to replace the old sales diary method of compilation. The first chart terminals appeared in record shops in 1984. As a result, in October 1987, it was now possible for the chart, incorporating sales up to close of business on Saturday, to be announced on Sunday afternoon, rather than being delayed until Tuesday as was previously the case.\nIn 1990, the chart came under the auspices of CIN (Chart Information Network), a syndicate including the BBC, Spotlight (publishers of Music Week), the BPI and BARD (British Association of Record Distributors). This was basically a formalisation of the previously-existing informal arrangement, and did not significantly affect compilation.\n \nUSA\nThe earliest charts probably came in late 1929.\nIn the 30's there were Downbeat and Metronome Charts and maybe there were others. The Billboard Charts started in 1940, Cashbox in 1944.\n \nThe Billboard charts tabulate the relative weekly popularity of songs or albums in the United States. The results are published in Billboard magazine. The two primary charts - the Hot 100 (top 100 singles) and the Top 200 (top 200 albums) factor in airplay, as well as music sales in all relevant formats. Billboard is considered the foremost worldwide authority worldwide in music charts, and the rankings have gained a following among the general public.\nOn January 4, 1936, Billboard magazine published its first music hitparade. The first Music Popularity Chart was calculated in July, 1940. A variety of song charts followed, which were eventually consolidated into the Hot 100 by mid-1958.\n \nMethodology of its charts\nCurrently, Billboard utilizes a system called Nielsen SoundScan to track sales of singles, albums, videos and DVDs. Essentially, it's a system that registers sales when products are purchased from SoundScan-enabled stores. Billboard also uses a system called Broadcast Data Systems, or BDS, which they own as a subsidiary, to track radio airplay. Each song has an \"acoustic fingerprint\" which, when played on a radio station that is contracted to use BDS, is detected. These detections are added up every week among all radio stations to determine airplay points. Arbitron statistics are also factored in to give \"weight\" to airplay based on audience size and time-of-day.\nAll of Billboard's charts use this basic formula. What separates the charts is which stations and stores are used � each musical genre having a core audience or retail group. Each genre's department at Billboard is headed up by a chart manager, who makes these determinations.\nFor many years, a song had to be commercially available as a single to be considered for any of Billboard's charts. At the time, instead of using SoundScan or BDS, Billboard obtained its data from manual reports filled out by radio stations and stores. According to the 50th Anniversary issue of Billboard, prior to the official implementation of Nielsen SoundScan tracking in November 1991, many radio stations and retail stores removed songs from their manual reports after the associated record labels stopped promoting a particular single. Thus songs fell quickly after peaking and had shorter chart lives. In 1990, the country singles chart was the first chart to use SoundScan and BDS. They were followed by the Hot 100 and the R&B chart in 1991. Today, all of Billboard's charts use this technology.\nBefore September 1995, singles were allowed to chart in the week they first went on sale based on airplay points alone. The policy was changed in September 1995 to only allow a single to debut after a full week of sales on combined sales and airplay points. This allowed several tracks to debut at number one.\nIn December 1998, the policy was further modified to allow tracks to chart on the basis of airplay alone without a commercial release. This change was made to reflect the changing realities of the music business. Previous to this, several substantial radio and MTV hits had not appeared on the Billboard chart at all, because many major labels chose not to release them as standalone singles, hoping their unavailability would spur greater album sales. Not offering a popular song to the public as a single was unheard of before the 1970s. The genres that suffered most at the time were those that increasingly impacted pop culture, including new genres such as trip hop and grunge.\nStarting in 2005, Billboard changed its methodology to allow paid digital downloads from digital music stores such as iTunes to chart with or without the help of radio airplay.\n \nA variety of charts\nOriginally, Billboard had separate charts for different measures of popularity, including disk jockey playings, juke box song selection, and best selling records in retail stores. There was also a composite standing chart compiled by combining those, which gradually grew to become a top 100, the ancestor of the current Hot 100 chart. The juke box chart ceased publication after the June 17, 1957 issue, the disk jockey chart, after the July 28, 1958 issue, and the best seller chart, after the October 13, 1958 issue. The July 28, 1958 issue was also the last issue in which the composite chart was called the Top 100; the following week was the start of the Hot 100 titles.\nCurrently, Billboard publishes many different charts, with the Hot 100 and Billboard 200 being the most famous. In 2009 Billboard partnered with MetroLyrics to offer top 10 lyrics for each of the charts.\n \nAt year's end\nAt the end of each year, Billboard tallies the results of all of its charts, and the results are published in a year-end issue and heard on year-end editions of its American Top 40 and American Country Countdown radio broadcasts, in addition to being announced in the press. Between 1991 and 2006, the top single/album/artist(s) in each of those charts was/were awarded in the form of the annual Billboard Music Awards, which were annually held in December until the awards went dormant in 2007 (plans for a new version of the awards in 2008 fell through, and no awards have been held since 2007). The year-end charts cover a period from the first week of December of the previous year to the last week of November of the respective year.\n \nAT OLD-CHARTS YEAR-END TOP 150 CHARTS BASED ON THE CHARTS FROM JANUARY - DECEMBER!! (POINT-SYSTEM NR. 1: 100 POINTS etc.)" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Nation_state.txt", "Angola.txt", "Angolan_Civil_War.txt" ], "title": [ "Nation state", "Angola", "Angolan Civil War" ], "wiki_context": [ "A nation state is a type of state that conjoins the political entity of a state to the cultural entity of a nation, from which it aims to derive its political legitimacy to rule and potentially its status as a sovereign state if one accepts the declarative theory of statehood as opposed to the constitutive theory.Such a definition is a working one: \"All attempts to develop terminological consensus around \"nation\" resulted in failure\", concludes . Walker Connor, in [] discusses the impressions surrounding the characters of \"nation\", \"(sovereign) state\", \"nation state\", and \"nationalism\". Connor, who gave the term \"ethnonationalism\" wide currency, also discusses the tendency to confuse nation and state and the treatment of all states as if nation states. In Globalization and Belonging, Sheila L. Crouche discusses \"The Definitional Dilemma\" (pp. 85ff). \nA state is specifically a political and geopolitical entity, whilst a nation is a cultural and ethnic one. The term \"nation state\" implies that the two coincide, in that a state has chosen to adopt and endorse a specific cultural group as associated with it. \"Nation state\" formation can take place at different times in different parts of the world.\n\nThe concept of a nation state can be compared and contrasted with that of the multinational state, city state, empire, confederation, and other state formations with which it may overlap. The key distinction is the identification of a people with a polity in the \"nation state.\"\n\nHistory and origins \n\nThe origins and early history of nation states are disputed. A major theoretical question is: \"Which came first, the nation or the nation state?\" Scholars such as Steven Weber, David Woodward, and Jeremy Black have advanced the hypothesis that the nation state didn't arise out of political ingenuity or an unknown undetermined source, nor was it an accident of history or political invention; but is an inadvertent byproduct of 15th-century intellectual discoveries in political economy, capitalism, mercantilism, political geography, and geography combined together with cartography and advances in map-making technologies. It was with these intellectual discoveries and technological advances that the nation state arose. For others, the nation existed first, then nationalist movements arose for sovereignty, and the nation state was created to meet that demand. Some \"modernization theories\" of nationalism see it as a product of government policies to unify and modernize an already existing state. Most theories see the nation state as a 19th-century European phenomenon, facilitated by developments such as state-mandated education, mass literacy and mass media. However, historians also note the early emergence of a relatively unified state and identity in Portugal and the Dutch Republic.\n\nIn France, Eric Hobsbawm argues, the French state preceded the formation of the French people. Hobsbawm considers that the state made the French nation, not French nationalism, which emerged at the end of the 19th century, the time of the Dreyfus Affair. At the time of the 1789 French Revolution, only half of the French people spoke some French, and 12-13% spoke it \"fairly\", according to Hobsbawm.\n\nDuring the Italian unification, the number of people speaking the Italian language was even lower. The French state promoted the unification of various dialects and languages into the French language. The introduction of conscription and the Third Republic's 1880s laws on public instruction, facilitated the creation of a national identity, under this theory.\n\nSome nation states, such as Germany or Italy, came into existence at least partly as a result of political campaigns by nationalists, during the 19th century. In both cases, the territory was previously divided among other states, some of them very small. The sense of common identity was at first a cultural movement, such as in the Völkisch movement in German-speaking states, which rapidly acquired a political significance. In these cases, the nationalist sentiment and the nationalist movement clearly precede the unification of the German and Italian nation states.\n\nHistorians Hans Kohn, Liah Greenfeld, Philip White and others have classified nations such as Germany or Italy, where cultural unification preceded state unification, as ethnic nations or ethnic nationalities. However, 'state-driven' national unifications, such as in France, England or China, are more likely to flourish in multiethnic societies, producing a traditional national heritage of civic nations, or territory-based nationalities. Some authors deconstruct the distinction between ethnic nationalism and civic nationalism because of the ambiguity of the concepts. They argue that the paradigmatic case of Ernest Renan is an idealisation and it should be interpreted within the German tradition and not in opposition to it. For example, they argue that the arguments used by Renan at the conference What is a nation? are not consistent with his thinking. This alleged civic conception of the nation would be determined only by the case of the loss gives Alsace and Lorraine in the Franco-Prussian War. \n\nThe idea of a nation state was and is associated with the rise of the modern system of states, often called the \"Westphalian system\" in reference to the Treaty of Westphalia (1648). The balance of power, which characterized that system, depended on its effectiveness upon clearly defined, centrally controlled, independent entities, whether empires or nation states, which recognize each other's sovereignty and territory. The Westphalian system did not create the nation state, but the nation state meets the criteria for its component states (by assuming that there is no disputed territory).\n\nThe nation state received a philosophical underpinning in the era of Romanticism, at first as the 'natural' expression of the individual peoples (romantic nationalism: see Johann Gottlieb Fichte's conception of the Volk, later opposed by Ernest Renan). The increasing emphasis during the 19th century on the ethnic and racial origins of the nation, led to a redefinition of the nation state in these terms. Racism, which in Boulainvilliers's theories was inherently antipatriotic and antinationalist, joined itself with colonialist imperialism and \"continental imperialism\", most notably in pan-Germanic and pan-Slavic movements. \n\nThe relation between racism and ethnic nationalism reached its height in the 20th century fascism and Nazism. The specific combination of 'nation' ('people') and 'state' expressed in such terms as the Völkische Staat and implemented in laws such as the 1935 Nuremberg laws made fascist states such as early Nazi Germany qualitatively different from non-fascist nation states. Minorities were not considered part of the people (Volk), and were consequently denied to have an authentic or legitimate role in such a state. In Germany, neither Jews nor the Roma were considered part of the people, and were specifically targeted for persecution. German nationality law defined 'German' on the basis of German ancestry, excluding all non-Germans from the people.\n\nIn recent years, a nation state's claim to absolute sovereignty within its borders has been much criticized. A global political system based on international agreements and supra-national blocs characterized the post-war era. Non-state actors, such as international corporations and non-governmental organizations, are widely seen as eroding the economic and political power of nation states, potentially leading to their eventual disappearance.\n\nBefore the nation state \n\nIn Europe, during the 18th century, the classic non-national states were the multiethnic empires, the Austrian Empire, Kingdom of France, Kingdom of Hungary, the Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the British Empire and smaller nations at what would now be called sub-state level. The multi-ethnic empire was a monarchy ruled by a king, emperor or sultan. The population belonged to many ethnic groups, and they spoke many languages. The empire was dominated by one ethnic group, and their language was usually the language of public administration. The ruling dynasty was usually, but not always, from that group.\n\nThis type of state is not specifically European: such empires existed on all continents, except Australasia and Antarctica. Some of the smaller European states were not so ethnically diverse, but were also dynastic states, ruled by a royal house. Their territory could expand by royal intermarriage or merge with another state when the dynasty merged. In some parts of Europe, notably Germany, very small territorial units existed. They were recognised by their neighbours as independent, and had their own government and laws. Some were ruled by princes or other hereditary rulers, some were governed by bishops or abbots. Because they were so small, however, they had no separate language or culture: the inhabitants shared the language of the surrounding region.\n\nIn some cases these states were simply overthrown by nationalist uprisings in the 19th century. Liberal ideas of free trade played a role in German unification, which was preceded by a customs union, the Zollverein. However, the Austro-Prussian War, and the German alliances in the Franco-Prussian War, were decisive in the unification. The Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire broke up after the First World War, and the Russian Empire became the Soviet Union after the Russian Civil War.\n\nA few of the smaller states survived: the independent principalities of Liechtenstein, Andorra, Monaco, and the republic of San Marino. (Vatican City is a special case. All of the larger Papal State save the Vatican itself was occupied and absorbed by Italy by 1870. The resulting Roman Question, was resolved with the rise of the modern state under the 1929 Lateran treaties between Italy and the Holy See.)\n\nCharacteristics \n\n \n\"Legitimate states that govern effectively and dynamic industrial economies are widely regarded today as the defining characteristics of a modern nation-state.\" \n\nNation states have their own characteristics, differing from those of the pre-national states. For a start, they have a different attitude to their territory when compared with dynastic monarchies: it is semisacred and nontransferable. No nation would swap territory with other states simply, for example, because the king's daughter married. They have a different type of border, in principle defined only by the area of settlement of the national group, although many nation states also sought natural borders (rivers, mountain ranges). They are constantly changing in population size and power because of the limited restrictions of their borders.\n\nThe most noticeable characteristic is the degree to which nation states use the state as an instrument of national unity, in economic, social and cultural life.\n\nThe nation state promoted economic unity, by abolishing internal customs and tolls. In Germany, that process, the creation of the Zollverein, preceded formal national unity. Nation states typically have a policy to create and maintain a national transportation infrastructure, facilitating trade and travel. In 19th-century Europe, the expansion of the rail transport networks was at first largely a matter for private railway companies, but gradually came under control of the national governments. The French rail network, with its main lines radiating from Paris to all corners of France, is often seen as a reflection of the centralised French nation state, which directed its construction. Nation states continue to build, for instance, specifically national motorway networks. Specifically transnational infrastructure programmes, such as the Trans-European Networks, are a recent innovation.\n\nThe nation states typically had a more centralised and uniform public administration than its imperial predecessors: they were smaller, and the population less diverse. (The internal diversity of the Ottoman Empire, for instance, was very great.) After the 19th-century triumph of the nation state in Europe, regional identity was subordinate to national identity, in regions such as Alsace-Lorraine, Catalonia, Brittany and Corsica. In many cases, the regional administration was also subordinated to central (national) government. This process was partially reversed from the 1970s onward, with the introduction of various forms of regional autonomy, in formerly centralised states such as France.\n\nThe most obvious impact of the nation state, as compared to its non-national predecessors, is the creation of a uniform national culture, through state policy. The model of the nation state implies that its population constitutes a nation, united by a common descent, a common language and many forms of shared culture. When the implied unity was absent, the nation state often tried to create it. It promoted a uniform national language, through language policy. The creation of national systems of compulsory primary education and a relatively uniform curriculum in secondary schools, was the most effective instrument in the spread of the national languages. The schools also taught the national history, often in a propagandistic and mythologised version, and (especially during conflicts) some nation states still teach this kind of history. \n\nLanguage and cultural policy was sometimes negative, aimed at the suppression of non-national elements. Language prohibitions were sometimes used to accelerate the adoption of national languages and the decline of minority languages (see examples: Anglicisation, Czechization, Francisation, Italianization, Germanisation, Magyarisation, Polonisation, Russification, Serbization, Slovakisation).\n\nIn some cases, these policies triggered bitter conflicts and further ethnic separatism. But where it worked, the cultural uniformity and homogeneity of the population increased. Conversely, the cultural divergence at the border became sharper: in theory, a uniform French identity extends from the Atlantic coast to the Rhine, and on the other bank of the Rhine, a uniform German identity begins. To enforce that model, both sides have divergent language policy and educational systems, although the linguistic boundary is in fact well inside France, and the Alsace region changed hands four times between 1870 and 1945.\n\nIn practice \n\nIn some cases, the geographic boundaries of an ethnic population and a political state largely coincide. In these cases, there is little immigration or emigration, few members of ethnic minorities, and few members of the \"home\" ethnicity living in other countries.\n\nExamples of nation states where ethnic groups make up more than 95% of the population include the following:\n* Albania: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Albanian at about 98.6% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities.\n* Armenia: The vast majority of Armenia's population consists of ethnic Armenians at about 98% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities.\n* Bangladesh: The vast majority ethnic group of Bangladesh are the Bengali people, comprising 98% of the population, with the remainder consisting of mostly Bihari migrants and indigenous tribal groups. Therefore, Bangladeshi society is to a great extent linguistically and culturally homogeneous, with very small populations of foreign expatriates and workers, although there is a substantial number of Bengali workers living abroad.\n* Egypt: The vast majority of Egypt's population consists of ethnic Egyptians at about 99% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities, as well as refugees or asylum seekers. Modern Egyptian identity is closely tied to the geography of Egypt and its long history; its development over the centuries saw overlapping or conflicting ideologies. Though today an Arabic-speaking people, that aspect constitutes for Egyptians a cultural dimension of their identity, not a necessary attribute of or prop for their national political being. Today most Egyptians see themselves, their history, culture and language (the Egyptian variant of Arabic) as specifically Egyptian and at the same time as part of the Arab world.\n* Estonia: Defined as a nation state in its 1920 constitution, up until the period of Soviet colonialisation, Estonia was historically a very homogenous state with 88.2% of residents being Estonians, 8.2% Russians, 1.5% Germans and 0.4% Jews according to the 1934 census. As a result of Soviet policies the demographic situation significantly changed with the arrival of Russian speaking settlers. Today Estonians form 69%, Russians 25.4%, Ukrainians 2.04% and Belarusians 1.1% of the population(2012). A significant proportion of the inhabitants (84.1%) are citizens of Estonia, around 7.3% are citizens of Russia and 7.0% as yet undefined citizenship (2010).\n* Hungary: The Hungarians (or Magyar) people consist of about 95% of the population, with a small Roma and German minority: see Demographics of Hungary.\n* Iceland: Although the inhabitants are ethnically related to other Scandinavian groups, the national culture and language are found only in Iceland. There are no cross-border minorities as the nearest land is too far away: see Demographics of Iceland\n\n* Japan: Japan is also traditionally seen as an example of a nation state and also the largest of the nation states, with population in excess of 120 million. It should be noted that Japan has a small number of minorities such as Ryūkyū peoples, Koreans and Chinese, and on the northern island of Hokkaidō, the indigenous Ainu minority. However, they are either numerically insignificant (Ainu), their difference is not as pronounced (though Ryukyuan culture is closely related to Japanese culture, it is nonetheless distinctive in that it historically received much more influence from China and has separate political and nonpolitical and religious traditions) or well assimilated (Zainichi population is collapsing due to assimilation/naturalisation).\n* Lebanon: The Arabic-speaking Lebanese consist at about 95% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities, as well as refugees or asylum seekers. Modern Lebanese identity is closely tied to the geography of Lebanon and its history. Although they are now an Arabic-speaking people and ethnically homogeneous, its identity oversees overlapping or conflicting ideologies between its Phoenician heritage and Arab heritage. While many Lebanese regard themselves as Arab, other Lebanese regard themselves, their history, and their culture as Phoenician and not Arab, while still other Lebanese regard themselves as both.\n* Lesotho: Lesotho's ethno-linguistic structure consists almost entirely of the Basotho (singular Mosotho), a Bantu-speaking people; about 99.7% of the population are Basotho.\n* Maldives: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Dhivehi at about 98% of the population, with the remainder consisting of foreign workers; there are no indigenous ethnic minorities.\n* Malta: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Maltese at about 95.3% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities.\n* Mongolia: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Mongol at about 95.0% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few ethnic minorities included in Kazakhs.\n* North and South Korea are among the most ethnically and linguistically homogeneous in the world. Particularly in reclusive North Korea, there are very few ethnic minority groups and expatriate foreigners.\n* Poland: After World War II, with the genocide of the Jews by the invading German Nazis during the Holocaust, the expulsion of Germans after World War II and the loss of eastern territories (Kresy), 96.7% of the people of Poland claim Polish nationality, while 97.8% declare that they speak Polish at home (Census 2002).\n* Several Polynesian countries such as Tonga, Samoa, Tuvalu, etc.\n* Portugal: Although surrounded by other lands and people, the Portuguese nation has occupied the same territory since the romanization or latinization of the native population during the Roman era. The modern Portuguese nation is a very old amalgam of formerly distinct historical populations that passed through and settled in the territory of modern Portugal: native Iberian peoples, Celts, ancient Mediterraneans (Greeks, Phoenicians, Romans, Jews), invading Germanic peoples like the Suebi and the Visigoths, and Muslim Arabs and Berbers. Most Berber/Arab people and the Jews were expelled from the Iberian Peninsula during the Reconquista and the repopulation by Christians.\n* San Marino: The Sammarinese make up about 97% of the population and all speak Italian and are ethnically and linguisticially identical to Italians. San Marino is a landlocked enclave, completely surrounded by Italy. The state has a population of approximately 30,000, including 1,000 foreigners, most of whom are Italians.\n* Swaziland: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Swazi at about 98.6% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities.\n\nThe notion of a unifying \"national identity\" also extends to countries that host multiple ethnic or language groups, such as India and China. For example, Switzerland is constitutionally a confederation of cantons, and has four official languages, but it has also a 'Swiss' national identity, a national history and a classic national hero, Wilhelm Tell. \n\nInnumerable conflicts have arisen where political boundaries did not correspond with ethnic or cultural boundaries.\n\nAfter World War II in the Josip Broz Tito era, nationalism was appealed to for uniting South Slav peoples. Later in the 20th century, after the break-up of the Soviet Union, leaders appealed to ancient ethnic feuds or tensions that ignited conflict between the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, as well Bosnians, Montenegrins and Macedonians, eventually breaking up the long collaboration of peoples and ethnic cleansing was carried out in the Balkans, resulting in the destruction of the formerly socialist republic and produced the civil wars in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992–95, resulted in mass population displacements and segregation that radically altered what was once a highly diverse and intermixed ethnic makeup of the region. These conflicts were largely about creating a new political framework of states, each of which would be ethnically and politically homogeneous. Serbians, Croatians and Bosnians insisted they were ethnically distinct although many communities had a long history of intermarriage. Presently Slovenia (89% Slovene), Croatia (90,4% Croat) and Serbia (83% Serb) could be classified as nation states per se, whereas Macedonia (66% Macedonian), Montenegro (42% Montenegrin) and Bosnia and Herzegovina (47% Bosniak) are multinational states.\n\nBelgium is a classic example of a state that is not a nation state. The state was formed by secession from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1830, whose neutrality and integrity was protected by the Treaty of London 1839; thus it served as a buffer state after the Napoleonitic Wars between the European powers France, Prussia (after 1871 the German Empire) and the United Kingdom until World War I, when its neutrality was breached by the Germans. Currently, Belgium is divided between the Flemings in the north and the French-speaking or the German-speaking population in the south. The Flemish population in the north speaks Dutch, the Walloon population in the south speaks French and/or German. The Brussels population speaks French and/or Dutch.\n\nThe Flemish identity is also cultural, and there is a strong separatist movement espoused by the political parties, the right-wing Vlaams Belang and the Nieuw-Vlaamse Alliantie. The Francophone Walloon identity of Belgium is linguistically distinct and regionalist. There is also unitary Belgian nationalism, several versions of a Greater Netherlands ideal, and a German-speaking community of Belgium annexed from Germany in 1920, and re-annexed by Germany in 1940–1944. However these ideologies are all very marginal and politically insignificant during elections.\n\nChina covers a large geographic area and uses the concept of \"Zhonghua minzu\" or Chinese nationality, in the sense of ethnic groups, but it also officially recognizes the majority Han ethnic group which accounts for over 90% of the population, and no fewer than 55 ethnic national minorities.\n\nAccording to Philip G. Roeder, Moldova is an example of a Soviet era \"segment-state\" (Moldavian SSR), where the \"nation-state project of the segment-state trumped the nation-state project of prior statehood. In Moldova, despite strong agitation from university faculty and students for reunification with Romania, the nation-state project forged within the Moldavian SSR trumped the project for a return to the interwar nation-state project of Greater Romania.\" See Controversy over linguistic and ethnic identity in Moldova for further details.\n\nExceptional cases \n\nUnited Kingdom \n\nThe United Kingdom is an unusual example of a nation state, due to its claimed \"countries within a country\" status. The United Kingdom, which is formed by the union of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, is a unitary state formed initially by the merger of two independent kingdoms, the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland, but the Treaty of Union (1707) that set out the agreed terms has ensured the continuation of distinct features of each state, including separate legal systems and separate national churches.\n\nIn 2003, the British Government described the United Kingdom as \"countries within a country\". While the Office for National Statistics and others describe the United Kingdom as a \"nation state\", others, including a then Prime Minister, describe it as a \"multinational state\", and the term Home Nations is used to describe the four national teams that represent the four nations of the United Kingdom (England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, Wales). \n\nKingdom of the Netherlands \n\nA similar unusual example is the Kingdom of the Netherlands. As of 10 October 2010, the Kingdom of the Netherlands consists of four countries: \n* Netherlands proper\n* Aruba\n* Curaçao\n* Sint Maarten\n\nEach is expressly designated as a land in Dutch law by the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Unlike the German Länder and the Austrian Bundesländer, landen is consistently translated as \"countries\" by the Dutch government. \n\nIsrael \n\nIsrael was founded as a Jewish state in 1948. Its \"Basic Laws\" describe it as both a Jewish and a democratic state. According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, 75.7% of Israel's population is Jewish. Arabs, who make up 20.4% of the population, are the largest ethnic minority in Israel. Israel also has very small communities of Armenians, Circassians, Assyrians, Samaritans, and persons of some Jewish heritage. There are also some non-Jewish spouses of Israeli Jews. However, these communities are very small, and usually number only in the hundreds or thousands.\n\nPakistan \n\nPakistan, even being an ethnically diverse country and officially a federation, is regarded as a nation state due to its ideological basis on which it was given independence from British India as a separate nation rather than as part of a unified India. Different ethnic groups in Pakistan are strongly bonded by their common Muslim identity, common cultural and social values, common historical heritage, a national Lingua franca (Urdu) and joint political, strategic and economic interests. \n\nMinorities \n\nThe most obvious deviation from the ideal of 'one nation, one state', is the presence of minorities, especially ethnic minorities, which are clearly not members of the majority nation. An ethnic nationalist definition of a nation is necessarily exclusive: ethnic nations typically do not have open membership. In most cases, there is a clear idea that surrounding nations are different, and that includes members of those nations who live on the 'wrong side' of the border. Historical examples of groups, who have been specifically singled out as outsiders, are the Roma and Jews in Europe.\n\nNegative responses to minorities within the nation state have ranged from cultural assimilation enforced by the state, to expulsion, persecution, violence, and extermination. The assimilation policies are usually enforced by the state, but violence against minorities is not always state initiated: it can occur in the form of mob violence such as lynching or pogroms. Nation states are responsible for some of the worst historical examples of violence against minorities: minorities not considered part of the nation.\n\nHowever, many nation states accept specific minorities as being part of the nation, and the term national minority is often used in this sense. The Sorbs in Germany are an example: for centuries they have lived in German-speaking states, surrounded by a much larger ethnic German population, and they have no other historical territory. They are now generally considered to be part of the German nation and are accepted as such by the Federal Republic of Germany, which constitutionally guarantees their cultural rights. Of the thousands of ethnic and cultural minorities in nation states across the world, only a few have this level of acceptance and protection.\n\nMulticulturalism is an official policy in many states, establishing the ideal of peaceful existence among multiple ethnic, cultural, and linguistic groups. Many nations have laws protecting minority rights.\n\nWhen national boundaries that do not match ethnic boundaries are drawn, such as in the Balkans and Central Asia, ethnic tension, massacres and even genocide, sometimes has occurred historically (see Bosnian genocide and 2010 ethnic violence in southern Kyrgyzstan).\n\nIrredentism \n\n \n\nIdeally, the border of a nation state extends far enough to include all the members of the nation, and all of the national homeland. Again, in practice some of them always live on the 'wrong side' of the border. Part of the national homeland may be there too, and it may be governed by the 'wrong' nation. The response to the non-inclusion of territory and population may take the form of irredentism: demands to annex unredeemed territory and incorporate it into the nation state.\n\nIrredentist claims are usually based on the fact that an identifiable part of the national group lives across the border. However, they can include claims to territory where no members of that nation live at present, because they lived there in the past, the national language is spoken in that region, the national culture has influenced it, geographical unity with the existing territory, or a wide variety of other reasons. Past grievances are usually involved and can cause revanchism.\n\nIt is sometimes difficult to distinguish irredentism from pan-nationalism, since both claim that all members of an ethnic and cultural nation belong in one specific state. Pan-nationalism is less likely to specify the nation ethnically. For instance, variants of Pan-Germanism have different ideas about what constituted Greater Germany, including the confusing term Grossdeutschland, which, in fact, implied the inclusion of huge Slavic minorities from the Austro-Hungarian Empire.\n\nTypically, irredentist demands are at first made by members of non-state nationalist movements. When they are adopted by a state, they typically result in tensions, and actual attempts at annexation are always considered a casus belli, a cause for war. In many cases, such claims result in long-term hostile relations between neighbouring states. Irredentist movements typically circulate maps of the claimed national territory, the greater nation state. That territory, which is often much larger than the existing state, plays a central role in their propaganda.\n\nIrredentism should not be confused with claims to overseas colonies, which are not generally considered part of the national homeland. Some French overseas colonies would be an exception: French rule in Algeria unsuccessfully treated the colony as a département of France.\n\nFuture \n\nIt has been speculated by both proponents of globalization and various science fiction writers that the concept of a nation state may disappear with the ever-increasingly interconnected nature of the world. Such ideas are sometimes expressed around concepts of a world government. Another possibility is a societal collapse and move into communal anarchy or zero world government, in which nation states no longer exist and government is done on the local level based on a global ethic of human rights.\n\nThis falls into line with the concept of internationalism, which states that sovereignty is an outdated concept and a barrier to achieving peace and harmony in the world, thus also stating that nation states are also a similar outdated concept.\n\nGlobalization especially has helped to bring about the discussion about the disappearance of nation states, as global trade and the rise of the concepts of a 'global citizen' and a common identity have helped to reduce differences and 'distances' between individual nation states, especially with regards to the internet. \n\nClash of civilizations \n\nThe theory of the clash of civilizations lies in direct contrast to cosmopolitan theories about an ever more-connected world that no longer requires nation states. According to political scientist Samuel P. Huntington, people's cultural and religious identities will be the primary source of conflict in the post–Cold War world.\n\nThe theory was originally formulated in a 1992 lecture at the American Enterprise Institute, which was then developed in a 1993 Foreign Affairs article titled \"The Clash of Civilizations?\", in response to Francis Fukuyama's 1992 book, The End of History and the Last Man. Huntington later expanded his thesis in a 1996 book The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order.\n\nHuntington began his thinking by surveying the diverse theories about the nature of global politics in the post–Cold War period. Some theorists and writers argued that human rights, liberal democracy and capitalist free market economics had become the only remaining ideological alternative for nations in the post–Cold War world. Specifically, Francis Fukuyama, in The End of History and the Last Man, argued that the world had reached a Hegelian \"end of history\".\n\nHuntington believed that while the age of ideology had ended, the world had reverted only to a normal state of affairs characterized by cultural conflict. In his thesis, he argued that the primary axis of conflict in the future will be along cultural and religious lines.\n\nAs an extension, he posits that the concept of different civilizations, as the highest rank of cultural identity, will become increasingly useful in analyzing the potential for conflict.\n\nIn the 1993 Foreign Affairs article, Huntington writes:\n\nIt is my hypothesis that the fundamental source of conflict in this new world will not be primarily ideological or primarily economic. The great divisions among humankind and the dominating source of conflict will be cultural. Nation states will remain the most powerful actors in world affairs, but the principal conflicts of global politics will occur between nations and groups of different civilizations. The clash of civilizations will dominate global politics. The fault lines between civilizations will be the battle lines of the future.\n\nSandra Joireman suggests that Huntington may be characterised as a neo-primordialist, as, while he sees people as having strong ties to their ethnicity, he does not believe that these ties have always existed. \n\nHistoriography \n\nHistorians often look to the past to find the origins of a particular nation state. Indeed, they often put so much emphasis on the importance of the nation state in modern times, that they distort the history of earlier periods in order to emphasize the question of origins. Lansing and English argue that much of the medieval history of Europe was structured to follow the historical winners—especially the nation states that emerged around Paris and London. Important developments that did not directly lead to a nation state get neglected, they argue:\none effect of this approach has been to privilege historical winners, aspects of medieval Europe that became important in later centuries, above all the nation state.... Arguably the liveliest cultural innovation in the 13th century was Mediterranean, centered on Frederick II's polyglot court and administration in Palermo....Sicily and the Italian South in later centuries suffered a long slide into overtaxed poverty and marginality. Textbook narratives therefore focus not on medieval Palermo, with its Muslim and Jewish bureaucracies and Arabic-speaking monarch, but on the historical winners, Paris and London.", "Angola, officially the Republic of Angola (; Kikongo, Kimbundu and Umbundu: Repubilika ya Ngola), is a country in Southern Africa. It is the seventh-largest country in Africa, and is bordered by Namibia to the south, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north and east, Zambia to the east, and the Atlantic Ocean to west. The exclave province of Cabinda has borders with the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The capital and largest city of Angola is Luanda.\n\nAlthough its territory has been inhabited since the Paleolithic Era, modern Angola originates in Portuguese colonization, which began with, and was for centuries limited to, coastal settlements and trading posts established beginning in the 16th century. In the 19th century, European settlers slowly and hesitantly began to establish themselves in the interior. As a Portuguese colony, Angola did not encompass its present borders until the early 20th century, following resistance by groups such as the Cuamato, the Kwanyama and the Mbunda. Independence was achieved in 1975 after the protracted liberation war. That same year, Angola descended into an intense civil war that lasted until 2002. It has since become a relatively stable unitary presidential republic.\n\nAngola has vast mineral and petroleum reserves, and its economy is among the fastest growing in the world, especially since the end of the civil war. In spite of this, the standard of living remains low for the majority of the population, and life expectancy and infant mortality rates in Angola are among the worst in the world. Angola's economic growth is highly uneven, with the majority of the nation's wealth concentrated in a disproportionately small sector of the population. \n\nAngola is a member state of the United Nations, OPEC, African Union, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries, the Latin Union and the Southern African Development Community. A highly multiethnic country, Angola's 24.3 million people span various tribal groups, customs, and traditions. Angolan culture reflects centuries of Portuguese rule, namely in the predominance of the Portuguese language and Roman Catholicism, combined with diverse indigenous influences.\n\nEtymology\n\nThe name Angola comes from the Portuguese colonial name Reino de Angola (Kingdom of Angola), appearing as early as Dias de Novais's 1571 charter. The toponym was derived by the Portuguese from the title ngola held by the kings of Ndongo. Ndongo was a kingdom in the highlands, between the Kwanza and Lukala Rivers, nominally tributary to the king of Kongo but which was seeking greater independence during the 16th century.\n\nHistory\n\nEarly migrations and political units\n\nKhoi and San hunter-gatherers are the earliest known modern human inhabitants of the area. They were largely absorbed or replaced by Bantu peoples during the Bantu migrations, though small numbers remain in parts of southern Angola to the present day. The Bantu came from the north, probably from somewhere near the present-day Republic of Cameroon.\n\nDuring this time, the Bantu established a number of political units (\"kingdoms\", \"empires\") in most parts of what today is Angola. The best known of these is the Kingdom of the Kongo that had its centre in the northwest of contemporary Angola, but included important regions in the west of present-day Democratic Republic and Republic of Congo and in southern Gabon. It established trade routes with other trading cities and civilisations up and down the coast of southwestern and West Africa and even with the Great Zimbabwe Mutapa Empire, but engaged in little or no transoceanic trade. To its south lay the Kingdom of Ndongo, from which the area of the later Portuguese colony was sometimes known as Dongo.\n\nPortuguese colonization\n\nThe region now known as Angola was reached by the Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão in 1484. The year before, the Portuguese had established relations with the Kingdom of Kongo, which stretched at the time from modern Gabon in the north to the Kwanza River in the south. The Portuguese established their primary early trading post at Soyo, which is now the northernmost city in Angola apart from the Cabinda enclave. Paulo Dias de Novais founded São Paulo de Loanda (Luanda) in 1575 with a hundred families of settlers and four hundred soldiers. Benguela was fortified in 1587 and elevated to a township in 1617.\n\nThe Portuguese established several other settlements, forts, and trading posts along the Angolan coast, principally trading in Angolan slaves for Brazilian plantations. Local slave dealers provided a large number of slaves for the Portuguese Empire, usually sold in exchange for manufactured goods from Europe. This part of the Atlantic slave trade continued until after Brazil's independence in the 1820s.\n\nDespite Portugal's nominal claims, as late as the 19th century, their control over the interior country of Angola was minimal. In the 16th century Portugal gained control of the coast through a series of treaties and wars. Life for European colonists was difficult and progress slow. Iliffe notes that \"Portuguese records of Angola from the 16th century show that a great famine occurred on average every seventy years; accompanied by epidemic disease, it might kill one-third or one-half of the population, destroying the demographic growth of a generation and forcing colonists back into the river valleys\". \n\nAmid the Portuguese Restoration War, the Dutch occupied Luanda in 1641, using alliances with local peoples against Portuguese holdings elsewhere. A fleet under Salvador de Sá retook Luanda for Portugal in 1648; reconquest of the rest of the territory was completed by 1650. New treaties with Kongo were signed in 1649; others with Njinga's Kingdom of Matamba and Ndongo followed in 1656. The conquest of Pungo Andongo in 1671 was the last major Portuguese expansion from Luanda, as attempts to invade Kongo in 1670 and Matamba in 1681 failed. Portugal also expanded inward from Benguela, but until the late 19th century the inroads from Luanda and Benguela were very limited. Portugal had neither the intention nor the means to carry out a large scale territorial occupation and colonization.\n\nDevelopment of the hinterland began after the Berlin Conference in 1885 fixed the colony's borders, and British and Portuguese investment fostered mining, railways, and agriculture based on various forced-labour and voluntary labour systems.(See also Chibalo.) Full Portuguese administrative control of the hinterland did not establish itself until the beginning of the 20th century. Portugal had a minimalist presence in Angola for nearly five hundred years, and early calls for independence provoked little reaction amongst the population who had no social identity related to the territory as a whole. More overtly political and \"nationalist\" organisations first appeared in the 1950s and began to make demands for self-determination, especially in international forums such as the Non-Aligned Movement.\n\nThe Portuguese régime, meanwhile, refused to accede to the demands for independence, provoking an armed conflict that started in 1961 when freedom fighters attacked both white and black civilians in cross-border operations in northeastern Angola. The war came to be known as the Colonial War. In this struggle, the principal protagonists included the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), founded in 1956, the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), which appeared in 1961, and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), founded in 1966. After many years of conflict that weakened all of the insurgent parties, Angola gained its independence on 11 November 1975, after the 1974 coup d'état in Lisbon, Portugal, which overthrew the Portuguese régime headed by Marcelo Caetano.\n\nPortugal's new revolutionary leaders began in 1974 a process of political change at home and accepted independence for its former colonies abroad. In Angola a fight for dominance broke out immediately between the three nationalist movements. The events prompted a mass exodus of Portuguese citizens, creating up to 300 000 destitute Portuguese refugees—the retornados. The new Portuguese government tried to mediate an understanding between the three competing movements, and succeeded in getting them to agree, on paper, to form a common government. But in the end none of the African parties respected the commitments they had made, and military force resolved the issue.\n\nIndependence and civil war\n\nAfter it gained independence in November 1975, Angola experienced a devastating civil war which lasted several decades (with some interludes). It claimed millions of lives and produced many refugees; it didn't end until 2002. \n\nFollowing negotiations held in Portugal, itself experiencing severe social and political turmoil and uncertainty due to the April 1974 revolution, Angola's three main guerrilla groups agreed to establish a transitional government in January 1975. Within two months, however, the FNLA, MPLA and UNITA had started fighting each other and the country began splitting into zones controlled by rival armed political groups. The MPLA gained control of the capital Luanda and much of the rest of the country. With the support of the United States, Zaïre and South Africa intervened militarily in favour of the FNLA and UNITA with the intention of taking Luanda before the declaration of independence. In response, Cuba intervened in favor of the MPLA (see: Cuba in Angola), which became a flash point for the Cold War.\n\nWith Cuban support, the MPLA held Luanda and declared independence on 11 November 1975, with Agostinho Neto becoming the first president, though the civil war continued. At this time, most of the half-million Portuguese who lived in Angola – and who had accounted for the majority of the skilled workers in public administration, agriculture, industries and trade – fled the country, leaving its once prosperous and growing economy in a state of bankruptcy. \n\nFor most of 1975–1990, the MPLA organised and maintained a socialist régime. In 1990, when the Cold War ended, MPLA abandoned its ties to the Marxist–Leninist ideology and declared social democracy to be its official ideology, going on to win the 1992 general election. However, eight opposition parties rejected the elections as rigged,National Society for Human Rights, Ending the Angolan Conflict, Windhoek, Namibia, 3 July 2000 (opposition parties, massacres); John Matthew, Letters, The Times, UK, 6 November 1992 (election observer); NSHR, Press Releases, 12 September 2000, 16 May 2001 (MPLA atrocities). sparking the Halloween massacre.\n\nCeasefire with UNITA\n\nOn 22 March 2002, Jonas Savimbi, the leader of UNITA, was killed in combat with government troops. The two sides reached a cease-fire shortly afterwards. UNITA gave up its armed wing and assumed the role of major opposition party, although in the knowledge that under the present regime a legitimate democratic election was impossible. Although the political situation of the country began to stabilize, regular democratic processes were not established until the elections in Angola in 2008 and 2012 and the adoption of a new Constitution of Angola in 2010, all of which strengthened the prevailing Dominant-party system. MPLA head officials continue e.g. to be given senior positions in top-level companies or other fields, although a few outstanding UNITA figures are given some of the economic as well as the military share. \n\nAngola has a serious humanitarian crisis, the result of the prolonged war, the abundance of minefields, the continued political, and to a much lesser degree, military activities in favour of the independence of the northern exclave of Cabinda, carried out in the context of the protracted Cabinda Conflict by the Frente para a Libertação do Enclave de Cabinda, (FLEC), but most of all, the depradation of the country's rich mineral resources by the régime. While most of the internally displaced have now settled around the capital, in the so-called musseques, the general situation for Angolans remains desperate. \n\nDrought, in 2016, is the worst global food crisis in Southern Africa for 25 years. Drought affects 1.4 million people across seven of Angola’s 18 provinces. Food prices have risen and acute malnutrition rates have doubled, with more than 95,000 children being affected. Food insecurity is expected to worsen from July to the end of the year. \n\nGeography\n\nAt 481321 sqmi, Angola is the world's twenty-third largest country. It is comparable in size to Mali, or twice the size of France or Texas. It lies mostly between latitudes 4° and 18°S, and longitudes 12° and 24°E.\n\nAngola is bordered by Namibia to the south, Zambia to the east, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north-east, and the South Atlantic Ocean to the west. The coastal exclave of Cabinda in the north, borders the Republic of the Congo to the north, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the south. Angola's capital, Luanda, lies on the Atlantic coast in the northwest of the country.\n\nClimate\n\nAngola has three seasons, a dry season which lasts from May to October, a transitional season with some rain from November to January and a hot, rainy season from February to April. April is the wettest month. \n\nPolitics\n\nAngola's motto is Virtus Unita Fortior, a Latin phrase meaning \"Virtue is stronger when united\". The Angolan government is composed of three branches of government: executive, legislative, and judicial. The executive branch of the government is composed of the President, the Vice-Presidents and the Council of Ministers. The legislative branch comprises a 220-seat unicameral legislature elected from both provincial and nationwide constituencies. For decades, political power has been concentrated in the presidency.\n\nThe Constitution of 2010 establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system is based on Portuguese and customary law but is weak and fragmented, and courts operate in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities. A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court does not hold the powers of judicial review. Governors of the 18 provinces are appointed by the president.\n\nAfter the end of the Civil War the regime came under pressure from within as well as from the international community to become more democratic and less authoritarian. Its reaction was to implement a number of changes without substantially changing its character. \n\nAngola is classified as 'not free' by Freedom House in the Freedom in the World 2014 report. The report noted that the August 2012 parliamentary elections, in which the ruling Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola won more than 70% of the vote, suffered from serious flaws, including outdated and inaccurate voter rolls. Voter turnout dropped from 80% in 2008 to 60%.\n\nAngola scored poorly on the 2013 Ibrahim Index of African Governance. It was ranked 39 out of 52 sub-Saharan African countries, scoring particularly badly in the areas of participation and human rights, sustainable economic opportunity, and human development. The Ibrahim Index uses a number of variables to compile its list which reflects the state of governance in Africa. \n\nThe new constitution, adopted in 2010, further sharpened the authoritarian character of the regime. In the future, there will be no presidential elections; the president and the vice-president of the political party which wins the parliamentary elections automatically become president and vice-president of Angola. Through a variety of mechanisms, the state president controls all the other organs of the state, so that separation of powers is not maintained. As a consequence, Angola no longer has a presidential system in the sense of the systems existing, e.g., in the USA or in France. In terms of the classifications used in constitutional law, its regime is considered one of several authoritarian regimes in Africa. \n\nOn 16 October 2014, Angola was elected for the second time as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council, with 190 favourable votes out of 193. The mandate begins on 1 January 2015 and lasts for two years. \n\nAlso in that month, the country took on the leadership of the Group of African Ministers and Governors at the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, following the debates at the annual meetings of both entities. \n\nSince January 2014 the Republic of Angola has held the presidency of the International Conference on the Great Lakes Region (ICGLR). In 2015, the executive secretary of ICGLR, Ntumba Luaba, said that Angola is the example to be followed by members of the organization, because of the significant progress made over the 12 years of peace, particularly in terms of socioeconomic and political-military stability. \n\nMilitary\n\nThe Angolan Armed Forces (AAF) is headed by a Chief of Staff who reports to the Minister of Defense. There are three divisions—the Army (Exército), Navy (Marinha de Guerra, MGA), and National Air Force (Força Aérea Nacional, FAN). Total manpower is about 110,000. Its equipment includes Russian-manufactured fighters, bombers, and transport planes. There are also Brazilian-made EMB-312 Tucano for training role, Czech-made L-39 for training and bombing role, Czech Zlin for training role and a variety of western made aircraft such as C-212\\Aviocar, Sud Aviation Alouette III, etc. A small number of AAF personnel are stationed in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kinshasa) and the Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville).\n\nPolice\n\nThe National Police departments are Public Order, Criminal Investigation, Traffic and Transport, Investigation and Inspection of Economic Activities, Taxation and Frontier Supervision, Riot Police and the Rapid Intervention Police. The National Police are in the process of standing up an air wing, which will provide helicopter support for operations. The National Police are developing their criminal investigation and forensic capabilities. The force has an estimated 6,000 patrol officers, 2,500 taxation and frontier supervision officers, 182 criminal investigators and 100 financial crimes detectives and around 90 economic activity inspectors.\n\nThe National Police have implemented a modernization and development plan to increase the capabilities and efficiency of the total force. In addition to administrative reorganization, modernization projects include procurement of new vehicles, aircraft and equipment, construction of new police stations and forensic laboratories, restructured training programs and the replacement of AKM rifles with 9 mm Uzis for officers in urban areas.\n\nJustice\n\nIn 2014, a new penal code took effect in Angola. The classification of money-laundering as a crime is one of the novelties in the new legislation. \n\nAdministrative divisions\n\n, Angola is divided into eighteen provinces (províncias) and 162 municipalities. The municipalities are further divided into 559 communes (townships). The provinces are:\n\nExclave of Cabinda\n\nWith an area of approximately 7283 km2, the Northern Angolan province of Cabinda is unusual in being separated from the rest of the country by a strip, some 60 km wide, of the Democratic Republic of Congo along the lower Congo river. Cabinda borders the Congo Republic to the north and north-northeast and the DRC to the east and south. The town of Cabinda is the chief population center.\n\nAccording to a 1995 census, Cabinda had an estimated population of 600,000, approximately 400,000 of whom live in neighboring countries. Population estimates are, however, highly unreliable. Consisting largely of tropical forest, Cabinda produces hardwoods, coffee, cocoa, crude rubber and palm oil. The product for which it is best known, however, is its oil, which has given it the nickname, \"the Kuwait of Africa\". Cabinda's petroleum production from its considerable offshore reserves now accounts for more than half of Angola's output. Most of the oil along its coast was discovered under Portuguese rule by the Cabinda Gulf Oil Company (CABGOC) from 1968 onwards.\n\nEver since Portugal handed over sovereignty of its former overseas province of Angola to the local independence groups (MPLA, UNITA, and FNLA), the territory of Cabinda has been a focus of separatist guerrilla actions opposing the Government of Angola (which has employed its military forces, the FAA—Forças Armadas Angolanas) and Cabindan separatists. The Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda-Armed Forces of Cabinda (FLEC-FAC) announced a virtual Federal Republic of Cabinda under the Presidency of N'Zita Henriques Tiago. One of the characteristics of the Cabindan independence movement is its constant fragmentation, into smaller and smaller factions.\n\nEconomy\n\nAngola has a rich subsoil heritage, from diamonds, oil, gold, copper, and a rich wildlife (dramatically impoverished during the civil war), forest, and fossils. Since independence, oil and diamonds have been the most important economic resource. Smallholder and plantation agriculture have dramatically dropped because of the Angolan Civil War, but have begun to recover after 2002. The transformation industry that had come into existence in the late colonial period collapsed at independence, because of the exodus of most of the ethnic Portuguese population, but has begun to reemerge with updated technologies, partly because of the influx of new Portuguese entrepreneurs. Similar developments can be verified in the service sector.\n\nOverall, Angola's economy has in recent years moved on from the disarray caused by a quarter-century of civil war to become the fastest-growing economy in Africa and one of the fastest in the world, with an average GDP growth of 20 percent between 2005 and 2007. In the period 2001–10, Angola had the world's highest annual average GDP growth, at 11.1 percent. In 2004, the Eximbank approved a $2 billion line of credit to Angola. The loan was to be used to rebuild Angola's infrastructure, and also to limited the influence of the International Monetary Fund in the country. China is Angola's biggest trade partner and export destination as well as the fourth-largest importer. Bilateral trade reached $27.67 billion in 2011, up 11.5% year-on-year. China's imports, mainly crude oil and diamonds, increased 9.1% to $24.89 billion while China's exports, including mechanical and electrical products, machinery parts and construction materials, surged 38.8%. The oil glut led to a local unleaded gasoline \"pricetag\" of £0.37 per gallon. \n\nThe Economist reported in 2008 that diamonds and oil make up 60% of Angola's economy, almost all of the country's revenue and are its dominant exports. Growth is almost entirely driven by rising oil production which surpassed in late 2005 and was expected to grow to 2 Moilbbl/d by 2007. Control of the oil industry is consolidated in Sonangol Group, a conglomerate owned by the Angolan government. In December 2006, Angola was admitted as a member of OPEC. However, operations in diamond mines include partnerships between state-run Endiama and mining companies such as ALROSA which continue operations in Angola. The economy grew 18% in 2005, 26% in 2006 and 17.6% in 2007. However, due to the global recession the economy contracted an estimated −0.3% in 2009. The security brought about by the 2002 peace settlement has led to the resettlement of 4 million displaced persons, thus resulting in large-scale increases in agriculture production.\n\nAlthough the country's economy has developed significantly since it achieved political stability in 2002, mainly thanks to the fast-rising earnings of the oil sector, Angola faces huge social and economic problems. These are in part a result of the almost continual state of conflict from 1961 onwards, although the highest level of destruction and socio-economic damage took place after the 1975 independence, during the long years of civil war. However, high poverty rates and blatant social inequality are chiefly the outcome of a combination of a persistent political authoritarianism, of \"neo-patrimonial\" practices at all levels of the political, administrative, military, and economic apparatuses, and of a pervasive corruption. The main beneficiary of this situation is a social segment constituted during the last decades, around the political, administrative, economic, and military power holders, which has accumulated (and continues accumulating) enormous wealth. \"Secondary beneficiaries\" are the middle strata which are about to become social classes. However, overall almost half the population has to be considered as poor, but in this respect there are dramatic differences between the countryside and the cities (where by now slightly more than 50% of the people live).\n\nAn inquiry carried out in 2008 by the Angolan Instituto Nacional de Estatística has it that in the rural areas roughly 58% must be classified as \"poor\", according to UN norms, but in the urban areas only 19%, while the overall rate is 37%. In the cities, a majority of families, well beyond those officially classified as poor, have to adopt a variety of survival strategies. At the same time, in urban areas social inequality is most evident, and assumes extreme forms in the capital, Luanda. In the Human Development Index Angola constantly ranks in the bottom group. \n\nAccording to The Heritage Foundation, a conservative American think tank, oil production from Angola has increased so significantly that Angola now is China's biggest supplier of oil. “China has extended three multibillion dollar lines of credit to the Angolan government; two loans of $2 billion from China Exim Bank, one in 2004, the second in 2007, as well as one loan in 2005 of $2.9 billion from China International Fund Ltd.” Growing oil revenues have also created opportunities for corruption: according to a recent Human Rights Watch report, 32 billion US dollars disappeared from government accounts from 2007 to 2010. Furthermore, Sonangol, the state run oil company, has control of 51% of Cabinda’s oil. Due to this market control the company ends up determining the profit given to the government and the taxes paid. The council of foreign affairs states that the World Bank mentioned that Sonangol \" is a taxpayer, it carries out quasi-fiscal activities, it invests public funds, and, as concessionaire, it is a sector regulator. This multifarious work program creates conflicts of interest and characterizes a complex relationship between Sonangol and the government that weakens the formal budgetary process and creates uncertainty as regards the actual fiscal stance of the state.\" \n\nBefore independence in 1975, Angola was a breadbasket of southern Africa and a major exporter of bananas, coffee and sisal, but three decades of civil war (1975–2002) destroyed fertile countryside, left it littered with landmines and drove millions into the cities. The country now depends on expensive food imports, mainly from South Africa and Portugal, while more than 90% of farming is done at thefamily and subsistence level. Thousands of Angolan small-scale farmers are trapped in poverty. \n\nThe enormous differences between the regions pose a serious structural problem for the Angolan economy, illustrated by the fact that about one third of economic activities are concentrated in Luanda and neighbouring Bengo province, while several areas of the interior suffer economic stagnation and even regression. \n\nOne of the economic consequences of the social and regional disparities is a sharp increase in Angolan private investments abroad. The small fringe of Angolan society where most of the accumulation takes place seeks to spread its assets, for reasons of security and profit. For the time being, the biggest share of these investments is concentrated in Portugal where the Angolan presence (including that of the family of the state president) in banks as well as in the domains of energy, telecommunications, and mass media has become notable, as has the acquisition of vineyards and orchards as well as of touristic enterprises. \n\nSub-Saharan Africa nations are globally achieving impressive improvements in well-being, according to a report by Tony Blair Africa Governance Initiative and The Boston Consulting Group. Angola has upgraded critical infrastructure, an investment made possible by funds from the nation's development of oil resources. According to this report, just slightly more than ten years after the end of the civil war Angola's standard of living has overall greatly improved. Life expectancy, which was just 46 years in 2002, reached 51 in 2011. Mortality rates for children fell from 25 percent in 2001 to 19 percent in 2010 and the number of students enrolled in primary school has tripled since 2001. However, at the same time the social and economic inequality that has characterised the country since long has not diminished, but on the contrary deepened in all respects.\n\nWith a stock of assets corresponding to 70 billion Kz (6.8 billion USD), Angola is now the third largest financial market in sub-Saharan Africa, surpassed only by Nigeria and South Africa. According to the Angolan Minister of Economy, Abraão Gourgel, the financial market of the country grew modestly from 2002 and now lies in third place at the level of sub-Saharan Africa. \n\nAngola's economy is expected to grow by 3.9 percent in 2014 said the International Monetary Fund (IMF). According to the Fund, robust growth in the non-oil economy, mainly driven by a very good performance in the agricultural sector, is expected to offset a temporary drop in oil production. \n\nAngola's financial system is maintained by the National Bank of Angola and managed by governor Jose de Lima Massano. According to a study on the banking sector, carried out by Deloitte, the monetary policy led by Banco Nacional de Angola (BNA), the Angolan national bank, allowed a decrease in the inflation rate put at 7.96% in December 2013, which contributed to the sector's growth trend. According to estimates released by Angola's central bank, the country's economy should grow at an annual average rate of 5 percent over the next four years, boosted by the increasing participation of the private sector. \n\nOn 19 December 2014, the Capital Market in Angola started. BODIVA (Angola Securities and Debt Stock Exchange, in English) received the secondary public debt market, and it is expected to start the corporate debt market by 2015, but the stock market should only be a reality in 2016. \n\nAgriculture \n\nAgriculture and forestry is an area of opportunity for the country. “Angola requires 4.5 million tonnes a year of grain but only grows about 55% of the corn it needs, 20% of the rice and just 5% of its required wheat”(African economic Outlook) but “less than 3 percent of Angola's abundant fertile land is cultivated and the economic potential of the forestry sector remains largely unexploited” (World Bank). From this fact we can appreciate the capacity that Angola has to increase production not only for the national market but also for the international one. Investing in this sector can help reduce unemployment and more specifically in the rural areas. This will undoubted have consequences on the living standard of rural civilians.\n\nTransport\n\nTransport in Angola consists of:\n*Three separate railway systems totalling 2,761 km (1,715 mi)\n*76626 km of highway of which 19156 km is paved\n*1,295 navigable inland waterways\n*Eight major sea ports\n*243 airports, of which 32 are paved.\n\nTravel on highways outside of towns and cities in Angola (and in some cases within) is often not best advised for those without four-by-four vehicles. While a reasonable road infrastructure has existed within Angola, time and the war have taken their toll on the road surfaces, leaving many severely potholed, littered with broken asphalt. In many areas drivers have established alternate tracks to avoid the worst parts of the surface, although careful attention must be paid to the presence or absence of landmine warning markers by the side of the road. The Angolan government has contracted the restoration of many of the country's roads. The road between Lubango and Namibe, for example, was completed recently with funding from the European Union, and is comparable to many European main routes. Completing the road infrastructure is likely to take some decades, but substantial efforts are already being made.\n\nTransport is an important aspect in Angola because it is strategically located and it could become a regional logistics hub. In addition Angola has some of the most important and biggest ports and so it is vital to connect them to the interior of the country as well as to neighbouring countries.\n\nTelecommunications\n\nThe telecommunications industry is considered one of the main strategic sectors in Angola. \n\nIn October 2014, the building of an optic fiber underwater cable was announced. This project aims to turn Angola into a continental hub, thus improving Internet connections both nationally and internationally. \n\nOn 11 March 2015, the First Angolan Forum of Telecommunications and Information Technology was held, in Luanda under the motto \"The challenges of telecommunications in the current context of Angola\". The purpose of this forum was to promote the debate on topical issues on telecommunications in Angola and worldwide. A study about this sector was also presented at this forum, and some of its conclusions were: Angola had the first telecommunications operator in Africa to test the High Speed Internet technology (LTE-Advanced with speeds up to 400Mbit/s); It has a mobile penetration rate of about 75%; There are about 3.5 million smartphones in the Angolan market; There are about of optical fiber installed in the country. \n\nThe first Angolan satellite, AngoSat-1, will be ready for launch into orbit in 2017 and it will ensure telecommunications throughout the country. According to Aristides Safeca, Secretary of State for Telecommunications, the satellite will provide telecommunications services, TV, internet and e-government and will remain into orbit \"at best\" for 18 years. \n\nTechnology\n\nThe management of the domain '.ao' on web pages, will go from Portugal to Angola in 2015, following the approval of a new legislation by the Angolan Government. The joint decree of the minister of Telecommunications and Information Technologies, José Carvalho da Rocha, and the minister of Science and Technology, Maria Cândida Pereira Teixeira, states that \"under the massification\" of that Angolan domain, \"conditions are created for the transfer of the domain root '.ao' of Portugal to Angola\". \n\nDemographics\n\nAngola has a population of 24,383,301 inhabitants according to the preliminary results of its 2014 census, the first one conducted or carried out since 15 December 1970. It is composed of Ovimbundu (language Umbundu) 37%, Ambundu (language Kimbundu) 23%, Bakongo 13%, and 32% other ethnic groups (including the Chokwe, the Ovambo, the Ganguela and the Xindonga) as well as about 2% mestiços (mixed European and African), 1.6% Chinese and 1% European. The Ambundu and Ovimbundu nations combined form a majority of the population, at 62%. The population is forecast to grow to over 60 million people to 2050, 2.7 times the 2014 population. However, on March 23, 2016, official data revealed by Angola's National Statistic Institute - Instituto Nacional de Estatística (INE), states that Angola has a population of 25.789.024 inhabitants.\n\nIt is estimated that Angola was host to 12,100 refugees and 2,900 asylum seekers by the end of 2007. 11,400 of those refugees were originally from the Democratic Republic of Congo, who arrived in the 1970s. there were an estimated 400,000 Democratic Republic of the Congo migrant workers, at least 220,000 Portuguese, and about 259,000 Chinese living in Angola. \n\nSince 2003, more than 400,000 Congolese migrants have been expelled from Angola. Prior to independence in 1975, Angola had a community of approximately 350,000 Portuguese, but the vast majority left after independence and the ensuing civil war. However, Angola has recovered its Portuguese minority in recent years; currently, there are about 200,000 registered with the consulates, and increasing due to the debt crisis in Portugal and the relative prosperity in Angola. The Chinese population stands at 258,920, mostly composed of temporary migrants. Also, there is a small Brazilian community of about 5,000 people. \n\nThe total fertility rate of Angola is 5.54 children born per woman (2012 estimates), the 11th highest in the world.\n\nLanguages\n\nThe languages in Angola are those originally spoken by the different ethnic groups and Portuguese, introduced during the Portuguese colonial era. The indigenous languages with the largest usage are Umbundu, Kimbundu, and Kikongo, in that order. Portuguese is the official language of the country.\n\nMastery of the official language is probably more extended in Angola than it is elsewhere in Africa, and this certainly applies to its use in everyday life. Moreover, and above all, the proportion of native (or near-native) speakers of the language of the former colonizer, become official after independence, is no doubt considerably higher than in any other African country.\n\nThere are three intertwined historical reasons for this situation.\n#In the Portuguese \"bridgeheads\" Luanda and Benguela, which existed on the coast of what today is Angola since the 15th and 16th century, respectively, Portuguese was spoken not only by the Portuguese and their mestiço descendents, but—especially in and around Luanda—by a significant number of Africans, although these always remained native speakers of their local African language.\n#Since the Portuguese conquest of the present territory of Angola, and especially since its \"effective occupation\" in the mid-1920s, schooling in Portuguese was slowly developed by the colonial state as well as by Catholic and Protestant missions. The rhythm of this expansion was considerably accelerated during the late colonial period, 1961–1974, so that by the end of the colonial period children all over the territory (with relatively few exceptions) had at least some access to the Portuguese language. \n#In the same late colonial period, the legal discrimination of the black population was abolished, and the state apparatus in fields like health, education, social work, and rural development was enlarged. This entailed a significant increase in jobs for Africans, on condition that they spoke Portuguese.\n\nAs a consequence of all this, the African \"lower middle class\" which at that stage formed in Luanda and other cities began to prevent their children from learning the local African language, in order to guarantee that they learned Portuguese as their native language. At the same time, the white and \"mestiço\" population, where some knowledge of African languages could previously often be found, neglected this aspect more and more, to the point of frequently ignoring it totally.\nThese tendencies continued and grew under the rule of the MPLA whose main social roots are exactly in those social segments where the mastery of Portuguese as well as the proportion of native Portuguese speakers was highest. This became a political side issue, as FNLA and UNITA, given their regional constituencies, came out in favour of a greater attention to the African languages, and as the FNLA favoured French over Portuguese.\n\nThe dynamics of the language situation, as described above, were additionally fostered by the massive migrations triggered by the Civil War. Ovimbundu, the most populous ethnic group and the most affected by the war, appeared in great numbers in urban areas outside their areas, especially in Luanda and surroundings. At the same time, a majority of the Bakongo who had fled to the Democratic Republic of Congo in the early 1960s, or of their children and grandchildren, returned to Angola, but mostly did not settle in their original \"habitat\", but in the cities—and again above all in Luanda. As a consequence, more than half the population is now living in the cities which, from the linguistic point of view, have become highly heterogeneous. This means, of course, that Portuguese as the overall national language of communication is by now of paramount importance, and that the role of the African languages is steadily decreasing among the urban population—a trend which is beginning to spread into rural areas as well.\n\nThe exact numbers of those fluent in Portuguese or who speak Portuguese as a first language are unknown, although a census is expected to be carried out in July–August 2013. Quite a number of voices demand the recognition of \"Angolan Portuguese\" as a specific variant, comparable to those spoken in Portugal or in Brazil. However, while there exists a certain number of idiomatic particularities in everyday Portuguese, as spoken by Angolans, it remains to be seen whether or not the Angolan government comes to the conclusion that these particularities constitute a configuration that justifies the claim to be a new language variant.\n\nReligion\n\nThere are about 1000 mostly Christian religious communities in Angola. While reliable statistics are nonexistent, estimates have it that more than half of the population are Catholics, while about a quarter adhere to the Protestant churches introduced during the colonial period: the Congregationalists mainly among the Ovimbundu of the Central Highlands and the coastal region to its West, the Methodists concentrating on the Kimbundu speaking strip from Luanda to Malanje, the Baptists almost exclusively among the Bakongo of the Northwest (now present in Luanda as well) and dispersed Adventists, Reformed and Lutherans. In Luanda and region there subsists a nucleus of the \"syncretic\" Tocoists and in the northwest a sprinkling of Kimbanguism can be found, spreading from the Congo/Zaïre. Since independence, hundreds of Pentecostal and similar communities have sprung up in the cities, where by now about 50% of the population is living; several of these communities/churches are of Brazilian origin.\n\nThe U.S. Department of State estimates the Muslim population at 80,000–90,000, while the Islamic Community of Angola puts the figure closer to 500,000. Muslims consist largely of migrants from West Africa and the Middle East (especially Lebanon), although some are local converts. The Angolan government does not legally recognize any Muslim organizations and often shuts down mosques or prevents their construction.\n\nIn a study assessing nations' levels of religious regulation and persecution with scores ranging from 0 to 10 where 0 represented low levels of regulation or persecution, Angola was scored 0.8 on Government Regulation of Religion, 4.0 on Social Regulation of Religion, 0 on Government Favoritism of Religion and 0 on Religious Persecution. \n\nForeign missionaries were very active prior to independence in 1975, although since the beginning of the anti-colonial fight in 1961 the Portuguese colonial authorities expelled a series of Protestant missionaries and closed mission stations based on the belief that the missionaries were inciting pro-independence sentiments. Missionaries have been able to return to the country since the early 1990s, although security conditions due to the civil war have prevented them until 2002 from restoring many of their former inland mission stations. \n\nThe Catholic Church and some major Protestant denominations mostly keep to themselves in contrast to the \"New Churches\" which actively proselytize. Catholics, as well as some major Protestant denominations, provide help for the poor in the form of crop seeds, farm animals, medical care and education. \n\nLargest cities\n\nCulture\n\nIn Angola, there is a Culture Ministry that is managed by Culture Minister Rosa Maria Martins da Cruz e Silva. Portugal has been present in Angola for 400 years, occupied the territory in the 19th and early 20th century, and ruled over it for about 50 years. As a consequence, both countries share cultural aspects: language (Portuguese) and main religion (Roman Catholic Christianity). The substrate of Angolan culture is African, mostly Bantu, while Portuguese culture has been imported. The diverse ethnic communities – the Ovimbundu, Ambundu, Bakongo, Chokwe, Mbunda and other peoples – maintain to varying degrees their own cultural traits, traditions and languages, but in the cities, where slightly more than half of the population now lives, a mixed culture has been emerging since colonial times – in Luanda since its foundation in the 16th century. In this urban culture, the Portuguese heritage has become more and more dominant. An African influence is evident in music and dance, and is moulding the way in which Portuguese is spoken, but is almost disappearing from the vocabulary. This process is well reflected in contemporary Angolan literature, especially in the works of Pepetela and Ana Paula Ribeiro Tavares.\n\nLeila Lopes, Miss Angola 2011, was crowned Miss Universe 2011 in Brazil on 12 September 2011 making her the first Angolan to win the pageant.\n\nIn 2014, Angola resume the National Festival of Angolan Culture (FENACULT), after a 25-years break. The festival took place in all the provincial capitals of the country between 30 August and 20 September and had as theme \"Culture as a Factor of Peace and Development\". \n\nHealth\n\nEpidemics of cholera, malaria, rabies and African hemorrhagic fevers like Marburg hemorrhagic fever, are common diseases in several parts of the country. Many regions in this country have high incidence rates of tuberculosis and high HIV prevalence rates. Dengue, filariasis, leishmaniasis, and onchocerciasis (river blindness) are other diseases carried by insects that also occur in the region. Angola has one of the highest infant mortality rates in the world and one of the world's lowest life expectancies. A 2007 survey concluded that low and deficient niacin status was common in Angola. Demographic and Health Surveys is currently conducting several surveys in Angola on malaria, domestic violence and more. \n\nIn September 2014, the Angolan Institute for Cancer Control (IACC) was created by presidential decree, and it will integrate the National Health Service in Angola. The purpose of this new center is to ensure the health and medical care in oncology, policy implementation, programs and plans for prevention and specialized treatment. This cancer institute will be assumed as a reference institution in the central and southern regions of Africa. \n\nIn 2014, Angola launched a national campaign of vaccination against measles, extended to every child under ten years old and aiming to go to all 18 provinces in the country. The measure is part of the Strategic Plan for the Elimination of Measles 2014–2020 created by the Angolan Ministry of Health which includes strengthening routine immunization, a proper dealing with measles cases, national campaigns, introducing a second dose of vaccination in the national routine vaccination calendar and active epidemiological surveillance for measles. This campaign took place together with the vaccination against polio and vitamin A supplementation. \n\nThe yellow fever outbreak in Angola began in December 2015. More than 2,400 people have been infected since December, and 300 people have died from the yellow fever. The outbreak began in the capital of Luanda but now has spread to at least 14 of the 18 provinces in the country. This outbreak of the yellow fever is the worst in the southern African country in three decades. \n\nEducation\n\nAlthough by law education in Angola is compulsory and free for eight years, the government reports that a percentage of students are not attending due to a lack of school buildings and teachers.\"Botswana\". [http://web.archive.org/web/20140109071239/http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/tda2005/tda2005.pdf 2005 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor]. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, U.S. Department of Labor (2006). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Students are often responsible for paying additional school-related expenses, including fees for books and supplies.\n\nIn 1999, the gross primary enrollment rate was 74 percent and in 1998, the most recent year for which data are available, the net primary enrollment rate was 61 percent. Gross and net enrollment ratios are based on the number of students formally registered in primary school and therefore do not necessarily reflect actual school attendance. There continue to be significant disparities in enrollment between rural and urban areas. In 1995, 71.2 percent of children ages 7 to 14 years were attending school. It is reported that higher percentages of boys attend school than girls. During the Angolan Civil War (1975–2002), nearly half of all schools were reportedly looted and destroyed, leading to current problems with overcrowding.\n\nThe Ministry of Education hired 20,000 new teachers in 2005 and continued to implement teacher trainings. Teachers tend to be underpaid, inadequately trained, and overworked (sometimes teaching two or three shifts a day). Some teachers may reportedly demand payment or bribes directly from their students. Other factors, such as the presence of landmines, lack of resources and identity papers, and poor health prevent children from regularly attending school. Although budgetary allocations for education were increased in 2004, the education system in Angola continues to be extremely under-funded.\n\nAccording to estimates by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, the adult literacy rate in 2011 was 70.4%. 82.9% of males and 54.2% of women are literate as of 2001. Since independence from Portugal in 1975, a number of Angolan students continued to be admitted every year at high schools, polytechnical institutes, and universities in Portugal, Brazil and Cuba through bilateral agreements; in general, these students belong to the elites.\n\nIn September 2014, the Angolan Ministry of Education announced an investment of 16 million Euros in the computerization of over 300 classrooms across the country. The project also includes training teachers at a national level, \"as a way to introduce and use new information technologies in primary schools, thus reflecting an improvement in the quality of teaching.\" \n\nIn 2010, the Angolan government started building the Angolan Media Libraries Network, distributed throughout several provinces in the country to facilitate the people's access to information and knowledge. Each site has a bibliographic archive, multimedia resources and computers with Internet access, as well as areas for reading, researching and socializing. The plan envisages the establishment of one media library in each Angolan province by 2017. The project also includes the implementation of several media libraries, in order to provide the several contents available in the fixed media libraries to the most isolated populations in the country. At this time, the mobile media libraries are already operating in the provinces of Luanda, Malanje, Uíge, Cabinda and Lunda South. As for REMA, the provinces of Luanda, Benguela, Lubango and Soyo have currently working media libraries. \n\nSports\n\nAngola is the top basketball team of FIBA Africa, and a regular competitor at the Summer Olympic Games and the FIBA World Cup. The Angola national football team qualified for the 2006 FIFA World Cup, as this was their first appearance on the World Cup finals stage. They were eliminated after one defeat and two draws in the group stage. They won 3 COSAFA Cups and finished runner up in 2011 African Nations Championship. Angola has participated in the World Women's Handball Championship for several years. The country has also appeared in the Summer Olympics for seven years and both compete and have hosted the FIRS Roller Hockey World Cup. Angola is also often believed to have historic roots in the martial art \"Capoeira Angola\" and \"Batuque\" which were practiced by enslaved African Angolans transported as part of the Atlantic slave trade.", "The Angolan Civil War () was a major civil conflict in Angola, beginning in 1975 and continuing, with some interludes, until 2002. The war began immediately after Angola became independent from Portugal in November 1975. Prior to this, a decolonisation conflict, the Angolan War of Independence (1961–74), had taken place. The following civil war was essentially a power struggle between two former liberation movements, the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). At the same time, the war served as a surrogate battleground for the Cold War and large-scale direct and indirect international involvement by opposing powers such as the Soviet Union, Cuba, South Africa and the United States was a major feature of the conflict. \n\nThe MPLA and UNITA had different roots in the Angolan social fabric and mutually incompatible leaderships, despite their shared aim of ending colonial rule. Although both had socialist leanings, for the purpose of mobilising \ninternational support they posed as \"Marxist–Leninist\" and \"anti-communist\", respectively. A third movement, the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), having fought the MPLA alongside UNITA during the war for independence and the decolonization conflict, played almost no role in the Civil War. Additionally, the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC), an association of separatist militant groups, fought for the independence of the province of Cabinda from Angola.\n\nThe 27-year war can be divided roughly into three periods of major fighting – from 1975 to 1991, 1992 to 1994, and from 1998 to 2002 – broken up by fragile periods of peace. By the time the MPLA finally achieved victory in 2002, more than 500,000 people had died and over one million had been internally displaced. The war devastated Angola's infrastructure, and severely damaged the nation's public administration, economic enterprises, and religious institutions.\n\nThe Angolan Civil War was notable due to the combination of Angola's violent internal dynamics and massive foreign intervention. The war became a Cold War struggle, as both the Soviet Union and the United States, along with their respective allies, provided significant military assistance to parties in the conflict. Moreover, the Angolan conflict became entangled with the Second Congo War in the neighbouring Democratic Republic of the Congo, as well as with the Namibian War of Independence.\n\nOutline of main combatants\n\nAngola's three rebel movements had their roots in the anti-colonial movements of the 1950s. The MPLA was primarily an urban based movement in Luanda and its surrounding area. It was largely composed of Mbundu people. By contrast the other two major anti-colonial movements were rurally based groups, the FNLA and UNITA. The FNLA largely consisted of Bakongo people hailing from Northern Angola. UNITA, an offshoot of the FNLA, was mainly composed of Ovimbundu people from the Central highlands.\n\nMPLA\n\nSince its formation in the 1950s, the MPLA's main social base has been among the Ambundu people and the multiracial intelligentsia of cities such as Luanda, Benguela and Huambo. During its anti-colonial struggle of 1962–74, the MPLA was supported by several African countries, as well as by the Soviet Union. In the decolonization conflict of 1974–75, Cuba became the MPLA's strongest ally, sending significant contingents of combat and support personnel to Angola. This support, as well as that of several other countries of the Eastern Bloc, e.g. Romania and East Germany, was maintained during the Civil War. \n\nFNLA\n\nThe FNLA formed parallel to the MPLA, and was initially devoted to defending the interests of the Bakongo people and supporting the restoration of the historical Kongo Empire. However, it rapidly developed into a nationalist movement, supported in its struggle against Portugal by the government of Mobutu Sese Seko in Zaire. During the early 1960s, the FNLA was also supported by the People's Republic of China, but when UNITA was founded in the mid-1960s, China switched its support to this new movement, because the FNLA had shown little real activity. The United States refused to give the FNLA support during the movement's war against Portugal, which was a NATO ally of the U.S.; however, the FNLA did receive U.S. aid during the decolonization conflict and later during the Civil Wars.\n\nUNITA\n\nUNITA's main social basis were the Ovimbundu of central Angola, who constituted about one third of the country's population, but the organization also had roots among several less numerous peoples of eastern Angola. UNITA was founded in 1966 by Jonas Savimbi, who until then had been a prominent leader of the FNLA. During the anti-colonial war, UNITA received some support from the People's Republic of China. During the subsequent decolonization conflict, the United States decided to support UNITA, and considerably augmented their aid to UNITA during the Civil War. However, in the latter period, UNITA's main ally was the Republic of South Africa.\n\nRoots of the conflict\n\nAngola, like most African countries, became constituted as a nation through colonial intervention. In Angola's case, its colonial power – Portugal – was present and active in the territory, in one way or another, for over four centuries.\n\nEthnic divisions\n\nThe original population of this territory were dispersed Khoisan groups. These were absorbed or pushed southwards, where residual groups still exist, by a massive influx of Bantu people who came from the north and east.\n\nThe Bantu influx began around 500 BC, and some continued their migrations inside the territory well into the 20th century. They established a number of major political units, of which the most important was the Kongo Empire whose centre was located in the northwest of what today is Angola, and which stretched northwards into the west of the present Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), the south and west of the contemporary Republic of Congo and even the southernmost part of Gabon.\n\nAlso of historical importance were the Ndongo and Matamba kingdoms to the south of the Kongo Empire, in the Ambundu area. Additionally, the Lunda Empire, in the south-east of the present day DRC, occupied a portion of what today is north-eastern Angola. In the south of the territory, and the north of present-day Namibia, lay the Kwanyama kingdom, along with minor realms on the central highlands. All these political units were a reflection of ethnic cleavages that slowly developed among the Bantu populations, and were instrumental in consolidating these cleavages and fostering the emergence of new and distinct social identities.\n\nPortuguese colonialism\n\nAt the end of the 15th century, Portuguese settlers made contact with the Kongo Empire, maintaining a continuous presence in its territory and enjoying considerable cultural and religious influence thereafter. In 1575, Portugal established a settlement and fort called Saint Paul of Luanda on the coast south of the Kongo Empire, in an area inhabited by Ambundu people. Another fort, Benguela, was established on the coast further south, in a region inhabited by ancestors of the Ovimbundu people.\n\nNeither of these Portuguese settlement efforts was launched for the purpose of territorial conquest. It is true that both gradually came to occupy and farm a broad area around their initial bridgeheads (in the case of Luanda, mostly along the lower Kwanza River). However, their main function was trade – overwhelmingly the slave trade. Slaves were bought from African intermediaries and sold to Brazil and the Caribbean. In addition, Benguela developed a commerce in ivory, wax, and honey, which they bought from Ovimbundu caravans which fetched these goods from among the Ganguela peoples in the eastern part of what is now Angola. \n\nNonetheless, the Portuguese presence on the Angolan coast remained limited for much of the colonial period. The degree of real colonial settlement was minor, and, with few exceptions, the Portuguese did not interfere by means other than commercial in the social and political dynamics of the native peoples. There was no real delimitation of territory; Angola, to all intents and purposes, did not yet exist.\n\nIn the 19th century, the Portuguese began a more serious program of advancing into the continental interior. However, their intention was less territorial occupation and more establishing a de facto overlordship which allowed them to establish commercial networks as well as a few settlements. In this context, they also moved further south along the coast, and founded the \"third bridgehead\" of Moçâmedes. In the course of this expansion, they entered into conflict with several of the African political units. \n\nTerritorial occupation only became a central concern for Portugal in the last decades of the 19th century, during the European powers' \"Scramble for Africa\", especially following the 1884 Berlin Conference. A number of military expeditions were organized as preconditions for obtaining territory which roughly corresponded to that of present-day Angola. However, as late as 1906 only about 6% of that territory was effectively occupied, and the military campaigns had to continue. By the mid-1920s, the limits of the territory were finally fixed, and the last \"primary resistance\" was quelled in the early 1940s. It is thus reasonable to talk of Angola as a defined territorial entity from this point onwards.\n\nBuild-up to independence and rising tensions\n\nIn 1961, the FNLA and the MPLA, based in neighbouring countries, began a guerrilla campaign against Portuguese rule on several fronts. The Portuguese Colonial War, which included the Angolan War of Independence, lasted until the Portuguese regime's overthrow in 1974 through a leftist military coup in Lisbon. When the timeline for independence became known, most of the roughly 500,000 ethnic Portuguese Angolans fled the territory during the weeks before or after that deadline. Portugal left behind a newly independent country whose population was mainly composed by Ambundu, Ovimbundu, and Bakongo peoples. The Portuguese that lived in Angola accounted for the majority of the skilled workers in public administration, agriculture, and industry; once they fled the country, the national economy began to sink into depression. \n\nThe South African government initially became involved in an effort to counter the Chinese presence in Angola, which was feared might escalate the conflict into a local theatre of the Cold War. In 1975, South African Prime Minister B.J. Vorster authorized Operation Savannah, which began as an effort to protect engineers constructing the dam at Calueque, after unruly UNITA soldiers took over. The dam, paid for by South Africa, was felt to be at risk. The South African Defence Force (SADF) despatched an armoured task force to secure Calueque, and from this Operation Savannah escalated, there being no formal government in place and thus no clear lines of authority. The South Africans came to commit thousands of soldiers to the intervention, and ultimately clashed with Cuban forces assisting the MPLA.\n\n1970s\n\nIndependence\n\nAfter the Carnation Revolution in Lisbon and the end of the Angolan War of Independence, the parties of the conflict signed the Alvor Accords on 15 January 1975. In July 1975, the MPLA violently forced the FNLA out of Luanda, and UNITA voluntarily withdrew to its stronghold in the south. By August, the MPLA had control of 11 of the 15 provincial capitals, including Cabinda and Luanda. South Africa intervened on 23 October, sending between 1,500 and 2,000 troops from Namibia into southern Angola in order to support the FNLA and UNITA. Zaire, in a bid to install a pro-Kinshasa government and thwart the MPLA's drive for power, deployed armored cars, paratroopers, and three infantry battalions to Angola in support of the FNLA. Within three weeks, South African and UNITA forces had captured five provincial capitals, including Novo Redondo and Benguela. In response to the South African intervention, Cuba sent 18,000 soldiers as part of a large-scale military intervention nicknamed Operation Carlota in support of the MPLA. Cuba had initially provided the MPLA with 230 military advisers prior to the South African intervention. The Cuban intervention proved decisive in repelling the South African-UNITA advance. The FNLA were likewise routed at the Battle of Quifangondo and forced to retreat towards Zaire. The defeat of the FNLA allowed the MPLA to consolidate power over the capital Luanda.\n\n Agostinho Neto, the leader of the MPLA, declared the independence of the Portuguese Overseas Province of Angola as the People's Republic of Angola on 11 November 1975. (Hereafter \"Rothchild\".) UNITA declared Angolan independence as the Social Democratic Republic of Angola based in Huambo, and the FNLA declared the Democratic Republic of Angola based in Ambriz. FLEC, armed and backed by the French government, declared the independence of the Republic of Cabinda from Paris. The FNLA and UNITA forged an alliance on 23 November, proclaiming their own coalition government based in Huambo with Holden Roberto and Jonas Savimbi as co-Presidents, and José Ndelé and Johnny Pinnock Eduardo as co-Prime Ministers. \n\nIn early November 1975, the South African government warned Savimbi and Roberto that the South African Defence Force (SADF) would soon end operations in Angola despite the failure of the coalition to capture Luanda and therefore secure international recognition for their government. Savimbi, desperate to avoid the withdrawal of South Africa, asked General Constand Viljoen to arrange a meeting for him with Prime Minister of South Africa John Vorster, who had been Savimbi's ally since October 1974. On the night of 10 November, the day before the formal declaration of independence, Savimbi secretly flew to Pretoria to meet Vorster. In a reversal of policy, Vorster not only agreed to keep his troops in Angola through November, but also promised to withdraw the SADF only after the OAU meeting on 9 December. The Soviets, well aware of South African activity in southern Angola, flew Cuban soldiers into Luanda the week before independence. While Cuban officers led the mission and provided the bulk of the troop force, 60 Soviet officers in the Congo joined the Cubans on 12 November. The Soviet leadership expressly forbade the Cubans from intervening in Angola's civil war, focusing the mission on containing South Africa.\n\nIn 1975 and 1976 most foreign forces, with the exception of Cuba, withdrew. The last elements of the Portuguese military withdrew in 1975 and the South African military withdrew in February 1976. However, Cuba's troop force in Angola increased from 5,500 in December 1975 to 11,000 in February 1976. Sweden provided humanitarian assistance to both the SWAPO and the MPLA in the mid-1970s, and regularly raised the issue of UNITA in political discussions between the two movements.\n\nClark Amendment\n\nPresident of the United States Gerald Ford approved covert aid to UNITA and the FNLA through Operation IA Feature on 18 July 1975, despite strong opposition from officials in the State Department and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Ford told William Colby, the Director of Central Intelligence, to establish the operation, providing an initial US$6 million. He granted an additional $8 million on 27 July and another $25 million in August.\n\nTwo days before the program's approval, Nathaniel Davis, the Assistant Secretary of State, told Henry Kissinger, the Secretary of State, that he believed maintaining the secrecy of IA Feature would be impossible. Davis correctly predicted the Soviet Union would respond by increasing involvement in the Angolan conflict, leading to more violence and negative publicity for the United States. When Ford approved the program, Davis resigned. John Stockwell, the CIA's station chief in Angola, echoed Davis' criticism saying that success required the expansion of the program, but its size already exceeded what could be hidden from the public eye. Davis' deputy, former U.S. ambassador to Chile Edward Mulcahy, also opposed direct involvement. Mulcahy presented three options for U.S. policy towards Angola on 13 May 1975. Mulcahy believed the Ford administration could use diplomacy to campaign against foreign aid to the communist MPLA, refuse to take sides in factional fighting, or increase support for the FNLA and UNITA. He warned however that supporting UNITA would not sit well with Mobutu Sese Seko, the president of Zaire.\n\nDick Clark, a Democratic Senator from Iowa, discovered the operation during a fact-finding mission in Africa, but Seymour Hersh, a reporter for The New York Times, revealed IA Feature to the public on 13 December 1975. Clark proposed an amendment to the Arms Export Control Act, barring aid to private groups engaged in military or paramilitary operations in Angola. The Senate passed the bill, voting 54–22 on 19 December 1975, and the House of Representatives passed the bill, voting 323–99 on 27 January 1976. Ford signed the bill into law on 9 February 1976. Even after the Clark Amendment became law, then-Director of Central Intelligence, George H. W. Bush, refused to concede that all U.S. aid to Angola had ceased.p. 52 pp. 186–187. According to foreign affairs analyst Jane Hunter, Israel stepped in as a proxy arms supplier for South Africa after the Clark Amendment took effect. Israel and South Africa established a longstanding military alliance, in which Israel provided weapons and training, as well as conducting joint military exercises. \n\nThe U.S. government vetoed Angolan entry into the United Nations on 23 June 1976. Zambia forbade UNITA from launching attacks from its territory on 28 December 1976 after Angola under MPLA rule became a member of the United Nations.\n\n'Cuba's Vietnam'\n\nThe Vietnam War tempered foreign involvement in Angola's civil war as neither the Soviet Union nor the United States wanted to be drawn into an internal conflict of highly debatable importance in terms of winning the Cold War. CBS Newscaster Walter Cronkite spread this message in his broadcasts to \"try to play our small part in preventing that mistake this time.\" The Politburo engaged in heated debate over the extent to which the Soviet Union would support a continued offensive by the MPLA in February 1976. Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko and Premier Alexei Kosygin led a faction favoring less support for the MPLA and greater emphasis on preserving détente with the West. Leonid Brezhnev, the then head of the Soviet Union, won out against the dissident faction and the Soviet alliance with the MPLA continued even as Neto publicly reaffirmed its policy of non-alignment at the 15th anniversary of the First Revolt.\n\nThe MPLA government and Cuban troops had control over all southern cities by 1977, but roads in the south faced repeated UNITA attacks. Savimbi expressed his willingness for rapprochement with the MPLA and the formation of a unity, socialist government, but he insisted on Cuban withdrawal first. \"The real enemy is Cuban colonialism,\" Savimbi told reporters, warning, \"The Cubans have taken over the country, but sooner or later they will suffer their own Vietnam in Angola.\" MPLA and Cuban troops used flame throwers, bulldozers, and planes with napalm to destroy villages in a wide area along the Angola-Namibia border. Only women and children passed through this area, \"Castro Corridor,\" because MPLA troops had shot all males ten years of age or older to prevent them from joining the UNITA. The napalm killed cattle to feed government troops and to retaliate against UNITA sympathizers. A number of civilians fled from their homes; 10,000 going south to Namibia and 16,000 east to Zambia, where they lived in refugee camps.\n\nShaba invasions\n\nAbout 1,500 members of the Front for the National Liberation of the Congo (FNLC) invaded Shaba, Zaire, from eastern Angola on 7 March 1977. The FNLC wanted to overthrow Mobutu, and the MPLA government, suffering from Mobutu's support for the FNLA and UNITA, did not try to stop the invasion. The FNLC failed to capture Kolwezi, Zaire's economic heartland, but took Kasaji and Mutshatsha. The Zairean army (the Forces Armées Zaïroises) was defeated without difficulty and the FNLC continued to advance. On 2 April, Mobutu appealed to William Eteki of Cameroon, Chairman of the Organization of African Unity, for assistance. Eight days later, the French government responded to Mobutu's plea and airlifted 1,500 Moroccan troops into Kinshasa. This force worked in conjunction with the Zairean army, the FNLA and Egyptian pilots flying French-made Zairean Mirage fighter aircraft to beat back the FNLC. The counter-invasion force pushed the last of the militants, along with numerous refugees, into Angola and Zambia in April 1977.\n\nMobutu accused the MPLA, Cuban and Soviet governments of complicity in the war. While Neto did support the FNLC, the MPLA government's support came in response to Mobutu's continued support for Angola's FNLA The Carter Administration, unconvinced of Cuban involvement, responded by offering a meager $15 million-worth of non-military aid. American timidity during the war prompted a shift in Zaire's foreign policy towards greater engagement with France, which became Zaire's largest supplier of arms after the intervention. Neto and Mobutu signed a border agreement on 22 July 1977.\n\nJohn Stockwell, the CIA's station chief in Angola, resigned after the invasion, explaining in the April 1977 The Washington Post article \"Why I'm Leaving the CIA\" that he had warned Secretary of State Henry Kissinger that continued American support for anti-government rebels in Angola could provoke a war with Zaire. He also said that covert Soviet involvement in Angola came after, and in response to, U.S. involvement.\n\nThe FNLC invaded Shaba again on 11 May 1978, capturing Kolwezi in two days. While the Carter Administration had accepted Cuba's insistence on its non-involvement in Shaba I, and therefore did not stand with Mobutu, the U.S. government now accused Castro of complicity. This time, when Mobutu appealed for foreign assistance, the U.S. government worked with the French and Belgian militaries to beat back the invasion, the first military cooperation between France and the United States since the Vietnam War.George (2005), p. 136. The French Foreign Legion took back Kolwezi after a seven-day battle and airlifted 2,250 European citizens to Belgium, but not before the FNLC massacred 80 Europeans and 200 Africans. In one instance, the FNLC killed 34 European civilians who had hidden in a room. The FNLC retreated to Zambia, vowing to return to Angola. The Zairean army then forcibly evicted civilians along Shaba's border with Angola. Mobutu, wanting to prevent any chance of another invasion, ordered his troops to shoot on sight.\n\nU.S.-mediated negotiations between the MPLA and Zairean governments led to a peace accord in 1979 and an end to support for insurgencies in each other's respective countries. Zaire temporarily cut off support to the FLEC, the FNLA and UNITA, and Angola forbade further activity by the FNLC.\n\nNitistas\n\nNeto's Interior Minister, Nito Alves, had successfully put down Daniel Chipenda's Eastern Revolt and the Active Revolt during Angola's War of Independence. Factionalism within the MPLA became a major challenge to Neto's power by late 1975 and he gave Alves the task of once again clamping down on dissent. Alves shut down the Cabral and Henda Committees while expanding his influence within the MPLA through his control of the nation's newspapers and state-run television. Alves visited the Soviet Union in October 1976. When he returned, Neto began taking steps to neutralize the threat he saw in the Nitistas, followers of Alves. Neto called a plenum meeting of the Central Committee of the MPLA. Neto formally designated the party Marxist-Leninist, abolished the Interior Ministry , the official branch of the MPLA used by the Nitistas, and established a Commission of Enquiry. Neto used the commission, officially created to examine and report factionalism, to target the Nitistas, and ordered the commission to issue a report of its findings in March 1977. Alves and Chief of Staff José Van-Dunem, his political ally, began planning a coup d'état against Neto.\n\nAlves represented the MPLA at the 25th Soviet Communist Party Congress in February 1977 and may have then obtained support for the coup from the Soviet Union. Alves and Van-Dunem planned to arrest Neto on 21 May before he arrived at a meeting of the Central Committee and before the commission released its report. The MPLA changed the location of the meeting shortly before its scheduled start, throwing the plotters' plans into disarray, but Alves attended the meeting and faced the commission anyway. The commission released its report, accusing him of factionalism. Alves fought back, denouncing Neto for not aligning Angola with the Soviet Union. After twelve hours of debate, the party voted 26 to 6 to dismiss Alves and Van-Dunem from their positions.\n\nTen armored cars with the Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola (FAPLA) 8th Brigade broke into São Paulo prison at 4 a.m. on 27 May, killing the prison warden and freeing more than 150 supporters, including 11 who had been arrested only a few days before. The brigade took control of the radio station in Luanda at 7 a.m. and announced their coup, calling themselves the MPLA Action Committee. The brigade asked citizens to show their support for the coup by demonstrating in front of the presidential palace. The Nitistas captured Bula and Dangereaux, generals loyal to Neto, but Neto had moved his base of operations from the palace to the Ministry of Defence in fear of such an uprising. Cuban troops retook the palace at Neto's request and marched to the radio station. After an hour of fighting, the Cubans succeeded and proceeded to the barracks of the 8th Brigade, recaptured by 1:30 p.m. While the Cuban force captured the palace and radio station, the Nitistas kidnapped seven leaders within the government and the military, shooting and killing six.George (2005), pp. 129–131.\n\nThe MPLA government arrested tens of thousands of suspected Nitistas from May to November and tried them in secret courts overseen by Defense Minister Iko Carreira. Those who were found guilty, including Van-Dunem, Jacobo \"Immortal Monster\" Caetano, the head of the 8th Brigade, and political commissar Eduardo Evaristo, were then shot and buried in secret graves. At least 18,000 followers (or alleged followers) of Nito Alves were estimated to have been killed by Cuban and MPLA troops in the aftermath over a period that lasted up to two years, with some estimates claiming as high as 70,000 dead. The coup attempt had a lasting effect on Angola's foreign relations. Alves had opposed Neto's foreign policy of non-alignment, evolutionary socialism, and multiracialism, favoring stronger relations with the Soviet Union, which he wanted to grant military bases in Angola. While Cuban soldiers actively helped Neto put down the coup, Alves and Neto both believed the Soviet Union supported Neto's ouster. Cuban Armed Forces Minister Raúl Castro sent an additional four thousand troops to prevent further dissension within the MPLA's ranks and met with Neto in August in a display of solidarity. In contrast, Neto's distrust of the Soviet leadership increased and relations with the USSR worsened. In December, the MPLA held its first party Congress and changed its name to the MPLA-Worker's Party (MPLA-PT). The Nitista coup took a toll on the MPLA's membership. In 1975, the MPLA reached 200,000 members. After the first party congress, that number decreased to 30,000.Georges A. Fauriol and Eva Loser. Cuba: The International Dimension, 1990 (ISBN 0-88738-324-6), p. 164.\n\nRise of dos Santos\n\nThe Soviets, trying to increase their influence in Luanda, began sending busts of Vladimir Lenin, a plane full of brochures with Leonid Brezhnev's speech at the February 1976 Party Congress, and two planes full of pamphlets denouncing Mao Zedong, to Angola. They sent so many busts that they ran out in the summer of 1976 and requested more from the CPSU Propaganda Department. Despite the best efforts of the Soviet propaganda machine and persistent lobbying by G. A. Zverev, the Soviet chargé d'affaires, Neto stood his ground, refusing to grant the permanent military bases the Soviets so desperately wanted in Angola. Neto allies like Defense Minister Iko Carreira and MPLA General Secretary Lúcio Lara also irked the Soviet leadership through their policies and personalities. With Alves out of the picture, the Soviet Union promoted Prime Minister Lopo do Nascimento, another 'internationalist', against Neto, a 'careerist,' for the MPLA's leadership. Neto moved swiftly to crush his adversary. The MPLA-PT's Central Committee met from 6 to 9 December. The Committee concluded the meeting by firing Nascimento as both Prime Minister and as Secretary of the Politburo, the Director of National Television, and the Director of Jornal de Angola. Commander C. R. Dilolua resigned as Second Deputy Prime Minister and a member of the Politburo.Kalley (1999), p. 10. Later that month the Committee abolished the positions of Prime Minister and Deputy Prime Minister. Paving the way for dos Santos, Neto increased the ethnic composition of the MPLA-PT's political bureau as he replaced the hardline Old Guard with new blood. On 5 July 1979, Neto issued a decree requiring all citizens to serve in the military for three years upon reaching the age of 18. The MPLA gave a report to the UN claiming $293 million in property damage from South African attacks between 1976 and 1979, asking for compensation on 3 August 1979. The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Cabinda, a Cabindan separatist rebel group, attacked a Cuban base near Tshiowa on 11 August.Kalley (1999), p. 12.\n\nPresident Neto died from inoperable cancer in Moscow on 10 September 1979. The MPLA declared 45 days of mourning. The government held his funeral at the Palace of the People on 17 September. Many foreign dignitaries, including Organization of African Unity President William R. Tolbert, Jr. of Liberia, attended. The Central Committee of the MPLA unanimously voted in favor of José Eduardo dos Santos as President. He was sworn in on 21 September. Under dos Santos' leadership, Angolan troops crossed the border into Namibia for the first time on 31 October, going into Kavango. The next day, the governments of Angola, Zambia, and Zaire signed a non-aggression pact.\n\n1980s\n\nIn the 1980s, fighting spread outward from southeastern Angola, where most of the fighting had taken place in the 1970s, as the National Congolese Army (ANC) and SWAPO increased their activity. The South African government responded by sending troops back into Angola, intervening in the war from 1981 to 1987, prompting the Soviet Union to deliver massive amounts of military aid from 1981 to 1986. The USSR gave the MPLA more than US$2 billion in aid in 1984. In 1981, newly elected United States President Ronald Reagan's U.S. assistant secretary of state for African affairs, Chester Crocker, developed a linkage policy, tying Namibian independence to Cuban withdrawal and peace in Angola.\n\nThe South African military attacked insurgents in Cunene Province on 12 May 1980. The Angolan Ministry of Defense accused the South African government of wounding and killing civilians. Nine days later, the SADF attacked again, this time in Cuando-Cubango, and the MPLA threatened to respond militarily. The SADF launched a full-scale invasion of Angola through Cunene and Cuando-Cubango on 7 June, destroying SWAPO's operational command headquarters on 13 June, in what Prime Minister Pieter Willem Botha described as a \"shock attack\". The MPLA government arrested 120 Angolans who were planning to set off explosives in Luanda, on 24 June, foiling a plot purportedly orchestrated by the South African government. Three days later, the United Nations Security Council convened at the behest of Angola's ambassador to the UN, E. de Figuerido, and condemned South Africa's incursions into Angola. President Mobutu of Zaire also sided with the MPLA. The MPLA government recorded 529 instances in which they claim South African forces violated Angola's territorial sovereignty between January and June 1980.Kalley (1999), pp. 13–14.\n\nCuba increased its troop force in Angola from 35,000 in 1982 to 40,000 in 1985. South African forces tried to capture Lubango, capital of Huíla province, in Operation Askari in December 1983.\nAlso, in order to enhance MPLA's combat capacity, Romania sent 150 flight instructors and other aviation personnel, who contributed to the establishment of an Angolan Military Aviation School.\n\nOn 2 June 1985, American conservative activists held the Democratic International, a symbolic meeting of anti-Communist militants, at UNITA's headquarters in Jamba. Primarily funded by Rite Aid founder Lewis Lehrman and organized by anti-communist activists Jack Abramoff and Jack Wheeler, participants included Savimbi, Adolfo Calero, leader of the Nicaraguan Contras, Pa Kao Her, Hmong Laotian rebel leader, U.S. Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North, South African security forces, Abdurrahim Wardak, Afghan Mujahideen leader, Jack Wheeler, American conservative policy advocate, and many others. The Reagan administration, although unwilling to publicly support the meeting, privately expressed approval. The governments of Israel and South Africa supported the idea, but both respective countries were deemed inadvisable for hosting the conference.\n\nThe participants released a communiqué stating,\n\n\"We, free peoples fighting for our national independence and human rights, assembled at Jamba, declare our solidarity with all freedom movements in the world and state our commitment to cooperate to liberate our nations from the Soviet Imperialists.\"\n\nThe United States House of Representatives voted 236 to 185 to repeal the Clark Amendment on 11 July 1985. The MPLA government began attacking UNITA later that month from Luena towards Cazombo along the Benguela Railway in a military operation named Congresso II, taking Cazombo on 18 September. The MPLA government tried unsuccessfully to take UNITA's supply depot in Mavinga from Menongue. While the attack failed, very different interpretations of the attack emerged. UNITA claimed Portuguese-speaking Soviet officers led FAPLA troops while the government said UNITA relied on South African paratroopers to defeat the MPLA attack. The South African government admitted to fighting in the area, but said its troops fought SWAPO militants.\n\nWar intensifies\n\nBy 1986, Angola began to assume a more central role in the Cold War, with the Soviet Union, Cuba and other Eastern bloc nations enhancing support for the MPLA government, and American conservatives beginning to elevate their support for Savimbi's UNITA. Savimbi developed close relations with influential American conservatives, who saw Savimbi as a key ally in the U.S. effort to oppose and rollback Soviet-backed, non-democratic governments around the world. The conflict quickly escalated, with both Washington and Moscow seeing it as a critical strategic conflict in the Cold War.\n\nThe Soviet Union gave an additional $1 billion in aid to the MPLA government and Cuba sent an additional 2,000 troops to the 35,000-strong force in Angola to protect Chevron oil platforms in 1986. Savimbi had called Chevron's presence in Angola, already protected by Cuban troops, a \"target\" for UNITA in an interview with Foreign Policy magazine on 31 January. \n\nIn Washington, Savimbi forged close relationships with influential conservatives, including Michael Johns (the Heritage Foundation's foreign policy analyst and a key Savimbi advocate), Grover Norquist (President of Americans for Tax Reform and a Savimbi economic advisor), and others, who played critical roles in elevating escalated U.S. covert aid to Savimbi's UNITA and visited with Savimbi in his Jamba, Angola headquarters to provide the Angolan rebel leader with military, political and other guidance in his war against the MPLA government. With enhanced U.S. support, the war quickly escalated, both in terms of the intensity of the conflict and also in its perception as a key conflict in the overall Cold War. \n\nIn addition to escalating its military support for UNITA, the Reagan administration and its conservative allies also worked to expand recognition of Savimbi as a key U.S. ally in an important Cold War struggle. In January 1986, Reagan invited Savimbi to meet with him at the White House. Following the meeting, Reagan spoke of UNITA winning a victory that \"electrifies the world\" at the White House in January 1986. Two months later, Reagan announced the delivery of Stinger surface-to-air missiles as part of the $25 million in aid UNITA received from the U.S. government. Jeremias Chitunda, UNITA's representative to the U.S., became the Vice President of UNITA in August 1986 at the sixth party congress. Fidel Castro made Crocker's proposal, the withdrawal of foreign troops from Angola and Namibia, a prerequisite to Cuban withdrawal from Angola on 10 September.\n\nUNITA forces attacked Camabatela in Cuanza Norte province on 8 February 1986. ANGOP alleged UNITA massacred civilians in Damba in Uíge Province later that month, on 26 February. The South African government agreed to Crocker's terms in principle on 8 March. Savimbi proposed a truce regarding the Benguela railway on 26 March, saying MPLA trains could pass through as long as an international inspection group monitored trains to prevent their use for counter-insurgency activity. The government did not respond. In April 1987 Fidel Castro sent Cuba's Fiftieth Brigade to southern Angola, increasing the number of Cuban troops from 12,000 to 15,000. The MPLA and American governments began negotiating in June 1987.Kalley (1999), p. 36.\n\nCuito Cuanavale and New York Accords\n\nUNITA and South African forces attacked the MPLA's base at Cuito Cuanavale in Cuando Cubango province from 13 January to 23 March 1988, in the second largest battle in the history of Africa,George (2005), p. 1. after the Battle of El Alamein, the largest in sub-Saharan Africa since World War II.Alao (1994), pp. 33–34. Cuito Cuanavale's importance came not from its size or its wealth but its location. South African Defense Forces maintained an overwatch on the city using new, G5 artillery pieces. Both sides claimed victory in the ensuing Battle of Cuito Cuanavale. \n\nWith that manoeuvre, Fidel Castro claimed that he increased the cost to South Africa of continuing to fight in Angola and placed Cuba in its most aggressive combat position of the war, arguing that he was preparing to leave Angola with his opponents on the defensive. According to the Cubans, the political, economical and technical cost to South Africa of maintaining its presence in Angola proved too much. Conversely, the South Africans believe they indicated their resolve to the superpowers by preparing a nuclear test that ultimately forced the Cubans into a settlement. \n\nCuban troops were alleged to have used nerve gas against UNITA troops during the civil war. Belgian criminal toxologist Dr. Aubin Heyndrickx, studied alleged evidence, including samples of war-gas \"identification kits\" found after the battle at Cuito Cuanavale, claimed that \"there is no doubt anymore that the Cubans were using nerve gases against the troops of Mr. Jonas Savimbi.\" \n\nThe Cuban government joined negotiations on 28 January 1988, and all three parties held a round of negotiations on 9 March. The South African government joined negotiations on 3 May and the parties met in June and August in New York and Geneva. All parties agreed to a ceasefire on 8 August. Representatives from the governments of Angola, Cuba, and South Africa signed the New York Accords, granting independence to Namibia and ending the direct involvement of foreign troops in the civil war, in New York City on 22 December 1988. The United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 626 later that day, creating the United Nations Angola Verification Mission (UNAVEM), a peacekeeping force. UNAVEM troops began arriving in Angola in January 1989.\n\nCeasefire\n\nAs the Angolan Civil War began to take on a diplomatic component, in addition to a military one, two key Savimbi allies, The Conservative Caucus' Howard Phillips and the Heritage Foundation's Michael Johns visited Savimbi in Angola, where they sought to persuade Savimbi to come to the United States in the spring of 1989 to help the Conservative Caucus, the Heritage Foundation and other conservatives in making the case for continued U.S. aid to UNITA.\n\nPresident Mobutu invited 18 African leaders, Savimbi, and dos Santos to his palace in Gbadolite in June 1989 for negotiations. Savimbi and dos Santos met for the first time and agreed to the Gbadolite Declaration, a ceasefire, on 22 June, paving the way for a future peace agreement. President Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia said a few days after the declaration that Savimbi had agreed to leave Angola and go into exile, a claim Mobutu, Savimbi, and the U.S. government disputed. Dos Santos agreed with Kaunda's interpretation of the negotiations, saying Savimbi had agreed to temporarily leave the country.\n\nOn 23 August, dos Santos complained that the U.S. and South African governments continued to fund UNITA, warning such activity endangered the already fragile ceasefire. The next day Savimbi announced UNITA would no longer abide by the ceasefire, citing Kaunda's insistence that Savimbi leave the country and UNITA disband. The MPLA government responded to Savimbi's statement by moving troops from Cuito Cuanavale, under MPLA control, to UNITA-occupied Mavinga. The ceasefire broke down with dos Santos and the U.S. government blaming each other for the resumption in armed conflict. \n\n1990s\n\nPolitical changes abroad and military victories at home allowed the government to transition from a nominally communist state to a nominally democratic one. Namibia's declaration of independence, internationally recognized on 1 April, eliminated the threat to the MPLA from South Africa, as the SADF withdrew from Nambia. The MPLA abolished the one-party system in June and rejected Marxist-Leninism at the MPLA's third Congress in December, formally changing the party's name from the MPLA-PT to the MPLA. The National Assembly passed law 12/91 in May 1991, coinciding with the withdrawal of the last Cuban troops, defining Angola as a \"democratic state based on the rule of law\" with a multi-party system. Observers met such changes with skepticism. American journalist Karl Maier wrote: \"In the New Angola ideology is being replaced by the bottom line, as security and selling expertise in weaponry have become a very profitable business. With its wealth in oil and diamonds, Angola is like a big swollen carcass and the vultures are swirling overhead. Savimbi's former allies are switching sides, lured by the aroma of hard currency.\" Savimbi also reportedly purged some of those within UNITA whom he may have seen as threats to his leadership or as questioning his strategic course. Among those killed in the purge were Tito Chingunji and his family in 1991. Savimbi denied his involvement in the Chingunji killing and blamed it on UNITA dissidents. \n\nBlack, Manafort, Stone and Kelly\n\nGovernment troops wounded Savimbi in battles in January and February 1990, but not enough to restrict his mobilityAlao (1994), p. XX. He went to Washington, D.C. in December and met with President George H. W. Bush again, the fourth of five trips he made to the United States. Savimbi paid Black, Manafort, Stone, and Kelly, a lobbying firm based in Washington, D.C., $5 million to lobby the Federal government for aid, portray UNITA favorably in Western media, and acquire support among politicians in Washington. Savimbi was highly successful in this endeavour.\n\nSenators Larry Smith and Dante Fascell, a senior member of the firm, worked with the Cuban American National Foundation, Representative Claude Pepper of Florida, Neal Blair's Free the Eagle, and Howard Phillips' Conservative Caucus to repeal the Clark Amendment in 1985. From the amendment's repeal in 1985 to 1992 the U.S. government gave Savimbi $60 million per year, a total of $420 million. A sizable amount of the aid went to Savimbi's personal expenses. Black, Manafort filed foreign lobbying records with the U.S. Justice Department showing Savimbi's expenses during his U.S. visits. During his December 1990 visit he spent $136,424 at the Park Hyatt hotel and $2,705 in tips. He spent almost $473,000 in October 1991 during his week-long visit to Washington and Manhattan. He spent $98,022 in hotel bills, at the Park Hyatt, $26,709 in limousine rides in Washington and another $5,293 in Manhattan. Paul Manafort, a partner in the firm, charged Savimbi $19,300 in consulting and additional $1,712 in expenses. He also bought $1,143 worth of \"survival kits\" from Motorola. When questioned in an interview in 1990 about human rights abuses under Savimbi, Black said, \"Now when you're in a war, trying to manage a war, when the enemy ... is no more than a couple of hours away from you at any given time, you might not run your territory according to New Hampshire town meeting rules.\"\n\nBicesse Accords\n\nPresident dos Santos met with Savimbi in Lisbon, Portugal and signed the Bicesse Accords, the first of three major peace agreements, on 31 May 1991, with the mediation of the Portuguese government. The accords laid out a transition to multi-party democracy under the supervision of the United Nations' UNAVEM II mission, with a presidential election to be held within a year. The agreement attempted to demobilize the 152,000 active fighters and integrate the remaining government troops and UNITA rebels into a 50,000-strong Angolan Armed Forces (FAA). The FAA would consist of a national army with 40,000 troops, navy with 6,000, and air force with 4,000. While UNITA largely did not disarm, the FAA complied with the accord and demobilized, leaving the government disadvantaged.\n\nAngola held the first round of its 1992 presidential election on 29–30 September. Dos Santos officially received 49.57% of the vote and Savimbi won 40.6%. As no candidate received 50% or more of the vote, election law dictated a second round of voting between the top two contenders. Savimbi, along with eight opposition parties and many other election observers, said the election had been neither free nor fair.National Society for Human Rights, Ending the Angolan Conflict, Windhoek, Namibia, 3 July 2000 An official observer wrote that there was little UN supervision, that 500,000 UNITA voters were disenfranchised and that there were 100 clandestine polling stations. Savimbi sent Jeremias Chitunda, Vice President of UNITA, to Luanda to negotiate the terms of the second round.Rothchild, p. 134. The election process broke down on 31 October, when government troops in Luanda attacked UNITA. Civilians, using guns they had received from police a few days earlier, conducted house-by-house raids with the Rapid Intervention Police, killing and detaining hundreds of UNITA supporters. The government took civilians in trucks to the Camama cemetery and Morro da Luz ravine, shot them, and buried them in mass graves. Assailants attacked Chitunda's convoy on 2 November, pulling him out of his car and shooting him and two others in their faces. The MPLA massacred over ten thousand UNITA and FNLA voters nationwide in a few days in what was known as the Halloween Massacre.[https://books.google.com/books?idV_qm7zPo87oC&pg\nPA33&lpgPA33&dq\nAngola+Halloween+Massacre&sourcebl&ots\nz4kRxXc_VX&sigtcCDQm2tGVKOk4AFFfvAOtUCGnE&hl\nen&saX&oi\nbook_result&resnum1&ct\nresult#PPA67,M1 Historical Dictionary of Angola by W. Martin James, Susan Herlin Broadhead] on Google Books Savimbi said the election had neither been free nor fair and refused to participate in the second round. He then proceeded to resume armed struggle against the MPLA.\n\nThen, in a series of stunning victories, UNITA regained control over Caxito, Huambo, M'banza Kongo, Ndalatando, and Uíge, provincial capitals it had not held since 1976, and moved against Kuito, Luena, and Malange. Although the U.S. and South African governments had stopped aiding UNITA, supplies continued to come from Mobutu in Zaire.Hodges (2004). pp. 15–16. UNITA tried to wrest control of Cabinda from the MPLA in January 1993. Edward DeJarnette, Head of the U.S. Liaison Office in Angola for the Clinton Administration, warned Savimbi that, if UNITA hindered or halted Cabinda's production, the U.S. would end its support for UNITA. On 9 January, UNITA began a 55-day battle over Huambo, the War of the Cities. Hundreds of thousands fled and 10,000 were killed before UNITA gained control on 7 March. The government engaged in an ethnic cleansing of Bakongo, and, to a lesser extent Ovimbundu, in multiple cities, most notably Luanda, on 22 January in the Bloody Friday massacre. UNITA and government representatives met five days later in Ethiopia, but negotiations failed to restore the peace. The United Nations Security Council sanctioned UNITA through Resolution 864 on 15 September 1993, prohibiting the sale of weapons or fuel to UNITA. Perhaps the clearest shift in U.S. foreign policy emerged when President Bill Clinton issued Executive Order 12865 on 23 September, labeling UNITA a \"continuing threat to the foreign policy objectives of the U.S.\" By August 1993, UNITA had gained control over 70% of Angola, but the government's military successes in 1994 forced UNITA to sue for peace. By November 1994, the government had taken control of 60% of the country. Savimbi called the situation UNITA's \"deepest crisis\" since its creation.Rothchild, pp. 137–138. It is estimate that perhaps 120,000 people were killed in the first eighteen months following the 1992 election, nearly half the number of casualties of the previous sixteen years of war. Both sides of the conflict continued to commit widespread and systematic violations of the laws of war with UNITA in particular guilty of indiscriminate shelling of besieged cities resulting in large death toll to civilians. The MPLA government forces used air power in indiscriminate fashion also resulting in high civilian deaths. The Lusaka Protocol of 1994 reaffirmed the Bicesse Accords. \n\nLusaka Protocol\n\nSavimbi, unwilling to personally sign an accord, had former UNITA Secretary General Eugenio Manuvakola represent UNITA in his place. Manuvakola and Angolan Foreign Minister Venancio de Moura signed the Lusaka Protocol in Lusaka, Zambia on 31 October 1994, agreeing to integrate and disarm UNITA. Both sides signed a ceasefire as part of the protocol on 20 November. Under the agreement the government and UNITA would cease fire and demobilize. 5,500 UNITA members, including 180 militants, would join the Angolan national police, 1,200 UNITA members, including 40 militants, would join the rapid reaction police force, and UNITA generals would become officers in the Angolan Armed Forces. Foreign mercenaries would return to their home countries and all parties would stop acquiring foreign arms. The agreement gave UNITA politicians homes and a headquarters. The government agreed to appoint UNITA members to head the Mines, Commerce, Health, and Tourism ministries, in addition to seven deputy ministers, ambassadors, the governorships of Uige, Lunda Sul, and Cuando Cubango, deputy governors, municipal administrators, deputy administrators, and commune administrators. The government would release all prisoners and give amnesty to all militants involved in the civil war. Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe and South African President Nelson Mandela met in Lusaka on 15 November 1994 to boost support symbolically for the protocol. Mugabe and Mandela both said they would be willing to meet with Savimbi and Mandela asked him to come to South Africa, but Savimbi did not come. The agreement created a joint commission, consisting of officials from the Angolan government, UNITA, and the UN with the governments of Portugal, the United States, and Russia observing, to oversee its implementation. Violations of the protocol's provisions would be discussed and reviewed by the commission. The protocol's provisions, integrating UNITA into the military, a ceasefire, and a coalition government, were similar to those of the Alvor Agreement that granted Angola independence from Portugal in 1975. Many of the same environmental problems, mutual distrust between UNITA and the MPLA, loose international oversight, the importation of foreign arms, and an overemphasis on maintaining the balance of power, led to the collapse of the protocol.\n\nArms monitoring\n\nIn January 1995, U.S. President Clinton sent Paul Hare, his envoy to Angola, to support the Lusaka Protocol and impress the importance of the ceasefire onto the Angolan government and UNITA, both in need of outside assistance. The United Nations agreed to send a peacekeeping force on 8 February. Savimbi met with South African President Mandela in May. Shortly after, on 18 June, the MPLA offered Savimbi the position of Vice President under dos Santos with another Vice President chosen from the MPLA. Savimbi told Mandela he felt ready to \"serve in any capacity which will aid my nation,\" but he did not accept the proposal until 12 August. The United States Department of Defense and Central Intelligence Agency's Angola operations and analysis expanded in an effort to halt weapons shipments, a violation of the protocol, with limited success. The Angolan government bought six Mil Mi-17 from Ukraine in 1995.Vines (1999), pp. 103–104. The government bought L-39 attack aircraft from the Czechoslovakia in 1998 along with ammunition and uniforms from Zimbabwe Defence Industries and ammunition and weapons from Ukraine in 1998 and 1999. U.S. monitoring significantly dropped off in 1997 as events in Zaire, the Congo and then Liberia occupied more of the U.S. government's attention. UNITA purchased more than 20 FROG-7 scuds and three FOX 7 missiles from the North Korean government in 1999.Vines (1999), p. 106.\n\nThe UN extended its mandate on 8 February 1996. In March, Savimbi and dos Santos formally agreed to form a coalition government. The government deported 2,000 West African and Lebanese Angolans in Operation Cancer Two, in August 1996, on the grounds that dangerous minorities were responsible for the rising crime rate. In 1996 the Angolan government bought military equipment from India, two Mil Mi-24 attack helicopters and three Sukhoi Su-17 from Kazakhstan in December, and helicopters from Slovakia in March.\n\nThe international community helped install a Government of Unity and National Reconciliation in April 1997, but UNITA did not allow the regional MPLA government to take up residence in 60 cities. The UN Security Council voted on 28 August 1997, to impose sanctions on UNITA through Resolution 1127, prohibiting UNITA leaders from traveling abroad, closing UNITA's embassies abroad, and making UNITA-controlled areas a no-fly zone. The Security Council expanded the sanctions through Resolution 1173 on 12 June 1998, requiring government certification for the purchase of Angolan diamonds and freezing UNITA's bank accounts.\n\nDuring the First Congo War, the Angolan government joined the coalition to overthrow Mobutu's government due to Mobutu's support for UNITA. Mobutu's government fell on 16 May 1997. In early October 1997, Angola invaded the Republic of the Congo during its civil war, and helped Sassou Nguesso's rebels overthrow the government of Pascal Lissouba. Lissouba's government had allowed UNITA use of cities in the Republic of Congo in order to circumvent sanctions. \n\nThe UN spent $1.6 billion from 1994 to 1998 in maintaining a peacekeeping force. The Angolan military attacked UNITA forces in the Central Highlands on 4 December 1998, the day before the MPLA's fourth Congress. Dos Santos told the delegates the next day that he believed war to be the only way to ultimately achieve peace, rejected the Lusaka Protocol, and asked MONUA to leave. In February 1999, the Security Council withdrew the last MONUA personnel. In late 1998, several UNITA commanders, dissatisfied with Savimbi's leadership, formed UNITA Renovada, a breakaway militant group. Thousands more deserted UNITA in 1999 and 2000.\n\nThe Angolan military launched Operation Restore, a massive offensive, in September 1999, recapturing N'harea, Mungo and Andulo and Bailundo, the site of Savimbi's headquarters just one year before. The UN Security Council passed Resolution 1268 on 15 October, instructing United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan to update the Security Council to the situation in Angola every three months. Dos Santos offered an amnesty to UNITA militants on 11 November. By December, Chief of Staff General João de Matos said the Angolan Armed Forces had destroyed 80% of UNITA's militant wing and captured 15,000 tons of military equipment.Martin (2004), p. 141. Following the dissolution of the coalition government, Savimbi retreated to his historical base in Moxico and prepared for battle. In order to isolate UNITA, the government forced civilians in countryside areas subject to UNITA influence to relocate to major cities. The strategy was successful isolating in UNITA but had adverse humanitarian consequences. \n\nDiamond trade\n\nUNITA's ability to mine diamonds and sell them abroad provided funding for the war to continue even as the movement's support in the Western world and among the local populace withered away. De Beers and Endiama, a state-owned diamond-mining monopoly, signed a contract allowing De Beers to handle Angola's diamond exports in 1990. According to the United Nation's Fowler Report, Joe De Deker, a former stockholder in De Beers, worked with the government of Zaire to supply military equipment to UNITA from 1993 to 1997. De Deker's brother, Ronnie, allegedly flew from South Africa to Angola, directing weapons originating in Eastern Europe. In return, UNITA gave Ronnie bushels of diamonds worth $6 million. De Deker sent the diamonds to De Beer's buying office in Antwerp, Belgium. De Beers openly acknowledges spending $500 million on legal and illegal Angolan diamonds in 1992 alone. The United Nations estimates Angolans made between three and four billion dollars through the diamond trade between 1992 and 1998. The UN also estimates that out of that sum, UNITA made at least $3.72 billion, or 93% of all diamond sales, despite international sanctions.\n\nExecutive Outcomes (EO), a private military company, played a major role in turning the tide for the MPLA, with one U.S. defense expert calling the EO the \"best fifty or sixty million dollars the Angolan government ever spent.\" Heritage Oil and Gas, and allegedly De Beers, hired EO to protect their operations in Angola. Executive Outcomes trained up to 5,000 troops and 30 combat pilots in camps in Lunda Sul, Cabo Ledo, and Dondo.\n\nCabinda separatism\n\nThe territory of Cabinda is north of Angola proper, separated by a strip of territory 60 km long in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The Portuguese Constitution of 1933 designated Angola and Cabinda as overseas provinces. In the course of administrative reforms during the 1930s to 1950s, Angola was divided into districts, and Cabinda became one of the districts of Angola. The Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC) formed in 1963 during the broader war for independence from Portugal. Contrary to the organization's name, Cabinda is an exclave, not an enclave. FLEC later split into the Armed Forces of Cabinda (FLEC-FAC) and FLEC-Renovada (FLEC-R). Several other, smaller FLEC factions later broke away from these movements, but FLEC-R remained the most prominent because of its size and its tactics. FLEC-R members cut off the ears and noses of government officials and their supporters, similar to the Revolutionary United Front of Sierra Leone in the 1990s. Despite Cabinda's relatively small size, foreign powers and the nationalist movements coveted the territory for its vast reserves of petroleum, the principal export of Angola then and now.\n\nIn the war for independence, the division of assimilados versus indigenas peoples masked the inter-ethnic conflict between the various native tribes, a division that emerged in the early 1970s. The Union of Peoples of Angola, the predecessor to the FNLA, only controlled 15% of Angola's territory during the independence war, excluding MPLA-controlled Cabinda. The People's Republic of China openly backed UNITA upon independence despite the mutual support from its adversary South Africa and UNITA's pro-Western tilt. The PRC's support for Savimbi came in 1965, a year after he left the FNLA. China saw Holden Roberto and the FNLA as the stooge of the West and the MPLA as the Soviet Union's proxy. With the Sino-Soviet split, South Africa presented the least odious of allies to the PRC. \n\nThroughout the 1990s, Cabindan rebels kidnapped and ransomed off foreign oil workers to in turn finance further attacks against the national government. FLEC militants stopped buses, forcing Chevron Oil workers out, and setting fire to the buses on 27 March and 23 April 1992. A large-scale battle took place between FLEC and police in Malongo on 14 May in which 25 mortar rounds accidentally hit a nearby Chevron compound. The government, fearing the loss of their prime source of revenue, began to negotiate with representatives from Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda-Renewal (FLEC-R), Armed Forces of Cabinda (FLEC-FAC), and the Democratic Front of Cabinda (FDC) in 1995. Patronage and bribery failed to assuage the anger of FLEC-R and FLEC-FAC and negotiations ended. In February 1997, FLEC-FAC kidnapped two Inwangsa SDN-timber company employees, killing one and releasing the other after receiving a $400,000 ransom. FLEC-FLAC kidnapped eleven people in April 1998, nine Angolans and two Portuguese, released for a $500,000 ransom. FLEC-R kidnapped five Byansol-oil engineering employees, two Frenchman, two Portuguese, and an Angolan, in March 1999. While militants released the Angolan, the government complicated the situation by promising the rebel leadership $12.5 million for the hostages. When António Bento Bembe, the President of FLEC-R, showed up, the Angolan army arrested him and his bodyguards. The Angolan army later forcibly freed the other hostages on 7 July. By the end of the year the government had arrested the leadership of all three rebel organizations.\n\n2000s\n\nIllicit arms trading characterized much of the later years of the Angolan Civil War, as each side tried to gain the upper hand by buying arms from Eastern Europe and Russia. Israel continued in its role as a proxy arms dealer for the United States. On 21 September 2000, a Russian freighter delivered 500 tons of Ukrainian 7.62 mm ammunition to Simportex, a division of the Angolan government, with the help of a shipping agent in London. The ship's captain declared his cargo \"fragile\" to minimize inspection. The next day, the MPLA began attacking UNITA, winning victories in several battles from 22 to 25 September. The government gained control over military bases and diamond mines in Lunda Norte and Lunda Sul, hurting Savimbi's ability to pay his troops.\n\nAngola agreed to trade oil to Slovakia in return for arms, buying six Sukhoi Su-17 attack aircraft on 3 April 2000. The Spanish government in the Canary Islands prevented a Ukrainian freighter from delivering 636 tons of military equipment to Angola on 24 February 2001. The captain of the ship had inaccurately reported his cargo, falsely claiming the ship carried automobile parts. The Angolan government admitted Simportex had purchased arms from Rosvooruzhenie, the Russian state-owned arms company, and acknowledged the captain might have violated Spanish law by misreporting his cargo, a common practice in arms smuggling to Angola.\n\nUNITA carried out several attacks against civilians in May 2001 in a show of strength. UNITA militants attacked Caxito on 7 May, killing 100 people and kidnapping 60 children and two adults. UNITA then attacked Baia-do-Cuio, followed by an attack on Golungo Alto, a city 200 km east of Luanda, a few days later. The militants advanced on Golungo Alto at 2:00 pm on 21 May, staying until 9:00 pm on 22 May when the Angolan military retook the town. They looted local businesses, taking food and alcoholic beverages before singing drunkenly in the streets. More than 700 villagers trekked 60 km from Golungo Alto to Ndalatando, the provincial capital of Cuanza Norte, without injury. According to an aid official in Ndalatando, the Angolan military prohibited media coverage of the incident, so the details of the attack are unknown. Joffre Justino, UNITA's spokesman in Portugal, said UNITA only attacked Gungo Alto to demonstrate the government's military inferiority and the need to cut a deal. Four days later UNITA released the children to a Catholic mission in Camabatela, a city 200 km from where UNITA kidnapped them. The national organization said the abduction violated their policy towards the treatment of civilians. In a letter to the bishops of Angola, Jonas Savimbi asked the Catholic Church to act as an intermediary between UNITA and the government in negotiations. The attacks took their toll on Angola's economy. At the end of May 2001, De Beers, the international diamond mining company, suspended its operations in Angola, ostensibly on the grounds that negotiations with the national government reached an impasse.\n\nMilitants of unknown affiliation fired rockets at United Nations World Food Program (UNWFP) planes on 8 June near Luena and again near Kuito a few days later. As the first plane, a Boeing 727, approached Luena someone shot a missile at the aircraft, damaging one engine but not critically as the three-man crew landed successfully. The plane's altitude, 5000 m, most likely prevented the assailant from identifying his target. As the citizens of Luena had enough food to last them several weeks, the UNFWP temporarily suspended their flights. When the flights began again a few days later, militants shot at a plane flying to Kuito, the first attack targeting UN workers since 1999. The UNWFP again suspended food aid flights throughout the country. While he did not claim responsibility for the attack, UNITA spokesman Justino said the planes carried weapons and soldiers rather than food, making them acceptable targets. UNITA and the Angolan government both said the international community needed to pressure the other side into returning to the negotiating table. Despite the looming humanitarian crisis, neither side guaranteed UNWFP planes safety. Kuito, which had relied on international aid, only had enough food to feed their population of 200,000. The UNFWP had to fly in all aid to Kuito and the rest of the Central Highlands because militants ambushed trucks. Further complicating the situation, potholes in the Kuito airport strip slowed aid deliveries. Overall chaos reduced the amount of available oil to the point at which the UN had to import its jet fuel.\n\nGovernment troops captured and destroyed UNITA's Epongoloko base in Benguela province and Mufumbo base in Cuanza Sul in October 2001.Martin (2004). p. 166. The Slovak government sold fighter jets to the Angolan government in 2001 in violation of the European Union Code of Conduct on Arms Exports.\n\nDeath of Savimbi\n\nGovernment troops killed Jonas Savimbi on 22 February 2002, in Moxico province. UNITA Vice President António Dembo took over, but died from diabetes 12 days later on 3 March, and Secretary-General Paulo Lukamba became UNITA's leader. After Savimbi's death, the government came to a crossroads over how to proceed. After initially indicating the counter-insurgency might continue, the government announced it would halt all military operations on 13 March. Military commanders for UNITA and the MPLA met in Cassamba and agreed to a cease-fire. However, Carlos Morgado, UNITA's spokesman in Portugal, said the UNITA's Portugal wing had been under the impression General Kamorteiro, the UNITA general who agreed to the ceasefire, had been captured more than a week earlier. Morgado did say that he had not heard from Angola since Savimbi's death. The military commanders signed a Memorandum of Understanding as an addendum to the Lusaka Protocol in Luena on 4 April, with Santos and Lukambo observing.Crocker, Aall, and Osler (2004). p. 224.\n\nThe United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1404 on 18 April, extending the monitoring mechanism of sanctions by six months. Resolutions 1412 and 1432, passed on 17 May and 15 August respectively, suspended the UN travel ban on UNITA officials for 90 days each, finally abolishing the ban through Resolution 1439 on 18 October. UNAVEM III, extended an additional two months by Resolution 1439, ended on 19 December. \n\nUNITA's new leadership declared the rebel group a political party and officially demobilized its armed forces in August 2002. That same month, the United Nations Security Council replaced the United Nations Office in Angola with the United Nations Mission in Angola, a larger, non-military, political presence.\n\nAftermath\n\nThe civil war spawned a disastrous humanitarian crisis in Angola, internally displacing 4.28 million people – one-third of Angola's total population. The United Nations estimated in 2003 that 80% of Angolans lacked access to basic medical care, 60% lacked access to water, and 30% of Angolan children would die before the age of five, with an overall national life expectancy of less than 40 years of age.\n\nThere was an exodus from rural areas in most of the country. Today the urban population represents slightly more than half of the population, according to the latest census. In many cases, people went into cities outside the traditional area of their ethnic group. There are now important Ovimbundu communities in Luanda, Malanje, and Lubango. There has been a degree of return, but at a slow pace, while many younger people are reluctant to go to a rural life that they never knew.\n\nIn rural areas, one problem is that some were for years been under the control of the MPLA-government, while others were controlled by UNITA. Some of the population fled to neighbouring countries, while others went into remote mountainous areas.\n\nHumanitarian efforts \n\nThe government spent $187 million settling internally displaced persons (IDPs) between 4 April 2002, and 2004, after which the World Bank gave $33 million to continue the settling process. The UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) estimated that fighting in 2002 displaced 98,000 people between 1 January and 28 February alone. IDPs comprised 75% of all landmine victims. The IDPs, unacquainted with their surroundings, frequently and predominantly fell victim to these weapons. Militant forces laid approximately 15 million landmines by 2002. The HALO Trust began demining Angola in 1994, and had destroyed 30,000 landmines by July 2007. 1,100 Angolans and seven foreign workers are employed by the HALO Trust in Angola, with demining operations expected to finish by 2014.\n\nChild soldiers \n\nHuman Rights Watch estimates UNITA and the government employed more than 6,000 and 3,000 child soldiers respectively, some forcibly impressed, during the war. Additionally, human rights analysts found that between 5,000 and 8,000 underage girls were married to UNITA militants. Some girls were ordered to go and forage for food to provide for the troops – the girls were denied food if they did not bring back enough to satisfy their commander. After victories, UNITA commanders would be rewarded with women, who were often then sexually abused. The Angolan government and UN agencies identified 190 child soldiers in the Angolan army, and had relocated 70 of them by November 2002, but the government continued to knowingly employ other underage soldiers.\n\nIn popular culture\n\nIn John Milius's 1984 film Red Dawn, Bella, one of the Cuban officers who takes part in a joint Cuban-Soviet invasion of the United States, is said to have fought in the conflicts in Angola, El Salvador, and Nicaragua.\n\nJack Abramoff wrote and co-produced the film Red Scorpion with his brother Robert in 1989. In the film, Dolph Lundgren plays Nikolai, a Soviet agent sent to assassinate an African revolutionary in a fictional country modeled on Angola. The South African government financed the film through the International Freedom Foundation, a front-group chaired by Abramoff, as part of its efforts to undermine international sympathy for the African National Congress. While working in Hollywood, Abramoff was convicted for fraud and other offenses that he had committed during his concurrent career as a lobbyist.\n\nThe war provides a more comedic background story in the South African comedy The Gods Must Be Crazy 2 as a Cuban and an Angolan soldier repeatedly try to take each other prisoner, but ultimately part on (more or less) amicable terms.\n\nThe 2004 film The Hero, produced by Fernando Vendrell and directed by Zézé Gamboa, depicts the life of average Angolans in the aftermath of the civil war. The film follows the lives of three individuals: Vitório, a war veteran crippled by a landmine who returns to Luanda; Manu, a young boy searching for his soldier father; and Joana, a teacher who mentors the boy and begins a love affair with Vitório. The Hero won the 2005 Sundance World Dramatic Cinema Jury Grand Prize. A joint Angolan, Portuguese, and French production, The Hero was filmed entirely in Angola.\n\nThe character of Danny Archer in the 2006 film Blood Diamond, played by Leonardo DiCaprio, discusses on several occasions his service within the SADF during its intervention in the Angolan Civil War. As the film unfolds, it is revealed that he is a white Rhodesian orphan who ran away to South Africa only to be conscripted into the infamous 32 Battalion, with whom he saw combat in Angola around 1987.\n\nThe Angolan Civil War is featured in the 2012 video game Call of Duty: Black Ops II, in which the player character assists Jonas Savimbi in a battle against MPLA forces. \n\nMetal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain is partly set in the Angola—Zaire border region during the Angolan Civil War." ] }

{ "description": [ "Angola; Angola from past to present; ... Angola from past to present; Why did Bicesse and Lusaka fail? ... When Angola achieved independence in 1975, ...", "Angola has had two presidents since independence. The first president came to power in 1975; ... between the two countries. Angola's Membership ...", "Later in the year Portugal seemed intent on granting Angola independence; ... Portugal granted Angola independence in 1975 ... Angola's ruling MPLA put the country ...", "The impending independence of ... The Angola crisis of 1974–1975 ultimately ... The U.S. failure to achieve its desired outcome in Angola raised the stakes ...", "Angolan Civil War (1975 ... beginning at the time of the country's independence from Portugal in 1975, ... Though a country rich in natural resources, Angola was ...", "The southern African state of Angola gains its independence from former ... 1975: Divided Angola gets independence. ... The leader of one of the country's rival ...", "Angola country profile. ... civil war that ravaged the country after independence. ... colonial masters in 1975, the rival former independence movements ..." ], "filename": [ "59/59_6192.txt", "190/190_6198.txt", "127/127_1533303.txt", "5/5_6194.txt", "115/115_6202.txt", "5/5_6191.txt", "67/67_6197.txt" ], "rank": [ 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9 ], "title": [ "Angola from past to present | Conciliation Resources", "Angola - U.S. Department of State", "Angola: History - Infoplease", "The Angola Crisis 1974–75 - State", "Angolan Civil War (1975-2002) - | The Black Past ...", "1975: Divided Angola gets independence - BBC News", "Angola country profile - BBC News" ], "url": [ "http://www.c-r.org/accord-article/angola-past-present", "http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/6619.htm", "http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/world/angola-history.html", "https://history.state.gov/milestones/1969-1976/angola", "http://www.blackpast.org/gah/angolan-civil-war-1975-2002", "http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/11/newsid_2539000/2539679.stm", "http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13036732" ], "search_context": [ "Angola from past to present | Conciliation Resources\nAngola from past to present\nAngola from past to present\nFrom military peace to social justice? The Angolan peace process\nPublication date: \nDavid Birmingham\nWhen Angola achieved independence in 1975, a war was raging between competing national liberation movements and their foreign backers. Guus Meijer and David Birmingham revisit Angola’s colonial period and the independence struggle that followed and ask how the resulting social and economic divisions shaped and were manipulated by the warring parties. The article describes the introduction of authoritarian one-party rule under the MPLA and the impact of natural resource development and international and regional powers on the conflict. Tracing the conflict up to the signing of the Luena Memorandum, the authors conclude that Angola’s peace remains incomplete and that the country faces many challenges in achieving social and democratic reconstruction.\nRead full article\nAngola from past to present\nOn 11 November 1975, the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) declared Angola's independence and installed Agostinho Neto as its first President in the former Portuguese colony's capital at Luanda. This outcome had long seemed uncertain and indeed even unlikely; the MPLA had not only had to deal with its own serious internal troubles and disaffections, but had also had to take on the Portuguese colonial army and the two rival armed movements, each backed by powerful allies. Holden Roberto's National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA) had initially been the most powerful of the three competing national liberation movements and in the autumn of 1975 it came close to capturing Luanda from the north, backed by a heavily armed force supplied by President Mobuto Sese Seko of Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of Congo). In the south, two armoured columns of a South African invasion force, acting in military coordination with the Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), led by Jonas Savimbi, almost reached Luanda before they were stopped by Cuban troops which had been rushed to the assistance of the MPLA. The independent Angolan state was thus born out of turmoil and violence and amid serious national, regional and global rivalries. This heritage with its deep historical roots was to influence the unfolding of events for a long time.\nAngola, like most African countries, grew out of a conglomerate of peoples and groups each with its own distinct history and traditions. Gradually small local nations and states came into contact with each other and historical developments drove them to share a common destiny under increasing Portuguese influence. Long before the arrival of the Portuguese, Bantu-speaking communities had established a farming economy over most of the territory. They had absorbed many of the scattered Khoisan-speaking populations and developed a successful pastoral dimension to their agriculture as well as building up trading economies. One of the most successfully diverse market centres became the town of M'banza Kongo around which the Kongo kingdom evolved. Further east the concept of state formation related to the political ideology of the Lunda peoples while in the south later kingdoms took shape in the highlands of the Ovimbundu people.\nAngola under Portuguese rule\nAlthough the first Portuguese traders, explorers and soldiers set foot on this part of the African coast from 1483, modern colonisation of the whole territory was only formalised four centuries later after the Berlin Conference of 1884-85. Wide stretches of Angola experienced colonial rule for less than a century, and even after 1900 armed revolts broke out and resistance movements sprang up as among the Ovimbundu and the Bakongo from 1913, until the last northern resistance was put down in 1917. During its century of overrule the colonial regime left crucial marks on Angolan society. Its discriminatory legislation, particularly the Statute of the Portuguese Natives of the Provinces of Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea, separated the indigenous population from a tiny elite of 'civilised' individuals (or assimilados) who enjoyed some of the rights of Portuguese citizens. In 1961, after the start of an armed liberation struggle, the statute was revoked but the changes were only cosmetic. The Portuguese policy of racial and cultural discrimination had a profound and lasting impact on the later social and political development of Angola as an independent country. Social divisions created by colonialism continued to exercise a strong influence on the relationships between groups and on the attitudes of individuals. Racial mistrust manifested itself in the conflicts between as well as the tensions within the liberation movements. Deeply entrenched suspicion played a decisive role in Angola's recent political history. The conflicting interests of rural dwellers and people living in urban centres are in part another source of tension which independent Angola inherited from the colonial state.\nPortugal, like the other colonial powers, was primarily interested in extracting riches from its colonies, through taxation, forced labour and the compulsory cultivation of marketable crops such as cotton. Under the guise of a 'civilising mission', the colonial state was heavily influenced by its own distinctive variety of Catholic fundamentalism, invented by the semi-fascist dictator António Salazar. An ideology developed under the banner of luso-tropicalism, a supposedly specific Portuguese way of harmonising Portuguese manners with the customs of peoples in the tropics. In Angola economic extraction was later supplemented by migrant influences when Portugal needed to dispose of excess population. In the 1950s and 1960s Angola received many thousands of poor white peasants and entrepreneurial settlers from Portugal. They created a colony of European descent which, although smaller than the Portuguese communities in France or Brazil, was larger than the rival colonial one in Mozambique.\nDuring the colonial period, and particularly under the corporatist 'New State' and its colonial charters perfected by Salazar when he graduated from finance minister to Prime Minister in 1932, Angola's political and economic developments were crucially linked to the motherland. In 1969 Marcelo Caetano succeeded Salazar as Prime Minister and continued to insulate Portugal's colonies, and especially the crown jewel that was Angola, from the winds of change that blew concepts of independence over Africa in the 1960s. Instead of preparing for independence, as the other colonial powers had reluctantly done after the Second World War, Portugal tried to strengthen its imperial grip. As a weak state, politically isolated and economically backward, Portugal resorted to special measures to hold on to its colonies and in 1954 it euphemistically renamed them 'overseas provinces' in an attempt to avoid the attentions of United Nations inspectors. Economically, both Portugal and Angola were always at the mercy of trends and developments in the wider global economy, determined by powers beyond their control. It had been the world economic crisis of the 1930s which had led to the impoverishment of Portugal and to the crystallisation of Salazar's authoritarian regime. In the 1950s, when Portugal aspired to become a member of the United Nations and yet keep its colonies, it was agricultural crises and opportunities that caused impending upheavals. The relative poverty of the southern highlands and the boom in coffee prices in the north drove thousands of Ovimbundu peasants to become migrant workers on the coffee estates. There they were subjected to humiliation by white colonists and to resentment by the Bakongo who lived there.\nContinuous rivalries between various elites have played an important role in Angola's recent history. The FNLA embodied the aspirations of the northern elite focused on Kinshasa but with some cultural links with the old Kongo kingdom. The MPLA had its heartland in the territory of the Mbundu people of the Luanda hinterland but included many groups in the urban centres including some who descended from the old assimilated families of black Angolans and others who were the mixed-race children of modern colonisation. UNITA became the expression of a third political tradition and embodied the economic aspirations of the Ovimbundu and their merchant leaders on the southern planalto. To a large extent the ethnic identification of these movements has come about as a result of conscious political manoeuvring by each leadership rather than as a genuine expression of popular sentiment and aspiration. Over time the social and political factors of identity and cohesion have become real.\nAngola's historical society can be characterised by a tiny semi-urbanised elite of Portuguese-speaking 'creole' families – many black, some of mixed race, some Catholic and others Protestant, some old-established and others cosmopolitan – who are distinguished from the broad population of black African peasants and farm workers. Until the nineteenth century the great creole merchants and the rural princes dealt in captive slaves, most of whom were exported to Brazil or to the African islands. The black aristocracy and the creole bourgeoisie thrived on the profits of overseas trade and lived in style, consuming large quantities of imported alcoholic beverages and wearing fashionable European costumes. In the early twentieth century, however, their social and economic position was eroded by an influx of petty merchants and bureaucrats from Portugal, who wished to grasp the commercial and employment opportunities created by a new colonial order.\nAlthough effective occupation only had a relatively short duration and elements of pre-colonial continuity persisted, colonialism nevertheless brought major social changes in urbanisation, in formal education, in religious practice, in farming techniques and in commercial linkages. These changes affected all sections of society and all parts of the country, albeit to an uneven and variable degree. There is a tendency noted above to view Angolan society, and indeed other African societies, as fundamentally split between a 'modern' sector, influenced by 'Western' (or European) values, and a 'traditional' one governed by pre-modern systems of unchanging norms and historic ritual practices. Such views, expressed in political and public discourse, tend to over-simplify the socio-cultural base of both the MPLA and UNITA when in fact each had to manage its relations with appropriate 'traditional authorities'. Angola presents a rich variety of influences and mixtures all deeply marked by the colonial experience as well as by the so-called Afro-Stalinism of the post-independence years. 'Traditional' concepts are now being transformed to adapt to the challenges of life in the present and the future. There is no part of Angola, however remote, and no sector of Angolan society, however 'traditional', which is not in some way linked to the 'modern' world of a globalised economy and its culture and communication systems.\nThe struggle for national liberation\nWhile colonial rule never went unresisted, a more focused armed struggle for independence only started in 1961, after the Portuguese had bloodily repressed a mass protest against colonial conditions in the north. Hundreds of white planters and traders (estimates vary between 250 and 1,000) and thousands of black farm workers were killed, and many more fled the country, forming a fertile recruiting ground for an emerging anti-colonial cause.\nnationalist political activity and resistance occurred initially under the banner of the Union of the Peoples of Angola (UPA), a predecessor of the FNLA. In Luanda and the coastal cities much older associations had long expressed the nationalist sentiment of Angola's African population. This urban-based nationalism also incorporated assimilados and mestiços of Luanda and Benguela who had organised the Angolan League in the 1910s and the Let's Discover Angola (Vamos Descobrir Angola) movement in the 1940s under leaders such as Viriato da Cruz who later became founders of the MPLA.\nThe 1960s saw a major military and political confrontation between the Portuguese colonial regime and Angolan nationalism. The country also experienced the early manifestation of divisions within the nationalist movement that were to mark political life in Angola for many years. The protagonists were the FNLA, the MPLA, which subsequently tried to claim responsibility for an attack on a Luanda prison on 4 February 1961, and UNITA which emerged in the mid 1960s. The date of the prison attack was later officially celebrated as the beginning of the armed struggle.\nThe anti-colonial struggle launched in 1961 was fought with guerrilla tactics, gradually increasing in scope to reach from the north to the east of the country. On the diplomatic front nationalists worked from bases in Leopoldville (now Kinshasa), Conakry and Brazzaville, as well as from Lisbon and Paris. The FNLA received political and military backing from African countries and from China and the US. In 1962 it formed a Revolutionary Government of Angola in Exile (GRAE) which the organisation of African Unity (OAU) initially recognised as the legitimate successor to colonial rule. Some African countries later transferred their allegiance to the MPLA which, though its military record was poor and its leadership continuously suffered from internal conflict, gradually outmanoeuvred its rivals politically and diplomatically to gain pre-eminence in 1975.\nThe FNLA was no freer from internal dissent than the MPLA and in 1964 Jonas Savimbi left the 'government in exile' in which he had served as Minister for Foreign Affairs. He accused the FNLA leaders of being militarily ineffective and heavily dependent on the US. He also denounced nepotism and the authoritarian leadership of Holden Roberto. After visiting a number of mainly communist countries Savimbi founded UNITA in 1966. By exploiting the feelings of exclusion in Angola's largest ethnic group, the Ovimbundu, Savimbi built up his own constituency in the centre and south of the country. Initially he conducted small guerrilla operations inside Angola before establishing a network of supporters abroad.\nNone of the armed movements succeeded in effectively threatening the colonial state in Angola. The end of this 'first Angolan war' was brought about indirectly through domestic pressure in Portugal and the growing dissatisfaction of the Portuguese military fighting the colonial wars in Mozambique and Guinea-Bissau. In April 1974, junior officers belonging to the Movement of the Armed Forces (MFA) toppled the Salazar-Caetano regime in Portugal and began the process of decolonisation. In 1974, however, a frenzy of diplomatic and political activity at home and abroad mitigated against a negotiated independence. In 1975, as the will to retain imperial control over Angola dwindled, fighting broke out in many provinces of Angola and also in the capital, Luanda, where the armies of the MPLA, the FNLA and UNITA were intended to maintain the peace with joint patrols. In January 1975, under heavy international pressure, the colonial power and the three movements had signed an agreement in Alvor, Portugal, providing for a transitional government, a constitution, elections and independence. This Alvor Accord soon collapsed, however, and the transitional government scarcely functioned. In the subsequent confrontations the FNLA received military support from Zaire with the backing of China and the US, while under Agostinho Neto the MPLA gained ground in particular in Luanda with support from the Soviet Union and from Cuban troops. On 11 November 1975 Angola became independent. The FNLA and UNITA were excluded from the city and from government and a socialist one-party regime was established which eventually gained international recognition, though not from the United States.\nAngola under one-party rule\nFrom 1975 until the late 1980s Angolan society was moulded along 'classical' Marxist-Leninist lines. A dominant, but increasingly corrupt state sector was controlled by the ruling party. Private business, with the exception of the activities of foreign oil companies, was restricted and organised religion, including the Catholic Church, which had held an official place under the colonial regime, was suppressed. No freely organised 'civil society' emerged and the state controlled the media and mass organisations for youth, for women, for workers and for some of the professions.\nOne event had a crucial impact on the political climate during Angola's socialist era: the failed coup attempt by Nito Alves and his followers on 27 May 1977. Alves was a minister in President Agostinho Neto's government but also had his own constituency of supporters in Luanda's musseques (slums). The nitista crisis was fuelled by personal ambitions but also by ideological battles within the ruling socialist camp. Some leaders were loyal to the 'bureaucratic' line practised in the USSR while others preferred a more 'revolutionary' Chinese approach. The coup itself was bloodily repressed and it is alleged that thousands of supposed sympathisers were jailed or killed in the following days, weeks and months. The episode had a profound effect on the President, and his regime became ever more authoritarian and repressive. Angola's population lost its innocence and henceforth lived in fear.\nSubsequent wars\nBy the end of the 1970s, UNITA took over from the FNLA as the main civil war opponent of the MPLA government. A rapprochement had been achieved between the MPLA and President Mobutu of Zaire. The FNLA's cadres, led by Mobutu's protégé Holden Roberto, were gradually integrated into Angolan society as the free-market acolytes of the one-party state. The FNLA army, once a foreign-armed force with thousands of recruits, disintegrated without being formally disarmed or demobilised.\nAgostinho Neto died of cancer in 1979 and was succeeded as President by José Eduardo dos Santos, a young petroleum engineer trained in the Soviet Union. By this time the superpower conflict in Vietnam had ended and Angola became the seat of a new war by proxy between the United States and the Soviet Union. Each side was not so much defending a specific interest in Angola as playing out geo-political rivalry. The regional allies of the US continued to be Zaire and South Africa, while Congo-Brazzaville aligned itself with the Soviet Union. Cuba stepped up both military and civilian support to the MPLA government and contributed significantly to the rehabilitation of social sectors such as health and education.\nDiamonds, and more especially oil, provided the MPLA with the necessary revenue to function as a government. Foreign income also funded the lifestyle of the ruling elite and financed the ongoing war against UNITA. During the war years economic links between the coastal cities and the agrarian hinterland weakened almost to the point of extinction. Sometimes backed by South African forces, UNITA spasmodically occupied parts of the country, which became inaccessible to both government and merchants. The cities, especially Luanda, survived on imported food rather than home produce. Consumer goods were paid for by oil royalties. The neglected countryside was left to its own subsistence strategies. Over the years many people fleeing the war migrated to the towns. The lack of opportunities in the rural areas made prospects in the urban centres seem more attractive despite the poverty of the great slums. The city of Luanda grew to an estimated population of four million.\nThe 'second Angolan war' reached its peak in the mid-1980s. One of its enduring ironies concerned the dollar income generated by American oil companies, which paid for Cuban troops to protect the Angolan government and its oil installations from attacks by South African forces working for UNITA and partly financed by the US. In this phase of the war the battle for the small but strategic town of Cuito Cuanavale was a turning point. In 1987-88, South African and UNITA forces were pushed back by MPLA and Cuban troops after a long siege. The South Africans conceded that no military solution to the security of their northern border was possible and they started to explore political alternatives. The ensuing peace initiatives, orchestrated by a Troika of Portugal, America and Russia, finally resulted in the Bicesse Accords of May 1991 between the MPLA and UNITA. The peace was followed by the holding under UN auspices of Angola's first and only general election. Savimbi expected to gain power through the ballot box in September 1992. When he failed to do so he rejected the voting results and returned to war.\nThe 'third Angolan war' was even more brutal than its predecessors. Whole cities were reduced to ruins, hundreds of thousands of people were killed or died from war-related deprivation and disease, and millions were displaced, some for the second or even the third time. Extended talks in Lusaka finally resulted in another peace agreement, the Lusaka Protocol, signed in October 1994, but even then the war was not over. Despite international sanctions against UNITA's supply networks, Savimbi was reluctant to surrender the military option. After four years of neither peace nor war, the war erupted again with full ferocity in December 1998. The Angolan government, on paper a 'government of national unity and reconciliation' in which some UNITA dissident politicians participated under MPLA domination, pursued an offensive that culminated in the assassination of Jonas Savimbi in February 2002. On 4 April 2002, the Luena Memorandum marked the end of four decades of war and the ultimate defeat of UNITA. In October 2002, UNITA declared itself a fully disarmed and democratic political party and UN sanctions against it were lifted.\nPeace has characterised mainland Angola since April 2002, but in Cabinda, the enclave between the two Congo republics which accounts for sixty per cent of Angola's oil production, a war has continued unabated. The government has tried to replicate the strategy of scorched earth and starvation that had proved successful against UNITA. Many Cabindans nevertheless still support the rival movements demanding independence. The Angolan government, determined to preserve major economic assets, could never offer more than some form of provincial autonomy for the enclave. In October 2002, a major offensive against the Liberation Front of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC) led to serious accusations of human rights abuses. Towards the end of 2003, after some FLEC defeats and defections, the Luanda government signalled that it was prepared to talk peace or even consider a referendum. So far, however, the silencing of the guns in mainland Angola has not reached Cabinda and the conflict remains unresolved. Peace in Angola remains incomplete. The physical and psychological scars of war are still evident. The democratic deficit has not been remedied. The regime is still marked by its predatory history.", "Angola\nFact Sheet\nSeptember 26, 2016\nMore information about Angola is available on the Angola Page and from other Department of State publications and other sources listed at the end of this fact sheet.\nU.S.-ANGOLA RELATIONS\nThe United States established diplomatic relations in 1993 with Angola, which had become independent from Portugal in 1975. Post-independence, Angola saw 27 years of civil war among groups backed at various times by countries that included the United States, the Soviet Union, Cuba, China, and South Africa. Angola has had two presidents since independence. The first president came to power in 1975; upon his 1979 death, the second president assumed power. Multiparty elections were held in 1992 under a process supervised by the United Nations, but the results were disputed and civil war continued until the 2002 death of one holdout guerilla leader. A new constitution was adopted in 2010 and elections were held in 2012.\nAngola has a strong and capable military. Although the country is sub-Saharan Africa's second-largest oil producer and has great agricultural potential, two-thirds of the population live in poverty. U.S. foreign policy goals in Angola are to promote and strengthen Angola’s democratic institutions, promote economic prosperity, improve health, and consolidate peace and security, including maritime security. The United States has worked with Angola to remove thousands of landmines and help war refugees and internally displaced people return to their homes.\nIn 2009 Secretary Clinton declared Angola a “strategic partner” of the United States, one of three that the Obama Administration has identified on the African continent (the other two are Nigeria and South Africa). The U.S. – Angola Strategic Partnership Dialogue (SPD) was formalized with the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding in Washington in July 2010. Secretary Kerry and Foreign Minister Chikoti met for the first high level Strategic Dialogue in December 2014 in Washington, D.C. Secretary Kerry met President dos Santos during his visit to Luanda in May 2014.\nU.S. Assistance to Angola\nU.S. assistance seeks to focus on preventing major infectious diseases, strengthening health systems, increasing access to family planning and reproductive health services, and building capacity within nongovernmental organizations working in health advocacy and health service delivery. U.S. assistance also promotes stabilization and security sector reform.\nBilateral Economic Relations\nAngola is the third-largest trading partner of the United States in sub-Saharan Africa, mainly because of its petroleum exports. U.S. imports from Angola are dominated by petroleum, with some diamonds.  U.S. exports to Angola include machinery, aircraft, poultry, and iron and steel products. Angola is a partner country with Power Africa.  Angola is eligible for preferential trade benefits under the African Growth and Opportunity Act. The United States and Angola have signed a trade and investment framework agreement, which seeks to promote greater trade and investment between the two countries.\nAngola's Membership in International Organizations\nAngola and the United States belong to a number of the same international organizations, including the United Nations, International Monetary Fund, World Bank, and World Trade Organization. Angola also is an observer to the Organization of American States and is currently on the United Nations Security Council. They also serve as the chair of the International Conference of the Great Lakes Region.\nBilateral Representation\nThe U.S. Ambassador to Angola is Helen La Lime . Other principal embassy officials are listed in the Department's Key Officers List .\nAngola maintains an embassy in the United States at 2100-2108 16th St., NW, Washington, DC 20009 (tel. 202-785-1156).\nMore information about Angola is available from the Department of State and other sources, some of which are listed here:", "Angola: History\nHistory\nHistory\nHistory until Independence\nThe first inhabitants of the area that is now Angola are thought to have been members of the hunter-gatherer Khoisan group. Bantu-speaking peoples from West Africa arrived in the region in the 13th cent., partially displacing the Khoisan and establishing a number of powerful kingdoms. The Portuguese first explored coastal Angola in the late 15th cent., and except for a short occupation (1641–48) by the Dutch, it was under Portugal's control until they left the country late in the 20th cent.\nAlthough they failed to discover the gold and other precious metals they were seeking, the Portuguese found in Angola an excellent source of slaves for their colony in Brazil. Portuguese colonization of Angola began in 1575, when a permanent base was established at Luanda. By this time the Mbundu kingdom had established itself in central Angola. After several attempts at subjugation, Portuguese troops finally broke the back of the kingdom in 1902, when the Bié Plateau was captured. Construction of the Benguela railroad followed, and white settlers arrived in the Angolan highlands.\nThe modern development of Angola began only after World War II. In 1951 the colony was designated an overseas province, and Portugal initiated plans to develop industries and hydroelectric power. Although the Portuguese professed the aim of a multiracial society of equals in Angola, most Africans still suffered repression. Inspired by nationalist movements elsewhere, the native Angolans rose in revolt in 1961. When the uprising was quelled by the Portuguese army, many fled to Congo (Kinshasa) and other neighboring countries.\nIn 1962 a group of refugees in the Congo, led by Holden Roberto, organized the Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA). It maintained supply and training bases in the Congo, waged guerrilla warfare in Angola, and, while developing contacts with both Western and Communist nations, obtained its chief support from the Organization of African Unity (OAU). Angola's liberation movement comprised two other guerrilla groups as well. The Marxist-influenced Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola (MPLA), founded in 1956, had its headquarters in Zambia and was most active among educated Angolan Africans and mestiços living abroad. The MPLA led the struggle for Angolan independence. The third rival group was the União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola (UNITA), which was established in 1966 under the leadership of Jonas Savimbi . As a result of the guerrilla warfare, Portugal was forced to keep more than 50,000 troops in Angola by the early 1970s.\nIn 1972 the heads of the FNLA and MPLA assumed joint leadership of a newly formed Supreme Council for the Liberation of Angola, but their military forces did not merge. That same year the Portuguese national assembly changed Angola's status from an overseas province to an \"autonomous state\" with authority over internal affairs; Portugal was to retain responsibility for defense and foreign relations. Elections were held for a legislative assembly in 1973.\nIn Apr., 1974, the Portuguese government was overthrown in a military uprising. In May of that year the new government proclaimed a truce with the guerrillas in an effort to promote peace talks. Later in the year Portugal seemed intent on granting Angola independence; however, the situation was complicated by the large number of Portuguese and other Europeans (estimated at 500,000) resident there, by continued conflict among the African liberation movements, and by the desire of some Cabindans for their oil-rich region to become independent as a separate.\nPostcolonial History\nPortugal granted Angola independence in 1975 and the MPLA assumed control of the government in Luanda; Agostinho Neto became president. The FNLA and UNITA, however, proclaimed a coaliton government in Nova Lisboa (now Huambo), but by early 1976 the MPLA had gained control of the whole country. Most of the European population fled the political and economic upheaval that followed independence, taking their investments and technical expertise with them. When Neto died in 1979, José Eduardo dos Santos succeeded him as president. In the 1970s and 80s the MPLA government received large amounts of aid from Cuba and the Soviet Union, while the United States supported first the FNLA and then UNITA. In Cabinda, independence forces that had fought against the Portuguese now fought against the Angolan government. Although the FNLA faded in importance, UNITA obtained the support of South Africa, which was mounting its own campaigns against the Southwest Africa People's Organization (SWAPO), a Namibian liberation group based in Angola.\nIn the late 1980s the United States provided military aid to UNITA and demanded the withdrawal of Cuban troops and an end to Soviet assistance. As a result of negotiations among Angola, South Africa, Cuba, and the United States, the withdrawal of Cuban troops began in 1989. Also in the late 1980s, Marxist Angola implemented programs of privatization under President dos Santos. A cease-fire between the ruling MPLA and UNITA was reached in 1991, and the government agreed to make Angola a multiparty state. However, when dos Santos won UN-supervised elections held in Sept., 1992, UNITA leader Jonas Savimbi charged fraud and refused to accept the results. In Nov., 1992, bitter fighting broke out between rebel UNITA troops and government forces, destroying many cities and much of the country's infrastructure. Despite initial victories that gave UNITA control of some two thirds of Angola, the MPLA eventually gained the upper hand in the renewed warfare.\nIn Nov., 1994, with UNITA on the verge of defeat, dos Santos and Savimbi signed the Lusaka protocol, a new agreement on ending the conflict. The two sides committed to the integration of several thousand UNITA troops into the government armed forces as well as the demobilization of thousands more from both sides. UN peacekeeping troops began arriving in June, 1995, to supervise the process. Troop integration, however, was suspended in 1996, and UNITA's demobilization efforts lagged. A new government of national unity was formed in 1997, including several UNITA deputies; Savimbi had declined a vice presidency in 1996.\nWith renewed fighting in 1998, Angola's ruling MPLA put the country's coalition government on hold, saying that UNITA had failed to meet its peace-treaty obligations. It suspended all UNITA representatives from parliament and declared that it would no longer deal with Savimbi, instead recognizing a splinter group, UNITA Renovada. In 1999 the United Nations voted to pull out all remaining troops stationed in the country, while continuing humanitarian relief work with over a million refugees.\nUNITA was able to finance its activities, including an estimated 30,000 troops stationed in neighboring Zambia and Congo (Kinshasa), with some $500 million a year in diamond revenues from mines it controlled in the country's northeast. Fighting continued, with Angola's army inflicting several defeats on UNITA beginning in late 1999, weakening UNITA's still sizable forces. International restrictions (2001) on sales of diamonds not certfied as coming from legitimate sources also hurt UNITA, and the death of Savimbi in battle in 2002 was a severe blow to the rebels, who subsequently signed a cease-fire agreement and demobilized. UNITA subsequently reconstituted itself as a political party. Also in 2002 Angolan government forces gained the upper hand against Cabindan separatists; a peace agreement for the province was signed in 2006. As many as one million people died in the Angolan civil war, and the country's infrastructure was slow to recover from the effects of the fighting.\nParliamentary elections scheduled for 2007 were postponed late in 2006 until mid-2008, and the presidential election was then set for 2009. In Mar., 2007, there was an apparent attack on the leader of UNITA, Isaias Samakuva; UNITA accused the government of trying to assassinate him. When the parliamentary elections were finally held in Sept., 2008, they were marred by procedural irregulaties and difficulties but were otherwise generally transparent, and the MPLA won a landslide victory, with more than 80% of the vote.\nIn 2009 the presidential election (scheduled for Sept., 2009) was again postponed; a new constitution approved by the National Assembly in Jan., 2010, abolished direct election for the president. In the legislative elections of Aug., 2012, the MPLA won 72% of the vote, which thus resulted in the election of dos Santos as president. UNITA and other opposition parties unsuccessfully challenged the result in the courts.\nSections in this article:", "Milestones: 1969–1976 - Office of the Historian\nMilestones: 1969–1976\nThe Angola Crisis 1974–75\nAfter a successful military coup in Portugal that toppled a long-standing authoritarian regime on April 25, 1974, the new rulers in Lisbon sought to divest the country of its costly colonial empire. The impending independence of one of those colonies, Angola, led to the Angolan civil war that grew into a Cold War competition. The Angola crisis of 1974–1975 ultimately contributed to straining relations between the United States and the Soviet Union.\nCuban and Angolan soldiers are shown during a weapon practice session at a training center. (AP Photo)\nThree main military movements had been fighting for Angolan independence since the 1960s. The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) was a Marxist organization centered in the capital, Luanda, and led by Agostinho Neto. The National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), led by Holden Roberto, was based in the north of the country and had strong ties to the U.S. ally, Mobutu Sese Seko, in neighboring Zaire. The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), an offshoot of the FNLA, was led by Jonas Savimbi and supported by the country’s largest ethnic group, the Ovimbundu. Following the Portuguese coup, these three revolutionaries met with representatives of the new Portuguese Government in January 1975 and signed the Alvor Agreement that granted Angolan independence and provided for a three-way power sharing government. However, trust quickly broke down among the three groups, and the country descended into civil war as each vied for sole power.\nThe crisis in Angola developed into a Cold War battleground as the superpowers and their allies delivered military assistance to their preferred clients. The United States supplied aid and training for both the FNLA and UNITA while troops from Zaire assisted Holden Roberto and his fighters. China, also, sent military instructors to train the FNLA. The Soviet Union provided military training and equipment for the MPLA. During the summer of 1975, the Soviet-supported MPLA was able to consolidate power in Luanda and oust the U.S.-supported FNLA from the capital, but the FNLA continued to attack. The remaining Portuguese troops failed to stem the violence. When MPLA leader Neto announced November 11, 1975 as the day of Angolan independence, Lisbon decided to withdraw its troops on that day.\nThe MPLA also had long-established relations with Fidel Castro’s Cuba. Before November 11, the MPLA had negotiated with Castro for Cuban assistance. At the same time, UNITA, which enjoyed U.S. support, approached the Apartheid government in South Africa for military reinforcement. Pretoria, with the aim to end the use of Angola as a base for rebels fighting for the independence of South Africa-occupied Namibia, contributed forces that entered southern Angola in October and made rapid progress toward the capital. In response, Castro sent Cuban Special Forces to halt the South African advance and succeeded in drawing attention to the fact that the United States had provided support to a group that now accepted assistance from an Apartheid government.\nThe U.S. Government had encouraged the South African intervention, but preferred to downplay its connection with the Apartheid regime. However, once Pretoria’s involvement became widely known, the Chinese withdrew its advisers from the region, and the Ford Administration was faced with domestic resistance to the U.S. role in the Angolan conflict. President Gerald Ford had requested Congressional approval for more money to fund the operation in Angola. However, many members of Congress were wary of intervening abroad after the struggle in Vietnam, others wished to avoid the South Africa connection, and still others did not believe the issue was important. In the end, Congress rejected the President’s request for additional funds. South Africa withdrew its forces in the spring of 1976 and the MPLA remained as the official government of Angola. Still, Jonas Savimbi and UNITA continued an insurgency until his death in 2002.\nDuring the period of the Angolan crisis, the United States and the Soviet Union were still enjoying a brief thaw in their relations, in an era referred to as détente . During this time, Washington and Moscow had reached a series of agreements that aimed to reduce tensions between the two superpowers. However, by 1974, strains on bilateral relations had already compromised U.S. support for détente and the crisis in Angola served to accelerate this trend. From the U.S. point of view, one of the aims of détente was to draw the Soviet Union further into the international system so that Washington could induce Moscow to show restraint in its dealings with the Third World. The Ford Administration believed that Cuba had intervened in Angola as a Soviet proxy and as such, the general view in Washington was that Moscow was breaking the rules of détente. The appearance of a Soviet success and a U.S. loss in Angola on the heels of a victory by Soviet-supported North Vietnam over U.S.-supported South Vietnam continued to erode U.S. faith in détente as an effective Cold War foreign policy.\nThe U.S. failure to achieve its desired outcome in Angola raised the stakes of the superpower competition in the Third World. Subsequent disagreements over the Horn of Africa, and Afghanistan contributed to undoing the period of détente between the Soviet Union and the United States. Additionally, the Angola crisis also ended a recent thaw in U.S.-Cuban relations.", "Angolan Civil War (1975-2002) | The Black Past: Remembered and Reclaimed\nAngolan Civil War (1975-2002)\nAngolan Soldier in front of Soviet Missiles\nImage Ownership: Public Domain\nThe Angolan Civil War, beginning at the time of the country's independence from Portugal in 1975, was a 27-year struggle involving the deaths of over 500,000 soldiers and civilians.  Initiated at the height of the Cold War, pro- and anti- communist forces in Angola set the stage for a proxy fight between the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) .  Though the fighting officially ended in 2002, Angola remains in economic and social turmoil with a massive refugee crisis and millions of landmines impeding farming practices.\nRich in diamonds and oil, Angola was one of the last African nations to receive independence from a European power.  On April 25, 1974, a Portuguese military coup d’état protesting the country’s colonial practices successfully overthrew the regime.  The combined forces of the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), and the National Union for Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) created a transitional government with the Alvor Accord of 1974.\nWithin a year the government had disintegrated, and with aid from the USSR and the Cuban military, the Marxist-oriented MPLA under the leadership of José dos Santos had wrested control of most of Angola.  Indirectly and through proxies, governments from the United States, Brazil and South Africa funded UNITA, providing munitions, intelligence reports, and mercenaries.\nHeavy fighting continued until 1991 when a temporary agreement known as the Bicesse Accords was reached.  Calling for an immediate ceasefire and the removal of both Cuban and South African troops, the agreement mandated a new national government and army, along with Angola’s first multi-party elections.  A year later, MPLA candidate José dos Santos won 49% of the popular vote in the election compared to 40% for UNITA candidate Dr. Jonas Savimbi .  When Savimbi disputed the outcome, UNITA resumed guerilla war against the MPLA.\nIn 1993 the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 864 placing an embargo on petroleum and munitions shipments to UNITA.  UNITA continued military operations until Savimbi was killed in an ambush in February of 2002.  Officially demobilized that August under less-radical leadership, UNITA has since been a formidable political party in Angolan politics.\nThough a country rich in natural resources, Angola was economically and politically devastated with runaway inflation of the country’s currency (the kwanza), a national crisis of amputees from the millions of landmines, and political fallout from the millions of refugees displaced from the fighting.\nSources:\nKevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African History (New York: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005); Fernando Andresen Guimaraes, The Origins of the Angolan Civil War: Foreign Intervention and Domestic Political Conflict (London: Macmillan Press, 1997); John A. Marcum, The Angolan Revolution, Vol. 2: Exile Politics and Guerilla Warfare (1962-1976)  (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1978).\nContributor(s):", "BBC ON THIS DAY | 11 | 1975: Divided Angola gets independence\n1975: Divided Angola gets independence\nThe southern African state of Angola has gained its independence from former colonial power Portugal.\nThe leader of one of the country's rival factions, Dr Agostinho Neto, of the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), has been proclaimed the country's first president.\nIn the capital, Luanda, huge crowds cheered and soldiers fired shots into the air as the new country's flag was raised at midnight.\nHowever, the main groups vying for power held separate independence ceremonies.\nThe MPLA held a huge ceremony at a stadium in the capital, Luanda, attended by a representative from the Soviet Union.\n'Slave pool'\nIn a speech, Dr Neto was critical of the Portuguese for not recognising the MPLA as the \"sole legitimate representative\" of the Angolan people.\nMeanwhile, the rival Union for the Total Independence of Angola (Unita) announced it had joined forces with another liberation movement to form a national council which would act as Angola's government.\nAngola's independence ends nearly 500 years of Portuguese rule.\nInitially the Portuguese used Angola as a \"slave pool\" for its more lucrative colony in Brazil and mined Angola's precious gemstones and metals.\nResistance to Portuguese rule was widespread by the mid-20th century but was complicated by clashes between the various African communities.", "Angola country profile - BBC News\nBBC News\nRead more about sharing.\nClose share panel\nOne of Africa's major oil producers, Angola is striving to tackle the physical, social and political legacy of a 27-year civil war that ravaged the country after independence.\nFollowing the withdrawal of the Portuguese colonial masters in 1975, the rival former independence movements competed for power until 2002.\nMuch of Angola's oil wealth lies in Cabinda province, where a decades-long separatist conflict simmers.\nThe government has sent thousands of troops to subdue the rebellion in the enclave, which has no border with the rest of Angola. Human rights groups have alleged abuses against civilians.\nRead more country profiles - Profiles by BBC Monitoring\nFACTS\nArea 1.25m sq km (481,354 sq miles)\nMajor languages Portuguese (official), Umbundu, Kimbundu, Kikongo\nMajor religion Christianity\nLife expectancy 50 years (men), 53 years (women)\nCurrency kwanza\nPresident: Jose Eduardo dos Santos\nImage copyright Getty Images\nJose Eduardo dos Santos, of the ruling MPLA, has been in power since 1979, and is Africa's second-longest serving head of state after Equatorial Guinea's Teodoro Obiang. He keeps tight control over all aspects of Angola's political life.\nMany Angolans credit the president for leading the country to recovery after the end of its 27-year civil war in 2002, and for turning the country's formerly socialist economy into one of the world's fastest-growing - mainly on the back of Angola's prodigious oil wealth.\nSome, however, accuse him of authoritarianism, staying in office for too long and failing to distribute the proceeds from the oil boom more widely.\nIn 2008, his party won the country's first parliamentary elections for 16 years. A new constitution approved in 2010 substituted direct election of the president with a system under which the top candidate of the largest party in parliament becomes president.\nIt also strengthened the presidency's powers, prompting the Unita opposition to accuse the government of \"destroying democracy\".\nHe appointed his daughter Isabel as chief executive of the state-run oil firm Sonangol in 2016, prompting suspicions that he is establishing a dynasty at a time he is winding down his own career.\nIsabel has been ranked by Forbes magazine as the richest woman on the continent with a fortune of around $3 billion.\nMEDIA\nImage copyright Getty Images\nSocial media appeared to be under threat at the end of 2015 when President dos Santos called for their stricter regulation, at a time when the government was cracking down on political dissident and activism.\nFor many urban Angolans, the internet has become the primary medium for expression of political anger because of the dangers of protesting on the streets.\nThe state controls all media with nationwide reach, including radio, the most influential medium outside the capital.\nSome key dates in Angola's history:\nImage copyright Getty Images\nImage caption The Angolan civil war involved forces from Cuba, pictured, as well as from South Africa\n1300s - Kongo kingdom consolidates in the north.\n1483 - Portuguese arrive.\n17th and 18th centuries - Angola becomes a major Portuguese trading arena for slaves. Between 1580 and 1680 a million plus are shipped to Brazil.\n1885-1930 - Portugal consolidates colonial control over Angola, local resistance persists.\n1950s-1961 - Nationalist movement develops, guerrilla war begins.\n1974 - Revolution in Portugal, colonial empire collapses.\n1975 - Portuguese withdraw from Angola without formally handing power to any movement. MPLA is in control of Luanda and declares itself government of independent Angola. Unita and FNLA set up a rival government in Huambo.\nCivil war begins, dragging on until 2002.\n1979 - Jose Eduardo dos Santos becomes country's leader.\n1987 - South African forces enter southeast Angola to thwart MPLA and Cuban offensive against Unita. They withdrew the next year.\n1991 - Government, Unita sign peace accord in Lisbon.\n1992 - Disputed elections. Fighting flares again.\n1998 - Luanda launches offensive against Unita - thousands killed in next four years of fighting.\n2002 - Unita leader Jonas Savimbi is killed in battle and a formal ceasefire is signed.\nImage copyright Getty Images\nImage caption The civil war came to an end following the killing of rebel leader Jonas Savimbi" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "David_Soul.txt" ], "title": [ "David Soul" ], "wiki_context": [ "David Soul (born August 28, 1943) is an American-British actor and singer. He is known for his role as Detective Kenneth \"Hutch\" Hutchinson in the ABC television series Starsky & Hutch from 1975 to 1979. He became a British citizen in 2004. \n\nEarly life\n\nSoul was born David Richard Solberg in Chicago, Illinois, on August 28, 1943. His mother, June Johnanne (Nelson), was a teacher, and his father, Dr. Richard W. Solberg, was a Lutheran minister, Professor of History and Political Science, and Director of Higher Education for the American Lutheran Church. Dr. Solberg was also Senior Representative for Lutheran World Relief during the reconstruction of Germany after the Second World War from 1949 until 1956. Because of this, the family moved frequently while Soul was growing up. Both of his grandfathers were evangelists. \n\nSoul attended Augustana College, University of the Americas in Mexico City and the University of Minnesota. At 19, he turned down a professional baseball contract with the Chicago White Sox in order to study political science. While in Mexico, inspired by students who taught him to play the guitar, Soul changed his direction and decided to follow his passion for music. His first appearance upon returning from Mexico to the States was in a club in Minneapolis, The 10 O'Clock Scholar.\n\nCareer\n\nSoul first gained attention as the \"Covered Man\" appearing on The Merv Griffin Show in 1966 and 1967, on which he sang while wearing a mask. He explained: \"My name is David Soul, and I want to be known for my music.\" The same year, he made his television debut in Flipper.\n\nIn 1967, he signed a contract with Columbia Pictures and following a number of guest appearances, including the episode \"The Apple\" from the second season of Star Trek, he landed the role of Joshua Bolt on the television program Here Come the Brides with co-stars Robert Brown, Bobby Sherman and Bridget Hanley. The series was telecast on the ABC network from September 25, 1968 to September 18, 1970. In 1972 he co-starred as Arthur Hill's law partner on Owen Marshall: Counselor at Law. Following numerous guest-starring roles on TV, including Streets of San Francisco, he was cast by Clint Eastwood in the film Magnum Force.\n\nHis breakthrough came when he portrayed Detective Ken \"Hutch\" Hutchinson on Starsky and Hutch, a role he played from 1975 until 1979. Soul also directed three episodes of Starsky and Hutch: \"Huggy Can't Go Home\" (1979), \"Manchild on the Streets\" (1977), and \"Survival\" (1977). Throughout his career, he has also made guest appearances on Star Trek, I Dream of Jeannie, McMillan & Wife, Cannon, Gunsmoke, All in the Family, and numerous TV movies and mini-series including Homeward Bound (1980), World War III and Rage (1980) a TV movie commended on the floor of the US Senate and for which he received an Emmy Award nomination. Soul also starred with James Mason in the 1979 TV miniseries adaptation of Stephen King's Salem's Lot, which was also edited and released as a theatrical feature film in some countries.\n\nDuring the mid- to late-1970s, Soul returned to his singing roots. Produced by Tony Macaulay, he recorded hits including \"Don't Give Up on Us\" (1976) which reached No. 1 in the US and the UK, and \"Silver Lady\" (1977) which also topped the charts in the UK. From 1976 until 1978, he had five UK Top 20 singles and two Top 10 albums. From 1976 to 1982 he toured extensively in the US, Europe, Far East and South America.\n\nIn the U.S., he continued to make guest appearances in various television series. He starred in \"The Manions of America\" as Caleb Staunton in 1981. He starred in the short-lived 1983 NBC series Casablanca, playing nightclub owner Rick Blaine (the immortalized role that was made famous by Humphrey Bogart in the 1942 film Casablanca), and co-starred in the NBC series The Yellow Rose during the 1983-1984 season. He also starred in the television adaptation of Ken Follett's wartime drama The Key to Rebecca (1985) directed by David Hemmings. He later starred as the infamous Florida robber Michael Platt in the TV film In the Line of Duty: The FBI Murders (1988), which depicted the 1986 FBI Miami shootout and which was subsequently used as an FBI training film. Soul also directed the episode \"No Exit\" of the 1980s TV series Miami Vice. In 1987 Soul was cast as Major Oldham in the movie The Hanoi Hilton.\n\nUnited Kingdom\n\nIn the mid-1990s, Soul took up residence in London, United Kingdom, forging a new career on the West End stage, including the role of Chandler Tate in Comic Potential. He also participated in the successful 1997 election campaign of his personal friend Martin Bell who ran as an MP for Tatton, as well as Bell's unsuccessful campaign in Brentwood in Essex in the 2001 General Election.\n \nIn 2003, Soul appeared (as himself) in the first series of the BBC's Little Britain. In 2004, he appeared in Agatha Christie's Poirot – Death on the Nile in the role of Andrew Pennington (he had also starred in the 1989 film adaptation of Christie's Appointment with Death). Soul was a guest on the BBC's Top Gear. He was one of the fastest drivers to have appeared on the show, finishing the lap in 1:54:00, but managed to break the car's gearbox (and subsequently that of the backup car) very close to the finish.\n\nOn 12 July 2004, he took over playing the role of Jerry Springer in Jerry Springer - The Opera at the Cambridge Theatre in London, which was televised by the BBC in 2005. He returned to the West End in 2006, playing Mack in a new production of Jerry Herman's musical Mack and Mabel at the Criterion Theatre. The production co-starred Janie Dee and was directed by John Doyle. He also appeared in the TV series Dalziel & Pascoe (Game of Soldiers). He had a brief cameo in the 2004 film version of Starsky & Hutch, alongside original co-star Paul Michael Glaser.\n\nIn August 2008, Soul appeared in the reality TV talent show-themed television series Maestro on BBC Two. \n\nHe appeared with Fred Ward and Willem Dafoe in the film Farewell directed by Christian Carion which received its US release in 2010.\n\nIn June 2012, Soul made a one-week appearance with Jerry Hall at the Gaiety Theatre, Dublin in a reprise of the Pulitzer Prize nominated play by A.R. Gurney, Love Letters. \n\nOn 29 July 2012, Soul appeared in an episode of the British television detective drama series Lewis, playing a murder victim. He was also featured in the hit album by Fosseytango, singing on the track \"Landlord\" (featuring Jimmy Page, on guitar).\n\nIn 2013, Soul appeared in a cameo role in the Scottish film Filth lip-syncing his own recording of \"Silver Lady\".\n\nIn 2014, Soul appeared in a British television commercial for National Express singing \"Silver Lady\" while driving a coach.\n\nPersonal life\n\nSoul has been married five times and has five sons and a daughter. He first married the actress Mirriam \"Mim\" Solberg (née Russeth), in 1964. The couple had one child together, but the marriage only lasted a year. \n\nSoul then married actress Karen Carlson in 1968, after they had met on the set of the television series Here Come The Brides. The couple also had a child together, and divorced in 1977.\n\nDuring the years he was filming Starsky & Hutch, Soul had an open relationship with actress Lynne Marta.\n\nSoul's third wife was Patti Carnel Sherman (the ex-wife of fellow Here Come the Brides co-star and teen pop idol Bobby Sherman), whom he married in 1980. They had three children together, but the marriage disintegrated due to Soul's alcoholism and violent temper. Soul had been an alcoholic for several years, a problem that had affected both of his previous marriages. During his marriage to Sherman, Soul was arrested and jailed for assaulting her while she was seven months pregnant. After being released, he was ordered to attend a two-year therapy program to deal with his drinking and anger. The couple divorced in 1986.\n\nSoul married again in 1987, to actress Julia Nickson. The couple had one child, China Soul, who is a singer/songwriter. Soul and Nickson divorced in 1993.\n\nSoul emigrated to the United Kingdom in the mid-1990s and settled in London with his girlfriend, American actress Alexa Hamilton, though the couple later broke up.\n\nIn September 2004 Soul became a British citizen while retaining dual United States citizenship. He is an avid fan of English football and is an Arsenal F.C. supporter.\n\nSoul married his fifth wife, Helen Snell, in June 2010. They had been in a relationship since 2002, after meeting when Soul was working in the British stage production of Deathtrap. \n\nFilmography\n\nFilm\n\nTelevision\n\nDiscography\n\nAlbums\n\n*1976: David Soul - UK #2 Australia #8\n*1977: Playing To An Audience Of One – UK #8 Australia #30\n*1979: Band Of Friends\n*1982: The Best Days of My Life\n*1997: Leave A Light On\nSource:\n\nSingles\n\n* \"Don't Give Up On Us\" (1976) UK #1, US #1\n* \"Going In With My Eyes Open\" (1977) UK #2, US #54\n* \"Silver Lady\" (1977) UK #1, US #52\n* \"Let's Have A Quiet Night In\" (1977) UK #8\n* \"It Sure Brings Out The Love In Your Eyes\" (1978) UK #12\nSource: \n\nBibliography\n\n* Top Pop Singles 1955-2002 by Joel Whitburn – 2003\n* The Life, The Legend by David Tailford – 1987" ] }

{ "description": [ "David Soul, Actor: Starsky and Hutch. David Soul achieved pop icon status as handsome, ... 2001-2002 Holby City ... 1968-1970 Here Come the Brides ...", "... Don't Give Up On Us, Silver Lady & more. David Soul (born August 28 ... Originally David Richard Solberg, he was born the ... 1927 Kansas City: Buy. 937 ...", "Home / HOLBY CITY / HC Actor / David Soul. David Soul By Cheryl Griffin on January 13, 2010. Tweet; Pin It; Plays Alan Fletcher. FULL NAME : David ... Here Come The ...", "David Soul achieved pop icon status as ... These early experiences proved to be indelible ones for David as hundreds of these people streamed through the Solberg ..." ], "filename": [ "115/115_2167516.txt", "85/85_2866381.txt", "135/135_2866383.txt", "29/29_2167519.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 2, 4, 5 ], "title": [ "David Soul - IMDb", "David Soul — Free listening, videos, concerts, stats and ...", "David Soul - Holby.tv", "David Soul - Biography - IMDb" ], "url": [ "http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0815800/", "http://www.last.fm/music/David+Soul", "http://www.holby.tv/david-soul/", "http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0815800/bio" ], "search_context": [ "David Soul - IMDb\nIMDb\nActor | Soundtrack | Director\nDavid Soul achieved pop icon status as handsome, blond-haired, blue-eyed Detective Kenneth Hutchinson on the cult \"buddy cop\" TV series Starsky and Hutch (1975), Soul also had a very successful singing career recording several albums, with worldwide number one hit singles including \"Silver Lady\" & \"Don't Give Up on Us Baby\". Born in Chicago, ... See full bio »\nBorn:\nShare this page:\nRelated News\na list of 43 people\ncreated 14 Jan 2011\na list of 37 people\ncreated 13 Mar 2011\na list of 48 people\ncreated 26 Mar 2012\na list of 973 people\ncreated 26 Feb 2013\na list of 127 people\ncreated 05 Jul 2014\nDo you have a demo reel?\nAdd it to your IMDbPage\nHow much of David Soul's work have you seen?\nUser Polls\n1 win & 3 nominations. See more awards  »\nKnown For\nStarsky and Hutch Det. Ken 'Hutch' Hutchinson\n(1975-1979)\n 2004 The Dark Lantern (TV Movie)\nStoryteller\n 2004 Dalziel and Pascoe (TV Series)\nDetective Gus D'Amato\n 1995 Vents contraires (TV Movie)\nQuill\n 1994 High Tide (TV Series)\nBrian Landis\n 1991-1993 Murder, She Wrote (TV Series)\nJordan Barnett / Wes McSorley\n 1990 The Young Riders (TV Series)\nJeremy Styles\n 1989 Prime Target (TV Movie)\nPeter Armetage\n 1989 Deadly Nightmares (TV Series)\nCooper Halliday\n 1989 Alfred Hitchcock Presents (TV Series)\nMichael Dennison\n 1987 Crime Story (TV Series)\nDr. Newhouse\n 1987 Harry's Hong Kong (TV Movie)\nHarry Petros\n 1986 The Fifth Missile (TV Movie)\nCapt. Kevin Harris\n 1984 Partners in Crime (TV Series)\nHarry\n 1983 Through Naked Eyes (TV Movie)\nWilliam Parrish\n 1982 World War III (TV Movie)\nCol. Jake Caffey\n 1980 Homeward Bound (TV Movie)\nJake Seaton\n 1980 Swan Song (TV Movie)\nJesse Swan\n 1974 Medical Center (TV Series)\nWalter\n 1974 McMillan & Wife (TV Series)\nJerry\n 1974 The Rookies (TV Series)\nJohnny Dane\n 1973 Circle of Fear (TV Series)\nJames Barlow\n 1972 The F.B.I. (TV Series)\nClifford Wade\n 1972 Movin' On (TV Movie)\nJeff\n 1971 Dan August (TV Series)\nLawrence Merrill III\n 1967 Star Trek (TV Series)\nMakora\n 2016 The Conjuring 2 (performer: \"Don't Give Up On Us\")\n 2013/I Filth (performer: \"Silver Lady\")\n 2011 Johnny English Reborn (courtesy: \"Don't Give Up On Us\") / (performer: \"Don't Give Up On Us\")\n 2010 Rabbit Hole (performer: \"Don't Give Up On Us\")\n 2007 The Hitcher (performer: \"Don't Give Up on Us\")\n 1977-1978 Top of the Pops (TV Series) (performer - 17 episodes)\n- Episode dated 22 June 1978 (1978) ... (performer: \"It Sure Brings Out the Love in Your Eyes\")\n- Episode dated 8 June 1978 (1978) ... (performer: \"It Sure Brings Out the Love in Your Eyes\")", "David Soul — Free listening, videos, concerts, stats and photos at Last.fm\nsoft rock\nDavid Soul (born August 28, 1943 in Chicago, Illinois) is an American actor and British citizen and singer best known for his role as the \"seat-of-the-pants\" California police detective Ken 'Hutch' Hutchinson (opposite co-star and long-time friend Paul Michael Glaser) in the cult television program Starsky and Hutch (1975-79).\nOriginally David Richard Solberg, he was born the son of a Lutheran minister. His father, Dr. Richard Solberg, was a senior representative for Lutheran World Relief during the reconstruction of Germany… read more", "David Soul - Holby.tv\nDavid Soul\nFULL NAME : David Richard Solberg\nDATE OF BURTH : 28th August 1943\nBORN : Chicago, Illinois, USA\nFAMILY : Father, Dr. Richard Solberg.\nTRAINED : Irene Daly School of The Actors Company, Uta Hagen in New York, and the Columbia Workshop.\nTELEVISION CREDITS : The Bride In Black; China Hand; Circus Of The Stars; Crosswinds; Cry In The Wild – The Taking Of Peggy Ann; The Disappearance Of Flight 412; Down And Under; The F.B.I. Murders; Grave Secrets; The Legacy of Hilltop Drive; Homeward Bound; Interject; The Judge Was A Woman; Little Ladies Of The Night; Movin On; Prime Target; Rage!; So Proudly We Hail; Swan Song; Terror In The Mall; Through Naked Eyes; Unknown Subject; 6.55 Special; Casablanca; Here Come The Brides; The Merv Griffin Show; Owen Marshall; Counselor At Law; Starsky And Hutch; Unsub; The Yellow Rose; A Christmas Story; The Fifth Missile; The Key To Rebecca; Les Filles du Lido; The Manions Of America. Salem’s Lot. Sandra, Princess Rebelle. Secret Of The Sahara; World War III; Age Of Independence; All Through The Night. The Apple. Blast From The Past. Brides And Grooms; The Case Of The Posthumous Painter; Case X; Change Of Heart; China Beach; Death On The Nile; Death of a Stone Seahorse; Don’t Sell Yourself Short; The Firing Line (1); A Game of Soldiers; Gathering Clouds; Gloria Poses In The Nude; Going Gently; Guilt By Association; Hall Of Mirrors; The Hottest Guy In Town; How Long Has This Thing Been Going On?; Huggy Can’t Go Back; Hunter; In The Heat Of The Night; A Killing In Vegas; Kiss And Kill; Lady in Red; Lesson in Terror; Little Britain; Manchild On The Streets; The Manufactured Man; My Master; The Weakling; No Exit; The Phantom Of Herald Square; Renaissance; The Runner; Sitting Ducks; Survival; A Test Of Courage; Threshold Of Fear; Vanishing Act; Holby City; The Dark Lantern’ Dalziel & Pascoe; Poirot; Jerry Springer – The Opera; Mermaids – The Body Found; Lewis\nFILM CREDITS : Appointment With Death; Deadwood; Dogpound Shuffle; The Hanoi Hilton; In The Cold Of The Night; Johnny Got His Gun; Magnum Force; Pentathlon; Puritan; Starsky And Hutch – The Movie; The Stick-Up; Tabloid; Tides of War; Farewell; Eldorado\nTHEATRE CREDITS : Anything Goes; The Aspern Papers; Baal; Blood Brothers; Catch Me If You Can; Comic Potential; The Dead Monkey; Deathtrap; Fool For Love; Jerry Springer – The Opera; Missing In Action; My One And Only; Sergeant Musgrave’s Dance; Speed The Plow; Mack and Mabel; Love Letters\nRADIO CREDITS : Chorus Line; Firefly Summer; I Have No Mouth; And I Must Scream\nAGENT : Diamond Management, 31 Percy Street, London W1T 2DD.", "David Soul - Biography - IMDb\nDavid Soul\nJump to: Overview  (3) | Mini Bio  (1) | Spouse  (5) | Trivia  (24) | Personal Quotes  (24)\nOverview (3)\n6' 0½\" (1.84 m)\nMini Bio (1)\nDavid Soul achieved pop icon status as handsome, blond-haired, blue-eyed Detective Kenneth Hutchinson on the cult \"buddy cop\" TV series Starsky and Hutch (1975), Soul also had a very successful singing career recording several albums, with worldwide number one hit singles including \"Silver Lady\" & \"Don't Give Up on Us Baby\".\nBorn in Chicago, Illinois, David Soul is the son of a minister who was at one time serving as the religious affairs advisor to the U.S. High Commission in Berlin. At 24 years of age, young Soul joined a North Dakota musical revue, was noticed by a keen-eyed talent scout, and signed to a studio contract. He went on to study acting with the Irene Daly School of The Actors Company, and with the Columbia Workshop in Hollywood. He first appeared on TV in small roles in shows including I Dream of Jeannie (1965), Flipper (1964) and All in the Family (1971). Regular TV work kept coming in for Soul including making masked appearances on The Merv Griffin Show (1962), as the popular singer known only as \"The Covered Man.\"\nIn 1973, Soul was fortunate enough to be cast as one of the corrupt motorcycle cops in the Clint Eastwood thriller Magnum Force (1973), where his talents came to the attention of several TV execs who were looking for someone to play one of the lead roles in the upcoming Starsky and Hutch (1975) TV series. After four seasons, the show came to an end, yet Soul's talents were still in demand. He quickly went on to appear as the meek writer turned terrified vampire hunter Ben Mears in the chilling television mini-series Salem's Lot (1979), and then as Jake in the interesting television movie Homeward Bound (1980).\nSeveral undemanding movies and TV series appearances followed for Soul. However in 1988 he scored rave reviews for his portrayal of real life, cold-blooded cop killer Michael Lee Platt in In the Line of Duty: The F.B.I. Murders (1988). It was considered highly controversial for its intense level of violence in a made for TV production.\nDavid Soul remained very busy throughout the 1990's and beyond, in both film and on stage productions. He has toured internationally in several theater productions, including playing the narrator in the critically-acclaimed production of Willy Russell's Blood Brothers, plus a successful UK tour performing in Ira Levin's Deathtrap. Fans of the original TV series were glad to see Soul back with Paul Michael Glaser doing a cameo appearance in the big-budget movie version of Starsky & Hutch (2004).\nThroughout his life, Soul has continually championed social causes often utilizing his own funds to raise awareness on issues including the impact of the Vietnam War, the shutdowns in the US steel industry, animal welfare, world hunger and HIV education. Soul has for several years made his home in the United Kingdom, where he has appeared at the Edinburgh Festival, on several British TV shows and has become a keen soccer fan supporting English club, Arsenal FC.\n- IMDb Mini Biography By: [email protected]\nSpouse (5)\n( 7 December  1963 - 1965) (divorced) (1 child)\nTrivia (24)\nUsed to appear on The Merv Griffin Show (1962) wearing a hood and was billed as \"The Covered Man\" before becoming nationally known on Starsky and Hutch (1975).\nChildren: with Mirriam - one son; with Karen Carlson - one son; with Patti - one, as well as the two sons she previously had with Bobby Sherman ; and with Julia Nickson - one daughter, China Soul .\nHis brother, the Rev. Solberg, was an activist minister (Lutheran). He has joined him on more than one occasion in public protest or rally. Also, he and Paul Michael Glaser have attended Christian/Jewish benefits together at least once.\nHis father, Dr. Richard Solberg, served as a religious affairs advisor to the U.S. High Commission in Berlin and as senior representative for the Lutheran World Federation (LWF), refugee relief agency actively involved in the post WW-II reconstruction in Germany. Dr. Solberg's job was to administrate relief to the tens of thousands of refugees who were fleeing oppressive regimes and then try to put the fragmented families back together again in the West. These early experiences proved to be indelible ones for David as hundreds of these people streamed through the Solberg home.\nBetween 1977 and 1982, he recorded four albums, which included a string of major hit singles: Don't Give Up On Us, Baby; Silver Lady; and Going In with my Eyes Open. He toured extensively with his band in the USA, UK, Japan and South America.\nBetween 1984 and 1986, David financed, produced and directed an award-winning documentary, The Fighting Ministers, which uses the shut-down of the steel industry in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania as its basis.\nIn 1994, David has refocused his acting and producing efforts specifically to the burgeoning international film and television markets. He starred in two films for Canadian and French television, and starred (in French) with Anne Giraudau and Line Renaud in the television mini-series, The Girls of Lido (1995) for France's TF-1.\nHe played the role of Narrator in the New Zealand-born/Australian production of Willy Russell's Blood Brothers (a production which moved on to Melbourne and Sydney). The play marks David's return to the stage after a fifteen years absence and his first, even experience in a musical.\nHe is an avid skier, tennis player and loves to go \"exploring\" with his children.\nIn Cannes in 1996, David performed songs from his friend Charles Aznavour in the Martinez Hotel.\nHe has 6 children - 5 sons and a daughter, China Soul .\nFluent in both German and Spanish.\nDuring the run of Starsky and Hutch (1975), he recorded a #1 single called \"Don't Give Up On Us\".\nBecame a United Kingdom citizen in September 2004.\nRomantically involved with actress/singer/composer Lynne Marta throughout the run of Starsky and Hutch (1975) but they split up after the show ended.\nAt the Edinburgh Festival in 2000, he directed and starred in Sam Shepard 's \"Fool For Love\". His production incorporated pre-shot and live on-stage video, visual effects, graphics, 3-D imaging, time-lapse footage and digital sound to heighten the visceral experience of the presentation. It was one of the first real examples of how streaming media can be effectively applied to the live theatre.\nHe is of Norwegian descent.\nNamed one of his five sons Brendan after longtime Irish friend and comedian Brendan Grace .\nAppearing in the title role in \"Jerry Springer: The Opera\" at the Cambridge theater in London's West End. [December 2004]\n(2004 - 2005) Appearing at the Cambridge Theatre London as Jerry Springer in the National Theatre production of Jerry Springer The Opera.\nHe is on a UK tour in the revival of the stage musical \"Mack and Mabel\", playing the lead role of Mack Sennett alongside Janie Dee , playing Mabel Normand . [January 2006]\nHe appeared in the London West End revival of the stage musical \"Mack and Mabel\", playing the lead role of Mack Sennett alongside Janie Dee , playing Mabel Normand . [July 2006]\nHe has taken over the lead role of \"Jerry Springer - the Opera\" at London's Cambridge Theatre. However, he has the only non-singing role. [January 2005]\nLives in London and works mostly on the stage acting and producing in England. His partner was actress Alexa Hamilton . [November 2000]\nPersonal Quotes (24)\n[on Starsky & Hutch (2004)] In a word, I thought it sucked.\nI believe that a parent's role is to provide a path or opportunity for their children.\nMy father was my main influence. He was a preacher, but he was also a history and political science teacher, and since he was my hero, I wanted to follow in his footsteps and become a teacher.\nNobody teaches you to be a father. Nobody teaches you to be a husband. Nobody teaches you how to be a star. You have to learn to work with the tools.\nOne of my beliefs is that there are certain institutions within a community which stand for the spirit and heart of that community, there's the church, the local football team, the local pub and the theatre.\nSometimes I feel an obligation to be accessible as a personality, but for me the driving force since the beginning has always been good work, taking risks, trying new things. If the door opens, go through it. Always go forwards.\nI was an accidental actor. I was never formally trained.\nBeing on the move all the time is draining, but the rewards make up for it.\nA job is a very healthy thing to do.\nIt's only when gravity starts to take over you begin to think about your body.\nI like to eat and I love the diversity of foods.\nThe most important thing is story-telling. It's as singular and old-fashioned as that.\nMusic always came first. I never set out to be an actor.\nIt's important to move the theatre into the 21st Century.\nIf these theatres didn't exist, the tradition of British theatre would cease to exist.\nI was born into a family of preachers.\nOnce in a while I'll get moved to do some exercise. It's something I long for but the biggest problem is bending down and putting my tennis shoes on. Once I go out I'm OK.\nI went into acting because I had to make a good living. I had a child now and I had to support him any way I could... I wasn't happy, but I wasn't unhappy. I was just doing what I had to do to survive.\nI was never jailed. The fact is that I was arrested, but I went into a diversion programme, and by that time I'd already begun working in what was called anger management. It was a painful and awful moment.\nAt only 20 years old I got married. I was still a kid myself, but in those times, if you got someone pregnant, you had no choice but to get married. So I left school and the only thing I could do was sing.\nYes, your home is your castle, but it is also your identity and your possibility to be open to others.\nTo deal with the stark reality of having hit or hurt a woman or child, to deal with the initial responsibility you have not to do that and the knowledge you did do it, can be incredibly hard.\nPeople thought me a bit strange at first; a blond haired, blue-eyed Norwegian who sang Mexican folk songs, but I used it to my advantage and got a job. And so the music became my ticket to education.\nPaul and I were both struggling actors. One night he would serve me in a restaurant, and the next night I would serve him. It was what out of work actors did.\nSee also" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Super_Bowl_XX.txt" ], "title": [ "Super Bowl XX" ], "wiki_context": [ "Super Bowl XX was an American football game between the National Football Conference (NFC) champion Chicago Bears and the American Football Conference (AFC) champion New England Patriots to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for the 1985 season. The Bears defeated the Patriots by the score of 46–10, capturing their first NFL championship since 1963, three years prior to the birth of the Super Bowl. Super Bowl XX was played on January 26, 1986 at the Louisiana Superdome in New Orleans, Louisiana.\n\nTo date, it is the fourth, and most recent, Super Bowl where both teams were making their Super Bowl debuts. Presently, this would only occur again if the Detroit Lions face either the Cleveland Browns, Jacksonville Jaguars, or the Houston Texans. The Bears entered the game after becoming the second team in NFL history to win 15 regular season games. With their then-revolutionary 46 defense, Chicago led the league in several defensive categories, outscored their opponents with a staggering margin of 456–198, and recorded two postseason shutouts. The Patriots were considered a cinderella team during the 1985 season, and posted an 11–5 regular season record, but entered the playoffs as a wild card because of tiebreakers. But defying the odds, New England posted three road playoff wins to advance to Super Bowl XX.\n\nIn their victory over the Patriots, the Bears set or tied Super Bowl records for sacks (seven), fewest rushing yards allowed (seven), and margin of victory (36 points). At the time, New England broke the record for the quickest lead in Super Bowl history, with Tony Franklin's 36-yard field goal 1:19 into the first quarter after a Chicago fumble. But the Patriots were eventually held to negative yardage (−19) throughout the entire first half, and finished with just 123 total yards from scrimmage, the second lowest total yards in Super Bowl history, behind the Minnesota Vikings (119 total yards) in Super Bowl IX. Bears defensive end Richard Dent, who had 1.5 quarterback sacks, forced two fumbles, and blocked a pass, was named the game's Most Valuable Player (MVP). \n\nThe telecast of the game on NBC was watched by an estimated 92.57 million viewers. To commemorate the 20th Super Bowl, all previous Super Bowl MVPs were honored during the pregame ceremonies.\n\nBackground\n\nNFL owners awarded the hosting of Super Bowl XX to New Orleans, Louisiana on December 14, 1982, at an owners meeting held in Dallas. This was the sixth time that New Orleans hosted the Super Bowl. Tulane Stadium was the site of Super Bowls IV, VI, and IX; while the Louisiana Superdome previously hosted XII and XV.\n\nAs of 2016, Super Bowl XX remains the last Super Bowl to feature two teams both making their first appearance in the game. It was the fourth overall following Super Bowl I, Super Bowl III, and Super Bowl XVI. Any future Super Bowl that would have such a combination would have to have the Detroit Lions playing either the Cleveland Browns, Houston Texans, or Jacksonville Jaguars in the game.\n\nThe nation's recognition of the Bears' accomplishment was overshadowed by the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster two days later, an event which caused the cancellation of the Bears' post-Super Bowl White House visit; the surviving members of the team eventually would be invited to the White House in 2011. \n\nChicago Bears\n\nUnder head coach Mike Ditka, who won the 1985 NFL Coach of the Year Award, the Bears went 15–1 in the regular season, becoming the second NFL team to win 15 regular season games, while outscoring their opponents with a staggering margin of 456–198.\n\nThe Bears' defense, the \"46 defense\", allowed the fewest points (198), fewest total yards (4,135), and fewest rushing of any team during the regular season (1,319). They also led the league in interceptions (34) and ranked third in sacks (64).\n\nPro Bowl quarterback Jim McMahon provided the team with a solid passing attack, throwing for 2,392 yards and 15 touchdowns, while also rushing for 252 yards and three touchdowns. Running back Walter Payton, who was then the NFL's all-time leading rusher with 14,860 yards, rushed for 1,551 yards. He also caught 49 passes for 483 yards, and scored 11 touchdowns. Linebacker Mike Singletary won the NFL Defensive Player of the Year Award by recording three sacks, three fumble recoveries, and one interception.\n\nBut one of the most distinguishable players on defense was a large rookie lineman named William \"The Refrigerator\" Perry. Perry came into training camp before the season weighing over 380 pounds. But after Bears defensive coach Buddy Ryan told the press that the team \"wasted\" their first round draft pick on him, Perry lost some weight and ended up being an effective defensive tackle. He got even more attention when Ditka started putting him in the game at the fullback position during offensive plays near the opponent's goal line. During the regular season, Perry rushed for 2 touchdowns, caught a pass for another touchdown, and was frequently a lead blocker for Payton during goal line plays.\n\nThe Bears \"46 defense\" also had the following impact players: On the defensive line, Pro Bowler and future Hall of Famer Richard Dent led the NFL in sacks for the second year in a row with 17, while Pro Bowler and future Hall of Famer Dan Hampton recorded 6.5 sacks, and nose tackle Steve McMichael compiled 8. In addition to Singletary, linebacker Otis Wilson had 10.5 sacks and 3 interceptions, while Wilber Marshall recorded 4 interceptions. In the secondary, defensive back Leslie Frazier had 6 interceptions, Mike Richardson recorded 4 interceptions, Dave Duerson had 5 interceptions, and Gary Fencik recorded 5 interceptions and 118 tackles.\n\nChicago's main offensive weapon was Payton and the running game. A big reason for Payton's success was fullback Matt Suhey as the primary lead blocker. Suhey was also a good ball carrier, rushing for 471 yards and catching 33 passes for 295 yards. The team's rushing was also aided by Pro Bowlers Jim Covert and Jay Hilgenberg and the rest of the Bears' offensive line.\n\nIn their passing game, the Bears' primary deep threat was wide receiver Willie Gault, who caught 33 passes for 704 yards, an average of 21.3 yards per catch, and returned 22 kickoffs for 557 yards and a touchdown. Tight end Emery Moorehead was another key contributor, catching 35 passes for 481 yards. Wide receiver Dennis McKinnon was another passing weapon, recording 31 receptions, 555 yards, and 7 touchdowns. On special teams, Kevin Butler set a rookie scoring record with 144 points, making 31 of 37 field goals (83%) and 51 of 51 extra points.\n\nMeanwhile, the players brought their characterizations to the national stage with the \"Super Bowl Shuffle\", a rap song the Bears recorded during the season. Even though it was in essence a novelty song, it actually peaked at #41 on the Billboard charts and received a Grammy nomination for best R&B song by a group.\n\nNew England Patriots\n\nThe Patriots were a cinderella team during the 1985 season because many sports writers and fans thought they were lucky to make the playoffs at all. New England began the season losing three of their first five games, but won six consecutive games to finish with an 11–5 record. However, the 11–5 mark only earned them third place in the AFC East behind the Miami Dolphins and the New York Jets.\n\nQuarterback Tony Eason, in his third year in the NFL, was inconsistent during the regular season, completing 168 out of 299 passes for 2,156 yards and 11 touchdowns, but also 17 interceptions. Eason played poorly early on in the game, going 0-for-6 and losing a fumble, and was replaced by backup Steve Grogan, who was considered one of the best reserve quarterbacks in the league. Grogan was the starter in six of the Patriots' games, and finished the regular season with 85 out of 156 completions for 1,311 yards, 7 touchdowns, and 5 interceptions.\n\nWide receiver Stanley Morgan provided the team with a good deep threat, catching 39 passes for 760 yards and 5 touchdowns. On the other side of the field, multi-talented wide receiver Irving Fryar was equally effective, catching 39 passes for 670 yards, while also rushing for 27 yards, gaining another 559 yards returning punts and kickoffs, and scoring 10 touchdowns. But like the Bears, the Patriots' main strength on offense was their rushing attack. Halfback Craig James rushed for 1,227 yards, caught 27 passes for 370 yards, and scored 7 touchdowns. Fullback Tony Collins rushed for 657 yards, recorded a team-leading 52 receptions for 549 yards, and scored 5 touchdowns. The Patriots also had an outstanding offensive line, led by Pro Bowl tackle Brian Holloway and future Hall of Fame guard John Hannah.\n\nNew England's defense ranked 5th in the league in fewest yards allowed (5,048). Pro Bowl linebacker Andre Tippett led the AFC with 16.5 sacks and recovered 3 fumbles. Pro Bowl linebacker Steve Nelson was also a big defensive weapon, excelling at pass coverage and run stopping. Also, the Patriots' secondary only gave up 14 touchdown passes during the season, second fewest in the league. Pro Bowl defensive back Raymond Clayborn recorded 6 interceptions for 80 return yards and 1 touchdown, while Pro Bowler Fred Marion had 7 interceptions for 189 return yards.\n\nPlayoffs\n\nIn the playoffs, the Patriots qualified as the AFC's second wild card.\n\nBut the Patriots, under head coach Raymond Berry, defied the odds, beating the New York Jets 26–14, Los Angeles Raiders 27–20, and the Dolphins 31–14 – all on the road – to make it to the Super Bowl. The win against Miami had been especially surprising, not only because Miami was the only team to beat Chicago in the season, but also because New England had not won in the Orange Bowl (Miami's then-home field) since 1966, the Dolphins' first season (then in the AFL). The Patriots had lost to Miami there 18 consecutive times, including a 30–27 loss in their 15th game of the season. But New England dominated the Dolphins in the AFC Championship Game, recording two interceptions from quarterback Dan Marino and recovering 4 fumbles. New England remains the only team to finish third in their division and qualify for the Super Bowl in the same season.\n\nMeanwhile, the Bears became the first and only team in NFL history to shut out both of their opponents in the playoffs, beating the New York Giants 21–0 and the Los Angeles Rams 24–0.\n\nSuper Bowl pregame hype\n\nMuch of the Super Bowl pregame hype centered on Bears quarterback Jim McMahon. First, he was fined by the NFL during the playoffs for a violation of the league's dress code, wearing a head band from Adidas. He then started to wear a head band where he hand-wrote \"Rozelle\", after then-league commissioner Pete Rozelle.[http://espn.go.com/classic/biography/s/McMahon_Jim.html ESPN Classic - McMahon was a rebel without pause]\n\nMcMahon suffered a strained glute as the result of a hit taken in the NFC Championship Game and flew his acupuncturist into New Orleans to get treatment. During practice four days before the Super Bowl, he wore a headband reading \"Acupuncture\". During a Bears practice before the Super Bowl, McMahon mooned a helicopter that was hovering over the practice.\n\nAnother anecdote involving McMahon during the Super Bowl anticipation involved WDSU-TV reporting a quote attributed to McMahon, where he had allegedly referred to the women of New Orleans as \"sluts\" on a local morning sports talk show. This caused wide controversy among the women of New Orleans and McMahon began receiving calls from irate fans in his hotel. A groggy McMahon, who had not been able to sleep well because of all the calls he had gotten, was confronted by Mike Ditka later that morning and denied making the statement, saying he would not have even been awake to make the comment when he was said to have done so. He was supported in his claim by WLS reporter Les Grobstein, who was present when the alleged statements were made. WDSU would later retract the statement and make an on-air apology.\n\nTelevision and entertainment\n\nThe NBC telecast of the game, with play-by-play announcer Dick Enberg and color commentators Merlin Olsen and Bob Griese (who was not in the booth with Enberg and Olsen), garnered the third highest Nielsen rating of any Super Bowl to date, a 48.3 but it ended up being the first Super Bowl to garner over 90 million viewers the highest to date up to that point. While Dick Enberg, Merlin Olsen and Bob Griese called the game, Bob Costas and his NFL '85 castmates, Ahmad Rashad and Pete Axthelm anchored the pregame, halftime and postgame coverage. Other contributors included Charlie Jones (recapping Super Bowl I) and Bill Macatee. Also, the pregame coverage included what became known as \"the silent minute\"; a 60-second countdown over a black screen (a concept devised by then-NBC Sports executive Michael Weisman); a skit featuring comedian Rodney Dangerfield and an interview by NBC Nightly News anchor Tom Brokaw of United States President Ronald Reagan at the White House (this would not become a regular Super Bowl pregame feature until Super Bowl XLIII; when Today show host Matt Lauer interviewed U.S. President Barack Obama).\n\nTo celebrate the 20th Super Bowl game, the Most Valuable Players of the previous Super Bowls were featured during the pregame festivities. This would start a tradition occurring every ten years (in Super Bowls XXX, XL and 50) in which past Super Bowl MVPs would be honored before the game.\n\nAfter trumpeter Wynton Marsalis performed the national anthem, Bart Starr, MVP of Super Bowl I and Super Bowl II, tossed the coin.\n\nThe performance event group Up with People performed during the halftime show titled \"Beat of the Future\". Up with People dancers portrayed various scenes into the future. This was the last Super Bowl to feature Up with People as a halftime show, though they later performed in the Super Bowl XXV pregame show. The halftime show was dedicated to the memory of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. (the first observance of Martin Luther King, Jr. Day had been held the previous Monday).\n\nThe Last Precinct debuted on NBC after the game.\n\nSuper Bowl XX was simulcast in Canada on CTV and also broadcast on Channel 4 in the United Kingdom.\n\nSuper Bowl XX is featured on NFL's Greatest Games under the title Super Bears with narration by Don LaFontaine.\n\nGame summary\n\nThe Patriots took the then-quickest lead in Super Bowl history after linebacker Larry McGrew recovered a fumble from Walter Payton at the Chicago 19-yard line on the second play of the game (the Bears themselves would break this record in Super Bowl XLI when Devin Hester ran back the opening kickoff for a touchdown). Bears quarterback Jim McMahon took responsibility for this fumble after the game, saying he had called the wrong play. This set up Tony Franklin's 36-yard field goal 1:19 into the first quarter after three incomplete passes by Tony Eason (the first of which starting tight end Lin Dawson went down with torn ligaments in his knee). \"I looked up at the message board,\" said Chicago linebacker Mike Singletary, \"and it said that 15 of the 19 teams that scored first won the game. I thought, yeah, but none of those 15 had ever played the Bears.\" Chicago struck back with a 7-play, 59-yard drive, featuring a 43-yard pass completion from McMahon to wide receiver Willie Gault, to set up a field goal from Kevin Butler, tying the score 3–3.\n\nAfter both teams traded punts, Richard Dent and linebacker Wilber Marshall shared a sack on Eason, forcing a fumble that lineman Dan Hampton recovered on the Patriots 13-yard line. Chicago then drove to the 3-yard line, but had to settle for another field goal from Butler after rookie defensive lineman William \"The Refrigerator\" Perry was tackled for a 1-yard loss while trying to throw his first NFL pass on a halfback option play. On the Patriots' ensuing drive, Dent forced running back Craig James to fumble, which was recovered by Singletary at the 13-yard line. Two plays later, Bears fullback Matt Suhey scored on an 11-yard touchdown run to increase the lead to 13–3.\n\nNew England took the ensuing kickoff and ran one play before the first quarter ended, which resulted in positive yardage for the first time in the game (a 3-yard run by James). But after an incomplete pass and a 4-yard loss, they had to send in punter Rich Camarillo again, and receiver Keith Ortego returned the ball 12 yards to the 41-yard line. The Bears subsequently drove 59 yards in 10 plays, featuring a 24-yard reception by Suhey, to score on McMahon's 2-yard touchdown run to increase their lead, 20–3. After the ensuing kickoff, New England lost 13 yards in 3 plays and had to punt again, but got the ball back with great field position when defensive back Raymond Clayborn recovered a fumble from Suhey at their own 46-yard line. On the punt, Ortego forgot what the play call was for the punt return, and the ensuing chaos resulted in him being penalized for running after a fair catch and teammate Leslie Frazier suffering a knee injury, which ended his career.\n\nPatriots coach Raymond Berry then replaced Eason with Steve Grogan, who had spent the previous week hoping he would have the opportunity to step onto NFL's biggest stage. \"I probably won't get a chance,\" he had told reporters a few days before the game. \"I just hope I can figure out some way to get on the field. I could come in on the punt-block team and stand behind the line and wave my arms, or something.\" But on his first drive, Grogan could only lead them to the 37-yard line, and they decided to punt rather than risk a 55-yard field goal attempt. The Bears then marched 72 yards in 11 plays, moving the ball inside the Patriots' 10-yard line. New England kept them out of the end zone, but Butler kicked his third field goal on the last play of the half to give Chicago a 23–3 halftime lead.\n\nThe end of the half was controversial. With 21 seconds left in the first half, McMahon scrambled to the Patriots' 3-yard line and was stopped inbounds. With the clock ticking down, players from both teams were fighting, and the Bears were forced to snap the ball before the officials formally put it back into play, allowing McMahon to throw the ball out of bounds and stop the clock with three seconds left. The Bears were penalized five yards for delay of game, but according to NFL rules, 10 seconds should have also been run off the clock during such a deliberate clock-stopping attempt in the final two minutes of a half. In addition, a flag should have been thrown for fighting (also according to NFL rules). This would have likely resulted in offsetting penalties, which would still allow for a field goal attempt. As far as the illegal snap is concerned, the non-call was promptly acknowledged by the officials and reported by NBC sportscasters during halftime, but the resulting three points were not taken away from the Bears (because of this instance, the NFL instructed officials to strictly enforce the 10-second run-off rule at the start of the 1986 season).\n\nThe Bears had dominated New England in the first half, holding them to 21 offensive plays (only four of which resulted in positive yardage), −19 total offensive yards, two pass completions, one first down, and 3 points. While Eason was in the game, the totals were six possessions, one play of positive yardage out of 15 plays, no first downs, 3 points, 3 punts, 2 turnovers, no pass completions, and -36 yards of total offense. Meanwhile, Chicago gained 236 yards and scored 23 points themselves.\n\nAfter the Patriots received the second-half kickoff, they managed to get one first down, but then had to punt after Grogan was sacked twice. Camarillo, who punted four times in the first half, managed to pin the Bears back at their own 4-yard line with a then-Super Bowl record 62-yard punt. But the Patriots' defense still had no ability to stop Chicago's offense. On their very first play, McMahon faked a handoff to Payton, then threw a 60-yard completion to Gault. Eight plays later, McMahon finished the Super Bowl-record 96-yard drive with a 1-yard touchdown run to increase the Bears' lead to 30–3. On New England's second drive of the quarter, Chicago cornerback Reggie Phillips (who replaced Frazier) intercepted a pass from Grogan and returned it 28 yards for a touchdown to increase the lead to 37–3.\n\nOn the second play of their ensuing possession, the Patriots turned the ball over again, when receiver Cedric Jones lost a fumble after catching a 19-yard pass from Grogan, and Wilber Marshall returned the fumble 13 yards to New England's 37-yard line. A few plays later, McMahon's 27-yard completion to receiver Dennis Gentry moved the ball to the 1-yard line, setting up perhaps the most memorable moment of the game. William \"The Refrigerator\" Perry was brought on to score on offense, as he had done twice in the regular season. His touchdown (while running over Patriots linebacker Larry McGrew in the process) made the score 44–3. The Bears' 21 points in the third quarter is still a record for the most points scored in that period.\n\nPerry's surprise touchdown cost Las Vegas sports books hundreds of thousands of dollars in losses from prop bets. The Patriots finally scored a touchdown early in the fourth quarter, advancing the ball 76 yards in 12 plays and scoring on an 8-yard fourth-down pass from Grogan to receiver Irving Fryar. But the Bears' defense dominated New England for the rest of the game, forcing another fumble, another interception, and defensive lineman Henry Waechter's sack on Grogan in the end zone for a safety to make the final score 46–10.\n\nOne oddity in the Bears' victory was that Walter Payton had a relatively poor performance running the ball and never scored a touchdown in Super Bowl XX, his first and only Super Bowl appearance during his Hall of Fame career (Many people including Mike Ditka have claimed that the reason for this was due to the fact that the Patriots' defensive scheme was centered on stopping Payton). Although Payton was ultimately the Bears' leading rusher during the game, the Patriots' defense held him to only 61 yards on 22 carries, with his longest run being only 7 yards. He was given several opportunities to score near the goal line, but New England stopped him every time before he reached the end zone (such as his 2-yard loss from the New England 3-yard line a few plays before Butler's second field goal, and his 2-yard run from the 4-yard line right before McMahon's first rushing touchdown). Thus, Chicago head coach Mike Ditka opted to go for other plays to counter the Patriots' defense. Perry's touchdown and McMahon's rushing touchdowns are scoring opportunities that were denied to Payton. Ditka has since gone on record stating that his biggest regret of his career was not creating a scoring opportunity for Payton during the game.\n\nMcMahon, who completed 12 out of 20 passes for 256 yards, became the first quarterback in a Super Bowl to score 2 rushing touchdowns. Bears receiver Willie Gault finished the game with 129 receiving yards on just 4 receptions, an average of 32.3 yards per catch. He also returned 4 kickoffs for 49 yards. Suhey had 11 carries for 52 yards and a touchdown, and caught a pass for 24 yards. Singletary tied a Super Bowl record with 2 fumble recoveries.\n\nEason became the first Super Bowl starting quarterback to fail to complete a pass, going 0 for 6 attempts. Grogan completed 17 out of 30 passes for 177 yards and 1 touchdown, with 2 interceptions. Although fullback Tony Collins was the Patriots' leading rusher, he was limited to just 4 yards on 3 carries, and caught 2 passes for 19 yards. New England receiver Stephen Starring returned 7 kickoffs for 153 yards and caught 2 passes for 39 yards. The Patriots, as a team, only recorded 123 total offensive yards, the second-lowest total in Super Bowl history.\n\nBox score\n\nFinal statistics\n\nSources: [http://www.nfl.com/superbowl/history/boxscore/sbxx NFL.com Super Bowl XX], [http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/sports/nfl/super/superbowl-xx-plays.htm USA Today Super Bowl XX Play by Play]\n\nStatistical comparison\n\nIndividual leaders\n\n1Completions/attempts\n2Carries\n3Long gain\n4Receptions\n\nStarting lineups\n\nSource: \n\nOfficials\n\n* Referee: Red Cashion #43 first Super Bowl\n* Umpire: Ron Botchan #110 first Super Bowl\n* Head Linesman: Dale Williams #8 first Super Bowl\n* Line Judge: Bama Glass #15 first Super Bowl\n* Field Judge: Jack Vaughan #93 first Super Bowl\n* Side Judge: Bob Rice #80 second Super Bowl (XVI)\n* Back Judge: Al Jury #106 first Super Bowl" ] }

{ "description": [ "Super Bowl XX Chicago 46, New England 10 . ... (Tom Flores of Raiders was the other) to win a Super Bowl ring as a player and as a coach. Information.", "... Bears beat Patriots in Super Bowl XX on ... becoming only the fourth defender to win the honor. Super Bowl XX is also remembered for the ubiquitous “Super ...", "Super Bowl XX was the 20th championship game of the modern National Football League (NFL). The game was played on January 26, 1986 at the Louisiana Superdome in New ...", "The Chicago Bears win the 1986 Super Bowl ... over the New England Patriots in Super Bowl XX. ... that the Bears would win the Super Bowl in ...", "Some parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later. ... Search for \"Super Bowl XX\" on Amazon.com. Connect with IMDb. Share this Rating.", "The Denver Broncos win Super Bowl 50, ... Santa Clara, California (CNN) ... Super Bowl XX (1986) ..." ], "filename": [ "33/33_239.txt", "85/85_240.txt", "54/54_242.txt", "39/39_243.txt", "62/62_246.txt", "172/172_248.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 1, 3, 4, 7, 9 ], "title": [ "Super Bowl XX Game Recap - NFL.com - Official Site of the ...", "Bears beat Patriots in Super Bowl XX - Jan 26, 1986 ...", "Super Bowl XX - American Football Wiki - Wikia", "The Chicago Bears win the 1986 Super Bowl - Chicago Tribune", "Super Bowl XX (1986) - IMDb", "Super Bowl 2016: Broncos take down Panthers - CNN.com" ], "url": [ "http://www.nfl.com/superbowl/history/recap/sbxx", "http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/bears-beat-patriots-in-super-bowl-xx", "http://americanfootball.wikia.com/wiki/Super_Bowl_XX", "http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/politics/chi-chicagodays-1986superbowl-story-story.html", "http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0477108/", "http://edition.cnn.com/2016/02/07/us/super-bowl-50-gameday/index.html" ], "search_context": [ "Super Bowl XX Game Recap\nChicago 46, New England 10\nSuperBowl.com wire reports\nBuddy Ryan's '46' defense squashed the Patriots.(AP)\nThe NFC champion Chicago Bears, seeking their first NFL title since 1963, scored a Super Bowl-record 46 points in downing AFC champion New England 46-10 in Super Bowl XX. The previous record for most points in a Super Bowl was 38, shared by San Francisco in XIX and the Los Angeles Raiders in XVIII.\nThe Bears' league-leading defense tied the Super Bowl record for sacks (7) and limited the Patriots to a record-low seven rushing yards.\nNew England took the quickest lead in Super Bowl history when Tony Franklin kicked a 36-yard field goal with 1:19 elapsed in the first period. The score came about because of Larry McGrew's fumble recovery at the Chicago 19-yard line.\nHowever, the Bears rebounded for a 23-3 first-half lead, while building a yardage advantage of 236 total yards to New England's minus 19.\nRunning back Matt Suhey rushed eight times for 37 yards, including an 11-yard touchdown run, and caught one pass for 24 yards in the first half.\nAfter the Patriot's first drive of the second half ended with a punt to the Bears' 4-yard line, Chicago marched 96 yards in nine plays with quarterback Jim McMahon's 1-yard scoring run capping the drive. McMahon became the first quarterback in Super Bowl history to rush for a pair of touchdowns.\nThe Bears completed their scoring via a 28-yard interception return by reserve cornerback Reggie Phillips, a 1-yard run by defensive tackle/fullback William Perry, and a safety when defensive end Henry Waechter tackled Patriots quarterback Steve Grogan in the end zone.\nBears defensive end Richard Dent became the fourth defender to be named the game's most valuable player after contributing 1½ sacks.\nThe Bears' victory margin of 36 points was the largest in Super Bowl history, bettering the previous mark of 29 by the Los Angeles Raiders when they topped Washington 38-9 in Game XVIII.\nMcMahon completed 12 of 20 passes for 256 yards before leaving the game in the fourth period with a wrist injury. The NFL's all-time leading rusher, Bears running back Walter Payton, carried 22 times for 61 yards.\nWide receiver Willie Gault caught four passes for 129 yards, the fourth-most receiving yards in a Super Bowl.\nChicago coach Mike Ditka became the second man (Tom Flores of Raiders was the other) to win a Super Bowl ring as a player and as a coach.\nInformation", "Bears beat Patriots in Super Bowl XX - Jan 26, 1986 - HISTORY.com\nBears beat Patriots in Super Bowl XX\nShare this:\nBears beat Patriots in Super Bowl XX\nAuthor\nBears beat Patriots in Super Bowl XX\nURL\nPublisher\nA+E Networks\nOn January 26, 1986, in New Orleans, Louisiana, the Chicago Bears score a Super Bowl record number of points to defeat the New England Patriots, 46-10, and win their first championship since 1963.\nLed by Coach Mike Ditka, a tight end for the Bears during their last Super Bowl win, Chicago won 17 of 18 games to reach the championship match-up with the Patriots, who became only the fourth wild-card team in history to advance to the Super Bowl. After Tony Franklin kicked a 36-yard field goal only one minute and 19 seconds into the game, New England took the quickest lead in Super Bowl history. It was mostly downhill for the Patriots from there, as the Bears built a 23-3 lead by halftime, gaining a total of 236 yards, compared with New England’s minus 19. The young Patriots quarterback, Tony Eason, had zero completions in six passes, was sacked three times and fumbled once before being replaced by Steve Grogan near the end of the first half.\nThe mighty Bears defense made a crucial impact on the game, causing six Patriot turnovers (four of which led to touchdowns) and holding New England to a total of only seven rushing yards all game. The Bears were hot on offense as well, as quarterback Jim McMahon completed 12 of 20 passes for 256 yards and no interceptions. Defensive tackle William “The Refrigerator” Perry had one of the game’s most memorable moments, running in a one-yard touchdown and spiking the ball in celebration. The celebrated Chicago running back Walter Payton carried 22 times for 61 yards but did not score, the one disappointment in an otherwise triumphant game for the Bears.\nWhen the game was over, the Bears had set a new NFL record for margin of victory (36 points), bettering the mark of 29 set by the Los Angeles Raiders when they beat the Washington Redskins 38-9 in Super Bowl XVIII. They also scored more points than any other team in the history of the Super Bowl, beating the previous record (38) shared by the Raiders and the San Francisco 49ers in Super Bowl XIX. The Bears defensive end Richard Dent, who contributed one and a half of Chicago’s record seven sacks, was named the Most Valuable Player of Super Bowl XX, becoming only the fourth defender to win the honor.\nSuper Bowl XX is also remembered for the ubiquitous “Super Bowl Shuffle,” a rap song and accompanying video released by the Bears during the weeks leading up to their championship meeting with the Patriots. Payton, McMahon, Dent, Perry and linebacker Mike Singletary were among the Bears who participated in the song’s production, which reached #41 on the Billboard charts and earned a Grammy Award nomination for Best Rhythm & Blues Vocal Performance by a Duo or Group.\nRelated Videos", "Super Bowl XX | American Football Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia\nXXI > \nSuper Bowl XX was the 20th championship game of the modern National Football League (NFL). The game was played on January 26, 1986 at the Louisiana Superdome in New Orleans, Louisiana following the 1985 regular season .\nThe National Football Conference (NFC) champion Chicago Bears (18-1) defeated the American Football Conference (AFC) champion New England Patriots (14-6), 46–10. The Bears set Super Bowl records for sacks (7) and fewest rushing yards allowed (7). The Bears' 36-point margin over the Patriots was a Super Bowl record until Super Bowl XXIV .(45) The Patriots were held to negative yardage (-19) throughout the entire first half, and just 123 total yards in the entire game, the second lowest total in Super Bowl history.\nBears defensive end Richard Dent , who had 1.5 quarterback sacks, forced 2 fumbles, and blocked a pass, was named the game's Most Valuable Player . [3]\nContents\nEdit\nNFL owners awarded the hosting of Super Bowl XX to New Orleans, Louisiana on December 14 , 1982 . This would be the sixth time that New Orleans hosted the Super Bowl. Tulane Stadium was the site of Super Bowls IV , VI , and IX ; while the Louisiana Superdome previously hosted XII and XV .\n\"Da Bears\" and the 46 defense\nEdit\nThe 1985 Chicago Bears became national stars. Under head coach Mike Ditka , who won the 1985 NFL Coach of the Year Award , they went 15-1 in the regular season, becoming the second NFL team ever to win 15 regular season games (after the 1984 San Francisco 49ers ). Their only loss was in a Monday night game against the Miami Dolphins .\nThe Bears' then-revolutionary, strong defense, \" 46 Zone \", enabled them to lead the league during the regular season in fewest points allowed (198), interceptions (34), fewest total yards allowed (4,135), and fewest rushing yards allowed (1,319). And under a strong running game, Chicago led the NFL in rushing yards (2,761) and rushing touchdowns (27), and finished second in the league in scoring (456 points).\nIt was a team full of characters. Pro Bowl quarterback Jim McMahon provided the team with a solid passing attack, throwing for 2,392 yards and 15 touchdowns, while also rushing for 252 yards and 3 touchdowns. Running back Walter Payton , who was then the NFL's all time leading rusher with 14,860 yards, rushed for 1,551 yards. He also caught 49 passes for 483 yards, and scored 11 touchdowns. Linebacker Mike Singletary won the NFL Defensive Player of the Year Award by recording 3 sacks, 3 fumble recoveries, and 1 interception.\nBut the player who got the most attention was a lovably large rookie defensive tackle simply known as the \"Fridge\", William \"Refrigerator\" Perry . Perry came into training camp before the season weighing over 320 pounds. But after Bears defensive coach Buddy Ryan told the press that the team \"wasted\" their first round draft pick on him, Perry worked hard to lose some weight to become a fine defensive tackle. He got even more attention when he started playing at the fullback position during offensive plays near the opponent's goal line. The spectacle of the 300+ pound Perry crashing through the line as a blocker or a ball carrier delighted many sports writers and fans. During the regular season, Perry rushed for 2 touchdowns, caught a pass for 1, and was frequently a lead blocker for Payton during goal line plays.\nThe Bears \"46 defense\" [4] also had the following impact players: On the defensive line, Pro Bowler Richard Dent led the NFL in sacks for the second year in a row with 17, while Pro Bowler and future hall of famer Dan Hampton recorded 6.5 sacks. In addition to Singletary, linebacker Otis Wilson had 10.5 sacks and 3 interceptions while Wilber Marshall recorded 4 interceptions. In the secondary, defensive back Leslie Frazier had 6 interceptions, Mike Richardson recorded 4 interceptions, Dave Duerson had 5 interceptions, and Gary Fencik recorded 5 interceptions and 118 tackles.\nChicago's main offensive weapon was Payton and the running game. A big reason for Payton's success was fullback Matt Suhey as the primary lead blocker. Suhey was also a good ball carrier, rushing for 471 yards and catching 33 passes for 295 yards. The team's rushing was also aided by Pro Bowlers Jim Covert and Jay Hilgenberg and the rest of the Bears offensive line.\nIn their passing game, the Bears primary deep threat was wide receiver Willie Gault , who caught 33 passes for 704 yards, an average of 21.3 yards per catch, and returned 22 kickoffs for 557 yards and a touchdown. Tight end Emery Moorehead was another key contributor, catching 35 passes for 481 yards. Wide receiver Dennis McKinnon was another passing weapon, recording 31 receptions, 555 yards, and 7 touchdowns.\nMeanwhile, the players brought their characterizations to the national stage with the \" Super Bowl Shuffle \", a rap song the Bears recorded during the season. Even though it was in essence a novelty song, it actually peaked at #41 on the Billboard charts and got a Grammy nomination for best R&B song by a group.\nThe \"Cinderella\" Patriots\nEdit\nThe Patriots were considered a cinderella team during the 1985 season because many sports writers and fans thought they were lucky to make the Super Bowl at all. New England began the season losing 3 of their first 5 games, but won 6 consecutive games to finish with an 11-5 record. However, the 11-5 mark only earned them third place in the AFC East behind the Miami Dolphins and the New York Jets .\nQuarterback Tony Eason , in his third year in the NFL, was inconsistent during the regular season, completing 168 out of 299 passes for 2,156 yards and 11 touchdowns, but also 17 interceptions. Eason suffered an injury midway through the season and was replaced by backup Steve Grogan , who was considered one of the best reserve quarterbacks in the league. Grogan was the starter in 6 of the Patriots' games, and finished the regular season with 85 out of 156 completions for 1,311 yards, 7 touchdowns, and 5 interceptions.\nWide receiver Stanley Morgan provided the team with a good deep threat, catching 39 passes for 760 yards and 5 touchdowns. On the other side of the field, multi-talented wide receiver Irving Fryar was equally effective, catching 39 passes for 670 yards, while also rushing for 27 yards, gaining another 559 yards returning punts and kickoffs, and scoring 10 touchdowns. But like the Bears, the Partiots main strength on offense was their rushing attack. Halfback Craig James rushed for 1,227 yards, caught 27 passes for 370 yards, and scored 7 touchdowns. Fullback Tony Collins rushed for 657 yards, recorded a team leading 52 receptions for 549 yards, and scored 5 touchdowns. The Patriots also had an outstanding offensive line, led by Pro Bowl tackle Brian Holloway and future hall of fame guard John Hannah .\nNew England's defense ranked 5th in the league in fewest yards allowed (5,048). Pro Bowl linebacker Andre Tippett led the AFC with 16.5 sacks. Outside linebackers Don Blackmon and Pro Bowler Steve Nelson were also big defensive weapons, excelling at pass coverage and run stopping. Also, the Patriots secondary only gave up 14 touchdown passes during the season, the 2nd fewest in the league. Pro bowl defensive back Raymond Clayborn recorded 6 interceptions for 80 return yards and 1 touchdown, while Pro Bowler Fred Marion had 7 interceptions for 189 return yards.\nPlayoffs\nEdit\nIn the playoffs, the Patriots qualified as the AFC's second wild card , the last playoff seed under the rules of that time, and were forced to spend all of the postseason on the road . Thus going into the playoffs, it seemed unlikely that New England would become the fourth wild card team to advance to a Super Bowl.\nBut the Patriots shocked everybody, beating the New York Jets 26-14, Los Angeles Raiders 27-20, and the Dolphins 31-14 on the road to make it to the Super Bowl. The win against Miami had been especially surprising, not only because Miami was the only team to beat Chicago in the season, but also because New England had not won in the Orange Bowl (Miami's then-home field) since 1966, the Dolphins' first NFL season. The Patriots had lost to Miami there 18 consecutive times, including a 30-27 loss in their 15th game of the season. But New England dominated the Dolphins in the AFC Championship Game, recording two interceptions from quarterback Dan Marino and recovering 4 fumbles.\nMeanwhile, the Bears became the first team in NFL history to shutout both of their opponents in the playoffs, beating the New York Giants 21-0 and the Los Angeles Rams 24-0.\nSuper Bowl pregame hype\nEdit\nMuch of the Super Bowl pregame hype centered around Bears quarterback McMahon. First, he was fined by the NFL during the playoffs for a violation of the league's dress code, wearing a head band on which he had handwritten \"Adidas\". He then started to wear a head band saying \"Rozelle\", after then-league commissioner Pete Rozelle .\nMcMahon was also suffering a sore rear end from a hit he took in the NFC Championship Game. So he flew in his acupuncturist into New Orleans to get treatment. During practice four days before the Super Bowl, he started wearing a hand band that said \"Acupuncture\".\nMcMahon's most outrageous stunt involved mooning a passing helicopter flying overhead and other photographers during practice to show off his injured rear end. Pictures of that incident then appeared on the sports sections of many newspapers across the country.\nAnother anecdote involving Jim McMahon during the Super Bowl anticipation was the New Orleans’ press reporting a supposed quote of McMahon referring to the women of New Orleans as “sluts”. This caused wide controversy among the ladies of New Orleans and forced McMahon to publicly apologize (or defend, depending on the point-of-view) on sports radio, in which he denounced the claim as false, indicating (amusingly) that he couldn’t have said such things simply because he’s a late-sleeper, and wouldn’t have been up that early in the morning (of the supposed day, apparently) to publicly smear the women of New Orleans. [5]\nTelevision and entertainment\nEdit\nThe NBC telecast of the game, with play-by-play announcer Dick Enberg and color commentators Merlin Olsen and Bob Griese , garnered the third highest Nielsen rating of any Super Bowl to date, a 48.3.\nTo celebrate the 20th Super Bowl game, the Most Valuable Players of the previous Super Bowls were featured during the pregame festivities. After trumpeter Wynton Marsalis performed the national anthem, Bart Starr , Super Bowl MVP of I and II , tossed the coin .\nThe performance event group Up with People performed during the halftime show titled \"Beat of the Future\". Up with People dancers portrayed various scenes into the future. This was the last Super Bowl to feature Up with People.\nThe Last Precinct debuted on NBC after the game.\nGame summary\nEdit\nThe Patriots took the second quickest lead in Super Bowl history after linebacker Larry McGrew recovered a fumble from Walter Payton at the Chicago 19-yard line on the second play of the game. (Jim McMahon took responsibility for this fumble after the game, saying he had called the wrong play.) This set up Tony Franklin 's 36-yard field goal 1:19 into the first quarter after 3 incomplete passes by Tony Eason . \"I looked up at the message board,\" said Chicago linebacker Mike Singletary , \"and it said that 15 of the 19 teams that scored first won the game. I thought, yeah, but none of those 15 had ever played the Bears.\" [6] Chicago struck back with a 7 play, 59-yard drive, featuring a 43-yard pass completion from Jim McMahon to wide receiver Willie Gault , to set up a field goal from Kevin Butler , tying the score 3-3.\nAfter both teams traded punts, Richard Dent and linebacker Wilber Marshall shared a sack on Eason, forcing a fumble that lineman Dan Hampton recovered on the Patriots 13-yard line. Chicago then drove to the 3-yard line, but had to settle for another field goal from Butler after rookie defensive lineman William \"Refrigerator\" Perry was tackled for a 1-yard loss while trying to throw his first NFL pass on a halfback option play . On the Patriots' ensuing drive, Dent forced running back Craig James to fumble, which was recovered by Singletary at the 13-yard line. Two plays later, Bears fullback Matt Suhey scored on an 11-yard touchdown run to increase the lead 13-3.\nNew England took the ensuing kickoff and ran one play before the first quarter ended, which resulted in positive yardage for the first time in the game (a 3-yard run by James). But after an incomplete pass and a 4-yard loss, they had to send in punter Rich Camarillo again, and receiver Keith Ortego returned the ball 12 yards to the 41-yard line. The Bears subsequently drove 59 yards in 10 plays, featuring a 24-yard reception by Suhey, to score on McMahon's 2-yard touchdown run to increase their lead, 20-3. After the ensuing kickoff, New England lost 13 yards in 3 plays and had to punt again, but got the ball back with great field position when defensive back Raymond Clayborn recovered a fumble from Suhey at their own 46-yard line.\nPatriots coach Raymond Berry then replaced Eason with Steve Grogan , who had spent the previous week hoping he would have the opportunity to step on to NFL's biggest stage. \"I probably won't get a chance.\" he had told reporters a few days before the game. \"I just hope I can figure out some way to get on the field. I could come in on the punt-block team and stand behind the line and wave my arms, or something.\" [7] But on his first drive, Grogan could only lead them to the 37-yard line and they decided to punt rather than risk a 55-yard field goal attempt. The Bears then marched 72 yards in 11 plays, moving the ball inside the Patriots 10-yard line. New England kept them out of the end zone, but Butler kicked his third field goal on the last play of the half to give Chicago a 23-3 halftime lead.\nIn fact, however, Butler's late kick shouldn't have happened. The Bears had the ball on the Patriots' two yard line as the last seconds of the half were ticking away, and they snapped the ball before it was formally put it back into play, allowing McMahon to throw the ball out of bounds and stop the clock with three seconds left. The Bears were penalized five yards, but according to NFL rules ten seconds should have been counted off the clock, which would have ended the half leaving no time for the kick. This mistake was promptly acknowledged by the officials and reported by NBC sportscasters during halftime, but the resulting three points were not taken away from the Bears.\nThe Bears had absolutely dominated New England in the first half, holding them to 21 offensive plays (only 4 of which resulted in positive yardage), -19 total offensive yards, 2 pass completions, 1 first down, and 3 points. Meanwhile, Chicago gained 236 yards and scored 23 points themselves.\nAfter the Patriots received the second half opening kickoff, they managed to get one first down, but then had to punt after Grogan was sacked twice. Camarillo, who punted 4 times in the first half, managed to pin the Bears back at their own 4-yard line with a Super Bowl record 62-yard punt. But the Patriots defense still had no ability to stop Chicago's offense. On their very first play, McMahon faked a handoff to Payton, then threw a 60-yard completion to Gault. Eight plays later, McMahon finished the Super Bowl record 96-yard drive with a 1-yard touchdown run to make the Bears lead 30-3. On New England's second drive of the period, Chicago cornerback Reggie Phillips intercepted a pass from Grogan and returned it 28 yards for a touchdown to increase the lead 37-3.\nOn the second play of their ensuing possession, the Patriots turned the ball over again, when receiver Cedric Jones lost a fumble after catching a 19-yard pass from Grogan, and Marshall returned the fumble 13 yards to New England's 37-yard line. A few plays later, McMahon's 27-yard completion to receiver Dennis Gentry moved the ball to the 1-yard line, setting up perhaps the most memorable moment of the game. William \"the Refrigerator\" Perry was brought on to score on offense, as he had done twice in the regular season. His touchdown made the score 44-3. The Bears' 21 points in the third quarter is still a record for the most points scored in that period.\nThe Patriots finally scored a touchdown early in the fourth quarter, advancing the ball 76 yards in 12 plays and scoring on an 8-yard pass from Grogan to receiver Irving Fryar . But the Bears defense dominated New England for the rest of the game, forcing another fumble, another interception, and defensive lineman Henry Waechter 's sack on Grogan in the end zone for a safety to make the final score 46-10.\nOne irony in the Bears victory was that Payton had a relatively poor performance running the ball and never scored a touchdown in Super Bowl XX, his first and only Super Bowl appearance during his hall of fame career. Although Payton was ultimately the Bears' leading rusher during the game, the Patriots defense held him to only 61 yards on 22 carries, with his longest run being only 7 yards. He was given several opportunities to score near the goal line, but New England stopped him every time before he reached the end zone (such as his 2-yard loss from the New England 3-yard line a few plays before Butler's second field goal, and his 2-yard run from the 4-yard line right before McMahon's first rushing touchdown). Thus, Chicago head coach Mike Ditka opted to go for other plays to counter the Patriots defense. Perry's touchdown and McMahon's rushing touchdowns could be considered as scoring opportunities that were denied to Payton.\nMcMahon, who completed 12 out of 20 passes for 256 yards, became the first quarterback in a Super Bowl to score 2 rushing touchdowns. Bears receiver Willie Gault finished the game with 129 receiving yards on just 4 receptions, an average of over 32.2 yards per catch. He also returned 4 kickoffs for 49 yards. Suhey had 11 carries for 52 yards and a touchdown, and caught a pass for 24 yards. Singletary tied a Super Bowl record with 2 fumble recoveries.\nEason became the first Super Bowl starting quarterback to fail to complete a pass, going 0 for 6 attempts. The Bears also dominated Patriots starting running back James, holding him to 1 yard on 5 carries, with 1 fumble. Grogan completed 17 out of 30 passes for 177 yards and 1 touchdown, with 2 interceptions. Although Fullback Tony Collins was the Patriots leading rusher, he was limited to just 4 yards on 3 carries, and caught 2 passes for 19 yards. New England receiver Stephen Starring returned 7 kickoffs for 153 yards and caught 2 passes for 39 yards.\nBox score/Game Information\nWeather: Played indoors, domed stadium\nTV Network coverage: NFL on NBC\nScoring summary\nNE - FG: Tony Franklin 36 yards 3-0 NE\nCHI - FG: Kevin Butler 28 yards 3-3 tie\nCHI - FG: Kevin Butler 24 yards 6-3 CHI\nCHI - TD: Matt Suhey 11 yard run (Butler kick) 13-3 CHI\nCHI - TD: Jim McMahon 2 yard run (Butler kick) 20-3 CHI\nCHI - FG: Kevin Butler 24 yards 23-3 CHI\nCHI - TD: Jim McMahon 1 yard run (Butler kick) 30-3 CHI\nCHI - TD: Reggie Phillips 28 yard interception return (Butler kick) 37-3 CHI\nCHI - TD: William Perry 1 yard run (Butler kick) 44-3 CHI\nNE - TD: Irving Fryar 8 yard pass from Steve Grogan (Franklin kick) 44-10 CHI\nCHI - Safety: Steve Grogan sacked in end zone by Henry Waechter 46-10 CHI\nStarting lineups", "The Chicago Bears win the 1986 Super Bowl - Chicago Tribune\nThe Chicago Bears win the 1986 Super Bowl\nChicago Bears after victory, 1986\nTribune photo by Ed Wagner\nCapping an almost perfect season, the Bears carry defensive coordinator Buddy Ryan, left, and head coach Mike Ditka off the field after the team's 46-10 victory over the New England Patriots in Super Bowl XX. Ryan, with whom Ditka feuded bitterly, left the following season.\nCapping an almost perfect season, the Bears carry defensive coordinator Buddy Ryan, left, and head coach Mike Ditka off the field after the team's 46-10 victory over the New England Patriots in Super Bowl XX. Ryan, with whom Ditka feuded bitterly, left the following season. (Tribune photo by Ed Wagner)\nDon PiersonChicago Tribune\nThe Chicago Bears devastated the New England Patriots on this date in Super Bowl XX by an appropriate score, 46-10, stamping their ravaging \"46\" defense on National Football League history. The victory in New Orleans' Superdome, the first major championship for a Chicago team since the 1963 NFL title, was a near-perfect ending to a near-perfect season.\nCoach Mike Ditka had shocked the team in 1982 when he predicted that the Bears would win the Super Bowl in three years. Ditka, who had played tight end for the Bears, had just been named head coach by owner George Halas . The team was numbed by a tradition of losing, despite outstanding performances by such stars as running back Gayle Sayers and linebacker Dick Butkus . To change that tradition, Ditka brought in younger players and instilled in them his fierce determination. Soon Ditka's rugged personality came to symbolize the Bears.A loss to San Francisco denied the team a trip to the 1985 Super Bowl, but the next season would be different. At quarterback was Jim McMahon , the \"Punky QB.\" Future Hall of Fame running back Walter Payton rushed for 1,551 yards. The defense, featuring Mike Singletary , Richard Dent, Dan Hampton and Gary Fencik, terrorized opponents with their unconventional \"46\" blitzes under the aggressive coaching of defensive coordinator Buddy Ryan. And William \"Refrigerator\" Perry, a a 310-plus-pound defensive lineman, became a national celebrity when Ditka started to play him occasionally at fullback. Perry even scored three touchdowns.\nBefore the Super Bowl, many players made a music video called \"The Super Bowl Shuffle,\" a gloating, highly premature celebration of a rollicking season that had been spoiled only by a loss to the Miami Dolphins .\nThe game itself became lopsided so early that the only suspense concerned McMahon's ever-changing headbands, which advertised various charities. However, the cries of \"Payton! Payton!\" went unanswered. The league's all-time leading rusher failed to score.\nDitka talked about the Bears becoming the team of the 1980s, but Ryan, who feuded openly with Ditka, left the following season. Distractions, such as commercial endorsements, and player attrition took their toll. The team won only two more playoff games under Ditka.\nIn 1993, Halas' grandson, Bears President Mike McCaskey, replaced Ditka with Dave Wannstedt, and in 1996, Wannstedt fired place-kicker Kevin Butler, the last remaining player from the super season of 1985.", "Super Bowl XX (1986) - IMDb\nIMDb\nThere was an error trying to load your rating for this title.\nSome parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later.\nX Beta I'm Watching This!\nKeep track of everything you watch; tell your friends.\nError\na list of 4 titles\ncreated 31 Dec 2012\na list of 56 titles\ncreated 03 Feb 2015\na list of 618 titles\ncreated 2 months ago\nTitle: Super Bowl XX (1986– )\n8.3/10\nWant to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below.\nYou must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin.\nAdd Image Add an image\nDo you have any images for this title?\n26 January 1986 (USA) See more  »\nFilming Locations:\nDid You Know?\nTrivia\nTony Eason became the second quarterback from the legendary 1983 draft to start in the Super Bowl. However, he is also the only starting quarterback to be benched before completing a pass. See more »\nConnections\nUser Reviews\n \nThe Da Bears crush the Pats! A nice tribute to a classic and traditional coach Buddy Ryan.\n(Petersburg, Virginia) – See all my reviews\nSuper Bowl XX one of the first Super Bowls I remember watching as a kid, brings back the fond memories of the Bears crushing defense. With the Chicago Bears being the clear favorite over the New England Patriots it came as no surprise this turned out as a 46-10 blowout. From the start the Bears simply out hit and out played the Pats, as the play-calling for Chicago was better. Bears running back Walter Payton would play a lesser role for the greater good by showing his unselfishness, by giving way to other team members by his blocking and decoy duties. With Payton being keyed upon by the Pats D head coach Mike Dikta opened up the passing game and the points and yards just rolled up. Loud and outspoken QB Jimmy Mac was accurate by 12 for 20 passing. The most memorable moment was when the \"Fridge\" William Perry scored a diving goal line touchdown!! Now a 400 pound defensive tackle scoring. Most of all this Super Bowl was the Bears defense and defensive coach Buddy Ryan. The Bears D was crushing forcing six turnovers, and holding the Pats into negative yardage going into the final quarter! Buddy was great at the 46 scheme his D always got pressure on the QB and it was no different in this Super Bowl. Buddy Ryan later went on to coach my favorite team the Philadelphia Eagles, and he's my favorite coach for his tough attitude and outspoken ways. It was only fitting after Super Bowl XX ended the defensive unit carried Buddy off the field as the offense carried Mike Dikta off. This team was Buddy's D and Mike's O! Richard Dent won game MVP rightfully so with three sacks. Overall a terrific performance by Chicago one of the biggest Super Bowl wins that will always stick with me for special reasons.\n2 of 3 people found this review helpful.  Was this review helpful to you?\nYes", "Super Bowl 2016: Broncos take down Panthers - CNN.com\n1 of 17\nPhotos: Super Bowl superlatives\nMost passing yards in a Super Bowl – St. Louis Rams quarterback Kurt Warner, who led an offense nicknamed \"The Greatest Show on Turf,\" threw for a Super Bowl-record 414 yards in 2000. The Rams defeated Tennessee 23-16.\nHide Caption\n2 of 17\nPhotos: Super Bowl superlatives\nMost receiving yards in a Super Bowl – San Francisco wide receiver Jerry Rice was named Super Bowl MVP in 1989 after he caught 11 balls for a record 215 yards against Cincinnati. The Hall of Famer also holds Super Bowl records for most points and most touchdowns over a career. He has scored six touchdowns over four Super Bowls.\nHide Caption\n3 of 17\nPhotos: Super Bowl superlatives\nMost rushing yards in a Super Bowl – Quarterback Doug Williams won the Super Bowl MVP award in 1988, but rookie running back Timmy Smith set a Super Bowl record that year with 204 rushing yards against Denver.\nHide Caption\n4 of 17\nPhotos: Super Bowl superlatives\nMost interceptions in a Super Bowl – Oakland linebacker Rod Martin (No. 53) had three interceptions as the Raiders defeated the Philadelphia Eagles in 1981.\nHide Caption\n5 of 17\nPhotos: Super Bowl superlatives\nMost Super Bowl wins for one player – Defensive end Charles Haley (No. 94) played in five Super Bowls -- and he won every one of them. The first two came with San Francisco, while the last three came with Dallas in the 1990s.\nHide Caption\n6 of 17\nPhotos: Super Bowl superlatives\nMost Super Bowl wins as a starting quarterback – Pittsburgh's Terry Bradshaw, left, and San Francisco's Joe Montana, center, were 4-0 in Super Bowls during their career. New England's Tom Brady, right, won his fourth Super Bowl in 2015. He has gone 4-2 in Super Bowls during his career.\nHide Caption\n7 of 17\nPhotos: Super Bowl superlatives\nMost Super Bowl wins for a head coach – Pittsburgh's Chuck Noll, left, won four Super Bowls between 1975 and 1980. New England's Bill Belichick tied him in 2015.\nHide Caption\n8 of 17\nPhotos: Super Bowl superlatives\nLongest scoring play in a Super Bowl – Baltimore's Jacoby Jones returned a kickoff 108 yards as the Ravens defeated San Francisco 34-31 in 2013.\nHide Caption\n9 of 17\nPhotos: Super Bowl superlatives\nLongest pass in a Super Bowl – Muhsin Muhammad caught an 85-yard touchdown pass from Jake Delhomme during Super Bowl XXXVIII in 2004.\nHide Caption\n10 of 17\nPhotos: Super Bowl superlatives\nLongest run in a Super Bowl – \"Fast\" Willie Parker broke a 75-yard run for a touchdown during Super Bowl XL in 2006.\nHide Caption\n11 of 17\nPhotos: Super Bowl superlatives\nLongest interception return in a Super Bowl – Pittsburgh's James Harrison picked off Arizona's Kurt Warner on the last play of the first half and rumbled 100 yards for a touchdown in 2009.\nHide Caption\n12 of 17\nPhotos: Super Bowl superlatives\nLongest fumble return in a Super Bowl – Almost everything came up roses for the Dallas Cowboys in 1993, as they crushed Buffalo 52-17 in the Rose Bowl. But defensive lineman Leon Lett had an embarrassing moment late in the game when he was returning a fumble for what looked to be a sure touchdown. Lett returned the ball 64 yards, but he started showboating early and was stripped by Buffalo's Don Beebe.\nHide Caption\n13 of 17\nPhotos: Super Bowl superlatives\nFastest score in a Super Bowl – On the first play from scrimmage in last year's Super Bowl, Denver center Manny Ramirez snapped the ball past quarterback Peyton Manning. Denver's Knowshon Moreno recovered the ball in the end zone for a Seattle safety. Only 12 seconds had elapsed.\nHide Caption\n14 of 17\nPhotos: Super Bowl superlatives\nFirst score in Super Bowl history – In the first quarter of what we know now as Super Bowl I, Green Bay Packers wide receiver Max McGee scored a touchdown on a 37-yard pass from Bart Starr.\nHide Caption\n15 of 17\nPhotos: Super Bowl superlatives\nLargest margin of victory in a Super Bowl – San Francisco demolished the Denver Broncos 55-10 in 1990, winning by a record 45 points. It was the 49ers' fourth Super Bowl title in nine years.\nHide Caption\n1 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl II (1968) – Starr repeated the feat one year later as the Packers won back-to-back titles. Starr had 202 yards passing and one touchdown as Green Bay blew out Oakland 33-14.\nHide Caption\n2 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl III (1969) – The New York Jets came into Super Bowl III as 18-point underdogs, but quarterback Joe Namath famously guaranteed that his team would upset the Baltimore Colts. After Namath led the way to a 16-7 victory, he was named the game's Most Valuable Player.\nHide Caption\n3 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl IV (1970) – The Kansas City Chiefs lost the first Super Bowl, but they made it count the second time around. Quarterback Len Dawson had 142 yards and a touchdown as the Chiefs beat the Minnesota Vikings 23-7 in New Orleans. It was the second straight year that the AFL champions had defeated the NFL champions, and by the next season the two leagues had merged.\nHide Caption\n4 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl V (1971) – Dallas Cowboys linebacker Chuck Howley, right, holds onto one of his two interceptions against the Baltimore Colts in Super Bowl V. Howley was named the game's MVP, but the Colts won the notoriously sloppy game with a Jim O'Brien field goal as time expired. To date, Howley remains the only player from a losing team to be named Super Bowl MVP.\nHide Caption\n5 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl VI (1972) – Dallas atoned for its loss the next season, shutting down the Miami Dolphins 24-3. MVP quarterback Roger Staubach had two touchdown passes.\nHide Caption\n6 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl VII (1973) – Miami safety Jake Scott intercepts a fourth-quarter pass in the end zone during the Dolphins' 14-7 win over Washington in Super Bowl VII. Scott had two interceptions in the game as the Dolphins finished their season with a perfect 17-0 record. They are still the only NFL team ever to finish a season undefeated.\nHide Caption\n7 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl VIII (1974) – Powerful running back Larry Csonka carries two Minnesota defenders near the end zone as Miami won its second Super Bowl in a row. Csonka became the first running back to win Super Bowl MVP, rushing for 145 yards and two touchdowns.\nHide Caption\n8 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl IX (1975) – Pittsburgh Steelers running back Franco Harris fights off Minnesota defender Paul Krause during Pittsburgh's 16-6 victory in Super Bowl IX. Harris ran for 158 yards and a touchdown on his way to winning MVP.\nHide Caption\n9 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl X (1976) – This diving catch from Pittsburgh wide receiver Lynn Swann is one of the most iconic plays in Super Bowl history. Swann had a touchdown and 161 yards receiving as the Steelers defeated Dallas 21-17 to win their second straight Super Bowl. Swann was the first wide receiver to win MVP.\nHide Caption\n10 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XI (1977) – Oakland Raiders wide receiver Fred Biletnikoff caught four passes for 79 yards to win MVP honors in Super Bowl XI. The Raiders won 32-14 over Minnesota, knocking the Vikings to 0-4 in Super Bowls.\nHide Caption\n11 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XII (1978) – A dominating performance by Dallas' \"Doomsday Defense\" led to the first and only time that two players would share the Super Bowl MVP award. Defensive linemen Randy White, left, and Harvey Martin helped the Cowboys force eight turnovers and defeat Denver 27-10.\nHide Caption\n12 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XIII (1979) – The Steelers and the Cowboys met for a Super Bowl rematch in 1979, and this game ended the same way as the one three years earlier -- with a Pittsburgh victory. This time, however, it was Steelers quarterback Terry Bradshaw who won MVP, throwing for 318 yards and four touchdowns as Pittsburgh edged Dallas 35-31.\nHide Caption\n13 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XIV (1980) – Bradshaw led the way again in Super Bowl XIV, throwing for 309 yards and a pair of touchdowns as the Steelers defeated the Los Angeles Rams 31-19. It was the Steelers' fourth title in six years.\nHide Caption\n14 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XV (1981) – Oakland quarterback Jim Plunkett scrambles during the Raiders' 27-10 victory over the Philadelphia Eagles in 1981. Plunkett had 261 yards passing and three touchdowns on his way to winning MVP.\nHide Caption\n15 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XVI (1982) – San Francisco 49ers quarterback Joe Montana evades a tackle en route to winning MVP honors in Super Bowl XVI. Montana threw for one touchdown in the game and ran for another as the 49ers won 26-21.\nHide Caption\n16 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XVII (1983) – Washington running back John Riggins bursts through a hole during the Redskins' 27-17 victory over Miami in Super Bowl XVII. Riggins was named MVP after rushing for 166 yards and a touchdown.\nHide Caption\n17 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XVIII (1984) – Washington was on the losing end one year later as MVP running back Marcus Allen exploded for 191 yards and two touchdowns. Allen's Raiders, who had recently moved from Oakland to Los Angeles, blew out the Redskins 38-9.\nHide Caption\n18 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XIX (1985) – Three years after winning his first Super Bowl MVP award, Joe Montana was at it again as he led the 49ers to a 38-16 victory over Miami. This time, \"Joe Cool\" threw for 331 yards and three touchdowns.\nHide Caption\n19 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XX (1986) – Chicago Bears defensive end Richard Dent (No. 95) sacks New England quarterback Steve Grogan during Super Bowl XX. Dent had two sacks and two forced fumbles as a devastating defense helped Chicago crush the Patriots 46-10.\nHide Caption\n20 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XXI (1987) – New York Giants quarterback Phil Simms had a performance for the ages in Super Bowl XXI, completing 22 of 25 passes as the Giants beat Denver 39-20. It remains a Super Bowl record for completion percentage. Simms also had 268 yards passing and three touchdowns.\nHide Caption\n21 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XXII (1988) – The Washington Redskins trailed 10-0 after a quarter of play at Super Bowl XXII, but quarterback Doug Williams threw four touchdowns in the second quarter and the rout was on. The Redskins rolled to a 42-10 victory, and Williams was named MVP after finishing with 340 passing yards.\nHide Caption\n22 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XXIII (1989) – San Francisco wide receiver Jerry Rice catches a 14-yard touchdown pass against Cincinnati in Super Bowl XXIII. Rice finished with 11 receptions for a Super Bowl-record 215 yards.\nHide Caption\n23 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XXIV (1990) – San Francisco quarterback Joe Montana raises his arms in celebration after a 49ers touchdown in Super Bowl XXIV. Montana had 297 yards passing and five touchdowns as the 49ers defeated Denver 55-10. It was the biggest blowout in Super Bowl history. Montana collected his third MVP award, and the 49ers capped a glorious run with four titles in nine years.\nHide Caption\n24 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XXV (1991) – Super Bowl XXV will likely always be remembered for Buffalo kicker Scott Norwood missing a field goal as time expired. But New York Giants running back Ottis Anderson won MVP in what was the closest Super Bowl ever. Anderson had 102 yards and a touchdown as the Giants prevailed 20-19.\nHide Caption\n25 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XXVI (1992) – The Washington Redskins won three Super Bowls in 10 years, and each came with a different starting quarterback. This time it was Mark Rypien, who was named MVP after throwing for 292 yards and two touchdowns as the Redskins defeated Buffalo 37-24.\nHide Caption\n26 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XXVII (1993) – Dallas quarterback Troy Aikman had 273 yards and four touchdowns as the Cowboys won their first Super Bowl since 1978. Dallas trounced Buffalo 52-17, handing the Bills their third straight Super Bowl loss.\nHide Caption\n27 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XXVIII (1994) – Dallas running back Emmitt Smith is surrounded by the media after his MVP performance against Buffalo in Super Bowl XXVIII. Smith rushed for 132 yards and three touchdowns as Dallas won 30-13 in a Super Bowl rematch from one year earlier.\nHide Caption\n28 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XXIX (1995) – After serving as Joe Montana's backup for several years, San Francisco quarterback Steve Young got his moment to shine in 1995. Young threw for a Super Bowl-record six touchdowns as the 49ers defeated the San Diego Chargers 49-26.\nHide Caption\n29 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XXX (1996) – Dallas Cowboys cornerback Larry Brown is pushed out of bounds after one of his two interceptions in Super Bowl XXX. Brown's MVP efforts helped the Cowboys beat Pittsburgh 27-17 for their third championship in four years.\nHide Caption\n30 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XXXI (1997) – Super Bowl MVP Desmond Howard jumps into a crowd of Green Bay Packers fans after the Packers defeated New England 35-21 in Super Bowl XXXI. Howard had 244 all-purpose yards, including a 99-yard kickoff return for a touchdown.\nHide Caption\n31 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XXXII (1998) – Denver Broncos running back Terrell Davis does his signature \"Mile High Salute\" after scoring a touchdown against Green Bay in Super Bowl XXXII. Davis rushed for 157 yards and three touchdowns on his way to winning MVP.\nHide Caption\n32 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XXXIII (1999) – Denver quarterback John Elway smiles after scoring a touchdown in Super Bowl XXXIII. Elway was named MVP of the game, throwing for 336 yards as the Broncos won back-to-back titles with a 34-19 victory over Atlanta. It was Elway's last game before he retired.\nHide Caption\n33 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XXXIV (2000) – MVP quarterback Kurt Warner celebrates after leading the St. Louis Rams to a 23-16 victory over Tennessee in Super Bowl XXXIV. Warner threw for a Super Bowl-record 414 yards, leading an offense that had been nicknamed \"The Greatest Show on Turf.\"\nHide Caption\n34 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XXXV (2001) – One year after a high-powered offense won the Super Bowl, it was a suffocating defense that won in 2001. MVP linebacker Ray Lewis set the tone for a Baltimore Ravens team that shut down the New York Giants en route to a 34-7 victory.\nHide Caption\n35 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XXXVI (2002) – A star was born in Super Bowl XXXVI as second-year quarterback Tom Brady led the New England Patriots to an upset victory over the heavily favored St. Louis Rams. Brady threw for 145 yards and a touchdown as the Patriots won 20-17 on a last-second field goal by Adam Vinatieri.\nHide Caption\n36 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XXXVII (2003) – Tampa Bay safety Dexter Jackson had two interceptions for a vaunted Buccaneers defense that led the way to a 48-21 victory over Oakland in Super Bowl XXXVII.\nHide Caption\n37 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XXXVIII (2004) – New England quarterback Tom Brady, left, celebrates with teammates after winning a second Super Bowl in three years. Brady was MVP again, throwing for 354 yards and three touchdowns as the Patriots defeated the Carolina Panthers 32-29.\nHide Caption\n38 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XXXIX (2005) – The Patriots became champions for the third time in four years as they defeated Philadelphia 24-21 in Super Bowl XXXIX. This time it was wide receiver Deion Branch who won MVP. He had 11 receptions for 133 yards.\nHide Caption\n39 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XL (2006) – Pittsburgh wide receiver Hines Ward struts into the end zone during the Steelers' 21-10 victory over Seattle. Ward had 123 yards on five catches as the Steelers won their first Super Bowl since 1980.\nHide Caption\n40 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XLI (2007) – Quarterback Peyton Manning threw for 247 yards and a touchdown in Super Bowl XLI, leading the Indianapolis Colts to a 29-17 victory over Chicago.\nHide Caption\n41 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XLII (2008) – Manning's brother Eli won MVP the next season, as his New York Giants upset the New England Patriots and ended their hopes of an undefeated season. Manning threw for two touchdowns as the Giants won 17-14.\nHide Caption\n42 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XLIII (2009) – Pittsburgh wide receiver Santonio Holmes grabs the game-winning touchdown as the Steelers rallied late in the fourth quarter to beat Arizona 27-23 in Super Bowl XLIII. Holmes finished with nine catches for 131 yards.\nHide Caption\n43 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XLIV (2010) – New Orleans Saints quarterback Drew Brees raises his son Baylen after the Saints beat Indianapolis 31-17 in Super Bowl XLIV. Brees completed 32 of 39 passes for 288 yards and two touchdowns.\nHide Caption\n44 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XLV (2011) – Quarterback Aaron Rodgers had 304 passing yards and three touchdowns as the Green Bay Packers defeated Pittsburgh 31-25.\nHide Caption\n45 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XLVI (2012) – Eli Manning did it to the Patriots again, as the New York Giants beat New England in a Super Bowl rematch from 2008. Manning had 296 yards passing this time as the Giants won 21-17.\nHide Caption\n46 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XLVII (2013) – Baltimore Ravens quarterback Joe Flacco fights off San Francisco linebacker Ahmad Brooks during Super Bowl XLVII, which the Ravens won 34-31. Flacco had 287 yards and three touchdowns in a game that was interrupted for 34 minutes because of a power outage.\nHide Caption\n47 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XLVIII (2014) – Seattle Seahawks linebacker Malcolm Smith runs an interception back for a touchdown during Seattle's 43-8 drubbing of Denver in Super Bowl XLVIII. Smith and Seattle's \"Legion of Boom\" defense stifled Peyton Manning and Denver's No. 1-rated offense.\nHide Caption\n48 of 50\nPhotos: Super Bowl MVPs\nSuper Bowl XLIX (2015) – New England's Tom Brady pumps his fist after throwing one of his four touchdown passes in the Patriots' 28-24 victory over Seattle. Brady joined Joe Montana as the only players to win three Super Bowl MVPs.\nHide Caption" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Ethnic_groups_in_Europe.txt", "Capital_punishment.txt" ], "title": [ "Ethnic groups in Europe", "Capital punishment" ], "wiki_context": [ "The ethnic groups in Europe are the focus of European ethnology, the field of anthropology related to the various ethnic groups that reside in the nations of Europe. According to German monograph Minderheitenrechte in Europa co-edited by Pan and Pfeil (2002) there are 87 distinct peoples of Europe, of which 33 form the majority population in at least one sovereign state, while the remaining 54 constitute ethnic minorities. The total number of national minority populations in Europe is estimated at 105 million people, or 14% of 770 million Europeans. \n\nModern ethnic Europeans are a recent and ongoing evolution. The original anatomically modern human migrants to Europe from Africa arrived 40,000 years ago; these prehistoric Europeans were predominantly dark skinned, short of stature, lactose intolerant, and looked dramatically different in comparison to modern Europeans. The genetic lineage of Europe mysteriously transformed about 4,500 years ago, with changes in diet, body size and skin pigmentation, when Central Asian and West Asian migrants arrived with taller height and light skin genes, respectively. There is no precise or universally accepted definition of the terms \"ethnic group\" or \"nationality\". In the context of European ethnography in particular, the terms ethnic group, people (without nation state), nationality, national minority, ethnic minority, linguistic community, linguistic group, linguistic minority and genetic haplogroup are used as mostly synonymous, although preference may vary in usage with respect to the situation specific to the individual countries of Europe. \n\nOverview\n\nThere are eight peoples of Europe (defined by their language) with more than 30 million members residing in Europe. These eight groups between themselves account for some 465 million or about 65% of European population:\n# Russians (c. 95 million residing in Europe),\n# Germans (c. 82 million),\n# French (c. 60 million),\n# British (c. 60 million), \n# Italians (55 million), \n# Spanish (c. 50 million),\n# Ukrainians (38–55 million),\n# Poles (c. 38 million).\n\nAbout 20–25 million residents (3%) are members of diasporas of non-European origin. The population of the European Union, with some five hundred million residents, accounts for two thirds of the European population.\n\nBoth Spain and the United Kingdom are special cases, in that the designation of nationality, Spanish and British, may controversially take ethnic aspects, subsuming various regional ethnic groups, see nationalisms and regionalisms of Spain and native populations of the United Kingdom. Switzerland is a similar case, but the linguistic subgroups of the Swiss are not usually discussed in terms of ethnicity, and Switzerland is considered a \"multi-lingual state\" rather than a \"multi-ethnic state\".\n\nLinguistic classifications\n\nOf the total population of Europe of some 730 million (as of 2005), over 80% or some 600 million fall within three large branches of Indo-European languages, viz., Slavic, Italic (Romance) and Germanic. The largest groups that do not fall within these three are the Greeks (about 12 million) and the Albanians (about 8 million). Beside the Indo-European languages there are two other major language families on the European continent: Turkic languages and Uralic languages. The Semitic languages that dominate the coast of northern Africa as well as the Near East are preserved in Malta, a Mediterranean archipelago. Basque is a linguistic isolate unrelated to any other languages inside or outside of Europe.\n\nIndo-European languages\n\nThere are approximately 641 million residents in the family of the Indo-European languages divided into linguistic branches and peoples. \n\nLanguage isolates\n\nCaspian\n\nKartvelian\n\nPontic\n\nVasconic\n\nMongolic languages\n\nSemitic languages\n\nEurope has a population of about 2 million ethnic Jews (mostly also counted as part of the ethno-linguistic group of their respective home countries):\n*Ashkenazi Jews (about 1.4 million, mostly German and French)\n*Italian Jews (some 50,000, mostly Italian)\n*Karaites (less than 4,000 in Poland and Lithuania)\n*Mizrahi Jews (about 0.3 million, mostly French)\n*Romaniotes (some 6,000, mostly Greek)\n*Sephardi Jews (about 0.3 million, mostly French and Italian)\n\nTurkic languages\n\nUralic languages\n\nBy country\n\nPan and Pfeil (2002) distinguish 33 peoples which form the majority population in at least one sovereign state geographically situated in Europe. These majorities range from nearly homogeneous populations as in Albania or Poland, to comparatively slight majorities as in Latvia or Belgium. Montenegro is multiethnic state in which no group forms a majority.\n\nHistory\n\nPrehistoric populations\n\nThe Basques are assumed to descend from the populations of the Atlantic Bronze Age directly. \nThe Indo-European groups of Europe (the Centum groups plus Balto-Slavic and Albanian) are assumed to have developed in situ by admixture of early Indo-European groups arriving in Europe by the Bronze Age (Corded ware, Beaker people). \nThe Finnic peoples are mostly assumed to be descended from populations that had migrated to their historical homelands by about 3,000 years ago.\n\nReconstructed languages of Iron Age Europe include Proto-Celtic, Proto-Italic and Proto-Germanic, all of these Indo-European languages of the centum group, and Proto-Slavic and Proto-Baltic, of the satem group. A group of Tyrrhenian languages appears to have included Etruscan, Rhaetian and perhaps also Eteocretan and Eteocypriot. A pre-Roman stage of Proto-Basque can only be reconstructed with great uncertainty.\n\nRegarding the European Bronze Age, the only secure reconstruction is that of Proto-Greek (ca. 2000 BC). A Proto-Italo-Celtic ancestor of both Italic and Celtic (assumed for the Bell beaker period), and a Proto-Balto-Slavic language (assumed for roughly the Corded Ware horizon) has been postulated with less confidence. Old European hydronymy has been taken as indicating an early (Bronze Age) Indo-European predecessor of the later centum languages.\n\nHistorical populations\n\nIron Age (pre-Great Migrations) populations of Europe known from Greco-Roman historiography, notably Herodotus, Pliny, Ptolemy and Tacitus:\n*Aegean: Greek tribes, Pelasgians/Tyrrhenians, and Anatolians.\n*Armenian Highlands/Anatolia: Armenians \n*Balkans: Illyrians (List of ancient tribes in Illyria), Dacians, and Thracians.\n*Caucasus: Georgians\n*Italian peninsula: Italic peoples, Etruscans, Adriatic Veneti, Ligurians and Greek colonies.\n*Western/Central Europe: Celts (list of peoples of Gaul, List of Celtic tribes), Rhaetians and Swabians, Vistula Veneti, Lugii and Balts.\n*Iberian peninsula: Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula (Iberians, Lusitani, Aquitani, Celtiberians) Basques and Phoenicians ( Carthaginians).\n*Sardinia: Nuragic people, comprising the Corsi, Balares and Ilienses tribes.\n*British Isles: Celtic tribes in Britain and Ireland and Picts/Priteni.\n*Northern Europe: Finnic peoples, Germanic peoples (list of Germanic peoples).\n*Southern Europe: Sicani.\n*Eastern Europe: Scythians, Sarmatians.\n\nHistorical immigration\n\nEthno-linguistic groups that arrived from outside Europe during historical times are:\n*Phoenician colonies in the Mediterranean, from about 1200 BC to the fall of Carthage after the Third Punic War in 146 BC.\n*Iranian influence: Achaemenid control of Thrace (512–343 BC) and the Bosporan Kingdom, Cimmerians, Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans, Ossetes.\n*the Jewish diaspora reached Europe in the Roman Empire period, the Jewish community in Italy dating to around AD 70 and records of Jews settling Central Europe (Gaul) from the 5th century (see History of the Jews in Europe). \n*The Hunnic Empire (5th century), converged with the Barbarian invasions, contributing to the formation of the First Bulgarian Empire\n* Avar Khaganate (c.560s-800), converged with the Slavic migrations, fused into the South Slavic states from the 9th century.\n* the Bulgars (or proto-Bulgarians), a semi-nomadic people, originally from Central Asia, eventually absorbed by the Slavs.\n* the Magyars (Hungarians), a Ugric people, and the Turkic Pechenegs and Khazars, arrived in Europe in about the 8th century (see Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin).\n* the Arabs conquered Cyprus, Crete, Sicily, some places along the coast of southern Italy, Malta, Hispania and, in the early 11th century, Emirate of Sicily (831–1072) and Al-Andalus (711–1492)\n* the Berber dynasties of the Almoravides and the Almohads ruled much of Spain and Portugal. \n* exodus of Maghreb Christians \n* the western Kipchaks known as Cumans entered the lands of present-day Ukraine in the 11th century.\n* the Mongol/Tatar invasions (1223–1480), and Ottoman control of the Balkans (1389–1878). These medieval incursions account for the presence of European Turks and Tatars.\n*the Romani people (Gypsies) arrived during the Late Middle Ages\n* the Mongol Kalmyks arrived in Kalmykia in the 17th century.\n\nHistory of European ethnography\n\nThe earliest accounts of European ethnography date to Classical Antiquity. Herodotus described the Scythians and Thraco-Illyrians. Dicaearchus gave a description of Greece itself besides accounts of western and northern Europe. His work survives only fragmentarily, but was received by Polybius and others.\n\nRoman Empire period authors include Diodorus Siculus, Strabo and Tacitus.\nJulius Caesar gives an account of the Celtic tribes of Gaul, while Tacitus describes the Germanic tribes of Magna Germania.\n\nThe 4th century Tabula Peutingeriana records the names of numerous peoples and tribes.\nEthnographers of Late Antiquity such as Agathias of Myrina Ammianus Marcellinus, Jordanes or Theophylact Simocatta give early accounts of the Slavs, the Franks, the Alamanni and the Goths.\n\nBook IX of Isidore's Etymologiae (7th century) treats de linguis, gentibus, regnis, militia, civibus (of languages, peoples, realms, armies and cities).\nAhmad ibn Fadlan in the 10th century gives an account of the Bolghar and the Rus' peoples.\nWilliam Rubruck, while most notable for his account of the Mongols, in his account of his journey to Asia also gives accounts of the Tatars and the Alans.\nSaxo Grammaticus and Adam of Bremen give an account of pre-Christian Scandinavia. The Chronicon Slavorum (12th century) gives an account of the northwestern Slavic tribes.\n\nGottfried Hensel in his 1741 Synopsis Universae Philologiae published what is probably the earliest ethno-linguistic map of Europe, showing the beginning of the pater noster in the various European languages and scripts. \nIn the 19th century, ethnicity was discussed in terms of scientific racism, and the ethnic groups of Europe were grouped into a number of \"races\", Mediterranean, Alpine and Nordic, all part of a larger \"Caucasian\" group.\n\nThe beginnings of ethnic geography as an academic subdiscipline lie in the period following World War I, in the context of nationalism, and in the 1930s exploitation for the purposes of fascist and Nazi propaganda so that it was only in the 1960s that ethnic geography began to thrive as a bona fide academic subdiscipline. \n\nThe origins of modern ethnography are often traced to the work of Bronisław Malinowski who emphasized the importance of fieldwork. \nThe emergence of population genetics further undermined the categorisation of Europeans into clearly defined racial groups. A 2007 study on the genetic history of Europe found that the most important genetic differentiation in Europe occurs on a line from the north to the south-east (northern Europe to the Balkans), with another east-west axis of differentiation across Europe, separating the \"indigenous\" Basques and Sami from other European populations.\nDespite these stratifications it noted the unusually high degree of European homogeneity: \"there is low apparent diversity in Europe with the entire continent-wide samples only marginally more dispersed than single population samples elsewhere in the world.\" \n\nNational minorities\n\nThe total number of national minority populations in Europe is estimated at 105 million people, or 14% of Europeans.\n\nThe member states of the Council of Europe in 1995 signed the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. The broad aims of the Convention are to ensure that the signatory states respect the rights of national minorities, undertaking to combat discrimination, promote equality, preserve and develop the culture and identity of national minorities, guarantee certain freedoms in relation to access to the media, minority languages and education and encourage the participation of national minorities in public life. The Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities defines a national minority implicitly to include minorities possessing a territorial identity and a distinct cultural heritage. By 2008, 39 member states have signed and ratified the Convention, with the notable exception of France.\n\nIndigenous minorities\n\nMost of Europe's indigenous peoples, or ethnic groups known to have the earliest known historical connection to a particular region, have gone extinct or been absorbed by (or, perhaps, contributed to) the dominant cultures. Those that survive are largely confined to remote areas. Groups that have been identified as indigenous include the Sami of northern Scandinavia, the Basques of northern Spain and southern France, the Bretons of western France and a many of the western indigenous peoples of Russia. Groups in Russia include Finno-Ugric peoples such as the Komi and Mordvins of the western Ural Mountains, Samoyedic peoples such as the Nenets people of northern Russia.\n\nNon-indigenous minorities\n\nMany non-European ethnic groups and nationalities have immigrated to Europe over the centuries. Some arrived centuries ago, while others immigrated more recently in the 20th century, often from former colonies of the British, French, and Spanish empires.\n\n*Western Asians\n** Jews: approx. 2.0 million, mostly in the UK, France and Germany. They are descended from the Israelites of the Middle East (Southwest Asia), originating from the historical kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Natural History 102:11 (November 1993): 12-19.\n***Ashkenazi Jews: approx. 1.4 million, mostly in Germany and France, probably via southern Europe in the Roman era and coalescing in France and Germany towards the end of the first millennium. The Nazi Holocaust wiped out the vast majority during World War II and forced many to flee.\n***Sephardi Jews: approx. 0.3 million, mostly in France. They arrived via Spain and Portugal in the pre-Roman and Roman eras, and were forcibly converted or expelled in the 15th and 16th centuries.\n***Mizrahi Jews: approx. 0.3 million, mostly in France, via Islamic-majority countries of the Middle East.\n***Italqim: approx. 50,000, mostly in Italy, since the 2nd century BCE.\n***Romaniotes: approx. 6,000, mostly in Greece, with communities dating at least from the 1st century CE.\n***Crimean Karaites (Karaim): less than 4,000, mostly in Poland and Lithuania. They arrived in Crimea in the Middle Ages.\n**Assyrians: mostly in Sweden and Germany, as well in Russia.\n**Kurds: approx. 2.5 million, mostly in the UK, Germany, Sweden and Turkey.\n**Iraqi diaspora: mostly in the UK, Germany and Sweden.\n**Lebanese diaspora: especially in France, Netherlands, Germany, Cyprus and the UK. \n**Syrian diaspora: Largest number of Syrians live in Germany, the Netherlands and Sweden.\n*Africans\n**North Africans (Arabs and Berbers): approx. 5 million, mostly in France, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands and Sweden. The bulk of North African migrants are Moroccans, although France also has a large number of Algerians.\n**Horn Africans: approx. 200,000 Somalis, mostly in the UK, Netherlands and Scandinavia.\n**Sub-Saharan Africans (many ethnicities including Afro-Caribbeans and others by descent): approx. 5 million but rapidly growing, mostly in the UK and France, with smaller numbers in the Netherlands, Germany, Italy, Spain, Portugal and elsewhere. \n*Latin Americans: approx. 2.2 million, mainly in Spain and to a lesser extent Italy and the UK. See also Latin American Britons (80,000 Latin American born in 2001). \n**Brazilians: around 70,000 in Portugal and Italy each, and 50,000 in Germany.\n** Chilean refugees escaping the Augusto Pinochet regime of the 1970s formed communities in France, Sweden, the UK, former East Germany and the Netherlands.\n**Venezuelans: around 520,000 mostly in Spain (200,000), Portugal (100,000), France (30,000), Germany (20,000), UK (15,000), Ireland (5,000), Italy (5,000) and the Netherlands (1,000). \n*South Asians: approx. 3 - 4 million, mostly in the UK but reside in smaller numbers in Germany and France.\n**Romani (Gypsies): approx. 4 or 10 million (although estimates vary widely), dispersed throughout Europe but with large numbers concentrated in the Balkans area, they are of ancestral South Asian and European origin.\n**Indians: approx. 2 million, mostly in the UK, also in Germany and smaller numbers in Ireland.\n**Pakistanis: approx. 1,000,000, mostly in the UK, but also in Norway and Sweden.\n**Tamils: approx. 250,000, predominantly in the UK.\n**Bangladeshi residing in Europe estimated at over 500,000, the bulk live in the UK.\n**Afghans, about 100,000 to 200,000, most happen to live in the UK, but Germany and Sweden are destinations for Afghan immigrants since the 1960s.\n*East Asians\n**Chinese: approx. 1.7 million, mostly in France, Russia, the UK, Spain, Italy and the Netherlands.\n**Filipinos: above 1 million, mostly in the UK, France, Germany, Spain, and Italy.\n**Japanese: mostly in the UK and a sizable community in Düsseldorf, Germany.\n**Koreans: 100,000 estimated (excludes a possible 100,000 more in Russia), mainly in the UK, France and Germany. See also Koryo-saram.\n**Southeast Asians of multiple nationalities, ca. total 1 million, such as Indonesians in the Netherlands, Thais in the UK and Sweden, Vietnamese in France and former East Germany, and Cambodians in France. See also Vietnamese people in the Czech Republic.\n**Mongolians are a sizable community in Germany, Poland and the Czech Republic.\n*North Americans\n**U.S. and Canadian expatriates: American British and Canadian British, Canadiens and Acadians in France, as well Americans/Canadians of European ancestry residing elsewhere in Europe.\n***African Americans (i.e. African American British) who are Americans of black/African ancestry reside in other countries. In the 1920s, African-American entertainers established a colony in Paris (African American French) and descendants of World War II/Cold War-era black American soldiers stationed in France, Germany and Italy are well known.\n*Others\n**European diaspora - Australians, New Zealanders and South Africans (mostly White South Africans of Afrikaaner and British descent), mainly in the UK.\n**Pacific Islanders: A small population of Tahitians of Polynesian origin in mainland France, Fijians in the United Kingdom from Fiji and Māori in the United Kingdom of the Māori people of New Zealand.\n**Amerindians and Inuit, a scant few in the European continent of American Indian ancestry (often Latin Americans in Spain, France and the UK; Inuit in Denmark), but most may be children or grandchildren of U.S. soldiers from American Indian tribes by intermarriage with local European women. In Germany, the Native American Association of Germany founded in 1994 as a socio-cultural organization estimates 50,000 North American Indians (descendants) live in the country. \n\nEuropean identity\n\nHistorical\n\nMedieval notions of a relation of the peoples of Europe are expressed in terms of genealogy of mythical founders of the individual groups.\nThe Europeans were considered the descendants of Japheth from early times, corresponding to the division of the known world into three continents, the descendants of Shem peopling Asia and those of Ham peopling Africa. Identification of Europeans as \"Japhetites\" is also reflected in early suggestions for terming the Indo-European languages \"Japhetic\".\n\nIn this tradition, the Historia Brittonum (9th century) introduces a genealogy of the peoples of the Migration period (as it was remembered in early medieval historiography) as follows,\nThe first man that dwelt in Europe was Alanus, with his three sons, Hisicion, Armenon, and Neugio. Hisicion had four sons, Francus, Romanus, Alamanus, and Bruttus. Armenon had five sons, Gothus, Valagothus, Cibidus, Burgundus, and Longobardus. Neugio had three sons, Vandalus, Saxo, and Boganus.\nFrom Hisicion arose four nations—the Franks, the Latins, the Germans, and Britons; from Armenon, the Gothi, Valagothi, Cibidi, Burgundi, and Longobardi; from Neugio, the Bogari, Vandali, Saxones, and Tarincgi. The whole of Europe was subdivided into these tribes. \nThe text goes then on to list the genealogy of Alanus, connecting him to Japheth via eighteen generations.\n\nEuropean culture\n\nEuropean culture is largely rooted in what is often referred to as its \"common cultural heritage\". Due to the great number of perspectives which can be taken on the subject, it is impossible to form a single, all-embracing conception of European culture. Nonetheless, there are core elements which are generally agreed upon as forming the cultural foundation of modern Europe. One list of these elements given by K. Bochmann includes: \n*A common cultural and spiritual heritage derived from Greco-Roman antiquity, Christianity, the Renaissance and its Humanism, the political thinking of the Enlightenment, and the French Revolution, and the developments of Modernity, including all types of socialism; \n*A rich and dynamic material culture that has been extended to the other continents as the result of industrialization and colonialism during the \"Great Divergence\";\n*A specific conception of the individual expressed by the existence of, and respect for, a legality that guarantees human rights and the liberty of the individual; \n*A plurality of states with different political orders, which are condemned to live together in one way or another;\n*Respect for peoples, states and nations outside Europe.\n\nBerting says that these points fit with \"Europe's most positive realisations\". \nThe concept of European culture is generally linked to the classical definition of the Western world. In this definition, Western culture is the set of literary, scientific, political, artistic and philosophical principles which set it apart from other civilizations. Much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in the Western canon. The term has come to apply to countries whose history has been strongly marked by European immigration or settlement during the 18th and 19th centuries, such as the Americas, and Australasia, and is not restricted to Europe.\n\nReligion\n\nSince the High Middle Ages, most of Europe used to be dominated by Christianity. There are three major denominations, Roman Catholic, Protestant and Eastern Orthodox, with Protestantism restricted mostly to Northern Europe, and Orthodoxy to Slavic regions, Romania, Greece and Georgia. Also The Armenian Apostolic Church, part of the Oriental Church, is in Europe - another branch of Christianity (world's oldest National Church). Part of the Catholicism, while centered in the Latin parts, has a significant following also in Germanic and Slavic regions, Hungary, and Ireland (with some in Great Britain).\n\nChristianity is still the largest religion in Europe; according to a 2011 survey, 76.2% of Europeans considered themselves Christians. Also according to a study on Religiosity in the European Union in 2012, by Eurobarometer, Christianity is the largest religion in the European Union, accounting for 72% of the EU's population. \n\nIslam has some tradition in the Balkans and Caucasus (the European dominions of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th to 19th centuries). Muslims account for the majority of the populations in Albania, Azerbaijan, Kosovo, Northern Cyprus and Turkey. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, 47% of the population is Muslim. Significant minorities are present in the rest of Europe. In addition to Turkey and Azerbaijan, Russia has one of the largest Muslim communities in Europe, including the Tatars of the Middle Volga and multiple groups in the Caucasus, including Chechens, Avars, Ingush and others. With 20th-century migrations, Muslims in Western Europe have become a noticeable minority. According to the Pew Forum, the total number of Muslims in Europe in 2010 was about 44 million (6%).Pew Forum, The Future of the Global Muslim Population, January 2011, [http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/][http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/][http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/], [http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/table-muslim-population-by-country/], [http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/] excluding Turkey. While the total number of Muslims in the European Union in 2007 was about 16 million (3.2%). \n\nJudaism has a long history in Europe, but is a small minority religion, with France (1%) the only European country with a Jewish population in excess of 0.5%. The Jewish population of Europe is composed primarily of two groups, the Ashkenazi and the Sephardi. Ancestors of Ashkenazi Jews likely migrated to the middle of Europe at least as early as the 8th century, while Sephardi Jews established themselves in Spain and Portugal at least one thousand years before that. Jews originated in the Levant where they resided for thousands of years until the 2nd century AD, when they spread around the Mediterranean and into Europe, although small communities were known to exist in Greece since at least the 1st century BC. Jewish history was notably affected by the Holocaust and emigration (including Aliyah, as well as emigration to America) in the 20th century.\n\nIn modern times, significant secularization has taken place, notably in laicist France in the 19th century and in the 20th century such as Estonia and German Democratic Republic. Currently, distribution of theism in Europe is very heterogeneous, with more than 95% in Poland, and less than 20% in the Czech Republic and Estonia. The 2005 Eurobarometer poll[http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf EC.Europa.eu] found that 52% of EU citizens believe in God.\n\nPan-European identity\n\n\"Pan-European identity\" or \"Europatriotism\" is an emerging sense of personal identification with Europe, or the European Union as a result of the gradual process European integration taking place over the last quarter of the 20th century, and especially in the period after the end of the Cold War, since the 1990s. The foundation of the OSCE following the 1990s Paris Charter has facilitated this process on a political level during the 1990s and 2000s.\n\nFrom the later 20th century, 'Europe' has come to be widely used as a synonym for the European Union even though there are millions of people living on the European continent in non-EU states. The prefix pan implies that the identity applies throughout Europe, and especially in an EU context, and 'pan-European' is often contrasted with national identity.", "Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, is a government sanctioned practice whereby a person is put to death by the state as a punishment for a crime. The sentence that someone be punished in such a manner is referred to as a death sentence, whereas the act of carrying out the sentence is known as an execution. Crimes that can result in a death penalty are known as capital crimes or capital offences. The term capital is derived from the Latin capitalis (\"of the head\", referring to execution by beheading).\n\nThirty-six countries actively practise capital punishment, 103 countries have completely abolished it de jure for all crimes, six have abolished it for ordinary crimes (while maintaining it for special circumstances such as war crimes), and 50 have abolished it de facto (have not used it for at least ten years or are under moratorium).\n\nCapital punishment is a matter of active controversy in various countries and states, and positions can vary within a single political ideology or cultural region. In the European Union, Article 2 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union prohibits the use of capital punishment. Also, the Council of Europe, which has 47 member states, prohibits the use of the death penalty by its members.\n\nThe United Nations General Assembly has adopted, in 2007, 2008, 2010, 2012 and 2014 non-binding resolutions calling for a global moratorium on executions, with a view to eventual abolition. Although most nations have abolished capital punishment, over 60% of the world's population live in countries where executions take place, such as China, India, the United States and Indonesia. \n\nHistory\n\nExecution of criminals and political opponents has been used by nearly all societies—both to punish crime and to suppress political dissent. In most countries that practise capital punishment it is reserved for murder, espionage, treason, or as part of military justice. In some countries sexual crimes, such as rape, adultery, incest and sodomy, carry the death penalty, as do religious crimes such as apostasy in Islamic nations (the formal renunciation of the state religion). In many countries that use the death penalty, drug trafficking is also a capital offence. In China, human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are punished by the death penalty. In militaries around the world courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offences such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny. \n\nThe use of formal execution extends to the beginning of recorded history. Most historical records and various primitive tribal practices indicate that the death penalty was a part of their justice system. Communal punishment for wrongdoing generally included compensation by the wrongdoer, corporal punishment, shunning, banishment and execution. Usually, compensation and shunning were enough as a form of justice. The response to crime committed by neighbouring tribes or communities included a formal apology, compensation or blood feuds.\n\nA blood feud or vendetta occurs when arbitration between families or tribes fails or an arbitration system is non-existent. This form of justice was common before the emergence of an arbitration system based on state or organized religion. It may result from crime, land disputes or a code of honour. \"Acts of retaliation underscore the ability of the social collective to defend itself and demonstrate to enemies (as well as potential allies) that injury to property, rights, or the person will not go unpunished.\" However, in practice, it is often difficult to distinguish between a war of vendetta and one of conquest.\n\nSevere historical penalties include breaking wheel, boiling to death, flaying, slow slicing, disembowelment, crucifixion, impalement, crushing (including crushing by elephant), stoning, execution by burning, dismemberment, sawing, decapitation, scaphism, necklacing or blowing from a gun.\n\nAncient history\n\nElaborations of tribal arbitration of feuds included peace settlements often done in a religious context and compensation system. Compensation was based on the principle of substitution which might include material (for example, cattle, slave) compensation, exchange of brides or grooms, or payment of the blood debt. Settlement rules could allow for animal blood to replace human blood, or transfers of property or blood money or in some case an offer of a person for execution. The person offered for execution did not have to be an original perpetrator of the crime because the system was based on tribes, not individuals. Blood feuds could be regulated at meetings, such as the Norsemen things. Systems deriving from blood feuds may survive alongside more advanced legal systems or be given recognition by courts (for example, trial by combat). One of the more modern refinements of the blood feud is the duel.\n\nIn certain parts of the world, nations in the form of ancient republics, monarchies or tribal oligarchies emerged. These nations were often united by common linguistic, religious or family ties. Moreover, expansion of these nations often occurred by conquest of neighbouring tribes or nations. Consequently, various classes of royalty, nobility, various commoners and slave emerged. Accordingly, the systems of tribal arbitration were submerged into a more unified system of justice which formalized the relation between the different \"classes\" rather than \"tribes\". The earliest and most famous example is Code of Hammurabi which set the different punishment and compensation, according to the different class/group of victims and perpetrators. The Torah (Jewish Law), also known as the Pentateuch (the first five books of the Christian Old Testament), lays down the death penalty for murder, kidnapping, magic, violation of the Sabbath, blasphemy, and a wide range of sexual crimes, although evidence suggests that actual executions were rare. \n\nA further example comes from Ancient Greece, where the Athenian legal system was first written down by Draco in about 621 BC: the death penalty was applied for a particularly wide range of crimes, though Solon later repealed Draco's code and published new laws, retaining only Draco's homicide statutes. The word draconian derives from Draco's laws. The Romans also used death penalty for a wide range of offences.\n\nTang dynasty\n\nAlthough many are executed in the People's Republic of China each year in the present day, there was a time in the Tang dynasty when the death penalty was abolished. This was in the year 747, enacted by Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (r. 712–756). When abolishing the death penalty Xuanzong ordered his officials to refer to the nearest regulation by analogy when sentencing those found guilty of crimes for which the prescribed punishment was execution. Thus depending on the severity of the crime a punishment of severe scourging with the thick rod or of exile to the remote Lingnan region might take the place of capital punishment. However, the death penalty was restored only 12 years later in 759 in response to the An Lushan Rebellion. At this time in the Tang dynasty only the emperor had the authority to sentence criminals to execution. Under Xuanzong capital punishment was relatively infrequent, with only 24 executions in the year 730 and 58 executions in the year 736.\n\nThe two most common forms of execution in the Tang dynasty were strangulation and decapitation, which were the prescribed methods of execution for 144 and 89 offences respectively. Strangulation was the prescribed sentence for lodging an accusation against one's parents or grandparents with a magistrate, scheming to kidnap a person and sell them into slavery and opening a coffin while desecrating a tomb. Decapitation was the method of execution prescribed for more serious crimes such as treason and sedition. Despite the great discomfort involved, most of the Tang Chinese preferred strangulation to decapitation, as a result of the traditional Tang Chinese belief that the body is a gift from the parents and that it is, therefore, disrespectful to one's ancestors to die without returning one's body to the grave intact.\n\nSome further forms of capital punishment were practised in the Tang dynasty, of which the first two that follow at least were extralegal. The first of these was scourging to death with the thick rod which was common throughout the Tang dynasty especially in cases of gross corruption. The second was truncation, in which the convicted person was cut in two at the waist with a fodder knife and then left to bleed to death.Benn, p. 210 A further form of execution called Ling Chi (slow slicing), or death by/of a thousand cuts, was used from the close of the Tang dynasty (around 900) to its abolition in 1905.\n\nWhen a minister of the fifth grade or above received a death sentence the emperor might grant him a special dispensation allowing him to commit suicide in lieu of execution. Even when this privilege was not granted, the law required that the condemned minister be provided with food and ale by his keepers and transported to the execution ground in a cart rather than having to walk there.\n\nNearly all executions under the Tang dynasty took place in public as a warning to the population. The heads of the executed were displayed on poles or spears. When local authorities decapitated a convicted criminal, the head was boxed and sent to the capital as proof of identity and that the execution had taken place.\n\nMiddle Ages\n\nIn medieval and early modern Europe, before the development of modern prison systems, the death penalty was also used as a generalized form of punishment. During the reign of Henry VIII of England, as many as 72,000 people are estimated to have been executed. \n\nDuring early modern Europe, a massive moral panic regarding witchcraft swept across Europe and later the European colonies in North America. During this period, there were widespread claims that malevolent Satanic witches were operating as an organized threat to Christendom. As a result, tens of thousands of women were prosecuted and executed through the witch trials of the early modern period (between the 15th and 18th centuries).\n\nThe death penalty also targeted sexual offences such as sodomy. In England, the Buggery Act 1533 stipulated hanging as punishment for \"buggery\". James Pratt and John Smith were the last two Englishmen to be executed for sodomy in 1835. \n\nDespite the wide use of the death penalty, calls for reform were not unknown. The 12th century Jewish legal scholar, Moses Maimonides, wrote, \"It is better and more satisfactory to acquit a thousand guilty persons than to put a single innocent man to death.\" He argued that executing an accused criminal on anything less than absolute certainty would lead to a slippery slope of decreasing burdens of proof, until we would be convicting merely \"according to the judge's caprice\". Maimonides's concern was maintaining popular respect for law, and he saw errors of commission as much more threatening than errors of omission. \n\nIslam on the whole accepts capital punishment, and the Abbasid Caliphs in Baghdad, such as Al-Mu'tadid, were often cruel in their punishments. For hudud crimes such as zina (consensual extramarital or homosexual sex) and apostasy (leaving Islam and converting to another religion), Sharia requires capital punishment in public, while for crimes such as murder and manslaughter, the victim's family can either seek execution (Qisas) or can choose to spare the life of the killer in exchange for blood money restitution (Diyya). \n\nModern era\n\nIn the last several centuries, with the emergence of modern nation states, justice came to be increasingly associated with the concept of natural and legal rights. The period saw an increase in standing police forces and permanent penitential institutions. Rational choice theory, a utilitarian approach to criminology which justifies punishment as a form of deterrence as opposed to retribution, can be traced back to Cesare Beccaria, whose influential treatise On Crimes and Punishments (1764) was the first detailed analysis of capital punishment to demand the abolition of the death penalty. Jeremy Bentham, regarded as the founder of modern utilitarianism, also called for the abolition of the death penalty. Beccaria, and later Charles Dickens and Karl Marx noted the incidence of increased violent criminality at the times and places of executions. Official recognition of this phenomenon led to executions being carried out inside prisons, away from public view.\n\nIn England in the 18th century, when there was no police force, there was a large increase in the number of capital offences to more than 200. These were mainly property offences, for example cutting down a cherry tree in an orchard. In 1820, there were 160, including crimes such as shoplifting, petty theft or stealing cattle. The severity of the so-called Bloody Code was often tempered by juries who refused to convict, or judges, in the case of petty theft, who arbitrarily set the value stolen at below the statutory level for a capital crime. \n\nContemporary era\n\nThe 20th century was a violent period. Tens of millions were killed in wars between nation-states as well as genocide perpetrated by nation states against political opponents (both perceived and actual), ethnic and religious minorities; the Turkish assault on the Armenians, Hitler's attempt to exterminate the European Jews, the Khmer Rouge decimation of Cambodia, the massacre of the Tutsis in Rwanda, to cite four of the most notorious examples. A large part of execution was the summary execution of enemy combatants. In Nazi Germany there were three types of capital punishment; hanging, decapitation and death by shooting. Also, modern military organisations employed capital punishment as a means of maintaining military discipline. The Soviets, for example, executed 158,000 soldiers for desertion during World War II. In the past, cowardice, absence without leave, desertion, insubordination, looting, shirking under enemy fire and disobeying orders were often crimes punishable by death (see decimation and running the gauntlet). One method of execution, since firearms came into common use, has also been firing squad, although some countries use execution with a single shot to the head or neck.\n\nVarious authoritarian states— for example those with fascist or Communist governments—employed the death penalty as a potent means of political oppression. According to Robert Conquest, the leading expert on Stalin's purges, more than 1 million Soviet citizens were executed during the Great Terror of 1937–38, almost all by a bullet to the back of the head. Mao Zedong publicly stated that \"800,000\" people had been executed after the Communist Party's victory in 1949. Partly as a response to such excesses, civil rights organizations have started to place increasing emphasis on the concept of human rights and an abolition of the death penalty.\n\nAmong countries around the world, almost all European and many Pacific Area states (including Australia, New Zealand and Timor Leste), and Canada have abolished capital punishment. In Latin America, most states have completely abolished the use of capital punishment while some countries, such as Brazil, allow for capital punishment only in exceptional situations, such as treason committed during wartime. The United States (the federal government and 32 of the states), Guatemala, most of the Caribbean and the majority of democracies in Asia (for example, Japan and India) and Africa (for example, Botswana and Zambia) retain it. South Africa's Constitutional Court, in judgment of the case of State v Makwanyane and Another, unanimously abolished the death penalty on 6 June 1995.\n\nAbolition was often adopted due to political change, as when countries shifted from authoritarianism to democracy, or when it became an entry condition for the European Union. The United States is a notable exception: some states have had bans on capital punishment for decades, the earliest is Michigan, where it was abolished in 1846, while others actively use it today. The death penalty there remains a contentious issue which is hotly debated.\n\nIn abolitionist countries, the debate is sometimes revived by particularly brutal murders though few countries have brought it back after abolishing it. However, a spike in serious, violent crimes, such as murders or terrorist attacks, has prompted some countries (such as Sri Lanka and Jamaica) to effectively end the moratorium on the death penalty. In retention countries, the debate is sometimes revived when a miscarriage of justice has occurred though this tends to cause legislative efforts to improve the judicial process rather than to abolish the death penalty.\n\nModern-day public opinion\n\nThe public opinion on the death penalty varies considerably by country and by the crime in question. Countries where a majority of people are against execution include New Zealand, where 55 percent of the population oppose its use, Australia where only 23 percent support the death penalty, and Norway where only 25 percent are in favour. Most French, Finns and Italians also oppose the death penalty. A 2010 Gallup poll shows that 64% of Americans support the death penalty for someone convicted of murder, down from 65% in 2006 and 68% in 2001. \n\nUse of capital punishment is growing in India in the 2010s due to both a growth in right wing politics and due to anger over several recent brutal cases of rape. While support for the death penalty for murder is still high in China, executions have dropped precipitously, with 3,000 executed in 2012 versus 12,000 in 2002. A poll in South Africa found that 76 percent of millennium generation South Africans support re-introduction of the death penalty, which is abolished in South Africa. \n\nMovements towards non-painful execution\n\nTrends in most of the world have long been to move to less painful, or more humane, executions. France developed the guillotine for this reason in the final years of the 18th century, while Britain banned drawing and quartering in the early 19th century. Hanging by turning the victim off a ladder or by kicking a stool or a bucket, which causes death by suffocation, was replaced by long drop \"hanging\" where the subject is dropped a longer distance to dislocate the neck and sever the spinal cord. The Shah of Persia introduced throat-cutting and blowing from a gun as quick and painless alternatives to more torturous methods of executions used at that time. In the U.S., the electric chair and the gas chamber were introduced as more humane alternatives to hanging, but have been almost entirely superseded by lethal injection. A small number of countries still employ slow hanging methods and stoning.\n\nA study of executions carried out in the U.S. between 1977 and 2001 indicated that at least 34 of the 749 executions, or 4.5%, involved \"unanticipated problems or delays that caused, at least arguably, unnecessary agony for the prisoner or that reflect gross incompetence of the executioner.\" The rate of these \"botched executions\" remained steady over the period of the study. A separate study published in The Lancet in 2005 found that in 43% of cases of lethal injection, the blood level of hypnotics was insufficient to guarantee unconsciousness. However, the US Supreme Court ruled in 2008 (Baze v. Rees) that lethal injection is a constitutional form of punishment, and again in 2015 (Glossip v. Gross).\n\nAbolition of capital punishment\n\nMany countries have abolished capital punishment either in law or in practice. Since World War II there has been a trend toward abolishing capital punishment. Capital punishment has been completely abolished by 103 countries, a further 6 have done so for all offences except under special circumstances and 50 more have abolished it in practice because they have not used it for at least 10 years or are under a moratorium.\n\nThe death penalty was banned in China between 747 and 759. In Japan, Emperor Saga abolished the death penalty in 818 under the influence of Shinto and it lasted until 1156. \n\nIn England, a public statement of opposition was included in The Twelve Conclusions of the Lollards, written in 1395. Sir Thomas More's Utopia, published in 1516, debated the benefits of the death penalty in dialogue form, coming to no firm conclusion. More recent opposition to the death penalty stemmed from the book of the Italian Cesare Beccaria Dei Delitti e Delle Pene (\"On Crimes and Punishments\"), published in 1764. In this book, Beccaria aimed to demonstrate not only the injustice, but even the futility from the point of view of social welfare, of torture and the death penalty. Influenced by the book, Grand Duke Leopold II of Habsburg, famous enlightened monarch and future Emperor of Austria, abolished the death penalty in the then-independent Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the first permanent abolition in modern times. On 30 November 1786, after having de facto blocked capital executions (the last was in 1769), Leopold promulgated the reform of the penal code that abolished the death penalty and ordered the destruction of all the instruments for capital execution in his land. In 2000, Tuscany's regional authorities instituted an annual holiday on 30 November to commemorate the event. The event is commemorated on this day by 300 cities around the world celebrating Cities for Life Day.\n\nThe Roman Republic banned capital punishment in 1849. Venezuela followed suit and abolished the death penalty in 1854 and San Marino did so in 1865. The last execution in San Marino had taken place in 1468. In Portugal, after legislative proposals in 1852 and 1863, the death penalty was abolished in 1867.\n\nAbolition occurred in Canada in 1976 (except for some military offences, with complete abolition in 1998), in France in 1981, and in Australia in 1973 (although the state of Western Australia retained the penalty until 1984). In 1977, the United Nations General Assembly affirmed in a formal resolution that throughout the world, it is desirable to \"progressively restrict the number of offences for which the death penalty might be imposed, with a view to the desirability of abolishing this punishment\". \n\nIn the United Kingdom, it was abolished for murder (leaving only treason, piracy with violence, arson in royal dockyards and a number of wartime military offences as capital crimes) for a five-year experiment in 1965 and permanently in 1969, the last execution having taken place in 1964. It was abolished for all peacetime offences in 1998. \n\nIn the United States, Michigan was the first state to ban the death penalty, on 18 May 1846. The death penalty was declared unconstitutional between 1972 and 1976 based on the Furman v. Georgia case, but the 1976 Gregg v. Georgia case once again permitted the death penalty under certain circumstances. Further limitations were placed on the death penalty in Atkins v. Virginia (death penalty unconstitutional for people with an intellectual disability) and Roper v. Simmons (death penalty unconstitutional if defendant was under age 18 at the time the crime was committed). In the United States, 18 states and the District of Columbia ban capital punishment.\n\nOne of the latest countries to abolish the death penalty for all crimes was Gabon, in February 2010. \n\nAbolitionists believe capital punishment is the worst violation of human rights, because the right to life is the most important, and capital punishment violates it without necessity and inflicts to the condemned a psychological torture. Human rights activists oppose the death penalty, calling it \"cruel, inhuman, and degrading punishment\". Amnesty International considers it to be \"the ultimate, irreversible denial of Human Rights\". \n\nSee also: Capital punishment abolition chronology.\n\nContemporary use\n\nCapital punishment by country\n\nMost countries including almost all First World nations have abolished capital punishment either in law or in practice. Notable exceptions are the United States, China, North Korea, Japan, and most Islamic states. The U.S. is the only Western country to use the death penalty. \n\nSince World War II, there has been a trend toward abolishing the death penalty. 36 countries retain the death penalty in active use, 103 countries have abolished capital punishment altogether, six have done so for all offences except under special circumstances, and 50 have abolished it in practice because they had not used it for at least ten years or are under a moratorium.\n\nAccording to Amnesty International, 25 countries are known to have performed executions in 2015, three more than in 2014. There are countries which do not publish information on the use of capital punishment, most significantly China and North Korea.\n\nThe use of the death penalty is becoming increasingly restrained in some retentionist countries including Taiwan and Singapore. Indonesia carried out no executions between November 2008 and March 2013. Japan and the United States are the only developed countries that are classified by Amnesty International as 'retentionist' (South Korea is classified as 'abolitionist in practice'). Nearly all retentionist countries are situated in Asia, Africa and the Caribbean. The only retentionist country in Europe is Belarus. The death penalty was overwhelmingly practised in poor and authoritarian states, which often employed the death penalty as a tool of political oppression. During the 1980s, the democratisation of Latin America swelled the ranks of abolitionist countries.\n\nThis was soon followed by the fall of Communism in Europe. Many of the countries which restored democracy aspired to enter the EU. The European Union and the Council of Europe both strictly require member states not to practise the death penalty (see Capital punishment in Europe). Public support for the death penalty in the EU varies. The last execution on the present day territory of the Council of Europe took place in 1997 in Ukraine. On the other hand, rapid industrialisation in Asia has been increasing the number of developed retentionist countries. In these countries, the death penalty enjoys strong public support, and the matter receives little attention from the government or the media; in China there is a small but growing movement to abolish the death penalty altogether. This trend has been followed by some African and Middle Eastern countries where support for the death penalty is high.\n\nSome countries have resumed practising the death penalty after having suspended executions for long periods. The United States suspended executions in 1972 but resumed them in 1976; there was no execution in India between 1995 and 2004; and Sri Lanka declared an end to its moratorium on the death penalty on 20 November 2004, although it has not yet performed any executions. The Philippines re-introduced the death penalty in 1993 after abolishing it in 1987, but abolished it again in 2006.\n\nThe United States and Japan are the only developed countries to have carried out executions. The federal government and 32 states have a valid death penalty statute, and over 1,400 executions have been carried in the country since it reinstated the death penalty in 1976, including 28 in 2015.\n\nThe most recent country to abolish the death penalty was Suriname in March 2015. \n\nJuvenile offenders\n\nThe death penalty for juvenile offenders (criminals aged under 18 years at the time of their crime) has become increasingly rare. Considering the age of majority is still not 18 in some countries, since 1990 nine countries have executed offenders who were juveniles at the time of their crimes: The People's Republic of China (PRC), Bangladesh, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Iran, Iraq, Nigeria, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, the United States, and Yemen. The PRC, Pakistan, the United States, Yemen and Iran have since raised the minimum age to 18. Amnesty International has recorded 61 verified executions since then, in several countries, of both juveniles and adults who had been convicted of committing their offences as juveniles. The PRC does not allow for the execution of those under 18, but child executions have reportedly taken place. \n\nStarting in 1642 within British America, an estimated 365 juvenile offenders were executed by the states and federal government of the United States. The United States Supreme Court abolished capital punishment for offenders under the age of 16 in Thompson v. Oklahoma (1988), and for all juveniles in Roper v. Simmons (2005).\n\nBetween 2005 and May 2008, Iran, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan and Yemen were reported to have executed child offenders, the most being from Iran. \n\nThe United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, which forbids capital punishment for juveniles under article 37(a), has been signed by all countries and ratified, except for Somalia and the United States (notwithstanding the latter's Supreme Court decisions abolishing the practice). The UN Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights maintains that the death penalty for juveniles has become contrary to a jus cogens of customary international law. A majority of countries are also party to the U.N. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (whose Article 6.5 also states that \"Sentence of death shall not be imposed for crimes committed by persons below eighteen years of age...\").\n\nIran, despite its ratification of the Convention on the Rights of the Child and International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, was the world's largest executioner of juvenile offenders, for which it has received international condemnation; the country's record is the focus of the Stop Child Executions Campaign. But on 10 February 2012, Iran's parliament changed the controversial law of executing juveniles. In the new law, the age of 18 (solar year) would be for both genders considered and juvenile offenders will be sentenced on a separate law than of adults. Based on the Islamic law which now seems to have been revised, girls at the age of 9 and boys at 15 of lunar year (11 days shorter than a solar year) were fully responsible for their crimes. Iran accounted for two-thirds of the global total of such executions, and currently has roughly 140 people on death row for crimes committed as juveniles (up from 71 in 2007).[http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2008-09-17-child-executions_N.htm Iranian activists fight child executions], Ali Akbar Dareini, Associated Press, 17 September 2008. Retrieved 2008-09-22. The past executions of Mahmoud Asgari, Ayaz Marhoni and Makwan Moloudzadeh became international symbols of Iran's child capital punishment and the judicial system that hands down such sentences. \n\nSaudi Arabia also executes criminals who were minors at the time of the offence. In 2013, Saudi Arabia was the center of an international controversy after it executed Rizana Nafeek, a Sri Lankan domestic worker, who was believed to have been 17 years old at the time of the crime. \n\nThere is evidence that child executions are taking place in the parts of Somalia controlled by the Islamic Courts Union (ICU). In October 2008, a girl, Aisho Ibrahim Dhuhulow was buried up to her neck at a football stadium, then stoned to death in front of more than 1,000 people. Somalia's established Transitional Federal Government announced in November 2009 (reiterated in 2013) that it plans to ratify the Convention on the Rights of the Child. This move was lauded by UNICEF as a welcome attempt to secure children's rights in the country. \n\nMethods\n\nThe following methods of execution were used in 2015: \n\n* Hanging (Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Japan, Malaysia, Pakistan, Palestinian National Authority, Yemen, Egypt, India, Myanmar, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Syria, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Liberia, Chad, Washington state in the USA)\n* Shooting (the People's Republic of China, Republic of China, Vietnam, Belarus, North Korea, Indonesia, Yemen, and in the U.S. states of Oklahoma and Utah).\n* Lethal injection (United States, Guatemala, Thailand, the People's Republic of China, Vietnam)\n* Electrocution and gas inhalation (some U.S. states, but only if the prisoner request it or if lethal injection is unavailable)\n* Beheading (Saudi Arabia)\n\nPublic execution\n\nA public execution is a form of capital punishment in which \"members of the general public may voluntarily attend\". The standard definition normally excludes the presence of a limited number of \"passive citizens\" that \"witness the event to assure executive accountability\". While today the great majority of the world considers public executions to be uncivilized and distasteful and most countries have outlawed the practice, throughout much of history executions were performed publicly as a means for the state to demonstrate \"its power before those who fell under its jurisdiction be they criminals, enemies, or political opponents\". Additionally, it afforded the public a chance to witness \"what was considered a great spectacle\". \n\nAccording to Amnesty International, in 2012 \"public executions were known to have been carried out in Iran, North Korea, Saudi Arabia and Somalia\". Public executions have also taken place in Hamas-controlled Gaza. \n\nCapital crime\n\nCrimes against humanity\n\nCrimes against humanity such as genocide are usually punished by the death penalty in countries retaining it. Death sentences were handed down and carried out during the Nuremberg Trials in 1946 and the Tokyo Trials in 1948, but the current International Criminal Court doesn't uses capital punishment, life imprisonment being the highest penalty available.\n\nMurder\n\nIntentional homicide is punishable by death in most countries retaining capital punishment, but generally provided it involves an aggravating factor required by statute or judicial precedents.\n\nDrug trafficking\n\nSome countries provide the death penalty for drug trafficking, mostly in Asia. Among countries who regularly execute drug offenders are China, Indonesia, Saudi Arabia, Iran and Singapore.\n\nOther offences\n\nOther crimes that are punishable by death include treason, and other graves crimes against the state (most countries with the death penalty), rape (China, Iran, Saudi Arabia), economic crimes (China), adultery, sodomy, religious offences such as apostasy (many Islamic countries), blasphemy (Saudi Arabia, Iran, Pakistan), and forms of aggravated robbery (Saudi Arabia, Kenya, Zambia).\n\nControversy and debate\n\nCapital punishment is controversial. Death penalty opponents regard the death penalty as inhumane and criticize it for its irreversibility. They assert also that capital punishment lacks deterrent effect, discriminates against minorities and the poor, and that it encourages a \"culture of violence\". There are many organizations worldwide, such as Amnesty International, and country-specific, such as the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), that have abolition of the death penalty as a fundamental purpose. \n\nAdvocates of the death penalty argue that it deters crime, is a good tool for police and prosecutors (in plea bargaining for example), makes sure that convicted criminals do not offend again, and is a just penalty for atrocious crimes. \n\nRetribution\n\nSupporters of the death penalty argued that death penalty is morally justified when applied in murder especially with aggravating elements such as for murder of law enforcement officers, child murder, torture murder, multiple homicide and mass killing such as terrorism, massacre and genocide. This argument is strongly defended by New York Law School's Professor Robert Blecker, who says that the punishment must be painful in proportion to the crime. 18th century philosopher Immanuel Kant defended a more extreme position, according to which every murderer deserves to die on the grounds that loss of life is incomparable to any jail term. \n\nSome abolitionists argue that retribution is simply revenge and cannot be condoned. Others while accepting retribution as an element of criminal justice nonetheless argue that life without parole is a sufficient substitute. It is also argued that the punishing of a killing with another death is a relatively unique punishment for a violent act, because in general violent crimes are not punished by subjecting the perpetrator to a similar act (e.g. rapists are not punished by corporal punishment). \n\nHuman rights\n\nAbolitionists believe capital punishment is the worst violation of human rights, because the right to life is the most important, and capital punishment violates it without necessity and inflicts to the condemned a psychological torture. Human rights activists oppose the death penalty, calling it \"cruel, inhuman and degrading punishment\". Amnesty International considers it to be \"the ultimate irreversible denial of Human Rights\". Albert Camus wrote in a 1956 book called Reflections on the Guillotine, Resistance, Rebellion & Death:\n\nIn the classic doctrine of natural rights as expounded by for instance Locke and Blackstone, on the other hand, it is an important idea that the right to life can be forfeited.Joel Feinberg: [http://www.tannerlectures.utah.edu/lectures/documents/feinberg80.pdf Voluntary Euthanasia and the Inalienable Right to Life] The Tanner Lecture on Human Values, 1 April 1977. As John Stuart Mill explained in a speech against an amendment to abolish capital punishment for murder in 1868:\n\nWrongful execution\n\nIt is frequently argued that capital punishment leads to miscarriage of justice through the wrongful execution of innocent persons. Many people have been proclaimed innocent victims of the death penalty.[http://capitaldefenseweekly.com/innocent.html Capital Defense Weekly] \n\nSome have claimed that as many as 39 executions have been carried out in the face of compelling evidence of innocence or serious doubt about guilt in the US from 1992 through 2004. Newly available DNA evidence prevented the pending execution of more than 15 death row inmates during the same period in the US, but DNA evidence is only available in a fraction of capital cases. As of 2010, 139 prisoners on death row have been exonerated by DNA or other evidence, which is seen as an indication that innocent prisoners have almost certainly been executed. \n\nImproper procedure may also result in unfair executions. For example, Amnesty International argues that in Singapore \"the Misuse of Drugs Act contains a series of presumptions which shift the burden of proof from the prosecution to the accused. This conflicts with the universally guaranteed right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty\". This refers to a situation when someone is being caught with drugs. In this situation, in almost any jurisdiction, the prosecution has a prima facie case.\n\nSince the death penalty reinstatement in the United States during the 1970s, no inmate executed has been granted posthumous exoneration. \n\nRacial, ethnic and social class bias\n\nOpponents of the death penalty argue that this punishment is being used more often against perpetrators from racial and ethnic minorities and from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, than against those criminals who come from a privileged background; and that the background of the victim also influences the outcome. Researchers have shown that white Americans are more likely to support the death penalty when told that it is mostly applied to African Americans, and that more stereotypically black-looking defendants are more likely to be sentenced to death if the case involves a white victim. \n\nSupporters of the death penalty retort that the over-representation of minorities among those sentenced to death only reflects their over-representation among criminals in general. \n\nInternational views\n\nThe United Nations introduced a resolution during the General Assembly's 62nd sessions in 2007 calling for a universal ban. The approval of a draft resolution by the Assembly's third committee, which deals with human rights issues, voted 99 to 52, with 33 abstentions, in favour of the resolution on 15 November 2007 and was put to a vote in the Assembly on 18 December. \n\nAgain in 2008, a large majority of states from all regions adopted a second resolution calling for a moratorium on the use of the death penalty in the UN General Assembly (Third Committee) on 20 November. 105 countries voted in favour of the draft resolution, 48 voted against and 31 abstained.\n\nA range of amendments proposed by a small minority of pro-death penalty countries were overwhelmingly defeated. It had in 2007 passed a non-binding resolution (by 104 to 54, with 29 abstentions) by asking its member states for \"a moratorium on executions with a view to abolishing the death penalty\". \n\nA number of regional conventions prohibit the death penalty, most notably, the Sixth Protocol (abolition in time of peace) and the 13th Protocol (abolition in all circumstances) to the European Convention on Human Rights. The same is also stated under the Second Protocol in the American Convention on Human Rights, which, however has not been ratified by all countries in the Americas, most notably Canada and the United States. Most relevant operative international treaties do not require its prohibition for cases of serious crime, most notably, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. This instead has, in common with several other treaties, an optional protocol prohibiting capital punishment and promoting its wider abolition. \n\nSeveral international organizations have made the abolition of the death penalty (during time of peace) a requirement of membership, most notably the European Union (EU) and the Council of Europe. The EU and the Council of Europe are willing to accept a moratorium as an interim measure. Thus, while Russia is a member of the Council of Europe, and the death penalty remains codified in its law, it has not made use of it since becoming a member of the Council – Russia has not executed anyone since 1996. With the exception of Russia (abolitionist in practice), Kazakhstan (abolitionist for ordinary crimes only), and Belarus (retentionist), all European countries are classified as abolitionist.\n\nLatvia abolished de jure the death penalty for war crimes in 2012, becoming the last EU member to do so. \n\nThe [http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ChercheSig.asp?NT187&CM\n&DF&CL\nENG Protocol no.13] calls for the abolition of the death penalty in all circumstances (including for war crimes). The majority of European countries have signed and ratified it. Some European countries have not done this, but all of them except Belarus and Kazakhstan have now abolished the death penalty in all circumstances (de jure, and Russia de facto). Poland is the most recent country to ratify the protocol, on 28 August 2013. \n\nThe [http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ChercheSig.asp?NT114&CM\n&DF&CL\nENG Protocol no.6] which prohibits the death penalty during peacetime has been ratified by all members of the European Council, except Russia (which has signed, but not ratified).\n\nThere are also other international abolitionist instruments, such as the Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which has 81 parties; and the [http://www.oas.org/juridico/english/treaties/a-53.html Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights to Abolish the Death Penalty] (for the Americas; ratified by 13 states). \n\nIn Turkey, over 500 people were sentenced to death after the 1980 Turkish coup d'état. About 50 of them were executed, the last one 25 October 1984. Then there was a de facto moratorium on the death penalty in Turkey. As a move towards EU membership, Turkey made some legal changes. The death penalty was removed from peacetime law by the National Assembly in August 2002, and in May 2004 Turkey amended its constitution in order to remove capital punishment in all circumstances. It ratified Protocol no. 13 to the European Convention on Human Rights in February 2006. As a result, Europe is a continent free of the death penalty in practice, all states but Russia, which has entered a moratorium, having ratified the Sixth Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights, with the sole exception of Belarus, which is not a member of the Council of Europe. The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe has been lobbying for Council of Europe observer states who practise the death penalty, the U.S. and Japan, to abolish it or lose their observer status. In addition to banning capital punishment for EU member states, the EU has also banned detainee transfers in cases where the receiving party may seek the death penalty. \n\nSub-Saharan African countries that have recently abolished the death penalty include Burundi, which abolished the death penalty for all crimes in 2009, and Gabon which did the same in 2010. On 5 July 2012, Benin became part of the Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), which prohibits the use of the death penalty. \n\nThe newly created South Sudan is among the 111 UN member states that supported the resolution passed by the United Nations General Assembly that called for the removal of the death penalty, therefore affirming its opposition to the practice. South Sudan, however, has not yet abolished the death penalty and stated that it must first amend its Constitution, and until that happens it will continue to use the death penalty. \n\nAmong non-governmental organizations (NGOs), Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch are noted for their opposition to capital punishment. A number of such NGOs, as well as trade unions, local councils and bar associations formed a World Coalition Against the Death Penalty in 2002.\n\nReligious views\n\nThe world's major religions have mixed opinions on the death penalty, depending on the sect, the individual believer, and the time period.\n\nBuddhism\n\nThere is disagreement among Buddhists as to whether or not Buddhism forbids the death penalty. The first of the Five Precepts (Panca-sila) is to abstain from destruction of life. Chapter 10 of the Dhammapada states:\n\nEveryone fears punishment; everyone fears death, just as you do. Therefore you do not kill or cause to be killed. \n\nChapter 26, the final chapter of the Dhammapada, states, \"Him I call a brahmin who has put aside weapons and renounced violence toward all creatures. He neither kills nor helps others to kill.\" These sentences are interpreted by many Buddhists (especially in the West) as an injunction against supporting any legal measure which might lead to the death penalty. However, as is often the case with the interpretation of scripture, there is dispute on this matter. Historically, most states where the official religion is Buddhism have imposed capital punishment for some offences. One notable exception is the abolition of the death penalty by the Emperor Saga of Japan in 818. This lasted until 1165, although in private manors executions continued to be conducted as a form of retaliation. Japan still imposes the death penalty, although some recent justice ministers have refused to sign death warrants, citing their Buddhist beliefs as their reason. Other Buddhist-majority states vary in their policy. For example, Bhutan has abolished the death penalty, but Thailand still retains it, although Buddhism is the official religion in both. Mongolia abolished the death penalty in 2012.\n\nMany stories in Buddhist scripture stress the superior power of the Buddha's teaching to rehabilitate murderers and other criminals. The most well-known example is Angulimala in the Theravadan Pali canon who had killed 999 people and then attempted to kill his own mother and the Buddha, but under the influence of the Buddha he repented and entered the monkhood. The Buddha succeeded when the King and all his soldiers failed to eliminate the murderer by force. \n\nWithout one official teaching on the death penalty, Thai monks are typically divided on the issue, with some favoring abolition of the death penalty while others see it as bad karma stemming from bad actions in the past.\n \n\nIn the edicts of the great Buddhist king Ashoka (ca. 304–232 BC) inscribed on great pillars around his kingdom, the King showed reverence for all life by giving up the slaughtering of animals, and many of his subjects followed his example. King Ashoka also extended the period before execution of those condemned to death so they could make a final appeal for their lives.\n\nA close reading of texts in the Pali canon reveals different attitudes towards violence and capital punishment. The Pali scholar [http://salc.uchicago.edu/faculty/collins Steven Collins] finds Dhamma in the Pali canon divided into two categories according to the attitude taken towards violence. In Mode 1 Dhamma the use of violence is \"context-dependent and negotiable\". A King should not pass judgement in haste or anger, but the punishment should fit the crime, with warfare and capital punishment acceptable in certain situations. In Mode 2 Dhamma the use of violence is \"context-independent and non-negotiable\" and the only advice to kings is to abdicate, renounce the world and leave everything to the law of karma. Buddhism is incompatible with any form of violence especially warfare and capital punishment.\n \n\nIn the world that humans inhabit there is a continual tension between these two modes of Dhamma. This tension is best exhibited in the [http://www.basicbuddhism.org/index.cfm?GPID=29 Cakkavatti Sihanada Sutta] (Digha Nikaya 26 of the Sutta Pitaka of the Pāli Canon), the story of humanity's decline from a golden age in the past. A critical turning point comes when the King decides not to give money to a man who has committed theft, but instead to cut off his head and also to carry out this punishment in a particularly cruel and humiliating manner, parading him in public to the sound of drums as he is taken to the execution ground outside the city. In the wake of this decision by the king, thieves take to imitating the King's actions and murder the people from whom they steal to avoid detection. Thieves turn to highway robbery and attacking small villages and towns far away from the royal capital where they won't be detected. A downwards spiral towards social disorder and chaos has begun.\n \n\nChristianity\n\nViews on the death penalty in Christianity run a spectrum of opinions, from complete condemnation of the punishment, seeing it as a form of revenge and as contrary to Christ's message of forgiveness, to enthusiastic support based primarily on Old Testament law.\n\nAmong the teachings of Jesus Christ in the Gospel of Luke and the Gospel of Matthew, the message to his followers that one should \"Turn the other cheek\" and his example in the story Pericope Adulterae, in which Jesus intervenes in the stoning of an adulteress, are generally accepted as his condemnation of physical retaliation (though most scholars agree that the latter passage was \"certainly not part of the original text of St John's Gospel\" ). More militant Christians consider Romans 13:3–4 to support the death penalty. Many Christians have believed that Jesus' doctrine of peace speaks only to personal ethics and is distinct from civil government's duty to punish crime.\n\nIn the Old Testament, Leviticus provides a list of transgressions in which execution is recommended. Christian positions on these passages vary. The sixth commandment (fifth in the Roman Catholic and Lutheran churches) is translated as \"Thou shalt not kill\" by some denominations and as \"Thou shalt not murder\" by others. As some denominations do not have a hard-line stance on the subject, Christians of such denominations are free to make a personal decision. \n\nEastern Orthodox Christianity does not officially condemn or endorse capital punishment. It states that it is not a totally objectionable thing, but also that its abolition can be driven by genuine Christian values, especially stressing the need for mercy. \n\nThe Rosicrucian Fellowship and many other Christian esoteric schools condemn capital punishment in all circumstances. \n\nRoman Catholic Church\n\nIn recent times, the Catholic Church has generally moved away from any explicit condoning or approval of the death penalty and has instead increasingly adopted a more disapproving stance on the issue. Many modern Church figures such as Pope John Paul II, Pope Francis, and the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops have in fact actively discouraged the death penalty or advocated for the out-right abolition of the death penalty. Historically and officially, however, the Catholic Church has held that, in certain cases, a legal system may be justified in levying a death sentence, as such a sentence may deter crime, may protect society from potential future acts of violence by an offender, may bring retribution for an offender's wrongful acts, and may even help the offender to move closer to reconciliation with God in the face of death. St. Thomas Aquinas, a Doctor of the Church, accepted the death penalty as a deterrent and prevention method but not as a means of vengeance. (See Aquinas on the death penalty.) In 1566, the Roman Catechism stated this teaching thus:\n\nAnother kind of lawful slaying belongs to the civil authorities, to whom is entrusted power of life and death, by the legal and judicious exercise of which they punish the guilty and protect the innocent. The just use of this power, far from involving the crime of murder, is an act of paramount obedience to this Commandment which prohibits murder. The end of the Commandment is the preservation and security of human life. Now the punishments inflicted by the civil authority, which is the legitimate avenger of crime, naturally tend to this end, since they give security to life by repressing outrage and violence. Hence these words of David: In the morning I put to death all the wicked of the land, that I might cut off all the workers of iniquity from the city of the Lord. \n\nThe 1911 edition of the Catholic Encyclopedia suggested that Catholics should hold that \"the infliction of capital punishment is not contrary to the teaching of the Catholic Church, and the power of the State to visit upon culprits the penalty of death derives much authority from revelation and from the writings of theologians\", but that the matter of \"the advisability of exercising that power is, of course, an affair to be determined upon other and various considerations.\" \n\nMore recently, however, in the 1995 Evangelium Vitae, Pope John Paul II suggested that capital punishment should be avoided unless it is the only way to defend society from the offender in question, opining that punishment \"ought not go to the extreme of executing the offender except in cases of absolute necessity: in other words, when it would not be possible otherwise to defend society. Today however, as a result of steady improvements in the organization of the penal system, such cases are very rare, if not practically non-existent.\" The most recent edition of the Catechism of the Catholic Church restates this view, and further states that:\n\nAssuming that the guilty party’s identity and responsibility have been fully determined, the traditional teaching of the Church does not exclude recourse to the death penalty if this is the only possible way of effectively defending human lives against the unjust aggressor. If, however, non-lethal means are sufficient to defend and protect people’s safety from the aggressor, authority will limit itself to such means, as these are more in keeping with the concrete conditions of the common good and more in conformity to the dignity of the human person.\n\nThat the assessment of the contemporary situation advanced by John Paul II is not binding on the Catholic faithful was confirmed by Cardinal Ratzinger when he wrote in 2004 that,\n\nif a Catholic were to be at odds with the Holy Father on the application of capital punishment or on the decision to wage war, he would not for that reason be considered unworthy to present himself to receive Holy Communion. While the Church exhorts civil authorities to seek peace, not war, and to exercise discretion and mercy in imposing punishment on criminals, it may still be permissible to take up arms to repel an aggressor or to have recourse to capital punishment. There may be a legitimate diversity of opinion even among Catholics about waging war and applying the death penalty, but not however with regard to abortion and euthanasia. \n\nIn 2015, Pope Francis stated in an address to the International Commission against the Death Penalty that: \"Today the death penalty is inadmissible, no matter how serious the crime committed.\" Francis argued that the death penalty is no longer justified by a society's need to defend itself and has lost all legitimacy due to the possibility of judicial error. He further stated that capital punishment is an offense \"against the inviolability of life and the dignity of the human person, which contradicts God's plan for man and society\" and \"does not render justice to the victims, but rather fosters vengeance.\" In the address, Francis further explained: \n\n In certain circumstances, when hostilities are underway, a measured reaction is necessary in order to prevent the aggressor from causing harm, and the need to neutralize the aggressor may result in his elimination; it is a case of legitimate defence (cf. Evangelium Vitae, n. 55). Nevertheless, the prerequisites of legitimate personal defence are not applicable in the social sphere without the risk of distortion. In fact, when the death penalty is applied, people are killed not for current acts of aggression, but for offences committed in the past. Moreover, it is applied to people whose capacity to cause harm is not current, but has already been neutralized, and who are deprived of their freedom. [...] \n\nFor a constitutional State the death penalty represents a failure, because it obliges the State to kill in the name of justice [...] Justice is never reached by killing a human being. [...] The death penalty loses all legitimacy due to the defective selectivity of the criminal justice system and in the face of the possibility of judicial error. Human justice is imperfect, and the failure to recognize its fallibility can transform it into a source of injustice. With the application of capital punishment, the person sentenced is denied the possibility to make amends or to repent of the harm done; the possibility of confession, with which man expresses his inner conversion; and of contrition, the means of repentance and atonement, in order to reach the encounter with the merciful and healing love of God. Furthermore, capital punishment is a frequent practice to which totalitarian regimes and fanatical groups resort, for the extermination of political dissidents, minorities, and every individual labelled as “dangerous” or who might be perceived as a threat to their power or to the attainment of their objectives. As in the first centuries and also in the current one, the Church suffers from the application of this penalty to her new martyrs. \n\nThe death penalty is contrary to the meaning of humanitas and to divine mercy, which must be models for human justice. It entails cruel, inhumane and degrading treatment, as is the anguish before the moment of execution and the terrible suspense between the issuing of the sentence and the execution of the penalty, a form of “torture” which, in the name of correct procedure, tends to last many years, and which oftentimes leads to illness and insanity on death row. \n\nShortly prior to Francis's address, the Vatican had officially given support to a 2015 United Nations campaign against the death penalty. During a U.N. Human Rights Council meeting concerning the abolishment of capital punishment, Archbishop Silvano Tomasi declared that \"The Holy See Delegation fully supports the efforts to abolish the use of the death penalty.\" The Archbishop stated: \n\n Considering the practical circumstances found in most States ... it appears evident nowadays that means other than the death penalty 'are sufficient to defend human lives against an aggressor and to protect public order and the safety of persons [...] We should take into account that no clear positive effect of deterrence results from the application of the death penalty and that the irreversibility of this punishment does not allow for eventual corrections in the case of wrongful convictions. \n\nDespite recent Church statements, the Catholic Church still officially holds, as per the most recent 1992 Catechism of the Catholic Church, that the death penalty may be employed where public authority cannot find any other way to contain a dangerous person.\n\nProtestants\n\nSouthern Baptists support the fair and equitable use of capital punishment for those guilty of murder or treasonous acts, so long as it does not constitute as an act of personal revenge or discrimination. \n\nThe Lambeth Conference of Anglican bishops condemned the death penalty in 1988:\n\nThe United Methodist Church, along with other Methodist churches, also condemns capital punishment, saying that it cannot accept retribution or social vengeance as a reason for taking human life. The Church also holds that the death penalty falls unfairly and unequally upon marginalised persons including the poor, the uneducated, ethnic and religious minorities, and persons with mental and emotional illnesses. The General Conference of the United Methodist Church calls for its bishops to uphold opposition to capital punishment and for governments to enact an immediate moratorium on carrying out the death penalty sentence.\n\nIn a 1991 social policy statement, the ELCA officially took a stand to oppose the death penalty. It states that revenge is a primary motivation for capital punishment policy and that true healing can only take place through repentance and forgiveness. \n\nCommunity of Christ, the former Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (RLDS), is opposed to capital punishment. The first stand against capital punishment was taken by the church's Presiding High Council in 1995. This was followed by a resolution of the World Conference in 2000. This resolution, WC 1273, states: \n\nSeveral key leaders early in the Protestant Reformation, including Martin Luther and John Calvin, followed the traditional reasoning in favour of capital punishment, and the Lutheran Church's Augsburg Confession explicitly defended it. Some Protestant groups have cited Genesis 9:5–6, Romans 13:3–4, and\nLeviticus 20:1–27 as the basis for permitting the death penalty. \n\nMennonites, Church of the Brethren and Friends have opposed the death penalty since their founding, and continue to be strongly opposed to it today. These groups, along with other Christians opposed to capital punishment, have cited Christ's Sermon on the Mount (transcribed in Matthew Chapter 5–7) and Sermon on the Plain (transcribed in Luke 6:17–49). In both sermons, Christ tells his followers to turn the other cheek and to love their enemies, which these groups believe mandates nonviolence, including opposition to the death penalty.\n\nThe Church of Scotland considers that capital punishment is unacceptable and does not provide an answer for even the most serious crimes. \n\nIn 2015, a large association representing over 30 U.S. Protestant denominations ceased promoting a pro-death penalty stance and announced its affirmation of Christians who oppose the death penalty as well as those who support it, and also affirmed both sides' ethical reasoning in doing so.\n\nMormonism\n\nThe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints neither supports nor opposes capital punishment, although the church's founder, Joseph Smith, supported it. However, today the church officially states that it is a \"matter to be decided solely by the prescribed processes of civil law.\" \n\nHinduism\n\nA basis can be found in Hindu teachings both for permitting and forbidding the death penalty. Hinduism preaches ahimsa (or ahinsa, non-violence), but also teaches that the soul cannot be killed and death is limited only to the physical body. The soul is reborn into another body upon death (until Moksha), akin to a human changing clothes. The religious, civil and criminal law of Hindus is encoded in the Dharmaśāstras and the Arthasastra. The Dharmasastras describe many crimes and their punishments and call for the death penalty in several instances, including murder and righteous warfare. \n\nIslam\n\nSharia, the religious law in Islam, requires capital punishment for certain crimes.Samuel M. Zwemer, The law of Apostasy, The Muslim World\nVolume 14, Issue 4, pp. 373–391 For example, the Quran states,\n\nSimilarly, capital punishment by stoning for zina (extramarital sex) is prescribed in the Hadiths, the most trusted books in Islam after the official text called the Quran, particularly in Kitab Al-Hudud.Z. Mir-Hosseini (2011), Criminalizing sexuality: zina laws as violence against women in Muslim contexts, Int'l Journal on Human Rights, 15, 7–16 \n\nIn the four primary schools of Sunni fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and the two primary schools of Shi'a fiqh, certain types of crimes mandate capital punishment. Certain hudud crimes, for example, are considered crimes against God and require capital punishment in public.Mohamed El-Awa (1993), Punishment in Islamic Law, American Trust Publications, ISBN 978-0892591428, pp 1–68 These include apostasy (leaving Islam to become an atheist or convert to another religion such as Christianity),David Forte, [http://www.cepos.eu/pdf/revista%20de%20stiinte%20politice%20nr%2029.pdf Islam's Trajectory], Revue des Sciences Politiques, No. 29 (2011), pages 92–101 fasad (mischief in the land, or moral corruption against Allah, social disturbance and creating disorder within the Muslim state) and zina (consensual heterosexual or homosexual relations not allowed by Islam).\n\nQisas is another category of sentencing where sharia permits capital punishment, for intentional or unintentional murder. In the case of death, sharia gives the murder victim's nearest relative or Wali () a right to, if the court approves, take the life of the killer. \n\nFurther, in case of Qisas-related capital punishment, sharia offers the victim's guardian the option of Diyya (monetary compensation). In several Islamic countries such as the Sunni Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and Pakistan, as well as the Shiite Islamic Republic of Iran, both hudud and qisas type capital punishment is part of the legal system and in use. In others, there is variation in the use of capital punishment. Some Islamic or Muslim-majority nations like the Republic of Turkey have abolished the death penalty.\n\nCapital punishment for apostasy in Islam and stoning to death in Islam are controversial topics. Similarly, the discriminatory option between capital punishment and monetary compensation for crimes such as murder is controversial, where jurists have asked if poor offenders face trial and capital punishment while wealthy offenders are able to avoid a trial by paying off the Qisas compensation money. Another historic and continuing controversy is the perceived discrimination between the death of a Muslim and a non-Muslim dhimmi, as well as discrimination between the death of a male and a female, used in sharia-ruled states. A woman's life is considered half the worth of a man, while Christians and Jews are worth half of a Muslim, and the life of Buddhist, Hindu, folk religion or atheist is considered 1/16th the worth of a Muslim by some Islamist governments. This has reporedly led certain Islamic nations to discriminate between Muslims and non-Muslims while imposing capital punishment and compensation, for both intentional murder and manslaughter, depending on whether the victim is Muslim or non-Muslim, as well as based on the religion of the individual who has committed the crime. \n\nLethal stoning and beheading in public under sharia is controversial for being a perceived as a strict form of capital punishment. These forms of execution remain part of the religious law enforced in Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Iran, Pakistan and Mauritania. \n\nJudaism\n\nThe official teachings of Judaism approve the death penalty in principle but the standard of proof required for application of death penalty is extremely stringent. In practice, it has been abolished by various Talmudic decisions, making the situations in which a death sentence could be passed effectively impossible and hypothetical. A capital case could not be tried by a normal Beit Din of three judges, it can only be adjudicated by a Sanhedrin of a minimum of 23 judges. Forty years before the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in approximately the year 70 CE, i.e. in approximately 30 CE, the Sanhedrin effectively abolished capital punishment, making it a hypothetical upper limit on the severity of punishment, fitting in finality for God alone to use, not fallible people.\n\nThe 12th-century Jewish legal scholar, Maimonides said:\n\n\"It is better and more satisfactory to acquit a thousand guilty persons than to put a single innocent one to death.\" \n\nMaimonides argued that executing a defendant on anything less than absolute certainty would lead to a slippery slope of decreasing burdens of proof, until we would be convicting merely \"according to the judge's caprice\". Maimonides was concerned about the need for the law to guard itself in public perceptions, to preserve its majesty and retain the people's respect. \n\nOne of the only two executions in Israeli history occurred in 1961, when Adolf Eichmann, one of the principal organizers of the Holocaust, was hanged after his trial in Jerusalem. It is the last judicial execution carried out by the country." ] }

{ "description": [ "Portugal was the first European country to abolish the death penalty, ... For example, Britain abolished capital punishment for murder in 1965, but treason, ..." ], "filename": [ "49/49_291.txt" ], "rank": [ 4 ], "title": [ "capital punishment | law | Britannica.com" ], "url": [ "https://www.britannica.com/topic/capital-punishment" ], "search_context": [ "capital punishment | law | Britannica.com\nCapital punishment\nAlternative Titles: death penalty, execution\nRelated Topics\ncrucifixion\nCapital punishment, also called death penalty, execution of an offender sentenced to death after conviction by a court of law of a criminal offense. Capital punishment should be distinguished from extrajudicial executions carried out without due process of law. The term death penalty is sometimes used interchangeably with capital punishment, though imposition of the penalty is not always followed by execution (even when it is upheld on appeal), because of the possibility of commutation to life imprisonment.\nHistorical considerations\nCapital punishment for murder , treason , arson , and rape was widely employed in ancient Greece under the laws of Draco (fl. 7th century bce), though Plato argued that it should be used only for the incorrigible . The Romans also used it for a wide range of offenses, though citizens were exempted for a short time during the republic. It also has been sanctioned at one time or another by most of the world’s major religions. Followers of Judaism and Christianity, for example, have claimed to find justification for capital punishment in the biblical passage “Whosoever sheddeth man’s blood, by man shall his blood be shed” (Genesis 9:6). Yet capital punishment has been prescribed for many crimes not involving loss of life, including adultery and blasphemy . The ancient legal principle Lex talionis ( talion )—“an eye for an eye , a tooth for a tooth, a life for a life”—which appears in the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi , was invoked in some societies to ensure that capital punishment was not disproportionately applied.\nThe prevalence of capital punishment in ancient times is difficult to ascertain precisely, but it seems likely that it was often avoided, sometimes by the alternative of banishment and sometimes by payment of compensation. For example, it was customary during Japan’s peaceful Heian period (794–1185) for the emperor to commute every death sentence and replace it with deportation to a remote area, though executions were reinstated once civil war broke out in the mid-11th century.\nSimilar Topics\nworkhouse\nIn Islamic law , as expressed in the Qurʾān , capital punishment is condoned . Although the Qurʾān prescribes the death penalty for several ḥadd (fixed) crimes—including robbery, adultery, and apostasy of Islam —murder is not among them. Instead, murder is treated as a civil crime and is covered by the law of qiṣās (retaliation), whereby the relatives of the victim decide whether the offender is punished with death by the authorities or made to pay diyah (wergild) as compensation.\nDeath was formerly the penalty for a large number of offenses in England during the 17th and 18th centuries, but it was never applied as widely as the law provided. As in other countries, many offenders who committed capital crimes escaped the death penalty, either because juries or courts would not convict them or because they were pardoned, usually on condition that they agreed to banishment; some were sentenced to the lesser punishment of transportation to the then American colonies and later to Australia. Beginning in the Middle Ages, it was possible for offenders guilty of capital offenses to receive benefit of clergy , by which those who could prove that they were ordained priests (clerks in Holy Orders) as well as secular clerks who assisted in divine service (or, from 1547, a peer of the realm) were allowed to go free, though it remained within the judge’s power to sentence them to prison for up to a year, or from 1717 onward to transportation for seven years. Because during medieval times the only proof of ordination was literacy, it became customary between the 15th and 18th centuries to allow anyone convicted of a felony to escape the death sentence by proving that he (the privilege was extended to women in 1629) could read. Until 1705, all he had to do was read (or recite) the first verse from Psalm 51 of the Bible—“Have mercy on me, O God, according to your steadfast love; according to your abundant mercy blot out my transgressions”—which came to be known as the “ neck verse” (for its power to save one’s neck). To ensure that an offender could escape death only once through benefit of clergy, he was branded on the brawn of the thumb (M for murder or T for theft). Branding was abolished in 1779, and benefit of clergy ceased in 1827.\nBritannica Stories\nRingling Bros. Folds Its Tent\nFrom ancient times until well into the 19th century, many societies administered exceptionally cruel forms of capital punishment. In Rome the condemned were hurled from the Tarpeian Rock (see Tarpeia ); for parricide they were drowned in a sealed bag with a dog, cock, ape, and viper; and still others were executed by forced gladiatorial combat or by crucifixion . Executions in ancient China were carried out by many painful methods, such as sawing the condemned in half, flaying him while still alive, and boiling . Cruel forms of execution in Europe included “breaking” on the wheel, boiling in oil, burning at the stake , decapitation by the guillotine or an axe, hanging , drawing and quartering , and drowning. Although by the end of the 20th century many jurisdictions (e.g., nearly every U.S. state that employs the death penalty, Guatemala, the Philippines , Taiwan , and some Chinese provinces) had adopted lethal injection , offenders continued to be beheaded in Saudi Arabia and occasionally stoned to death (for adultery) in Iran and Sudan . Other methods of execution were electrocution , gassing, and the firing squad.\nThe execution of Louis XVI in 1793.\nAlbum/Prism/Album/SuperStock\nStructures of Government: Fact or Fiction?\nHistorically, executions were public events, attended by large crowds, and the mutilated bodies were often displayed until they rotted. Public executions were banned in England in 1868, though they continued to take place in parts of the United States until the 1930s. In the last half of the 20th century, there was considerable debate regarding whether executions should be broadcast on television, as has occurred in Guatemala. Since the mid-1990s public executions have taken place in some 20 countries, including Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Nigeria , though the practice has been condemned by the United Nations Human Rights Committee as “incompatible with human dignity.”\nIn many countries death sentences are not carried out immediately after they are imposed; there is often a long period of uncertainty for the convicted while their cases are appealed. Inmates awaiting execution live on what has been called “death row”; in the United States and Japan, some prisoners have been executed more than 15 years after their convictions . The European Union regards this phenomenon as so inhumane that, on the basis of a binding ruling by the European Court of Human Rights (1989), EU countries may extradite an offender accused of a capital crime to a country that practices capital punishment only if a guarantee is given that the death penalty will not be sought.\nArguments for and against capital punishment\nConnect with Britannica\nCapital punishment has long engendered considerable debate about both its morality and its effect on criminal behaviour. Contemporary arguments for and against capital punishment fall under three general headings: moral , utilitarian, and practical.\nProtesters demonstrating against the death penalty.\n© Robert J. Daveant/Shutterstock.com\nMoral arguments\nSupporters of the death penalty believe that those who commit murder, because they have taken the life of another, have forfeited their own right to life. Furthermore, they believe, capital punishment is a just form of retribution , expressing and reinforcing the moral indignation not only of the victim’s relatives but of law-abiding citizens in general. By contrast, opponents of capital punishment, following the writings of Cesare Beccaria (in particular On Crimes and Punishments [1764]), argue that, by legitimizing the very behaviour that the law seeks to repress—killing—capital punishment is counterproductive in the moral message it conveys. Moreover, they urge, when it is used for lesser crimes, capital punishment is immoral because it is wholly disproportionate to the harm done. Abolitionists also claim that capital punishment violates the condemned person’s right to life and is fundamentally inhuman and degrading.\nAlthough death was prescribed for crimes in many sacred religious documents and historically was practiced widely with the support of religious hierarchies , today there is no agreement among religious faiths, or among denominations or sects within them, on the morality of capital punishment. Beginning in the last half of the 20th century, increasing numbers of religious leaders—particularly within Judaism and Roman Catholicism—campaigned against it. Capital punishment was abolished by the state of Israel for all offenses except treason and crimes against humanity, and Pope John Paul II condemned it as “cruel and unnecessary.”\nUtilitarian arguments\nEditor Picks: Exploring 10 Types of Basketball Movies\nSupporters of capital punishment also claim that it has a uniquely potent deterrent effect on potentially violent offenders for whom the threat of imprisonment is not a sufficient restraint. Opponents, however, point to research that generally has demonstrated that the death penalty is not a more effective deterrent than the alternative sanction of life or long-term imprisonment.\nPractical arguments\nThere also are disputes about whether capital punishment can be administered in a manner consistent with justice . Those who support capital punishment believe that it is possible to fashion laws and procedures that ensure that only those who are really deserving of death are executed. By contrast, opponents maintain that the historical application of capital punishment shows that any attempt to single out certain kinds of crime as deserving of death will inevitably be arbitrary and discriminatory. They also point to other factors that they think preclude the possibility that capital punishment can be fairly applied, arguing that the poor and ethnic and religious minorities often do not have access to good legal assistance, that racial prejudice motivates predominantly white juries in capital cases to convict black and other nonwhite defendants in disproportionate numbers, and that, because errors are inevitable even in a well-run criminal justice system, some people will be executed for crimes they did not commit. Finally, they argue that, because the appeals process for death sentences is protracted, those condemned to death are often cruelly forced to endure long periods of uncertainty about their fate.\nThe abolition movement\nUnder the influence of the European Enlightenment , in the latter part of the 18th century there began a movement to limit the scope of capital punishment. Until that time a very wide range of offenses, including even common theft, were punishable by death—though the punishment was not always enforced, in part because juries tended to acquit defendants against the evidence in minor cases. In 1794 the U.S. state of Pennsylvania became the first jurisdiction to restrict the death penalty to first-degree murder, and in 1846 the state of Michigan abolished capital punishment for all murders and other common crimes. In 1863 Venezuela became the first country to abolish capital punishment for all crimes, including serious offenses against the state (e.g., treason and military offenses in time of war). Portugal was the first European country to abolish the death penalty, doing so in 1867; by the early 20th century several other countries, including the Netherlands, Norway , Sweden , Denmark , and Italy , had followed suit (though it was reintroduced in Italy under the fascist regime of Benito Mussolini ). By the mid-1960s some 25 countries had abolished the death penalty for murder, though only about half of them also had abolished it for offenses against the state or the military code. For example, Britain abolished capital punishment for murder in 1965, but treason, piracy, and military crimes remained capital offenses until 1998.\nTrending Topics\nEyjafjallajökull volcano\nDuring the last third of the 20th century, the number of abolitionist countries increased more than threefold. These countries, together with those that are “de facto” abolitionist—i.e., those in which capital punishment is legal but not exercised—now represent more than half the countries of the world. One reason for the significant increase in the number of abolitionist states was that the abolition movement was successful in making capital punishment an international human rights issue, whereas formerly it had been regarded as solely an internal matter for the countries concerned. In 1971 the United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution that, “in order fully to guarantee the right to life, provided for in…the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,” called for restricting the number of offenses for which the death penalty could be imposed, with a view toward abolishing it altogether. This resolution was reaffirmed by the General Assembly in 1977. Optional protocols to the European Convention on Human Rights (1983) and to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1989) have been established, under which countries party to the convention and the covenant undertake not to carry out executions. The Council of Europe (1994) and the EU (1998) established as a condition of membership in their organizations the requirement that prospective member countries suspend executions and commit themselves to abolition. This decision had a remarkable impact on the countries of central and eastern Europe, prompting several of them—e.g., the Czech Republic , Hungary , Romania , Slovakia , and Slovenia—to abolish capital punishment. In the 1990s many African countries—including Angola, Djibouti, Mozambique, and Namibia—abolished capital punishment, though most African countries retained it. In South Africa , which formerly had one of the world’s highest execution rates, capital punishment was outlawed in 1995 by the Constitutional Court, which declared that it was incompatible with the prohibition against cruel, inhuman, or degrading punishment and with “a human rights culture.”\nCapital punishment in the early 21st century\nDespite the movement toward abolition, many countries have retained capital punishment, and, in fact, some have extended its scope. More than 30 countries have made the importation and possession for sale of certain drugs a capital offense. Iran, Singapore , Malaysia , and the Philippines impose a mandatory death sentence for the possession of relatively small amounts of illegal drugs. In Singapore, which has by far the highest rate of execution per capita of any country, about three-fourths of persons executed in 2000 had been sentenced for drug offenses. Some 20 countries impose the death penalty for various economic crimes, including bribery and corruption of public officials, embezzlement of public funds, currency speculation, and the theft of large sums of money. Sexual offenses of various kinds are punishable by death in about two dozen countries, including most Islamic states. In the early 21st century there were more than 50 capital offenses in China .\nDespite the large number of capital offenses in some countries, in most years only about 30 countries carry out executions. In the United States, where roughly three-fourths of the states and the federal government have retained the death penalty, about two-thirds of all executions since 1976 (when new death penalty laws were affirmed by the Supreme Court ) have occurred in just six states—Texas, Virginia, Florida, Missouri, Louisiana, and Oklahoma. China was believed to have executed about 1,000 people annually (no reliable statistics are published) until the first decade of the 21st century, when estimates of the number of deaths dropped sharply. Although the number of executions worldwide varies from year to year, some countries—including Belarus , Congo (Kinshasa), Iran, Jordan , Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Taiwan, Vietnam , and Yemen—execute criminals regularly. Japan and India also have retained the death penalty and carry out executions from time to time.\nIn only a few countries does the law allow for the execution of persons who were minors (under the age of 18) at the time they committed their crime. Most such executions, which are prohibited by the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, have occurred in the United States, which has not ratified the convention and which ratified the covenant with reservations regarding the death penalty. Beginning in the late 1990s, there was considerable debate about whether the death penalty should be imposed on the mentally impaired ; much of the controversy concerned practices in the United States, where more than a dozen such executions took place from 1990 to 2001 despite a UN injunction against the practice in 1989. In 2002 and 2005, respectively, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the execution of the mentally impaired and those under age 18 was unconstitutional, and in 2014 it held that states could not define such mental impairment as the possession of an IQ ( intelligence quotient ) score of 70 or below. The court banned the imposition of the death penalty for rape in 1977 and specifically for child rape in 2008.\nIn the late 1990s, following a series of cases in which persons convicted of capital crimes and awaiting execution on death row were exonerated on the basis of new evidence—including evidence based on new DNA-testing technology—some U.S. states began to consider moratoriums on the death penalty. In 2000 Illinois Gov. George Ryan ordered such a moratorium , noting that the state had executed 12 people from 1977 to 2000 but that the death sentences of 13 other people had been overturned in the same period. In 2003, on the eve of leaving office, Ryan emptied the state’s death row by pardoning 4 people and commuting the death sentences of 167 others. The state of New Jersey abolished capital punishment in 2007, as did Illinois in 2011 and Connecticut in 2012." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Integrated_Services_Digital_Network.txt" ], "title": [ "Integrated Services Digital Network" ], "wiki_context": [ "Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of communication standards for simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video, data, and other network services over the traditional circuits of the public switched telephone network. It was first defined in 1988 in the CCITT red book. Prior to ISDN, the telephone system was viewed as a way to transport voice, with some special services available for data. The key feature of ISDN is that it integrates speech and data on the same lines, adding features that were not available in the classic telephone system. The ISDN standards define several kinds of access interfaces, such as Basic Rate Interface (BRI), Primary Rate Interface (PRI), Narrowband ISDN (N-ISDN), and Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN).\n\nISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, which also provides access to packet switched networks, designed to allow digital transmission of voice and data over ordinary telephone copper wires, resulting in potentially better voice quality than an analog phone can provide. It offers circuit-switched connections (for either voice or data), and packet-switched connections (for data), in increments of 64 kilobit/s. In some countries, ISDN found major market application for Internet access, in which ISDN typically provides a maximum of 128 kbit/s bandwidth in both upstream and downstream directions. Channel bonding can achieve a greater data rate; typically the ISDN B-channels of three or four BRIs (six to eight 64 kbit/s channels) are bonded.\n\nISDN is employed as the network, data-link and physical layers in the context of the OSI model, or could be considered a suite of digital services existing on layers 1, 2, and 3 of the OSI model. In common use, ISDN is often limited to usage to Q.931 and related protocols, which are a set of signaling protocols establishing and breaking circuit-switched connections, and for advanced calling features for the user. They were introduced in 1986. \n\nIn a videoconference, ISDN provides simultaneous voice, video, and text transmission between individual desktop videoconferencing systems and group (room) videoconferencing systems.\n\nISDN elements\n\nIntegrated services refers to ISDN's ability to deliver at minimum two simultaneous connections, in any combination of data, voice, video, and fax, over a single line. Multiple devices can be attached to the line, and used as needed. That means an ISDN line can take care of most people's complete communications needs (apart from broadband Internet access and entertainment television) at a much higher transmission rate, without forcing the purchase of multiple analog phone lines. It also refers to integrated switching and transmission in that telephone switching and carrier wave transmission are integrated rather than separate as in earlier technology.\n\nBasic Rate Interface\n\nThe entry level interface to ISDN is the Basic Rate Interface (BRI), a 128 kbit/s service delivered over a pair of standard telephone copper wires. The 144 kbit/s payload rate is broken down into two 64 kbit/s bearer channels ('B' channels) and one 16 kbit/s signaling channel ('D' channel or data channel). This is sometimes referred to as 2B+D. \n\nThe interface specifies the following network interfaces:\n* The U interface is a two-wire interface between the exchange and a network terminating unit, which is usually the demarcation point in non-North American networks.\n* The T interface is a serial interface between a computing device and a terminal adapter, which is the digital equivalent of a modem.\n* The S interface is a four-wire bus that ISDN consumer devices plug into; the S & T reference points are commonly implemented as a single interface labeled 'S/T' on a Network termination 1 (NT1).\n* The R interface defines the point between a non-ISDN device and a terminal adapter (TA) which provides translation to and from such a device.\n\nBRI-ISDN is very popular in Europe but is much less common in North America. It is also common in Japan — where it is known as INS64. \n\nPrimary Rate Interface\n\nThe other ISDN access available is the Primary Rate Interface (PRI), which is carried over an E1 (2048 kbit/s) in most parts of the world. An E1 is 30 'B' channels of 64 kbit/s, one 'D' channel of 64 kbit/s and a timing and alarm channel of 64 kbit/s. This is often referred to as 30B+D. \n \nIn North America PRI service is delivered on one or more T1 carriers (often referred to as 23B+D) of 1544 kbit/s (24 channels). A PRI has 23 'B' channels and 1 'D' channel for signalling (Japan uses a circuit called a J1, which is similar to a T1). Inter-changeably but incorrectly, a PRI is referred to as T1 because it uses the T1 carrier format. A true T1 (commonly called \"Analog T1\" to avoid confusion) uses 24 channels of 64 kbit/s of in-band signaling. Each channel uses 56 kb for data and voice and 8 kb for signaling and messaging. PRI uses out of band signaling which provides the 23 B channels with clear 64 kb for voice and data and one 64 kb 'D' channel for signaling and messaging. In North America, Non-Facility Associated Signalling allows two or more PRIs to be controlled by a single D channel, and is sometimes called \"23B+D + n*24B\". D-channel backup allows for a second D channel in case the primary fails. NFAS is commonly used on a T3.\n\nPRI-ISDN is popular throughout the world, especially for connecting private branch exchanges to the public network.\n\nEven though many network professionals use the term \"ISDN\" to refer to the lower-bandwidth BRI circuit, in North America BRI is relatively uncommon whilst PRI circuits serving PBXs are commonplace.\n\nBearer channels\n\nThe bearer channel (B) is a standard 64 kbit/s voice channel of 8 bits sampled at 8 kHz with G.711 encoding. B-Channels can also be used to carry data, since they are nothing more than digital channels.\n\nEach one of these channels is known as a DS0.\n\nMost B channels can carry a 64 kbit/s signal, but some were limited to 56K because they traveled over RBS lines. This was commonplace in the 20th century, but has since become less so.\n\nSignaling channel\n\nThe signaling channel (D) uses Q.931 for signaling with the other side of the link.\n\nX.25\n\nX.25 can be carried over the B or D channels of a BRI line, and over the B channels of a PRI line. X.25 over the D channel is used at many point-of-sale (credit card) terminals because it eliminates the modem setup, and because it connects to the central system over a B channel, thereby eliminating the need for modems and making much better use of the central system's telephone lines.\n\nX.25 was also part of an ISDN protocol called \"Always On/Dynamic ISDN\", or AO/DI. This allowed a user to have a constant multi-link PPP connection to the internet over X.25 on the D channel, and brought up one or two B channels as needed.\n\nFrame Relay\n\nIn theory, Frame Relay can operate over the D channel of BRIs and PRIs, but it is seldom, if ever, used.\n\nConsumer and industry perspectives\n\nThere is a second viewpoint: that of the telephone industry, where ISDN is a core technology. A telephone network can be thought of as a collection of wires strung between switching systems. The common electrical specification for the signals on these wires is T1 or E1. Between telephone company switches, the signaling is performed via SS7. Normally, a PBX is connected via a T1 with robbed bit signaling to indicate on-hook or off-hook conditions and MF and DTMF tones to encode the destination number. ISDN is much better because messages can be sent much more quickly than by trying to encode numbers as long (100 ms per digit) tone sequences. This results in faster call setup times. Also, a greater number of features are available and fraud is reduced.\n\nISDN is also used as a smart-network technology intended to add new services to the public switched telephone network (PSTN) by giving users direct access to end-to-end circuit-switched digital services and as a backup or failsafe circuit solution for critical use data circuits.\n\nISDN and broadcast industry\n\nISDN is used heavily by the broadcast industry as a reliable way of switching low-latency, high-quality, long-distance audio circuits. In conjunction with an appropriate codec using MPEG or various manufacturers proprietary algorithms, an ISDN BRI can be used to send stereo bi-directional audio coded at 128 kbit/s with 20 Hz – 20 kHz audio bandwidth, although commonly the G.722 algorithm is used with a single 64 kbit/s B channel to send much lower latency mono audio at the expense of audio quality. Where very high quality audio is required multiple ISDN BRIs can be used in parallel to provide a higher bandwidth circuit switched connection. BBC Radio 3 commonly makes use of three ISDN BRIs to carry 320 kbit/s audio stream for live outside broadcasts. ISDN BRI services are used to link remote studios, sports grounds and outside broadcasts into the main broadcast studio. ISDN via satellite is used by field reporters around the world. It is also common to use ISDN for the return audio links to remote satellite broadcast vehicles.\n\nIn many countries, such as the UK and Australia, ISDN has displaced the older technology of equalised analogue landlines, with these circuits being phased out by telecommunications providers. IP-based streaming codecs are starting to gain a foothold in the broadcast sector, using broadband internet to connect remote studios. However, reliability and latency is crucially important for broadcasters and the quality of service offered by ISDN has not yet been matched by packet switched alternatives.\n\nCountries\n\nUnited States and Canada\n\nISDN-BRI never gained popularity as a general use telephone access technology in Canada and the US, and remains a niche product. The service was seen as a solution in search of a problem, and the extensive array of options and features were difficult for customers to understand and use. ISDN has long been known by derogatory backronyms highlighting these issues, such as It Still Does Nothing, Innovations Subscribers Don't Need, and I Still Don't kNow. \n\nOnce the concept of broadband Internet access came to be associated with data rates incoming to the customer at 256 kbit/s or more, and alternatives like ADSL grew in popularity, the consumer market for BRI did not develop. Its only remaining advantage is that while ADSL has a functional distance limitation and can use ADSL loop extenders, BRI has a greater limit and can use repeaters. As such, BRI may be acceptable for customers who are too remote for ADSL. Widespread use of BRI is further stymied by some small North American CLECs such as CenturyTel having given up on it and not providing Internet access using it. However, AT&T in most states (especially the former SBC/SWB territory) will still install an ISDN BRI line anywhere a normal analog line can be placed and the monthly charge is roughly $55.\n\nISDN-BRI is currently primarily used in industries with specialized and very specific needs. High-end videoconferencing hardware made by companies such as Sony, Polycom, Tandberg, and LifeSize via the LifeSize Networker can bond up to 8 B-channels together (using a BRI circuit for every 2 channels) to provide digital, circuit-switched video connections to almost anywhere in the world. This is very expensive, and is being replaced by IP-based conferencing, but where cost concern is less of an issue than predictable quality and where a QoS-enabled IP does not exist, BRI is the preferred choice.\n\nMost modern non-VoIP PBXs use ISDN-PRI circuits. These are connected via T1 lines with the central office switch, replacing older analog two-way and direct inward dialing (DID) trunks. PRI is capable of delivering Calling Line Identification (CLID) in both directions so that the telephone number of an extension, rather than a company's main number, can be sent. It is still commonly used in recording studios, when a voice-over actor is in one studio, but the director and producer are in a studio at another location. The ISDN protocol delivers channelized, not-over-the-Internet service, powerful call setup and routing features, faster setup and tear down, superior audio fidelity as compared to POTS (plain old telephone service), lower delay and, at higher densities, lower cost.\n\nIn 2013, Verizon announced it would no longer take orders for ISDN service in the Northeastern United States. \n\nIndia\n\nBharat Sanchar Nigam Limited, Reliance Communications and Bharti Airtel are the largest communication service providers, and offer both ISDN BRI and PRI services across the country. Reliance Communications and Bharti Airtel uses the DLC technology for providing these services. With the introduction of broadband technology, the load on bandwidth is being absorbed by ADSL. ISDN continues to be an important backup network for point-to-point leased line customers such as banks, Eseva Centers, Life Insurance Corporation of India, and SBI ATMs.\n\nJapan\n\nOn April 19, 1988, Japanese telecommunications company NTT began offering nationwide ISDN services trademarked INS Net 64, and INS Net 1500, a fruition of NTT's independent research and trial from the 1970s of what it referred to the INS (Information Network System). \n\nPreviously, on April 1985, Japanese digital telephone exchange hardware made by Fujitsu was used to experimentally deploy the world's first I interface ISDN. The I interface, unlike the older and incompatible Y interface, is what modern ISDN services use today.\n\nSince 2000, NTT's ISDN offering have been known as FLET's ISDN, incorporating the \"FLET's\" brand that NTT uses for all of its ISP offerings.\n\nIn Japan, the number of ISDN subscribers dwindled as alternative technologies such as ADSL, cable Internet access, and fiber to the home gained greater popularity. On November 2, 2010, NTT announced plans to migrate their backend from PSTN to the IP network from around 2020 to around 2025. For this migration, ISDN services will be retired, and fiber optic services are recommended as an alternative. \n\nUnited Kingdom\n\nIn the United Kingdom, British Telecom (BT) provides ISDN2e (BRI) as well as ISDN30 (PRI). Until April 2006, they also offered services named Home Highway and Business Highway, which were BRI ISDN-based services that offered integrated analogue connectivity as well as ISDN. Later versions of the Highway products also included built-in universal serial bus (USB) sockets for direct computer access. Home Highway was bought by many home users, usually for Internet connection, although not as fast as ADSL, because it was available before ADSL and in places where ADSL does not reach.\n\nIn early 2015, BT announced their intention to retire the UK's ISDN infrastructure by 2025. \n\nFrance\n\nFrance Telecom offers ISDN services under their product name Numeris (2 B+D), of which a professional Duo and home Itoo version is available. ISDN is generally known as RNIS in France and has widespread availability. The introduction of ADSL is reducing ISDN use for data transfer and Internet access, although it is still common in more rural and outlying areas, and for applications such as business voice and point-of-sale terminals.\n\nGermany\n\nIn Germany, ISDN was very popular with an installed base of 25 million channels (29% of all subscriber lines in Germany as of 2003 and 20% of all ISDN channels worldwide). Due to the success of ISDN, the number of installed analog lines was decreasing. Deutsche Telekom (DTAG) offered both BRI and PRI. Competing phone companies often offered ISDN only and no analog lines. However, these operators generally offered free hardware that also allows the use of POTS equipment, such as NTBAs with integrated terminal adapters. Because of the widespread availability of ADSL services, ISDN was primarily used for voice and fax traffic.\n\nUntil 2007 ISDN (BRI) and ADSL/VDSL were often bundled on the same line, mainly because the combination of ADSL with an analog line had no cost advantage over a combined ISDN-ADSL line. This advantage diminished when vendors of ISDN technology stopped manufacturing it and spare parts became hard to come by. Since then phone companies started introducing cheaper ADSL-only products using VoIP for telephony. \n\nSince the introduction of VDSL2 using outdoor MSANs, ISDN became obsolete. Today new ISDN lines are not available anymore in Germany and existing ISDN lines will be phased out until 2018 and replaced by G.992.3 Annex J all digital mode ADSL. \n\nGreece\n\nOTE, the incumbent telecommunications operator, offers ISDN BRI (BRA) services in Greece. Following the launch of ADSL in 2003, the importance of ISDN for data transfer began to decrease and is today limited to niche business applications with point-to-point requirements.\n\nInternational deployment\n\nA study of the German Department of Science shows the following spread of ISDN-channels per 1,000 inhabitants in the year 2005:\n* Norway 401\n* Denmark 339\n* Germany 333\n* Switzerland 331\n* Japan 240\n* UK 160\n* Finland 160\n* Sweden 135\n* Italy 105\n* France 85\n* Spain 58\n* United States 47\n\nConfigurations\n\nIn ISDN, there are two types of channels, B (for \"bearer\") and D (for \"data\"). B channels are used for data (which may include voice), and D channels are intended for signaling and control (but can also be used for data).\n\nThere are two ISDN implementations. Basic Rate Interface (BRI), also called basic rate access (BRA) — consists of two B channels, each with bandwidth of 64 kbit/s, and one D channel with a bandwidth of 16 kbit/s. Together these three channels can be designated as 2B+D. Primary Rate Interface (PRI), also called primary rate access (PRA) in Europe — contains a greater number of B channels and a D channel with a bandwidth of 64 kbit/s. The number of B channels for PRI varies according to the nation: in North America and Japan it is 23B+1D, with an aggregate bit rate of 1.544 Mbit/s (T1); in Europe, India and Australia it is 30B+1D, with an aggregate bit rate of 2.048 Mbit/s (E1). Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network (BISDN) is another ISDN implementation and it is able to manage different types of services at the same time. It is primarily used within network backbones and employs ATM.\n\nAnother alternative ISDN configuration can be used in which the B channels of an ISDN BRI line are bonded to provide a total duplex bandwidth of 128 kbit/s. This precludes use of the line for voice calls while the internet connection is in use. The B channels of several BRIs can be bonded, a typical use is a 384K videoconferencing channel.\n\nUsing bipolar with eight-zero substitution encoding technique, call data is transmitted over the data (B) channels, with the signaling (D) channels used for call setup and management. Once a call is set up, there is a simple 64 kbit/s synchronous bidirectional data channel (actually implemented as two simplex channels, one in each direction) between the end parties, lasting until the call is terminated. There can be as many calls as there are bearer channels, to the same or different end-points. Bearer channels may also be multiplexed into what may be considered single, higher-bandwidth channels via a process called B channel BONDING, or via use of Multi-Link PPP \"bundling\" or by using an H0, H11, or H12 channel on a PRI.\n\nThe D channel can also be used for sending and receiving X.25 data packets, and connection to X.25 packet network, this is specified in X.31. In practice, X.31 was only commercially implemented in UK, France, Japan and Germany.\n\nReference points\n\nA set of reference points are defined in the ISDN standard to refer to certain points between the telco and the end user ISDN equipment.\n*R – defines the point between a non-ISDN terminal equipment 2 (TE2) device and a terminal adapter (TA) which provides translation to and from such a device\n*S – defines the point between the ISDN terminal equipment 1 (TE1) or TA and a Network Termination Type 2 (NT2) device\n*T – defines the point between the NT2 and network termination 1 (NT1) devices.\n\nMost NT-1 devices can perform the functions of the NT2 as well, and so the S and T reference points are generally collapsed into the S/T reference point.\n\nIn North America, the NT1 device is considered customer premises equipment (CPE) and must be maintained by the customer, thus, the U interface is provided to the customer. In other locations, the NT1 device is maintained by the telco, and the S/T interface is provided to the customer. In India, service providers provide U interface and an NT1 may be supplied by Service provider as part of service offering.\n\nTypes of communications\n\nAmong the kinds of data that can be moved over the 64 kbit/s channels are pulse-code modulated voice calls, providing access to the traditional voice PSTN. This information can be passed between the network and the user end-point at call set-up time. In North America, ISDN is now used mostly as an alternative to analog connections, most commonly for Internet access. Some of the services envisioned as being delivered over ISDN are now delivered over the Internet instead. In Europe, and in Germany in particular, ISDN has been successfully marketed as a phone with features, as opposed to a POTS phone with few or no features. Meanwhile, features that were first available with ISDN (such as Three-Way Calling, Call Forwarding, Caller ID, etc.) are now commonly available for ordinary analog phones as well, eliminating this advantage of ISDN. Another advantage of ISDN was the possibility of multiple simultaneous calls (one call per B channel), e.g. for big families, but with the increased popularity and reduced prices of mobile telephony this has become less interesting as well, making ISDN unappealing to the private customer. However, ISDN is typically more reliable than POTS, and has a significantly faster call setup time compared with POTS, and IP connections over ISDN typically have some 30–35ms round trip time, as opposed to 120–180ms (both measured with otherwise unused lines) over 56k or V.34/V.92 modems, making ISDN more reliable and more efficient for telecommuters.\n\nWhere an analog connection requires a modem, an ISDN connection requires a terminal adapter (TA). The function of an ISDN terminal adapter is often delivered in the form of a PC card with an S/T interface, and single-chip solutions seem to exist, considering the plethora of combined ISDN- and ADSL-routers.\n\nISDN is commonly used in radio broadcasting. Since ISDN provides a high quality connection this assists in delivering good quality audio for transmission in radio. Most radio studios are equipped with ISDN lines as their main form of communication with other studios or standard phone lines. Equipment made by companies such as Telos/Omnia (the popular Zephyr codec), Comrex, Tieline and others are used regularly by radio broadcasters. Almost all live sports broadcasts on radio are backhauled to their main studios via ISDN connections.\n\nSample call\n\nThe following is an example of a Primary Rate (PRI) ISDN call showing the Q.921/LAPD and the Q.931/Network message intermixed (i.e. exactly what was exchanged on the D-channel). The call is originating from the switch where the trace was taken and goes out to some other switch, possibly an end-office LEC, who terminates the call.\n\nThe first line format is . If the message is an ISDN level message, then a decoding of the message is attempted showing the various Information Elements that make up the message. All ISDN messages are tagged with an ID number relative to the switch that started the call (local/remote). Following this optional decoding is a dump of the bytes of the message in ... ... format.\n\nThe RR messages at the beginning prior to the call are the keep alive messages. SETUP message indicate the start of the call. Each message is acknowledged by the other side with a RR.\n\n10:49:47.33 21/1/24 R RR \n0000 02 01 01 a5 ....\n\n10:49:47.34 21/1/24 T RR\n0000 02 01 01 b9 ....\n\n10:50:17.57 21/1/24 R RR\n0000 02 01 01 a5 ....\n\n10:50:17.58 21/1/24 T RR\n0000 02 01 01 b9 ....\n\n10:50:24.37 21/1/24 T SETUP\n Call Reference : 000062-local\n Bearer Capability : CCITT, Speech, Circuit mode, 64 kbit/s\n Channel ID : Implicit Interface ID implies current span, 21/1/5, Exclusive\n Calling Party Number : 8018023000 National number User-provided, not screened Presentation allowed\n Called Party Number : 3739120 Type: SUBSCRB\n0000 00 01 a4 b8 08 02 00 3e 05 04 03 80 90 a2 18 03 .......>........\n0010 a9 83 85 6c 0c 21 80 38 30 31 38 30 32 33 30 30 ...l.!.801802300\n0020 30 70 08 c1 33 37 33 39 31 32 30 0p..3739120\n\n10:50:24.37 21/1/24 R RR\n0000 00 01 01 a6 ....\n\n10:50:24.77 21/1/24 R CALL PROCEEDING\n Call Reference : 000062-local\n Channel ID : Implicit Interface ID implies current span, 21/1/5, Exclusive\n0000 02 01 b8 a6 08 02 80 3e 02 18 03 a9 83 85 .......>......\n\n10:50:24.77 21/1/24 T RR\n0000 02 01 01 ba ....\n\n10:50:25.02 21/1/24 R ALERTING\n Call Reference : 000062-local\n Progress Indicator : CCITT, Public network serving local user,\nIn-band information or an appropriate pattern is now available\n0000 02 01 ba a6 08 02 80 3e 01 1e 02 82 88 .......>.....\n\n10:50:25.02 21/1/24 T RR\n0000 02 01 01 bc ....\n\n10:50:28.43 21/1/24 R CONNECT\n Call Reference : 000062-local\n0000 02 01 bc a6 08 02 80 3e 07 .......>.\n\n10:50:28.43 21/1/24 T RR\n0000 02 01 01 be ....\n\n10:50:28.43 21/1/24 T CONNECT_ACK\n Call Reference : 000062-local\n0000 00 01 a6 be 08 02 00 3e 0f .......>.\n\n10:50:28.44 21/1/24 R RR\n0000 00 01 01 a8 ....\n\n10:50:35.69 21/1/24 T DISCONNECT\n Call Reference : 000062-local\n Cause : 16, Normal call clearing.\n0000 00 01 a8 be 08 02 00 3e 45 08 02 8a 90 .......>E....\n\n10:50:35.70 21/1/24 R RR\n0000 00 01 01 aa ....\n\n10:50:36.98 21/1/24 R RELEASE\n Call Reference : 000062-local\n0000 02 01 be aa 08 02 80 3e 4d .......>M\n\n10:50:36.98 21/1/24 T RR\n0000 02 01 01 c0 ....\n\n10:50:36.99 21/1/24 T RELEASE COMPLETE\n Call Reference : 000062-local\n0000 00 01 aa c0 08 02 00 3e 5a .......>Z\n\n10:50:36.00 21/1/24 R RR\n0000 00 01 01 ac ....\n\n10:51:06.10 21/1/24 R RR\n0000 02 01 01 ad ....\n\n10:51:06.10 21/1/24 T RR\n0000 02 01 01 c1 ....\n\n10:51:36.37 21/1/24 R RR\n0000 02 01 01 ad ....\n\n10:51:36.37 21/1/24 T RR\n0000 02 01 01 c1 ...." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Bruce_Willis.txt" ], "title": [ "Bruce Willis" ], "wiki_context": [ "Walter Bruce Willis (born March 19, 1955) is an American actor, producer, and singer. His career began on the Off-Broadway stage and then in television in the 1980s, most notably as David Addison in Moonlighting (1985–1989). He is known for his role of John McClane in the Die Hard series. He has appeared in over 60 films, including Color of Night (1994), Pulp Fiction (1994), 12 Monkeys (1995), The Fifth Element (1997), Armageddon (1998), The Sixth Sense (1999), Unbreakable (2000), Sin City (2005), Red (2010), The Expendables 2 (2012), and Looper (2012).\n\nWillis married actress Demi Moore in 1987, and they had three daughters, including Rumer, before their divorce in 2000. Since 2009, he has been married to model Emma Heming, with whom he has two daughters.\n\nEarly life \n\nWillis was born Walter Bruce Willis on March 19, 1955 in the town of Idar-Oberstein, West Germany. His father, David Willis (1929-2009), was an American soldier. His mother, Marlene, was German, born in Kassel. Willis is the oldest of four children: he has a sister, Florence, and a brother, David. His brother Robert died of pancreatic cancer in 2001, aged 42. \n\nAfter being discharged from the military in 1957, Willis's father took his family back to Carneys Point Township, New Jersey.Stated on Inside the Actors Studio, 2001 Willis has described himself as having come from a \"long line of blue collar people\". His mother worked in a bank and his father was a welder, master mechanic, and factory worker. Willis attended Penns Grove High School in his hometown, where he encountered issues with a stutter. He was nicknamed \"Buck-Buck\" by his schoolmates. Finding it easy to express himself on stage and losing his stutter in the process, Willis began performing on stage; his high school activities were marked by such things as the drama club and being student council president.\n\nAfter high school, Willis took a job as a security guard at the Salem Nuclear Power Plant and transported work crews at the DuPont Chambers Works factory in Deepwater, New Jersey. After working as a private investigator (a role he would play in the television series Moonlighting and the 1991 film The Last Boy Scout), Willis turned to acting. He enrolled in the Drama Program at Montclair State University, where he was cast in the class production of Cat on a Hot Tin Roof. Willis left school in his junior year and moved to New York City, where in the early 1980s he supported himself as a bartender at the West 19th Street art bar Kamikaze. \n\nCareer \n\n1980s \n\nWillis left New York City and headed to California to audition for several television shows. In 1984, he appeared in an episode of the TV series Miami Vice, titled \"No Exit\". In 1985, he was the guest actor in the first episode of the 1980s revival of The Twilight Zone, \"Shatterday\". He auditioned for the role of David Addison Jr. of the television series Moonlighting (1985–89), competing against 3,000 other actors for the position. The starring role, opposite Cybill Shepherd, helped to establish him as a comedic actor, with the show lasting five seasons winning him an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series and a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Television Series Musical or Comedy. During the height of the show's success, beverage maker Seagram hired Willis as the pitchman for their Golden Wine Cooler products. The advertising campaign paid the rising star between $5–7 million over two years. In spite of that, Willis chose not to renew his contract with the company when he decided to stop drinking alcohol in 1988. \n\nWillis had his first lead role in a feature film in the 1987 Blake Edwards film Blind Date, with Kim Basinger and John Larroquette. Edwards cast him again to play the real-life cowboy actor Tom Mix in Sunset (1988). However, it was his then-unexpected turn in the film Die Hard (1988) as John McClane that catapulted him to movie star and action hero status. He performed most of his own stunts in the film, and the film grossed $138,708,852 worldwide. Following his success with Die Hard, he had a leading role in the drama In Country as Vietnam veteran Emmett Smith and also provided the voice for a talking baby in Look Who's Talking, as well as its sequel Look Who's Talking Too.\n\nIn the late 1980s, Willis enjoyed moderate success as a recording artist, recording an album of pop-blues titled The Return of Bruno, which included the hit single \"Respect Yourself\" featuring The Pointer Sisters. The LP was promoted by a Spinal Tap–like rockumentary parody featuring scenes of Willis performing at famous events including Woodstock. He released a version of the Drifters song \"Under the Boardwalk\" as a second single; it got to No. 2 in the UK Top 40 but was less successful in the U.S. Willis returned to the recording studio several times afterward. (See Discography below.)\n\n1990s \n\nHaving acquired major personal success and pop culture influence playing John McClane in Die Hard, Willis reprised his role in the sequels Die Hard 2 (1990) and Die Hard with a Vengeance (1995). These first three installments in the Die Hard series grossed over US$700 million internationally and propelled Willis to the first rank of Hollywood action stars.\n\nIn the early 1990s, Willis's career suffered a moderate slump, as he starred in flops such as The Bonfire of the Vanities (1990), Striking Distance (1993) and a film he co-wrote, Hudson Hawk (1991), among others. He starred in a leading role in the highly sexualized erotic thriller, Color of Night (1994): another box office failure, it was savaged by critics but did well in the home video market and became one of the Top 20 most-rented films in the United States in 1995. \n\nIn 1994, he had a supporting role in Quentin Tarantino's acclaimed Pulp Fiction, which gave a new boost to his career. In 1996, he was the executive producer and star of the cartoon Bruno the Kid which featured a CGI representation of himself. He went on to play the lead roles in Twelve Monkeys (1995) and The Fifth Element (1997). However, by the end of the 1990s, his career had fallen into another slump with critically panned films, like The Jackal, Mercury Rising, and Breakfast of Champions, saved only by the success of the Michael Bay-directed Armageddon which was the highest-grossing film of 1998 worldwide. The same year his voice and likeness were featured in the PlayStation video game Apocalypse. In 1999, Willis then went on to the starring role in M. Night Shyamalan's film, The Sixth Sense. The film was both a commercial and critical success and helped to increase interest in his acting career.\n\n2000s \n\nIn 2000, Willis won an Emmy for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series for his work on Friends (in which he played the father of Ross Geller's much-younger girlfriend). He was also nominated for a 2001 American Comedy Award (in the Funniest Male Guest Appearance in a TV Series category) for his work on Friends. Also in 2000, Willis played Jimmy \"The Tulip\" Tudeski in The Whole Nine Yards alongside Matthew Perry. Willis was originally cast as Terry Benedict in Ocean's Eleven (2001) but dropped out to work on recording an album. In Ocean's Twelve (2004), he makes a cameo appearance as himself. In 2005, he appeared in the film adaptation of Sin City. In 2007, he appeared in the Planet Terror half of the double feature Grindhouse as the villain, a mutant soldier. This marked Willis's second collaboration with director Robert Rodriguez, following Sin City.\n\nWillis has appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman several times throughout his career. He filled in for an ill David Letterman on his show February 26, 2003, when he was supposed to be a guest. On many of his appearances on the show, Willis stages elaborate jokes, such as wearing a day-glo orange suit in honor of the Central Park gates, having one side of his face made up with simulated buckshot wounds after the Harry Whittington shooting, or trying to break a record (parody of David Blaine) of staying underwater for only twenty seconds.\n\nOn April 12, 2007, he appeared again, this time wearing a Sanjaya Malakar wig. On his June 25, 2007, appearance, he wore a mini-turban on his head to accompany a joke about his own fictional documentary titled An Unappealing Hunch (a wordplay on An Inconvenient Truth). Willis also appeared in Japanese Subaru Legacy television commercials. Tying in with this, Subaru did a limited run of Legacys, badged \"Subaru Legacy Touring Bruce\", in honor of Willis.\n\nWillis has appeared in four films with Samuel L. Jackson (National Lampoon's Loaded Weapon 1, Pulp Fiction, Die Hard with a Vengeance, and Unbreakable) and both actors were slated to work together in Black Water Transit, before dropping out. Willis also worked with his eldest daughter, Rumer, in the 2005 film Hostage. In 2007, he appeared in the thriller Perfect Stranger, opposite Halle Berry, the crime/drama film Alpha Dog, opposite Sharon Stone, and reprised his role as John McClane in Live Free or Die Hard. Subsequently, he appeared in the films What Just Happened and Surrogates, based on the comic book of the same name. \n\nWillis was slated to play U.S. Army general William R. Peers in director Oliver Stone's Pinkville, a drama about the investigation of the 1968 My Lai Massacre. However, due to the 2007 Writers Guild of America strike, the film was cancelled. Willis appeared on the 2008 Blues Traveler album North Hollywood Shootout, giving a spoken word performance over an instrumental blues rock jam on the track \"Free Willis (Ruminations from Behind Uncle Bob's Machine Shop)\". In early 2009, he appeared in an advertising campaign to publicize the insurance company Norwich Union's change of name to Aviva. \n\n2010s \n\nWillis starred with Tracy Morgan in the comedy Cop Out, directed by Kevin Smith and about two police detectives investigating the theft of a baseball card. The film was released in February 2010. Willis appeared in the music video for the song \"Stylo\" by Gorillaz. Also in 2010, he appeared in a cameo with former Planet Hollywood co-owners and '80s action stars Sylvester Stallone and Arnold Schwarzenegger in the film The Expendables. Willis played the role of generic bald man \"Mr. Church\". This was the first time these three legendary action stars appeared on screen together. Although the scene featuring the three was short, it was one of the most highly anticipated scenes in the film. The trio filmed their scene in an empty church on October 24, 2009. Willis next starred in RED, an adaptation of the comic book mini-series of the same name, in which he portrayed Frank Moses. The film was released on October 15, 2010. \n\nWillis starred alongside Bill Murray, Edward Norton, and Frances McDormand in Moonrise Kingdom (2012). Filming took place in Rhode Island under the direction of Wes Anderson, in 2011. Willis returned, in an expanded role, in The Expendables 2 (2012). He appeared alongside Joseph Gordon-Levitt in the sci-fi action film, Looper (2012), as the older version of Gordon-Levitt's character, Joe.\n\nWillis teamed up with 50 Cent in a film directed by David Barrett called Fire with Fire, starring opposite Josh Duhamel and Rosario Dawson, about a fireman who must save the love of his life. Willis also joined Vince Vaughn and Catherine Zeta-Jones in Lay the Favorite, directed by Stephen Frears, about a Las Vegas cocktail waitress who becomes an elite professional gambler. The two films were distributed by Lionsgate Entertainment.\n\nWillis reprised his most famous role, John McClane, for a fifth time, starring in A Good Day to Die Hard, which was released on February 14, 2013. In an interview, Willis said, \"I have a warm spot in my heart for Die Hard..... it's just the sheer novelty of being able to play the same character over 25 years and still be asked back is fun. It's much more challenging to have to do a film again and try to compete with myself, which is what I do in Die Hard. I try to improve my work every time.\" \n\nOn October 12, 2013, Willis hosted Saturday Night Live with Katy Perry as a musical guest.\n\nWillis will star in the movie adaptation of the video game Kane & Lynch: Dead Men, named Kane & Lynch. \n\nIn 2015, Willis made his Broadway debut in William Goldman's adaptation of Stephen King's novel Misery opposite Laurie Metcalf at the Broadhurst Theatre. \n\nBusiness activities \n\nFilms featuring Willis have grossed between US$2.64 billion and $3.05 billion at the North American box offices, making him in 2010 the eighth highest-grossing actor in a leading role and 12th-highest including supporting roles. He is a two-time Emmy Award winner, two-time Golden Globe Award winner, and has been nominated for a Saturn Award four times.\n\nWillis owns property in Los Angeles and in Penns Grove, New Jersey; rents apartments at Trump Tower and in Riverside South, Manhattan, both in New York City; has a home in Malibu, California; a ranch in Montana; a beach home on Parrot Cay in Turks and Caicos; and multiple properties in Sun Valley, Idaho.\n\nIn 2000, Willis, with his business partner Arnold Rifkin, started a motion picture production company called Cheyenne Enterprises. He left the company to be run solely by Rifkin in 2007 after Live Free or Die Hard. He also owns several small businesses in Hailey, Idaho, including The Mint Bar and The Liberty Theater and is a co-founder of Planet Hollywood, with actors Arnold Schwarzenegger and Sylvester Stallone. In 2009 Willis signed a contract to become the international face of Belvedere SA's Sobieski Vodka in exchange for 3.3% ownership in the company. \n\nPersonal life \n\nWillis' acting role models are Gary Cooper, Robert De Niro, Steve McQueen and John Wayne. Willis is left handed. \n\nRelationships and children \n\nAt the premiere for the film Stakeout, Willis met actress Demi Moore. They married on November 21, 1987, and had three daughters: Rumer Willis (born August 16, 1988), Scout (born July 20, 1991), and Tallulah (born 1994). They announced their separation on June 24, 1998, and filed for divorce on October 18, 2000. \n Regarding the divorce, Willis stated, \"I felt I had failed as a father and a husband by not being able to make it work.\" He credited actor Will Smith for helping him cope with the situation. Willis has maintained a close relationship with both Moore and her third husband, actor Ashton Kutcher, and attended their wedding.\n\nWillis was engaged to actress Brooke Burns until they broke up in 2004 after ten months together. He married model Emma Heming in Turks and Caicos on March 21, 2009; guests included his three daughters, Demi Moore, and Ashton Kutcher. The ceremony was not legally binding, so the couple wed again in a civil ceremony in Beverly Hills, six days later. The couple has two daughters: Mabel Ray Willis (b. 2012) and Evelyn Penn Willis (b. 2014). \n\nReligious views \n\nWillis was, at one point, Lutheran (specifically Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod), but no longer practices. In a July 1998 interview with George magazine, he stated:\n\nPolitical views \n\nIn 1988, Willis and then-wife Demi Moore campaigned for Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis's Presidential bid. Four years later, he supported President George H. W. Bush for reelection and was an outspoken critic of Bill Clinton. However, in 1996, he declined to endorse Clinton's Republican opponent Bob Dole, because Dole had criticized Demi Moore for her role in the film Striptease. Willis was an invited speaker at the 2000 Republican National Convention, and supported George W. Bush that year. He did not make any contributions or public endorsements in the 2008 presidential campaign. In several June 2007 interviews, he declared that he maintains some Republican ideologies.\n\nIn 2006, he said that the United States should intervene more into Colombia, in order to end the drug trafficking. In several interviews Willis has said that he supports large salaries for teachers and police officers, and said he is disappointed in the United States foster care system as well as treatment of Native Americans. Willis also stated that he is a supporter of gun rights, stating, \"Everyone has a right to bear arms. If you take guns away from legal gun owners, then the only people who have guns are the bad guys.\" \n\nIn February 2006, Willis appeared in Manhattan to talk about his film 16 Blocks with reporters. One reporter attempted to ask Willis about his opinion on the current government, but was interrupted by Willis in mid-sentence: \"I'm sick of answering this fucking question. I'm a Republican only as far as I want a smaller government, I want less government intrusion. I want them to stop shitting on my money and your money and tax dollars that we give 50 percent of every year. I want them to be fiscally responsible and I want these goddamn lobbyists out of Washington. Do that and I'll say I'm a Republican. I hate the government, OK? I'm apolitical. Write that down. I'm not a Republican.\" \n\nWillis' name was in an advertisement in the Los Angeles Times on August 17, 2006, that condemned Hamas and Hezbollah and supported Israel in the 2006 Israel-Lebanon war. \n\nMilitary interests \n\nThroughout his film career, Willis has depicted several military characters in films such as The Siege, Hart's War, Tears of the Sun, Grindhouse and G.I. Joe: Retaliation. Growing up in a military family, Willis has publicly sold Girl Scout cookies for the United States armed forces. In 2002, Willis's then 8-year-old daughter, Tallulah, suggested that he purchase Girl Scout cookies to send to troops. Willis purchased 12,000 boxes of cookies, and they were distributed to sailors aboard USS John F. Kennedy and other troops stationed throughout the Middle East at the time. In 2003, Willis visited Iraq as part of the USO tour, singing to the troops with his band, The Accelerators. Willis considered joining the military to help fight the second Iraq war, but was deterred by his age. It was believed he offered $1 million to any noncombatant who turns in terrorist leaders Osama bin Laden, Ayman al-Zawahiri, or Abu Musab al-Zarqawi; in the June 2007 issue of Vanity Fair, however, he clarified that the statement was made hypothetically and not meant to be taken literally. Willis has also criticized the media for its coverage of the war, complaining that the press were more likely to focus on the negative aspects of the war:\n\nI went to Iraq because what I saw when I was over there was soldiers—young kids for the most part—helping people in Iraq; helping getting the power turned back on, helping get hospitals open, helping get the water turned back on and you don't hear any of that on the news. You hear, 'X number of people were killed today,' which I think does a huge disservice. It's like spitting on these young men and women who are over there fighting to help this country. \n\nWillis stated in 2005 that he wanted to \"make a pro-war film in which American soldiers will be depicted as brave fighters for freedom and democracy.\" The film would follow members of Deuce Four, the 1st Battalion, 24th Infantry, who spent considerable time in Mosul and were decorated heavily for it. The film is to be based on the writings of blogger Michael Yon, a former United States Army Special Forces soldier who was embedded with Deuce Four and sent regular dispatches about their activities. Willis described the plot of the film as \"these guys who do what they are asked for very little money to defend and fight for what they consider to be freedom.\" \n\nCultural references \n\nIn 1996, Roger Director, a writer and producer from Moonlighting, wrote a roman à clef on Willis titled A Place to Fall. Cybill Shepherd wrote in her 2000 autobiography, Cybill Disobedience, that Willis was angry at Director, because the character was written as a \"neurotic, petulant actor.\" In 1998, Willis participated in Apocalypse, a PlayStation video game. The game was originally announced to feature Willis as a sidekick, not as the main character. The company reworked the game using Willis's likeness and voice and changed the game to use him as the main character. In Quebec, Canada, Willis' voice has been overdubbed in French, in 28 of his films, by Jean-Luc Montminy. \n\nFilmography \n\nDiscography \n\nSolo albums\n*1987: The Return of Bruno (Motown, )\n*1989: If It Don't Kill You, It Just Makes You Stronger (Motown/Pgd, )\n*2001: Classic Bruce Willis: The Universal Masters Collection (Polygram Int'l, )\n\nCompilations/Guest appearances\n*1986: Moonlighting soundtrack; track \"Good Lovin'\"\n*1991: Hudson Hawk soundtrack; tracks \"Swinging on a Star\" and \"Side by Side\", both duets with Danny Aiello\n*2003: Rugrats Go Wild soundtrack; \"Big Bad Cat\" with Chrissie Hynde and \"Lust for Life\"\n*2008: North Hollywood Shootout, Blues Traveler; track \"Free Willis (Ruminations from Behind Uncle Bob's Machine Shop)\"\n\nAwards and honors \n\nWillis has won a variety of awards and has received various honors throughout his career in television and film.\n*1986/87: Emmy (Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series) and Golden Globe (Best Performance by an Actor in a TV-Series – Comedy/Musical) Awards for Moonlighting (also received four nominations for the show) \n*1986: Nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Supporting Actor for In Country\n*1994: Maxim magazine ranked his sex scene in Color of Night the #1 sex scene in film history \n*1998: Golden Raspberry Award (Worst Actor) for Armageddon, Mercury Rising and The Siege\n*2000: Blockbuster Entertainment Award (\"Favorite Actor – Suspense\") and the People's Choice Award (\"Favorite Motion Picture Star in a Drama\") for The Sixth Sense (also nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Actor and received two nominations for the MTV Movie Awards for \"Best Male Performance\" and \"Best On-Screen Duo\")\n*2000: Emmy for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series for Friends\n*2002: The Hasty Pudding Man of the Year award from Harvard's Hasty Pudding Theatricals – given to performers who give a lasting and impressive contribution to the world of entertainment \n*2002: Appointed as national spokesman for Children in Foster Care by President George W. Bush; Willis wrote online: \"I saw Foster Care as a way for me to serve my country in a system by which shining a little bit of light could benefit a great deal by helping kids who were literally wards of the government.\"\n*2006: Honored by French government for his contributions to the film industry; appointed an Officer of the French Order of Arts and Letters in a ceremony in Paris; the French Prime Minister stated, \"This is France's way of paying tribute to an actor who epitomizes the strength of American cinema, the power of the emotions that he invites us to share on the world's screens and the sturdy personalities of his legendary characters.\" \n*2006: Honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on October 16; located at 6915 Hollywood Boulevard and it was the 2,321st star awarded in its history; at the reception, he stated, \"I used to come down here and look at these stars and I could never quite figure out what you were supposed to do to get one...time has passed and now here I am doing this, and I'm still excited. I'm still excited to be an actor.\" \n*2011: Inducted into the New Jersey Hall of Fame \n*2013: Promoted to the dignity of Commander of the Order of Arts and Letters on February 11 by French Minister of Culture Aurélie Filippetti" ] }

{ "description": [ "Walter Bruce Willis was born on March 19, ... Was the first actor to ever \"act\" in a video ... The Scots-English language name Bruce arrived in Scotland with the ...", "Walter Bruce Willis was born on March 19, ... First Kill Magic City ... 2007 Nancy Drew Bruce (uncredited)" ], "filename": [ "19/19_383.txt", "105/105_388.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 5 ], "title": [ "Bruce Willis - Biography - IMDb", "Bruce Willis - IMDb" ], "url": [ "http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000246/bio", "http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000246/" ], "search_context": [ "Bruce Willis - Biography - IMDb\nBruce Willis\nBiography\nShowing all 169 items\nJump to: Overview  (4) | Mini Bio  (1) | Spouse  (2) | Trade Mark  (7) | Trivia  (102) | Personal Quotes  (36) | Salary  (17)\nOverview (4)\n6' (1.83 m)\nMini Bio (1)\nActor and musician Bruce Willis is well known for playing wisecracking or hard-edged characters, often in spectacular action films. Collectively, he has appeared in films that have grossed in excess of $2.5 billion USD, placing him in the top ten stars in terms of box office receipts.\nWalter Bruce Willis was born on March 19, 1955, in Idar-Oberstein, West Germany, to a German mother, Marlene K. (from Kassel), and an American father, David Andrew Willis (from Carneys Point, New Jersey), who were then living on a United States military base. His family moved to the U.S. shortly after he was born, and he was raised in Penns Grove, New Jersey, where his mother worked at a bank and his father was a welder and factory worker. Willis picked up an interest for the dramatic arts in high school, and was allegedly \"discovered\" whilst working in a café in New York City and then appeared in a couple of off-Broadway productions. While bartending one night, he was seen by a casting director who liked his personality and needed a bartender for a small movie role.\nAfter countless auditions, Willis contributed minor film appearances, usually uncredited, before landing the role of private eye \"David Addison\" alongside sultry Cybill Shepherd in the hit romantic comedy television series Moonlighting (1985). The series firmly established Bruce Willis as a hot new talent, and his sarcastic and wisecracking P.I. was in effect a dry run for the role of hard-boiled NYC detective \"John McClane\" in the monster hit Die Hard (1988). This superbly paced action film balanced laconic humor and wholesale destruction as Willis' character single handedly battles a gang of ruthless international thieves in a Los Angeles skyscraper. Willis reprized the role of tough guy cop \"John McClane\" in the eagerly anticipated sequel Die Hard 2 (1990) set at snowbound Washington's Dulles International Airport as a group of renegade Special Forces soldiers seek to repatriate a corrupt South American general. Excellent box office returns demanded a further sequel Die Hard with a Vengeance (1995) this time also starring Samuel L. Jackson as a cynical Harlem shopowner unwittingly thrust into assisting McClane during a terrorist bombing campaign on a sweltering day in NYC.\nWillis found time out from all the action mayhem to provide the voice of \"Mikey\" the baby in the very popular family comedies Look Who's Talking (1989), and its sequel Look Who's Talking Too (1990) also starring John Travolta and Kirstie Alley . Over the next decade, Willis starred in some very successful films, some very offbeat films and some unfortunate box office flops. The Bonfire of the Vanities (1990) and Hudson Hawk (1991) were both large scale financial disasters that were savaged by the critics, and both are arguably best left off the CVs of all the actors involved, however Willis was still popular with movie audiences and selling plenty of theatre tickets with the hyperviolent The Last Boy Scout (1991), the darkly humored Death Becomes Her (1992) and the mediocre police thriller Striking Distance (1993). During the 1990s, Willis also appeared in several independent and low budget productions that won him new fans and praise from the critics for his intriguing performances working with some very diverse film directors. He appeared in the oddly appealing North (1994), as a cagey prizefighter in the Quentin Tarantino directed mega-hit Pulp Fiction (1994), the Terry Gilliam directed apocalyptic thriller Twelve Monkeys (1995), the Luc Besson directed sci-fi opus The Fifth Element (1997) and the M. Night Shyamalan directed spine-tingling epic The Sixth Sense (1999).\nWillis next starred in the gangster comedy The Whole Nine Yards (2000), worked again with \"hot\" director M. Night Shyamalan in the less gripping Unbreakable (2000), and in two military dramas, Hart's War (2002) and Tears of the Sun (2003) that both failed to really fire with movie audiences or critics alike. However, Willis bounced back into the spotlight in the critically applauded Frank Miller graphic novel turned movie Sin City (2005), the voice of \"RJ\" the scheming raccoon in the animated hit Over the Hedge (2006) and \"Die Hard\" fans rejoiced to see \"John McClane\" return to the big screen in the high tech Live Free or Die Hard (2007) aka \"Die Hard 4.0\".\nWillis was married to actress Demi Moore for approximately thirteen years and they share custody to their three children.\n- IMDb Mini Biography By: [email protected]\nSpouse (2)\nWas high school student council president.\nHis recording of \"Respect Yourself\" reached #5 in January 1987.\n(June 24, 1998) He and Demi Moore announce they are ending their marriage of 11 years. No reasons given.\nRanked #22 in Empire (UK) magazine's \"The Top 100 Movie Stars of All Time\" list. [October 1997]\nHe was born on a military base in Germany. His mother, Marlene, was German, and was born in Kassel, Germany. His father, David Willis, was American-born, and had English, and smaller amounts of Dutch, French, Irish and Welsh ancestry.\nHas appeared on Late Show with David Letterman (1993) to advertise for Demi Moore 's Striptease (1996) by doing his own undressing act (1996).\nAs a young man, his personality was very much like that of the character that he portrayed on Moonlighting (1985). He was always getting into trouble because of this and was bodily ejected from parties by the hosts for being obnoxious.\nHas been very vocal in his support of almost every major Republican candidate in recent history except Bob Dole . He felt that presidential candidate Dole was out of line in his attacks on Demi Moore and her role in the movie Striptease (1996).\nWas the first actor to ever \"act\" in a video game ( Apocalypse (1998)). No one before had ever done voice work along with having their likeness and movements digitally added to the game, as well as receiving prominent billing on the game's cover.\nHas stated, in 1997, 2001 and 2013, that he will no longer be doing violent action or \"save-the-world\" movies.\nWears his watch upside down with the face on the inside of his hand. This is also visible in many movies he has done ( Die Hard with a Vengeance (1995), Mercury Rising (1998), etc.) where they have not requested him to flip this over.\nMemorial Day weekend, 1987: Was arrested after reportedly disturbing the peace and assaulting a police officer who was called to quiet a raucous party at his home. The charges were dropped after Willis agreed to apologize to his neighbors.\nActing helped him to overcome a debilitating childhood stutter. In an interview with GQ magazine [March 2013], Willis revealed: \"I had a terrible stutter. But then I did some theater in high school and when I memorized words, I didn't stutter, which was just miraculous. That was the beginning of the gradual dispelling of my stutter. I thought I was handicapped. I couldn't talk at all. I still stutter around some people now.\".\nHis younger brother Robert Willis died of pancreatic cancer at age 42 (2001).\nWas originally cast as Terry Benedict in Ocean's Eleven (2001) but dropped out.\nAttended Montclair State University in Montclair, New Jersey.\nSet a new benchmark for actors' salaries when he was paid $5 million for Die Hard (1988) in 1988. Eight years later, his wife, Demi Moore , set a benchmark of $12 million with Striptease (1996).\nHis ineptness as a waiter forced him to become a bartender.\nWas named Man of the Year by Harvard University's Hasty Pudding Theatricals. [February 2002]\nWas president of a drama club at school.\nWorked in a chemical factory before going to college.\nHe filled in as a last-minute host for David Letterman on February 26, 2003, a show he was supposed to be the guest for. This was Letterman's first \"sick day\" in 20 years (other than his time off for heart surgery).\nRanked #3 in Star TV's Top 10 Box Office Stars of the 1990s (2003).\nLives in Hailey, Idaho, where he owns the Mint bar and the Liberty Theater. He also owns the old Hailey Drug Store, but the building has been vacant and unused since the early 1990s.\nThe scar on his right shoulder is from surgery due to complications from a broken arm when he was age 17.\nPersonally recommended Bonnie Bedelia for the role of his estranged wife in Die Hard (1988).\nIs the hero of singer Nick Lachey . Lachey's ex-wife, Jessica Simpson , unsuccessfully auditioned for the role of Kate McClane, John McClane's daughter in Live Free or Die Hard (2007).\nHe ad-libbed many of John McClane's one-liners in the \"Die Hard\" films.\nAttended and graduated from Penns Grove High School in Penns Grove, New Jersey. His class voted him \"Most School Spirit\" (1973).\nRecommended Michael Clarke Duncan to play the role of John Coffey in The Green Mile (1999).\n(October 20, 2004) Sued Revolution Studios for unspecified damages related to a blow to his forehead that he received during \"ultrahazardous activity\" involved in the filming of Tears of the Sun (2003). He claims that it has caused him extreme mental, physical and emotional pain and suffering.\nAttended the Stella Adler Conservatory / Theatre program in New York City for three years.\nPlays the harmonica.\nFrance awarded him Officer of the Order of Arts and Letters in April 2005. \"France pays homage to an actor who represents the force of American cinema and the power of emotions that he invites us to share on screens throughout the world\", Culture Minister Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres said. \"I'm nervous. Bonjour Paris\", he replied.\n(June 2, 2004) After dating Brooke Burns for ten months and finally being engaged to her, they decided to separate because of the difficulties with maintaining a long-distance relationship.\nWas chosen to play John McClane in Die Hard (1988) because the producers felt he brought warmth and humor to an otherwise cold and humorless character. Arnold Schwarzenegger and Sylvester Stallone had turned down the role.\nHas been special ambassador of his birth town Idar-Oberstein since his 50th birthday.\nTen directors cast him at least twice in their films: Blake Edwards , Amy Heckerling , Rob Reiner , Robert Benton , John McTiernan , Alan Rudolph , 'M. Night Shyamalan', Quentin Tarantino , Robert Rodriguez and Barry Levinson .\nAlong with Arnold Schwarzenegger and Charlton Heston , Willis was one of very few Hollywood celebrities to publicly support the Iraq war. While visiting the troops in 2003, he offered $1 million of his own money for the man who would capture Saddam Hussein . When Hussein was captured, it turned out that military rules prevent troops from collecting such a reward.\nServed as a delegate at the Republican National Convention in 1992. In 2000, he was unable to narrate a biographical film of previous presidents to be shown at the RNC due to scheduling conflicts.\nHas worked closely with two promising child stars: Miko Hughes in Mercury Rising (1998) and 'Haley Joel Osment' in The Sixth Sense (1999). The boys had major roles in the films opposite him.\nAnnounced his intention to make a film in which American soldiers will be depicted as brave fighters for freedom and democracy. This will be based on the exploits of the heavily decorated members of \"Deuce Four\", the 1st Battalion, 24th Infantry, which has spent the past year battling insurgents in the northern Iraqi town of Mosul. Willis attended Deuce Four's homecoming ball this month in Seattle, Washington, where the soldiers are on leave, along with Stephen J. Eads , the producer of Armageddon (1998) and The Sixth Sense (1999). The actor said that he was in talks about a film of \"these guys who do what they are asked to for very little money to defend and fight for what they consider to be freedom\". Willis is likely to take on the role of the unit's commander, Lieutenant Colonel Erik Kurilla. [November 2005]\nHonored in Paris for his contribution to the film industry, by the French government. The actor was awarded Officer of the Order of Arts and Letters at a ceremony in the capital, where he was presented with his honor by French Culture Minister Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres . de Vabres said, \"This is France's way of paying tribute to an actor who epitomizes the strength of American cinema, the power of the emotions that he invites us to share on the world's screens and the sturdy personalities of his legendary characters.\" Willis replied in French that he was \"very touched\" to receive his medal, adding, \"Thank you France and Culture Minister for this great, great honor.\" (April 13, 2005).\nIn November 2005, he offered $1 million of his own money to anyone who turns in al-Qaeda terror leaders Osama bin Laden , Ayman Al-Zawahiri or 'Abu Musab Al-Zarqawi', the alleged brains behind the 9/11 attacks. Willis announced his reward on the American television show Rita Cosby Live & Direct (2005), where he also criticized what he claimed to be \"biased\" media coverage of the Iraq war.\n(July 23, 2002) Appointed by President George W. Bush as national spokesman for Children in Foster Care.\nHis performance as John McClane in the \"Die Hard\" trilogy is ranked #46 on Premiere magazine's 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time.\nHe and Linda Fiorentino were employed as bartenders in the early 1980s at the Kamikaze Club in New York City.\nLittle Richard presided over his wedding to Demi Moore and Ally Sheedy was one of the bridesmaids.\nMarried Demi Moore at the Golden Nugget Hotel in Las Vegas, Nevada.\nTurned down the role of Sam Wheat in Ghost (1990) because he did not think the plot would work and that playing a ghost would be detrimental to his career. Ironically, he played a ghost in The Sixth Sense (1999), which was a critical success and is widely regarded as one of his best performances.\nHe apologized to Colombia after blaming the nation for America's drug problems. The star insisted the United States is as much to blame for the prolific trade and confessed he didn't mean to single out any one country as the supplier. He told the New York Daily News, \"I said Colombia because it was the first country to come to mind.\" The actor was dubbed \"ignorant\" and \"ungrateful\" by the Colombian president for his comments in March 2006, and advised not to base his arguments on \"Hollywood clichés\".\nIn November 2000, he urged his fans to vote for Republican candidate George W. Bush in the presidential election. He told an interviewer, \"If you guys vote for Al Gore , you're out of your minds ... Gore's a knucklehead ... just the lying and mendacity of the last eight years of the regime that Al Gore was a part and parcel of ... I mean, there is only so much lying the American people will take before they go, 'Uh, this doesn't seem like a good idea.' You have to look at what he does and what he stands for.\".\nHe was awarded a Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6915 Hollywood Boulevard in Hollywood, California on October 16, 2006. The ceremony was attended by his friends Don Johnson , Sylvester Stallone and Kevin Costner .\nStepfather of his three daughters with Demi Moore is Ashton Kutcher .\nHas three younger siblings: Florence Willis, David Willis and Robert Willis.\nOften supports the careers of other actors he has met on set, and asks they be given supporting roles on later films, most famously Michael Clarke Duncan , whom he worked with on The Whole Nine Yards (2000), asked for him on Armageddon (1998) and suggested him to the producers of The Green Mile (1999). Other actors include Billy Bob Thornton ( Armageddon (1998), Bandits (2003)), Johnny Messner ( Tears of the Sun (2003), The Whole Ten Yards (2004)), Nick Chinlund (Tears of the Sun (2003), The Kid (2000)) and Cole Hauser ( Hart's War (2002), Tears of the Sun (2003)). Met and befriended Matthew Perry on the set of The Whole Nine Yards (2000) and then appeared on Friends (1994) at Perry's request.\nHas appeared in 14 movies with numbers in the title: The First Deadly Sin (1980), Twelve Monkeys (1995), Four Rooms (1995), The Fifth Element (1997), The Sixth Sense (1999), The Whole Nine Yards (2000), 16 Blocks (2006), The Whole Ten Yards (2004), Die Hard 2 (1990), Loaded Weapon 1 (1993), Ocean's Twelve (2004), Catch .44 (2011), The Expendables 2 (2012) and RED 2 (2013).\nHas the distinction of playing two psychologists who have suffered serious work-related emotional trauma: Dr. Bill Capa in Color of Night (1994) and Dr. Malcolm Crowe in The Sixth Sense (1999). Ironically, Color of Night (1994) was a box-office bomb and was widely ridiculed by critics (this movie did much better business in home video market, though), while The Sixth Sense (1999) became a box-office smash and received several Oscar nominations, including Best Picture.\nDuring the Lebanon crisis, Willis signed his name on an ad in the Los Angeles Times in support of Israel, along with Nicole Kidman and numerous other Hollywood celebrities.\nHe was the only celebrity that attended Julia Roberts ' wedding to Daniel Moder . Their friendship is referred to in Ocean's Twelve (2004), when he mistakes Tess Ocean for Julia Roberts, and asks her about 'Danny'.\nIs a huge supporter of NFL team New York Jets.\nHas named his acting idols as Robert De Niro , Gary Cooper , Steve McQueen and John Wayne .\nEndorsed his friend and former co-star Fred Dalton Thompson in his failed bid to win the Republican nomination for the 2008 presidential election.\nMaxim magazine had named his sex scenes in Color of Night (1994) as the best sex scenes ever in film history.\nBecame the first actor to guest star on Friends (1994) and win an Emmy Award in the Outstanding Guest Actor category for their performance.\nWas considered for the role of Kyle Reese in The Terminator (1984), which went to Michael Biehn .\nThanked by the rock band Blink 182 in the liner notes of their album \"Enema of the State\" (1999).\n(March 21, 2009) Bruce married his girlfriend of a year, Emma Heming , at his home in Parrot Cay, Turks and Caicos.\nAmong the guests at his wedding to Emma Heming were his three daughters, Demi Moore , Ashton Kutcher and Madonna .\nHe visited Michael Jackson on the set of filming the \"Smooth Criminal\" segment for Moonwalker (1988). Also visiting the set were Gregory Peck and Robert De Niro .\nWas in consideration for the role of Lester Burnham in American Beauty (1999) but Kevin Spacey , who went on to win a Best Actor Oscar for his performance, was cast instead.\nHas appeared with Samuel L. Jackson in four films: Loaded Weapon 1 (1993), Pulp Fiction (1994), Die Hard with a Vengeance (1995) and Unbreakable (2000), even though they only shared scenes together in the last two.\nWas friends with John Goodman , during their New York City struggling actor days.\nAdmitted to Playboy magazine in 1996 that he was once arrested at age 19 for possessing two joints.\nFilmed his role in the mystery thriller Mortal Thoughts (1991) in ten days.\nMet Demi Moore at a screening of Emilio Estevez 's film, Stakeout (1987). Although she was seeing Estevez at the time, they were married four months later.\nLives in Los Angeles, Malibu, California and Hailey, Idaho.\nInducted into the New Jersey Hall of Fame in 2011 for his contributions to Arts and Entertainment.\nIs left-handed and is displayed in most of his films. In The Sixth Sense (1999), he learned to write with his right hand so this would not be so easily noticeable that his character was not wearing his wedding ring.\nIs mentioned in Nicki Minaj 's song \"Your Love\".\nCredits Will Smith with helping him come to terms with his divorce from Demi Moore , and accepting Ashton Kutcher as her new husband.\nHas regularly been named on \"Best Celebrity Tippers\" lists over the years. This is largely due to his early \"struggling\" waiter/bartender days.\nHe was awarded Commander of the Order of Arts and Letters, the highest French culture award, in Paris, France [February 12, 2013].\nOnce made an album (\"The Return of Bruno\" (1987)) that sold a million copies in the United Kingdom.\nBecame a father for the first time at age 33 when his [now ex] first wife Demi Moore gave birth to their daughter Rumer Glenn Willis, aka Rumer Willis , on August 16, 1988.\nBecame a father for the second time at age 36 when his [now ex] first wife Demi Moore gave birth to their daughter Scout LaRue Willis on July 20, 1991.\nBecame a father for the third time at age 38 when his [now ex] first wife Demi Moore gave birth to their daughter Tallulah Belle Willis on February 3, 1994.\nBecame a father for the fourth time at age 57 when his second wife Emma Heming gave birth to their daughter Mabel Ray Willis on April 1, 2012.\nAs of 2014, has appeared in three films that were nominated for the Best Picture Oscar: The Verdict (1982), Pulp Fiction (1994) and The Sixth Sense (1999).\nIs mentioned in the song \"Jizz in My Pants\" by The Lonely Island. One of the song's composers, Jorma Taccone , shares his birthday with Willis.\nBecame a father for the fifth time at age 59 when his second wife Emma Heming gave birth to their daughter Evelyn Penn Willis on May 5, 2014.\nWillis has played many roles whose character names have the letter \"J\" in the beginning. Examples include Die Hard (1988) (John McClane), Mercury Rising (1998) (Art Jeffries), Hostage (2005) (Jeff Talley), Mortal Thoughts (1991) (James Urbanski), Twelve Monkeys (1995) (James Cole), The Whole Nine Yards (2000) (Jimmy \"The Tulip\" Tudeski), Sin City (2005) (John Hartigan) and the title role in The Jackal (1997).\nHas played five characters more than once in the movies: Hartigan from the Sin City films, John McClane from the Die Hard films, Frank from the Red films, Church from the Expendables films, and Jimmy \"The Tulip\" Tudeski from the Whole Nine Yard films.\nHis \"Inside the Actors Studio\" interview was taped on September 10, 2001. The episode was respectfully dedicated by Willis and the Actors Studio Drama School \"to the heroes who fell September 11th - and to the heroes who fight on.\".\nIn 2015, he did a Broadway show of Stephen King 's \"Misery\" with Laurie Metcalf .\nThe Scots-English language name Bruce arrived in Scotland with the Normans, from the place name Brix of the Manche département in Normandy, France, meaning \"the willowlands\". Initially promulgated via the descendants of King Robert I of Scotland (Robert the Bruce) (1274-1329), it has been a Scottish surname since medieval times; it is now a common given name.\nWillis, a variant of the name William, is a surname, of Scottish and English origin meaning (Son of Willie).\nThe name William comes ultimately from the given name Wilhelm (cf. Old German Wilhelm > German Wilhelm and Old Norse Vilhjálmr). That is a compound of two distinct elements : wil = \"will or desire\" and helm: Old English helm \"helmet, protection\"; > English helm \"knight's large helmet\".\nHas been in three movies where he meets a younger version of himself: Twelve Monkeys (1995), The Kid (2000) and Looper (2012).\nHas twice played a hit man: The Jackal (1997) and The Whole Nine Yards (2000). The Whole Ten Yards (2004) really can not be counted because his character, Jimmy Tudeski was retired.\nI'm much more proud of being a father than being an actor.\nYou can't undo the past... but you can certainly not repeat it.\nI'm staggered by the question of what it's like to be a multimillionaire. I always have to remind myself that I am.\n[on how he stays in shape, interview in People.com, 10 March 2005] Mostly weight resistance training, almost an hour of cardio at least three times a week. I have a gym in my house in Los Angeles and a gym trailer that I can take on the road with me when I'm on location. At my house there's a very long steep driveway. I do wind sprints that kick my 50-year-old ass. It's part of my job. I have come to associate working out as work. Whenever I don't have to do it for films, I kind of slack off.\nI am a sensitive guy. People think they know the real me, but they don't. And then they write things that make me sound like such a jerk.\nI hate working out. I work out for films solely. I associate working out with films. As soon as they stop, I stop working out.\nFifty is the new forty. I always thought my best work would come in the years forty to sixty, if I was fortunate enough to hang around - and it is hard to stick around.\nWho I am as a father is far more important to me than the public perception.\nI am baffled to understand why the things that I saw happening in Iraq, really good things happening in Iraq, are not being reported on.\n[on Hudson Hawk (1991)] I always thought it was a little ahead of its time, a little too hip for the room.\nI think the rules are going to have to change for me to ever run for public office. My checkered past will always keep me out of politics. If I ever did run I would run on the platform that I did all these bad things, but I no longer do them, and during the four years of being president or whatever office it might be, I would be good and serve my country. I want to serve my country.\nI'm a Republican only as far as I want a smaller government, I want less government intrusion, I want them to stop pissing on my money and your money, the tax dollars that we give 50 percent of, or 40 percent of, every year, and I want them to be fiscally responsible, and I want these goddamn lobbyists out of Washington. Do that and I'll say I'm a Republican. But other than that, I want the government to take care of people who need help, like the kids in foster care, the half a million kids who are in orphanages right now - they call them foster homes, but they're orphanages. I want them to take care of the elderly and give them free medicine, give them whatever they need. There's tons, billions and billions of dollars that are just being wasted. Okay? I hate government. I'm apolitical. Write that down: I'm not a Republican.\n[February 2006] Look at what happened to James Frey in the last two weeks. That's a great book and so is the follow-up book. And just because his publisher chose to say that these were memoirs, it took it out of being a work of fiction, a great work of fiction and very well-written to this guy having to go be sucker punched on The Oprah Winfrey Show (1986) by one of the most powerful women in television just to grind her own ax about it. Hey Oprah, you had President [ Bill Clinton ] on your show and if this prick didn't lie about a couple of things I'm going to set myself on fire right now. James Frey is a writer, okay? He can write whatever he wants. It's fiction, and it's just hard, it's just shameful how he was treated in some of these things. It's just shameful and it's just not fair and not right...\nI'm not an action hero anymore, and I think it would be inappropriate for me to compare anything that happens in Hollywood and the entertainment industry to the tragic loss of life on September 11th.\nI spoke to the Colombians. It's fine. I get passionate sometimes. I said Colombia because it was the first country to come to mind. The drug problem has as much to do with what's going on in this country. If there wasn't a demand, there wouldn't be a supply.\nI think what the United States, and everyone who cares about protecting the freedoms that the largest part of the free world now has, should do whatever it takes to end terrorism in the world and not just in the Middle East. I'm talking also about going to Colombia and doing whatever it takes to end the cocaine trade. It's killing this country. It's killing all the countries that coke goes into. I believe that somebody's making money on it in the United States. If they weren't making money on it, they would have stopped it. They could stop it in one day. It's just a plant that they grow, and these guys are growing it like it's corn or tobacco or any other thing. By the time it gets here, it becomes a billion dollar industry. And I think that's a form of terrorism as well.\nThe Iraqi people want to live in a world where they can move from their homes to the market and not have to fear being killed. I mean, doesn't everybody want that?\nI have zero interest in performing in films to try to convey any kind of message. My job is to be entertaining. There's a very different point of view about messages in films in Europe than there is in the States. Audiences rebel because they feel that they are being preached to.\n[on his planned film about the Iraq war] The movie is about these guys who do what they are asked for very little money to defend and fight for what they consider to be freedom.\nI thought about signing up but my friends told me I was too old. I called the White House, called President [ George Bush ] and asked what I could do. So I got involved with the national foster care program.\nIf you take guns away from legal gun owners then the only people who would have guns would be the bad guys. Even a pacifist would get violent if someone were trying to kill him or her. You would fight for your life, whatever your beliefs. You'd use a rock or tear one of these chairs out of the floor. Hey, maybe I've been watching too many Bruce Willis movies!\nI'm always being accused of being a Hollywood Republican, but I'm not! I have just as many Democratic ideas as Republican ones. If they could build three fewer bombs every month and give the money to foster care, that would be great.\nThe idea of serving my country remained in my mind. Over the past few years from varying sources - Time magazine, books, and television - information began coming to my attention on Foster Care; its history and the current crisis of an antiquated system overburdened with 580,000 children who have no voice. Children need to be protected by interstate technology systems that can track placements, education, medical records and protect these children from predators traveling from state to state. I saw Foster Care as a way for me to serve my country in a system by which shining a little bit of light could benefit a great deal by helping kids who were literally wards of the government.\nHair loss is God's way of telling me I'm human.\n[1998] Organized religions in general, in my opinion, are dying forms. They were all very important when we didn't know why the sun moved, why weather changed, why hurricanes occurred or volcanoes happened. Modern religion is the end trail of modern mythology. But there are people who interpret the Bible literally. Literally! I choose not to believe that's the way. And that's what makes America cool, you know?\nI don't think my opinion means jack shit, because I'm an actor. Why do actors think their opinions mean more because you act? You just caught a break as an actor. There are hundreds - thousands - of actors who are just as good as I am, and probably better. Have you heard anything useful come out of an actor's mouth lately? Although I liked George Clooney 's documentary on Darfur.\nThey still haven't caught the guy that killed [ John F. Kennedy ]. I'll get killed for saying this, but I'm pretty sure those guys are still in power, in some form. The entire government of the United States was co-opted.\nI happen to live in Los Angeles and it is probably one of the most toxic environments on earth. People live here and they know that the air is poisonous. They know that children are affected by the air in Los Angeles. They say that growing up in Los Angeles is the equivalent of smoking a pack and a half of cigarettes throughout your entire childhood. It's horrific when you can actually look at the air and see it.\nNo, I am not in favor of the war in Iraq, so let me stop you right there. I am not pro-war but what I am is that, I like to support the young men and women who are over there participating in the war.\n[on Twitter] I just can't live with myself if I started twittering. I just think: \"That way lies madness\".\n[on The Expendables (2010) sequel] I talked to Sly [ Sylvester Stallone ] and he's going for all the marbles this time, and he's going to get everybody in this time. Even Stone Cold Steve Austin , who took two bullets in the last film, is coming back. Hopefully, they'll start shooting it while we're young enough to survive!\n[on the possibility of Michael Bay directing a a Die Hard film, specifically Live Free or Die Hard (2007)] Would have ruined DH4. Few people will work with him now, and I know I will never work with him again.\n[on whether an R-rated 'Die Hard' could be done without producer Joel Silver ] Fuck Joel Silver. That is because you do not understand my relationship with Joel S. We are cordial now when we bump into each other, but we have not worked together since The Last Boy Scout (1991).\nI'm really pleased to continue to be asked back to do other versions and other incarnations of Die Hard (1988). The first one really is... that's all there is. Everything else is just trying to be as good as that film.\n[on A Good Day to Die Hard (2013)] It's a difficult title. A Good Day to Die Hard? It's like, have a sandwich and let's go shopping - then die hard.\nI want to do A Good Day to Die Hard (2013), then one final Die Hard movie - Die Hard 6 - before finally hanging that white vest up for good. At the moment, I can run and I can fight on screen. But there will come a time when I no longer want to do that. That's when I'll step away from the Die Hard films.\nSalary (17)", "Bruce Willis - IMDb\nIMDb\n17 January 2017 4:34 PM, UTC\nNEWS\nActor | Soundtrack | Producer\nActor and musician Bruce Willis is well known for playing wisecracking or hard-edged characters, often in spectacular action films. Collectively, he has appeared in films that have grossed in excess of $2.5 billion USD, placing him in the top ten stars in terms of box office receipts. Walter Bruce Willis was born on March 19, 1955, in ... See full bio »\nBorn:\nIsabelle Huppert May Receive First-Ever Oscar Nomination — Other Greats Who Also Have Zero\n12 January 2017 6:00 AM, -08:00 | Scott Feinberg\na list of 22 people\ncreated 13 Mar 2011\na list of 40 people\ncreated 23 Dec 2011\na list of 30 people\ncreated 13 Oct 2013\na list of 21 people\ncreated 9 months ago\na list of 40 people\ncreated 6 months ago\nDo you have a demo reel?\nAdd it to your IMDbPage\nHow much of Bruce Willis's work have you seen?\nUser Polls\nWon 1 Golden Globe. Another 21 wins & 37 nominations. See more awards  »\nKnown For\nThe Sixth Sense Dr. Malcolm Crowe\n(1999)\n- Episode #16.153 (2009) ... Late Show Intern\n- Episode #16.53 (2008) ... Late Show Fun Facts Book Promoter (uncredited)\n 2002 True West (TV Movie)\nLee\n 1999 Ally McBeal (TV Series)\nDr. Nickle\n- Love Unlimited (1999) ... Dr. Nickle (uncredited)\n 1998 Apocalypse (Video Game)\n 1997 Mad About You (TV Series)\nBruce Willis\n 1985 The Twilight Zone (TV Series)\nPeter Novins (segment \"Shatterday\")\n 1980 Ein Guru kommt (TV Movie)\nExtra (uncredited)\nMan Entering Diner as Delaney Leaves (uncredited)\nHide \n- Bruce Willis/Katy Perry (2013) ... (performer: \"Boy Dance Party\")\n- Bruce Willis/Neil Young (1989) ... (performer: \"Pep Talk\" (uncredited), \"Bruce Willis: The Man and His Music\")\n 2007 Gag Reel (Video short) (performer: \"Assassination Is My Game\" - uncredited)\n 2003 Rugrats Go Wild (performer: \"Big Bad Cat\", \"Lust for Life\")\n 2000 Friends (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)\n 2000 The Whole Nine Yards (performer: \"Tenth Avenue Tango\") / (writer: \"Slow Burn\")\n 1991 Hudson Hawk (writer: \"HUDSON HAWK THEME\")\n 1990 Look Who's Talking Too (writer: \"Daddy's Coming Home\")\n 1985-1989 Moonlighting (TV Series) (performer - 13 episodes)\n- Those Lips, Those Lies (1989) ... (performer: \"Moonlighting\", \"Blue Velvet\", \"Get Up (I Feel Like Being a) Sex Machine\", \"Funky Nassau\" - uncredited)\n- Between a Yuk and a Hard Place (1988) ... (performer: \"What a Friend We Have in Jesus\", \"Swing Low, Sweet Chariot\", \"Little Honda\" - uncredited)\n- A Womb with a View (1988) ... (performer: \"The Girl from Ipanema\", \"On the Sunny Side of the Street\" (uncredited))" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Lord_of_the_Flies.txt" ], "title": [ "Lord of the Flies" ], "wiki_context": [ "Lord of the Flies is a 1954 novel by Nobel Prize-winning English author William Golding about a group of British boys stuck on an uninhabited island who try to govern themselves with disastrous results. Its stances on the already controversial subjects of human nature and individual welfare versus the common good earned it position 68 on the American Library Association’s list of the 100 most frequently challenged books of 1900–1999.\n\nPublished in 1954, Lord of the Flies was Golding’s first novel. Although it was not a great success at the time—selling fewer than 3,000 copies in the United States during 1955 before going out of print—it soon went on to become a best-seller. It has been adapted to film twice in English, in 1963 by Peter Brook and 1990 by Harry Hook, and once in Filipino (1976).\n\nIn 2005 the novel was chosen by TIME magazine as one of the 100 best English-language novels from 1923 to 2005. It was awarded a place on both lists of Modern Library 100 Best Novels, reaching number 41 on the editor's list, and 25 on the reader's list. In 2003, the novel was listed at number 70 on the BBC's survey The Big Read. \n\nBackground \n\nThe book indicates that it takes place in the midst of an unspecified nuclear war. Some of the marooned characters are ordinary students, while others arrive as a musical choir under an established leader. Most (with the exception of the choirboys and Sam and Eric) appear never to have encountered one another before. The book portrays their descent into savagery; left to themselves in a paradisiacal country, far from modern civilisation, the well-educated children regress to a primitive state.\n\nAt an allegorical level, the central theme is the conflicting human impulses toward civilization and social organization—living by rules, peacefully and in harmony—and toward the will to power. Themes include the tension between groupthink and individuality, between rational and emotional reactions, and between morality and immorality. How these play out, and how different people feel the influences of these, form a major subtext of Lord of the Flies. The name \"Lord of the Flies\" is a literal translation of Beelzebub, from .\n\nThe novel is a reaction to the youth novel The Coral Island by R. M. Ballantyne.\n\nPlot \n\nIn the midst of a wartime evacuation, a British plane crashes on or near an isolated island in a remote region of the Pacific Ocean. The only survivors are boys in their middle childhood or preadolescence. Two boys—the fair-haired Ralph and an overweight, bespectacled boy nicknamed \"Piggy\"—find a conch, which Ralph uses as a horn to call all the survivors to one area. Due largely to the fact that Ralph appears responsible for bringing all the survivors together, he is quickly elected their \"chief\", though he does not receive the votes of the members of a boys' choir, led by the red-headed Jack Merridew. Ralph asserts three primary goals: to have fun, survive, and to maintain a smoke signal that could alert passing ships to their presence on the island. The boys declare that whoever holds the conch shall also be able to speak at their formal gatherings and receive the attentive silence of the larger group.\n\nJack organises his choir group into a hunting party responsible for discovering a food source. Ralph, Jack, and a quiet, dreamy boy named Simon soon form a loose triumvirate of leaders. Though he is Ralph's only confidant, Piggy is quickly made into an outcast by his fellow \"biguns\" (older boys) and becomes an unwilling source of laughs for the other children. Simon, in addition to supervising the project of constructing shelters, feels an instinctive need to protect the \"littluns\" (younger boys).\n\nThe semblance of order quickly deteriorates as the majority of the boys turn idle, giving little aid in building shelters, and begin to develop paranoias about the island, referring to a supposed monster, the \"beast\", which they believe to exist on the island. Ralph insists that no such beast exists, but Jack, who has started a power struggle with Ralph, gains control of the discussion by boldly promising to kill the beast. At one point, Jack summons all of his hunters to hunt down a wild pig, drawing away those assigned to maintain the signal fire. A ship travels by the island, but without the boys' smoke signal to alert the ship's crew, the ship continues by without stopping. Angered by the failure of the boys to attract potential rescuers, Ralph considers relinquishing his position, but is convinced not to do so by Piggy.\n\nOne night, an aerial battle occurs over the island while the boys sleep, during which a fighter pilot ejects from his plane and dies during the descent. His body drifts down to the island in his parachute; both get tangled in a tree near the top of the mountain. Later on, while Jack schemes against Ralph, twins Sam and Eric, now assigned to the maintenance of the signal fire, see the corpse of the fighter pilot and his parachute in the dark. Mistaking the corpse for the beast, they run to the cluster of shelters that Ralph and Simon have erected and warn the others. This unexpected meeting again raises tensions between Jack and Ralph. Shortly thereafter, Jack decides to lead a party to the other side of the island, where a mountain of stones, later called Castle Rock, forms a place where he claims the beast resides. Only Ralph and Jack's sadistic supporter Roger agree to go; Ralph turns back shortly before the other two boys. When they arrive at the shelters, Jack calls an assembly and tries to turn the others against Ralph, asking for them to remove him from his position. Receiving little support, Jack, Roger, and another boy leave the shelters to form their own tribe. This tribe lures in recruits from the main group by providing a feast of cooked pig and its members begin to paint their faces and enact bizarre rituals including sacrifices to the beast.\n\nSimon, who faints frequently and is likely an epileptic, has a secret hideaway where he goes to be alone. One day while he is there, Jack and his followers erect a faux sacrifice to the beast nearby: a severed pig's head, mounted on a sharpened stick, and soon swarming with scavenging flies. Simon conducts an imaginary dialog with the head, which he dubs the \"Lord of the Flies\". The head mocks Simon's notion that the beast is a real entity, \"something you could hunt and kill\", and reveals the truth: They, the boys, are the beast; it is inside them all. The Lord of the Flies also warns Simon that he is in danger, because he represents the soul and spirit of man, and predicts that the others will kill him. Sure enough, during a ritual dance, the frenzied boys mistake Simon for the beast, attack him, and beat him to death.\n\nJack and his rebel band decide that the real symbol of power on the island is not the conch, but Piggy's glasses—the only means the boys have of starting a fire. They raid Ralph's camp, confiscate the glasses, and return to their abode on Castle Rock. Ralph, now deserted by most of his supporters, journeys to Castle Rock to confront Jack and secure the glasses. Taking the conch and accompanied only by Piggy, Sam, and Eric, Ralph finds the tribe and demands that they return the valuable object. Turning against Ralph, the tribe captures Sam and Eric while Roger drops a boulder from his vantage point above, killing Piggy and shattering the conch. Ralph manages to escape, but Sam and Eric are tortured until they agree to join Jack's tribe.\n\nThe following morning, Jack orders his tribe to begin a manhunt for Ralph. Jack's savages set fire to the forest while Ralph desperately weighs his options for survival. Following a long chase, most of the island is consumed in flames. With the hunters closely behind him Ralph trips and falls. He looks up at a uniformed adult – a naval officer whose party has landed from a passing warship to investigate the fire. Ralph bursts into tears over the death of Piggy and the \"end of innocence\". Jack and the other children, filthy and unkempt, also revert to their true ages and erupt into sobs. The officer expresses his disappointment at seeing British boys exhibiting such feral, warlike behavior; then turns to stare awkwardly at his own warship.\n\nAdaptations \n\nThere have been these film adaptations:\n\n* Lord of the Flies (1963), directed by Peter Brook\n* Alkitrang dugo (1976), a Filipino film, with female cast members\n* Lord of the Flies (1990), directed by Harry Hook\n\nNigel Williams adapted the text for the stage.\nIt was debuted by the Royal Shakespeare Company in July 1996.\nThe Pilot Theatre Company has toured it extensively in the United Kingdom and abroad.\n\nIn October 2014 it was announced that the 2011 production of Lord of the Flies would return to conclude the 2015 season at the Regent's Park Open Air Theatre ahead of a major UK tour. The production is to be directed by the Artistic Director Timothy Sheader who won the 2014 Whatsonstage.com Awards Best Play Revival for To Kill A Mockingbird.\n\nIn June 2013, BBC Radio 4 Extra broadcast a dramatization by Judith Adams in four 30-minute episodes directed by Sasha Yevtushenko. The cast included Ruth Wilson as \"The Narrator\", Finn Bennett as \"Ralph\", Richard Linnel as \"Jack\", Caspar Hilton-Hilley as \"Piggy\" and Jack Caine as \"Simon\".\n\n# Fire on the Mountain\n# Painted Faces\n# Beast from the Air\n# Gift for Darkness\n\nInfluence \n\nMany writers have borrowed plot elements from Lord of the Flies. By the early 1960s, it was required reading in many schools and colleges.\n\nFilm\n\nStephen King's fictional town of Castle Rock, inspired by the fictional mountain fort of the same name in Lord of the Flies, in turn inspired the name of Rob Reiner's production company, Castle Rock Entertainment, which produced the film Lord of the Flies (1990). \n\nLiterature\n\nStephen King got the name Castle Rock from the fictional mountain fort of the same name in Lord of the Flies and used the name to refer to a fictional town that has appeared in a number of his novels. The book itself appears prominently in his novels Hearts in Atlantis (1999), Misery (1987), and Cujo (1981).\n\nStephen King wrote an introduction for a new edition of Lord of the Flies (2011) to mark the centenary of William Golding's birth in 2011.\n\nThe novel Garden Lakes by Jaime Clarke is an homage to Lord of the Flies.\n\nMusic\n\nThe final song on U2's debut album Boy (1980) takes its title, \"Shadows and Tall Trees\", from Chapter 7 in the book.\n\nIron Maiden wrote a song inspired by the book, included in their 1995 album The X Factor." ] }

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Photograph: John Eggitt/ Bettmann/ Corbis\nShare on Messenger\nClose\nWe hear a lot about the death of the author, but William Golding is an author who was almost still-born. The man who wrote Lord of the Flies found that no one wanted to publish it. In 1953, his manuscript spent seven months being sniffily perused by publishers, who all promptly returned it. The Curtis Brown agency even declined to represent the would-be author, a dispirited schoolmaster who had written the book during classes and given his pupils, in lieu of an education, the humdrum task of totting up the number of words per page. A dead end seemed to have been reached when the Faber reader, picking through pages that were now yellow and grubby from handling, contemptuously rejected the submission as \"absurd & uninteresting … rubbish & dull\".\nThen Charles Monteith, a former lawyer hired as an editor by Faber only a month before, retrieved the book from the bin and persuaded his colleagues to buy it for the piffling sum of £60. As a set text for schools, Lord of the Flies went on to sell millions of copies, introducing adolescents worldwide to the idea of original sin and the knowledge of their own barbarity.\nMy childhood reading life began, so far as I can recall, with RM Ballantyne's naively imperialist story The Coral Island; my innocence came to an end when I opened Lord of the Flies, which warps Ballantyne's tale into an allegory about the wickedness of our species and its rightful ejection from the happy garden. The novel, as the critic Lionel Trilling said, marked a mutation in culture: God may have died, but the Devil was flourishing, especially in English public schools.\nYet the man who wrote Lord of the Flies spent the rest of his life regretting that he had done so. Golding considered the book \"boring and crude\", its language \"O-level stuff\". Its classic status struck him as \"a joke\" and he disparaged his income from it as \"Monopoly money\". And what right had it to overshadow later, better books, like his evolutionary saga, The Inheritors, his medieval fable, The Spire, or his solipsistic tragedy, Pincher Martin?\nTowards the end of his life, he refused to reread the manuscript (much revised, on Monteith's orders, before publication): he feared he'd be so dismayed he might do himself a mischief. Golding whispered the truth about these protests in his journal. He abominated Lord of the Flies, he confided, because \"basically I despise myself and am anxious not to be discovered, uncovered, detected, rumbled\". Discovery, uncovery, detection and rumbling are the appointed tasks of the biographer, about which John Carey, in this authorised life of a man he \"admired and respected\", evidently feels uncomfortable.\nGolding called himself a monster. His imagination lodged a horde of demons, buzzing like flies inside his haunted head, and his dreams rehearsed his guilt in scenarios that read like sketches for incidents in his novels, which they often were. After dark, his mother became a murderous maniac, hurling knives, shards of shattered mirror or metal pots of scalding tea at little William; a girlfriend he had cast off returned as a stiffened corpse, which he watched himself trying to bury in the garden. At his finest, Golding paid traumatised tribute to the pain of other creatures, like the hooked octopus he once saw impaled by the \"vulnerable, vulvar sensitive flesh\" of its pink, screaming mouth, or a rabbit he shot in Cornwall, which stared at him before it fell with \"a combination of astonishment and outrage\".\nBut pity didn't prohibit him from firing the shot. He understood the Nazis, he said, because he was \"of that sort by nature\". His sexual assault on a 15-year-old girl has been titillatingly leaked to publicise Carey's biography. More generally, his son-in-law testifies that Golding specialised in belittling others – if that is, he recognised them at all. As Carey notes, he chronically misspelt names because he couldn't be bothered with people and their pesky claim to exist.\nCarey documents Golding's ogre-like antics, but is reluctant to speculate about their origins. \"I do not know,\" he says, \"why he thought he was a monster\" and he concludes this long, loyal, conscientious book by admitting there may be a primal scene, a hidden obscenity, that still eludes him – \"something I have not discovered\". Should a biographer, I wonder, accept defeat with such good grace? Carey prefers to deal with the masks the monster wore in public. At times, Golding impersonated a twinkling Cornish pixie; behind the helms of his boats, he pretended to be Captain Hornblower or perhaps, when the role came closer to caricature, Cap'n Birdseye.\nHis worst rampages occurred when he was drunk. Once, staying at a friend's house in London, Golding awoke in panic and dismembered a Bob Dylan puppet because he thought it was Satan. Carey nervously makes light of the episode, referring to it as a '\"diabolic encounter\". Religion and rationality, myth and science, fight it out in Golding's books as they did in his brain; it may be that Carey is too sane or puritanical to comprehend the creative madness of his subject.\nHe is tactful about Golding's relations with his children, both of whom suffered psychological upsets, or with his put-upon wife, who seems to have had her revenge by interrogating him at public lectures; at a gig in Lisbon, her voice from the darkened auditorium demanded to be told why there weren't more women in his books. Carey, a battle-scarred class warrior whose books include The Intellectuals and the Masses, sympathises with the young Golding's embarrassments at Oxford, where interviewers wrote him off as \"not quite a gentleman\". He's strangely reticent, however, about the old man's desperation to gain admission to the establishment. Golding pestered well-placed acquaintances to nominate him for a knighthood, which he called \"Kultivating my K\", and when it was finally doled out he changed the name on his passport with indecent alacrity and began to take pleasure in the sycophancy of hotel managers and head waiters.\nThe self-contempt that Golding defined as the clue to his character pays dividends for Carey the textual scholar, who here unearths a series of early drafts for published novels or extracts from projects unjustifiably abandoned – a \"magnificent\" but unfinished work of Homeric science fiction, a memoir that was self-censored because too raw, a film script about a traffic jam that rehearses the Apocalypse, a first version of The Inheritors that \"cries out to be published as a novel in its own right\" and a segment excised from Darkness Visible that is also \"a masterpiece crying out for publication\".\nI suspect the cry Carey hears is that of unborn infants begging him to deliver them into the light and I hope he will do so. As a biographer, he may not have uncovered Golding's darkest, deepest secrets, but at least his detective work has grubbed up these intriguing, revealing relics. The man who wrote Lord of the Flies indeed wrote better things, some of which the rest of us should be given the chance to read.", "Essay about Why I Think William Golding Wrote Lord of the Flies - 295 Words\nLord of the Flies by William Golding, Essay\n...In the novel “Lord of the Flies” by William Golding, after Ralph and the boys have been on the island for some time, . This chapter first opens with a very dark mood, where vivid descriptions of Jack hunting in the jungle are depicted. This amount of tension created is then further intensified through a strong disagreement between the two leaders of the pack, as Jack only cares about hunting while Ralph thinks building...\n1143  Words | 3  Pages\nLord of the Flies by William Golding Essay\n...William Golding explores the vulnerability of society in a way that can be read on many different levels. A less detailed look at the book, Lord of the Flies, is a simple fable about boys stranded on an island. Another way to comprehend the book is as a statement about mans inner savage and reverting to a primitive state without societies boundaries. By examining the Lord of the Flies further, it is revealed...\n968  Words | 3  Pages\nWilliam Golding\n...the concerns of the author and the time it was written? William Golding was an English author, actor and school teacher. He was born in 1911 and lived until he was 82 years old. During his life, Golding experienced 2 world wars. These world wars shaped the way he viewed the world, especially WWII as he was part of the destruction of German ships on D-Day. These experiences were a big reason why Golding chose to become an...\n989  Words | 3  Pages\n\"The Lord of the Flies\" by William Golding Essay\n...The famous quote by Lord Action, \"Power corrupts, absolute power corrupts absolutely\" is proven to be true by the actions of the character Jack, in the novel \"Lord of the Flies\" by William Golding. At the beginning of the novel Jack is an innocent, young boy who progressively becomes power dependant and thrives off of this power. By the end of the novel Jack has become absolutely corrupt with this power and commits terrible...\n705  Words | 3  Pages\nLord of the Flies Notes by William Golding Essay\n...Lord of the Flies Worksheet 1: Introduction A. The Setting A deserted island which is describe as a tropical paradise, and with a scar, a lagoon and a beach. It was shown by the appearance that the island was presented as beautiful as the garden of Eden. On the other hand, evilness and danger were hindered and were shown through different sentence throughout the chapters. B. The Plot • Exposition (Conflicts, confrontation, chaos) In the middle of a war, a...\n1019  Words | 4  Pages\nSymbolism in Lord of the Flies by William Golding Essay\n...Gonzalo Barril Merino 3EMC Lord of the Flies Essay Describe the use of symbolism in Lord of the Flies By understanding symbols, you get a better picture of the novel “Lord of the Flies” and the hidden messages and references to human nature and a criticism of society. The author, William Golding, uses a huge amount of symbolism to reflect society of the outer world with...\n1153  Words | 3  Pages\nEssay about William Golding Lord of the Flies\n...Instrumental William Golding: Lord of the Flies Docente: García Sánchez, María Elena Estudiante: Schmidt, Swenja-Janine Fecha de entrega: 20.12.2012 Outline 1. Introduction3 2. William Golding: Lord of the Flies3 2.1 Summary3 2.2 Characters4 2.2.1 Main Characters4 2.2.2 Minor Characters5 2.3 Themes and Symbols5 3. Conclusion: Personal Opinion6 4. New...\n5383  Words | 17  Pages\nLord of the Flies by William Golding Essay\n... SHORT STORY                                      Final Draft               She was walking home after a big trigonometry test, which in her head had not gone well at all, even though she had spent hours and hours, preparing for it. When I think about it, her thoughts cannot be entirely trusted, as she was highly competitive and ambitious, and even though she was only 16, she knew exactly what she wanted to do with her life. Who was she though? Her name was...\n2232  Words | 6  Pages", "SparkNotes: Lord of the Flies: Key Facts\nLord of the Flies\nfull title  ·  Lord of the Flies\nauthor  · William Golding\ngenre  · Allegory; adventure story; castaway fiction; loss-of-innocence fiction\nlanguage  · English\ntime and place written  · Early 1950s; Salisbury, England\ndate of first publication  · 1954\npublisher  · Faber and Faber\nnarrator  · The story is told by an anonymous third-person narrator who conveys the events of the novel without commenting on the action or intruding into the story.\npoint of view  · The narrator speaks in the third person, primarily focusing on Ralph’s point of view but following Jack and Simon in certain episodes. The narrator is omniscient and gives us access to the characters’ inner thoughts.\ntone  · Dark; violent; pessimistic; tragic; unsparing\ntense  · Immediate past\nsetting (place)  · A deserted tropical island\nprotagonist  · Ralph\nmajor conflict · Free from the rules that adult society formerly imposed on them, the boys marooned on the island struggle with the conflicting human instincts that exist within each of them—the instinct to work toward civilization and order and the instinct to descend into savagery, violence, and chaos.\nrising action · The boys assemble on the beach. In the election for leader, Ralph defeats Jack, who is furious when he loses. As the boys explore the island, tension grows between Jack, who is interested only in hunting, and Ralph, who believes most of the boys’ efforts should go toward building shelters and maintaining a signal fire. When rumors surface that there is some sort of beast living on the island, the boys grow fearful, and the group begins to divide into two camps supporting Ralph and Jack, respectively. Ultimately, Jack forms a new tribe altogether, fully immersing himself in the savagery of the hunt.\nclimax  · Simon encounters the Lord of the Flies in the forest glade and realizes that the beast is not a physical entity but rather something that exists within each boy on the island. When Simon tries to approach the other boys and convey this message to them, they fall on him and kill him savagely.\nfalling action · Virtually all the boys on the island abandon Ralph and Piggy and descend further into savagery and chaos. When the other boys kill Piggy and destroy the conch shell, Ralph flees from Jack’s tribe and encounters the naval officer on the beach.\nthemes  · Civilization vs. savagery; the loss of innocence; innate human evil\nmotifs  · Biblical parallels; natural beauty; the bullying of the weak by the strong; the outward trappings of savagery (face paint, spears, totems, chants)\nsymbols  · The conch shell; Piggy’s glasses; the signal fire; the beast; the Lord of the Flies; Ralph, Piggy, Jack, Simon, and Roger\nforeshadowing  · The rolling of the boulders off the Castle Rock in Chapter 6 foreshadows Piggy’s death; the Lord of the Flies’s promise to have some “fun” with Simon foreshadows Simon’s death\nMore Help", "Review of John Carey, William Golding: The man who wrote Lord of the Flies - William Golding\nReview of John Carey, William Golding: The man who wrote Lord of the Flies\nWords by Nicola Presley\nFacebook Twitter Google +\nReview of John Carey, William Golding: The Man Who Wrote Lord of the Flies (Faber and Faber, paperback, 2010).\nWhen reading John Carey’s absorbing biography of William Golding, one is struck by the sheer amount of material that survives in the Golding archive.  As a researcher, it is easy to imagine Carey’s delight to have access to such an eclectic, important, and to date, uncatalogued collection.  Writing a literary biography can often be a fraught and complicated process; the biographer may face opposition from the subject’s estate, fail to gain permission to quote extensively from the original works, or even face opposition from the subject themselves.\nOne of the most famous examples of this is Ian Hamilton’s lengthy pursuit of the reclusive J.D. Salinger, which led to Salinger unsuccessfully attempting to block publication of the book.  My own research examines the work of the poet Sylvia Plath, about whom countless biographies and memoirs have appeared, the majority of which (some, quite rightly so) have not been allowed to quote fully from Plath’s work and several of which have faced legal challenges from the Plath estate.  Even the biography that is considered ‘approved’ by the Plath estate (although unofficially) is mired in controversy.  William Golding himself explored literary biography in his novel The Paper Men, which features a young professor Rick Tucker desperate to write the biography of writer Wilfred Barclay.  Tucker is determined to get his hands on Barclay’s private papers, and Barclay appears to be just as determined in eluding him, leading to a pursuit around Europe and a fatal ending.\nFortunately, Carey had no such concerns while undertaking his research, and the finished product is exemplary in its use of archival material and reminiscences. He had access to Golding’s journals, letters, unpublished manuscripts and support from Golding’s friends and family. The material is brilliantly handled and assimilated by Carey, and crucially, he allows Golding’s words to speak for themselves, refusing even to correct Golding’s poor spelling. This is in direct response to Golding’s journal entry in 1982: ‘it’s a moody-making thought…that some bugger will either silently correct my spelling, or even worse, interrupt the text with brackets and sic in italics. But my bad grammar and bad spelling was me’ (x).\nEvery aspect of Golding’s life is explored chronologically, from his early childhood split between Cornwall and Wiltshire, through to his career as a schoolmaster, marriage and family and finally, life as a writer. Carey does not shy away from revealing details about Golding that portray him as a negative character; for example we learn that he made an attempt to rape a girlfriend in his teens, that his relationship with his son was often difficult, and that his dependence on alcohol caused numerous problems with his family and friends. We also gain a portrait of an immensely clever man, whose desire to write could not be silenced, and a writer who challenged literary conventions, often in defiance of previous criticism of his work. Golding was awarded the James Tait Black Prize, the Booker Prize, the Nobel Prize and a knighthood; and he was the recipient of these accolades despite being described by Oxford dons as ‘not quite a gent’ (57). Indeed, the biography is also a fascinating read as an example of the class boundaries in England in the twentieth century.\nThe chapters that discuss the writing and development of his many books are of immense interest. Of course, Golding remains most famous for his first novel Lord of the Flies, but this is to the detriment of his many other works which are always strikingly original and, in many cases, defy categorisation because of their depth and brilliance. Nonetheless, the story of how one of the most-read novels of the twentieth century was rejected by so many publishers and was only rescued at Faber & Faber by a young editor, Charles Monteith, is as unbelievable as it is fascinating. Lord of the Flies was well received in England after its publication in 1954 but went out of print in the United States. However, by the early 1960s the book had become a phenomenal success and required reading in many schools and colleges, as it still is today.  Carey guides us through the euphoria of the acceptance of Lord of the Flies but also shows us the burden that the success of the book had imposed on Golding. As Carey writes, ‘Golding [had] complicated and resentful feelings about his first book’s enormous success, which had dwarfed everything he wrote afterwards’ (363).\nThe chapter that I found most useful as a companion to one of Golding’s novels was the one on Pincher Martin, written around 1956. The book is truly a work of genius, and in fact the reader does not recognise just how tremendous the book is until they reach the final page. Even then, the reader needs to turn back to the beginning and start all over again to fully appreciate, as Frank Kermode put it, the novel’s ‘dense interweavings of image and reference’ (201).  Reading about the development of Golding’s plot and his understanding of the main character is crucial for any reader of Pincher Martin.\nJohn Carey’s William Golding: The Man Who Wrote Lord of the Flies is a remarkable achievement. It should be essential reading for anyone interested in Golding’s work and in twentieth century literature. For those readers who have read only Lord of the Flies this book is a great introduction to the others, but, of course, no substitute for the novels themselves. One hopes that the publication of this biography will stimulate more interest in the work of this hugely original and successful writer.\nRelated topics", "William Golding: The Man Who Wrote Lord of the Flies | Book review | Books | The Guardian\nShare on Messenger\nClose\nTo those who've read the other novels (including the marvellous The Inheritors), the subtitle will seem superfluous. And William Golding himself might have been irritated by it, since he came to dislike Lord of the Flies: \"boring and crude. The language is O-level stuff\" was his verdict when he reread it 20 years after publication. Still, some sort of nudge seems to be necessary. Despite huge public acclaim during his lifetime – the Nobel, the Booker, a knighthood and millions of copies sold – Golding is remembered chiefly for one book, and even that one sometimes gets muddled (Princess Margaret's husband Anthony Armstrong-Jones once told Golding how much he admired Lord of the Rings).\nMany studies exist interpreting his work, but no Life has appeared in the 16 years since his death and any biographer looked certain to face a struggle. A private, monogamous, bearded ex-teacher who lived quietly in south-west England and set most of his novels in the past: how much was there to say? As it turns out, a considerable amount: John Carey's book isn't sensationalist but it discloses sufficient deviance to explain Golding's description of himself in a private journal as \"a monster in deed, word and thought\". Sexual violence, alcoholic excess, shame, depression and vanity are all part of the story. Even the beard turns out to be interesting.\nOne revelation has already made the news pages – Golding's attempted rape, while an undergraduate at Oxford, of a 15-year-old girlfriend, Dora, and a bizarre episode, a year later, when she enticed him to have sex with her in a field above a school playing field, so that his father could spot them in flagrante through a pair of binoculars. By this point Dora was also involved with a games master who liked to whip her, and Golding found the sight of her whipped bottom \"loathsomely exciting\". In an unpublished book called Men, Women & Now, he recalls Dora's \"depraved\" nature with misogynistic venom – not just to appease his guilt over the attempted rape but because she taught him about his capacity for sadism.\nThere's nothing to suggest he was a sadistic child, but he was certainly a sensitive one, fearful of his mother's temper (she occasionally threw things) and prone to nightmares. His parents were socialist, pacifist, atheist, teetotal and musical. Golding later regretted their lack of warmth, but he inherited their hatred of the class system. He knew it from Marlborough, a town divided between the posh school and the local one, and re-experienced it at Brasenose College, Oxford, where he was the only grammar-school boy among 71 entrants. He graduated with an indifferent degree, ran up debts which he didn't repay for more than 20 years, and when interviewed by the university's appointments committee, for careers advice, was marked down as \"Not Quite\" (\"not quite a gentleman\") and NTS (\"Not Top Shelf\").\nTeaching was the obvious career, but for several years Golding drifted, writing poetry, playing the piano and acting. He also met his wife Ann: bright, beautiful, sporty and fiercely Marxist, though marrying her meant ditching his fiancée – more cause for self-recrimination. Then came the war. \"I have always understood the Nazis because I am of that sort by nature,\" Golding said, and it could be argued that going to war against them was the making of him, or at any rate the making of Lord of the Flies. His experiences in the navy were a mixture of courage, intelligence and frightening incompetence, and Carey describes them in fascinating detail. The low point was an accident with a detonator that put him in hospital for three months, the high point successfully commanding a craft during the D-Day landings – though what he saw that day (\"ships mined, ships blowing up into a Christmas tree of exploding ammunition, ships burning, sinking\") scarred him for life.\nBack home he finally settled into a teaching job in Salisbury. To those who knew him he seemed a changed man, brooding and withdrawn. He had grown a beard while a naval officer, and having shaved it off when demobbed now grew it again, as though more comfortable showing less of his face to the world. It marked him out as a disgruntled outsider (a forerunner of beatniks) and ascetic seafarer (\"a cross between Captain Hornblower and Saint Augustine\", as Michael Ayrton put it). His pupils nicknamed him Scruff and found him less than diligent: he'd set them work to get on with while he furtively scribbled in a notebook. It was known that he had literary aspirations, but few on the staff thought they'd come to anything. His first three books were all turned down.\nTo begin with he had no better luck with Lord of the Flies. Dog-eared after its rejections by other publishers, the typescript (provisional title: Strangers from Within) eventually reached Faber, whose reader, Polly Perkins, dismissed it as an \"absurd & uninteresting fantasy\" and consigned it to the slush pile. It was rescued by a new recruit at Faber, Charles Monteith, who could see it had potential, provided Golding would agree to major cuts and rewrites. Thus began a 40-year relationship as crucial as Scott Fitzgerald's with Max Perkins or Raymond Carver's with Gordon Lish. \"I am quite convinced I never wrote it. It's much bigger than I am,\" a grateful Golding said when the novel came out, and Monteith played midwife to every book that followed, easing his author's prenatal fears and birth-pains. But for him Golding would probably have died an unknown schoolteacher.\nAs it was, he didn't give up the day job until the early 1960s, when success in America gave him the wherewithal. In the meantime, as well as writing fiction, he had a play on in the West End, wrote book reviews and travel articles and appeared on the BBC's discussion programme The Brains Trust. Adulation did little to turn his head (only once did Ann suspect him of straying, with the scholar Virginia Tiger, and her suspicions seem to have been groundless), but nor did it boost his confidence: he continued to fret that he'd be outed as a fraud. In private he could be wry and funny, but most of his public utterances make Samuel Beckett sound like a cock-eyed optimist. Being human was \"one long nightmare\", he said, and nuclear war would only be avoided because man – \"this monstrous creature, this biological irrelevance\" – was too scared to destroy himself.\nHeavy boozing didn't help Golding's frame of mind: when drunk, he insulted people and abused Ann, and there were many morning-after bouts of self-loathing. He also worried a lot about money, especially after making heaps of it. A pompous letter written to the Society of Authors is unendearing enough (\"It has been borne in on me more and more, recently, that I have a considerable reputation in the literary world; and yet the fees I obtain from the BBC are much as they were\"), but he caps it when comparing the \"grief\" of writing a cheque to the Inland Revenue for £52,000 to the loss of his closest friends. He paid his gardeners badly – and once refrained from wind-surfing on holiday in Goa because he thought £3.50 an hour too expensive. As Carey says, over-generosity wasn't among his faults.\nYet he had good friendships, enjoyed a happy marriage, and was a devoted father, despite berating himself for mistreating his son David in infancy. There were many family trips and adventures, including a near-catastrophe in the English Channel when his boat was struck and sunk by a Japanese freighter. He never sailed again but didn't lack for other interests, archaeology, horse-riding, chess, ponds and orchid-growing among them. Unimpressed by distinctions between \"high\" and \"low\", he was as happy watching snooker on TV as composing Latin elegiac couplets. His intellectual curiosity was matched by his physical energy. The day before he died at 81 he was up a ladder unblocking a drainpipe.\nAs a long-time admirer of Golding, Carey can't have believed his luck when given access to a family archive containing several unpublished novels, two autobiographies, and a 5,000-page private journal. His plot synopses are fuller than some readers might care for, but he always makes connections with the life. Even the extensive summarising of reviews seems justified, since Golding was, by his own admission, \"revoltingly\" dependent on what people thought of his work. No biography would or could ever reach the root of his character, he thought, but this one goes a long way, with due measure of praise and blame, and an unwavering interest in every book he wrote, not just the most famous one.\nBlake Morrison's South of the River is published by Vintage.", "Why did William Golding write his novel, Lord of the Flies? | eNotes\nWhy did William Golding write his novel, Lord of the Flies?\nmwestwood | College Teacher | (Level 3) Distinguished Educator\nPosted on\nMarch 11, 2012 at 12:59 PM\nAfter his experience of the horrors of war, an experienced writer named William Golding described as \"one had one's nose rubbed in the human condition\" returned to teaching and philosophy.  However, Golding rejected the rationalism of his father and began his doubts regarding human nature. \nAfter reading at night to his small children R.M. Ballatyne's adventure story, The Coral Island  in which well-groomed civilized British boys defeat the savage natives on an island where they are stranded, Golding wondered out loud to his wife whether it would be a good idea to write another story as an allegory that is similar, but the characters \"behave as they really would.\" His wife agreed, encouraging him to write what became his greatest work.  An allegory of man, Golding's  Lord of the Flies presents the evil that man is capable of by nature.\nSources:\nmizzwillie | Middle School Teacher | (Level 1) Senior Educator\nPosted on\nMarch 11, 2012 at 7:18 AM\nWilliam Golding, the author of the novel Lord of the Flies, was in combat in World War II which had a huge influence on his views about life.  He was present at the sinking of the prize German warship the Bismarck, participated in D-Day, and was horrified at the destruction of Britain by the German air force bombs.  In the 1950's, a nuclear war seemed like a real possibility with all of the tension among major countries.  It was in this atmosphere and this fear of another war that Golding wrote his book.  If you think of his background and tie that into the book, it isn't surprising that his novel is dark, that the boys turn to evil, and the ending is uncertain. Golding wants the reading public to question war, to see the horror it brings and to see what it does to the people involved.\nSources:\nStart your free trial for complete access to this answer and thousands more.\nHomework Help\n300,000+ answers or ask real teachers questions on any subject.\n30,000+ Study Guides\nSave time with thousands of teacher-approved book and topic summaries.\nOn the Go Access", "Lord of the Flies: Lord of the Flies Book Summary & Study Guide | CliffsNotes\n   Bookmark this page    Manage My Reading List\nLord of the Flies explores the dark side of humanity, the savagery that underlies even the most civilized human beings. William Golding intended this novel as a tragic parody of children's adventure tales, illustrating humankind's intrinsic evil nature. He presents the reader with a chronology of events leading a group of young boys from hope to disaster as they attempt to survive their uncivilized, unsupervised, isolated environment until rescued.\nIn the midst of a nuclear war, a group of British boys find themselves stranded without adult supervision on a tropical island. The group is roughly divided into the \"littluns,\" boys around the age of six, and the \"biguns,\" who are between the ages of ten and twelve. Initially, the boys attempt to form a culture similar to the one they left behind. They elect a leader, Ralph , who, with the advice and support of Piggy (the intellectual of the group), strives to establish rules for housing and sanitation. Ralph also makes a signal fire the group's first priority, hoping that a passing ship will see the smoke signal and rescue them. A major challenge to Ralph's leadership is Jack , who also wants to lead. Jack commands a group of choirboys-turned-hunters who sacrifice the duty of tending the fire so that they can participate in the hunts. Jack draws the other boys slowly away from Ralph's influence because of their natural attraction to and inclination toward the adventurous hunting activities symbolizing violence and evil.\nThe conflict between Jack and Ralph — and the forces of savagery and civilization that they represent — is exacerbated by the boys' literal fear of a mythical beast roaming the island. One night, an aerial battle occurs above the island, and a casualty of the battle floats down with his opened parachute, ultimately coming to rest on the mountaintop. Breezes occasionally inflate the parachute, making the body appear to sit up and then sink forward again. This sight panics the boys as they mistake the dead body for the beast they fear. In a reaction to this panic, Jack forms a splinter group that is eventually joined by all but a few of the boys. The boys who join Jack are enticed by the protection Jack's ferocity seems to provide, as well as by the prospect of playing the role of savages: putting on camouflaging face paint, hunting, and performing ritualistic tribal dances. Eventually, Jack's group actually slaughters a sow and, as an offering to the beast, puts the sow's head on a stick.\nOf all the boys, only the mystic Simon has the courage to discover the true identity of the beast sighted on the mountain. After witnessing the death of the sow and the gift made of her head to the beast, Simon begins to hallucinate, and the staked sow's head becomes the Lord of the Flies, imparting to Simon what he has already suspected: The beast is not an animal on the loose but is hidden in each boy's psyche. Weakened by his horrific vision, Simon loses consciousness.\nRecovering later that evening, he struggles to the mountaintop and finds that the beast is only a dead pilot/soldier. Attempting to bring the news to the other boys, he stumbles into the tribal frenzy of their dance. Perceiving him as the beast, the boys beat him to death.\nSoon only three of the older boys, including Piggy, are still in Ralph's camp. Jack's group steals Piggy's glasses to start its cooking fires, leaving Ralph unable to maintain his signal fire. When Ralph and his small group approach Jack's tribe to request the return of the glasses, one of Jack's hunters releases a huge boulder on Piggy, killing him. The tribe captures the other two biguns prisoners, leaving Ralph on his own.\nThe tribe undertakes a manhunt to track down and kill Ralph, and they start a fire to smoke him out of one of his hiding places, creating an island-wide forest fire. A passing ship sees the smoke from the fire, and a British naval officer arrives on the beach just in time to save Ralph from certain death at the hands of the schoolboys turned savages." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Prince_Henry_of_Prussia_(1862–1929).txt" ], "title": [ "Prince Henry of Prussia (1862–1929)" ], "wiki_context": [ "Prinz Albert Wilhelm Heinrich von Preußen or Prince Henry of Prussia, Generalinspekteur der Marine (born Albert Wilhelm Heinrich, 14 August 1862 – 20 April 1929) was a younger brother of German Emperor William II and a Prince of Prussia. He was also a grandson of Queen Victoria. A career naval officer, he held various commands in the Imperial German Navy and eventually rose to the rank of Grand Admiral.\n\nBiography\n\nBorn in Berlin, Prince Henry of Prussia was the third of eight children born to Crown Prince Frederick (later Emperor Frederick III), and Victoria, Princess Royal of the United Kingdom (later Empress Victoria and in widowhood Empress Frederick), eldest daughter of the British Queen Victoria. Henry was three years younger than his brother, the future Emperor William II (born 27 January 1859).\n\nAfter attending the gymnasium in Kassel, which he left in the middle grades in 1877, the 15-year-old Henry entered the Imperial Navy cadet program. His naval education included a two-year voyage around the world (1878 to 1880), the naval officer examination (Seeoffizierhauptprüfung) in October 1880, and attending the German naval academy (1884 to 1886).\n\nEarly commands\n\nAs an Imperial Prince, Henry quickly achieved command. In 1887, he commanded a torpedo boat and simultaneously the First Torpedo Boat Division; in 1888 the Imperial yacht SMY Hohenzollern; from 1889 to 1890 the second-class cruiser SMS Irene, the armored coastal defense ship SMS Beowulf, and the capital ships SMS Sachsen and SMS Wörth.\n\nSquadron commands\n\nFrom 1897, Prince Henry commanded several naval task forces; these included an improvised squadron that took part with the East Asia Squadron in consolidating and securing the German hold on the region of Kiaochow and the port of Tsingtao in 1898. The prince’s success was more of the diplomatic than the military variety; he became the first European potentate ever to be received at the Chinese imperial court. In 1899 he became officially the commander of the East Asia Squadron, later of a capital-ship squadron and in 1903 commander of the Baltic Sea naval station. From 1906 to 1909, Henry was commander of the High Seas Fleet. In 1909, he was promoted to Grand Admiral.\n\nWorld War I\n\nAt the beginning of World War I, Prince Henry was named Commander-in-Chief of the Baltic Fleet. Although the means provided him were far inferior to Russia’s Baltic Fleet, he succeeded, until the 1917 Revolution, in putting Russia’s naval forces far on the defensive, and hindered them from making attacks on the German coast. After the end of hostilities with Russia, his mission was ended, and Prince Henry simply left active duty. With the war’s end and the dissolution of the monarchy in Germany, Prince Henry left the Navy.\n\nFamily\n\nOn 24 May 1888, Henry married Princess Irene of Hesse and by Rhine, his first cousin. The marriage produced three children:\n\nTheir sons Waldemar and Heinrich were both hemophiliacs, a disease which they inherited through Irene from the maternal grandmother of both of their parents, Queen Victoria, who was a carrier.\n\nPersonality and private life\n\nHenry had little in common with his brother, the German Emperor. He lacked, for example, William II's erratic nature and egotism. The prince was truly popular in Northern Germany, and on account of his humble and open manner was beloved by those under his command. On foreign travels, he was a good diplomat, who, unlike his brother, was able to strike the right tone. Thus, on his 1902 trip to the United States, Henry made a favorable impression with the critical American press and succeeded in winning the sympathy of more than just the numerous German-American segment of the population.\n\nAs a naval officer, Henry had a profession that completely satisfied him and that he loved. He was thoroughly a pragmatist. He received one of the first pilot’s licenses in Germany, and was judged a spirited and excellent seaman. He was dedicated to modern technology and was able to understand quickly the practical value of technical innovations. A yachting enthusiast, Prince Henry became one of the first members of the Yacht Club of Kiel, established by a group of naval officers in 1887, and quickly became the club's patron.\n\nHenry was interested in motor cars as well and supposedly invented a windshield wiper and, according to other sources, the car horn. In his honor, the Prinz-Heinrich-Fahrt (Prince Heinrich Tour) was established in 1908, like the earlier Kaiserpreis a precursor to the German Grand Prix. Henry and his brother William gave patronage to the Kaiserlicher Automobilclub (Imperial Automobile Club).\n\nHenry also was an early proponent of introducing submarines and airplanes. He had a steamship converted into a primitive aircraft carrier for operations in the Baltic Sea.\n\nHenry respected his brother, but this attitude was not returned in the same measure. William kept his younger brother far from politics, although Henry served as his representative as long as the Crown Prince was still in his minority. Henry complied with this, for he did not interest himself in either politics or grand strategy. He did not recognize what political effect the German naval build-up would entail, and also would not have been in the position to move his brother toward a different policy.\n\nAfter the German Revolution, Henry lived with his family in Hemmelmark near Eckernförde, in Schleswig-Holstein. He continued with motor sports and sailing and even in old age was a very successful participant in regattas. He popularized the Prinz-Heinrich-Mütze (\"Prince Henry cap\"), which is still worn, especially by older sailors.\n\nIn 1899, Henry received an honorary doctorate (Doctor of Engineering honoris causa) from the Technical University of Berlin. Also in foreign countries he received numerous similar honors, including an honorary doctorate (LL.D.) from Harvard University in March 1902, during his visit to the United States.\n\nPrince Henry died of throat cancer, as his father had, in Hemmelmark on 20 April 1929. \n\nGeorge Burroughs Torrey painted a portrait of him.\n\nNaval career and advancement\n\n* Unterleutnant zur See, 14 August 1872; Basic Training and Naval Academy 1877-1878\n* Leutnant zur See, 18 October 1881; Training Cruises and Naval Academy 1878-1882\n* Kapitänleutnant, 18 October 1884; Executive Officer, Armored Cruiser SMS Oldenburg, 1886\n* Korvettenkapitän, 18 October 1887; Commander, 1st Torpedo Boat Division, 1887; Commander, Imperial Yacht SMY Hohenzollern, 1888\n* Kapitän zur See, 27 Januar 1889; ; Commander, Cruiser SMS Irene, 1889–1890; Commander, Armored Coastal Defense Ship SMS Beowulf, 1892; Commander, Armored Cruiser SMS Sachsen, 1892–1894; Commander, Armored Ship of the Line SMS Wörth, 1894–1895\n* Konteradmiral, 15 September 1895; Commander, 2nd Division, 1st Battle Squadron, 1896–1897; Commander, 2nd Division, Cruiser Squadron, 1897–1899\n* Vizeadmiral, 5 December 1899; Commander, Cruiser Squadron, 1899–1900; Commander, 1st Battle Squadron, 1900–1903\n* Admiral, 13 September 1901; Commanding Admiral, Baltic Sea Naval Command, 1903–1906, Commander, High Seas Fleet, 1906–1909\n* Großadmiral, 4 September 1909; Inspector General of the Imperial Navy, 1909–1918; Commander-in-Chief, Baltic Fleet, 1914–1918\n\nRegimental commissions and honorary ranks\n\nGerman\n\n* 1. Garde-Regiment zu Fuß (Royal Prussian 1st Regiment of Foot Guards) – Leutnant (Second Lieutenant) through Generaloberst im Range eines Generalfeldmarschalls (Colonel-General in the Rank of Field Marshal), 1871 - 1918 \n* Kgl. Sächs. 2. Grenadier-Regiment Kaiser Wilhelm, König von Preußen Nr. 101 (Royal Saxon 2nd Grenadier Regiment)\n* Kgl. Bayerisches Artillerie-Regiment Nr. 8 (Royal Bavarian 8th Artillery Regiment) – Generaloberst im Range eines Generalfeldmarschalls and Chef (Colonel in Chief) \n* 1. Großherzogl. Hessisches Feldartilleree-Regiment 25 (Grand Duchy of Hesse 2nd Artillery Regiment)\n* Fußilier-Regiment “Prinz Heinrich von Preußen” (Brandenburgisches) Nr 35 (The Brandenburg Fusilier Regiment) - Generaloberst im Range eines Generalfeldmarschalls and Chef (Colonel in Chief) \n\nForeign\n\n* Austria-Hungary K.u.K. Infantry Regiment Nr. 20 – Oberstinhaber (Colonel in Chief)\n* Austria-Hungary K.u.K. Kriegsmarine (Navy) – Vizeadmiral (vice admiral)\n** Austria-Hungary K.u.K. Kriegsmarine - Konteradmiral (rear-admiral) 1899 \n* British Royal Navy – Admiral (Honorary) 13 September 1901\n** British Royal Navy - Vice-Admiral (Honorary) 5 February 1901. \n* Russian Imperial Dragoon Regiment Nr. 33 – Colonel\nKorean Empire: Order of the Gold cheok(대훈위금척대수장， 大勳位金尺大綬章,1904)\n\nTitles, styles, and honours \n\nTitles\n\n*14 Aug 1862 – 20 April 1929 – His Royal Highness Prince Henry of Prussia\n\nPrussian\n\n* Order of the Black Eagle, Knight, 1872\n* Order of the Red Eagle, Knight Grand Cross, 1872 (by statute of the Order of the Black Eagle, for princes of Prussia)\n* Prussian Crown Order, Knight First Class, 1872 (by statute of the Order of the Black Eagle, for princes of Prussia)\n* Royal House Order of Hohenzollern, Grand Commander with collar chain\n* Princely House Order of Hohenzollern, Knight First Class\n* Johanniterorden (Order of St. John, Bailiwick of Brandenburg)\n\nNon-Prussian German\n\n* Order of Albert the Bear (Anhalt), Knight Grand Cross\n* House Order of Fidelity (Baden), Knight Grand Cross\n* Order of Berthold I (Baden), Knight Grand Cross\n* Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Zähringer Lion (Baden)\n* Order of St. Hubert (Bavaria), Knight\n* Order of Henry the Lion (Brunswick), Knight First Class\n* House Order of the Golden Lion (Hesse-Kassel), Knight\n* Ludwig Order (Hesse-Darmstadt), Knight Grand Cross\n* Order of the Wendish Crown (Mecklenburg), Knight Grand Cross, with Crown and Diamonds\n* House Merit Order of Peter Friedrich Ludwig (Oldenburg), Knight Grand Cross with Golden Crown\n* Order of the Rue Crown (Saxony), Knight\n* Order of the White Falcon (Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach), Knight Grand Cross\n* Saxe-Ernestine House Order (Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg & Gotha, and Saxe-Meiningen), Knight Grand Cross\n* Order of the Württemberg Crown (Württemberg), Knight Grand Cross\n\nForeign\n\n* Royal Hungarian Order of St. Stephen (Austria-Hungary), Knight Grand Cross\n* Order of Leopold (Belgium), Grand Cordon\n* Order of Christ's Cross (Brazil), Knight Grand Cross\n* Order of the Double Dragon (China), 1st Grade II Class\n* Order of the Elephant (Denmark), Knight\n* Order of the Redeemer (Greece), Knight Grand Cross\n* Royal Order of Kalākaua I (Kingdom of Hawaii), Knight Grand Cross, 1881\n* Order of the Annunciation (Italy), Knight\n* Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus (Italy), Knight Grand Cross\n* Order of St. Joseph (Italian Grand Duchy of Tuscany), Knight Grand Cross\n* Order of the Chrysanthemum (Japan), Grand Cordon\n* Order of the Gold cheok(Korean Empire),\nGrand Cordon\n* Order of the Netherlands Lion (Netherlands), Knight Grand Cross\n* Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav (Norway), Knight Grand Cross\n* Military Order of Christ (Portugal), Grand Cross\n* Order of the Tower and Sword (Portugal), Grand Cross\n* Order of the Star of Romania (Romania), Knight Grand Cross\n* Order of St. Andrew the First Called (Russia), Knight\n* Order of the White Eagle (Serbia), Knight Grand Cross\n* Order of the Golden Fleece (Spain), Knight\n* Order of Naval Merit (Spain), Knight Fourth Class (Grand Cross)\n* Order of Seraphim (Sweden), Knight\n* Order of Osmanie (Ottoman Turkey), Knight Grand Cross\n* Order of the Garter (United Kingdom), Knight (expelled in 1915)\n* Order of the Bath (United Kingdom), Knight Grand Cross (civil)\n* Royal Victorian Chain (UK) - 1902\n* Supreme Order of Christ (Vatican), Knight\n* Order of the Liberator Simon Bolivar (Venezuela), Collar\n\nHonorary degrees and offices\n\n* Freedom of the City of New York, 25 February 1902, during his visit to the city. \n*Freedom of the City of Philadelphia, 10 March 1902, during his visit to the city. \n* Honorary doctorate (LL.D.) from Harvard University, 6 March 1902.\n\nAncestry" ] }

{ "description": [ "The National Motor Museum Trust. Home; ... He patented his design in 1911. Various motoring magazine pictures show Prince Henry of Prussia in a car with simple up and ..." ], "filename": [ "18/18_430.txt" ], "rank": [ 2 ], "title": [ "Motoring Firsts - The National Motor Museum Trust" ], "url": [ "http://www.nationalmotormuseum.org.uk/motoring_firsts" ], "search_context": [ "Motoring Firsts - The National Motor Museum Trust\nThe National Motor Museum Trust\nHome > Story of Motoring > Motoring Firsts\nMotoring Firsts\nAmong the questions we are most frequently asked are the various motoring firsts. Listed below are some of the most common questions that have been answered by our Motoring Research Service.\nQuestions\nWhat were the first motor cars?\nThe motor car was developed over many years by a number of talented individuals but Karl Benz of Mannheim in Germany is normally credited as the Inventor of the Motor Car. In the autumn of 1885, his three-wheeled vehicle became the first successful petrol-engined car. He was awarded a patent for it on 29 January 1886, and became the first motor manufacturer in 1888 with his Modell 3 Benz. In 1886, Gottlieb Daimler and his protégé Wilhelm Maybach built the first successful four-wheeled petrol-driven car at Bad Cannstatt. The Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft was established four years later in 1890. On 1 July 1926 Benz and Daimler merged to become Daimler-Benz AG and its products Mercedes-Benz. Fredrick William Bremer, a plumber and gas fitter, built the first British four-wheeled petrol-engined motor car. Starting work in 1892, when he was 20, the still incomplete car made its first run on a public highway in December 1894.\nWhat was the first motor car to run on the British Highway?\nThere are a number of claims and counter claims for the first motor car to appear on the road in Britain. Frederick William Bremer of Walthamstow is believed to have had a four-wheeled car running in late 1894. Both he and James D. Roots may have independently built motorised tricycles as early as 1892. Roots certainly had one powered by an oil engine running on the road in early 1896.\nAnother theory is that the first motor car to run on the British highway was a 2hp Benz Velo imported by Henry Hewetson in November 1894, although some believe this may have actually been in 1895. The Hon. Evelyn Ellis certainly imported a Panhard et Levassor into Britain in June 1895.\nBy the end of 1895, following further importations, it was estimated that there were 14 or 15 cars on Britain’s roads, a figure which had increased dramatically by 1900 to approximately seven or eight hundred! The million mark for private cars was reached in Britain in 1930, with 10 million in 1967.\nJohn Henry Knight of Farnham, Surrey was an engineer and enthusiastic inventor with a keen interest in photography and locomotion. With the help of engineer George Parfitt, in 1895 he created the first purpose-built, petrol-driven, three-wheeled car to be run on the roads of Britain. In order to improve stability a fourth wheel was added the following year. This pioneering British car is on display at the National Motor Museum.\nCycle makers Charles and Walter Santler of Malvern Link, Worcestershire built a steam car in 1889 which was subsequently fitted with a single cylinder gas engine and then rebuilt again with a single cylinder ‘petrol’ engine in 1894. Santlers went on to build several other cars between 1897 and 1913 when they launched a range of light cars for general sale.\nFrederick Lanchester started work on a four-wheeled petrol car in 1895 which was successfully tested on the road in early 1896. The Lanchester Engine Co. commenced building production cars in 1899.\nWhen was the word petrol first used?\nThe term petrol was not used until 1896, when it was patented by Messrs Carless, Capel & Leonard of Hackney Wick.\nWhen were windscreen wipers first used?\nThere are various claims for the first windscreen wipers. Some sources say that they were first used in France in 1907. British photographer Gladstone Adams is said to have had the idea for wipers whilst driving his Daracq home to Newcastle after watching the 1908 FA Cup Final at Crystal Palace (his team Newcastle United had lost 3 – 1 to Wolverhampton Wanderers). He patented his design in 1911. Various motoring magazine pictures show Prince Henry of Prussia in a car with simple up and down squeegee type wiper fitted to the windscreen in 1909. In 1919 (some sources say 1921) William Folberth of Cleveland, USA, marketed the first automatic windscreen wipers. They were operated by vacuum from the engine's inlet manifold.\nWhere was the first motor museum?\nBritain’s first dedicated motor museum was set up by Edmund Dangerfield, Editor of The Motor magazine. Temporarily sited in Oxford Street, London, it opened on 31 May 1912 with over forty vehicles built before 1903 and a range of accessories. The exhibition closed on 31 July 1912 and reopened on 12 March 1914 at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham. The collection remained there until the British Government commandeered the building during World War I, when exhibits were returned to owners, taken in by Government Museums, or dumped on waste ground near Charing Cross Station. This has been described as 'one of the untold tragedies of the war'. In 1931 the remaining unplaced vehicles from the 1912 Motor Museum were destroyed. In 1972 five of the saved cars from the original 1912 Museum were displayed at the newly opened National Motor Museum at Beaulieu.\nWho was the first person to be charged for a speeding offence?\nWalter Arnold of East Peckham, Kent had the dubious honour of being the first person in Great Britain to be successfully charged with speeding on 28 January 1896. Travelling at approximately 8mph/12.87kph, he had exceeded the 2mph/3.22kph speed limit for towns. Fined one shilling and costs, Arnold had been caught by a policeman who had given chase on a bicycle.\nWhen was the first driving licence issued?\nFrance introduced the first driving licences under the Paris Police Ordinance of 14 August 1893. The Motor Car Act of 14 August 1903, which took effect on 1 January 1904, introduced the driving licence (along with registration numbers for vehicles and a new speed limit of 20mph/32.19kph) into Great Britain.\nWhen were the first driving lessons given?\nThe Motor Carriage Supply Company of London, their instructor being one Mr Hankinson, offered the first driving lessons in Britain in June 1900. The first organisation to title itself a driving school in Britain was the Liver Motor Car Depot and School of Automobilism of Birkenhead. William Lee established the school in May 1901 and its Chief Instructor was Archibald Ford.\nWhen were the first driving tests introduced?\nFrance, under the Paris Police Ordinance of 14 August 1893, introduced the first driving test. Introduced on a voluntary basis, on 13 March 1935, the driving test did not become official in Great Britain until 1 April 1935 and compulsory until 1 June 1935. The first driving test pass certificate in Great Britain was awarded on the 16 March 1935 to Mr R.E.L. Beere of Kensington.\nWhen was the first Highway Code published?\nFirst published in booklet form in Great Britain in April 1931, it cost one penny.\nWhen did the first motoring fatality occur?\nMrs Bridget Driscoll of Old Town, Croydon became the first motoring fatality on 17 August 1896, when she was run over by a Roger-Benz car at Crystal Palace, London. Employed by the Anglo-French Motor Co, Arthur Edsell was driving at 4mph/6.44kph when he hit Mrs Driscoll, fracturing her skull in the process. The first driver to die from injuries sustained in a motoring accident was Mr Henry Lindfield of Brighton when his electrical carriage overturned on Saturday 12 February 1898. He died of shock the following day, caused by the amputation of one of his legs. According to the 19 February 1898 copy of Autocar, he had only driven the car two or three times and the accident was probably ‘due to the fact of the speed being so high’ – 16 or 17mph (25–27kph) – ‘a pretty high speed for a novice to maintain.’ The first crash to cause the death of a car passenger occurred on 25 February 1899 at Grove Hill, Harrow. Major James Stanley Richer, 63, died four days after the accident without regaining consciousness. The driver, Mr E.R. Sewell had been demonstrating the vehicle, a Daimler Wagonette, to Major Richer, Department Head at the Army & Navy Stores, with the view to a possible purchase for the company. Mr Sewell was killed on the spot, becoming the first driver of a petrol-driven car to die in an accident.\nWhen were the first traffic lights installed?\nThe first traffic signals in Britain (and indeed the world) were installed outside the Houses of Parliament on 10 December 1868. They used contemporary railway signalling technology – semaphore arms for day-time use and green or red gas lamps at night. Unfortunately they exploded on the night of 2 January 1869 injuring the police constable operating them! The first electric stop-go traffic lights were installed in Cleveland, Ohio in August 1914, with the first three-colour traffic lights in Detroit in 1919. 1922 saw the first electrically synchronised traffic signals installed in Houston, Texas. In Great Britain, manually operated three-colour traffic lights were first used in Piccadilly, London in 1926, with automatic traffic lights making their first appearance on an experimental basis in Princes Square, Wolverhampton, during November 1927. The experiment was presumably a success and the lights became permanent in 1930. Pedestrian-operated street crossing lights were first erected on the Brighton Road, Croydon, Surrey in 1932.\nWhere were the first parking meters installed?\nOklahoma City, USA was the site for the world’s first parking meter, where it was installed in July 1935. An invention of Gerald A. Hale and Professor H.G. Thuesen of Oklahoma State University, the first person to be arrested for a parking meter offence was the Reverend C.H. North of the Third Pentecostal Church of Oklahoma City in August 1935. Britain’s first parking meters made their appearance outside the American Embassy in London’s Grosvenor Square on 10 July 1958.\nWhen did the first roadside petrol pumps appear?\nThe first roadside petrol pumps became operational in St Louis, USA in 1905. Roadside petrol pumps were first installed in Britain in 1913, though they did not enter into general use until 1921. In 1920 the Automobile Association opened the first roadside petrol station (solely for the purpose of supplying fuel as opposed to being a garage) at Aldermaston, Berkshire. A number of similar stations were established around the country. They were operated by AA Patrolmen and exclusively for the use of AA members. They established the modern pattern of vehicles pulling off the public road and drawing up alongside petrol pumps rather than being filled at the kerbside as at garages. Britain’s first self-service petrol pump became operational in November 1961 at Southwark Bridge, London." ] }

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{ "description": [ "Biography and other information about Mississippi blues musician Big Bill Broonzy ... William Lee Conley ... (Big Bill Broonzy). In 1957, William Lee Conley Broonzy ...", "Discover Big Bill Broonzy's full ... In the 1930’s Broonzy became known as one of ... William L.C. Broonzy, William Lee Conley, William Lee Conley \"Big Bill ...", "Big Bill BroonzyAmerican musician. Also known as. William Lee Conley Broonzy; born. ... August 14, 1958. Chicago, Illinois. Big Bill Broonzy, byname of William Lee ...", "... Big Bill Broonzy was born William Lee Conley… ... Also Known As. Sammy Sampson ... Broonzy decided to take some time off from music, ...", "... William Lee Conley Broonzy – better known as Big Bill. First heard on WFMT on July 22, ... WFMT Premium Music Library; Streaming Help; WFMT Events. Event Calendar;" ], "filename": [ "181/181_474.txt", "46/46_476.txt", "99/99_477.txt", "178/178_478.txt", "61/61_482.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 2, 3, 4, 8 ], "title": [ "Big Bill Broonzy, Blues Musician from Scott Mississippi", "Big Bill Broonzy Discography at Discogs", "Big Bill Broonzy | American musician | Britannica.com", "Big Bill Broonzy | Biography & History | AllMusic", "BIG BILL BROONZY (7/22/1953) | 98.7WFMT" ], "url": [ "http://www.mswritersandmusicians.com/mississippi-musicians/big-bill-broonzy", "https://www.discogs.com/artist/307270-Big-Bill-Broonzy", "https://www.britannica.com/biography/Big-Bill-Broonzy", "http://www.allmusic.com/artist/big-bill-broonzy-mn0000757873/biography", "http://www.wfmt.com/2016/06/10/big-bill-broonzy-7221953/" ], "search_context": [ "Big Bill Broonzy, Blues Musician from Scott Mississippi\nWilliam Lee Conley Broonzy: A Biography\nBy Anton Duck (SHS)\nAnton Duck (SHS Researcher)\nWilliam Lee Conley Broonzy, one of the masters of country blues, was born in Scott, Mississippi, on June 26, 1893.  However, one source says Broonzy had a twin sister name Lannie Broonzy, who says  she has proof that she was born in 1898, on June 26. This information would have proved that Broonzy was five years younger than he pretended. Big Bill was the son of Frank Broonzy and Mittie Belcher, who had seventeen other children (Bruynoghe 9).  During this time period, many black men added years to their age either to get a job or join the military, so the exact date of Broonzy’s  birth is not clear (Barnwell 317).\nBroonzy’s life as a child was hard because he received only minimal schooling. He had to quit school to help his sharecropping family around the house. Before he moved to Arkansas, Broonzy learned how to play the fiddle from his uncle Jerry Belcher. At the age of fourteen, he started working for tips at country dances, picnics, and he played for the church (Broonzy). During the years 1912-1917, Broonzy worked part time as a preacher and violinist.\nThen Broonzy served in the US Army during World War I. After his discharge, he returned back to Arkansas. This is the time when he decided that farming was not what he wanted to do for the rest of his life. He wanted to make his living as a guitar player and singer. In 1924, Broonzy moved to Chicago to start his music career  partly because of all the racism that was happening in the South. Under the guidance of Papa Charlie Jackson, Broonzy learned how to play the guitar. In the 1930’s Broonzy became known as one of the major artists on the Chicago Blues scene. During this time he performed with other top blues artist in Chicago– like Memphis Minnie, Tampa Red, Jazz Gillum, Lonnie Johnson, and John Lee “Sonny Boy” Williamson. Also, while trying to make it in the music business, he worked as a janitor and maintenance man (Big Bill Broonzy).\nIn 1938 Broonzy performed at John Hammond’s famous Spiritual and Swing concert at Carnegie Hall in New York City. This was the first time that he had ever performed in front of a white audience. After the concert,  people started calling him “Big Bill” Broonzy.  At this time Broonzy received  newfound fame as the father of Chicago blues.(Broonzy). He was one of the best known blues players and recorded over 260 blues songs including Feelin’ Low Down, Remember Big Bill, Make Me Getaway, and Big Bill Broonzy Sings Country Blues (Brewer 15).  His recording career spanned five long decades  as he traveled from Mississippi to Chicago and even to Europe, where he became well-known.  There are forty-two of his albums still available (Cox 113).\nAfter the arrival of artists like Muddy Waters and the playing of the electric guitar, Broonzy’s  brand of blues was pushed aside. Rather than retire, he changed his style of music to folk blues. In 1951, Broonzy toured Europe where he performed standard blues, traditional folk tunes, and spirituals to appreciative audiences. The following year Broonzy returned to Europe with pianist Blind John Davis. He opened the doors for other American blues artists to tour there as well.  In 1955, with the help of writer Yannick Bruynoghe, he told the story of his life in the book Big Bill Broonzy. This book was originally published in London. Big Bill Broonzy’s  book was one of the first autobiographies by a blues man (Big Bill Broonzy). In 1957, William Lee Conley Broonzy was diagnosed with throat cancer. He continued to perform, although he had with great pain, until he died of throat cancer on August 15, 1958. In 1980, he was inducted into the Blues Foundation’s Hall of Fame (Cox 113).\n1893 Born in Scott, Mississippi, on June 26\n1899 learned how to play the fiddle\n1905 Started playing for the church, picnics, country dances\nmoved to Arkansas", "Big Bill Broonzy Discography at Discogs\nBorn on June 26, 1893 in Scott County, Mississippi.\nDied on August 15, 1958, Chicago.\nIn the 1930’s Broonzy became known as one of the major artist on the Chicago Blues scene. During this time he performed with other top blues artists in Chicago such as l Memphis Minnie, Tampa Red, Jazz Gillum, Lonnie Johnson, and John Lee “Sonny Boy” Williamson.\nIn 1938, Broonzy performed at John Hammond’s famous Spiritual and Swing concert at Carnegie Hall in New York City. This was the first time that he had ever performed in front of a white audience. After the concert, people start calling him “Big Bill” Broonzy.\nHe was one of the best known blues players and recorded over 260 blues songs, including Feelin’ Low Down, Remember Big Bill, Make Me Getaway, and Big Bill Broonzy Sings Country Blues. His recording career spanned five long decades, as he traveled from Mississippi to Chicago and even to Europe, where he became well-known.\nHe died of throat cancer in 1958.\nIn 1980, he was inducted into the Blues Foundation's Hall of Fame.\nSites:", "Big Bill Broonzy | American musician | Britannica.com\nAmerican musician\nAlternative Title: William Lee Conley Broonzy\nBig Bill Broonzy\nBig Bill Broonzy, byname of William Lee Conley Broonzy (born June 26, 1893, Scott, Miss., U.S.—died Aug. 14, 1958, Chicago , Ill.), American blues singer and guitarist who represented a tradition of itinerant folk blues.\nBroonzy\nFrank Driggs Collection/© Archive Photos\nBroonzy grew up in Arkansas . He served in the army (1918–19) and moved to Chicago in 1920, where six years later he made his recording debut as guitar accompanist to black blues singers. Later he became a singer himself and by 1940 was recognized as one of the best-selling blues recording artists. His New York City concert debut was made at Carnegie Hall in 1938. In 1951 he visited Europe and soon became popular across that continent. At the height of his popularity in 1957, his vocal effectiveness was reduced by a lung operation, and he died the following year of cancer. Many students of the blues have found his work almost as fascinating for its sociological as for its strictly musical content. His mother, who was born a slave, died in 1957 at the age of 102, having survived to see Broonzy become a world-famous figure. His autobiography, Big Bill Blues, appeared in 1955.\nLearn More in these related articles:", "Big Bill Broonzy | Biography & History | AllMusic\ngoogle+\nArtist Biography by Uncle Dave Lewis\nBig Bill Broonzy was born William Lee Conley Broonzy in the tiny town of Scott, Mississippi, just across the river from Arkansas. During his childhood, Broonzy 's family -- itinerant sharecroppers and the descendants of ex-slaves -- moved to Pine Bluff to work the fields there. Broonzy learned to play a cigar box fiddle from his uncle, and as a teenager, he played violin in local churches, at community dances, and in a country string band. During World War I, Broonzy enlisted in the U.S. Army, and in 1920 he moved to Chicago and worked in the factories for several years. In 1924 he met Papa Charlie Jackson , a New Orleans native and pioneer blues recording artist for Paramount. Jackson took Broonzy under his wing, taught him guitar, and used him as an accompanist. Broonzy 's entire first session at Paramount in 1926 was rejected, but he returned in November 1927 and succeeded in getting his first record, House Rent Stomp , onto Paramount wax. As one of his early records came out with the garbled moniker of Big Bill Broomsley , he decided to shorten his recording name to Big Bill , and this served as his handle on records until after the second World War. Among aliases used for Big Bill on his early releases were Big Bill Johnson , Sammy Sampson , and Slim Hunter .\nBroonzy 's earliest records do not demonstrate real promise, but this would soon change. In 1930, the Hokum Boys broke up, and Georgia Tom Dorsey decided to keep the act going by bringing in Big Bill and guitarist Frank Brasswell to replace Tampa Red , billing themselves as \" the Famous Hokum Boys .\" With Georgia Tom and Brasswell , Broonzy hit his stride and penned his first great blues original, \"I Can't Be Satisfied.\" This was a hit and helped make his name with record companies. Although only half-a-dozen blues artists made any records during 1932, the worst year in the history of the record business, one of them was Big Bill , who made 20 issued sides that year.\nThrough Georgia Tom and Tampa Red , Big Bill met Memphis Minnie and toured as her second guitarist in the early '30s, but apparently did not record with her. When he did resume recording in March 1934 it was for Bluebird's newly established Chicago studio under the direction of Lester Melrose . Melrose liked Broonzy 's style, and before long, Big Bill would begin working as Melrose 's unofficial second-in-command, auditioning artists, matching numbers to performers, booking sessions, and providing backup support to other musicians. He played on literally hundreds of records for Bluebird in the late '30s and into the '40s, including those made by his half-brother, Washboard Sam , Peter Chatman (aka Memphis Slim ), John Lee \"Sonny Boy\" Williamson, and others. With Melrose , Broonzy helped develop the \"Bluebird beat,\" connoting a type of popular blues record that incorporated trap drums and upright string bass. This was the precursor of the \"Maxwell Street sound\" or \"postwar Chicago blues,\" and helped to redefine the music in a format that would prove popular in the cities. Ironically, while Broonzy was doing all this work for Melrose at Bluebird, his own recordings as singer were primarily made for ARC, and later Columbia's subsidiary Okeh. This was his greatest period, and during this time Broonzy wrote and recorded such songs as \"Key to the Highway,\" \"W.P.A. Blues,\" \"All by Myself,\" and \"Unemployment Stomp.\" For other artists, Broonzy wrote songs such as \"Diggin' My Potatoes.\" All told, Big Bill Broonzy had a hand in creating more than 100 original songs.\nWhen promoter John Hammond sought a traditional blues singer to perform at one of his Spirituals to Swing concerts held at Carnegie Hall in New York City, he was looking for Robert Johnson to foot the bill. Hammond learned that Johnson had recently died, and as a result, Big Bill got the nod to appear at Carnegie Hall on February 5, 1939. This appearance was very well received, and earned Broonzy a role in George Seldes' 1939 film Swingin' the Dream alongside Louis Armstrong and Benny Goodman . In the early '40s, Big Bill appeared at the Café Society, the Village Vanguard, and the Apollo Theater, in addition to touring with Lil Greenwood , all of which kept Big Bill busy during the AFM recording ban. By the mid- to late '40s, the operation in Chicago with Melrose had finally begun to wind down, just as electric blues started to heat up. Big Bill continued to record for labels ranging from majors Columbia and Mercury to fly-by-nights such as Hub and RPM. In 1949, Broonzy decided to take some time off from music, and got a job working as a janitor at the Iowa State University of Science & Technology in Ames.\nIn 1951 Broonzy was sought out by DJ and writer Studs Terkel and appeared in the latter's concert series I Come for to Sing. Suddenly, Broonzy started to get a lot of press attention, and by September of that year, he was in Paris recording for French Vogue. On this occasion Broonzy was finally able to wax his tune \"Black, Brown and White,\" a song about race relations that had been in his book for years, but every record company he had ever sung it for had turned it down. In Europe, Broonzy proved incredibly popular, more so than at any time in the United States. Two separate documentary films were made on his life, in France and Belgium, respectively, and from 1951 until ill health finally put him out of the running in the fall of 1957, Broonzy nearly doubled his own 1927-1949 output in terms of new recordings.\nBroonzy updated his act by adding traditional folk songs to his set, along the lines of what Josh White and Leadbelly had done in then-recent times. He took a tremendous amount of flak for doing so, as blues purists condemned Broonzy for turning his back on traditional blues style in order to concoct shows that were appealing to white tastes. But this misses the point of his whole life's work: Broonzy was always about popularizing blues, and he was the main pioneer in the entrepreneurial spirit as it applies to the field. His songwriting, producing, and work as a go-between with Lester Melrose is exactly the sort of thing that Willie Dixon would do with Chess in the '50s. This was the part of his career that Broonzy himself valued most highly, and his latter-day fame and popularity were a just reward for a life spent working so hard on behalf of his given discipline and fellow musicians. It would be a short reward, though; just about the time the autobiography he had written with Yannick Bruynoghe, Big Bill Blues, appeared in 1955, he learned he had throat cancer. Big Bill Broonzy died at age 65 in August, 1958, and left a recorded legacy which, in sheer size and depth, well exceeds that of any blues artist born on his side of the year 1900.", "BIG BILL BROONZY (7/22/1953) | 98.7WFMT\nBIG BILL BROONZY (7/22/1953)\nBy WFMT | 2016-05-13T10:09:06+00:00 June 10th, 2016| Best of Studs Terkel |\nThe Chicago Blues Festival begins this weekend, and so this evening the BEST OF STUDS TERKEL features the legendary American bluesman, William Lee Conley Broonzy – better known as Big Bill. First heard on WFMT on July 22, 1953, this musical conversation between Studs and Big Bill Broonzy is one of the very earliest Studs Terkel Program broadcasts in our archives.\nShare This Story" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "Joan_Rivers.txt" ], "title": [ "Joan Rivers" ], "wiki_context": [ "Joan Alexandra Molinsky (June 8, 1933 – September 4, 2014), better known as Joan Rivers, was an American comedian, actress, writer, producer, and television host noted for her often controversial comedic persona—where she was alternately self-deprecating or sharply acerbic, especially toward celebrities and politicians.\n\nRivers came to prominence in 1965 as a guest on The Tonight Show. Hosted by her mentor, Johnny Carson, the show established Rivers' comedic style. In 1986, with her own rival program, The Late Show with Joan Rivers, Rivers became the first woman to host a late night network television talk show. She subsequently hosted The Joan Rivers Show (1989–1993), winning a Daytime Emmy for Outstanding Talk Show Host. Having become widely known for her comedic red carpet awards show celebrity interviews, Rivers co-hosted the E! celebrity fashion show Fashion Police from 2010 to 2014 and starred in reality series Joan & Melissa: Joan Knows Best? (2011–2014) with daughter Melissa Rivers. She was the subject of the documentary Joan Rivers: A Piece of Work (2010).\n\nIn addition to marketing a line of jewelry and apparel on the QVC shopping channel, Rivers authored 12 best-selling books and released numerous comedy albums. She was nominated in 1984 for a Grammy Award for her album What Becomes a Semi-Legend Most?; and was nominated in 1994 for the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play for her performance of the title role in Sally Marr...and Her Escorts. In 2015, Rivers posthumously received a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for her book, Diary of a Mad Diva. \n\nIn 1968, The New York Times television critic Jack Gould called Rivers \"quite possibly the most intuitively funny woman alive\". \n\nEarly life\n\nRivers was born Joan Alexandra Molinsky on June 8, 1933, in Brooklyn, New York, the daughter of Russian Jewish immigrants Beatrice (née Grushman; January 6, 1906 – October 1975) and Dr. Meyer C. Molinsky (December 7, 1900 – January 1985), who graduated from Long Island College of Medicine. Her elder sister, Barbara Waxler, died on June 3, 2013 at the age of 82. Rivers was raised in Prospect Heights and Crown Heights in Brooklyn, where she attended the progressive and now-defunct Brooklyn Ethical Culture School and [http://blogs.wsj.com/bankruptcy/2014/06/17/brooklyn-prep-school-enters-chapter-11-bankruptcy/ Adelphi Academy of Brooklyn] - a college preparatory day school. Her family later moved to Larchmont.\n\nShe attended Connecticut College between 1950 and 1952, and graduated from Barnard College in 1954 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in English literature and anthropology; she was a member of Phi Beta Kappa.Rivers, Joan (1986). Autobiography: Enter Talking. New York: Delacorte Press, First Printing. Before entering show business, Rivers worked at various jobs such as a tour guide at Rockefeller Center,Autobiography: Bouncing Back (1997), HarperCollins, pp. 74–75. a writer/proofreader at an advertising agency and a fashion consultant at Bond Clothing Stores. During this period, agent Tony Rivers advised her to change her name, so she chose Joan Rivers as her stage name. \n\nCareer\n\n1950s–1960s\n\nDuring the late 1950s, Rivers appeared in a short-run play, Driftwood, playing a lesbian with a crush on a character played by a then-unknown Barbra Streisand. The play ran for six weeks. Rivers performed in numerous comedy clubs in the Greenwich Village area of New York City in the early 1960s, including The Bitter End and The Gaslight Cafe, before making her first appearances as a guest on the TV program The Tonight Show originating from New York, hosted at the time by Jack Paar. \n\nBy 1965, Rivers had a stint on Candid Camera as a gag writer and participant; she was \"the bait\" to lure people into ridiculous situations for the show. She also made her first appearance on The Tonight Show with new host Johnny Carson, on February 17, 1965. During the same decade, Rivers made other appearances on The Tonight Show as well as The Ed Sullivan Show, while hosting the first of several talk shows. She wrote material for the puppet Topo Gigio. She had a brief role in The Swimmer (1968), starring Burt Lancaster. A year later, she had a short-lived syndicated daytime talk show, That Show with Joan Rivers; Johnny Carson was her first guest. In the middle of the 1960s, she released at least two comedy albums, The Next to Last Joan Rivers Album and Rivers Presents Mr. Phyllis & Other Funny Stories. \n\n1970s\n\nBy the 1970s, Rivers was appearing on various television comedy and variety shows, including The Carol Burnett Show and a semi-regular stint on Hollywood Squares. From 1972 to 1976, she narrated The Adventures of Letterman, an animated segment for The Electric Company. In 1973, Rivers wrote the TV movie The Girl Most Likely to..., a black comedy starring Stockard Channing. In 1978, Rivers wrote and directed the film Rabbit Test, starring her friend Billy Crystal. During the same decade, she was the opening act for singers Helen Reddy, Robert Goulet, Mac Davis and Sergio Franchi on the Las Vegas Strip. \n\n1980s–1990s\n\nRivers spoke of her primary Tonight Show life as having been \"Johnny Carson's daughter\", a reference to his longtime mentoring of her and, during the 1980s, establishing her as his regular guest host by August 1983. She also hosted an episode of Saturday Night Live, on April 9, 1983. In the same period, she released a best-selling comedy album on Geffen Records, What Becomes a Semi-Legend Most? The album reached No. 22 on the U.S. Billboard 200 and was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album.\n\nDuring the 1980s, she continued doing stand-up shows along with appearing on various television shows. In February 1983, she performed at Carnegie Hall and the following year, she did stand-up on the United Kingdom's TV show An Audience With Joan Rivers. \n\nA friend of Nancy and President Ronald Reagan, Rivers attended a state dinner in 1983, and later, at the invitation of Nancy, spoke at luncheon at the 1984 Republican National Convention.\n\nIn 1984, Rivers published a best-selling humor book, The Life and Hard Times of Heidi Abramowitz, a mock memoir of her brassy, loose comedy character. A television special based on the character, a mock tribute called Joan Rivers and Friends Salute Heidi Abramowitz, was not successful with the public.\n\nThe decade was controversial for Rivers. She sued female impersonator Frank Marino for $5,000,000 in 1986, after discovering he was using her real stand-up material in the impersonation of her that he included in his popular Las Vegas act. The two comics reconciled and even appeared together on television in later years. \n\nIn 1986 came the move that ended Rivers' longtime friendship with Johnny Carson, who had first hired her as a Tonight Show writer. The soon-to-launch Fox Television Network announced that it was giving her a late night talk show, The Late Show Starring Joan Rivers, making Rivers the first woman to have her own late night talk show on a major network. King, Norman (1993). Arsenio Hall. New York: William Morrow & Co., pp. 47–48.\n\nThe new network planned to broadcast the show 11 p.m. to 12 a.m. Eastern Time, making her a Carson competitor. Carson learned of the show from Fox and not from Rivers. In the documentary, Johnny Carson: King of Late Night, Rivers said she only called Carson to discuss the matter after learning he may have already heard about it and that he immediately hung up on her. In the same interview, she said that she later came to believe that maybe she should have asked for his blessing before taking the job. Rivers was banned from appearing on the Tonight Show, a decision respected by Carson's first two successors Jay Leno and Conan O'Brien. After the release of his 2013 biography on Johnny Carson, Carson's attorney Henry Bushkin revealed that he never received a call from Rivers' husband Edgar concerning the move to Fox, contrary to what Edgar had told Rivers. Rivers did not appear on the Tonight Show again until February 17, 2014, when she made a brief appearance on new host Jimmy Fallon's first episode. On March 27, 2014, Rivers returned for an interview.\n\nShortly after Carson's death in 2005, Rivers said that he had never spoken to her again. In 2008, during an interview with Dr. Pamela Connolly on television's Shrink Rap, Rivers claimed she did call Carson, but he hung up on her at once and repeated the gesture when she called again.\n\nThe Late Show Starring Joan Rivers turned out to be flecked by tragedy. When Rivers challenged FOX executives, who wanted to fire her husband Edgar Rosenberg as the show's producer, the network fired them both on May 15, 1987. Three months later, on August 14, 1987, Rosenberg committed suicide in Philadelphia; Rivers blamed the tragedy on his \"humiliation\" by Fox. Rivers credited Nancy Reagan with helping her after the 1987 suicide of her second husband. Fox attempted to continue the show with a new name (The Late Show) and rotating guest hosts.\n\nRivers subsequently appeared on various TV shows, including The David Letterman Show and Pee-wee's Playhouse Christmas Special. By 1989, she tried another daytime TV talk show, The Joan Rivers Show, which ran for five years and won her a Daytime Emmy in 1990 for Outstanding Talk Show Host. In 1994, Rivers and daughter Melissa first hosted the E! Entertainment Television pre-awards show for the Golden Globe Awards,Bouncing Back!, p. 207. and beginning in 1995, E!'s annual Academy Awards pre-awards show as well. Beginning in 1997, Rivers hosted her own radio show on WOR in New York City. Rivers also appeared as one of the center square occupants on the 1986–89 version of The Hollywood Squares, hosted by John Davidson.\n\nIn 1994, influenced by the stand-up comedy of Lenny Bruce, Rivers co-wrote and starred in a play about Bruce's mother Sally Marr, who was also a stand-up comic and influenced her son's development as a comic. After 27 previews, \"Sally Marr ... and Her Escorts,\" a play \"suggested by the life of Sally Marr\" ran on Broadway for 50 performances in May and June 1994. Rivers was nominated for a Drama Desk Award as Outstanding Actress in a Play and a Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play for playing Sally Marr. \n\n2000s–2010s\n\nBy 2003, Rivers had left her E! red-carpet show for a three-year contract (valued at $6–8 million) to cover award shows' red carpet events for the TV Guide Channel. \n\nRivers appeared in three episodes of the TV show Nip/Tuck during its second, third and sixth seasons, playing herself. Rivers appeared regularly on television's The Shopping Channel (in Canada) and QVC (in both the United States and the UK), promoting her own line of jewelry under the brand name \"The Joan Rivers Collection\". She was also a guest speaker at the opening of the American Operating Room Nurses' 2000 San Francisco Conference. Both Joan and Melissa Rivers were frequent guests on Howard Stern's radio show, and Joan Rivers often appeared as a guest on UK panel show 8 Out of 10 Cats.\n\nIn 2004, Rivers was part of the formal receiving party when Ronald Reagan was placed in state at the United States Capitol. Rivers was one of only four Americans invited to the Wedding of Charles, Prince of Wales, and Camilla Parker Bowles on April 9, 2005. \nOn August 16, 2007, Rivers began a two-week workshop of her new play, with the working title \"The Joan Rivers Theatre Project\", at The Magic Theatre in San Francisco. On December 3, 2007, Rivers performed in the Royal Variety Show 2007 at the Liverpool Empire Theatre, England, with Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip present. \n\nIn January 2008, Rivers became one of 20 hijackers to take control of the Big Brother house in the UK for one day in spin-off TV show Big Brother: Celebrity Hijack. On June 24, 2008, Rivers appeared on NBC-TV's show Celebrity Family Feud and competed with her daughter against Ice-T and Coco.\n\nRivers and daughter Melissa were contestants in 2009 on the second Celebrity Apprentice. Throughout the season, each celebrity raised money for a charity of his or her choice; Rivers selected God's Love We Deliver. After a falling out with poker player Annie Duke, following Melissa's on-air firing (elimination) by Donald Trump, Rivers left the green room telling Clint Black and Jesse James that she would not be in the next morning. Rivers later returned to the show and on May 3, 2009, she became a finalist in the series. The other finalist was Duke. On the season finale, which aired live on May 10, Rivers was announced the winner and hired to be the 2009 Celebrity Apprentice.\n\nRivers was featured on the show Z Rock as herself; she was also a special \"pink-carpet\" presenter for the 2009 broadcast of the Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras parade. She was also roasted in a Comedy Central special, taped on July 26, 2009, and aired on August 9, 2009. From August 2009, Rivers began starring in the new reality TV series How'd You Get So Rich? on TV Land. A documentary film about Rivers, Joan Rivers: A Piece of Work, premiered at the San Francisco International Film Festival at the Castro Theatre on May 6, 2010.\n\nIn 2011, Rivers appeared in a commercial for Go Daddy, which debuted during the broadcast of Super Bowl XLV. She made two appearances on It's Showtime at the Apollo, once as a comedian and once as a guest host.\n\nJoan and her daughter premiered the new show Joan & Melissa: Joan Knows Best? on WE tv. The series follows Joan moving to California to be closer to her family. She moves in with daughter Melissa while searching for a home of her own. WE tv then ordered a new season consisting of 10 episodes, which premiered in January 2012. In 2011, Rivers was featured as herself in Season 2 of Louis C.K.'s self-titled show Louie, where she performed on-stage. Beginning September 10, 2010, Rivers co-hosted the E! show Fashion Police, along with Giuliana Rancic, Kelly Osbourne, and George Kotsiopoulos commenting on the dos and don'ts of celebrity fashion. The show started as a half-hour program but expanded to one hour on March 9, 2012. On August 7, 2012, Rivers showed up in Burbank, California to protest that the warehouse club Costco would not sell her New York Times best-selling book, I Hate Everyone ... Starting with Me. She handcuffed herself to a shopping cart and shouted through a megaphone. The police were called to the scene and she left without incident; no arrests were made. On March 5, 2013, she launched a new online talk show on YouTube, called In Bed with Joan.\n\nOn August 26, 2014, Rivers hosted a taping of Fashion Police with Kelly Osbourne, Giuliana Rancic and George Kotsiopoulos about the 66th Primetime Emmy Awards and the 2014 MTV Movie Awards. (This was her last television appearance before her death.) \n\nThe day before her throat surgery, Joan released her most recent podcast of In Bed with Joan, with LeAnn Rimes and Eddie Cibrian. \n\nShe appeared posthumously with other female comedians in the documentary MAKERS: Women in Comedy, which premiered on PBS in October 2014. \n\nComedic style\n\nDuring her 55-year career as a comedian, her tough-talking style of satirical humor was both praised and criticized as truthful, yet too personal, too gossipy, and very often abrasive. Nonetheless, with her ability to \"tell it like it is,\" she became a pioneer of contemporary stand-up comedy. Commenting about her style, she told biographer Gerald Nachman, \"Maybe I started it. We're a very gossipy culture. All we want to know now is private lives.\"\n\nHowever, her style of humor, which often relied on making jokes about her own life and satirizing the lives of celebrities and public figures, was sometimes criticized as insensitive. Her jokes about Elizabeth Taylor and Adele's weight, for instance, were often commented on, although Rivers would never apologize for her humor. Rivers, who was Jewish, was also criticized for making jokes about the Holocaust and later explained, \"This is the way I remind people about the Holocaust. I do it through humor\", adding, \"my husband lost his entire family in the Holocaust.\" Her joke about the victims of the Ariel Castro kidnappings similarly came under criticism, but she again refused to apologize, stating, \"I know what those girls went through. It was a little stupid joke.\" \n\nRivers accepted such criticism as part of her using social satire as a form of humor: \"I've learned to have absolutely no regrets about any jokes I've ever done ... You can tune me out, you can click me off, it's OK. I am not going to bow to political correctness. But you do have to learn, if you want to be a satirist, you can't be part of the party.\" \n\nRivers states that seeing Lenny Bruce perform at a local club while she was in college influenced her developing style:\n\nAs an unknown stand-up comedian out of college, she struggled for many years before finding her comic style. She did stints in the Catskills and found that she disliked the older style of comedy at the time, such as Phyllis Diller's, whom she felt was a pioneer female comedian.Leonard Jay Greenspoon, ed. Jews and Humor, Purdue University Press (2011) p. 163 Her breakthrough came at The Second City in Chicago in 1961, where she was dubbed \"the best girl since Elaine May,\" who also got her start there. But May became her and fellow comedian Treva Silverman's role model, as Rivers saw her as \"an assertive woman with a marvelous, fast mind and, at the same time, pretty and feminine.\" It was also there that she learned \"self reliance,\" she said, \"that I didn't have to talk down in my humor\" and could still earn an income by making intelligent people laugh. \"I was really born as a comedian at Second City. I owe it my career.\"\n\nIn early 1965, at the suggestion of comedian Bill Cosby, Johnny Carson gave Rivers, whom he billed as a comedy writer, her debut appearance on his show.Zoglin, Richard. Comedy at the Edge: How Stand-up in the 1970s Changed America, Bloomsbury Publishing (2008) e-book Cosby, who knew Rivers from their early stand-up days, described her as \"an intelligent girl without being a weirdo ... a human being, not a kook.\" Sitting alongside Johnny after her monologue, she displayed an intimate, conversational style which he appreciated, and she was invited back eight more times that year.\n\nTime magazine compared her humor to that of Woody Allen, by expressing \"how to be neurotic about practically everything,\" but noting that \"her style and femininity make her something special.\" Rivers also compared herself to Allen, stating: \"He was a writer, which I basically was ... and talking about things that affected our generation that nobody else talked about.\" The New York Times critic Charles L. Mee likewise compared her to Allen, explaining that her \"style was personal, an autobiographical stream-of-consciousness.\"\n\nRivers' image contrasted starkly with Carson's stage demeanor, which was one of the reasons he made her co-host according to critic Michael Pollan, who compared their style of humor:\n\nIn her personal life, she had fewer of those neurotic or intense character traits, according to Ralph Schoenstein, who dated her and worked with her on her humor books. He said, \"She has no airs. She doesn't stand on ceremony. The woman has absolutely no pretense. She'll tell you everything immediately. Joan isn't cool—she's completely open. It's all grist. It's her old thing—'Can we talk?'\"\n\nAccording to biographer Victoria Price, Rivers' humor was notable for taking aim at and overturning what had been considered acceptable female behavior. By her bravura she broke through long-standing taboos in humor, which paved the way for other women, including Roseanne Barr, Ellen DeGeneres and Rosie O'Donnell.Price, Victoria, ed. St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture, vol. 4, St. James Press (2000) pp. 219–220.\n\nPersonal life\n\nRivers was a member of the Reform synagogue Temple Emanu-El in New York and said she \"loved Israel.\" \n\nRivers' first marriage was in 1955 to James Sanger, the son of a Bond Clothing Stores merchandise manager. The marriage lasted six months and was annulled on the basis that Sanger did not want children and had not informed Rivers before the wedding. \n\nRivers married Edgar Rosenberg on July 15, 1965.Enter Talking epilogue, p. 375. Their only child, Melissa Warburg Rosenberg, who goes by the name Melissa Rivers, was born on January 20, 1968. Joan Rivers had one grandson, Cooper, born Edgar Cooper Endicott in 2000. Along with his mother and grandmother, Cooper was featured in the WE tv series Joan & Melissa: Joan Knows Best? Rosenberg committed suicide in 1987, shortly after Rivers announced her intention to separate. Rivers would later describe her marriage to Rosenberg as a \"total sham\", complaining bitterly about his treatment of her during their 22-year marriage. In a 2012 interview with Howard Stern, Rivers said she had several extramarital affairs when married to Rosenberg, including a one-night affair with actor Robert Mitchum in the 1960s and an affair with actor Gabriel Dell.\n\nIn her book Bouncing Back (1997) Rivers described how she developed bulimia nervosa and contemplated suicide. Eventually she recovered with counseling and the support of her family. \n\nIn 2002, Rivers told the Montreal Mirror that she was a Republican. On January 28, 2014, during a conversation between Rivers and Reza Farahan of the Shahs of Sunset, Melissa Rivers interjected to clarify that she and her mother were \"fiscally conservative, socially liberal\" Republicans. \n\nRivers was open about her multiple cosmetic surgeries and was a patient of plastic surgeon Steven Hoefflin, beginning in 1983. She had her nose thinned while still at college; her next procedure, an eye lift, was performed in 1965 (when she was in her thirties) as an attempt to further her career. When promoting her book, Men Are Stupid ... And They Like Big Boobs: A Woman's Guide to Beauty Through Plastic Surgery, described by The New York Times Magazine as \"a detailed and mostly serious guide to eye lifts,[tummy tucks and other forms of plastic surgery\", she quipped: \"I've had so much plastic surgery, when I die they will donate my body to Tupperware.\" \n\nPhilanthropy\n\nAs a philanthropist, Rivers supported causes including HIV/AIDS activism, and in May 1985, she appeared along with Nichols and May at a Comic Relief benefit for the new AIDS Medical Foundation in New York City, where tickets at the Shubert Theatre sold for as much as $500. She supported the Elton John AIDS Foundation[https://www.looktothestars.org/celebrity/joan-rivers \"Joan Rivers Charity Work, Events and Causes\"], Look to the Stars and God's Love We Deliver, which delivers meals to HIV/AIDS patients in New York City. In 2008, she was commended by the City of San Diego, California for her philanthropic work regarding HIV/AIDS, where the HIV/AIDS community called her their \"Joan of Arc.\" \n\nAdditionally, she served as an Honorary Director of the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention. She also supported Guide Dogs for the Blind, a non-profit organization which provides guide dogs to blind people. She donated to Jewish charities, animal welfare efforts, and suicide prevention causes. Among the other non-profit organizations she helped were Rosie's Theater Kids, Habitat for Humanity, Human Rights Campaign and the Boy Scouts of America. \n\nDeath\n\nOn August 28, 2014, Rivers experienced serious complications and stopped breathing while undergoing what was scheduled as a minor throat procedure at an outpatient clinic in Yorkville, Manhattan. Resuscitated an hour later, Rivers was transferred to the hospital and later put on life support. She died on September 4 at Mount Sinai Hospital in New York, having never awoken from a medically induced coma. The New York City Medical Examiner's Office said she died from brain damage caused by a lack of oxygen, and the details of her surgery would be investigated by officials. Rivers was 81 years old.\n\nAfter nearly two months of investigations, federal officials said on November 10 that the clinic made a number of mistakes both before and during the procedure. Among those were the clinic's failure to respond to Rivers' deteriorating vital signs, including a severe drop in her blood pressure, possibly administering an incorrect anesthetic dosage, performing a surgical procedure without her consent, and other medical-clinic irregularities. \n\nOn September 7, after Rivers' cremation, a private memorial service took place at Temple Emanu-El in Manhattan. The service was attended by an estimated 1,500 people. The guest list included Rivers' many celebrity friends, public figures and the New York City Gay Men's Chorus singing old show tunes. Talk show host Howard Stern, delivering the eulogy, described Rivers as \"brassy in public [and] classy in private ... a troublemaker, trail blazer, pioneer for comics everywhere, ... [who] fought the stereotypes that women can't be funny.\" Daughter Melissa read a comedic note to her mother as part of her eulogy. \n\nOn January 26, 2015, Melissa Rivers filed a malpractice lawsuit against the clinic and doctors performing surgery on her mother. The suit was settled for an undisclosed amount in May 2016, with the doctors accepting responsibility. \n\nReactions and tributes\n\nUpon Rivers' death, friends, fans, family and celebrities paid tribute. Numerous comedians recognized Rivers influence on their career, including Kathy Griffin, who considered Rivers her \"mentor,\" noting, \"She brought a fearlessness and a brand of humor into our homes that we really need.\" Chris Rock felt \"she was the hippest comedian from the time she started to the day she died.\" Describing her as a force in comedy, he added, \"No man ever said, 'Yeah, I want to go on after Joan.' No, Joan Rivers closed the show every night.\" Other comedians recalled working with her on stage and television decades earlier: stand-up performer Don Rickles said \"working with her and enjoying the fun times of life with her was special.\" While Carol Burnett calls Rivers \"the poster child for the Energizer Bunny.\" \n\nNumerous talk show hosts, including Jimmy Fallon, Jimmy Kimmel, Oprah Winfrey, Ellen DeGeneres and David Letterman, paid tribute to Rivers, often including video clips of her appearances. Letterman called her a \"real pioneer for other women looking for careers in stand-up comedy. And talk about guts.\" Conan O'Brien discussed Rivers' legacy with fellow comedian Chris Hardwick on Conan, while Seth Meyers recalled Rivers' appearance on his talk show, saying, \"I have not sat next to anyone who told more jokes faster than Joan Rivers did when she was here.\"[http://www.today.com/popculture/can-we-talk-joan-rivers-gets-all-due-respect-late-1D80128332 \"Can we talk? Jimmy Fallon and more late-night hosts pay tribute to Joan Rivers\"], Today, September 5, 2014 And on The Daily Show, host Jon Stewart noted her contributions: \"There are very few people in my business that you can say are, or were, actually groundbreaking talents. Joan Rivers was one of them.\" Radio host Howard Stern, who delivered her funeral eulogy, devoted an entire one-hour show to Rivers. Sarah Silverman paid tribute to Rivers while hosting Saturday Night Live. \n\nPolitical figures giving tribute to Rivers included former first lady Nancy Reagan, who had helped Rivers after the death of her husband, Edgar Rosenberg. As a friend of Prince Charles, and one of only four Americans invited to his wedding to Camilla Parker Bowles in 2005. Upon hearing of her death, they said she was \"utterly irreplaceable.\" While Israel's Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu noted that besides bringing laughter to millions of people around the world, she was \"proud of her Jewish heritage.\" After her mother's death, Melissa Rivers said she received a letter from President Barack Obama in which he wrote, despite being a frequent target of Rivers' jokes: \"not only did she make us laugh, she made us think\". \n\nComedian Amy Schumer, speaking at the 2014 Glamour magazine \"Woman of the Year Awards\" ceremony in Carnegie Hall, devoted her talk to paying tribute to Rivers, comparing her to other famous woman comedians by calling her \"the bravest of them all.\" The speculations that Fashion Police would continue to air, with Rivers' close friend Kathy Griffin as her replacement, were influenced by what many felt Rivers would have wanted. \n\nBooks\n\n* (Self-Help/Humor)\n* (Humor)\n* (Autobiography)\n* (Autobiography)\n* (Non-Fiction)\n*\n* (Self-Help)\n* (Self-Help)\n* (Fiction)\n* (Non-Fiction)\n* (Humor)\n* (Humor)\n\nFilmography\n\nFilms\n\nTelevision\n\nTheater work\n\nAwards and nominations\n\nNote: Emmy nominations for Outstanding Writing – Special Class shared with Toem Perew and Hester Mundis.\n\nHonors\n\n*On July 26, 1989, she received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, in the 7000 block of Hollywood Boulevard. \n*On March 1, 2013, Rivers and her daughter, Melissa Rivers, were honored by the Ride of Fame and a double decker tour bus was dedicated to them in New York City." ] }

{ "description": [ "... better known by her professional name Joan Rivers has an ... Joan Rivers Net Worth. ... About Joan Rivers. Joan Alexandra Molinsky, better known by her ...", "Joan Rivers's Geni Profile. Contact profile manager; ... Joan Alexandra Rosenberg (Molinsky) Birthdate: June 8, 1933: Birthplace: Brooklyn, Kings, New York, United ...", "5 Things You Never Knew About Joan ... Here are a few things about her that casual fans may not have known. Joan ... The comedian was born Joan Molinsky, ...", "Joan Rivers Biography. ... Meyer C. Molinsky. mother . Beatrice Molinsky. siblings . ... better known by her stage name, Joan Rivers, ...", "Joan Rivers Biography. ... actress, and television show host Born Joan Alexandra Molinsky, June 8 ... who became an attorney and was seen as better and more ...", "\"Style is like Herpes;you either have it or you do not\" ~Joan Rivers.Style? She had it! Controversial ? 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Rivers is an American television personality, comedian, writer, film director, and actress.  As a young adult she studied anthropology at Connecticut College and held down low paying jobs from working as a tour guide instructor and sales consultant for a department store.\nRivers is known for funny and highly controversial humor. From the start her first role was daring, as she played the role of a lesbian lover to Barbara Streisand, in a a short-run play, Driftwood. Later in the 60’s she focused on stand-up comedy. Her first television appearance was on the Tonight Show hosted by Jack Paar. Before long, she was hosting the show along with Saturday Night Live and the Ed Sullivan Show. She has since gone on to own and host her own television talk shows.\nRivers has written several books, and acted in several movies and television shows, she is currently starring in her online talk show In Bed with Joan.\nEarnings & Financial Data\nThe below financial data is gathered and compiled by TheRichest analysts team to give you a better understanding of Joan Rivers's net worth by breaking down the most relevant financial events such as yearly salaries, contracts, earn outs, endorsements, stock ownership and much more.\n?", "Joan Alexandra Rosenberg (Molinsky) (1933 - 2014) - Genealogy\nstepmother\nAbout Joan Rivers\nJoan Alexandra Molinsky (born June 8, 1933), better known by her stage name Joan Rivers, is an American television personality, comedian, writer, film director, and actress. She is known for her ribald, depreciative style. Rivers' comic style relies heavily on her ability to poke fun at herself and other Hollywood celebrities. Her long career spanning 5 decades has led to her becoming known as a comedy legend and icon, often being referred to as 'The Queen Of Comedy'.", "5 Things You Never Knew About Joan Rivers - ABC News\nABC News\n5 Things You Never Knew About Joan Rivers\nBy Lesley Messer\nSep 4, 2014, 3:09 PM ET\n0 Shares\nWATCH Joan Rivers, Comedic Legend, Dead at 81\n0 Shares\nEmail\nJoan Rivers was a remarkable comedian, known for her acerbic wit and blunt honesty.\nMany saw her stand-up routines or watched her E! TV show, \"Fashion Police,\" but Rivers, who died Sept. 4. at 81, was a complicated, vivacious woman with a storied past. Here are a few things about her that casual fans may not have known.\nJoan Rivers Dead at 81\n1. Joan Rivers Was Not Her Given Name: The comedian was born Joan Molinsky, but at the behest of her agent, Tony Rivers, she adopted a stage name. On a whim, she chose \"Joan Rivers,\" just because it felt right. \"Having a stage name made it easier to perform in those raunchy nightclubs,\" she told the Evening News newspaper in 1986. \"Joan Rivers was like a party dress I put on, so in those early days, she was only the tiniest part of me and Joan Molinsky was still frightened and confused and bewildered in her life.\"\nSLIDESHOW: A Look Back at the Life of Joan Rivers\n2. Bill Cosby Was Responsible for Her Big Break: At first, Rivers became famous for being a guest host on Johnny Carson's \"Tonight Show.\" \"The night before I went on Carson, a comic bombed and Bill Cosby -- who was white hot at that moment -- he had seen me in the Village and he said to them, 'You might as well use Joan. She can’t be any worse than the guy you had on last night!'\" she told Entertainment Weekly . \"I was brought on in the last 10 minutes of the show -- the worst slot. And God bless Johnny Carson, he said right there on the air, 'You’re going to be a big star.'\" He was right.\n3. She Was Open About Everything, Even Plastic Surgery: \"I just hosted the Miss USA Pageant and, let me tell you, beautiful gets you everywhere. The New York Times had an article maybe six months ago: Babies respond to pretty faces. So stop telling everyone it’s OK not to be pretty! If you can fix it, fix it!\" she told Entertainment Weekly in 2010. \"If it makes you happier. I love to look in the mirror and say, 'For 77, you look good.' That’s all. I don’t care what anyone says. Not bad for 77.\" However, it wasn't always easy. In a clip from her reality TV series with her daughter, Melissa, Rivers was captured by cameras crying before going into surgery. \"Oh God, what a s***** business this is,\" she said. \"You have to look good.\"\n4. She Had a Big Social Circle: The one regret Rivers had about the 2012 documentary made about her, \"Joan Rivers: A Piece of Work,\" was that it included a mean statement she made about fellow comedian Kathy Griffin. \"She’s my best friend. I adore Kathy,\" Rivers told EW . \"I wish they had made my love of her stronger.\" Rivers also talked about a friendship with Barbara Walters and Nancy Reagan.\n5. She Was a Huge Animal Lover: After her husband committed suicide in 1987, she too considered ending her life. However, she was saved by her dog, Spike. \"I was sitting in this big empty house in Bel Air, with a phone with five extensions which we no longer needed. I had the gun in my lap, and the dog sat on the gun. I lecture on suicide because things turn around,\" she told the Daily Beast . \"I tell people this is a horrible, awful dark moment, but it will change and you must know it’s going to change and you push forward. I look back and think, 'Life is great, life goes on. It changes.'\" As she got older, she made sure to set aside money for her pets when she made her will.\n0 Shares", "Joan Rivers Biography - Childhood, Life Achievements & Timeline\nMedia Personalities\nJoan Rivers Biography\nJoan Rivers was an American actress, comedian, writer, producer and TV host. This biography of Joan Rivers provides detailed information about her childhood, life, achievements, works & timeline\nQuick Facts\nTV Anchors ,  Comedians ,  Stand-up Comedians ,  Actresses ,  Writers\nAlso Known As\nJoan Alexandra Molinsky, Queen of the Barbed One-liners, Pepper January, The Queen Of Comedy, @joan_rivers, Ms. Joan Rivers, Jake and Joan Jim, Rivers, Joan\nFamous as\n2015 - Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album - Diary Of A Mad Diva\n1990 - Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Talk Show Host - The Joan Rivers Show\nImage Credit http://pagesix.com/2014/05/03/norwegian-cruise-drops-joan-rivers-after-cheeky-kidnapping-joke/\nJoan Alexandra Molinsky, better known by her stage name, Joan Rivers, was an American actress, comedian, writer, producer, playwright, screenwriter, film director, columnist, lecturer, radio host, jewelry designer and TV-host. As a young girl she worked at a number of jobs before trying her hand at acting. After appearing in numerous small plays she took up stand-up comedy. She became a known face throughout America after appearing as a guest on 'The Tonight Show' which was hosted by her mentor Johnny Carson. With the new found popularity she went onto make guest appearances in many talk shows and released chart-topping comedy albums. In 1986, she became the first woman to host a late night network television show called 'The Late Show with Joan Rivers'. The show's timings clashed with the timings of Carson's show which embittered her former mentor who never spoke to her again. In the last years of her career, she mostly conducted comedic interviews of celebrities walking on the red carpet at award shows. Throughout her career her comic style remained rather controversial as she'd often use satirical and scathing words to make fun of herself and other celebrities. She also wrote 12 best-selling memoir and humor books\nChildhood & Early Life\nJoan Rivers was born on June 8, 1933, in Brooklyn, New York to Russian Jewish immigrants Beatrice and Meyer C Molinsky. Joan had an elder sister, Barbara Waxler who passed away in 2013.\nJoan received her education from Brooklyn Ethical Culture School and the Adelphi Academy. After her family moving to Larchmont, she attended Connecticut College and graduated from Barnard College in 1954 with a BA in English literature and anthropology.\nBefore entering show business she worked as a buyer for a chain store, a tour guide at Rockefeller center, proofreader in an advertising agency and as a fashion consultant.\nOn her agent, Tony Rivers' advise she adopted her stage name - Joan Rivers.\nCareer\nIn the 1960s Rivers performed at many comedy clubs in the Greenwich Village. Her big break came when she appeared on ‘The Tonight Show with Johnny Carson’ in 1965. Eventually she got her own talk-show 'That Show with Joan Rivers' in 1969.\nIn the 1970s, she appeared on comedy show 'The Carol Burnett Show' and the game show 'Hollywood Squares'. She wrote a black comedy movie titled 'The Girl Most Likely to...', directed the film 'Rabbit Test' and performed the opening acts for the singers Helen Reddy, Robert Goulet, Mac Davis and Sergio Franchi at the Las Vegas strip.\nBy 1983, she had become a regular guest host of 'The Tonight Show' and also hosted the April 9, 1983 episode of 'Saturday Night Live'. Around this time, she also released a comedy album titled 'What becomes a Semi-Legend Most?' The album was a huge hit and attained No. 22 on the US Billboard 200.\nIn 1986, FOX TV Network announced the launch of 'The Late Show with Joan Rivers'. The show timings clashed with that of Johnny Carson’s show but Rivers did not tell him anything about the show. Carson never talked to her again.\nA new TV talk show 'The Joan Rivers Show' came out in 1989 and ran for five years. It won her the Daytime Emmy for Outstanding Talk Show in 1990.\nIn 1994, she co-wrote and starred in the play 'Sally Marr... and Her Escorts' which was about Lenny Bruce's mother, an established stand-up comedian herself. Rivers was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play for the role.\nShe made regular appearances on Howard Stern's radio show and The Shopping Channel where she promoted her own line of jewelry, The Joan Rivers Collection.\nThe 2005 wedding of Prince Charles (Prince of Wales) and Camilla Parker Bowles saw only four Americans in the guest list; Rivers was one of the esteemed ones.\nIn 2008, she appeared on the show 'Big Brother: Celebrity Hijack' as one of the 20 hijackers. The same year she also appeared on the NBC-show 'Celebrity Feud' with her daughter Melissa.\nIn 2009, she became the special 'pink-carpet' presenter for the Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras parade. She was roasted in the Comedy Central Special roast aired on August 9, 2009.\nThe TV show 'Joan and Melissa: Joan Knows Best?' premiered on January 25, 2011 on WE TV. It chronicled their lives as they worked on their careers, took care of the family and balanced their social circles. It concluded on May 4, 2014 after four seasons.\nAwards & Achievements\nJoan Rivers received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1989.\nShe won the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Talk Show Host for ‘The Joan Rivers Show’ in 1990.\nShe won a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for 'Diary of a Mad Diva' in 2015.\nPersonal Life & Legacy\nJoan Rivers married James Sanger, the son of a Bond Clothing Stores manager, in 1955. When she found out that he was not interested in having children, she got the marriage annulled in six months.\nShe married Edgar Rosenberg in 1965 and they had a daughter named Melissa. Edgar committed suicide in 1987 and Rivers later confessed that their 22-year marriage was a 'total sham' and that she had had several extra-marital affairs.\nSeveral times her cheeky and in-your-face humor landed her in trouble. Her jokes on Adele's weight, the Holocaust and Ariel Castro kidnappings received stern and strong criticism, but she refused to apologize as these were jokes and nothing more.\nRivers had several cosmetic surgeries and was a patient of the famous plastic surgeon Steven Hoefflin.\nFollowing a minor surgery in August 2014, she had a cardiac arrest and was placed in a medically induced coma. Joan Rivers never woke up from the coma and passed away on September 4, 2014.\nNet Worth\nAt the time of her death, Joan Rivers had an estimated net worth of $150 million.\nTrivia\nShe was a philanthropist who supported the Elton John AIDS Foundation. The City of San Diego called her their 'Joan of Arc' because of her philanthropic work regarding HIV/AIDS.\nShe helped several NGOs and generously donated to Jewish charities, animal welfare efforts, and suicide prevention causes\n \nTranslate this page to Spanish, French, Hindi, Portuguese\nPictures of Joan Rivers\nAlso Listed In", "Joan Rivers Biography - life, family, children, name, story, wife, mother, old, born, college - Newsmakers Cumulation\nJoan Rivers Biography\nJoan Rivers Biography\nComedian, writer, actress, and television show host\nBorn Joan Alexandra Molinsky, June 8, 1933, in Brooklyn, NY; daughter of Meyer C. (a physician) and Beatrice Molinsky; married James Sanger (an heir to a department store fortune), 1957 (annulled, 1958); married Edgar Rosenberg (a manager, executive, and producer), 1964 (committed suicide, August 14, 1987); children: Melissa (from second marriage). Education: Attended Connecticut College for Women; Barnard College, B.A. (English and anthropology), 1954.\nAddresses: Agent —William Morris Agency, 151 El Camino Dr., Beverly Hills, CA 90212. Office —c/o QVC, 1200 Wilson Dr. at Studio Park, Westchester, PA 19380. Website —http://www.joanrivers.com.\nCareer\nWorked as fashion coordinator for Bond Clothing Store and as publicist in New York department store Lord & Taylor, 1950s; actress in Off Broadway plays; worked as a comedian touring United States, billed as Pepper January; appeared with Second City improvisational troupe, 1961-62; wrote for television show Candid Camera ; first appearance on The Tonight Show, NBC, 1965; released album Joan Rivers Presents Mr. Phyllis and Other Funny Stories, Warner Bros., 1965; first appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show, 1966; continued to tour as a comedian, 1960s-1970s; had own talk show, That Show Starring Joan Rivers, 1968; made big-screen debut in The Swimmer, 1968; wrote and starred in Broadway play, Fun City, 1972; co-wrote television\nJoan Rivers\nmovie, The Girl Most Likely To ..., ABC, 1973; wrote syndicated column for Chicago Tribune ; wrote and directed feature film Rabbit Test, 1977; co-creator of television series Husbands, Wives, and Lovers, CBS, 1978; worked as substitute host for The Tonight Show, through early 1980s; signed contract to be permanent co-host for Carson on The Tonight Show, 1983; released album What Becomes a Semi-Legend Most, Geffen, 1983; appeared as guest host, Saturday Night Live, NBC; signed to be host of The Late Show, FOX, 1985; center square on Hollywood Squares game show, 1987; had role in Broadway Bound, 1988; had own daytime talk show, The Joan Rivers Show, 1988-93; had talk show Joan Rivers' Gossip! Gossip! Gossip!, USA, 1992-93; sold line of jewelry on QVC home shopping network, 1992—; had talk show Can We Shop?, syndicated, 1994; co-wrote the stage show Sally Marr and Her Escorts, 1994; co-wrote and appeared in Tears and Laughter: The Joan and Melissa Rivers Story, NBC, 1994; hostess of pre-award show programs for E! Entertainment Television, 1995-2004; made guest appearances on Another World, NBC, 1997; radio talk-show host, WOR, 1997-2002; performed Broke and Alone in London (solo show), West End, London, 2002; guest appearance on Nip/Tuck, F/X, 2004; provided voice for animated film Shrek 2, 2004; host of pre-award show programs for TV Guide Channel, 2004—.\nAwards: Georgie Award for best comedian, American Guild of Variety Artists, 1975; Clio Awards, best performance in a TV commercial, 1976, 1982; Daytime Emmy Award for best talk show host, for The Joan Rivers Show, 1990; Marymount Manhattan College, honorary doctorate, 1996.\nSidelights\nIn the early 2000s, Joan Rivers was best known for her work as a red carpet fashion commentator for the Academy Awards, Emmys, and other major awards shows. However, she has had a varied career, working on stage, film, and television. Rivers began her career as a touring comedian before her big break on The Tonight Show in the 1960s. In the 1970s, she wrote and/or starred in films, plays, and television movies. By the 1980s, Rivers had a high profile, first as the permanent guest host of The Tonight Show then as the host of her own, usually short-lived talk shows. Rivers re-invented herself in the mid-1990s as a fashion commentator who often appeared with her daughter, Melissa.\nRivers was born Joan Alexandra Molinsky on June 8, 1933, in the borough of Brooklyn in New York City. She was the daughter of Meyer and Beatrice Molinsky. Her father was a doctor, while her mother had been born to wealth in Imperial Russia, but her family had become impoverished during the Russian Revolution. Rivers was raised in wealth with an older sister, Barbara, who became an attorney and was seen as better and more accomplished than her younger sister.\nRivers attended Connecticut College for Women, then Barnard College. As a student, she appeared in college productions of Othello and An Ideal Husband. Rivers earned her B.A. in English and anthropology from Barnard College in 1954. She then worked for Lord & Taylor, a New York City-based department store, as a publicist, as well as a fashion coordinator for Bond Clothing Stores in the 1950s. Rivers married for the first time to James Sanger, the heir to the Bond Stores fortune, in 1957. The marriage was short-lived, and annulled the following year.\nWhen her marriage to Sanger ended, Rivers went home for a time and decided that she wanted to be an actress. She studied the craft and appeared in some Off Broadway plays. Rivers soon turned to comedy when she was told that was where her talents laid. She did not really have the support of her family, who wanted Rivers to marry. Instead, Rivers supported herself by becoming a comedian touring the United States under the name Pepper January.\nFrom 1961 to 1962, Rivers worked with Second City, the well-known improvisational comedy troupe. After this run, she continued to perform as a comedian, primarily working in New York City. Her comedy focused on politics and society. Rivers had one immediate goal: appearing on The Tonight Show with Johnny Carson. After a number of unsuccessful attempts, she finally made her debut on the show in 1965. Carson said he enjoyed her act and stated she would be successful. This marked Rivers' first big break. She soon appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show, a popular variety show, for the first time.\nAs Rivers' professional career began to soar, her personal life also improved. In 1964, she married her second husband, Edgar Rosenberg, a British producer. Together, they had one child, a daughter named Melissa. Rosenberg supported his wife's career and helped her hone her comedy act. He also helped her work through her fears about performing. Rivers' comedy focus gradually changed as she began talking about herself instead of others. Drawing on her Jewish, middle-class background, she made light of herself as an obese child, an adult who liked to shop, and a wife who could not cook.\nIn 1968, Rivers had her first shot at a talk show, the short-lived That Show Starring Joan Rivers. She also tried to break into films, with a small role in The Swimmer. Most of her success still came as a touring comedian, including stints in Las Vegas throughout the 1970s. Rivers also appeared on a number of television variety shows, as well as The Tonight Show on a regular basis.\nIn the 1970s, Rivers' career expanded beyond comedy and television as she moved into other genres. In 1972, she wrote and starred in her own Broadway play, Fun City. The following year, she co-wrote a television movie that aired on ABC, The Girl Most Likely To. During this same time period, she was writing a nationally syndicated column for the Chicago Tribune. In 1977, Rivers wrote and directed her first feature film, Rabbit Test. Starring comedian Billy Crystal, the film focuses on the first man to become pregnant and give birth. The film was panned by critics.\nAfter the failure of Husband, Wives, and Lovers, a 1978 television situation comedy that Rivers cocreated, she continued working on screenplay and television script ideas through the early 1980s. However, Rivers primarily focused on developing her own comic material and performing live. By this time, her comedy made fun of celebrities and other people, such as Elizabeth Taylor, Queen Elizabeth II, and First Lady Nancy Reagan. Rivers also focused on her own appearance, promoting plastic surgery, and the promiscuity of a made-up best friend. Of her take on comedy, she told Gerald Clarke of Time, \"Comedy should always be on that very fine line of going too far. It should always be on the brink of disaster. Otherwise, it's pap and who cares? It's boring. Then you become the grand old lady .\"\nRivers' frequent appearances on The Tonight Show led to her being a frequent substitute host for Carson. In 1983, she signed a contract making her the permanent substitute for Carson, essentially his co-host. Rivers hosted The Tonight Show on a weekly basis as Carson often went on vacation and worked many shortened weeks by this time period. Though sometimes controversial—especially among those she skewered with her comedy—she did well in the ratings. She sometimes drew better ratings than Carson himself. However, Rivers soon feuded with NBC over The Tonight Show because she allegedly was not being considered to replace Carson when he retired.\nThe situation with The Tonight Show soon worsened. In 1985, Rivers signed with the new FOX network to host her own talk show, The Late Show. The move was considered a stab in the back to Carson, who had helped her career in so many ways, because she worked on the deal without telling him about it. After she signed the three-year, $15 million deal, Carson and Rivers became rivals. The Late Show premiered in the fall of 1986, and only had low ratings and mostly negative reviews. Rivers was fired in the spring of 1987, and replaced by guest hosts.\nOne potential reason for the failure of The Late Show was tension between FOX and Rivers. The network wanted her to be more pleasant to guests and not the hard interviewer she had been on The Tonight Show. She also believed that she could not get great guests to appear. Rivers' husband acted as the show's executive producer and ran it behind the scenes. Rosenberg and FOX had major disagreements about The Late Show, and the network fired Rivers primarily because of him. It was believed that FOX would have kept her if she would have gotten rid of him.\nThe failure of The Late Show weighed heavily on Rosenberg. Soon after its end, he killed himself in a hotel room in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. However, the show's demise was probably not the only reason for his suicide. He had suffered two heart attacks and heart failure in 1984, and had to have bypass surgery. He and Rivers had also separated. After his death, the general perception by the public was that Rivers did not particularly care about her husband's suicide. This happened despite the fact that she had called him her strength and stability in print three years earlier and considered suicide herself for a time after his passing.\nAs Rivers pulled her life back together, she found she was no longer in demand as she had been. For a time, she was not booked in the same clubs as before because of her show's failure and husband's death. To continue to earn a leaving, she served as the center square on the game show Hollywood Squares for a time in 1987. Rivers also moved back to New York City, where she returned to the stage. She appeared as Kate in Broadway Bound, a critical and box office success.\nTelevision still had its allure for Rivers, and she soon had new talk shows. Beginning in 1988, she had a gossipy syndicated daytime talk show, The Joan Rivers Show, which lasted for several years. On this show, she was open about herself—her surgeries, her husband's death, her relationship with her daughter—and tried to get her guests to be as honest about themselves. Rivers told Joanne Kaufman of People, \"If I had seen myself as this real failure, I wouldn't have done this. But this was a case of getting back on the horse. I know I can do a talk show as well as some and better than others. And don't dare anyone tell me I cannot do something. I had to prove to myself I could.\" Rivers won a Daytime Emmy Award for her work on the show.\nWhile The Joan Rivers Show was still on the air, Rivers began doing another show as well. In 1992, she did Joan Rivers' Gossip! Gossip! Gossip! for the USA network. Both shows were canceled in 1993. By this time, Rivers had another source of income. Since 1992, she had been selling her own line of jewelry on QVC. She later added other products to her line, including clothing. By early 1994, she had sold $60 million in jewelry and fashion. Rivers owned her own company to create these products called Joan Rivers Worldwide, of which she served as chief executive officer and president.\nRivers also continued to write and act in television and on stage. In 1994, she co-wrote a stage show with Lonny Price and Erin Sanders called Sally Marr and Her Escorts. It was loosely based on the life of comic Lenny Bruce's mother. When the show made it to Broadway, Rivers played the title role. That same year, Rivers and her daughter co-wrote the autobiographical television movie, Tears and Laughter: The Joan and Melissa Rivers Story, for NBC. The pair also starred in the movie, which focused on their relationship and Rivers' professional career after the death of her husband. Tears and Laughter did well in the ratings.\nIn 1995, Rivers started a new line of work, providing commentary on what celebrities wore to awards shows and related pre-awards shows with her daughter. The pair had a contract with E! Entertainment Television to do this commentary before the Emmys, Academy Awards, Golden Globes, and other events. Rivers and her daughter also interviewed attendees about all aspects of their lives when they walked on the red carpet. After several years, they also added a special after the Academy Awards to talk about who wore what to the ceremony.\nWhile continuing her commentary shows, Rivers also began a new job. In 1997, she began hosting a syndicated talk show on WOR, a New York City-based radio station. It was eventually syndicated to about 50 other radio stations. On the show, Rivers interviewed guests, talked about the news, discussed both sides of a current issue, and did some comedy. The show ended its run in 2002.\nRivers continued to work as an actress on occasion. In 1997, she had a role for a few episodes on the soap opera Another World. In 2002, Rivers performed a solo show in England, Broke and Alone in London. Two years later, she had a guest appearance on the F/X show Nip/Tuck and provided a voice in the animated feature Shrek 2.\nIn 2004, Rivers and her daughter ended their relationship with E! and joined the TV Guide Channel for the same kind of commentary shows in June of that year. Rivers' three-year deal was worth $8 million. In addition to doing the award show programming, Rivers and her daughter also planned to do holiday specials and other shows for the TV Guide Channel. Of Rivers' importance to awards shows, Rose Apodaca Jones told Clarissa Cruz of Entertainment Weekly, \"The red carpet is what it is because of Joan.\"\nSelected discography", "1000+ images about JOAN RIVERS aka joan alexandra molinsky rosenberg on Pinterest | Johnny carson, Joan rivers quotes and Penthouse for sale\nPinterest • The world’s catalog of ideas\nJOAN RIVERS aka joan alexandra molinsky rosenberg\n\"Style is like Herpes;you either have it or you do not\" ~Joan Rivers.Style? She had it! Controversial ? Yes but strong,smart,accomplished,philanthropic,funny,supported America and Israel,looked fabulous.We prayed that Joan would recover after a cardiac and respiratory arrest on 8/28/2014...But Joan went home to be with the Lord on 9/4/2014. God Bless you Joan for all you have given and all that you are...You will be missed so very much... I feel I have lost my dearest friend...RIP.\n294 Pins274 Followers", "Joan Rivers - Biography - IMDb\nJoan Rivers\nBiography\nShowing all 152 items\nJump to: Overview  (5) | Mini Bio  (1) | Spouse  (2) | Trade Mark  (8) | Trivia  (81) | Personal Quotes  (54) | Salary  (1)\nOverview (5)\nThe Queen of the Barbed One-liners\nHeight\n5' 2\" (1.57 m)\nMini Bio (1)\nJoan Rivers was born on June 8, 1933 in Brooklyn, New York City, New York, USA as Joan Alexandra Molinsky. She was a writer and actress, known for Fashion Police (2002), The Joan Rivers Show (1989) and The Joan Rivers Show (1968). She was married to Edgar Rosenberg and James Sanger. She died on September 4, 2014 in East Harlem, Manhattan, New York City.\nSpouse (2)\n( 15 July  1965 - 14 August  1987) (his death) (1 child)\nJames Sanger\n(1955 - 1955) (annulled)\nTrade Mark (8)\nHad had a lot of plastic surgery, had never denied it, and as a matter of fact, made lots of jokes about her own (and other people's) plastic surgery.\nLoud, raspy voice with New York accent.\nSaid \"Can we talk?\" frequently in both her acting roles and stand-up routines.\n\"What a tramp!\" or \"Such a tramp!\"\nHad made fun towards each other\nHer self-deprecating persona\nAttended Adelphi University in Garden City, New York.\nAttended Connecticut College for Women in New London, Conneticut.\nReceived her Bachelor's degree in English literature and anthropology from Barnard College in New York City (1954).\nAfter graduating from college and before getting into show business, she was briefly a shoe buyer for Lord & Taylor, a department store in New York City.\nCollected Faberge eggs.\nSaid the most difficult celebrity she ever interviewed was Tommy Lee Jones , whom she thought was rude.\nWas the national spokesperson for the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation.\nHosted a daily talk show on WOR-AM radio in New York City from 1997 until 2002, syndicated to about 50 stations.\nAbout 1982, she was appointed the first permanent guest hostess on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson (1962). She infuriated Johnny Carson when she left to host her own show, The Late Show (1986) on rival Fox network. Johnny Carson never spoke to her again.\nShe won a Daytime Emmy Award in 1990 for best talk show host and was nominated for a Tony Award for the play \"Donna Marr and Her Escorts\" in 1994. She was also nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Comedy Recording in 1985.\nWas one of the final guests to appear on The Wayne Brady Show (2002).\nWas nominated for Broadway's 1994 Tony Award as Best Actress (Play) for portraying the title character, Sally Marr , in \"Sally Marr... and Her Escorts\".\nWas a vegetarian.\nStarted performing as a stand-up comedienne using the stage name Pepper January.\nShe was a Phi Beta Kappa Sorority key holder from Barnard College, where she studied anthropology.\nShe had her first cosmetic surgery procedure (an eye-lift) in 1965 at age 32.\nShe had her nose thinned in 1983.\nThe majority of her plastic surgery was performed by Santa Monica surgeon Steven Hoefflin (who also performed plastic surgery on Michael Jackson 's nose). She also received Botox and collagen injections every four months from New York City dermatologist Patricia Wexler.\nShe was an advocate of plastic surgery for older women saying that if a woman can afford it, it is worth it for her self-esteem.\nEarly in her career, she performed as half of the comedy team of \"Joanie and Bill\". \"Bill\" was former actor William Perry (1936-2006) who was the nephew of actress Toby Wing .\nAn accomplished author, she has written several candid autobiographies, including \"Enter Talking\" and \"Still Talking\". Author of self-help books, including \"Bouncing Back: I've Survived Everything... and I Mean Everything... and You Can Too!\" and \"Don't Count the Candles: Just Keep the Fire Lit!\". Author of several comedy books, including \"Having a Baby Can Be a Scream\" and \"The Life and Hard Times of Heidi Abromowitz\".\nHer father, Meyer C. Molinsky, was a doctor.\nHer parents, Beatrice (Grushman) and Meyer Molinsky, were Russian Jewish immigrants.\nEarly in her career, she was a writer for Candid Camera (1953).\nHer publicist was Judy Katz .\nWas a Republican.\nUsed to maintain a residence in Litchfield County, Connecticut adjacent to the former Bill Blass estate.\nPerformed stand-up comedy, prior to hopeful Broadway run, at Club Fez in Manhattan. [June 2002]\n(June 30, 2004) Announced that she and her daughter, Melissa Rivers , were leaving E! Entertainment to fashion-bash red-carpet-wise over at the TV Guide Channel. They had been with E! Entertainment since 1996.\nMost recently lived in Malibu, California with her daughter, Melissa Rivers , and her grandson, Edgar Cooper Endicott .\nShe was awarded a Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 7030 Hollywood Boulevard in Hollywood, California on July 26, 1989.\nOn August 28, 2014, she was rushed to Mount Sinai Hospital after experiencing complications during throat surgery being performed at a New York City Clinic.\nJoan Rivers passed away on September 4, 2014, at age 81. This was a month, after her longtime friend Lauren Bacall had passed away.\nUpon her death, her body was cremated at the Garden State Crematory in Union City, New Jersey, and her ashes are in possession of her daughter Melissa.\nProtegee of Phyllis Diller .\nKnew Kelly Osbourne when she was only 6, she later worked with her on Fashion Police (2002).\nHer older sister, Barbara Waxler, passed away on June 3, 2013 at age 82.\nAttended the funeral of Ernest Borgnine , when the actor passed away in 2012.\nAt a very early age, she wanted to be an actress.\nThough she was born in Brooklyn, New York, Rivers was also raised in the following cities: Crown Heights and portions of the Prospect Heights and Brownsville neighborhoods of Central Brooklyn.\nHer father, Dr. Meyer C. Molinsky, who graduated from medical school at Long Island College and in the mid-1930s kept an office at 760 Montgomery Street in Crown Heights, New York, historical records show.\nHad never retired from comedy.\nAfter her death, the friends who attended her funeral on September 7, 2014 were Oprah Winfrey , Whoopi Goldberg , Bernadette Peters , David Letterman , Jimmy Kimmel , Kathy Griffin , Donald Trump , Kelly Osbourne , Howard Stern , Robin Quivers , Kathie Lee Gifford , Rachael Ray , Geraldo Rivera , Sally Jessy Raphael , Sarah Jessica Parker , Judy Sheindlin , Barbara Walters , Rosie O'Donnell , Diane Sawyer and her daughter Melissa Rivers .\nIn 2012, Rivers protested against the warehouse-club Costco because they would not sell her New York Times bestselling book, \"I Hate Everyone... Starting with Me\". She handcuffed herself to a person's shopping cart and shouted through a megaphone. The police were called to the scene and she left without incident and no arrests were made.\nBest remembered by the public as the hostess of The Joan Rivers Show (1989), Fashion Police (2002) and Joan & Melissa: Joan Knows Best? (2011).\nWas merciless with subjects of popular piety.\nBefore she was a successful actress and comedienne, she was part of \"Jim, Jake, and Joan\", a comedic musical trio, in 1964.\nHad briefly attended Brooklyn Ethical Culture School in Brooklyn, New York.\nCelebrated her 80th birthday on an episode of Fashion Police (2002) and on QVC, on June 8, 2013.\nWhile being a talk show hostess, she once worked as a waitress at Denny's Restaurant, in W. Palm Beach, Florida. She was switching jobs with Rhonda Denton who used to work at the same restaurant, when the guest host for Rivers on The Joan Rivers Show (1989) was announced in New York.\nServed as an Honorary Director of the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention.\nBefore an unfamiliar comedian Arsenio Hall had a successful late night talk show, she had used him for The Late Show (1986), as her replacement. Fortunately for Hall, he only got the job, because she left the show, because of the way the producers had been taken advantaged of her.\nA big influence on Canadian comedian Katherine Ryan .\nShe was regarded in being one of the busiest personalities on television.\nMentor and friends of: Oprah Winfrey , Whoopi Goldberg , Arsenio Hall , Kathy Griffin , Chris Hardwick , Kelly Osborne and her real-life daughter Melissa Rivers .\nShe graduated from the Adelphi Academy of Brooklyn in Brooklyn, New York, in 1950, at almost 17 years old.\nIn 1949, aged 16, she was vice president of the Dramatic Club at the Adelphi Academy in Brooklyn, New York.\nHad first watched television; when she was only 6 at the World's Fair.\nLifelong friend of nearly 35 years Geraldo Rivera .\nWas brought on to The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson (1962), seven times and was turned down, until she made her first appearance.\nHad changed her last name from Molinsky to Rivers; this was because she wanted to be an actress; her agent Larry Rivers talked her into doing this.\nHer husband Edgar Rosenberg even committed suicide when he was overdosing himself with a bottle of prescription pills. Their daughter Melissa Rivers found him unconscious in a Philadelphia hotel room.\nHad always wanted to be an actress, this led her parents into kicking young Molinsky out of her parents' house.\nWas the only performer to have guest-hosted or have appeared on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson (1962), more than anyone else.\nMet Barbara Walters at NBC in 1965, where there might've been a competition in between the two ladies. The two became friends for nearly 50 years, until Rivers's own death in 2014.\nJoan Rivers passed away on September 4, 2014, at age 81. Just before her death, she hosted her final taping of Fashion Police (2002), about the 66th Primetime Emmy Awards and the 2014 MTV Movie Awards.\nOn her 100th episode of The Late Show (1986), Rivers had two separate problems: the ratings sank, and she was also separated from her husband, Edgar Rosenberg , who wasn't just depressed, but was in bad health, after years of heavy smoking, who was also deeply in debt. He tried to ask her for help, when she refused to help him. She told him he had to get help, who couldn't pull poor Rivers down. Before Edgar's suicide, she was fired from the talk show, after 1 year.\nHer career almost came to an end when she feuded with Johnny Carson , off- the set of The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson (1962), the loss of her second husband Edgar Rosenberg and her short-lived talk show The Late Show (1986), however, she attempted to make a comeback when she was hosting a Daytime Talk Show, The Joan Rivers Show (1989), in 1989.\nHad started acting when she was in high school.\nHad performed on television late, but her successful comedy career had lasted 55 years.\nJust before Johnny Carson 's death, Rivers called him many times, but refused to answer all of her calls.\nBefore Chris Hardwick was a comedian, game show host and a talk show host, he, alongside his family met her, when she was doing an opening act for her own mentor Johnny Carson , in Las Vegas, Nevada, when he was only 3 years old, and became friends, of nearly 40 years, until Rivers's own death in 2014.\nThe first joke she ever stole was on The Jack Paar Tonight Show (1957).\nJust before her death, she starred and have hosted Fashion Police (2002) and Joan & Melissa: Joan Knows Best? (2011), at the same time.\nIn 1942, when young Joan was 9, she watched the movie Journey for Margaret (1942), starring Margaret O'Brien . She was very disgusted realizing she could've done better than her.\nHad never performed as a child.\nAlmost shared the same birthday with Ruth Westheimer , by 4 days, who is 5 years Rivers's senior.\nWas one of the stars to release statements in Paul Reubens defense, after he was being arrested for indecent exposure in July 1991.\nAttended the funeral of Ed McMahon , when the television personality/announcer passed away on June 29, 2009.\nPersonal Quotes (54)\n[on her idea of a perfect childbirth experience] Knock me out with the first pain, and wake me up when the hairdresser arrives.\nIf you're not a wreck in this business, you're not around.\nOnce I was having lunch in a fancy restaurant with Lily Tomlin and Richard Pryor . We were all struggling comics together and the day we had lunch, any one of us could have picked up the check. That's when I knew I'd made it.\nCamilla Parker-Bowles is an earthy, funny woman. You can swear in front of her.\n[on Parkinson (1971), when entering] I am a dyke! And I'm DAMN proud of it!\nI want them to know I don't think I'm wonderful, or better than they are. Part of comedy is saying: \"I am you and you are me, and we're all feeling the same thing\".\nI'm in nobody's circle, I've always been an outsider. I don't have those wonderful dinners with Woody, I've never been asked by Jay. And it makes you sad, because I think it would be wonderful to sit and talk about things that very few people understand. But I'm very competitive, and I'm sure they feel that. I'm jealous of that little slut Paris Hilton . Why? I'm very competitive. And I think that's what has kept me going. I'm not gracious.\nThe only thing that's saving me is my age. Because I don't care. I've been up, I've been down. I've been fired, I've been hired. I've been broke. What are you gonna to do me? Not like me? I don't give a damn.\nThere is not one female comic who was beautiful as a little girl.\n[on young female comics]: They all come up to me and say, \"Without you, I couldn't be here, the barriers you broke down.\" I say, \"Get the f*** away from me. I still could take every one of you with one hand behind my back. Outta here. Talk like that at my funeral, but not till then\".\n[June 29, 2008] One of the reasons I am so happy - there's lots happening again. Four times in my life, I woke up and the diary was empty. That's the worst feeling in the world. My Broadway show and my talk show were canceled on the same Friday. And I went that night to see Barbra Streisand , whom I'd started with, perform for 20,000 people at Madison Square Garden. That was a very bad night. Now I'm doing a pilot, I have two books coming, I have my play, I'm in a series that they've shot and they hope will be successful, I'm doing stand-up and I've got my jewelry company. At this age, to be wanted - you are fighting every single step of the way.\nI was just interviewed for a documentary [ Making Trouble (2007)] on my least favorite subject - women comedians and how we've all been kept out. These two women came to my house, very serious, and asked, \"How long did it take for you to get into the room?\". I said, \"Let me tell you something: if Adolf Hitler had four good jokes, he'd be in the room.\" It has to do with funny. Then they talked about how women help each other. I said, \"I hate to tell you, but if it was between Sarah Silverman and me for a job? I'll kill her and she'll kill me. There's no sisterhood in comedy\".\nThere is not one female comic who was beautiful as a little girl. Tell me one funny woman who was ever beautiful. Gwyneth Paltrow , stop, please, stop, I can't stand it. Angelina Jolie ? Men don't want you funny. It's all about coping when you're not being the pretty girl, and you're not being the first one asked to dance, and the bottle spins and lands on you and Stuart Wein doesn't want to kiss you.\nOne of the earliest jokes I did about my husband was that I was the one who really caused Edgar's suicide, because, while we were making love, I took the bag off my head.\nMy husband wanted to be cremated. I told him I'd scatter his ashes at [the department store] Neiman Marcus - that way, I'd visit him every day.\nI knew I was an unwanted baby when I saw my bath toys were a toaster and a radio.\n[In an interview, on the British chat show Loose Women (1999) in 2008, on working the red carpet for the E! Channel]: You get someone like Russell Crowe , and you want to say to the camera, he is a piece of - get ready to bleep this - f***ing shit. (Rivers was immediately pulled from the British chat show - they had no bleep.) These idiots came running onto the set, ripped me off my seat and dragged me off, saying, \"Let's go, let's go, let's go.\" When the audience saw my empty chair, I worried that, because of my age, they might think I'd wet it because my diaper leaked. People always ask me, \"What haven't you done, Miss Rivers? You've done this and that, been nominated for an Emmy and a Tony. You've hosted shows, you've acted, done stand-up, lost your husband to suicide, been bankrupted by a business partner [who made off with $37m in the 1990s] - what haven't you done?\". Well, until today, I'd never been kicked off live television. Assholes.\n[Interview with Andrew Scott, June 10, 2010] I've never been in the \"in\" group. I've never been considered. But that's what keeps me punching, if that makes sense. I'm still in the \"I'll show you\" mentality.\n[on the passing of Elaine Kaufman ] Elaine's was a place you went to let everyone know you were in town. It was first stop L.A./N.Y. You knew your name was above the title when Elaine sat with you. I also loved that the prices changed constantly.\n[on reality shows] When was the last time you went to a dinner party where three women got up and slapped each other? Everybody's punching and slapping. This is not reality. We got a second season because everybody that has a parent, a mother, anyone can relate to what really happens between adult children and parents.\nHaving my daughter, I screamed for twenty-three hours straight. And that was just during conception.\nBoy George is all England needs. Another queen who can't dress.\nNew York was the magic city. New York was Oz. All I wanted to do was get out of Brooklyn and get into Oz. We'd go to the theater district -- I saved my money, and I would go with a girlfriend and sit in Sardi's, order an avocado for 60 cents, and wait to be discovered. They must have been thrilled to see us. We went to Howard Johnson's, and my friend smoked a cigarette. We're sitting at the Howard Johnson's, and we're smoking cigarettes -- say no more.\nMen who look down my dress usually compliment me on my shoes.\nThat awful, vulgar, loud woman on stage, that's not me. I wouldn't want to be her friend.\n[on antiques] If Louis XIV hasn't sat on it, I don't want it.\n[In 2010, on Twitter] With all the plastic surgery I've had, I'm worried that when I die, God won't recognize me!\nI don't exercise. If God had wanted me to bend over, he would have put diamonds on the floor.\n[on the red-carpet] Who are you wearing?\n[her trademark line] Can we talk?\nMy best birth control now is just to leave the lights on.\nThe secret of my success is just saying what everybody else has been thinking.\nI haven't missed the Emmys since that year my makeup team was nominated for \"Best Special Effects\"!\nLook at Gwyneth Paltrow being named the Most Beautiful this year. Congratulations, Gwyneth! Now look at who she got to vote: Ray Charles , José Feliciano , Helen Keller, Ronnie Milsap , Tom Sullivan , and Stevie Wonder .\nNever be afraid to laugh at yourself; after all, you could be missing out on the joke of the century.\nI hate housework. You make the beds, you do the dishes...and six months later, you have to start all over again.\nThere are three things all children should be taught never to do: touch a hot stove; pull lamps off tables; and wake their mother before noon.\nA study says owning a dog makes you 10 years younger. I'd rescue two more, but who wants to go through menopause twice?\n[on daughter Melissa Rivers ] She and I are very close. We speak every single day. Literally, I call her every day and leave the same message on her answering machine: \"Pick the hell up, Melissa. I know you're there, damn it.\" And she always calls me back with the same response: \"Mom, how in God's name did you get this new number?\"\nAt my funeral, I want Meryl Streep crying in five different accents.\n[on Justin Bieber ] He looks like the daughter Cher wishes she'd had.\nWant to know why women don't blink during foreplay? Not enough time.\n[on Renee Zellweger] Push her face against a glass door, and you'll see what all babies look like at birth.\nIf you don't want gays in the military, make the uniforms ugly.\nMy love life is like a piece of Swiss cheese: much of it's missing, and what's there stinks.\nThe great thing about irrigating your colon is that sometimes you find old jewelry.\nPeople say that money is not the key to happiness. But I've always figured that, with enough money, you can hire a battering ram.\nAll I ever heard when I was a kid was,\"Why can't you be more like your cousin Sheila?\" And Sheila had died at birth.\nI wish I had a twin, so I could know what I'd look like without plastic surgery.\nI have no sex appeal. If my husband didn't toss and turn, we'd never have had any kids.\nAll my mother told me about sex was that the man goes on top, and that the woman goes on bottom. For three years, my husband and I slept in bunk beds.\nMy sex life is so bad, my G-spot has been declared a historical landmark.\n[on turning 50]: Our natures are a lot like oil, mix us with anything else, and we strive to swim on top.\n[When constantly thought about dying]: In your 80s, you'd be foolish not to think about that. I am definitely going to be cremated. I've left money so the dogs can be taken care of. I've said to Melissa, 'Sell anything and everything you don't want. Don't feel beholden to my possessions.' I feel almost hysterical on that. I don't want them to have a sense of guilt.\nSalary (1)" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Patricia_Neary.txt" ], "title": [ "Patricia Neary" ], "wiki_context": [ "Patricia Neary (born October 27, 1942) is an American ballerina, choreographer and ballet director, who has been particularly active in Switzerland. She has also been a highly successful ambassador for the Balanchine Trust, bringing George Balanchine's ballets to some 60 cities around the globe.\n\nBiography\n\nBorn in Miami, Florida, she first studied there under George Milenoff and Thomas Armour until she attended the School of American Ballet in New York. \n\nAt the age of 14, she joined the National Ballet of Canada as the youngest dancer in the company. In 1960, she became a member of the New York City Ballet where she performed almost all the ballerina roles in George Balanchine's major works, including two roles he created specially for her in Raymonda Variations (1961) and Jewels (1967). She also performed leading roles in ballets by Jerome Robbins, Antony Tudor, John Taras and Merce Cunningham.\n\nIn 1968, she joined the Geneva Ballet where she performed in and staged Balanchine's ballets. She also made guest appearances in Stuttgart, Hamburg and Hannover. She worked as assistant ballet mistress with the ballet of the Deutsche Oper Berlin from 1970 to 1973. With Balachine acting as artistic advisor, she was appointed director of ballet at the Grand Théâtre de Genève (1973–78). From 1978 to 1985, she served as ballet director of the Zurich Ballet, then of La Scala in Milan (1986–87). As artistic director of Ballet British Columbia (1989–90), she choreographed Variations Concertantes with music by Alberto Ginastera.\n\nSince 1988, she has worked as an ambassador for the Balanchine Trust, bringing his works to some 60 cities in Europe, the Far East and across the United States." ] }

{ "description": [ "Edward Villella; Edward Villella. ... including perhaps his most famous in the cast of Balanchine's ... In recognition of his lifetime achievements in the arts, ...", "About Us | Class Schedule and ... Patricia Neary, Patricia Wilde, ... for her portrayal of Kitri in Don Quixote at the famous Three Rivers Arts Festival in Pittsburgh", "What else Patricia Neary has to say about the famous “Mr. B.” and his work and which Staatsballett dancers fulfills his ideals the ... “The Art of Ballet ...", "Suzanne Farrell and George Balanchine in Don Quixote. ... Log into the Catalog Log into the Classic Catalog Catalog Info", "Palm Beach Arts Paper | Mar 07 2015 ... the same museum that houses Donatello’s famous Statue ... George Balanchine Trust — Patricia Neary and Peter Frame — who ...", "NYCB ART SERIES; Public Programs. Family Saturdays; Children's Workshops; In Motion Workshops; Ballet Essentials; ... Patricia Neary Lars Nelson Otto Neubert Tange ...", "Dance Channel TV http://www.dancechanneltv.com ... Patricia Neary: Balanchine Ballerina Part 2 - Duration: 7 minutes, 47 seconds. Dance Channel TV. 13,952 views;", "She spent many intensive summers training at the famous Perry Mansfield School of the Arts, ... Patricia Neary , Bart Cook, Janet ... of Fine Arts in dance from the ...", "... 413757 | Page: www.nytimes.com/archive/article/arts ... Sleek American Style From Monte Carlo By ... Patricia Neary's supervision of this ..." ], "filename": [ "153/153_619.txt", "171/171_620.txt", "144/144_621.txt", "117/117_622.txt", "36/36_623.txt", "75/75_625.txt", "32/32_626.txt", "151/151_627.txt", "178/178_628.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 ], "title": [ "Edward Villella - Division of Cultural Affairs - Florida ...", "About Us - Woodlands Civic Ballet", "Video | BALLET20.COM", "The New York Public Library for the Performing Arts ...", "Jovani Furlan Archives | Miami City Ballet", "NYCB - NYCB Alumni - New York City Ballet", "Dance Channel TV - YouTube", "Staff – Danza Dance Academy", "Sleek American Style From Monte Carlo - NYTimes.com" ], "url": [ "http://dos.myflorida.com/cultural/programs/florida-artists-hall-of-fame/edward-villella/", "http://www.woodlandscivicballet.org/about.html", "https://ballet20.com/category/video/", "http://www.nypl.org/press/press-release/2007/08/21/new-york-public-library-performing-arts-restores-and-edits-historic", "https://www.miamicityballet.org/tag/jovani-furlan", "https://www.nycballet.com/Explore/Our-History/NYCB-Alumni.aspx", "http://www.youtube.com/user/DanceChannelTV", "http://www.danzadanceacademy.com/staff/", "http://www.nytimes.com/1996/10/10/arts/sleek-american-style-from-monte-carlo.html" ], "search_context": [ "Edward Villella - Division of Cultural Affairs - Florida Department of State\nDivision of Cultural Affairs\nInducted in 1997\nBiography\nEdward Villella is generally regarded as America's most celebrated male dancer.  During his career with the New York City Ballet, his supreme artistry–marked by grace, athleticism and virility–helped popularize the role of men in dance.  The great choreographer George Balanchine used him to create role after magnificent role, including perhaps his most famous in the cast of Balanchine's 1929 masterpiece, The Prodigal Son.\nVillella was born in the Bayside neighborhood of Queens, New York, in 1936.  At age 10, he enrolled in the School of American Ballet.  But at the urging of his father, in college (the New York Maritime Academy), Villella pursued a degree in marine transportation while also lettering in baseball and becoming a championship welterweight boxer.  His love of dance, however, never waned, and while in college he also became a member of the New York City Ballet. \nAfter graduating in 1959, he rejoined the School of American Ballet, and soon was well on his way toward becoming the leading male star in American dance.  As a favorite of Balanchine's, he won fame with lead roles in A Midsummer Night's Dream, Tarantella, Jewels and Prodigal Son.\nVillella went on to become the first male American dancer to appear with the Royal Danish Ballet and the first American in history–male or female–to be invited to dance an encore at the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow.  He danced for four sitting presidents, including a performance at the inauguration of John F. Kennedy. \nBy the late 1960s, Villella had become a familiar figure in television productions, with rave reviews for performances in Brigadoon, The Nutcracker and even the Ed Sullivan Show.   In the early 1970s, he appeared as himself in an episode of The Odd Couple, starring Tony Randall and Jack Klugman. \nIn a performance for President Gerald Ford at the White House in 1975, Villella suffered an injury that ended his career as a performer.  Throughout his retirement from the stage, Villella has led an energetic and creative career as artistic director to ballet companies in New Jersey, Oklahoma and elsewhere.  In 1986 he became founding director for the Miami City Ballet and since then has guided the company to worldwide acclaim.  He still serves as the ballet's artistic director and executive officer.\nIn recognition of his lifetime achievements in the arts, in 1997 President Bill Clinton awarded Villella a National Medal of Arts.  In 2009, he was inducted into the National Museum of Dance C.V. Whitney Hall of Fame.  His autobiography, Prodigal Son:  Dancing for Balanchine in a World of Pain and Magic, was reissued by the University of Pittsburgh Press in 1998.  Villella's wife, Linda, is director of the Miami City Ballet School.\nRelated Links", "Woodlands Civic Ballet\nContact Us\nAbout Us\nDirector Karyn Simon-Poland founded the non-profit Woodlands Civic Ballet in 1987. The troupe has presented free performances of the classics, as well as original choreographic works, to capacity audiences at Oak Ridge High School Auditorium, The Nancy Bock Performing Arts Centre, and this season at Montgomery College Auditorium. Also, the troupe has been selected by audition to perform on the Epcot stage at Disney World on three different occasions.\nAlthough some students have gone on to dance with professional and college dance companies, there are also those who dance for their own personal enrichment. Simon-Poland, herself, has danced professionally as principal dancer of Pittsburgh's Carnegie Ballet and San Francisco's Northern California Dance Ensemble, performing the leading roles in Nutcracker, Sleeping Beauty, Swan Lake, Giselle, Coppelia, Cinderella, and Les Sylphides. She has studied under former New York City Ballet principals Violette Verdy, Patricia Neary, Patricia Wilde, Melissa Hayden, and Jacques D'Amboise. She studied intensively under the late Vitale Fokine, son of the renowned Michel Fokine, creator of Les Sylphides. Also, she was coached by the late Robert Davis, former Ballet Master of Pittsburgh Ballet Theatre, for her portrayal of Kitri in Don Quixote at the famous Three Rivers Arts Festival in Pittsburgh.\nSimon-Poland holds Bachelor of Arts degrees from the University of Pittsburgh in Secondary Education, and is certified in Dance, Theatre Arts, Speech, English, and Spanish.\nThe Woodlands Civic Ballet offers a comprehensive program in Russian-style Classical Ballet, including pre-ballet, beginning, low intermediate, high intermediate, advanced, pre-professional ballet, pre-pointe and pointe.\nDrill Team classes and special coaching sessions are also available. Ms. Simon-Poland actively participates in the Conroe Independent School District's Private Physical Education Program, which allows students to substitute dance at the Woodlands Civic Ballet for physical education classes in school. Finally, founder and director Karyn Simon-Poland is listed in the prestigious premiere edition and subsequent editions of Marquis' Who's Who In Entertainment.", "Video | BALLET20.COM\nVideo\nRudolf Nureyev choreography (based on version by Marius Petipa and Lev Ivanov).\nAmandine Albisson danseuse étoile (Odette, Odile)\nMathieu Ganio danseur étoile (Prince Siegfried)\nFrançois Alu premier danseur (Rothbart)\nLes premiers Danseurs et le Corps de Ballet de l’Opéra national de Paris\nwith\nby @ronnierocket in Video | Leave a comment\nDiscover the story of The Ninth Symphony through a serie of bonus from the documentary “Dancing Beethoven” by Arantxa Aguirre. This exceptional show, hymn to universal brotherhood, was danced by the Béjart Ballet Lausanne and the Tokyo Ballet, from 6 to 8 January 2017 at Forest National, Brussels.\nTRAILER:\nby @ronnierocket in Video | Leave a comment\nSanttu Mustonen joins New York City Ballet for the fifth presentation of Art Series, which welcomes contemporary artists to our Lincoln Center home.\nChase Finlay talks about what makes Peter Martins’ partnering so fun to watch but so challenging for dancers to do — and takes us behind the scenes of his cross training regimen to prepare.\nAdrian Danchig-Waring explains the medieval inspiration behind Balanchine’s modernist masterpiece, and how THE FOUR TEMPERAMENTS has stood the test of time.\nJared Angle talks about how dancing in silence intensifies his connection to the audience and to his fellow dancers in Jerome Robbins’ MOVES, the only ballet in the repertory without music.\nJoaquin De Luz talks about taking on the iconic title role in PRODIGAL SON, Balanchine’s interpretation of the Biblical tale, first choreographed for Diaghilev’s legendary Ballet Russes in 1929.\nMarika Anderson talks about her childhood love of Tschaikovsky and the important role of the corps in Balanchine’s one-act.\nSterling Hyltin discusses what it takes to play the “mad ballerina” in Jerome Robbins’ comic ballet about “the perils of everybody”.\nA critically lauded choreographer and filmmaker hailing from Sweden, Pontus Lidberg often focuses on emotionally complex and psychological relationships, and Winter 2017 will see his first premiere for New York City Ballet, set to a commissioned score by David Lang.\nMegan Fairchild on the building drama of her solo in ALLEGRO BRILLANTE.", "The New York Public Library for the Performing Arts Restores and Edits Historic Film of George Balanchine and Suzanne Farrell Performing in Balanchine's Don Quixote | The New York Public Library\nThe New York Public Library\nThe New York Public Library for the Performing Arts Restores and Edits Historic Film of George Balanchine and Suzanne Farrell Performing in Balanchine's Don Quixote\nShare\nShare\nPremiere Screenings Planned for Kennedy Center and Lincoln Center in September\nSuzanne Farrell and George Balanchine in Don Quixote. Courtesy of the New York City Ballet.Premiere Screenings Planned for Kennedy Center and Lincoln Center in September The Jerome Robbins Dance Division of The New York Public Library for the Performing Arts has restored and preserved the 1965 film of a historic performance of George Balanchine's three-act ballet Don Quixote and has edited the two-camera, uncut film into a complete, edited videotape version available for public viewing at the Library. The project was completed with the participation of Suzanne Farrell, the ballerina for whom the lead role of Dulcinea was created and who is currently the Artistic Director of The Suzanne Farrell Ballet at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts. The premiere screenings of the newly edited Don Quixote recording will take place September 5 at the Kennedy Center in Washington, D.C., and September 18 at The New York Public Library for the Performing Arts at Lincoln Center.\n\"This is a rare recording of the ballet and the only recording of George Balanchine, who was 61 years old at the time, performing as the Don. In addition, it showcases the then 19-year-old Suzanne Farrell in one of her first starring roles - a role created for her - and captures the poignant performance of Balanchine and Farrell dancing together. Therefore, it was imperative that the Library preserve the fragile film for future generations of researchers, scholars, and students,\" stated Jacqueline Z. Davis, the Barbara G. and Lawrence A. Fleischman Executive Director of The New York Public Library for the Performing Arts.\nThe 16mm black-and-white film was recorded on May 27, 1965 at the New York City Ballet's preview gala at the New York State Theater. (The official premiere of Don Quixote was given the following night.) The performance was filmed with two cameras, an unusual occurrence at the time, by the acclaimed photographer and filmmaker Bert Stern of Libra Productions, but it was never edited. Don Quixote was part of the New York City Ballet's active repertoire from 1965 to 1978; it was not performed again until 2005 when Suzanne Farrell restaged it at the Kennedy Center for a combination of The Suzanne Farrell Ballet and The National Ballet of Canada.\n\"I want to especially thank Suzanne Farrell, without whom we could not have undertaken this project. Her commitment, knowledge, and sensitivity were essential,\" commented Michelle Potter, Curator of the Jerome Robbins Dance Division. \"Also, Jan Schmidt, Assistant Curator, and the staff of the Dance Division deserve recognition for their considerable work in bringing this project to completion.\"\nThe film was given by the New York City Ballet to the Dance Division�s Jerome Robbins Archive of the Recorded Moving Image, which houses thousands of films and videotapes to preserve the ephemeral art of dance. The five reels of the Don Quixote film were targeted as \"unique and in need of preservation.\" After funding was found, the staff arranged for the complicated process of restoration and editing. The film consisted of uncut footage from two cameras that recorded the entire ballet, without enhanced lighting or sound, from a wide angle by one camera and most of the ballet by a second camera in a closer angle.\n\"This newly restored film that The New York Public Library for the Performing Arts has overseen is extraordinary, both in its emotional content and its meaning and historical value for the dance community and the public at large,\" remarked Suzanne Farrell. \"With this film, the world has Mr. B alive and present again. Viewers have the opportunity to witness his genius, his art, and his integrity firsthand.\"\nProcess of Restoration and Editing\nThe restoration of the film was completed by the Library over the course of two years. The process involved cleaning and repairing the original film and generating a new negative. The film�s soundtrack was digitized and extensively restored, in part because of problems with the quality of the original recording. To complete the restoration of the picture and sound, Suzanne Farrell viewed the film and advised the Library on the precise synchronization of the image and music. Then a digital Betacam video master was made from the final film. The footage from the two cameras was edited together into a single videotape, again with the advice and guidance of Ms. Farrell, who worked closely with the editor, Fran�ois Bernadi. The optical restoration of the film was completed for the Library by Cineric, Inc., and the audio preservation was done by Universal Studios BluWave Audio.\nFrom September 20, 2007, all the footage - the five DVD discs, video transfers of the unedited restored film, and two edited DVD discs - can be watched on the Jerome Robbins Dance Division�s viewing carrels at The New York Public Library for the Performing Arts Dorothy and Lewis B. Cullman Center, 40 Lincoln Center Plaza. The Library�s new 45-hour, six-day per week schedule is: Monday and Thursday from 12 noon to 8 p.m.; Tuesday, Wednesday, and Friday from 11 a.m. to 6 p.m.; and Saturday from 10 a.m. to 6 p.m.\nCast\nIn addition to George Balanchine as Don Quixote and Suzanne Farrell as Dulcinea, the cast includes Deni Lamont as Sancho Panza; Paul Sackett as Dead Poet; Conrad Ludlow as his Friend; Nicholas Magallanes as the Duke; Jillana as the Duchess; Michael Arshansky as Major Domo and Priest: Francisco Moncion as Merlin; Anthony Blum and Frank Ohman as Cavaliers; Karin von Aroldingen as Housekeeper; Patricia Neary, Conrad Ludlow, and Kent Stowell in the Danza della Caccia; Suki Schorer and John Prinz in the Pas de Deux Mauresque; Sara Leland, Kay Mazzo, Carol Sumner, Frank Ohman, Robert Rodham, and Earle Sieveling in Courante Sicilienne; Gloria Govrin and Arthur Mitchell in Rigaudon Flamenco; Patricia McBride and Colleen Neary in Ritornel; Mimi Paul, Marnee Morris, and Anthony Blum in Variations; and Gloria Govrin as Night Spirit. Judith Fugate and Jean-Pierre Frohlich, children at the time, also danced.\nPremiere Screenings\nThe edited recording of Don Quixote will be screened in Washington, D.C., as part of the Kennedy Center Prelude Festival on September 5 at 6 p.m. in the Terrace Theater. The New York premiere will be given on September 18 at 6 p.m. in the Bruno Walter Auditorium of The New York Public Library for the Performing Arts. A limited number of free seats will be available for both screenings. (For Washington, D.C. press information, contact Erin Dowdy at 202.416.8453 or [email protected] )\nFunding\nThe 1965 film of George Balanchine�s Don Quixote was restored by the Jerome Robbins Dance Division of The New York Public Library for the Performing Arts. Funding for the preservation of the film was provided by the National Film Preservation Foundation Partnership Grant with the laboratories Cineric, Inc. and Universal Studios BluWave Audio. Additional laboratory work was provided by Trackwise of Full House Productions. Other funding for the film preservation and for the editing of the videotape was provided by The Louis B. Mayer Foundation and The Jerome Robbins Foundation.\nAbout The New York Public Library for the Performing Arts\nThe New York Public Library for the Performing Arts houses the world's most extensive combination of circulating, reference, and rare archival collections in its field. Its divisions are the Circulating Collections, Jerome Robbins Dance Division, Music Division, Billy Rose Theatre Division, and the Rodgers & Hammerstein Archives of Recorded Sound. The materials in its collections are available free of charge, along with a wide range of special programs, including exhibitions, seminars, and performances. An essential resource for everyone with an interest in the arts - whether professional or amateur - the Library is known particularly for its prodigious collections of non-book materials such as historic recordings, videotapes, autograph manuscripts, correspondence, sheet music, stage designs, press clippings, programs, posters, and photographs.\nAbout The New York Public Library\nThe New York Public Library was created in 1895 with the consolidation of the private libraries of John Jacob Astor and James Lenox with the Samuel Jones Tilden Trust. The Library provides free and open access to its physical and electronic collections and information, as well as to its services. It comprises four research centers - the Humanities and Social Sciences Library; The New York Public Library for the Performing Arts; the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture; and the Science, Industry and Business Library - and 87 Branch Libraries in Manhattan, Staten Island, and the Bronx. Research and circulating collections combined total more than 50 million items. In addition, each year the Library presents thousands of exhibitions and public programs, which include classes in technology, literacy, and English as a second language. The New York Public Library serves over 15 million patrons who come through its doors annually and another 21 million users internationally, who access collections and services through its website, www.nypl.org .\n###", "Jovani Furlan Archives | Miami City Ballet\nMCB’s Balanchine, Tharp and Alston Come Off Beautifully\nArtistic Director Lourdes Lopez’s vision for Miami City Ballet was apparent in the tasteful programming of Saturday’s performance at the Kravis Center, with the de rigueur Balanchine work leading off the evening followed by two company premieres.\nLopez who has been “shopping” for new works that would flatter and challenge the company, has been successful. For Program III: Passion and Grace, she brought a rarely seen contemporary work by avant-garde choreographer Tywla Tharp and a sleek contemporary take on the tale of Carmen by British choreographer Richard Alston. Like Balanchine, both of these dance-makers are known for their extremely musical choreography.\nThe program, ruled by the Delgado sisters, Patricia and Jeanette, with a welcomed sprinkling of new faces doing lead roles, was appealing, well-balanced and well-danced. The company looked strong and confident. The Opus One Orchestra played with gusto and aplomb and the production values were polished and refined.\nMCB Dancers Take Italy\nIt’s been a couple of weeks since our dancers wrapped up rehearsals with choreographer Justin Peck. Since then, they’ve all been enjoying some additional time off this summer, getting plenty of much-needed rest and relaxation. But as we’ve learned quite well, it’s rarely all play and no work for our dancers. In fact, we recently caught up with principal dancers Tricia Albertson and Renan Cerdeiro, who, earlier this month, performed at the Florence Dance Festival at the National Museum of Bargello in Italy–the same museum that houses Donatello’s famous Statue of David.\nThe show, titled Stars of American Ballet, featured Tricia and Renan, along with principal couples from New York City Ballet and Boston Ballet.\nSummertime on Instagram\nWith their summer downtime, our dancers have split from Miami and spread out all over the world! The latest dancer update comes from Joinville, Brazil, where corps de ballet dancer Jovani Furlan takes over our Instagram feed this week. Follow Jovani at #JovaniMCBphotos for a snapshot of his life back in Brazil! \nJovani Furlan\nWhen I’m in Brazil, I’ll be taking class at my old ballet school,  The Bolshoi Theater School in Brazil — the only affiliate of the Bolshoi Theater of Moscow. I’m also doing some physical therapy,  working out, spending a lot of time with the family, and enjoying the beaches around my state! – Jovani\nDancing what was lost\nJovani Furlan\nWhen the curtain opens on Program III: Triple Threat next week, Miami City Ballet will become one of only two dance companies and the only American company to perform the Paul Taylor solo in Balanchine’s Episodes since New York City Ballet in 1986. Peter Frame — the last dancer to have performed this role and répétiteur for the solo at MCB — referred to it as a “lost work of art.” Now, 27 years later, dancer Jovani Furlan will be one of only a handful of dancers to perform this role. Here, he tells all about this rare and exciting opportunity.\nWelcome to Miami Jordan Matter!\nAnyone recognize this photo?\nIf you know and love this image, along with several other awe-inspiring dance photos, than you have probably heard of photographer Jordan Matter and his New York Times bestseller Dancers Among Us . This week, Jordan takes his talents to the Magic City to exhibit his work at  Spectrum Miami  and  Select Fair , both running December 4-8th in Midtown and South Beach respectively. During his visit, Jordan will also partake in two live photo shoots with Miami City Ballet dancers Renan Cerdeiro, Jovani Furlan and Emily Bromberg!\nWhat’s on INSTAGRAM this week?\nJovani Furlan\nTonight, the worlds of Broadway and ballet literally collide during our first Open Barre of the 2013-2014 Season. The original Anita from the Broadway production of West Side Story, Chita Rivera joins us onstage to discuss working with Jerome Robbins, while the company gives a sneak peek of the “triple threat” premiere of  West Side Story Suite . This will be the first time that our dancers test their signing talents in front of a live audience….and to capture it all on Instagram is dancer Jovani Furlan!\nStories from Opening Night – Jovani Furlan\nJovani Furlan\nWe are keeping the Opening Night stories coming right up until the curtain rises tomorrow evening at the Arsht Center! Next, corps de ballet dancer Jovani Furlan brings us his most memorable story from Opening Night. \nCapturing Balanchine’s ‘Episodes’ on Instagram\nJovani Furlan\nReturning from summer vacation and a fun trip home to Brazil, corps de ballet dancer Jovani Furlan is back on Instagram as this week’s guest photographer.\nOur studios are exceptionally busy this week, with the arrival of two répétiteurs from the George Balanchine Trust — Patricia Neary and Peter Frame — who will be staging the company premiere of Episodes . Patricia Neary was hand-picked by Balanchine to join the New York City Ballet, where he later created two key roles on her — in Raymonda Variations and in Jewels. She will use her personal experience dancing several roles to stage Episodes and preserve every last detail of the choreography.\nJovani Furlan is back on Instagram!\nJovani Furlan\nCorps dancer Jovani Furlan is back on Instagram ! From dancers in glamorous ball gowns to paper dolls and tin soldiers, he will be capturing all of the action in Program III: The Masters .\nJovani Furlan takes a trip down memory lane on Instagram!\nJovani Furlan\nCorps dancer Jovani Furlan is back to take over our Instagram feed as this week’s guest photographer! Jovani will be snapping shots of the dancers hard at work rehearsing for Program III: The Masters and Program IV: Broadway and Ballet .", "NYCB - NYCB Alumni\nNYCB Alumni\ninstagram\nNYCB Roster 1948 - Present\nHuman talent is the principal resource that any dance company possesses. In this regard, New York City Ballet has been fortunate beyond measure. Nearly 700 women and men comprise the roster of extraordinary artists who have regularly inspired and realized the choreographic imagination of the Company's Ballet Masters in Chief George Balanchine and Peter Martins and Co-Founding Choreographer Jerome Robbins.\nThese dancers have shaped countless indelible memories and images throughout the company's history. Their contributions to the art of dance are lasting. We proudly recognize them and list their names, as they appeared during their performing careers, below.\n*(Names appear as listed in NYCB programs)\n† In Memoriam", "Dance Channel TV - YouTube\nDance Channel TV\nThe next video is starting\nstop\nJoy Womack talks to Dance Channel TV\n24,845 views 1 year ago\nJoy Womack is an American ballet dancer. She is the first American to graduate from the Bolshoi Ballet Academy’s main training program, and the first American woman to sign a contract with the Bolshoi Ballet.\nGala of the Stars 2016 - Duration: 3 minutes, 11 seconds.\n1,682 views\nBoys in Ballet Ep4 - Duration: 5 minutes, 55 seconds.\n1,891 views\nSouthland Ballet Academy - Duration: 117 seconds.\n1,481 views\nGala of the Stars 2015 - Duration: 3 minutes, 50 seconds.\n2,307 views\nMeet Anna-Marie Holmes - Duration: 9 minutes, 36 seconds.\n900 views\nKUMPANIA Flamenco Los Angeles-premiere - Duration: 3 minutes, 53 seconds.\n508 views\nMeet Lydia Zimmer - Duration: 12 minutes.\n945 views\nDance Channel TV Ballet Channel\n8:53\niCONic Boyz - ABDC 6: Week 3 - Duration: 2 minutes, 10 seconds.\n1,516,298 views\nThe Moiseyev Dance Company - Duration: 7 minutes, 32 seconds.\n377,452 views\nAlexander Kalinin Russian Dance 'Trepak' Nutcracker - Duration: 2 minutes, 5 seconds.\n351,287 views\nPOREOTICS: Ready to win world? - Duration: 4 minutes, 35 seconds.\n287,562 views\nNederlands Dans Theater - Duration: 6 minutes, 41 seconds.\n178,532 views\nPlay next\nPlay now\nPlay next\nPlay now\nBoys in Ballet Play all\nThe Petit Oasis Scholarship Foundation helps to show boys who dance that they are not alone. Join Dance Channel TV at the auditions as Suzanne Jolie interviews a young boy, Dance Channel TV's CEO, and a master teacher....all who are Boys in Balle\n2:32\nABDC on MTV Play all\nAmerica's Best Dance Crew, often abbreviated as ABDC, is an American competitive dance reality television series that features street dance crews from the United States. It is produced by American Idol judge Randy Jackson, who has admitted to using the show as a platform for his banner-making company, and airs on MTV\n3:35", "Staff – Danza Dance Academy\nDenise Danzo\nOwner/Artistic Director\nEmail Denise received most of her dance training in Steamboat Springs, CO. She spent many intensive summers training at the famous Perry Mansfield School of the Arts, located in Steamboat. She is a previous company member of Ballet North West. She has 20 years of dance teaching experience, and has spent the last 10 years teaching dance in one of Denver’s most prestigious dance schools. She has an Associate of Arts Degree specializing in business and art. Denise has been the Director and Choreographer for the Denver Nuggets Professional Dance Team. She has performed in and choreographed for two Ford Truck commercials, one Ford Car commercial, and a dance video “Reality” for Cabana Boy Records. She has spent the last couple of years working with many cheerleading and pom squads in the Denver Metro area choreographing state routines, and musical theater for high school productions. She specializes in children’s dance and is excited to bring the highest quality of dance to the Castle Rock community.\nTerrell Davis\nInstructor\nTerrell Davis was born and raised in Chicago, Illinois. He has a B.A. in Political Science and a minor in dance from Western Illinois University (WIU). His dance training began at Lincoln Park High school in Chicago with Cheryl McWortor. He was a full scholarship student at the Joseph Holmes Chicago Dance Theatre. At JHCDT he trained with Rodni Williams who introduced him to the Horton Technique. Mr. Davis was also a full scholarship student at the American Dance Festival, for two consecutive summers. At WIU he trained with Candice Winters-March, Heidi Clemmons, and Denise Breakfield. He also co-directed the Gwendolyn Brooks Cultural Center Dance Troupe with Keesha Jackson and was a member of the University Dance Theatre. He got his professional start with the Dayton Contemporary Dance Company where he was mentored by Terrence Greene, and worked with the legendary artist Sherri “Sparkle” Williams. His journey then brought him to Denver, where he danced with the Cleo Parker-Robinson Dance Ensemble for six years. He was a principle dancer and also served as Assistant Rehearsal Director for the company. While at CPRD he danced many lead roles and also worked and trained with many great teachers and choreographers such as Milton Myers, Donald Mckayle, Christopher Huggins, Marceline Freeman, and Randy Brooks, just to name a few. He also danced with Moraporvida Contemporary Dance Company, founded and directed by Jacob Mora. Mr. Davis’s teaching experience in Denver has been at the Cleo Parker-Robinson Dance School, the Academy of Classical Ballet, and many other dance schools in Denver. He currently teaches at the Academy of Colorado Ballet, Dance Kaleidoscope, Hannah Kahn’s Open Studio, and at Manuel High School. He is thrilled to be a part of the Danza Dance Academy staff.\nDonovan Helma\nInstructor\nDonovan Helma began dancing at the age of three under the direction of his mother’s dance studio, Miller’s Dance Studio, in Denver CO. He currently continues his education in New York City. When he is not performing, Donovan teaches for numerous studios and national conventions across the United States. Some recent stage works include corporate performances for General Motors, Charles Schwab and a Monday Night Football halftime performance with the Big Bad Voodoo Daddy. Donovan performed for Montreal’s Danse Encore International Festival in a production with the group Tap’d Out. In 2009 and 2010 Donovan toured with the new Greogory Hines tribute show, “Thank You Gregory” starring Jason Samuels Smith and Dormeshia Sumbry-Edwards. Since 2004, he has performed for numerous tours and industrials with the international cast of Tap Dogs, including North America, Europe, South Africa and Australia. Donovan looks forward to continuing his performing career and inspiring audiences and students worldwide.\nDanielle Sunseri\nInstructor\[email protected] 720.341.2635 Classical and Contemporary Ballet Dancer/Performer Ms. Sunseri is an Ohio native and trained as a competitive swimmer and gymnast before studying classical dance. She began at age 14 with German Zamuel and Valentina Moukhanova at Pittsburgh Ballet Theatre School, studied on scholarship with PBTS Schenley Program and Graduate Program under David Holladay and Patricia Wilde and attended North Carolina School for the Arts and Mercyhurst College for Dance Performance and Pedagogy. She also studied at Peridance in NYC and at The School of Ballet Arizona and was a teacher’s apprentice under Mr. Kee Juan Han and Ms. Nadya Zubkov there for two years. She joined Martin Fredmann’s Colorado Ballet in 1995, dancing roles in Swan Lake and The Nutcracker, Balanchine’s Serenade and Stars & Stripes and the principal role of Pioneer Woman in their 1998 historic staging of Martha Graham’s Appalachian Spring. She worked with repetiteurs Patricia Neary, Bart Cook, Janet Eilber, Terese Capucilli, Janek Schergen and others. She joined David Taylor Dance Theatre in 2003, performing seven seasons through its transition into Dawson/Wallace Dance Project until 2012 and simultaneously danced five seasons as a soloist with Zikr Dance Ensemble serving as David Taylor’s mainstay choreographic and rehearsal assistant from its 2008 inception through 2013. She danced numerous roles with both companies in ballets created by David Taylor, James Canfield, James Wallace, Gregory Dawson and others. She performed extensively with Kim Robards Dance and Elizabeth Shipiatsky’s Russian Ballet and enjoyed guest appearances with Kanopy Dance Company, International Youth Ballet and 7 Dancers. She has studied with master instructors Nikoloz Makhateli, Mark Carlson, Lorita Travaglia and Robert Sher-Machherndl and continues with her mentors German Zamuel and Lizanne McAdams-Graham. Ballet Instructor & Choreographer Ms. Sunseri has more than 20 years experience instructing young students in foundational through advanced levels of classical ballet, repertoire, stretch, conditioning, and choreography and has completed teacher training seminars in the Soviet/Russian method with Nadia Tikhonova, Zhanna Dubrovskaya and Mansur Kamaletdinov. She was a ballet instructor for ten years with the Academy of Colorado Ballet and has instructed students of all levels on many ballet faculties including the School of Ballet Arizona, Pittsburgh Youth Ballet, Rocky Mountain School of Dance, Belliston Academy of Ballet, Metropolitan Academy of Dance and International Ballet School & Youth Ballet. She designed and taught successful ballet programs for David Taylor Dance Theatre/Ascot Academy of Ballet and Denver Ballet Theatre and conducted numerous literacy-based dance residencies for Englewood Public Elementary School PEAK Outreach Programs. She has directed her own ballet program for figure skaters and taught ballroom dance to wedding couples for Adventures In Dance for three years.  Ms. Sunseri joined the ballet faculty of Sweatshop Dance in 2011.\nNicole O'Farrell\nInstructor\nNicole is an accomplished performer from the Denver area and currently the assistant- director and a performer of The Schiff Dance Collective in Boulder, CO. Nicole can be seen in such shows as “Dreamlife”, “Unsilenced”, “Project Joy/Full”, “How We Found Hope”, “fits like a gLOVE”, “She Is…”, and “The Edge of Us”.. She has spent her career studying, performing, and competing in a variety of styles including Jazz, Tap, Ballet, Lyrical, Pointe, Contemporary, Hip Hop and more. She has had the honor of training with talents such as Jenny Schiff, Kit Andree, Thommie Walsh, Bill Hastings, Chet Walker, Jacob Mora, and Doug Caldwell to name a few. In August of 2008, she was a featured artist in two different studios in Oregon for summer workshops. Nicole is in high demand as she teaches and choreographs at multiple competitive level and pre-professional studios throughout Colorado. She attended the National Dance Teachers Summit in New York in the summer of 2009. In addition, Nicole was a featured performer with Danca Nova in Boulder. Nicole is a very fun and quirky teacher, a favorite for all ages!\nHailee Willcox\nInstructor\nHailee took her first dance class when she was three years old and has continued with her passion for dance since then.  She trained in ballet, jazz, hip hop, to lyrical, tap and clogging. During her 4 years of high school she was on the varsity cheerleading team at Douglas County High School.  Hailee attended Wichita State University in Kansas and was the captain of her college’s dance team.  Being a former student of Danza Dance Academy she is honored to have joined the teaching staff at Danza Dance Academy.  She loves teaching and hopes to spread her love of dance to everyone. \nHolly J. Schlotterback\nInstructor\nHolly J. Schlotterback has extensive experience as a choreographer in addition to being a seasoned performing arts instructor for all ages and disciplines in both the public and private sectors. Before taking a break from the dance studio schedule to spend time with her two young children, Holly spent five years as office manager and instructor at Petite Company Director and at Michelle Latimer Dance Academy. She is currently instructing a variety of classes throughout Denver and the surrounding areas. Holly is a current member of the HER. Dance Company and is a 15 year veteran of The Damsels Dance Company. Holly also works throughout Denver and the Front Range in productions and promotions. She is the Entertainment Coordinator for Kevin Larson Presents, and an events coordinator for the Colorado Firefighter’s Calendar. For her day job, Holly is a part-time salon manager at Rockstar Industries, Inc. located in Cherry Creek. She is very excited to be joining the Danza Dance family as an instructor.\nEdie Garcia\nInstructor\nEdie has over 20 years of dance and choreography experience. She began her ballet training in San Antonio, Texas where she danced in a variety of schools. She later moved to Dallas and continued her training with summer intensives at the Ft. Worth/Dallas Ballet Company. Later in her dancing career she provided ballet instruction at the Kerrville School of Dance, and was the Ballet Mistress for the Kerrville Performing Arts Society. Edie has performed in classical pieces as solo dancer in La Bayadere, Les Sylphides, and Le Corsaire. Edie also teaches other disciplines of dance including Jazz, Lyrical and Modern dance. Other accomplishments have been in musical theatre performing in musicals such as Fiddler on the Roof, My Fair Lady and Anything Goes. Edie not only has a passion for dance but a love for fitness in which she is a certified Barre Conditioning instructor.\nJustin \"DTM\" Oliver\nInstructor\nJustin “DTM” Oliver’s drive, love and passion for Hip-Hop dance came at the young age of 11.  From the moment he saw his future friend and mentor dancing in one of the studios, he was in love.  Justin began dancing at Centerstage Starz in Littleton in the autumn of 2004 and adored it.  Justin auditioned for Centerstage’s competition team in 2008 and made it onto one of the top teams.  During this time, Justin began showing interest in teaching so he began substituting and assisting at Centerstage. In 2010, Justin landed his first teaching job at Streetside South, also in Littleton.  After taking some time off for personal reasons in 2010, Justin has exploded back into the Hip-Hop scene and is diving headfirst into the choreography/teaching world.  Justin has been teaching for a little over 2 years and has previously taught at Centerstage Starz, Streetside South, Artistic Fusion Dance Academy, and has choreographed an end-of-the-year piece at DCS Montessori in 2010.  Justin has also taken classes from various professional choreographers such as: Dave Scott, Wade Robson, Leslie Scott, Chase Evered, Skye Edwards, Danza’s own Kevin O’Keefe, and many others.  Justin is extremely excited to be a part of the Danza family and would like to thank Denise for the opportunity to be a part of such an awesome studio!\nJustin Boulet\nInstructor\nBorn and raised in Denver, Colorado Justin Boulet grew up with an extensive background in acting and dance. As a young man, he crossed the threshold to Los Angeles and began to contribute his gifts and talents to the capitol of entertainment.\nNow at age 27 with more than a decade’s experience as a dancer and choreographer in film, television, and live performances, Justin’s vast skill and character has led him to work with artists such as Taylor Swift, Paula Abdul, Katie Holmes, Vanessa Hudgens, Ashley Tisdale, Carrie Underwood and Latin American pop star Chayanne. Justin’s choreography can be seen on the television show So You Think You Can Dance, with Emmy award winning choreographer Tyce Diorio. He has also contributed a great deal of his creativity to the High School Musical tour with the highly prestigious choreographer Nancy O’Meara. His acting and alluring personality has brought his talent to commercials including Sprint, Samsung, Degree, Sony and ongoing television shows such as Glee (seasons one and two), Hannah Montana, Eli Stone and the Nickelodeon hit series Victorious starring Victoria Justice.\nWith his multiple talents and inspiring energy, Justin Boulet has positioned himself to not only be in front of the camera but direct behind the scenes as well.\nAmanda Catherine Segro\nInstructor\nAmanda Catherine Segro grew up in Denver, Colorado. She graduated from The Denver School of the Arts. Amanda has been a member of the University Dance Company from fall of 2011- the spring of 2015. She was also a member of the Art In Motion \"AIM\" Dance Company for fall of 2012 and fall of 2014, located in Lawrence, Kansas. She has trained in Contemporary, Contact Improv, Ballet and Point, Jazz, Lyrical, Modern, Tap, Hip-hop, Classical East Indian and Flamenco. From the summer of 2013 through fall of 2014 Amanda worked as a dance teacher and choreographer at Fuzion School of Dance in Topeka, Kansas. During her final year of college she co-directed a small show which performed in the 2015 Rock Chalk Revue at the Lied Center in Lawrence, Kansas. Amanda's senior project, \"Law Of Gravity,\" represented the University of Kansas at the American College Dance Association (ACDA) in March of 2015 in Iowa. Amanda graduated with a Bachelors of Fine Arts in dance from the University of Kansas and since has moved to Denver Colorado and dances for The Schiff Collective in Boulder, Colorado. \nPaul Michael Gibbs\nInstructor\nPaul Michael Gibbs has always loved Performing and Teaching. He began his training at the age of 8 in his native Wilmington, Delaware at Christina Cultural Arts Center and The Anna Marie Dance Studio which has been producing consummate performers for over 60 years. In 2001 at the age of 15 Paul started attending the Broadway Theater Project, under the artistic direction of Ann Reinking, where he received instruction from legends including Ben Vereen and Gregory Hines. He studied Dance and Musical Theatre in Delaware, Philadelphia, New York, Florida, and California . He moved to California at 17 and attended California Pacific School of the Performance Arts (the college of The Young Americans) for vocal performance, while simultaneously doing a Los Angeles Dance Force Scholarship at the EDGE Performing Arts Center in Los Angeles. Since then, he has had the honor of performing and teaching Nationally and Internationally with Smokey Joe’s Cafe, Little Shop of Horrors, Dreamgirls, and Into the Woods, and toured Internationally with The Original USA Gospel Singers  and The Young Americans Inc. and their Music Outreach Tours in places such as England, Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, France, Italy, all across the United States, and most recently Japan. While living in New York City, he worked and taught in schools such as Broadway Dance Center and the King Centre for Performing Arts. He is currently a Show Director for Spotlight Dance Cup, living in Denver, Colorado, and is so excited to continue on the path of Performing and Dance Education.", "Sleek American Style From Monte Carlo - The New York Times\nThe New York Times\nArts |Sleek American Style From Monte Carlo\nSearch\nContinue reading the main story\nMonte Carlo is a magic name in ballet history, most of which is best forgotten when looking at Les Ballets de Monte Carlo, the 11-year-old company that made a zesty and refreshing New York debut on Tuesday night.\nWhatever world-famous ballets were created by Russian choreographers in Monte Carlo in the past, the company on view has a sleek neo-classical look that is very much tune with American taste.\nIt was Princess Grace's wish to establish a classical ballet troupe in Monaco in the 1970's and none other than George Balanchine was tapped as potential artistic adviser. Princess Grace died before the project was completed. It was her daughter Princess Caroline who established the Ballets de Monte Carlo in 1985 and who serves as its hands-on president: Caroline and her brother, Prince Albert, attended by an army of security men, were in the audience at the opening of the troupe's weeklong run at City Center (131 West 55th Street, Manhattan). Symbolically, their American heritage had something to do with what one saw onstage.\nIn many ways, this is the most American of European ballet companies, largely because it understands the neo-classicism developed by Balanchine in America. Jean-Christophe Maillot, artistic director since 1993, obviously appreciates the formal value of ballet's academic idiom, both in his own choreography and in his repertory.\nThis first of two different programs paid homage to the company's inspiration, if not its real antecedents. Balanchine was represented by his 1946 masterpiece ''The Four Temperaments,'' danced impressively, with meticulous detail (although not the taut energy seen at the New York City Ballet). A historical nod to Serge Diaghilev's Ballets Russes, Monte Carlo's most famous resident company of the past, was embodied in a revival of Michel Fokine's ''Polovtsian Dances.''\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\nBut even here the accent was on movement rather than storytelling, a viewpoint that Mr. Maillot displayed in the New York premiere of his ''Vers un Pays Sage,'' choreographed to John Adams's ''Fearful Symmetries.'' That Peter Martins, the City Ballet director, has choreographed very differently to the same score made Mr. Maillot's work all the more interesting.\nPlease verify you're not a robot by clicking the box.\nInvalid email address. Please re-enter.\nYou must select a newsletter to subscribe to.\nSign Up\nPrivacy Policy\nEven more fascinating was how the international group of dancers (mainly French and Italian) looked so at home in a pure-dance esthetic but also took to the expressive gesture of the Fokine choreography, reconstructed by Pierre Lacotte.\nAmong the dancers, the only familiar name is Jean-Charles Gil, who once dazzled New York as a star with Roland Petit and whose Balanchine experience in the San Francisco Ballet may explain the power, presence and desperate air he brought to the ''Melancholic'' solo in ''The Four Temperaments.'' There were also revelations: Sandrine Cassini, perfect in her classical style and partnered by an agile Chris Roelandt, in the ''Sanguinic'' section of the same ballet. Bernice Coppieters, the troupe's young Belgian ballerina, had the technique and assurance to get through the difficult ''Choleric'' variation.\nPatricia Neary's supervision of this familiar work has the articulate clarity of all stagings of Balanchine. But company brought its individual touch to the work, capturing the emotional subtext behind the celebrated Hindemith score. The composer may have been interested in distilling the essence of emotions or ''humors'' of the body. But Balanchine, more abstract, responded to the music in images of his own. The cast included Raphael Coums-Marquet in the ''Phlegmatic'' solo. Bland, he received the most applause.\nAs for ''Polovtsian Dances'' from Borodin's opera ''Prince Igor,'' no pagan warrior chief, weaving in and out of his harem and own tribe on the steppes of City Center can hope to bring back the frisson of 1909. That was the year in which this ballet opened Serge Diaghilev's first ballet season in Paris. Rarely seen nowadays, it comes back now in vibrant pictorial terms in Mr. Lacotte's version, based on the original. Led by Francesco Nappa, the dancers were true to Fokine in their use of the entire body, not just arms and legs. Nicholas Roerich's decor has been reproduced with the requisite tents and river.\nIn a different world, a band of alienated couples is led with fierce attack by Ms. Coppieters and Gaetan Morlotti in Mr. Maillot's ''Vers un Pays Sage.'' Five other couples round out a cast whose swoons, embraces and acrobatic outlines look both athletic and sexy. Mr. Maillot eventually runs out of steam but he works intriguingly against the propulsive music, not with it." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Europe.txt" ], "title": [ "Europe" ], "wiki_context": [ "Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. To the east and southeast, Europe is generally considered as separated from Asia by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways of the Turkish Straits. Yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary; the primarily physiographic term \"continent\" as applied to Europe also incorporates cultural and political elements whose discontinuities are not always reflected by the continent's current boundaries.\n\nEurope is the world's second-smallest continent by surface area, covering about or 2% of the Earth's surface and about 6.8% of its land area. Of Europe's approximately 50 countries, Russia is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population, while Vatican City is the smallest both in terms of area and population. Europe is the third-most populous continent after Asia and Africa, with a population of 739–743 million or about 11% of the world's population. Europe has a climate heavily affected by warm Atlantic currents that temper winters and summers on much of the continent, even at latitudes along which the climate in Asia and North America is severe. Further from the Atlantic, seasonal differences are mildly greater than close to the coast.\n\nEurope, in particular ancient Greece, is the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the migration period, marked the end of ancient history and the beginning of an era known as the \"Middle Ages\". The Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led the \"old continent\", and eventually the rest of the world, to the modern era. From this period onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European nations controlled at various times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania, and the majority of Asia.\n\nThe Industrial Revolution, which began in the United Kingdom at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to radical economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe, and eventually the wider world. Both world wars were largely focused upon Europe, contributing to a decline in Western European dominance in world affairs by the mid-20th century as the United States and Soviet Union took prominence. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall.\n\nEuropean integration led to the formation of the European Union, a political entity that lies between a confederation and a federation. The EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The currency of most countries of the European Union, the Euro, is the most commonly used among Europeans and the EU's Schengen Area abolishes border and immigration controls among most of its member states.\n\nDefinition\n\nClickable map of Europe, showing one of the most commonly used continental boundaries Key: blue: states which straddle the border between Europe and Asia;\ngreen: states not geographically in Europe, but closely associated with the continent\n\nThe use of the term \"Europe\" has developed gradually throughout history. In antiquity, the Greek historian Herodotus mentioned that the world had been divided by unknown persons into three parts, Europe, Asia, and Libya (Africa), with the Nile and the River Phasis forming their boundaries—though he also states that some considered the River Don, rather than the Phasis, as the boundary between Europe and Asia. Europe's eastern frontier was defined in the 1st century by geographer Strabo at the River Don. The Book of Jubilees described the continents as the lands given by Noah to his three sons; Europe was defined as stretching from the Pillars of Hercules at the Strait of Gibraltar, separating it from North Africa, to the Don, separating it from Asia. \n\nA cultural definition of Europe as the lands of Latin Christendom coalesced in the 8th century, signifying the new cultural condominium created through the confluence of Germanic traditions and Christian-Latin culture, defined partly in contrast with Byzantium and Islam, and limited to northern Iberia, the British Isles, France, Christianised western Germany, the Alpine regions and northern and central Italy. The concept is one of the lasting legacies of the Carolingian Renaissance: \"Europa\" often figures in the letters of Charlemagne's court scholar, Alcuin. This division—as much cultural as geographical—was used until the Late Middle Ages, when it was challenged by the Age of Discovery. The problem of redefining Europe was finally resolved in 1730 when, instead of waterways, the Swedish geographer and cartographer von Strahlenberg proposed the Ural Mountains as the most significant eastern boundary, a suggestion that found favour in Russia and throughout Europe. \n\nEurope is now generally defined by geographers as the western part of Eurasia, with its boundaries marked by large bodies of water to the north, west and south; Europe's limits to the far east are usually taken to be the Urals, the Ural River, and the Caspian Sea; to the southeast, including the Caucasus Mountains, the Black Sea and the waterways connecting the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. \n\nIslands are generally grouped with the nearest continental landmass, hence Iceland is generally considered to be part of Europe, while the nearby island of Greenland is usually assigned to North America. Nevertheless, there are some exceptions based on sociopolitical and cultural differences. Cyprus is closest to Anatolia (or Asia Minor), but is usually considered part of Europe both culturally and politically and currently is a member state of the EU. Malta was considered an island of North Africa for centuries. \n\nThe geographic boundary drawn between Europe and Asia in 1730 follows no international boundaries. As a result, attempts to organise Europe along political or economic lines have resulted in uses of the name in a geopolitically limiting way to refer only to the 28 member states of the European Union. Conversely, Europe has also been used in a very expansive way by the Council of Europe which has 47 member countries, some of which territorially over-reach the Ural and Bosphorus lines to include all of Russia and Turkey. In addition, people in the British Isles may refer to \"continental\" or \"mainland\" Europe as Europe. \n\nEtymology\n\nIn classical Greek mythology, Europa was a Phoenician princess whom Zeus abducted after assuming the form of a dazzling white bull. He took her to the island of Crete where she gave birth to Minos, Rhadamanthus, and Sarpedon. For Homer, Europe (, Eurṓpē; see also List of Greek place names) was a mythological queen of Crete, not a geographical designation.\n\nThe etymology of Europe is uncertain. One theory suggests that it is derived from the Greek εὐρύς (eurus), meaning \"wide, broad\" and ὤψ/ὠπ-/ὀπτ- (ōps/ōp-/opt-), meaning \"eye, face, countenance\", hence Eurṓpē, \"wide-gazing\", \"broad of aspect\" (compare with glaukōpis (γλαυκῶπις 'grey-eyed') Athena or boōpis (βοὠπις 'ox-eyed') Hera). Broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion. Another theory suggests that it is based on a Semitic word such as the Akkadian erebu meaning \"to go down, set\" (in reference to the sun), cognate to Phoenician 'ereb \"evening; west\" and Arabic Maghreb, Hebrew ma'arav (see also Erebus, PIE *h1regʷos, \"darkness\"). Martin Litchfield West states that \"phonologically, the match between Europa's name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor\". However, Michael A. Barry, professor in Princeton University's Near Eastern Studies Department, finds the mention of the word Ereb on an Assyrian stele with the meaning of \"night\", \"[the country of] sunset\", in opposition to Asu \"[the country of] sunrise\", i.e. Asia (Anatolia coming equally from Ἀνατολή, \"(sun)rise\", \"east\"). In the Homeric Hymns written in the seventh century BC, Eurôpè still represents, the western shore of the Aegean Sea.\n\nWhatever the origin of the name of the mythological figure, Εὐρώπη is first used as a geographical term in the 6th century BC, by Greek geographers such as Anaximander and Hecataeus. Anaximander placed the boundary between Asia and Europe along the Phasis River (the modern Rioni) in the Caucasus, a convention still followed by Herodotus in the 5th century BC. But the convention received by the Middle Ages and surviving into modern usage is that of the Roman era used by Roman era authors such as Posidonius, Strabo and Ptolemy, \nwho took the Tanais (the modern Don River) as the boundary.\n\nThe term \"Europe\" is first used for a cultural sphere in the Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century. From that time, the term designated the sphere of influence of the Western Church, as opposed to both the Eastern Orthodox churches and to the Islamic world. The modern convention, enlarging the area of \"Europe\" somewhat to the east and the southeast, develops in the 19th century.\n\nMost major world languages use words derived from \"Europa\" to refer to the continent. Chinese, for example, uses the word Ōuzhōu (歐洲/欧洲); a similar Chinese-derived term is also sometimes used in Japanese such as in the Japanese name of the European Union, , despite the katakana being more commonly used. However, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan (land of the Franks) is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa. \n\nHistory\n\nPrehistory\n\nHomo erectus georgicus, which lived roughly 1.8 million years ago in Georgia, is the earliest hominid to have been discovered in Europe. Other hominid remains, dating back roughly 1 million years, have been discovered in Atapuerca, Spain.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/6256356.stm The million year old tooth from ]Atapuerca, Spain, found in June 2007 Neanderthal man (named after the Neandertal valley in Germany) appeared in Europe 150,000 years ago and disappeared from the fossil record about 28,000 BC, with this extinction probably due to climate change, and their final refuge being present-day Portugal. The Neanderthals were supplanted by modern humans (Cro-Magnons), who appeared in Europe around 43 to 40 thousand years ago. \n\nThe European Neolithic period—marked by the cultivation of crops and the raising of livestock, increased numbers of settlements and the widespread use of pottery—began around 7000 BC in Greece and the Balkans, probably influenced by earlier farming practices in Anatolia and the Near East. It spread from the Balkans along the valleys of the Danube and the Rhine (Linear Pottery culture) and along the Mediterranean coast (Cardial culture). Between 4500 and 3000 BC, these central European neolithic cultures developed further to the west and the north, transmitting newly acquired skills in producing copper artefacts. In Western Europe the Neolithic period was characterised not by large agricultural settlements but by field monuments, such as causewayed enclosures, burial mounds and megalithic tombs. The Corded Ware cultural horizon flourished at the transition from the Neolithic to the Chalcolithic. During this period giant megalithic monuments, such as the Megalithic Temples of Malta and Stonehenge, were constructed throughout Western and Southern Europe. \n\nThe European Bronze Age began c. 3200 BC in Greece with the Minoan civilization on Crete, the first advanced civilization in Europe. The Minoans were followed by the Myceneans, who collapsed suddenly around 1200 BC, ushering the European Iron Age. Iron Age colonisation by the Greeks and Phoenicians gave rise to early Mediterranean cities. Early Iron Age Italy and Greece from around the 8th century BC gradually gave rise to historical Classical antiquity, whose beginning is sometimes dated to 776 BC, the year the first Olympic Games. \n\nClassical antiquity\n\nAncient Greece was the founding culture of Western civilisation. Western democratic and rationalist culture are often attributed to Ancient Greece. The Greeks city-state, the polis, was the fundamental political unit of classical Greece. In 508 BC, Cleisthenes instituted the world's first democratic system of government in Athens. The Greek political ideals were rediscovered in the late 18th century by European philosophers and idealists. Greece also generated many cultural contributions: in philosophy, humanism and rationalism under Aristotle, Socrates and Plato; in history with Herodotus and Thucydides; in dramatic and narrative verse, starting with the epic poems of Homer; in drama with Sophocles and Euripides, in medicine with Hippocrates and Galen; and in science with Pythagoras, Euclid and Archimedes. In the course of the 5th century BC, several of the Greek city states would ultimately check the Achaemenid Persian advance in Europe through the Greco-Persian Wars, considered a pivotal moment in world history, as the 50 years of peace that followed are known as Golden Age of Athens, the seminal period of ancient Greece that laid many of the foundations of Western civilization.\n\nGreece was followed by Rome, which left its mark on law, politics, language, engineering, architecture, government and many more key aspects in western civilisation. Expanding from their base in Italy beginning in the 3rd century BC, the Romans gradually expanded to eventually rule the entire Mediterranean basin and western Europe by the turn of the millennium. The Roman Republic ended in 27 BC, when Augustus proclaimed the Roman Empire. The two centuries that followed are known as the pax romana, a period of unprecedented peace, prosperity, and political stability in most of Europe. \n\nThe empire continued to expand under emperors such as Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius, who all spent time on the Empire's northern border fighting Germanic, Pictish and Scottish tribes. The Empire began to decline in the 3rd century, particularly in the west. Christianity was legalised by Constantine I in 313 AD after three centuries of imperial persecution. Constantine also permanently moved the capital of the empire from Rome to the city of Byzantium, which was renamed Constantinople in his honour (modern-day Istanbul) in 330 AD. Christianity became the sole official religion of the empire in 380 AD, and in 391-392 AD, the emperor Theodosius outlawed pagan religions. This is sometimes considered to mark the end of antiquity; alternatively antiquity is considered to end with the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD; the closure of the pagan Platonic Academy of Athens in 529 AD; or the rise of Islam in the early 7th century AD.\n\nEarly Middle Ages\n\nDuring the decline of the Roman Empire, Europe entered a long period of change arising from what historians call the \"Age of Migrations\". There were numerous invasions and migrations amongst the Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Goths, Vandals, Huns, Franks, Angles, Saxons, Slavs, Avars, Bulgars and, later on, the Vikings, Pechenegs, Cumans and Magyars. Renaissance thinkers such as Petrarch would later refer to this as the \"Dark Ages\". Isolated monastic communities were the only places to safeguard and compile written knowledge accumulated previously; apart from this very few written records survive and much literature, philosophy, mathematics, and other thinking from the classical period disappeared from Western Europe though they were preserved in the east, in the Byzantine Empire. \n\nWhile the Roman empire in the west continued to decline, Roman traditions and the Roman state remained strong in the predominantly Greek-speaking Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire. During most of its existence, the Byzantine Empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in Europe. Emperor Justinian I presided over Constantinople's first golden age: he established a legal code that forms the basis of many modern legal systems, funded the construction of the Hagia Sophia, and brought the Christian church under state control. \n\nFrom the 7th century onwards, as the Byzantines and neighbouring Sasanid Persians were severely weakened due the protracted, centuries-lasting and frequent Byzantine–Sasanian wars, the Muslim Arabs began to make inroads into historically Roman territory, taking the Levant and North Africa and making inroads into Asia Minor. In the mid 7th century AD, following the Muslim conquest of Persia, Islam penetrated into the Caucasus region. Over the next centuries Muslim forces took Cyprus, Malta, Crete, Sicily and parts of southern Italy. Between 711 and 720, most of the Iberian Peninsula was brought under Muslim rule — save for small areas in the northwest (Asturias) and largely Basque regions in the Pyrenees. This territory, under the Arabic name Al-Andalus, became part of the expanding Umayyad Caliphate. The unsuccessful second siege of Constantinople (717) weakened the Umayyad dynasty and reduced their prestige. The Umayyads were then defeated by the Frankish leader Charles Martel at the Battle of Poitiers in 732, which ended their northward advance.\n\nDuring the Dark Ages, the Western Roman Empire fell under the control of various tribes. The Germanic and Slav tribes established their domains over Western and Eastern Europe respectively. Eventually the Frankish tribes were united under Clovis I. Charlemagne, a Frankish king of the Carolingian dynasty who had conquered most of Western Europe, was anointed \"Holy Roman Emperor\" by the Pope in 800. This led in 962 to the founding of the Holy Roman Empire, which eventually became centred in the German principalities of central Europe. \n\nEast Central Europe saw the creation of the first Slavic states and the adoption of Christianity (circa 1000 AD). The powerful West Slavic state of Great Moravia spread its territory all the way south to the Balkans, reaching its largest territorial extent under Svatopluk I and causing a series of armed conflicts with East Francia. Further south, the first South Slavic states emerged in the late 7th and 8th century and adopted Christianity: the First Bulgarian Empire, the Serbian Principality (later Kingdom and Empire), and the Duchy of Croatia (later Kingdom of Croatia). To the East, the Kievan Rus expanded from its capital in Kiev to become the largest state in Europe by the 10th century. In 988, Vladimir the Great adopted Orthodox Christianity as the religion of state. Further East, Volga Bulgaria became an Islamic state in the 10th century, but was eventually absorbed into Russia several centuries later. \n\nHigh and Late Middle Ages\n\nThe period between the year 1000 and 1300 is known as the High Middle Ages, during which the population of Europe experienced significant growth, culminating in the Renaissance of the 12th century. Economic growth, together with the lack of safety on the mainland trading routes, made possible the development of major commercial routes along the coast of the Mediterranean and Baltic Seas. The growing wealth and independence acquired by some coastal cities gave the Maritime Republics a leading role in the European scene.\n\nThe Middle Ages on the mainland were dominated by the two upper echelons of the social structure: the nobility and the clergy. Feudalism developed in France in the Early Middle Ages and soon spread throughout Europe. A struggle for influence between the nobility and the monarchy in England led to the writing of the Magna Carta and the establishment of a parliament. The primary source of culture in this period came from the Roman Catholic Church. Through monasteries and cathedral schools, the Church was responsible for education in much of Europe.\n\nThe Papacy reached the height of its power during the High Middle Ages. An East-West Schism in 1054 split the former Roman Empire religiously, with the Eastern Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire and the Roman Catholic Church in the former Western Roman Empire. In 1095 Pope Urban II called for a crusade against Muslims occupying Jerusalem and the Holy Land. In Europe itself, the Church organised the Inquisition against heretics. In Spain, the Reconquista concluded with the fall of Granada in 1492, ending over seven centuries of Islamic rule in the Iberian Peninsula. \n\nIn the east a resurgent Byzantine Empire recaptured Crete and Cyprus from the Muslims and reconquered the Balkans. Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe from the 9th to the 12th centuries, with a population of approximately 400,000. The Empire was weakened following the defeat at Manzikert and was weakened considerably by the sack of Constantinople in 1204, during the Fourth Crusade. Although it would recover Constantinople in 1261, Byzantium fell in 1453 when Constantinople was taken by the Ottoman Empire. \n\nIn the 11th and 12th centuries, constant incursions by nomadic Turkic tribes, such as the Pechenegs and the Cuman-Kipchaks, caused a massive migration of Slavic populations to the safer, heavily forested regions of the north and temporarily halted the expansion of the Rus' state to the south and east. Like many other parts of Eurasia, these territories were overrun by the Mongols. The invaders, who became known as Tatars, were mostly Turkic-speaking peoples under Mongol suzerainty. They established the state of the Golden Horde with headquarters in Crimea, which later adopted Islam as a religion and ruled over modern-day southern and central Russia for more than three centuries. After the collapse of Mongol dominions, the first Romanian states (principalities) emerged in the 14th century: Moldova and Walachia. Previously, these territories were under the successive control of Pechenegs and Cumans. From the 12th to the 15th centuries, the Grand Duchy of Moscow grew from a small principality under Mongol rule to the largest state in Europe, overthrowing the Mongols in 1480 and eventually becoming the Tsardom of Russia. The state was consolidated under Ivan III the Great and Ivan the Terrible, steadily expanding to the east and south over the next centuries.\n\nThe Great Famine of 1315–1317 was the first crisis that would strike Europe in the late Middle Ages. The period between 1348 and 1420 witnessed the heaviest loss. The population of France was reduced by half. Medieval Britain was afflicted by 95 famines, and France suffered the effects of 75 or more in the same period. Europe was devastated in the mid-14th century by the Black Death, one of the most deadly pandemics in human history which killed an estimated 25 million people in Europe alone—a third of the European population at the time. \n\nThe plague had a devastating effect on Europe's social structure; it induced people to live for the moment as illustrated by Giovanni Boccaccio in The Decameron (1353). It was a serious blow to the Roman Catholic Church and led to increased persecution of Jews, foreigners, beggars and lepers. The plague is thought to have returned every generation with varying virulence and mortalities until the 18th century. During this period, more than 100 plague epidemics swept across Europe. \n\nEarly modern period\n\nThe Renaissance was a period of cultural change originating in Florence and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The rise of a new humanism was accompanied by the recovery of forgotten classical Greek and Arabic knowledge from monastic libraries, often translated from Arabic into Latin. The Renaissance spread across Europe between the 14th and 16th centuries: it saw the flowering of art, philosophy, music, and the sciences, under the joint patronage of royalty, the nobility, the Roman Catholic Church, and an emerging merchant class. Patrons in Italy, including the Medici family of Florentine bankers and the Popes in Rome, funded prolific quattrocento and cinquecento artists such as Raphael, Michelangelo, and Leonardo da Vinci. \n\nPolitical intrigue within the Church in the mid-14th century caused the Western Schism. During this forty-year period, two popes—one in Avignon and one in Rome—claimed rulership over the Church. Although the schism was eventually healed in 1417, the papacy's spiritual authority had suffered greatly. \n\nThe Church's power was further weakened by the Protestant Reformation (1517–1648), initially sparked by the works of German theologian Martin Luther, an attempt to start a reform within the Church. The Reformation also damaged the Holy Roman Emperor's influence, as German princes became divided between Protestant and Roman Catholic faiths. This eventually led to the Thirty Years War (1618–1648), which crippled the Holy Roman Empire and devastated much of Germany, killing between 25 and 40 percent of its population. In the aftermath of the Peace of Westphalia, France rose to predominance within Europe. \n\nThe 17th century in southern, central and eastern Europe was a period of general decline. Central and Eastern Europe experienced more than 150 famines in a 200-year period between 1501 and 1700. From the 15th to 18th centuries, when the disintegrating khanates of the Golden Horde were conquered by Russia, Tatars from the Crimean Khanate frequently raided Eastern Slavic lands to capture slaves. Further east, the Nogai Horde and Kazakh Khanate frequently raided the Slavic-speaking areas of Russia, Ukraine and Poland for hundreds of years, until the Russian expansion and conquest of most of northern Eurasia (i.e. Eastern Europe, Central Asia and Siberia). Meanwhile, in the south, the Ottomans had conquered the Balkans by the 15th century, laying siege to Vienna in 1529. In the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, the Holy League checked Ottoman power in the Mediterranean. The Ottomans again laid siege to Vienna in 1683, but the Battle of Vienna permanently ended their advance into Europe, and marked the political hegemony of the Habsburg dynasty in central Europe.\n\nThe Renaissance and the New Monarchs marked the start of an Age of Discovery, a period of exploration, invention, and scientific development. Among the great figures of the Western scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries were Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Isaac Newton. According to Peter Barrett, \"It is widely accepted that 'modern science' arose in the Europe of the 17th century (towards the end of the Renaissance), introducing a new understanding of the natural world.\" In the 15th century, Portugal and Spain, two of the greatest naval powers of the time, took the lead in exploring the world. Christopher Columbus reached the New World in 1492 and Vasco da Gama opened the ocean route to the East in 1498, and soon after the Spanish and Portuguese began establishing colonial empires in the Americas and Asia. France, the Netherlands and England soon followed in building large colonial empires with vast holdings in Africa, the Americas, and Asia.\n\n18th and 19th centuries\n\nThe Age of Enlightenment was a powerful intellectual movement during the 18th century promoting scientific and reason-based thoughts. Discontent with the aristocracy and clergy's monopoly on political power in France resulted in the French Revolution and the establishment of the First Republic as a result of which the monarchy and many of the nobility perished during the initial reign of terror. Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power in the aftermath of the French Revolution and established the First French Empire that, during the Napoleonic Wars, grew to encompass large parts of Europe before collapsing in 1815 with the Battle of Waterloo. Napoleonic rule resulted in the further dissemination of the ideals of the French Revolution, including that of the nation-state, as well as the widespread adoption of the French models of administration, law, and education. The Congress of Vienna, convened after Napoleon's downfall, established a new balance of power in Europe centred on the five \"Great Powers\": the UK, France, Prussia, Austria, and Russia. This balance would remain in place until the Revolutions of 1848, during which liberal uprisings affected all of Europe except for Russia and the UK. These revolutions were eventually put down by conservative elements and few reforms resulted. The year 1859 saw the unification of Romania, as a nation-state, from smaller principalities. In 1867, the Austro-Hungarian empire was formed; and 1871 saw the unifications of both Italy and Germany as nation-states from smaller principalities. \n\nIn parallel, the Eastern Question grew more complex ever since the Ottoman defeat in the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774). As the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire seemed imminent, the Great Powers struggled to safeguard their strategic and commercial interests in the Ottoman domains. The Russian Empire stood to benefit from the decline, whereas the Habsburg Empire and Britain perceived the preservation of the Ottoman Empire to be in their best interests. Meanwhile, the Serbian revolution (1804) and Greek War of Independence (1821) marked the beginning of the end of Ottoman rule in the Balkans, which ended with the Balkan Wars in 1912-1913. Formal recognition of the de facto independent principalities of Montenegro, Serbia and Romania ensued at the Congress of Berlin in 1878.\n\nThe Industrial Revolution started in Great Britain in the last part of the 18th century and spread throughout Europe. The invention and implementation of new technologies resulted in rapid urban growth, mass employment, and the rise of a new working class. Reforms in social and economic spheres followed, including the first laws on child labour, the legalisation of trade unions, and the abolition of slavery. In Britain, the Public Health Act of 1875 was passed, which significantly improved living conditions in many British cities. Europe's population increased from about 100 million in 1700 to 400 million by 1900. The last major famine recorded in Western Europe, the Irish Potato Famine, caused death and mass emigration of millions of Irish people. In the 19th century, 70 million people left Europe in migrations to various European colonies abroad and to the United States. Demographic growth meant that, by 1900, Europe's share of the world's population was 25%. \n\n20th century to the present\n\nTwo World Wars and an economic depression dominated the first half of the 20th century. World War I was fought between 1914 and 1918. It started when Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was assassinated by the Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip. Most European nations were drawn into the war, which was fought between the Entente Powers (France, Belgium, Serbia, Portugal, Russia, the United Kingdom, and later Italy, Greece, Romania, and the United States) and the Central Powers (Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire). The War left more than 16 million civilians and military dead. Over 60 million European soldiers were mobilised from 1914 to 1918.\n\nRussia was plunged into the Russian Revolution, which threw down the Tsarist monarchy and replaced it with the communist Soviet Union. Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire collapsed and broke up into separate nations, and many other nations had their borders redrawn. The Treaty of Versailles, which officially ended World War I in 1919, was harsh towards Germany, upon whom it placed full responsibility for the war and imposed heavy sanctions. \n\nExcess deaths in Russia over the course of World War I and the Russian Civil War (including the postwar famine) amounted to a combined total of 18 million. In 1932–1933, under Stalin's leadership, confiscations of grain by the Soviet authorities contributed to the second Soviet famine which caused millions of deaths; surviving kulaks were persecuted and many sent to Gulags to do forced labour. Stalin was also responsible for the Great Purge of 1937–38 in which the NKVD executed 681,692 people; millions of people were deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union. \n\nEconomic instability, caused in part by debts incurred in the First World War and 'loans' to Germany played havoc in Europe in the late 1920s and 1930s. This and the Wall Street Crash of 1929 brought about the worldwide Great Depression. Helped by the economic crisis, social instability and the threat of communism, fascist movements developed throughout Europe placing Adolf Hitler of Nazi Germany, Francisco Franco of Spain and Benito Mussolini of Italy in power. \n\nIn 1933, Hitler became the leader of Germany and began to work towards his goal of building Greater Germany. Germany re-expanded and took back the Saarland and Rhineland in 1935 and 1936. In 1938, Austria became a part of Germany following the Anschluss. Later that year, following the Munich Agreement signed by Germany, France, the United Kingdom and Italy, Germany annexed the Sudetenland, which was a part of Czechoslovakia inhabited by ethnic Germans, and in early 1939, the remainder of Czechoslovakia was split into the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, controlled by Germany, and the Slovak Republic. At the time, Britain and France preferred a policy of appeasement.\n\nWith tensions mounting between Germany and Poland over the future of Danzig, the Germans turned to the Soviets, and signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, which allowed the Soviets to invade the Baltic states and parts of Poland and Romania. Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, prompting France and the United Kingdom to declare war on Germany on 3 September, opening the European Theatre of World War II. The Soviet invasion of Poland started on 17 September and Poland fell soon thereafter. On 24 September, the Soviet Union attacked the Baltic countries and later, Finland. The British hoped to land at Narvik and send troops to aid Finland, but their primary objective in the landing was to encircle Germany and cut the Germans off from Scandinavian resources. Around the same time, Germany moved troops into Denmark. The Phoney War continued.\n\nIn May 1940, Germany attacked France through the Low Countries. France capitulated in June 1940. By August Germany began a bombing offensive on Britain, but failed to convince the Britons to give up. In 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union in the Operation Barbarossa. On 7 December 1941 Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor drew the United States into the conflict as allies of the British Empire and other allied forces. \n\nAfter the staggering Battle of Stalingrad in 1943, the German offensive in the Soviet Union turned into a continual fallback. The Battle of Kursk, which involved the largest tank battle in history, was the last major German offensive on the Eastern Front. In 1944, British and American forces invaded France in the D-Day landings, opening a new front against Germany. Berlin finally fell in 1945, ending World War II in Europe. The war was the largest and most destructive in human history, with 60 million dead across the world. More than 40 million people in Europe had died as a result of World War II, including between 11 and 17 million people who perished during the Holocaust. The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people (mostly civilians) during the war, about half of all World War II casualties. By the end of World War II, Europe had more than 40 million refugees. Several post-war expulsions in Central and Eastern Europe displaced a total of about 20 million people. \n\nWorld War I and especially World War II diminished the eminence of Western Europe in world affairs. After World War II the map of Europe was redrawn at the Yalta Conference and divided into two blocs, the Western countries and the communist Eastern bloc, separated by what was later called by Winston Churchill an \"Iron Curtain\". The United States and Western Europe\nestablished the NATO alliance and later the Soviet Union and Central Europe established the Warsaw Pact. \n\nThe two new superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, became locked in a fifty-year-long Cold War, centred on nuclear proliferation. At the same time decolonisation, which had already started after World War I, gradually resulted in the independence of most of the European colonies in Asia and Africa.\nIn the 1980s the reforms of Mikhail Gorbachev and the Solidarity movement in Poland accelerated the collapse of the Eastern bloc and the end of the Cold War. Germany was reunited, after the symbolic fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, and the maps of Central and Eastern Europe were redrawn once more.\n\nEuropean integration also grew after World War II. The Treaty of Rome in 1957 established the European Economic Community between six Western European states with the goal of a unified economic policy and common market. In 1967 the EEC, European Coal and Steel Community and Euratom formed the European Community, which in 1993 became the European Union. The EU established a parliament, court and central bank and introduced the euro as a unified currency. In 2004 and 2007, more Central and Eastern European countries began joining, expanding the EU to its current size of 28 European countries, and once more making Europe a major economical and political centre of power. \n\nGeography\n\nEurope makes up the western fifth of the Eurasian landmass. It has a higher ratio of coast to landmass than any other continent or subcontinent. Its maritime borders consist of the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the Mediterranean, Black, and Caspian Seas to the south. \nLand relief in Europe shows great variation within relatively small areas. The southern regions are more mountainous, while moving north the terrain descends from the high Alps, Pyrenees, and Carpathians, through hilly uplands, into broad, low northern plains, which are vast in the east. This extended lowland is known as the Great European Plain, and at its heart lies the North German Plain. An arc of uplands also exists along the north-western seaboard, which begins in the western parts of the islands of Britain and Ireland, and then continues along the mountainous, fjord-cut spine of Norway.\n\nThis description is simplified. Sub-regions such as the Iberian Peninsula and the Italian Peninsula contain their own complex features, as does mainland Central Europe itself, where the relief contains many plateaus, river valleys and basins that complicate the general trend. Sub-regions like Iceland, Britain, and Ireland are special cases. The former is a land unto itself in the northern ocean which is counted as part of Europe, while the latter are upland areas that were once joined to the mainland until rising sea levels cut them off.\n\nClimate\n\nEurope lies mainly in the temperate climate zones, being subjected to prevailing westerlies. The climate is milder in comparison to other areas of the same latitude around the globe due to the influence of the Gulf Stream. The Gulf Stream is nicknamed \"Europe's central heating\", because it makes Europe's climate warmer and wetter than it would otherwise be. The Gulf Stream not only carries warm water to Europe's coast but also warms up the prevailing westerly winds that blow across the continent from the Atlantic Ocean.\n\nTherefore, the average temperature throughout the year of Naples is 16 °C (60.8 °F), while it is only 12 °C (53.6 °F) in New York City which is almost on the same latitude. Berlin, Germany; Calgary, Canada; and Irkutsk, in the Asian part of Russia, lie on around the same latitude; January temperatures in Berlin average around 8 °C (15 °F) higher than those in Calgary, and they are almost 22 °C (40 °F) higher than average temperatures in Irkutsk. Similarly, northern parts of Scotland have a tempertate marine climate. The yearly average temperature in city of Inverness is 9.05 degrees Celsius (48.3 degrees Fahrenheit). However, Churchill, Manitoba, Canada, is on roughly the same latitude and has an average temperature of -6.5 degrees Celsius (20.3 degrees Fahrenheit), giving it a nearly subarctic climate.\n\nGeology\n\nThe geological history of Europe traces back to the formation of the Baltic Shield (Fennoscandia) and the Sarmatian craton, both around 2.25 billion years ago, followed by the Volgo–Uralia shield, the three together leading to the East European craton (≈ Baltica) which became a part of the supercontinent Columbia. Around 1.1 billion years ago, Baltica and Arctica (as part of the Laurentia block) became joined to Rodinia, later resplitting around 550 million years ago to reform as Baltica. Around 440 million years ago Euramerica was formed from Baltica and Laurentia; a further joining with Gondwana then leading to the formation of Pangea. Around 190 million years ago, Gondwana and Laurasia split apart due to the widening of the Atlantic Ocean. Finally, and very soon afterwards, Laurasia itself split up again, into Laurentia (North America) and the Eurasian continent. The land connection between the two persisted for a considerable time, via Greenland, leading to interchange of animal species. From around 50 million years ago, rising and falling sea levels have determined the actual shape of Europe, and its connections with continents such as Asia. Europe's present shape dates to the late Tertiary period about five million years ago. \n\nThe geology of Europe is hugely varied and complex, and gives rise to the wide variety of landscapes found across the continent, from the Scottish Highlands to the rolling plains of Hungary. Europe's most significant feature is the dichotomy between highland and mountainous Southern Europe and a vast, partially underwater, northern plain ranging from Ireland in the west to the Ural Mountains in the east. These two halves are separated by the mountain chains of the Pyrenees and Alps/Carpathians. The northern plains are delimited in the west by the Scandinavian Mountains and the mountainous parts of the British Isles. Major shallow water bodies submerging parts of the northern plains are the Celtic Sea, the North Sea, the Baltic Sea complex and Barents Sea.\n\nThe northern plain contains the old geological continent of Baltica, and so may be regarded geologically as the \"main continent\", while peripheral highlands and mountainous regions in the south and west constitute fragments from various other geological continents. Most of the older geology of western Europe existed as part of the ancient microcontinent Avalonia.\n\nFlora\n\nHaving lived side-by-side with agricultural peoples for millennia, Europe's animals and plants have been profoundly affected by the presence and activities of man. With the exception of Fennoscandia and northern Russia, few areas of untouched wilderness are currently found in Europe, except for various national parks.\n\nThe main natural vegetation cover in Europe is mixed forest. The conditions for growth are very favourable. In the north, the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift warm the continent. Southern Europe could be described as having a warm, but mild climate. There are frequent summer droughts in this region. Mountain ridges also affect the conditions. Some of these (Alps, Pyrenees) are oriented east-west and allow the wind to carry large masses of water from the ocean in the interior. Others are oriented south-north (Scandinavian Mountains, Dinarides, Carpathians, Apennines) and because the rain falls primarily on the side of mountains that is oriented towards the sea, forests grow well on this side, while on the other side, the conditions are much less favourable. Few corners of mainland Europe have not been grazed by livestock at some point in time, and the cutting down of the pre-agricultural forest habitat caused disruption to the original plant and animal ecosystems.\n\nProbably 80 to 90 percent of Europe was once covered by forest. It stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the Arctic Ocean. Though over half of Europe's original forests disappeared through the centuries of deforestation, Europe still has over one quarter of its land area as forest, such as the broadlef and mixed forests, taiga of Scandinavia and Russia, mixed rainforests of the Caucasus and the Cork oak forests in the western Mediterranean. During recent times, deforestation has been slowed and many trees have been planted. However, in many cases monoculture plantations of conifers have replaced the original mixed natural forest, because these grow quicker. The plantations now cover vast areas of land, but offer poorer habitats for many European forest dwelling species which require a mixture of tree species and diverse forest structure. The amount of natural forest in Western Europe is just 2–3% or less, in European Russia 5–10%. The country with the smallest percentage of forested area is Iceland (1%), while the most forested country is Finland (77%). \n\nIn temperate Europe, mixed forest with both broadleaf and coniferous trees dominate. The most important species in central and western Europe are beech and oak. In the north, the taiga is a mixed spruce–pine–birch forest; further north within Russia and extreme northern Scandinavia, the taiga gives way to tundra as the Arctic is approached. In the Mediterranean, many olive trees have been planted, which are very well adapted to its arid climate; Mediterranean Cypress is also widely planted in southern Europe. The semi-arid Mediterranean region hosts much scrub forest. A narrow east-west tongue of Eurasian grassland (the steppe) extends eastwards from Ukraine and southern Russia and ends in Hungary and traverses into taiga to the north.\n\nFauna\n\nGlaciation during the most recent ice age and the presence of man affected the distribution of European fauna. As for the animals, in many parts of Europe most large animals and top predator species have been hunted to extinction. The woolly mammoth was extinct before the end of the Neolithic period. Today wolves (carnivores) and bears (omnivores) are endangered. Once they were found in most parts of Europe. However, deforestation and hunting caused these animals to withdraw further and further. By the Middle Ages the bears' habitats were limited to more or less inaccessible mountains with sufficient forest cover. Today, the brown bear lives primarily in the Balkan peninsula, Scandinavia, and Russia; a small number also persist in other countries across Europe (Austria, Pyrenees etc.), but in these areas brown bear populations are fragmented and marginalised because of the destruction of their habitat. In addition, polar bears may be found on Svalbard, a Norwegian archipelago far north of Scandinavia. The wolf, the second largest predator in Europe after the brown bear, can be found primarily in Central and Eastern Europe and in the Balkans, with a handful of packs in pockets of Western Europe (Scandinavia, Spain, etc.).\n\nEuropean wild cat, foxes (especially the red fox), jackal and different species of martens, hedgehogs, different species of reptiles (like snakes such as vipers and grass snakes) and amphibians, different birds (owls, hawks and other birds of prey).\n\nImportant European herbivores are snails, larvae, fish, different birds, and mammals, like rodents, deer and roe deer, boars, and living in the mountains, marmots, steinbocks, chamois among others. A number of insects, such as the small tortoiseshell butterfly, add to the biodiversity. \n\nThe extinction of the dwarf hippos and dwarf elephants has been linked to the earliest arrival of humans on the islands of the Mediterranean. \n\nSea creatures are also an important part of European flora and fauna. The sea flora is mainly phytoplankton. Important animals that live in European seas are zooplankton, molluscs, echinoderms, different crustaceans, squids and octopuses, fish, dolphins, and whales.\n\nBiodiversity is protected in Europe through the Council of Europe's Bern Convention, which has also been signed by the European Community as well as non-European states.\n\nPolitics\n\nThe list below includes all entities falling even partially under any of the various common definitions of Europe, geographic or political. The data displayed are per sources in cross-referenced articles.\n\nWithin the above-mentioned states are several de facto independent countries with limited to no international recognition. None of them are members of the UN:\n\nSeveral dependencies and similar territories with broad autonomy are also found within or in close proximity to Europe. This includes Åland (a region of Finland), two constituent countries of the Kingdom Denmark (other than Denmark itself), three Crown dependencies, and two British Overseas Territories. Not included are the three countries of the United Kingdom with devolved powers and the two Autonomous Regions of Portugal, which despite having a unique degree of autonomy, are not largely self-governing in matters other than international affairs. Areas with little more than a unique tax status, such as Svalbard, Heligoland and the Canary Islands, are also not included for this reason.\n\nIntegration\n\nEuropean integration is the process of political, legal, economic (and in some cases social and cultural) integration of states wholly or partially in Europe. While the Council of Europe—which includes almost all European states—has promoted pan-Europe cooperation, the European Union has been the focus of economic integration on the continent. More recently, the Eurasian Economic Union has been established as a counterpart comprising former Soviet states.\n\n28 European states are members of the politico-economic European Union, 26 of the border-free Schengen Area and 19 of the monetary union Eurozone. Among the smaller European organizations are the Nordic Council, the Benelux, the Baltic Assembly and the Visegrád Group.\n\nEconomy\n\nAs a continent, the economy of Europe is currently the largest on Earth and it is the richest region as measured by assets under management with over $32.7 trillion compared to North America's $27.1 trillion in 2008. In 2009 Europe remained the wealthiest region. Its $37.1 trillion in assets under management represented one-third of the world's wealth. It was one of several regions where wealth surpassed its precrisis year-end peak. As with other continents, Europe has a large variation of wealth among its countries. The richer states tend to be in the West; some of the Central and Eastern European economies are still emerging from the collapse of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia.\n\nThe European Union, a political entity composed of 28 European states, comprises the largest single economic area in the world. 18 EU countries share the euro as a common currency.\nFive European countries rank in the top ten of the world's largest national economies in GDP (PPP). This includes (ranks according to the CIA): Germany (5), the UK (6), Russia (7), France (8), and Italy (10). \n\nThere is huge disparity between many European countries in terms of their income. The richest in terms of GDP per capita is Monaco with its US$172,676 per capita (2009) and the poorest is Moldova with its GDP per capita of US$1,631 (2010). Monaco is the richest country in terms of GDP per capita in the world according to the World Bank report.\n\nHistory\n\n;Industrial growth (1760–1945)\n\nCapitalism has been dominant in the Western world since the end of feudalism. From Britain, it gradually spread throughout Europe. The Industrial Revolution started in Europe, specifically the United Kingdom in the late 18th century, and the 19th century saw Western Europe industrialise. Economies were disrupted by World War I but by the beginning of World War II they had recovered and were having to compete with the growing economic strength of the United States. World War II, again, damaged much of Europe's industries.\n\n;Cold War (1945–1991)\n\nAfter World War II the economy of the UK was in a state of ruin, and continued to suffer relative economic decline in the following decades. Italy was also in a poor economic condition but regained a high level of growth by the 1950s. West Germany recovered quickly and had doubled production from pre-war levels by the 1950s. France also staged a remarkable comeback enjoying rapid growth and modernisation; later on Spain, under the leadership of Franco, also recovered, and the nation recorded huge unprecedented economic growth beginning in the 1960s in what is called the Spanish miracle. The majority of Central and Eastern European states came under the control of the Soviet Union and thus were members of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON). \n\nThe states which retained a free-market system were given a large amount of aid by the United States under the Marshall Plan.\n The western states moved to link their economies together, providing the basis for the EU and increasing cross border trade. This helped them to enjoy rapidly improving economies, while those states in COMECON were struggling in a large part due to the cost of the Cold War. Until 1990, the European Community was expanded from 6 founding members to 12. The emphasis placed on resurrecting the West German economy led to it overtaking the UK as Europe's largest economy.\n\n;Reunification (1991–2016)\n\nWith the fall of communism in Central and Eastern Europe in 1991, the post-socialist states began free market reforms: Poland, Hungary, and Slovenia adopted them reasonably quickly, while Ukraine and Russia are still in the process of doing so.\n\nAfter East and West Germany were reunited in 1990, the economy of West Germany struggled as it had to support and largely rebuild the infrastructure of East Germany.\nBy the millennium change, the EU dominated the economy of Europe comprising the five largest European economies of the time namely Germany, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, and Spain. In 1999, 12 of the 15 members of the EU joined the Eurozone replacing their former national currencies by the common euro. The three who chose to remain outside the Eurozone were: the United Kingdom, Denmark, and Sweden.\nThe European Union is now the largest economy in the world. \n\nFigures released by Eurostat in 2009 confirmed that the Eurozone had gone into recession in 2008. It impacted much of the region. In 2010, fears of a sovereign debt crisis developed concerning some countries in Europe, especially Greece, Ireland, Spain, and Portugal. As a result, measures were taken, especially for Greece, by the leading countries of the Eurozone. The EU-27 unemployment rate was 10.3% in 2012. For those aged 15–24 it was 22.4%. \n\nDemographics\n\nSince the Renaissance, Europe has had a major influence in culture, economics and social movements in the world. The most significant inventions had their origins in the Western world, primarily Europe and the United States. Approximately 70 million Europeans died through war, violence and famine between 1914 and 1945. Some current and past issues in European demographics have included religious emigration, race relations, economic immigration, a declining birth rate and an ageing population.\n\nIn some countries, such as Ireland and Poland, access to abortion is limited. It remains illegal on the island of Malta. Furthermore, three European countries (the Netherlands, Belgium, and Switzerland) and the Autonomous Community of Andalusia (Spain) have allowed a limited form of voluntary euthanasia for some terminally ill people.\n\nIn 2005, the population of Europe was estimated to be 731 million according to the United Nations, which is slightly more than one-ninth of the world's population. A century ago, Europe had nearly a quarter of the world's population. The population of Europe has grown in the past century, but in other areas of the world (in particular Africa and Asia) the population has grown far more quickly. Among the continents, Europe has a relatively high population density, second only to Asia. The most densely populated country in Europe (and in the world) is Monaco. Pan and Pfeil (2004) count 87 distinct \"peoples of Europe\", of which 33 form the majority population in at least one sovereign state, while the remaining 54 constitute ethnic minorities. \nAccording to UN population projection, Europe's population may fall to about 7% of world population by 2050, or 653 million people (medium variant, 556 to 777 million in low and high variants, respectively). Within this context, significant disparities exist between regions in relation to fertility rates. The average number of children per female of child bearing age is 1.52. According to some sources, this rate is higher among Muslims in Europe. The UN predicts a steady population decline in Central and Eastern Europe as a result of emigration and low birth rates. \n\nEurope is home to the highest number of migrants of all global regions at 70.6 million people, the IOM's report said. In 2005, the EU had an overall net gain from immigration of 1.8 million people. This accounted for almost 85% of Europe's total population growth. The European Union plans to open the job centres for legal migrant workers from Africa. In 2008, 696,000 persons were given citizenship of an EU27 member state, a decrease from 707,000 the previous year. \n\nEmigration from Europe began with Spanish and Portuguese settlers in the 16th century, and French and English settlers in the 17th century. But numbers remained relatively small until waves of mass emigration in the 19th century, when millions of poor families left Europe. \n\nToday, large populations of European descent are found on every continent. European ancestry predominates in North America, and to a lesser degree in South America (particularly in Uruguay, Argentina, Chile and Brazil, while most of the other Latin American countries also have a considerable population of European origins). Australia and New Zealand have large European derived populations. Africa has no countries with European-derived majorities (or with the exception of Cape Verde and probably São Tomé and Príncipe, depending on context), but there are significant minorities, such as the White South Africans. In Asia, European-derived populations predominate in Northern Asia (specifically Russians), some parts of Northern Kazakhstan and Israel. \n\nLanguages\n\nEuropean languages mostly fall within three Indo-European language groups: the Romance languages, derived from the Latin of the Roman Empire; the Germanic languages, whose ancestor language came from southern Scandinavia; and the Slavic languages.\n\nSlavic languages are most spoken by the number of native speakers in Europe, they are spoken in Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe. Romance languages are spoken primarily in south-western Europe as well as in Romania and Moldova, in Central or Eastern Europe. Germanic languages are spoken in Northern Europe, the British Isles and some parts of Central Europe.\n\nMany other languages outside the three main groups exist in Europe. Other Indo-European languages include the Baltic group (that is, Latvian and Lithuanian), the Celtic group (that is, Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Manx, Welsh, Cornish, and Breton), Greek, Armenian, and Albanian. In addition, a distinct group of Uralic languages (Estonian, Finnish, and Hungarian) is spoken mainly in Estonia, Finland, and Hungary, while Kartvelian languages (Georgian, Mingrelian, and Svan), are spoken primarily in Georgia, and two other language families reside in the North Caucasus (termed Northeast Caucasian, most notably including Chechen, Avar and Lezgin and Northwest Caucasian, notably including Adyghe). Maltese is the only Semitic language that is official within the EU, while Basque is the only European language isolate. Turkic languages include Azerbaijani and Turkish, in addition to the languages of minority nations in Russia.\n\nMultilingualism and the protection of regional and minority languages are recognised political goals in Europe today. The Council of Europe Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities and the Council of Europe's European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages set up a legal framework for language rights in Europe.\n\nReligion\n\nHistorically, religion in Europe has been a major influence on European art, culture, philosophy and law. The largest religion in Europe is Christianity, with 76.2% of Europeans considering themselves Christians, including Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and various Protestant denominations (especially historically state-supported European ones such as Lutheranism, Anglicanism and the Reformed faith). The notion of \"Europe\" and the \"Western World\" has been intimately connected with the concept of \"Christianity and Christendom\" many even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unified European identity. \n\nChristianity, including the Roman Catholic Church, has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization since at least the 4th century. and for at least a millennium and a half, Europe has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture, even though the religion was inherited from the Middle East. Christian culture was the predominant force in western civilization, guiding the course of philosophy, art, and science. \n\nThe second most popular religion is Islam (6%) concentrated mainly in the Balkans and eastern Europe (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Albania, Kosovo, Kazakhstan, North Cyprus, Turkey, Azerbaijan, North Caucasus, and the Volga-Ural region). Other religions, including Judaism, Hinduism, and Buddhism are minority religions (though Tibetan Buddhism is the majority religion of Russia's Republic of Kalmykia). The 20th century saw the revival of Neopaganism through movements such as Wicca and Druidry.\n\nEurope has become a relatively secular continent, with an increasing number and proportion of irreligious, atheist and agnostic people which make up about 18.2% of Europeans population, actually the largest secular in the Western world. There are a particularly high number of self-described non-religious people in the Czech Republic, Estonia, Sweden, former East Germany, and France. \n\nCulture\n\nThe culture of Europe can be described as a series of overlapping cultures; cultural mixes exist across the continent. Scholar Andreas Kaplan describes Europe as \"embracing maximum cultural diversity at minimal geographical distances\". There are cultural innovations and movements, sometimes at odds with each other. Thus, the question of \"common culture\" or \"common values\" is complex.\n\nAccording to historian Hilaire Belloc, for several centuries the peoples of Europe based their self-identification on the remaining traces of the Roman culture and on the concept of Christendom, because many European-wide military alliances were of religious nature: the Crusades (1095–1291), the Reconquista (711–1492), the Battle of Lepanto (1571)." ] }

{ "description": [ "SILK IN WORLD MARKETS ... , despite the fact that it is now the second largest producer. Some other silk producers are also ... Europe's largest silk ...", "Producers and Consumers. ... so silk fabric producers have to make the care of silk easy to compete ... Germany is the largest European market for textiles and ...", "... History of Silk Fabric, History of Silk Production ... Andalusia was Europe's main silk-producing ... United States is by far the largest importer of silk ...", "... which has wrought tremendous damage in the silk industry in Europe, ... raw silk production is carried on ... The usual wages in the silk-producing countries are ...", "Statistics; Silk Products; Search form ... Statistics Global Silk Industry. The major silk producing countries in the world ... India is the world's second largest ..." ], "filename": [ "152/152_666.txt", "46/46_667.txt", "26/26_668.txt", "60/60_670.txt", "170/170_671.txt" ], "rank": [ 2, 3, 4, 6, 7 ], "title": [ "Silk in World Markets - International Tradeforum", "Producers and Consumers - Silk", "Silk History: History of Silk Fabric; History of Chinese ...", "Raw Silk Production - Old And Sold", "Statistics | INTERNATIONAL SERICULTURAL COMMISSION" ], "url": [ "http://www.tradeforum.org/Silk-in-World-Markets/", "http://globalcommodities-silk.weebly.com/producers-and-consumers.html", "https://texeresilk.com/article/history_of_silk", "http://www.oldandsold.com/articles04/textiles16.shtml", "http://inserco.org/en/?q=statistics" ], "search_context": [ "Silk in World Markets\nSILK IN WORLD MARKETS\n© International Trade Centre, International Trade Forum - Issue 1/1999\nJapan is the world's leading silk consumer.\nSilk has a miniscule percentage of the global textile fibre market-less than 0.2%. This figure, however, is misleading, since the actual trading value of silk and silk products is much more impressive. This is a multibillion dollar trade, with a unit price for raw silk roughly twenty times that of raw cotton. (The precise global value is difficult to assess, since reliable data on finished silk products is lacking in most importing countries.) To give an idea of the value, however, the annual turnover of the China National Silk Import and Export Corporation alone is US$ 2-2.5 billion.\nUnlike some other textiles, silk-wearing traditions and demand go back a long way. A good example is India, where the local demand greatly exceeds supply (and hampers export growth). India has thus become the largest importer of raw silk, despite the fact that it is now the second largest producer. Some other silk producers are also experiencing fast-growing local demand, such as China, where consumers are increasingly able to afford the lower price range silk products. This pattern is also expected to repeat itself in Viet Nam.\nItaly and France\nRaw silk importers, high-quality processors\nItaly has been traditionally the largest importer, processor and exporter of silk products in Europe. In 1997, Italy imported some 3200 tons of raw silk and over 700 tons of silk yarn, primarily from China. Italy also imported about 300 tons of ladies' blouses, of which over 80% came from China. Silk garment imports, however, have drastically gone down over the last five years. (In 1992, the country imported more than 700 tons of ladies' blouses.) Italy is well-known for highly developed skills in silk processing (finishing, dyeing and printing silk fabrics). Exports of silk scarves rose by about 15% between from 1996 to 1997, to 586 tons. Exports of silk neckties reached 1230 tons the same year.\nFrance is another country with a considerable silk processing industry. For centuries, Lyon has produced silk fabrics of the highest quality for domestic consumption and for export. More than 70% of silk fabrics in the French market have been traditionally used for clothing. There are signs that silk may have a growing market also for interior decoration use as curtains, wall covers, bed spreads and upholstery. France exports top quality silk fabrics to the US market, with unit prices reaching US$ 30 per m2.\nUnited States\nEmphasis on easy-care fabrics\nThe US market is one of the world's largest, and imports include garments, interior decoration fabrics and accessories. Silk processing capacity is virtually nonexistent. Imports of silk goods were valued at about US$ 2 billion in 1997; 10% was for home furnishing. Unlike European consumers, US consumers do not have a long tradition of using silk. Silk therefore has never had the same aura as in Europe. The United States has been a pioneer market for imported Chinese knitted silk products, initially mainly thermal underwear, and now also elegant casuals in the form of T-shirts, polo neck sweaters, etc. Easy care is a \"must\" in the United States, so it is important to develop fabrics with easy-care properties to compete with other fibres.\nGermany\nEurope's largest silk market, quality-conscious, receptive\nto \"green\" marketing\nGermany is by far the largest European market for textiles and clothing, including silk. The German consumer favours natural fibres. Germany has been importing a variety of silk garments, accessories (particularly silk cushion covers) and interior decoration fabrics. Silk garments are imported mainly from China. India and Thailand have been relatively successful in this market with their handloom silk products for home furnishing. The market is quality-conscious and prepared to pay a premium for good quality.\nJapan\nLeading Consumer\nTraditionally the largest silk consumer, Japan in the 1960s relied entirely on local silk production, mostly for kimonos. Between the 1970s and today, local silk production dropped from over 20,000 tons to less than 2000. The country now depends on imported silk goods, particularly from China. Kimonos still absorb about 50% of the total raw silk consumption in Japan, down from 90% in the 1970s. Silk is little used in interior decoration. The decline of the Japanese silk processing industry is having a serious effect on Brazilian sericulture, which caters largely to Japan.", "Producers and Consumers - Silk\nSilk\nSignificance to Historical Events\nProducers and Consumers\nSilk has a small percentage in the global textile fiber market, its less than .2%, however the value and products of silk are very impressive. Silk is a multibillion-dollar trade market; the unit price of silk is roughly twenty times the price of raw cotton. The annual turnover of the China National Import and Export Corporation is 2-2.5 billion dollars.\nChina is the largest exporter of silk, followed by India, even thought their export figures have shown a downward trend recently. Vietnam has emerged as a major player in the silk industry and will soon pose a threat to countries like India, Brazil, and to Bangladesh.\nItaly and France- Raw Silk Importers and Processors\nItaly, because of its fashion industry, has traditionally been the largest importer of raw silk, processor and exporter of silk in Europe. In 1997, Italy imported 3200 tons of raw silk and 300 tons of silk thread, primarily imported from China. Along with this Italy also imported 300 tons of ladies silk blouses, over 80% of the silk blouses came from China. However, over the past five years the importing of silk garments has dramatically decreased, in 1992 they imported 700 tons of blouses. Italy is known for there high quality processing of silk, finishing, dyeing, and printing of silk fabrics. However with the decrease of blouses, the exports of silk scarves rose by about 15% in 1996-1997. Along with that the exports of silk neckties reached 1230 tons in 1997.\nFrance is another large importer in the raw silk industry; they are also large processors of silk. Lyon has produced the highest quality of silk fabrics for domestic consumption and for export. Most of the silk fabrics in the French market have been used for clothing. However, silk soon may be growing in the interior decoration market, used for curtains, wall covers, bed spreads, and upholstery. France exports the best quality silk fabrics to the US market.\nUnited States\nThe United States is one of the world’s largest importers of silk garments and interior decoration fabrics and accessories. Unlike Italy and France the US has a very little processing industry. In 1997 imports of silk goods were estimated to value about 2 billion dollars. 10% of it was for home furnishing. Unlike Europe, the US does not have a very long history of using silk, so silk has much more of a presence in Europe. However The United States has lead the way in the import of Chinese knitted silk products. It started with importing thermal underwear, and has now expanded to silk T-shirts, polo neck sweaters, etc. In the United States it is very important for the fabrics to be easy to care for, so silk fabric producers have to make the care of silk easy to compete with other fabrics.\nGermany\nGermany is the largest European market for textiles and clothing, especially silk. Germans prefer their fabrics to be “green” and natural fibers. Germany imports silk garments, accessories, and interior decoration fabrics. Their Silk garments are imported mainly from China. However India and Thailand have been successful with their hand loom silk products for home furnishing. Quality is important for Germany, they are willing to pay more for good quality products.\nJapan\nJapan is the largest silk consumer. In the 1960’s Japan relied solely on the local silk production, mostly for kimonos. However between the 1970’s and today, the local silk production in china has decreased drastically from 20,000 tons to less than 2000 tons. Japan depends more on imported silk goods from China. Kimonos take in about 50% of the total raw silk consumption in Japan. Silk in Japan isn’t used much for interior design. The decline in the demand of silk has had a serious effect on the Brazilian sericulture, because most of brazils silk products went to Japan. \nCreate a free website", "Silk History: History of Silk Fabric; History of Chinese Silk; Silk Road History Silks History\nSericulture Today\nThe Legend\nAccording to well-established Chinese legend, Empress Hsi Ling Shi, wife of Emperor Huang Ti (also called the Yellow Emperor), was the first person to accidentally discover silk as weavable fiber.\nOne day, when the empress was sipping tea under a mulberry tree , a cocoon fell into her cup and began to unravel. The empress became so enamored with the shimmering threads, she discovered their source, the Bombyx mori silkworm found in the white mulberry. The empress soon developed sericulture, the cultivation of silkworms, and invented the reel and loom. Thus began the history of silk.\nWhether or not the legend is accurate, it is certain that the earliest surviving references to silk history and production place it in China; and that for nearly 3 millennia, the Chinese had a global monopoly on silk production.\nThe Silk Road\nThough first reserved for Chinese royalty, silk spread gradually through the Chinese culture both geographically and socially. From there, silken garments began to reach regions throughout Asia. Silk rapidly became a popular luxury fabric in the many areas accessible to Chinese merchants, because of its texture and luster.\nDemand for this exotic fabric eventually created the lucrative trade route now known as the Silk Road, taking silk westward and bringing gold, silver and wools to the East. It was named the Silk Road after its most valuable commodity – silk was considered even more precious than gold! Clearly, a basic understanding of silk history would not be complete without understanding the crucial role played by the Silk Road in its global trade and introduction to the world outside of China.\nThe Silk Road was some 4,000 miles long stretching from Eastern China to the Mediterranean Sea. A caravan tract, the Silk Road followed the Great Wall of China to the north-west, bypassing the Takla Makan desert, climbing the Pamir mountain range, crossing modern-day Afghanistan and going on to the Levant, with a major trading market in Damascus. From there, the merchandise was shipped across the Mediterranean Sea. Few people traveled the entire route; goods were handled mostly by a series of middlemen.\nA Well-kept Secret\nThe Chinese realized the value of the beautiful material they were producing and kept its secret safe from the rest of the world for more than 30 centuries. Travelers were searched thoroughly at border crossings and anyone caught trying to smuggle eggs, cocoons or silkworms out of the country were summarily executed. Thus, under penalty of death, the mystery of sericulture remained a well-kept secret for almost three thousand years.\nSericulture Spreads into Asia and Europe\nWith the mulberry silk moth native to China, the Chinese had a monopoly on the world's silk production until about BCE 200 when Korea saw the emergence of its own silk industry thanks to a handful of Chinese immigrants who had settled there. By about CE 300, sericulture had spread into India, Japan, and Persia – thus making silk a part of the history of these cultures.\nThe Roman Empire knew of and traded in silk. Despite its popularity, however, the secret of silk-making was only to reach Europe around CE 550, via the Byzantine Empire. According to a legend well enshrined in silk history, monks working for the emperor Justinian smuggled silkworm eggs to Constantinople in hollow bamboo walking canes. The Byzantines were as secretive as the Chinese, and for many centuries the weaving and trading of silk fabric was a strict imperial monopoly.\nIn the seventh century, the Arabs conquered Persia, capturing their magnificent silks in the process. Sericulture and silk weaving thus spread through Africa, Sicily, and Spain as the Arabs swept through these lands. Andalusia was Europe's main silk-producing center in the tenth century.\nBy the 13th century, however, Italy had gained dominance and entered the hall of fame in silk history. Venetian merchants traded extensively in silk and encouraged silk growers to settle in Italy. By the 13th century, Italian silk was a significant source of trade. Even now, silk processed (finished, dyed, printed) in the province of Como enjoys an esteemed reputation.\nItalian silk was so popular in Europe that Francis I of France invited Italian silkmakers to France to create a French silk industry, especially in Lyon. By the 17th century France was challenging Italy's leadership, and the silk looms established in the Lyons area at that time are still famous today for the unique beauty of their weaving.\nIn Medieval Europe, silk was used only by the nobility.\nSericulture Today\nThe nineteenth century and industrialization saw the downfall of the European silk industry. Cheaper Japanese silk, especially driven by the opening of the Suez Canal, was one of the many factors driving the trend. Additionally, advent of manmade fiber, such as nylon, started to dominate traditionally silk products such as stockings and parachutes. The two world wars, which interrupted the supply of raw material from Japan, also stifled the European silk industry.\nAfter the Second World War, Japan's silk production was restored, with improved production and quality of raw silk. Japan was to remain the world's biggest producer of raw silk, and practically the only major exporter of raw silk, until the 1970s.\nChina gradually re-captured her position as the world's biggest producer and exporter of raw silk and silk yarn – proving that the history of silk follows its own boomerang principles. Today, around 125,000 metric tons of silk is produced in the world. Almost two thirds of that production takes place in China.\nThe other major producers are India, Japan, Korea, Thailand, Vietnam, Uzbekistan, and Brazil. United States is by far the largest importer of silk products today.\nAcknowledgement: Facts about silk history in this writing have been borrowed from various sources such as Wikipedia and Encyclopaedia Brittanica . Please visit All About Silk for further information about silk.\nOur Company", "Raw Silk Production\nRaw Silk Production\n( Originally Published Early 1900's )\nSilk is produced from cocoons of an insect usually and rather inaccurately called the \"silkworm.\" This popular name originates from the fact that the silk-producing moth, before reaching maturity, passes through a caterpillar or worm stage during which it spins for itself the cocoon from which later it emerges as a true moth, closely related in nature to the butterfly. The cocoon, formed from an unbroken fiber secreted from the caterpillar's body, is gathered and the fiber unwound, thereby furnishing the silk fiber of commerce.\nVarieties of silk moths.-There are between three and four hundred varieties of moths that produce silk cocoons, many of these varieties being found in America. Only a few produce cocoons of the kind and quantity that make it profitable to collect them. Most silk comes from a single variety known to science as the Bombyx mori. This silk moth, or silkworm as we shall call it, has been raised for hundreds and even thousands of years. It is correctly called the domesticated silkworm. From just what wild variety it originally came is not known. It has probably changed greatly during its age-long process of culture. By the selection of only the larger ones for breeding purposes, this variety has been increased in size, with consequent en largement of the cocoon. It has lost its power of flight.\nThe wings of the full-grown moth are practically useless. At the caterpillar stage it has lost its sight. The constant care that man has given to thousands of generations of worms has made it unnecessary for them to see or fly; these functions therefore have been lost. All necessary movements are provided for by human attendants, who carry the worms to the feeding places and supply them with food. The Bombyx mori, the domestic silkworm, is white or cream-colored, whereas the wild varieties vary widely in color. Brown is very common.\nStages in. the life of a silkworm.-The silkworms of all varieties pass through four marked stages: first we find them as eggs; second, as caterpillars or worms; third, as chrysalides, inside of the cocoons; and fourth, as full-grown moths. It takes from twenty to thirty days for the eggs to hatch. The caterpillar stage lasts about 3o days. The chrysalis stage lasts but a few days, and the moths die as soon as they have mated and laid the new generation of eggs.\nThe Bombyx mori produces but one new generation each year. For this reason it is called univoltine. Some of the wild species of silkworms, however, annually produce two, three, and even more generations. The common Chinese wild silkworms produce as many as seven crops each year in the Hongkong district, while a variety in Bengal, India, produces eight generations. These varieties are called multivoltine. The univoltine is preferred for cultivation to the many multivoltine species because it produces the finest and strongest silk. In the attempt to use the cocoons from the multivoltine species there is a great deal of waste; it is utterly impossible to reel the cocoons of some varieties.\nTHE EGG.-Silkworm eggs are about the size of a turnipseed and it takes from 30,000 to 40,000 to weigh an ounce. If all goes well, these will produce about 130 to 140 pounds of cocoons, and from these about twelve pounds of raw silk may be reeled. Eggs are sometimes sold by one grower to another for so much an ounce. When first laid they are yellow, but if fertile they soon turn blue-gray. The univoltine species is hatched in the month of June by the use of incubators in which the temperature is kept at about 75 degrees. In Oriental countries the eggs are sometimes kept at the required temperature by having them wrapped in folds of cloth around the bodies of the people who are caring for the silk-raising establishments.\nTHE WORMS OR CATERPILLARS.-Finally the eggs hatch and little, dark-colored worms creep out. This is the caterpillar or larva stage. These little baby caterpillars, especially of the domestic species, are almost helpless. Those in charge provide mulberry leaves to the under side of which the caterpillars attach themselves and get food by sucking the juice out of the leaf. In eight days they have attained considerable growth and are ready to shed their skins for the first time. Three other moltings take place before the caterpillar is full grown. Each time, as the molting period approaches, the worms stop eating, rise on their hind legs, and remain still for a couple of days. Finally a crack starts in the skin above the nose. This enlarges until it gives room for the head and later for the body to wriggle out. As soon as the skin is shed the caterpillar becomes voraciously hungry and avidly attacks the leaves supplied' to it. After the first few days of caterpillar life, the worms cease sucking and begin to eat the entire soft parts of the leaf by cutting out pieces and devouring them. The noise made by thousands of these worms in a room, all busily feeding, is like that of falling rain.\nCare o f the caterpillars.-The worms are kept on shallow trays which are placed by the dozen in frames. Laborersmen, women, and children-busily pick leaves from the trees, bring them in fresh to the worms, change the worms from tray to tray, clean the old trays and prepare them for another group of worms. Great care is necessary in so handling the worms that they may not be hurt. Though the worms are blind, they have none the less a very acute hearing; wherefore all noises must be prevented se far as is possible. A sharp noise causes the worm to stop feeding and to give out-really to waste-a part of that liquid in its body which will later make silk fiber. Much silk is lost in this way, even when the utmost care is exercised. Such unavoidable noises as thunderstorms cause very marked losses. As a rule the laborers walk barefooted or in their stocking feet about the room in which the silkworms are kept.\nTHE COCOON.-After the caterpillar has shed its skin four times it is ready to pass into the next stage, that of the cocoon or chrysalis. One ounce of eggs has become by this time, if good fortune has attended the work, 20,000 fullgrown worms. These worms have consumed in the period of thirty days over half a ton of green leaves. When ready to spin their cocoons, the worms are transferred to trays constructed with brushy tufts in which they like to make their cocoons.\nThe cocoon is constructed in most interesting fashion. There are two long bags inside the worm's body, one along each side. These bags or sacs contain a sticky or viscous liquid. This is slowly exuded through the worm's under lip, and immediately upon coming into the air it hardens into a thin little stream of fiber; this fiber is the silk. Usually both bags exude the liquid at the same time; hence the fiber that is formed at the lower lip of the worm is generally double, as can be seen by laying almost any silk fiber under a strong magnifying glass or a microscope.\nThe worm attaches itself to a tuft on the tray provided for it. The wild worm selects some bush, weed, tuft, or grass, where it begins to give off the silk liquid, and, as it does so, swings its head from one side to the other, depositing the silk fiber in the form of figure eights. At first the directions are somewhat irregular, but later the method of laying the fiber becomes almost uniform. Soon the worm is wholly inclosed by his tent of silk fiber, but he continues spinning on the inside until his silk secretions are used up, and the cocoon is completed.\nTHE CHRYSALIS,-The caterpillar then changes from a worm to a chrysalis, a thing that looks partly like a worm and partly like an insect. In this condition it sleeps for about eighteen to twenty days. Then, if left undisturbed, it is transformed into a moth; it becomes fully awake, and strives to emerge from the cocoon. Slowly it pushes itself forward against the wall of the cocoon, breaking some of the obstructing fiber and dissolving parts of it by a strong, alkaline liquid which it gives out of its mouth.\nTHE MOTH.-After it has come out of the cocoon the moth remains quiet until its wings are dry, and then proceeds to the mating which lasts for several hours. The female moth now lays her eggs in two deposits, a few hours apart. Each moth produces from three hundred to five hundred eggs. The male is smaller than the female, but more active. Both are covered with woolly hair and, if of the Bombyx mori variety, are creamy white in color. Neither male nor female eats anything betwen the time when it begins to spin and its death.\nCOMPLETING THE CYCLE OF LIFE.-The eggs are laid over an even surface, sometimes with a gummy liquid that sticks the eggs to the object upon which they are laid. Shortly after the mating and the laying of the eggs, the moth dies. Its cycle of life is completed.\nHOW THE SILK FIBER IS OBTAINED\nAs already indicated the cocoons are the source of the silk fiber. The silkworm deposits upwards of 4,000 yards of the tiny fiber in making its cocoon. But when the moth leaves the cocoon by breaking its way out, it cuts this fiber off in many places, thus largely decreasing its value; hence silk producers kill the chrysalis in the cocoon to prevent its coming through. The usual method is that of immersing the cocoons in steam for a few minutes. Sometimes the chrysalides are killed by baking the cocoons in a hot oven; recently a method of freezing them to death has been used to a limited extent. Another method, that of placing the cocoons in boiling water, serves a double purpose. Not only does it kill the chrysalides, but it also softens the \"gum\" that sticks the threads together, so that they can be unreeled from the cocoon. But in this case the reeling must begin at once, while if the chrysalides are killed by steam, heat, or frost, the cocoons may be kept in their original form for years.\nThe cocoons of the best domesticated varieties of silkworms are either white or cream-colored. The wild cocoons may have almost any color, according to the feed upon which the caterpillar lives. It has been shown that red coloring matter put into mulberry leaves fed to the worms tends to tint the cocoon red, and that other colors put into their food produce corresponding effects in the cocoons.\nReeling.-The fiber is removed from the whole cocoons by a process of unreeling. The method is as simple as it is laborious. After the fiber in the cocoon is loosened by soaking in boiling water, the cocoons are taken out, and the floss, or loose, fluffy, silky fiber on the outside, is cleaned off to be used in the production of carded silk yarns. Next the cocoons are put into a basin containing water kept constantly at lukewarm temperature. Laborers use a whisk broom or brush and push the cocoons up and down in the water until some loose end of fiber becomes attached to the broom. This fiber, the loose end of a cocoon, is drawn gently; the cocoon tumbles around in the water and gradually it unreels itself. A single fiber is very small, and for reeling purposes usually three or four are combined. These are passed through a smooth ring as one fiber and then onto a reel frame which is usually run by foot power, but sometimes by mechanical power in modern reeling plants, or by filatures as they are called. By means of the reel frames the raw silk is reeled into skeins or hanks.\nCare necessary in reeling.-The threads as they come from the cocoons are not of even thickness because of the fact that the various glands in the spinning worm do not operate alike at all times. Most of the time both glands or silk sacs secrete together, but occasionally only one produces; hence unevenness results. As a rule the thread is finer when the worm first begins to spin than it is during the middle of the process; the fiber tapers again at the end of the spinning. Since it is very necessary to get an even silk thread in the skein that is being formed, the operator in charge must be constantly on the watch. When the thread grows thin, another is added; when it grows thick a thread or two is taken out. Each operator runs two reels. Keeping both reels going and carefully watching the threads to note changes in size, adding to or taking away to give uniform size, preventing breakage, and keeping a new supply of cocoons properly soaked in the basin-all these are duties that call for extreme deftness of fingers, accuracy of eye, and quickness of mind.\nProduct per cocoon.-The average cocoon reels off about three hundred yards in a single thread. It will be recalled that there may be as many as 4,000 yards in a cocoon, but considerable is brushed off in the outer floss, and a portion near the inside will not reel well; hence only the middle of the fiber can be saved in the form of one long thread. The very best cocoons reel off as high as four hundred yards. Cocoon wastes.-The portions that are not reeled are used in making coarser yarns by carding, combing, and spinning as with the other textiles. The longer fibers are often carded and combed as in making worsteds. This sort of silk is known as florette silk. Shorter fibers which may only be carded and then spun are called bourette silk. The general names for both varieties are silk waste, floss, schappe, or echappe. Floss is probably the best name, since schappe is used frequently for manufactured goods made out of floss or waste. But it should be remembered that floss is also the name given to the outside loose fibers surrounding the cocoon.\nBreeding silk moths.-The cocoons are not all alike in size, shape, color, and other qualities. For example, the cocoons containing female chrysalides are larger than those containing males. The color varies considerably. Not all can be used for making silk fiber; some must be left for breeding purposes. The very largest, best-looking, smoothest, and healthiest are set aside and the moths allowed to come out and breed. This method makes sure that the stock of silkworms will be kept up to a high producing standard.\nSORTING COCOONS.-The very best cocoons are often set aside and reeled by themselves for the finest and strongest silk threads. For example, silk warp is usually made from fiber drawn from the better grades of cocoons. The finest sewing silk comes from the most perfect cocoons. The poorest cocoons, the deformed, discolored, or otherwise defective ones, are often not reeled at all but are simply turned at once into silk floss.\nSilk wastes.-Various names are given to the grades and kinds of waste or floss silk. Very irregular masses of torn silk fibers are called watt silk. The inner portions of the cocoon next to the chrysalis are called wadding, neri, or ricotti, and various other names. Imperfect cocoons which are not reeled are called cocoons or piques. The wastes accumulated in reeling, due to breakage, loose ends, and so on, are called frissonets,\nUSE OF SILK WASTE.-Until about 1857, silk waste was entirely useless, but it is now the material of an important industry. It is cleared of gum by boiling, and then run through machines that break up, card, comb, and draw the fibers into shape for spinning.\nSilkworm diseases.-The silkworm is subject to a number of severe diseases, and also to depredations from mice, weevils, and ants. There are times when whole chambers where the silkworms are kept become infected with contagious diseases that kill off the worms before they can spin. Wild worms are by no means so liable to disease. The susceptibility to disease is a direct result of domestication. Under the most favorable circumstances, fully one-fourth of the eggs fail to produce worms that grow to maturity. Some are killed by accident, but the majority by disease.\nThe principal diseases of the silkworm are: pebrine, grasserie, flacherie (or flaccidity), gattine (or macilonza), and muscardine (or calcino).\nPebrine is a bacterial disease, both hereditary and contagious, which has wrought tremendous damage in the silk industry in Europe, especially in France. At one time, about 1865, the French cocoon production had been almost destroyed. No cure for the disease has ever been discovered. The only means of getting rid of it is to allow the affected worms and moths to die out, carefully to disinfect the premises, and then to start in with a fresh supply of healthy eggs.\nSCIENCE IN TREATING SILKWORM DISEASES.-Pasteur, a noted French scientist, showed how the disease might be prevented. Every moth, after laying its eggs, is killed and its interior examined carefully under a microscope, the only means of discovering the germs. If the germs are found in the moth's body, the eggs are destroyed, since they also are sure to contain some germs carried from the mother moth's body. When no signs of germs are found in the moth, the eggs are considered safe to grow. After this method came into use, French silk growing leaped forward again. Experiment stations for the examination of eggs were established by the government in numerous placesan example followed by Italy and other countries. Lately the French growers have become careless again, and silk production is consequently rapidly falling off. Now, Italy and Austria are doing the most to stamp out the disease, and these two countries are producing the finest raw silks. Particularly in Tyrol, a province in Austria, is this scientific method of propagating disease-free eggs in most successful use. No silk-growing peasant in either Italy or Tyrol would today think of hatching out silkworm eggs that were not certified by some government experiment station as free from disease. Leading growers in France are hoping to revive the careful inspection that Pasteur planned for them.\nFlacherie is now the most dreaded disease among European silkworm growers. It attacks and speedily kills the worms shortly before they are full-grown. Often thousands of worms in one room die in a single day. It is really a form of indigestion due to various causes such as overeating, poor leaves, bad air in the room, excessive heat, dust on the leaves, or keeping worms too thick on the trays. Like pebrine, flacherie is contagious and hereditary. It can, however, be prevented by carefully avoiding the causes mentioned, and by disinfecting the rooms where cases have occurred. Eggs that have been exposed to the disease are washed in a disinfecting solution before being hatched.\nThe worms may easily be overfed at certain stages, especially on young, tender leaves when the worms are almost full-grown. Sometimes, this overfeeding causes a disease that is called grasserie. It is not contagious, but does kill a number of worms every year, especially in warm countries.\nGattine causes the worms to become torpid. This is a germ disease, and can be eradicated by changing the trays and disinfecting the old ones. The growers sometimes shake the worms vigorously and thus jar them out of their torpor.\nMuscardine is a mold disease which kills worms very rapidly whenever it gets a start. It is more contagious than any other silkworm disease. The methods of getting rid of it are disinfection, letting in pure air and light into the trays, burning sulphur in the room, and so on.\nThe possibility of disease, together with the constant need of care, keeps the silk growers constantly on the watch over their worms. The task is tremendous, and the chances for loss are always great.\nWILD SILKS\nThe wild silks are gathered principally in Japan, China; and India. There are, of course, several varieties of wild silk cocoons, each with qualities somewhat different from the rest. The principal variety of Japan is the Yamai-mai, and the chief varieties of India are the tusser, or tussah, and the ailanthus. As already indicated, most of these silks are much darker in color than the domesticated silk, the Bombyx mori, probably because of the difference in feed. Wild silkworms do not always have mulberry leaves to eat. Great numbers feed on oak leaves and in some cases on other plants.\nQuality of wild silk.-In a general way it may be said that wild silks are in most respects of poorer quality than domesticated silk. They are harder to bleach, and do not take dyes so well. They are generally very uneven in texture, but when made up into fabrics are often more durable than common silks. Wild silks are used principally in the manufacture of pile fabrics such as velvet, plush, and imitation sealskin, and in heavy or rough cloths such as pongees and shantungs. While the silkworms of the wild varieties take care of themselves, and therefore do not require the constant labor that must be given to domesticated silk, the expense of gathering is nevertheless high. The wild cocoons must be hunted, trees must be climbed to gather them, and much time may be consumed in collecting comparatively few. On the whole, however, because of the poorer qualities, wild silks are worth considerably less than \"tame\" silks.\nNATURE OF SILK FIBER\nThe perfect raw silk fiber is a very fine filament with two parts that can readily be seen under a microscope. This filament is composed of a substance called fibroin, and the outside is covered with a waxy substance called sericin. Silk fiber in its raw state is for its size the strongest textile fiber in existence. It is said that it is as strong as an iron wire of the same size would be. Notwithstanding that in the processes of manufacture much of this strength is lost, unless very badly treated, the fiber remains remarkably strong. It is also very elastic and durable. It has a high natural luster which is improved upon in some manufacturing processes. The fabrics into which it is made are beautiful even in the natural silk colors.\nAbsorptive power of silk.-Silk fiber readily absorbs water; wherefore, in commerce, rules are necessary regarding the amount of water allowable in the fiber offered' for sale. The usual amount allowed by weight is about eleven per cent. It can easily be understood that when raw silk fiber sells for more than three dollars a pound, a large fraction of the total weight, such as one-third, one-fourth, one-fifth, or even one-tenth of water, would make a big difference in the price. Silk markets, therefore, are always equipped with the necessary apparatus for telling just what part of the weight of the silk is water. For example, the Silk Association of America has a large laboratory in New York in which the principal work is the determination of the proportion of moisture in raw silks brought from the market. The process of getting the silk into the proper standard condition as regards moisture is called \"silk conditioning.\"\nBecause of its absorptive qualities, silk takes dyes very well, in fact better than any other textile; hence silks may be given delicate shades and tints of color that would be quite impossible in cotton or linen. It may also, as we shall see, absorb weighting materials that are introduced by way of adulteration. Pure dye silk should not contain more than ten per cent of its weight in dyeing or weighting materials. Ordinary silks contain much more weighting than this.\nHUMAN LABOR IN SILK PRODUCTION\nAfter the raw silk has been reeled into skeins or hanks, the most laborious parts of silk production are completed; that is, most of the work done on the fiber thereafter is done by machine processes instead of by hand. The amount of hand labor that it takes to produce raw silk is almost incredible, and the amount of labor taken after the machine processes begin is no less than for other textiles. It has been said that it takes more human labor to produce a lady's silk dress, from the mulberry leaves into the finished product ready for wear, than it takes to produce and build a locomotive out of the raw ores in the ground. More hours are expended, and more people have something to do with the work.\nCost of production.-If the labor employed in the production of silk were paid as high wages as are commonly paid in the iron and steel industry the silk dress would cost almost as much as a locomotive. As it is, raw silk production is carried on chiefly in countries where wages are very low. At the present prices of silk, the most efficient workmen doing their very best could not earn more than fifteen cents per day at this kind of work. The usual wages in the silk-producing countries are lower than this.\nWhere the raw silk is produced.-It is not surprising then that 40 per cent of the world's raw silk is produced by the Empire of China, 20 per cent by Japan, 20 per cent by Italy, 10 per cent by Persia, Asiatic Turkey, India, and Arabia, and the remaining 10 per cent by France, Austria, Spain, or Portugal. Italy produces some of the finest silk in the world; India and China, some of the coarsest and poorest.\nAttempts to raise silk in the United States.-Several attempts have been made to raise silk in this country, and practically every experiment has shown that a very fine quality of fiber could be produced; but the great obstacle is the cost of labor to care for the worms, pick the leaves, attend to the mating of the moths, make the necessary examinations for disease, and reel the raw silk. No mechanical devices have ever been invented to do away with the great amount of human hand labor. Not while clever people, men, women, and children, in China, Japan, and other countries are willing to work for less than ten cents a day as they now do, can raw silk production become profitable in this country.\nMethods of production in Japan.-Silk is often handled as an auxiliary industry by Japanese and Chinese farmers. The women and children are occupied with the care of the silkworms while the adult men are employed in the gardens and fields. Being a home industry of this nature, it is often undertaken even when there is small prospect for payment for time expended. The time of the women and children is not considered worth much in any case. One person cares for about 10,000 to 12,000 worms. The average production per family among the families that do raise silk is about five bushels of cocoons per year. The return for these cocoons generally pays for the labor expended in their production at about the rate of ten cents a day.\nImprovements in reeling silk.-Reeling has been greatly improved in modern filatures by the introduction of power for running the reels and by using gas to keep the basins heated at a proper and constant temperature, but this change has not eliminated the necessity for cheap labor. No filature of any consequence is to be found in any country or city except where labor is abundant and very cheap. Silk reeled by hand or foot power is called \"re-reel silk,\" while that reeled by power machinery is called \"filature silk.\"\nMARKETING SILK\nThe products of silk production are marketed in various forms. For example, in certain communities in Italy, there is a large business of selling certified silkworm eggs. These are usually sold at a certain price an ounce. Many silk growers sell the cocoons that they produce. The usual method of preparing them for market is to stifle the chrysalides by steam, by heating in ovens, or by freezing and then drying them thoroughly. When dry, they are sorted according to size, color, and quality, and are sold by weight. As a rule, small silkworm growers everywhere dispose of their product in this manner and at this stage. Finally, raw silk is marketed after it is reeled, some of it as reeled silk, and the parts that will not reel as silk waste. In the Orient, silk is reeled into skeins of varying sizes, which are then packed into square blocks, called books, containing from five to ten pounds. The books are packed in bales, each weighing from 100 to 200 pounds or more. In 1912 the average price for a pound of reeled silk was between three and four dollars. From this it can be seen that a bale is a pretty valuable piece of goods.\nImportations into this country.-Steamers coming from China and Japan to the western United States handle the silk as carefully as if it were gold. It is unloaded, usually at Seattle or San Francisco, and then taken east in baggage coaches directly to New York, the great American raw silk market. Often an entire train is made up of baggage coaches loaded with raw silk, and these \"silk specials,\" as they are called, are given the right of way from coast to coast. Passenger trains, freight trains, and all must find the side tracks when the \"silk special\" passes through; and well they may, for the silk in each coach may average more than $125,000 in value, and the value of the entire trainload of silk may be $2,000,000.\nMarkets for waste silk.-Hartford, Connecticut, is the principal port of entry for the large quantities of silk waste and floss imported into this country. Boston comes second. Both are near the great New England silk mills (New London, Winsted, South Manchester, in Connecticut, and Pittsfield, Northampton, Holyoke, and Florence in Massachusetts) where large quantities of spun silk are produced. The center of reeled silk manufacture is in Paterson, New Jersey, and in the hard coal region of Pennsylvania. The state of New York also has a large number of establishments using reeled silk in some stage of manufacture.", "Statistics | INTERNATIONAL SERICULTURAL COMMISSION\nStatistics\nGlobal Silk Industry\nThe major silk producing countries in the world are; China, India, Uzbekistan, Brazil, Japan, Republic of Korea, Thailand, Vietnam, DPR Korea, Iran, etc.  Few other countries are also engaged in the production of cocoons and raw silk in negligible quantities; Kenya, Botswana, Nigeria, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Bangladesh, Colombia, Egypt, Japan, Nepal, Bulgaria, Turkey, Uganda, Malaysia, Romania, Bolivia, etc.\nThe major silk consumers of the world are; USA, Italy, Japan, India, France, China, United Kingdom, Switzerland, Germany, UAE, Korea, Viet Nam, etc.\nEven though silk has a small percentage of the global textile market - less than 0.2% (the precise global value is difficult to assess, since reliable data on finished silk products is lacking in most importing countries) - its production base is spread over 60 countries in the world.  While the major producers are in Asia (90% of mulberry production and almost 100% of non-mulberry silk), sericulture industries have been lately established in Brazil, Bulgaria, Egypt and Madagascar as well.  Sericulture is labour-intensive.  About 1 million workers are employed in the silk sector in China.  Silk Industry provides employment to 7.9 million people in India, and 20,000 weaving families in Thailand.  China is the world's single biggest producer and chief supplier of silk to the world markets. India is the world's second largest producer.  Sericulture can help keeping the rural population employed and to prevent migration to big cities and securing remunerative employment; it requires small investments while providing raw material for textile industries.\n1. Global Silk Production (in Metric Tonnes)\n \n2. Other statistical data related to Silk industry\nSome of the countries have provided more elaborate statistical data on silk industry, other than the production data given above.  The country-wise details are given below:-" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Vought-Sikorsky_VS-300.txt" ], "title": [ "Vought-Sikorsky VS-300" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Vought-Sikorsky VS-300 (or S-46) was a single-engine helicopter designed by Igor Sikorsky. It had a single three-blade rotor originally powered by a 75 horsepower (56 kW) engine. The first \"free\" flight of the VS-300 was on 13 May 1940. The VS-300 was the first successful single lifting rotor helicopter in the United States and the first successful helicopter to use a single vertical-plane tail rotor configuration for antitorque. With floats attached, it became the first practical amphibious helicopter.\n\nDesign and development\n\nIgor Sikorsky's quest for a practical helicopter began in 1938, when as the Engineering Manager of the Vought-Sikorsky Division of United Aircraft Corporation, he was able to convince the directors of United Aircraft that his years of study and research into rotary-wing flight problems would lead to a breakthrough. His first experimental machine, the VS-300, was test flown by Sikorsky on 14 September 1939 tethered by cables. In developing the concept of rotary-wing flight, Sikorsky was the first to introduce a single engine to power both the main and tail rotor systems. The only previous successful attempt at a single-lift rotor helicopter, the Yuriev-Cheremukhin TsAGI-1EA in 1931 in the Soviet Union, used a pair of uprated, Russian-built Gnome Monosoupape rotary engines of 120 hp each for its power. For later flights of his VS-300, Sikorsky also added a vertical aerofoil surface to the end of the tail to assist anti-torque but this was later removed when it proved to be ineffective.\n\nThe cyclic control was found to be difficult to perfect, and led to Sikorsky locking the cyclic and adding two smaller vertical-axis lifting rotors to either side aft of the tail boom. By varying pitch of these rotors simultaneously, fore and aft control was provided. Roll control was provided by differential pitching of the blades. In this configuration, it was found that the VS-300 could not fly forward easily and Sikorsky joked about turning the pilot's seat around. \n\nOperational history\n\nSikorsky fitted utility floats (also called pontoons) to the VS-300 and performed a water landing and takeoff on 17 April 1941, making it the first practical amphibious helicopter.[http://www.sikorsky.com/vgn-ext-templating-SIK/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid\n208ae39d40a78110VgnVCM1000001382000aRCRD \"Timeline.\"] Sikorsky.com. Retrieved: 22 September 2009. On 6 May 1941, the VS-300 beat the world endurance record held by the Focke-Wulf Fw 61, by staying aloft for 1 hour 32 minutes and 26.1 seconds.\n\nThe final variant of the VS-300 was powered by a 150 hp Franklin engine. The VS-300 was one of the first helicopters capable of carrying cargo. The VS-300 was modified over a two-year period, including removal of the two vertical tail rotors, until 1941 when a new cyclic control system gave it much improved flight behavior.Chiles 2008, p. 104.\n\nSurvivor\n\nIn 1943, the VS-300 was retired to the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan. It has been on display there ever since, except for a trip back to the Sikorsky Aircraft plant for restoration in 1985.\n\nSpecifications (VS-300)" ] }

{ "description": [ "S-46/VS-300/VS-300A Helicopter . VS-300A NX 28996 in Forward flight with Igor Sikorsky at the controls. ... The VS-300 in a stable hover on November 24, 1939 ." ], "filename": [ "18/18_711.txt" ], "rank": [ 0 ], "title": [ "S-46/VS-300/VS -300A Helicopter - Sikorsky Archives" ], "url": [ "http://www.sikorskyarchives.com/S-46%20_VS-300_%20VS-300A.php" ], "search_context": [ "Untitled Document\nVS-300A NX 28996 in Forward flight with Igor Sikorsky at the controls\nBackground\n \nIgor Sikorsky dreamed of building a helicopter from his youth.  In 1931, he applied for a patent for a single main rotor helicopter which included nearly every feature that would be incorporated in the VS-300.  By 1938, technology had caught up with his dream.  When he was summoned to United Aircraft Headquarters in Hartford, Connecticut to be told that the Sikorsky Division which at that time was building fixed-wing aircraft was being shut down due to a lack of business, he requested that he be allowed to keep his design team together to design a helicopter.  His request was granted along with an initial $30,000 budget.  The VS-300 was America’s first practical helicopter.  It was also the first successful helicopter in the world with a single main rotor and a torque compensating tail rotor\n \n \nSketch of a single main rotor helicopter submitted for a Patent in1931which was granted in 1935.\n \n Some preliminary helicopter design work had already been done by Igor Sikorsky, who was the Engineering Manager, and his associates “off the clock” and they were ready to start work.  The basic VS-300 helicopter looked very similar to the 1930 design.\nThe VS-300 was designed in the spring of 1939 and built that summer.\n \nVS-300 under construction September 8, 1939\n \n \nThe first flight version of the VS-300 included a 28 foot diameter main rotor and a 75 hp Lycoming engine.  A 40” single blade tail rotor and rigid 4 wheel landing gear with a full swiveling nose and tail wheels were installed. The VS-300 featured full cyclic main rotor control (pitch and roll) and a single pedal tail rotor control (yaw). Vertical control was provided by a large wheel to the right of the pilot.  The first flight on September 14, 1939 by Igor Sikorsky lasted approximately 10 seconds to a height of a few inches.  The helicopter was tethered to a heavy plate by four cables which allowed the helicopter to move in all directions by dragging the plate.  A ground crew was always present to stabilize the helicopter if the pilot lost control to prevent a roll over.  No helicopter flight training was available, so Igor Sikorsky got “On the Job” training learning with each additional flight.  The design team was not familiar with the fact that a spinning rotor had gyroscopic properties (precession) which required an input 90 degrees in rotation before it became effective.  The VS-300 therefore rolled left when the cyclic stick was pushed forward. The initial pilots, Igor Sikorsky and Serge Gluhareff, had no idea whether the control problems were caused by the helicopter design or pilot technique.\n \nThe VS-300 in a stable hover on November 24, 1939\n \nChanges to the helicopter were made after every flying day by the Night Crew. Obvious changes since the first flight in the above photo are outrigger main landing gear with full swiveling wheels, the tail wheel moved aft, and dampers have been added to the flapping hinge on the main rotor\nFlight of the VS-300 continued with each flight a little longer than the last as the pilots adjusted to this unruly machine until December 9, 1939 when a gust of wind tipped over the VS-300 grinding the rotors into the ground and causing major damage to the VS-300.  This ended the career of the First Configuration.\n \nhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ux8dBNX-rGM\n \nThe VS-300 was completely redesigned and rebuilt.  A decision was made to abandon cyclic control of the main rotor and adapt a design suggested by I.A. Sikorsky, a draftsman and mathematician, and Michael Buivid, the Chief Engineer, which locked out cyclic control and replace it with two additional horizontal tail rotors. Collective pitch control for vertical control was left on the main rotor.  Prior to flight testing of the second configuration, the helicopter was mounted on a pedestal and operated without the main rotor blades installed.  This allowed fine tuning of the new control system and allowed the pilots to become comfortable with the new system before actual flight.\n \nAn early version of the VS-300 second configuration" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Joseph_Goebbels.txt" ], "title": [ "Joseph Goebbels" ], "wiki_context": [ "Paul Joseph Goebbels (; 29 October 1897 – 1 May 1945) was a German politician and Reich Minister of Propaganda in Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945. One of Adolf Hitler's close associates and most devoted followers, he was known for his skills in public speaking and his deep and virulent antisemitism, which led to his supporting the extermination of the Jews in the Holocaust.\n\nGoebbels, who aspired to be an author, obtained a Doctor of Philosophy degree from the University of Heidelberg in 1921. He joined the Nazi Party in 1924, and worked with Gregor Strasser in their northern branch. He was appointed as Gauleiter (district leader) for Berlin in 1926, where he began to take an interest in the use of propaganda to promote the party and its programme. After the Nazi Seizure of Power in 1933, Goebbels' Propaganda Ministry quickly gained and exerted controlling supervision over the news media, arts, and information in Germany. He was particularly adept at using the relatively new media of radio and film for propaganda purposes. Topics for party propaganda included antisemitism, attacks on the Christian churches, and (after the start of the Second World War) attempting to shape morale.\n\nIn 1943, Goebbels began to pressure Hitler to introduce measures that would produce \"total war\", including closing businesses not essential to the war effort, conscripting women into the labour force, and enlisting men in previously exempt occupations into the Wehrmacht. Hitler finally appointed him as Reich Plenipotentiary for Total War on 23 July 1944, whereby Goebbels undertook largely unsuccessful measures to increase the number of people available for armaments production and the Wehrmacht.\n\nAs the war drew to a close and Nazi Germany faced defeat, Magda Goebbels and the Goebbels children joined him in Berlin. They moved into the underground Vorbunker, part of Hitler's underground bunker complex, on 22 April 1945. Hitler committed suicide on 30 April. In accordance with Hitler's will, Goebbels succeeded him as Chancellor of Germany; he served one day in this post. The following day, Goebbels and his wife committed suicide, after poisoning their six children with cyanide.\n\nEarly life\n\nPaul Joseph Goebbels was born on 29 October 1897 in Rheydt, an industrial town south of Mönchengladbach near Düsseldorf. Both of his parents were Catholics and from humble beginnings. His father Fritz was a factory clerk; his mother Katharina (née Odenhausen) was ethnically Dutch. Goebbels had five siblings: Konrad (1893–1947), Hans (1895–1949), Maria (1896–1896), Elisabeth (1901–1915), and Maria (1910–1949), who married the German filmmaker Max W. Kimmich in 1938. In 1932, Goebbels published a pamphlet of his family tree to refute the rumors that his grandmother was of Jewish ancestry.\n\nDuring childhood, Goebbels suffered from ill health which included a long bout of inflammation of the lungs. He had a deformed right foot which turned inwards, due to a congenital deformity. It was thicker and shorter than his left foot. He underwent a failed operation to correct it just prior to starting grammar school. Goebbels wore a metal brace and special shoe because of his shortened leg, and walked with a limp. He was rejected for military service in World War I due to his deformity.\n\nGoebbels was educated at a Christian Gymnasium, where he completed his Abitur (university entrance examination) in 1917. He was the top student of his class and was given the traditional honor to speak at the awards ceremony. His parents initially hoped that he would become a Catholic priest, and Goebbels seriously considered it. He studied literature and history at the universities of Bonn, Würzburg, Freiburg, and Munich, aided by a scholarship from the Albertus Magnus Society. By this time Goebbels had begun to distance himself from the church.\n\nHistorians, including Richard J. Evans and Roger Manvell, speculate that Goebbels' lifelong pursuit of women may have been in compensation for his physical disabilities. At Freiburg, he met and fell in love with Anka Stalherm, who was three years his senior. She went on to Würzburg to continue school, as did Goebbels. In 1921 he wrote a semi-autobiographical novel, Michael, a three-part work of which only Parts I and III have survived. Goebbels felt he was writing his \"own story\". Antisemitic content and material about a charismatic leader may have been added by Goebbels shortly before the book was published in 1929 by Eher-Verlag, the publishing house of the Nazi Party (National Socialist German Workers' Party; NSDAP). By 1920, the relationship with Anka was over. The break-up filled Goebbels with thoughts of suicide.\n\nAt the University of Heidelberg, Goebbels wrote his doctoral thesis on Wilhelm von Schütz, a minor 19th century romantic dramatist. He had hoped to write his thesis under the supervision of Friedrich Gundolf, who at that time was a well known literary historian. It did not seem to bother Goebbels that Gundolf was Jewish. However, Gundolf was no longer performing teaching duties, so he directed Goebbels to associate professor Max Freiherr von Waldberg. Waldberg was also Jewish. It was Waldberg who recommended Goebbels write his thesis on Wilhelm von Schütz. After submitting the thesis and passing his oral examination, Goebbels earned his PhD in 1921.\n\nGoebbels then returned home and worked as a private tutor. He also found work as a journalist and was published in the local newspaper. His writing during that time reflected his growing antisemitism and dislike for modern culture. In the summer of 1922, he met and began a love affair with Else Janke, a schoolteacher. After she revealed to him that she was half-Jewish, Goebbels stated the \"enchantment [was] ruined\". Nevertheless, he continued to see her on and off until 1927.\n\nHe continued for several years to try to become a published author. His diaries, which he began in 1923 and continued for the rest of his life, provided an outlet for his desire to write. The lack of income from his literary works (he wrote two plays in 1923, neither of which sold) forced him to take jobs as a caller on the stock exchange and as a bank clerk in Cologne, a job which he detested. He was dismissed from the bank in August 1923 and returned to Rheydt. During this period, he read avidly and was influenced by the works of Oswald Spengler, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, and Houston Stewart Chamberlain, the British-born German writer whose book The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century (1899) was one of the standard works of the extreme right in Germany. He also began to study the \"social question\", and read the works of Marx and Engels. According to biographer Peter Longerich, Goebbels' diary entries from late 1923 to early 1924 reflected the writings of a man who was isolated, preoccupied by \"religious-philosophical\" issues, and lacked a sense of direction. Diary entries of mid-December 1923 forward show Goebbels was moving towards the völkisch nationalist movement.\n\nNazi activist\n\nGoebbels first took an interest in Adolf Hitler and Nazism in 1924. In February 1924, Hitler's trial for treason began in the wake of his failed attempt to seize power in the Beer Hall Putsch of November 8–9, 1923. The trial attracted widespread press coverage and gave Hitler a platform for propaganda. Hitler was sentenced to five years prison, but was released on 20 December 1924, after serving just over a year. Goebbels was drawn to the NSDAP mostly because of Hitler's charisma and commitment to his beliefs. He joined the NSDAP around this time, becoming member number 8762. In late 1924, Goebbels offered his services to Karl Kaufmann, who was Gauleiter (NSDAP district leader) for the Rhine-Ruhr District. Kaufmann put him in touch with Gregor Strasser, a leading Nazi organizer in northern Germany, who hired him to work on their weekly newspaper and to do secretarial work for the regional party offices. He was also put to work as party speaker and representative for Rhineland-Westphalia. Members of Strasser's northern branch of the NSDAP, including Goebbels, had a more socialist outlook than the rival Hitler group in Munich. Strasser disagreed with Hitler on many parts of the party platform, and in November 1926 began working on a revision.\n\nHitler viewed Strasser's actions as a threat to his authority, and summoned 60 Gauleiters and party leaders, including Goebbels, to a special conference in Bamberg, in Streicher's Gau of Franconia, where he gave a two-hour speech repudiating Strasser's new political programme. Hitler was opposed to the socialist leanings of the northern wing, stating it would mean \"political bolshevization of Germany\". Further, there would be \"no princes, only Germans\", and a legal system with no \"... Jewish system of exploitation ... for plundering of our people\". The future would be secured by acquiring land, not through expropriation of the estates of the former nobility, but through colonization of territories to the east. Goebbels was horrified by Hitler's characterisation of socialism as \"a Jewish creation\", and his assertion that private property would not be expropriated by a Nazi government. \"I no longer fully believe in Hitler. That's the terrible thing: my inner support has been taken away\", he wrote in his diary.\n\nIn hopes of winning over the opposition, Hitler arranged meetings in Munich with the three Greater Ruhr Gau leaders, including Goebbels. Goebbels was impressed when Hitler sent his own car to meet them at the railway station. That evening Hitler and Goebbels both gave speeches at a beer hall rally. The following day, Hitler offered his hand in reconciliation to the three men, encouraging them to put their differences behind them. Hitler also gave Goebbels \"new insight\" into the \"social question\". Goebbels capitulated completely, offering Hitler his total loyalty – a pledge that was clearly sincere, and that he adhered to until the end of his life. \"I love him ... He has thought through everything,\" Goebbels wrote. \"Such a sparkling mind can be my leader. I bow to the greater one, the political genius\". Later he wrote: \"Adolf Hitler, I love you because you are both great and simple at the same time. What one calls a genius.\" As a result of the Bamberg and Munich meetings, Strasser's new draft of the party programme was discarded. The original National Socialist Program of 1920 was retained unchanged, and Hitler's position as party leader was greatly strengthened.\n\nPropagandist in Berlin\n\nAt Hitler's invitation, Goebbels spoke at party meetings in Munich and at the annual Party Congress, held in Weimar in 1926. For the following year's event, Goebbels was involved in the planning for the first time. He and Hitler arranged for the rally to be filmed. Receiving praise for doing well at these events led Goebbels to shape his political ideas to match Hitler's, and to admire and idolize him even more.\n\nGoebbels was first offered the position of party Gauleiter for the Berlin section in August 1926. He travelled to Berlin in mid-September and by the middle of October accepted the position. Thus Hitler's plan to divide and dissolve the northwestern Gauleiters group that Goebbels had served in under Strasser was successful. Hitler gave Goebbels great authority over the area, allowing him to determine the course for organisation and leadership for the Gau. Goebbels was given control over the local Sturmabteilung (SA) and Schutzstaffel (SS) and answered only to Hitler. The party membership numbered about 1,000 when Goebbels arrived, and he reduced it to a core of 600 of the most active and promising members. To raise money, he instituted membership fees and began charging admission to party meetings. Aware of the value of publicity (both positive and negative), he deliberately provoked beer-hall battles and street brawls, including violent attacks on the Communist Party of Germany. Goebbels adapted recent developments in commercial advertising to the political sphere, including the use of catchy slogans and subliminal cues. His new ideas for poster design included using large type, red ink, and cryptic headers that encouraged the reader to examine the fine print to determine the meaning.\n\nLike Hitler, Goebbels practiced his public speaking skills in front of a mirror. Meetings were preceded by ceremonial marches and singing, and the venues were decorated with party banners. His entrance (almost always late) was timed for maximum emotional impact. He usually meticulously planned his speeches ahead of time, using pre-planned and choreographed inflection and gestures, but he was also able to improvise and adapt his presentation to make a good connection with his audience.\n\nGoebbels' tactic of using provocation to bring attention to the NSDAP, along with violence at the public party meetings and demonstrations, led the Berlin police to ban the NSDAP from the city on 5 May 1927. Violent incidents continued, including young Nazis randomly attacking Jews in the streets. Goebbels was subjected to a public speaking ban until the end of October. During this period, he founded the newspaper Der Angriff (The Attack) as a propaganda vehicle for the Berlin area. It was a modern-style newspaper which took an aggressive tone. To Goebbels' disappointment, circulation was initially small, only 2,000. Material in the paper was highly anti-communist and antisemitic. Among the paper's favourite targets was the Jewish Deputy Chief of the Berlin Police Bernhard Weiß. Goebbels gave him the derogatory nickname \"Isidore\" and subjected him to a relentless campaign of Jew-baiting in the hope of provoking a crackdown he could then exploit. Goebbels continued to try to break into the literary world, with a revised version of his book Michael finally being published, and the unsuccessful production of two of his plays (Der Wanderer and Die Saat (The Seed)). The latter was his final attempt at playwriting. During this period in Berlin he had relationships with many women, including his old flame Anka Stalherm, who was now married and had a small child. He was quick to fall in love, but easily tired of a relationship and moved on to someone new. He worried too about how a committed personal relationship might interfere with his career.\n\nThe ban on the NSDAP was lifted in early 1928, in time for the Reichstag elections, held on 20 May. Results were poor, with the NSDAP losing nearly 100,000 voters and earning only 2.6 per cent of the vote nationwide. Results in Berlin were even worse, where they attained only 1.4 per cent of the vote. Goebbels was one of twelve NSDAP members to gain election to the Reichstag. This gave him immunity from prosecution for a long list of outstanding charges, including a three-week jail sentence he received in April for insulting the deputy police chief Weiß. The Reichstag changed the immunity regulations in February 1931, and Goebbels was forced to pay fines for libellous material he had placed in Der Angriff over the course of the previous year.\n\nIn his newspaper Berliner Arbeiterzeitung (Berlin Workers Newspaper), Gregor Strasser was highly critical of Goebbels' failure to attract the urban vote. However, the party as a whole did much better in rural areas, attracting as much as 18 per cent of the vote in some regions. This was partly because Hitler had publicly stated just prior to the election that Point 17 of the party programme, which mandated the expropriation of land without compensation, would apply only to Jewish speculators and not private landholders. After the election, the party refocused their efforts to try to attract still more votes in the agricultural sector. In May, shortly after the election, Hitler considered appointing Goebbels as party propaganda chief. But he hesitated, as he worried that the removal of Gregor Strasser from the post would lead to a split in the party. Goebbels considered himself well suited to the position, and began to formulate ideas about how propaganda could be used in schools and the media.\n\nBy 1930, the violence between the Nazis and communists led to local SA troop leader Horst Wessel being shot by two members of the Communist Party of Germany. He later died in hospital. Exploiting Wessel's death, Goebbels turned him into a martyr for the Nazi movement. He officially declared Wessel's march Die Fahne hoch (Raise the flag), renamed as the Horst-Wessel-Lied, to be the NSDAP anthem.\n\nThe Great Depression greatly impacted Germany and by 1930 there was a dramatic increase in unemployment. During this time, the Strasser brothers started publishing a new daily newspaper in Berlin, the Nationaler Sozialist. Like their other publications, it conveyed the brothers' own brand of Nazism, including nationalism, anti-capitalism, social reform, and anti-Westernism. Goebbels complained vehemently about the rival Strasser newspapers to Hitler, and admitted that their success was causing his own Berlin newspapers to be \"pushed to the wall\". In late April 1930, Hitler publicly and firmly announced his opposition to Gregor Strasser and appointed Goebbels to replace him as Reich leader of NSDAP propaganda. One of Goebbels' first acts was to ban the evening edition of the Nationaler Sozialist. Goebbels was also given control of other Nazi papers across the country, including the party's national newspaper, the Völkischer Beobachter (People's Observer). He still had to wait until 3 July for Otto Strasser and his supporters to announce they were leaving the NSDAP. Upon receiving the news, Goebbels was relieved the \"crisis\" with the Strassers was finally over and glad that Otto Strasser had lost all power.\n\nThe rapid deterioration of the economy led to the resignation on 27 March 1930 of the coalition government that had been elected in 1928. A new cabinet was formed, and Paul von Hindenburg used his power as president to govern via emergency decrees. He appointed Heinrich Brüning as chancellor. Goebbels took charge of the NSDAP's national campaign for Reichstag elections called for 14 September 1930. Campaigning was undertaken on a huge scale, with thousands of meetings and speeches held all over the country. Hitler's speeches focused on blaming the country's economic woes on the Weimar Republic, particularly its adherence to the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which called for war reparations that had proven devastating to the German economy. He proposed a new German society based on race and national unity. The resulting success took even Hitler and Goebbels by surprise: the party received 6.5 million votes nationwide and took 107 seats in the Reichstag, making it the second largest party in the country.\n\nIn late 1930 Goebbels met Magda Quandt, a divorcée who had joined the party a few months earlier. She worked as a volunteer in the party offices in Berlin, helping Goebbels organize his private papers. Her flat on the Reichkanzlerplatz soon became a favourite meeting place for Hitler and other NSDAP officials. Goebbels and Quandt married on 19 December 1931.\n\nFor two further elections held in 1932, Goebbels organized massive campaigns that included rallies, parades, speeches, and Hitler travelling around the country by airplane with the slogan \"the Führer over Germany\". Goebbels also undertook numerous speaking tours during these election campaigns. Goebbels had some of their speeches published on gramophone records and as pamphlets. He was also involved in the production of a small collection of silent films that could be shown at party meetings, though they did not yet have enough equipment to widely use this medium. Many of Goebbels' campaign posters used violent imagery such as a giant half-clad male destroying political opponents or other perceived enemies such as \"International High Finance\". His propaganda characterized the opposition as \"November criminals\", \"Jewish wire-pullers\", or a communist threat. Support for the party continued to grow, but neither of these elections led to a majority government. In an effort to stabilize the country and improve economic conditions, Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Reich chancellor on 30 January 1933.\n\nPropaganda Minister\n\nTo celebrate Hitler's appointment as chancellor, Goebbels organized a torchlit parade in Berlin on the night of 30 January of an estimated 60,000 men, many in the uniforms of the SA and SS. The spectacle was covered by a live state radio broadcast, with commentary by longtime party member and future Minister of Aviation Hermann Göring. Goebbels was disappointed to not be given a post in Hitler's new cabinet. Bernhard Rust was appointed as Minister of Culture, the post Goebbels was expecting to receive. Like other NSDAP officials, Goebbels had to deal with Hitler's leadership style of giving contradictory orders to his subordinates, while placing them into positions where their duties and responsibilities overlapped. In this way, Hitler fostered distrust, competition, and infighting among his subordinates to consolidate and maximise his own power. The NSDAP took advantage of the Reichstag fire of 27 February 1933, with Hindenburg passing the Reichstag Fire Decree the following day at Hitler's urging. This was the first of several pieces of legislation that dismantled democracy in Germany and put a totalitarian dictatorship—headed by Hitler—in its place. On 5 March, yet another Reichstag election took place, the last to be held before the defeat of the Nazis at the end of the Second World War. While the NSDAP increased their number of seats and percentage of the vote, it was not the landslide expected by the party leadership. Goebbels finally received Hitler's appointment to the cabinet, officially becoming head of the newly created Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda on 14 March.\n\nThe role of the new ministry, which set up its offices in the 18th-century Ordenspalais across from the Reich Chancellery, was to centralise Nazi control of all aspects of German cultural and intellectual life. Goebbels hoped to increase popular support of the party from the 37 per cent achieved at the last free election held in Germany on 25 March 1933 to 100 per cent support. An unstated goal was to present to other nations the impression that the NSDAP had the full and enthusiastic backing of the entire population. One of Goebbels' first productions was staging the Day of Potsdam, a ceremonial passing of power from Hindenburg to Hitler, held in Potsdam on 21 March. He composed the text of Hitler's decree authorizing the Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses, held on 1 April. Later that month, Goebbels travelled back to Rheydt, where he was given a triumphal reception. The townsfolk lined the main street, which had been renamed in his honour. On the following day, Goebbels was declared a local hero.\n\nGoebbels converted the 1 May holiday from a celebration of workers' rights (observed as such especially by the communists) into a day celebrating the NSDAP. In place of the usual ad hoc labour celebrations, he organized a huge party rally held at Tempelhof Field in Berlin. The following day, all trade union offices in the country were forcibly disbanded by the SA and SS, and the Nazi-run German Labour Front was created to take their place. \"We are the masters of Germany\", he commented in his diary entry of 3 May. Less than two weeks later, he gave a speech at the Nazi book burning in Berlin on 10 May.\n\nMeanwhile, the NSDAP began passing laws to marginalize Jews and remove them from German society. The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, passed on 7 April 1933, forced all non-Aryans to retire from the legal profession and civil service. Similar legislation soon deprived Jewish members of other professions of their right to practise. The first Nazi concentration camps (initially created to house political dissenters) were founded shortly after Hitler seized power. In a process termed Gleichschaltung (co-ordination), the NSDAP proceeded to rapidly bring all aspects of life under control of the party. All civilian organisations, including agricultural groups, volunteer organisations, and sports clubs, had their leadership replaced with Nazi sympathisers or party members. By June 1933, virtually the only organisations not in the control of the NSDAP were the army and the churches. In a move to manipulate Germany's middle class and shape popular opinion, the regime passed on 4 October 1933 the Schriftleitergesetz (Editor's Law), which became the cornerstone of the Nazi Party's control of the popular press. Modeled to some extent on the system in Benito Mussolini's Italy, the law defined a Schriftleiter as anyone who wrote, edited, or selected texts and/or illustrated material for serial publication. Individuals selected for this position were chosen based on experiential, educational, and racial criteria. The law required journalists to \"regulate their work in accordance with National Socialism as a philosophy of life and as a conception of government.\"\n\nAt the end of June 1934, top officials of the SA and opponents of the regime, including Gregor Strasser, were arrested and killed in a purge later called the Night of Long Knives. Goebbels was present at the arrest of SA leader Ernst Röhm in Munich. On 2 August 1934, President von Hindenburg died. In a radio broadcast, Goebbels announced that the offices of president and chancellor had been combined, and Hitler had been formally named as Führer und Reichskanzler (leader and chancellor).\n\nWorkings of the Ministry\n\nThe propaganda ministry was organized into seven departments: administration and legal; mass rallies, public health, youth, and race; radio; national and foreign press; films and film censorship; art, music, and theatre; and protection against counter-propaganda, both foreign and domestic. Goebbels style of leadership was tempestuous and unpredictable. He would suddenly change direction and shift his support between senior associates; he was a difficult boss and liked to berate his staff in public. Goebbels was successful at his job, however; Life wrote in 1938 that \"[p]ersonally he likes nobody, is liked by nobody, and runs the most efficient Nazi department.\"\n\nThe Reich Film Chamber, which all members of the film industry were required to join, was created in June 1933. Goebbels promoted the development of films with a Nazi slant, and ones that contained subliminal or overt propaganda messages. Under the auspices of the Reichskulturkammer (Reich Chamber of Culture), created in September, Goebbels added additional sub-chambers for the fields of broadcasting, fine arts, literature, music, the press, and the theatre. As in the film industry, anyone wishing to pursue a career in these fields had to be a member of the corresponding chamber. In this way anyone whose views were contrary to the regime could be excluded from working in their chosen field and thus silenced. In addition, journalists (now considered employees of the state) were required to prove Aryan descent back to the year 1800, and if married, the same requirement applied to the spouse. Members of any chamber were not allowed to leave the country for their work without prior permission of their chamber. A committee was established to censor books, and works could not be re-published unless they were on the list of approved works. Similar regulations applied to other fine arts and entertainment; even cabaret performances were censored. Many German artists and intellectuals left Germany in the pre-war years rather than work under these restrictions.\n\nGoebbels was particularly interested in controlling radio, which was then still a fairly new mass medium. Sometimes under protest from individual states (particularly Prussia, headed by Göring), Goebbels gained control of radio stations nationwide, and placed them under the Reichs-Rundfunk-Gesellschaft (German National Broadcasting Corporation) in July 1934. Manufacturers were urged by Goebbels to produce inexpensive home receivers, called Volksempfänger (people's receiver), and by 1938 nearly ten million sets had been sold. Loudspeakers were placed in public areas, factories, and schools, so that important party broadcasts would be heard live by nearly all Germans. On 2 September 1939 (the day after the start of the war), Goebbels and the Council of Ministers proclaimed it illegal to listen to foreign radio stations. Disseminating news from foreign broadcasts could result in the death penalty. Albert Speer, Hitler's architect and later Minister for Armaments and War Production, later said the regime \"made the complete use of all technical means for domination of its own country. Through technical devices like the radio and loudspeaker, 80 million people were deprived of independent thought.\"\n\nA major focus of Nazi propaganda was Hitler himself, who was glorified as a heroic and infallible leader and became the focus of a cult of personality. Much of this was spontaneous, but some was stage-managed as part of Goebbels' propaganda work. Adulation of Hitler was the focus of the 1934 Nuremberg Rally, where his moves were carefully choreographed. The rally was the subject of the film Triumph of the Will, one of several Nazi propaganda films directed by Leni Riefenstahl. It won the Gold Medal at the 1935 Venice Film Festival. At the 1935 Nazi party congress rally at Nuremberg, Goebbels declared that \"Bolshevism is the declaration of war by Jewish-led international subhumans against culture itself.\"\n\nGoebbels was involved in planning the staging of the 1936 Summer Olympics, held in Berlin. It was around this time that he met and started having an affair with the actress Lída Baarová, whom he continued to see until 1938. A major project in 1937 was the Degenerate Art Exhibition, organised by Goebbels, which ran in Munich from July to November. The exhibition proved wildly popular, attracting over two million visitors. A degenerate music exhibition took place the following year. Meanwhile, Goebbels was disappointed by the lack of quality in the National Socialist artwork, films, and literature.\n\nChurch struggle\n\nIn 1933, Hitler signed the Reichskonkordat (Reich Concordat), a treaty with the Vatican that required the regime to honour the independence of Catholic institutions and prohibited clergy from involvement in politics. However, the regime continued to target the Christian churches and to try to weaken their influence. Throughout 1935 and 1936, hundreds of clergy, nuns, and lay leaders were arrested, often on trumped up charges of currency smuggling or sexual offences. Goebbels widely publicised the trials in his propaganda campaigns, showing the cases in the worst possible light. Restrictions were placed on public meetings, and Catholic publications faced censorship. Catholic schools were required to reduce religious instruction and crucifixes were removed from state buildings. Hitler often vacillated on whether or not the Kirchenkampf (church struggle) should be a priority, but his frequent inflammatory comments on the issue were enough to convince Goebbels to intensify his work on the issue in the first half of 1937.\n\nIn response to the persecution, Pope Pius XI had the \"Mit brennender Sorge\" (\"With Burning Concern\") Encyclical smuggled into Germany for Passion Sunday 1937 and read from every pulpit. It denounced the systematic hostility of the regime toward the church. In response, Goebbels renewed the regime's crackdown and propaganda against Catholics. His speech of 28 May in Berlin in front of 20,000 party members, which was also broadcast on the radio, attacked the Catholic church as morally corrupt. As a result of the propaganda campaign, enrolment in denominational schools dropped sharply, and by 1939 all such schools were disbanded or converted to public facilities. Harassment and threats of imprisonment led the clergy to be much more cautious in their criticism of the regime. Partly out of foreign policy concerns, Hitler ordered a scaling back the church struggle by the end of July 1937.\n\nGoebbels at war\n\nAs early as February 1933, Hitler announced that rearmament must be undertaken, albeit clandestinely at first, as to do so was in violation of the Versailles Treaty. A year later he told his military leaders that 1942 was the target date for going to war in the east. Goebbels was one of the most enthusiastic supporters of Hitler aggressively pursuing Germany's expansionist policies sooner rather than later. At the time of the Reoccupation of the Rhineland in 1936, Goebbels summed up his general attitude in his diary: \"[N]ow is the time for action. Fortune favors the brave! He who dares nothing wins nothing.\" In the lead-up to the Sudetenland crisis in 1938, Goebbels took the initiative time and again to use propaganda to whip up sympathy for the Sudeten Germans while campaigning against the Czech government. Still, Goebbels was well aware there was a growing \"war panic\" in Germany and so by July had the press conduct propaganda efforts at a lower level of intensity. After the western powers acceded to Hitler's demands concerning Czechoslovakia in 1938, Goebbels soon redirected his propaganda machine against Poland. From May onwards, he orchestrated a campaign against Poland, fabricating stories about atrocities against ethnic Germans in Danzig and other cities. Even so, he was unable to persuade the majority of Germans to welcome the prospect of war. He privately held doubts about the wisdom of risking a protracted war against Britain and France by attacking Poland.\n\nAfter the Invasion of Poland in 1939, Goebbels used his propaganda ministry and the Reich chambers to control access to information domestically. To his chagrin, his rival Joachim von Ribbentrop, the Minister for Foreign Affairs, continually challenged Goebbels' jurisdiction over the dissemination of international propaganda. Hitler declined to make a firm ruling on the subject, so the two men remained rivals for the remainder of the Nazi era. Goebbels did not participate in the military decision making process, nor was he made privy to diplomatic negotiations until after the fact.\n\nThe Propaganda Ministry took over the broadcasting facilities of conquered countries immediately after surrender, and began broadcasting prepared material using the existing announcers as a way to gain the trust of the citizens. Most aspects of the media, both domestically and in the conquered countries, were controlled by Goebbels and his department. The German Home Service, the Armed Forces Programme, and the German European Service were all rigorously controlled in everything from the information they were permitted to disseminate to the music they were allowed to play. Party rallies, speeches, and demonstrations continued; speeches were broadcast on the radio and short propaganda films were exhibited using 1,500 mobile film vans. Hitler made fewer public appearances and broadcasts as the war progressed, so Goebbels increasingly became the voice of the Nazi regime for the German people. From May 1940 he wrote frequent editorials that were published in Das Reich which were later read aloud over the radio. He found films to be his most effective propaganda medium, after radio. At his insistence, initially half the films made in wartime Germany were propaganda films (particularly on antisemitism) and war propaganda films (recounting both historical wars and current exploits of the Wehrmacht).\n\nGoebbels became preoccupied with morale and the efforts of the people on the home front. He believed that the more the people at home were involved in the war effort, the better their morale would be. For example, he initiated a programme for the collection of winter clothing and ski equipment for troops on the eastern front. At the same time, Goebbels implemented changes to have more \"entertaining material\" in radio and film produced for the public, decreeing in late 1942 that 20 per cent of the films should be propaganda and 80 per cent light entertainment. As Gauleiter of Berlin, Goebbels dealt with increasingly serious shortages of necessities such as food and clothing, as well as the need to ration beer and tobacco, which were important for morale. Hitler suggested watering the beer and degrading the quality of the cigarettes so that more could be produced, but Goebbels refused, saying the cigarettes were already of such low quality that it was impossible to make them any worse. Through his propaganda campaigns, he worked hard to maintain an appropriate level of morale among the public about the military situation, neither too optimistic nor too grim. The series of military setbacks the Germans suffered in this period – the thousand-bomber raid on Cologne (May 1942), the Allied victory at the Second Battle of El Alamein (November 1942), and especially the catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Stalingrad (February 1943) – were difficult matters to present to the German public, who were increasingly weary of the war and sceptical that it could be won. On 15 January 1943, Hitler appointed Goebbels as head of the newly created Air Raid Damage committee, which meant Goebbels was nominally in charge of nationwide civil air defenses and shelters as well as the assessment and repair of damaged buildings. In actuality, the defence of areas other than Berlin remained in the hands of the local Gauleiters, and his main tasks were limited to providing immediate aid to the affected civilians and using propaganda to improve their morale.\n\nBy early 1943, the war produced a labour crisis for the regime. Hitler created a three-man committee with representatives of the State, the army, and the Party in an attempt to centralise control of the war economy. The committee members were Hans Lammers (head of the Reich Chancellery), Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel, chief of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (Armed Forces High Command; OKW), and Martin Bormann, who controlled the Party. The committee was intended to independently propose measures regardless of the wishes of various ministries, with Hitler reserving most final decisions to himself. The committee, soon known as the Dreierausschuß (Committee of Three), met eleven times between January and August 1943. However, they ran up against resistance from Hitler's cabinet ministers, who headed deeply entrenched spheres of influence and were excluded from the committee. Seeing it as a threat to their power, Goebbels, Göring, and Speer worked together to bring it down. The result was that nothing changed, and the Committee of Three declined into irrelevance by September 1943.\n\nPartly in response to being excluded from the Committee of Three, Goebbels pressured Hitler to introduce measures that would produce \"total war\", including closing businesses not essential to the war effort, conscripting women into the labour force, and enlisting men in previously exempt occupations into the Wehrmacht. Some of these measures were implemented in an edict of 13 January, but to Goebbels' dismay, Göring demanded that his favourite restaurants in Berlin should remain open, and Lammers successfully lobbied Hitler to have women with children exempted from conscription, even if they had child care available. After receiving an enthusiastic response to his speech of 30 January 1943 on the topic, Goebbels believed he had the support of the German people in his call for total war. His next speech, the Sportpalast speech of 18 February 1943, was a passionate demand for his audience to commit to total war, which he presented as the only way to stop the Bolshevik onslaught and save the German people from destruction. The speech also had a strong antisemitic element and hinted at the extermination of the Jewish people that was already underway. The speech was presented live on radio and was filmed as well. Goebbels' efforts had little impact for the time being, as while Hitler was in principle in favour of total war, he was not prepared to implement changes over the objections of his ministers. The discovery around this time of a mass grave of Polish officers that had been killed by the Red Army in the 1940 Katyn massacre was made use of by Goebbels in his propaganda in an attempt to drive a wedge between the Soviets and the other western allies.\n\nPlenipotentiary for total war\n\nAfter the Allied invasion of Sicily (July 1943) and the strategic Soviet victory in the Battle of Kursk (July–August 1943), Goebbels began to recognize that the war could no longer be won. Following the Allied invasion of Italy and the fall of Mussolini in September, he raised with Hitler the possibility of a separate peace, either with the Soviets or with Britain. Hitler rejected both of these proposals.\n\nAs Germany's military and economic situation grew steadily worse, on 25 August 1943 Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler took over the post of interior minister, replacing Wilhelm Frick. (H. R. Knickerbocker had written in 1941 that Goebbels and Himmler were \"rivals in unpopularity\", and that Goebbels \"would be lucky to remain alive twenty-four hours after Hitler's protective hand was removed\". ) Intensive air raids on Berlin and other cities took the lives of thousands of people. Göring's Luftwaffe attempted to retaliate with air raids on London in early 1944, but they no longer had sufficient aircraft to make much of an impact. While Goebbels' propaganda in this period indicated that a huge retaliation was in the offing, the V-1 flying bombs, launched on British targets beginning in mid-June 1944, had little effect, with only around 20 per cent reaching their intended targets. To boost morale, Goebbels continued to publish propaganda to the effect that further improvements to these weapons would have a decisive impact on the outcome of the war. Meanwhile, in the Normandy landings of 6 June 1944, the Allies successfully gained a foothold in France.\n\nThroughout July, Goebbels and Speer continued to press Hitler to bring the economy to a total war footing. The 20 July plot, where Hitler was almost killed by a bomb at his field headquarters in East Prussia, played into the hands of those who had been pushing for change: Bormann, Goebbels, Himmler, and Speer. Over the objections of Göring, Goebbels was appointed on 23 July as Reich Plenipotentiary for Total War, charged with maximising the manpower for the Wehrmacht and the armaments industry at the expense of sectors of the economy not critical to the war effort. Through these efforts, he was able to free up an additional half a million men for military service. However, as many of these new recruits came from the armaments industry, the move put him in conflict with armaments minister Speer. Untrained workers from elsewhere were not readily absorbed into the armaments industry, and likewise the new Wehrmacht recruits waited in barracks for their turn to be trained.\n\nAt Hitler's behest, the Volkssturm (People's Storm) – a nationwide militia of men previously considered unsuitable for military service – was formed on 18 October 1944. Goebbels recorded in his diary that 100,000 recruits were sworn in from his Gau alone. However, the men, mostly age 45 to 60, received only rudimentary training and many were not properly armed. Goebbels' notion that these men could effectively serve on the front lines against Soviet tanks and artillery was unrealistic at best. The programme was deeply unpopular.\n\nDefeat and death\n\nIn the last months of the war, Goebbels' speeches and articles took on an increasingly apocalyptic tone. By the beginning of 1945, with the Soviets on the Oder River and the Western Allies preparing to cross the Rhine, he could no longer disguise the fact that defeat was inevitable. Berlin had little in the way of fortifications or artillery (or even Volkssturm units), as almost everything had been sent to the front. Goebbels noted in his diary on 21 January that millions of Germans were fleeing westward. He tentatively discussed with Hitler the issue of making peace overtures to the western allies, but Hitler again refused. Privately, Goebbels was conflicted at pushing the case with Hitler since he did not want to lose the confidence of his Führer.\n\nWhen other Nazi leaders urged Hitler to leave Berlin and establish a new centre of resistance in the National Redoubt in Bavaria, Goebbels opposed this, arguing for a last heroic stand in Berlin. His family (except for Magda's son Harald, who had served in the Luftwaffe and been captured by the Allies) moved into their house in Berlin to await the end. He and Magda may have discussed suicide and the fate of their young children in a long meeting on the night of 27 January. He knew how the outside world would view the criminal acts committed by the regime, and had no desire to subject himself to the \"debacle\" of a trial. He burned his private papers on the night of 18 April.\n\nGoebbels knew how to play on Hitler's fantasies, encouraging him to see the hand of providence in the death of United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt on 12 April. Whether Hitler really saw this event as a turning point as Goebbels proclaimed is not known. By this time, Goebbels had gained the position he had wanted so long – at the side of Hitler. Göring was utterly discredited, although he was not stripped of his offices until 23 April. Himmler, whose appointment as commander of Army Group Vistula had led to disaster on the Oder, was also in disgrace with Hitler. Most of Hitler's inner circle, including Göring, Himmler, Ribbentrop, and Speer, prepared to leave Berlin immediately after Hitler's birthday celebration on 20 April. Even Bormann was \"not anxious\" to meet his end at Hitler's side. On 22 April, Hitler announced that he would stay in Berlin until the end and then shoot himself. Goebbels moved with his family into the Vorbunker, connected to the lower Führerbunker under the Reich Chancellery garden in central Berlin, that same day. He told Vice-Admiral Hans-Erich Voss that he would not entertain the idea of either surrender or escape. On 23 April, Goebbels made the following proclamation to the people of Berlin:\n\nAfter midnight on 29 April, with the Soviets advancing ever closer to the bunker complex, Hitler married Eva Braun in a small civil ceremony within the Führerbunker. Afterwards Hitler hosted a modest wedding breakfast with his new wife. Hitler then took secretary Traudl Junge to another room and dictated his last will and testament. Goebbels and Bormann were two of the witnesses.\n\nIn his last will and testament, Hitler named no successor as Führer or leader of the Nazi Party. Instead, he appointed Goebbels as Reich Chancellor; Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz, who was at Flensburg near the Danish border, Reich President; and Bormann as Party Minister. Goebbels wrote a postscript to the will stating that he would disobey Hitler's order to leave Berlin: \"For reasons of humanity and personal loyalty\" he had to stay. Further, his wife and children would be staying, as well. They would end their lives \"side by side with the Führer\".\n\nIn the mid-afternoon of 30 April, Hitler shot himself. After Hitler's suicide, Goebbels was depressed. Voss later recounted Goebbels said: \"It is a great pity that such a man is not with us any longer. But there is nothing to be done. For us, everything is lost now and the only way out left for us is the one which Hitler chose. I shall follow his example.\"\n\nOn 1 May, Goebbels completed his sole official act as Chancellor. He dictated a letter to General Vasily Chuikov and ordered German General Hans Krebs to deliver it under a white flag. Chuikov, as commander of the Soviet 8th Guards Army, commanded the Soviet forces in central Berlin. Goebbels' letter informed Chuikov of Hitler's death and requested a ceasefire. After this was rejected, Goebbels decided that further efforts were futile.\n\nLater on 1 May, Vice-Admiral Voss saw Goebbels for the last time: \"... While saying goodbye I asked Goebbels to join us. But he replied: 'The captain must not leave his sinking ship. I have thought about it all and decided to stay here. I have nowhere to go because with little children I will not be able to make it, especially with a leg like mine...' \"\n\nOn the evening of 1 May 1945, Goebbels arranged for an SS dentist, Helmut Kunz, to inject his six children with morphine so that when they were unconscious, an ampule of cyanide could be then crushed in each of their mouths. According to Kunz's later testimony, he gave the children morphine injections but it was Magda Goebbels and SS-Obersturmbannführer Ludwig Stumpfegger, Hitler's personal doctor, who administered the cyanide.\n\nAt around 20:30, Goebbels and Magda left the bunker and walked up to the garden of the Chancellery, where they committed suicide. There are several different accounts of this event. According to one account, Goebbels shot Magda and then himself. Another account was that they each bit on a cyanide ampule and were given a coup de grâce immediately afterwards. Goebbels' SS adjutant Günther Schwägermann testified in 1948 that they walked ahead of him up the stairs and out into the Chancellery garden. He waited in the stairwell and heard the shots sound. Schwägermann then walked up the remaining stairs and once outside he saw their lifeless bodies. Following Goebbels' prior order, Schwägermann had an SS soldier fire several shots into his body, which did not move.\n\nThe bodies were then doused with petrol, but they were only partially burned and not buried. A few days later, Voss was brought back to the bunker by the Soviets to identify the partly burned bodies of Joseph and Magda Goebbels and their children. The remains of the Goebbels' family, Hitler, Braun, General Krebs, and Hitler's dogs were repeatedly buried and exhumed. The last burial was at the SMERSH facility in Magdeburg on 21 February 1946. In 1970, KGB director Yuri Andropov authorised an operation to destroy the remains. On 4 April 1970, a Soviet KGB team used detailed burial charts to exhume five wooden boxes at the Magdeburg SMERSH facility. Those were burned, crushed, and scattered into the Biederitz river, a tributary of the nearby Elbe.\n\nAntisemitism and the Holocaust\n\nLike many Germans of that time, Goebbels was antisemitic from a young age. After joining the NSDAP and meeting Hitler, his antisemitism grew and became more radical. He began to see the Jews as a destructive force with a negative impact on German society. After the Nazis seized power, he repeatedly urged Hitler to take action against the Jews. The party's goal was to remove them from German cultural and economic life, and eventually to remove them from the country altogether. In addition to his propaganda efforts, Goebbels actively promoted the persecution of the Jews through pogroms, legislation, and other actions. Discriminatory measures he instituted in Berlin in the early years of the regime included bans against their using public transport and requiring that Jewish shops be marked as such.\n\nIn November 1938, the German diplomat Ernst vom Rath was killed in Paris by a young Jewish man. In response, Goebbels arranged for inflammatory antisemitic material to be released by the press, and the result was the start of a pogrom. Jews were attacked and synagogues destroyed all over Germany. The situation was further inflamed by a speech Goebbels gave at a party meeting on the night of 8 November, where he obliquely called for party members to incite further violence against Jews while making it appear to be a spontaneous series of acts by the German people. At least a hundred Jews were killed, several hundred synagogues were damaged or destroyed, and thousands of Jewish shops were vandalized in an event called Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass). Around 30,000 Jewish men were sent to concentration camps. The destruction stopped after a conference held on 12 November, where Göring pointed out that the destruction of Jewish property was in effect the destruction of German property, since the intention was that it would all eventually be confiscated. Goebbels continued his intensive antisemitic propaganda campaign that culminated in Hitler's 30 January 1939 Reichstag speech, which Goebbels helped to write:\n\nWhile Goebbels had been pressing for expulsion of the Berlin Jews since 1935, there were still 62,000 living in the city in 1940. Part of the delay in their deportation was that they were needed as workers in the armaments industry. Deportations of German Jews began in October 1941, with the first transport from Berlin leaving on 18 October. Some Jews were shot immediately on arrival in destinations such as Riga and Kaunas. In preparation for the deportations, Goebbels ordered that all German Jews were required by law to wear an identifying yellow badge as of 5 September 1941. On 6 March 1942, Goebbels received a copy of the minutes of the Wannsee Conference. The document made the Nazi policy clear: the Jewish population of Europe was to be sent to extermination camps in occupied areas of Poland and killed. His diary entries of the period show that he was well aware of the fate of the Jews. \"In general, it can probably be established that 60 percent of them will have to be liquidated, while only 40 percent can be put to work. ... A judgment is being carried out on the Jews which is barbaric but thoroughly deserved,\" he wrote on 27 March 1942.\n\nGoebbels had frequent discussions with Hitler about the fate of the Jews, a subject which they discussed almost every time they met. He was aware throughout that the Jews were being exterminated, and completely supported this decision. He was one of the few top NSDAP officials to do so publicly.\n\nFamily life\n\nHitler was very fond of Magda Goebbels and the children. He enjoyed staying at the Goebbels' Berlin apartment, where he could relax. Magda had a close relationship with Hitler, and became a member of his small coterie of female friends. She also became an unofficial representative of the regime, receiving letters from all over Germany from women with questions about domestic matters or child custody issues.\n\nIn 1936, Goebbels met the Czech actress Lída Baarová and by the winter of 1937 began an intense affair with her. Magda had a long conversation with Hitler about it on 15 August 1938. Unwilling to put up with a scandal involving one of his top ministers, Hitler demanded that Goebbels break off the relationship. Thereafter, Joseph and Magda seemed to reach a truce until the end of September. The couple had another falling out at that point, and once again Hitler became involved, insisting the couple stay together. Hitler arranged for publicity photos to be taken of himself with the reconciled couple in October. Magda too had affairs, including a relationship with Kurt Ludecke in 1933 and Karl Hanke in 1938.\n\nThe Goebbels family included Harald Quandt (Magda's son from her first marriage; born 1921), plus Helga (1932), Hilde (1934), Helmuth (1935), Holde (1937), Hedda (1938), and Heide (1940). Harald was the only member of the family to survive the war." ] }

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Goebbels was  Hitler’s  Minister of  Propaganda  and one of the most important and influential people in  Nazi Germany .\nGoebbels was born in the Rhineland and he attended Heidelberg University where he was became a Doctor of Philosophy in 1920. He had not served in the German Army during the  First World War  as he was disabled by a clubbed foot which meant he found it difficult to walk (Hitler ordered him to disguise this). This feeling of inferiority (Goebbels was self-conscious about his lack of height as well), his rejection by the German Army and the terms of the  Treaty of Versailles  lead to Goebbels becoming a very bitter man in the early 1920’s. He joined the Nazi Party towards the end of 1924 to keep his parents happy.\nGoebbels was given the task of building up Nazi support in Berlin. He did this between 1926 and 1930. In 1928, he was elected to the Reichstag (the German Parliament, so he was a bit like an MP) – something that he repeated in 1930. \nTo start with Goebbels didn't like Hitler. It was only after 1926 that he changed his mind. After this he was dedicated and their relationship was a close one - this allowed Goebbels to influence others more. In 1929, he had been given overall charge of the party’s propaganda machine. It was here that Goebbels excelled. In 1933, after Hitler was appointed Chancellor, Goebbels was appointed Minister of Enlightenment and Propaganda. He held this post until 1945.\nHis sharp tongue made him enemies within the Nazi Party where some called him the “Poison Dwarf”. However, except for issues involving his marriage, he had Hitler’s support. Goebbels was a womaniser and his wife wanted to divorce him after one affair too many. Hitler refused to give his permission for a divorce as he had spent much time telling the German people about he importance of family values. Instead Goebbels was told by Hitler to change his ways.\nGoebbels knew the power of controlling what people thought. He used lots of brand new (at the time) techniques for his propaganda, such as colour film – rarely used by politicians elsewhere as it was considered too unreliable. Films such as “The Eternal Jew” (a black and white film) hammered home the  anti-Semitic  (anti-Jewish) message of the party. Another film; “Triumph of the Will” portrayed the might of Hitler and Germany. He was vital in Hitler becoming Chancellor in 1933 as his propaganda convinced the German people that the Hitler and the Nazis could save them from the Depression. He also blamed the Jews again at this point, so it was quite early on that we can see the origins of the Holocaust. His policies and propaganda were so appealing at this stage that the Nazis didn't have to use much terror. Their policies were just too appealing to desperate people (however opposition did still exist.)\nIt also wasn't just films that Goebbels used for propaganda, he also used; newspapers, radio, public holidays, rallies, books, theatre, music and The Olympics. He would use these all the way through to the end of the Second World War, along with censorship.\nDuring the  War , it was easy for Goebbels to persuade the public that things were going well when the war was going Germany’s way. However, this became a lot more difficult after the Battle of Stalingrad. This was portrayed on film as a failing of generals on the eastern front not showing enough commitment to the Nazi cause. Goebbels demanded “total war” from the Germans and in 1944, he was appointed Reich Commissioner for Total Mobilisation. His use of propaganda continued to increase throughout the war, both to keep support and turn people against the opposition to the Nazis.\nAs the Russians advanced on Berlin in April/May 1945, Goebbels stayed with Hitler in Hitler’s bunker. In his diary, he blamed the defeat of Germany on the German people and not Hitler. On May 1st, he gave poison to his six children and then shot his wife and then himself. He gave orders that his body should be burned. Before, his death, it is said that Hitler gave to Goebbels his own wrist watch as a mark that he had been the only senior Nazi leader to have stayed with Hitler to the end.\nCreate a free website", "Joseph Goebbels | Jewish Virtual Library\nTweet\nMaster propagandist of the Nazi regime and dictator of its cultural life for twelve years, Joseph Goebbels was born into a strict Catholic, working-class family from Rheydt, in the Rhineland, on 29 October 1897. He was educated at a Roman Catholic school and went on to study history and literature at the University of Heidelberg under Professor Friedrich Gundolf, a Jewish literary historian renowned as a Goethe scholar and a close disciple of the poet Stefan George.\nGoebbels had been rejected for military service during World War I because of a crippled foot - the result of contracting polio as a child - and a sense of physical inadequacy tormented him for the rest of his life, reinforced by resentment of the reactions aroused by his diminutive frame, black hair and intellectual background. Bitterly conscious of his deformity and fearful of being regarded as a \"bourgeois intellectual,\" Goebbels overcompensated for his lack of the physical virtues of the strong, healthy, blond, Nordic type by his ideological rectitude and radicalism once he joined the NSDAP in 1922.\nThe hostility to the intellect of the \"little doctor,\" his contempt for the human race in general and the Jews in particular, and his complete cynicism were an expression of his own intellectual self-hatred and inferiority complexes, his overwhelming need to destroy everything sacred and ignite the same feelings of rage, despair and hatred in his listeners.\nAt first Goebbels's hyperactive imagination found an outlet in poetry, drama and a bohemian life-style, but apart from his expressionist novel, Michael: ein Deutsches Schicksal in Tagebuchblattern (1926), nothing came of these first literary efforts. It was in the Nazi Party that Goebbels's sharp, clear-sighted intelligence, his oratorical gifts and flair for theatrical effects, his uninhibited opportunism and ideological radicalism blossomed in the service of an insatiable will-to-power.\nIn 1925 he was made business manager of the NSDAP in the Ruhr district and at the end of the year was already the principal collaborator of Gregor Strasser, leader of the social-revolutionary North German wing of the Party. Goebbels founded and edited the Nationalsozialistischen Briefe (NS Letters) and other publications of the Strasser brothers, sharing their proletarian anti-capitalist outlook and call for a radical revaluation of all values. His National Bolshevik tendencies found expression in his evaluation of Soviet Russia (which he regarded as both nationalist and socialist) as \"Germany's natural ally against the devilish temptations and corruption of the West.\"\nIt was at this time that Goebbels, who had co-authored the draft programme submitted by the Nazi Left at the Hanover Conference of 1926, called for the expulsion of \"petty-bourgeois Adolf Hitler from the National Socialist Party.\" Goebbels's shrewd political instinct and his opportunism were demonstrated by his switch to Hitler's side in 1926, which was rewarded by his appointment in November of the same year as Nazi district leader for Berlin-Brandenburg.\nPlaced at the head of a small, conflict-ridden organization, Goebbels rapidly succeeded in taking control and undermining the supremacy of the Strasser brothers in northern Germany and their monopoly of the Party press, founding in 1927 and editing his own weekly newspaper, Der Angriff (The Attack). He designed posters, published his own propaganda, staged impressive parades, organized his bodyguards to participate in street battles, beer-hall brawls and shooting affrays as a means to further his political agitation.\nBy 1927 the \"Marat of Red Berlin, a nightmare and goblin of history\" had already become the most feared demagogue of the capital city, exploiting to the full his deep, powerful voice, rhetorical fervour and unscrupulous appeal to primitive instincts. A tireless, tenacious agitator with the gift of paralysing opponents by a guileful combination of venom, slander and insinuation, Goebbels knew how to mobilize the fears of the unemployed masses as the Great Depression hit Germany, playing on the national psyche with \"ice-cold calculation.\"\nWith the skill of a master propagandist he transformed the Berlin student and pimp, Horst Wessel, into a Nazi martyr, and provided the slogans, the myths and images, the telling aphorisms which rapidly spread the message of National Socialism.\nHitler was deeply impressed by Goebbels's success in turning the small Berlin section of the Party into a powerful organization in North Germany and in 1929 appointed him Reich Propaganda Leader of the NSDAP. Looking back many years later (24 June 1942), Hitler observed: \"Dr. Goebbels was gifted with the two things without which the situation in Berlin could not have been mastered: verbal facility and intellect.. . . For Dr. Goebbels, who had not found much in the way of a political organization when he started, had won Berlin in the truest sense of the word.\"\nHitler had indeed cause to be grateful to his Propaganda Leader, who was the true creator and organizer of the Fuhrer myth, of the image of the Messiah-redeemer, feeding the theatrical element in the Nazi leader while at the same time inducing the self-surrender of the German masses through skilful stage management and manipulation. A cynic, devoid of genuine inner convictions, Goebbels found his mission in selling Hitler to the German public, in projecting himself as his most faithful shield-bearer and orchestrating a pseudo-religious cult of the Fuhrer as the saviour of Germany from Jews, profiteers and Marxists.\nAs a Reichstag deputy from 1928, he no less cynically gave open voice to his contempt for the Republic, declaring: \"We are entering the Reichstag, in order that we may arm ourselves with the weapons of democracy from its arsenal. We shall become Reichstag deputies in order that the Weimar ideology should itself help us to destroy it.\"\nGoebbels's deeply rooted contempt for humanity, his urge to sow confusion, hatred and intoxication, his lust for power and his mastery of the techniques of mass persuasion were given full vent in the election campaigns of 1932, when he played a crucial role in bringing Hitler to the centre of the political stage. He was rewarded on 13 March 1933 with the position of Reich Minister for Public Enlightenment and Propaganda, which gave him total control of the communications media - i.e. radio, press, publishing, cinema and the other arts.\nHe achieved the Nazi 'co-ordination' of cultural life very quickly, astutely combining propaganda, bribery and terrorism, \"cleansing\" the arts in the name of the volkisch ideal, subjecting editors and journalists to State control, eliminating all Jews and political opponents from positions of influence. On May 10, 1933 he staged the great ritual \" burning of the books \" in Berlin , where the works of Jewish, Marxist and other \"subversive\" authors were publicly burned in huge bonfires.\nHe became a relentless Jew-baiter, demonizing the stereotyped figure of the \"International Jewish Financier\" in London and Washington allied with the \"Jew-Bolsheviks\" in Moscow, as the chief enemy of the Third Reich. At the Party Day of Victory in 1933, Goebbels attacked the \"Jewish penetration of the professions\" (law, medicine, property, theatre, etc.), claiming that the foreign Jewish boycott of Germany had provoked Nazi \"counter-measures.\"\nGoebbels's hatred of the Jews , like his hatred of the privileged and clever, stemmed from a deep-rooted sense of inferiority and internalization of mob values; at the same time it was also opportunist and tactical, based on the need to create a common enemy, to feed popular resentment and to mobilize the masses.\nFor five years Goebbels chafed at the leash as the Nazi regime sought to consolidate itself and win international recognition. His opportunity came with the [ Kristallnacht ] Crystal Night pogrom of November 9-10, 1938, which he orchestrated after kindling the flame with a rabble-rousing speech to Party leaders assembled in the Munich Altes Rathaus (Old Town Hall) for the annual celebration of the Beer-Hall putsch . Later, Goebbels was one of the chief secret abettors of the \" Final Solution ,\" personally supervising the deportation of Jews from Berlin in 1942 and proposing that Jews along with gypsies should be regarded as \"unconditionally exterminable.\"\nHe combined verbal warnings that, as a result of the war, \"the Jews will pay with extermination of their race in Europe and perhaps beyond\" with careful avoidance in his propaganda material of discussing the actual treatment of the Jews, i.e., any mention of the extermination camps. Goebbels's anti-Semitism was one factor whichbrought him closer to Hitler, who respected his political judgement as well as his administrative and propagandist skills. His wife Magda and their six children were welcome guests at the Fuhrer's Alpine retreat of Berchtesgaden. In 1938, when Magda tried to divorce him because of his endless love affairs with beautiful actresses, it was Hitler who intervened to straighten out the situation.\nDuring World War II relations between Hitler and Goebbels became more intimate, especially as the war situation deteriorated and the Minister of Propaganda encouraged the German people to ever greater efforts. After the Allies insisted on unconditional surrender, Goebbels turned this to advantage, convincing his audience that there was no choice except victory or destruction. In a famous speech on February 18, 1943 in the Berlin Sportpalast, Goebbels created an atmosphere of wild emotion, winning the agreement of his listeners to mobilization for total war. Playing adroitly on German fears of the \"Asiatic hordes,\" using his all-pervasive control of press, film and radio to maintain morale, inventing mythical \"secret weapons\" and impregnable fortresses in the mountains where the last stand would be made, Goebbels never lost his nerve or his fighting spirit.\nIt was his quick thinking and decisive action on the afternoon of July 20, 1944 , when he isolated the conspirators in the War Ministry with the help of detachments of loyal troops, which saved the Nazi regime. Shortly afterwards he achieved his ambition to be warlord on the domestic front, following his appointment in July 1944 as General Plenipotentiary for Total War.\nGiven the widest powers to move and direct the civilian population and even to redistribute manpower within the armed forces, Goebbels imposed an austerity programme and pressed for ever greater civilian sacrifice. But with Germany already close to collapse, it was too late to accomplish anything beyond further dislocations and confusion. As the war neared its end, Goebbels, the supreme opportunist, emerged as the Fuhrer's most loyal follower, spending his last days together with his family, in the Fuhrerbunker under the Chancellery. Convinced that the Nazis had finally burnt all their bridges and increasingly fascinated by the prospect of a final apocalypse, Goebbels's last words on dismissing his associates were: \"When we depart, let the earth tremble!\"\nFollowing the Fuhrer's suicide, Goebbels disregarded Hitler's political testament , which had appointed him as Reich Chancellor, and decided to follow suit. He had his six children poisoned with a lethal injection by an SS doctor and then himself and his wife Magda shot by an SS orderly on May 1, 1945. With characteristic pathos and egomania he declared not long before his death: \"We shall go down in history as the greatest statesmen of all time, or as the greatest criminals.\"", "Joseph Goebbels http://www.HolocaustResearchProject.org\nJoseph Goebbels\nJoseph Goebbels was born in Rheydt, Germany, on 29th October, 1897. He attended the established Heidelberg University where he was awarded a doctorate of philosophy in 1920. He had not served in the German Army during the First World War as he was disabled by a clubbed foot which hindered his ability to walk.\n \nThis feeling of physical inferiority (Goebbels was self-conscious about his lack of height as well), his rejection by the German Army and the terms of the Treaty of Versailles lead to Goebbels becoming a very embittered man in the early 1920’s. He joined the Nazi Party towards the end of 1924.\nHe was soon after, appointed Gauleiter of Berlin and in this role, he put his propaganda skills to full use. A leading Nazi zealot he focused his energy combating the local socialist and communist parties with the help of Nazi media outlets backed up by the paramilitary thugs of the SA. By 1928 he had risen in the party ranks to become one of its most prominent members.\nAfter the Nazis seized power in 1933, he was appointed propaganda minister. One of his first acts was to order the burning of books by Jewish or anti-Nazi authors at the Bebelplatz and he proceeded to gain full control of every outlet of information in Germany.\n \nDer Angriff\nIn Berlin, Goebbels was able to give full expression to his genius for propaganda, as editor of the Berlin Nazi newspaper Der Angriff  he authored a steady stream of Nazi posters and handbills. He soon rose  to become the city’s most feared agitator.\n \nHis propaganda techniques were totally cynical: “That propaganda is good which leads to success, and that is bad which fails to achieve the desired result,” he wrote. “It is not propaganda’s task to be intelligent, its task is to lead to success.”\nFollowing his appointment, his attacks on German Jews became ever fiercer and culminated in the Kristallnacht of 1938, the first open and unrestrained pogrom unleashed by the Nazis.\n \nGoebbels with Hess & Hitler\nWhatever his motives, Goebbels took every opportunity to attack the Jews. Beginning in 1933 and continuing through his career, he was known as one of  the regime’s most virulent anti-Semites. “Some people think,” he told a Berlin rally in June 1935,  “that we haven’t noticed how the Jews are trying once again to spread themselves over all our streets. The Jews ought please to observe the laws of hospitality and not behave as if they were the same as us.”\n \nThe sarcastic “humour” of Goebbels’s speeches did not conceal the reality of his threat to the Jews. In his capacity as Gauleiter of Berlin, and thus as de facto ruler of the capital, Goebbels maintained constant pressure on the city’s large Jewish community, forcing them out of business and professional life and placing obstacles in the way of their being able to live normal lives, such as banning them from public transport and city facilities.\nBy mid 1938 Goebbels was investigating the possibility of requiring all Jews to wear an identifying mark and of confining them to a ghetto, but these were ideas whose time had not yet come. “Aim—drive the Jews out of Berlin,” he wrote in his diary in June 1938, “and without any sentimentality.”\n \nGoebbels delivering a speech\nHistory has never had a revolution less bloody, more disciplined and more orderly than ours. In attempting to deal with the Jewish question and to approach the matter legally for the first time in Europe's history, we are only following the spirit of the age. Defending against the Jewish danger is only part of our plan. When it becomes the only issue when National Socialism is discussed, that is Jewry's fault, not ours. It has attempted to mobilize the world against us, in the secret hope of winning back the territory it has lost.\nThis hope is not only in vain, it also carries with it a series of dangers and difficulties for Jewry itself. It cannot prevent arguments throughout the world not only against our policies, but also for them. The discussing has taken on an extent that both in the immediate and distant future could have extraordinarily unpleasant consequences for the Jewish race.\nRichard Wagner once called the Jews the \"plastic demon of decomposition\" and Theodor Mommsen meant the same when he saw them as the \"ferment of decomposition.\" In contrast, the Aryan sees himself as a creative creature. There may be a certain tragedy inherent in the nature of the Jews, but is it our fault that this race works destructively among the peoples and is a constant danger to their domestic and international security?\nThe fundamental differences between the two races were responsible for the repeated explosions during the November years [1918-1933]. As long as the Jews remain anonymous, they are secure. The moment they lose their anonymity, the racial problem became acute and required a suitable solution. We certainly do not hold the Jews solely to blame for the German spiritual and economic catastrophe. We all know the other causes that led to the decline of our people. However, we have the courage to recognize their role in the process, and to name them by name. It was difficult for a time to persuade the people of this, for public opinion was entirely in Jewish hands.\n \nGoebbels 1938 Reichstag Identity card\nOn a Berlin stage run by the Jews, a steel helmet bearing the words \"Away with the filth!\" was swept into the dust heap. The Jew Gumbel said the dead of the war had \"fallen on the field of dishonor.\" The Jew Lessing compared Hindenburg with the mass murderer Haarmann. The Jew Toller said heroism was \"the most stupid ideal.\" The Jew Arnold Zweig spoke of the German people as a \"horde that needed to be unmasked,\" as the \"animalistic power of the eternal Boche,\" and as a \"nation of newspaper readers, a herd of voters, businessmen, murderers, marchers, operetta lovers, and bureaucratic cadavers.\"\n \nIs it surprising that the German Revolution also broke this unbearable yoke? When one further considers the alienation of German intellectual life by International Jewry, its corruption of German justice that finally led to the fact that only one out of every five judges was German, the takeover of the medical profession, their predominance among university professors, in short, the fact that nearly all intellectual professions were dominated by the Jews, one has to grant that no people with any self esteem could tolerate that for long.\n \nIt was only an act of national renewal when the National Socialist revolution took action in this area.\n \nGiving a speech at a Nazi Rally\nPeople abroad often do not know the real causes of German Jewish legislation. The statistics are most persuasive. Nonetheless, we held back at the beginning of our work. We had more important things to do than to take on a question of such great scope. It is entirely the fault of Jewry that things turned out differently.\n \nThe boycott and atrocity propaganda they made in other countries was an attempt by International Jewry to accomplish by means of public opinion in other countries what had been made impossible by our takeover in Germany. They attempted to cause difficulties for Germany's rebirth through a worldwide boycott campaign, and to render it ineffective.\n \nWe finally resorted to a counter-boycott during that critical period. The fact that their racial comrades still in Germany suffered loss is thanks to their racial comrades beyond our borders, who were trying to cause difficulties for us. They only caused economic difficulties for their own race. We can predict the future consequences for Jewry. We have not done anything to encourage them, they are simply the product of the times.\n \nGoebbels Speech 1935\nMany clever Jews have already realized what they have done, above all to those remaining in Germany, who were the most directly affected. They shouted their warnings. But they could not overcome the radical wing, and in the end had to let things take their course for better or worse. This radical wing has delivered an extraordinarily hard blow to World Jewry and its allies. They put the Jewish Problem up for debate, and where it is debated the results can only be unpleasant. Jewry's strength is in its anonymity; if it loses that, the results can only be harmful.\nThe recent Zionist Conference in Paris shows the hopeless situation World Jewry has been driven into by its radical wing. When one of the various Jewish groups is no longer united, when there are only fruitless debates, it is a sign that Jewish power is on shaky ground. That is already beginning to have consequences for Jewry.\nThese events reveal the racial problem in all its difficulty. It will not fade away until Europe's peoples solve it. It will be solved when the people for their own good do what is necessary for their security.\n- Joseph Goebbels\nGoebbels, Riefenstahl & Hitler\nGoebbels knew the power of controlling what people thought. Those that did not had to face the secret police. Those who were taken in by him were enthralled by propaganda films such as \"The Eternal Jew\" and \"Triumph of the Will\"  which visually portrayed the might of Hitler and undying power of  Germany skillfully directed by Leni Reifenstahl.\nGoebbels delivered 12 such speeches on Adolf Hitler and National Socialism during the years 1933 - 1945. Including a series of articles covering topics on the role of women in Nazi Germany, US involvement in the war, and the ever popular \"International Jewish conspiracy.\"\nOnce war began in September 1939, Goebbels began a steady process of extending his influence over domestic policy. After 1940, Hitler made few public appearances, and even his broadcasts became less frequent, so Goebbels increasingly became the face and the voice of the Nazi regime for the German people.[55] With Hitler preoccupied with the war, Himmler focusing on the “final solution to the Jewish question” in eastern Europe, and with Göring’s position declining with the failure of the Luftwaffe, Goebbels sensed a power vacuum in domestic policy and quickly moved to fill it.\n \nJews in Vienna forced to scrub streets\nSince civilian morale was his responsibility, he increasingly concerned himself with matters such as wages, rationing and housing, which affected morale and therefore productivity. He came to see the lethargic and demoralized Göring, as his main enemy. To undermine Göring, he forged an alliance with Himmler, although the SS chief remained wary of him.\n \nThe view of most historians is that the decision to proceed with the extermination of the Jews was taken at some point in late 1941, and Goebbels’s comments make it clear that he knew in general terms, if not in detail, what was planned.\nThe decision in principle to deport the German and Austrian Jews to unspecified destinations “in the east” was made in September. Goebbels immediately pressed for the Berlin Jews to be deported first. He traveled to Hitler’s headquarters on the eastern front, meeting both Hitler and Reinhard Heydrich to lobby for his demands. He got the assurances he wanted: “The Führer is of the opinion,” he wrote, “that the Jews eventually have to be removed from the whole of Germany. The first cities to be made Jew-free are Berlin, Vienna and Prague. Berlin is first in the queue, and I have the hope that we’ll succeed in the course of this year.”\n \nAnti-Jewish propaganda  scenes of Jews in Berlin\nDeportations of Berlin Jews to the Łódź ghetto began in October, but transport and other difficulties made the process much slower than Goebbels desired. His November article in Das Reich was part of his campaign to have the pace of deportation accelerated.\n \nGoebbels wrote in his diary on March 27, 1942:\n \nBeginning with Lublin the Jews in the General Government are now being evacuated eastward. The procedure is pretty barbaric and is not to be described here more definitely. Not much will remain of the Jews. About sixty percent of them will have to be liquidated. Only about 40 percent can be used for forced labour.\n \nThe former Gauleiter of Vienna (Globocnik) who is to carry out this measure, is doing it with considerable circumspection and in a way that does not attract much attention…… the ghettos that will be emptied in the cities of the General Government will now be re-filled with Jews thrown out of the Reich. The process is to be repeated from time to time.\n \nIn December, he was present when Hitler addressed a meeting of Gauleiters and other senior Nazis, discussing among other things the “Jewish question.” He wrote in his diary afterwards:\nWith regard to the Jewish Question, the Führer is determined to make a clean sweep of it. He prophesied that, if they brought about another world war, they would experience their annihilation. The annihilation of Jewry must be the necessary consequence. The question is to be viewed without any sentimentality. We’re not there to have sympathy with the Jews, but only sympathy with our own German people. If the German people has again now sacrificed around 160,000 dead in the eastern campaign, the originators of this bloody conflict will have to pay for it with their lives.\n \nAfter the great defeat at Stalingrad in early February 1943, Goebbels was the first official forthrightly to acknowledge the seriousness of the peril that faced the nation and Europe, and frankly to concede that Germany could lose the war.\n \nProbably the best known of his wartime speeches was his brilliantly crafted \"Total War\" address of February 18, 1943. Masterfully delivered to a large audience in Berlin's Sportpalast hall, it was broadcast on national radio and excerpts were shown in the weekly \"Deutsche Wochenschau\" newsreel.\nSpeaking in the aftermath of the Stalingrad catastrophe, Goebbels stressed the grim truth that catastrophic defeat was a real possibility, and concluded with a rousing call for national mobilization.\n \nAs the war dragged on, Goebbels' front-page editorial essays in the weekly paper Das Reich played an increasingly important role in sustaining public morale. They were widely reprinted and routinely read over the radio.\n \n“We live at the most critical period in the history of the Occident,” he wrote in Das Reich in February 1943. “Any weakening of the spiritual and military defensive strength of our continent in its struggle with eastern Bolshevism brings with it the danger of a rapidly nearing decline in its will to resist… Our soldiers in the East will do their part. They will stop the storm from the steppes, and ultimately break it. They fight under unimaginable conditions. But they are fighting a good fight. They are fighting not only for our own security, but also for Europe's future.”\n \nIn July 1944 he was appointed General Plenipotentiary for Total War. With full authority to direct the civilian population and redistribute manpower even within the armed forces, Goebbels imposed an austerity program and pressed for ever greater civilian sacrifice. But with Germany already close to collapse, it was too late to accomplish anything beyond further dislocations and confusion.\n \nThe Goebbels family\nIn April of 1945, Hitler moved into the Führerbunker, located 50 feet below the Chancellery buildings in Berlin. There on April 22, Hitler exclaimed, the Reich was a failure and now there was nothing left for him to do but stay in Berlin and fight to the very end.\nGoebbels then brought his entire family, including six young children, to live with Hitler in the bunker. On 30 April, with the Russians advancing to within a few hundred meters of the bunker, Hitler dictated his last will and testament shortly before shooting himself.  Of Hitler's death, Goebbels commented: \"The heart of Germany has ceased to beat. The Führer is dead.\"\nJoseph & Magda Goebbels\nAt 8 p.m. on the evening of 1 May, Goebbels arranged for an SS doctor, Helmut Kunz, to kill his six children by injecting them with morphine and then, when they were unconscious, crushing an ampule of cyanide in each of their mouths. According to Kunz's testimony, he gave the children morphine injections but it was Magda Goebbels and Stumpfegger, Hitler's personal doctor, who then administered the cyanide. Shortly afterwards, Goebbels and his wife went up to the garden of the Chancellery, where they killed themselves.\nBefore, his death, it is said that Hitler gave to Goebbels his own wrist watch as a mark that he had been the only senior Nazi leader to have stayed with Hitler to the end.\n \nSources:\nWho’s Who in Nazi Germany by Robert S Wistrich published by Routledge, London and New York 1995\nRichard J. Evans, The Third Reich in Power   Allen Lane 2005\nThe Holocaust Chronicle Publications International LTD\nHitler  Kershaw, Ian W. W. Norton & Company; 1st American edition.\nDoctor Goebbels: His Life & Death  Roger Manvell and Heinrich Fraenkel Greenhill Books 2006\nThe Final Solution by G. Reitlinger – Vallentine Mitchell &Co Ltd 1953.\nUSHMM\nCopyright Carmelo  Lisciotto H.E.A.R.T 2007", "Joseph Goebbels - Biography - IMDb\nJoseph Goebbels\nBiography\nShowing all 36 items\nJump to: Overview  (5) | Mini Bio  (1) | Spouse  (1) | Trade Mark  (4) | Trivia  (16) | Personal Quotes  (9)\nOverview (5)\n1 May 1945 ,  Berlin, Germany  (assisted suicide by gunshot)\nBirth Name\n5' 5\" (1.65 m)\nMini Bio (1)\nJosef Goebbels, the man who almost single-handedly developed the field of propaganda into an art form, would, for a day, be the leader of World War II Germany. Goebbels was born in the German Rhineland to strict Catholic parents. He was short, standing at just under 5' 6\", of small stature and skinny, and had a sharp, prominent nose and an oily, sallow complexion. He was rejected by the German army in World War I on the basis of being a cripple, specifically, he had a club foot for which he wore a brace, contracted after a bout of osteomyelitis. After Germany was defeated, Goebbels joined the National Socialist Workers Party, more infamously known as the Nazi party, which opposed the democratic Weimar Republic that had been set up to govern Germany. Because of his impressive oratorical skills and uncanny ability to slant arguments to his view, Goebbels was considered an ideal leader in the Nazi party. It was there that he met Hitler in 1925. Though they both shared a hatred of Jews, Goebbels, a dedicated socialist, initially tried to expel the relatively capitalistic Hitler, whom he saw as simply an opportunist. He would change his tune, however, when Hitler rose in rank to become Nazi leader. Hitler rewarded Goebbels with a post as Nazi district leader of Berlin, where he would wage year-round political campaigns that eventually drained the organization of virtually all of its funds. He met and married divorcée Magda Quandt around this time. Though their membership grew, the Nazis didn't manage to attract a sizable enough number of voters - especially in Berlin - to attain any kind of legitimate political power, due to both the rebounding German economy and a distrust of the gang of street thugs within the Nazi party called the Sturm Abteilung (SA). However, after the US stock market crashed in 1929, the European economies took a tremendous hit, and the resulting worldwide economic depression hit Germany especially hard. The dire economic straits of many Germans were tailor-made for a demagogue like Hitler, and, slowly, he began to take power; first as Chancellor in 1933, then as Führer in 1934. Goebbels was named minister of entertainment and propaganda, a position that gave him have sole discretion as to what books, magazines, films, radios, newspapers, etc., could print, say or show. Knowing the media power where the influencing of people was concerned, he searched for a director to place as the head of UFA, Germany's leading film studio. In a famous meeting, he offered the position to respected German director Fritz Lang , who tried to excuse himself by saying that he had Jewish grandparents, to which Goebbels curtly replied, \"We will decide who is Jewish!\" Lang promptly fled the country and Goebbels settled on a rising female director, Leni Riefenstahl , as the \"official\" Nazi filmmaker. She directed two documentaries on the party's Nuremburg rallies of 1932 and 1933. The first was disowned by Riefenstahl because of the little time she had to prepare and the fact that it was never shown publicly because the film featured Ernst Röhm , leader of the SA, who along with many SA leaders, was murdered by the Nazi high command when they moved against the SA, just after the film was completed. Their second attempt, on which Goebbels assisted Riefenstahl extensively, is perhaps the most famous propaganda film ever made: Triumph of the Will (1935). It took almost a year to prepare from the miles upon miles of footage shot. It was a success worldwide, but was not particularly popular in Germany at the time. Goebbels then commissioned Riefenstahl to shoot the 1936 Berlin Olympics, which the Nazi leadership assumed would be dominated by German athletes. The Germans did win the total medal counts, but African-American sprinter Jesse Owens shattered the myth of Aryan dominance by winning gold medals in four different events - more than any other competitor - and was idolized by the German crowds.\nAfter World War II broke out, Goebbels was responsible for creating a massive propaganda body of work by the German government, much of which still remains recorded. He was known to use almost anything for propaganda purposes, such as posters from French and German movies with Jewish stars as examples of the \"typical Jew.\" Even when Germany was crumbling in 1945 and the Allies demanded unconditional surrender, Goebbels used that as a motivational tool to demonstrate that every German needed to fight or face destruction.\nAs Allied forces began to advance toward Germany, a paranoid and rapidly deteriorating Hitler had many of his assistants executed or imprisoned, but Goebbels was given the title of \"Defender of Berlin.\" Hitler committed suicide by gunshot on April 30, leaving Goebbels as the next in command to take over the faltering government, which, by then, controlled only a small part of Berlin. As both Soviet forces on one side and American and British forces on the other closed in on the capital, Goebbels was well aware of the fate he would meet if he were captured alive. On May 1, 1945, he reluctantly endorsed the plan his wife had conjured, which she had communicated to Albert Speer, and permitted her to drug their six children with morphine and proceed to poison them to death through the administration of a cyanide capsule. Later that day, after requesting a moment of privacy with his wife from the onlooking SS soldiers, he shot her in head, as they had also planned, and then took his own life within seconds. Soviet troops, whom Goebbels had always boasted would never get to Berlin, found him and his wife partially burnt and unburied outside the Fuhrerbunker. He was survived only by a stepson from Magda's first marriage.\n- IMDb Mini Biography By: Anonymous Researcher\nSpouse (1)\n( 12 December  1931 - 1 May  1945) (their deaths) (6 children)\nTrade Mark (4)\nImpassioned Speeches\nThe Goebbels Technique: 'Argumentum Ad Nauseam\"\nHis ability to slant arguments in order to derive the outcome that would best suit him, or his cause.\nTrivia (16)\nReich Minister of Propaganda and Public Enlightenment in Nazi Germany.\nJoseph and Magda Goebbels and their children moved into the Vorbunker, connected to the lower Führerbunker under the Reich Chancellery garden, in the waning days of the War with the intent of dying; Goebbels refused Adolf Hitler 's order for them to leave. Magda told Traudl Junge that she and Goebbels had made the decision to kill their children as well so that they would not have to live with the shame of their father's role in the Nazi regime. She had told her former sister-in-law: \"We have demanded monstrous things from the German people, treated other nations with pitiless cruelty. For this the victors will exact their full revenge\", and wrote to her son by her first marriage that death was \"the only possible honorable end\". As a dentist gave each child a morphine injection, Magda and Hitler's personal doctor poisoned them with cyanide. Two hours later, she and Goebbels were shot on his orders. Their bodies were discovered by the Soviet Army on May 2, 1945.\nBrilliant speaker; regarded as second only to Adolf Hitler himself\nDoctor of philosophy; received his PhD in 1921 at the age of 24\nAdmired the Russian people\nBecause of some pro-communist statements, he was considered a member of the Nazi party's \"left\" wing\nHeld the position of Reich Chancellor for less than 24 hours, before his assisted suicide\nStepson: Harald Quandt; (b. November 1921 to Gunther & Magda Quandt (later Magda Goebbels )) perished in a plane crash in 1967 in southern France. Quandt's girlfriend was aboard the plane and also perished. The Quandt family today owns 50% of the BMW automobile company.\nChildren with Magda Goebbels : Helga (b. 1 September 1932), Hilde (b. 15 April 1934), Helmut (b. 2 October 1935), Holde (19 February 1937), Hedda (b. 5 May 1938), & Heidi (b. 29 October 1940). All died on 1 May 1945, having been poisoned by their parents.\nBefore joining the Nazi party, he worked as a writer on a newspaper.\nHe held so much influence in the Propaganda Ministry, that a special microphone with an on-air switch was installed in his office, allowing him to interrupt all German broadcasts whenever he considered it important.\nWas the only member of the Nazi hierarchy to hold a degree (a PhD in Literature and History from the University of Heidelberg).\nAlthough he later commanded the Nazi press, his initial applications to seven different newspapers for a reporter's position were all rejected.\nAlthough his family was well-to-do, Goebbels ran away from home and lived in a slum.", "Joseph Goebbels | World War II Database\nWorld War II Database\nContributor: C. Peter Chen\nww2dbasePaul Joseph Goebbels was the son of factory clerk Friedrich Goebbels in Rheydt, Germany. His family was Catholic in faith. With a metal brace around his deformed right leg, he was exempt from front line service during WW1, serving a desk job instead with a \"Patriotic Help Unit\" in his home town. He bitterly resented the fact that he could not serve in the military, thus after the war he made up a story that he had actually served in the war, and his disability with his right leg was due to a war wound. Around this time, while working as a bank clerk and a caller on the stock exchange, he became influenced by author Houston Stewart Chamberlain's anti-Semitic works. He earned a Ph.D. in literature and philosophy from the University of Heidelberg in 1921 and became a journalist. He attempted to become a published author, but that ambition never led to success; his novel did not get published until 1929, and none of the plays he wrote ever became staged. In 1924 he joined the Nazi Party in admiration of Hitler's leadership. In 1925, he was the editor to the Nazi newspaper \"National-sozialistische Briefe\". His ability to twist the truth into propaganda supporting the Nazi Party presented him with a unique position, and he quickly became one of the well-known figures in the party. In 1926, Hitler returned to politics after serving his prison sentence and began to put forth his anti-Semitic beliefs into his political agenda, which disappointed Goebbels extremely, as it showed that Hitler was no different than a common reactionary. \"I no longer fully believe in Hitler\", he noted in his diary. \"That's the terrible thing: my inner support has been taken away.\" Hitler, however, recognized Goebbels' talents; in Apr 1926, Hitler and Goebbels met in Munich in southern Germany, where Hitler reaffirmed his position in Goebbels' mind. \"I love him - He has thought through everything\", Goebbels noted in his diary after the meeting. From this point on, his complete and total loyalty to Hitler was sealed.\nww2dbaseIn Oct 1926, Hitler made Goebbels the Gauleiter for Berlin, where he put his talents in propaganda to heavy use. Using Jewish police chief Bernhard Weiss as a target, he launched a full fledged propaganda campaign; when he was confronted by a friend that Weiss was a loyal German with an exemplary military record, Goebbels admitted that he had nothing against Weiss: the attacks were entirely for propaganda values, putting the Nazi Party constantly under the national spotlight. While he served as the Gauleiter of Berlin, he also became a great orator, playing public sentiments to further party support.\nww2dbaseIn 1931, with a Protestant ceremony, Goebbels married Magda Quandt, with whom he would later have six children. He was a known womanizer; his diaries revealed that he had many affairs both before and after the marriage.\nww2dbaseIn 1928, Goebbels was among the ten Nazi Party members to become elected to the Reichstag. In Apr 1930, he was appointed the head of Nazi Party's national propaganda organization by Hitler. Between 1930 and 1933, he successfully conducted a series of successful election campaigns for Hitler, choreographing Hitler's dramatic airplane tours of Germany and pioneering the use of radio and cinema for campaigning. On 30 Jan 1933, Hitler was appointed Reich Chancellor of Germany, and Goebbels was given no office as Hitler's coalition government initially had only very few Nazi Party members; this changed on 13 Mar when Goebbels was appointed the Reich Minister of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda. On 1 May, he organized a massive parade on the \"Day of National Labor\"; this event was noted as the end of the German trade union movement. On 10 May, he supervised the burning of 20,000 books by Jewish or anti-Nazi authors. In this position, he also began to control all cultural aspects of German life, including art, music, literature, and mass media, causing Jewish artists and authors to emigrate out of Germany en mass. It was not long before all content of Germany's newspapers, books, novels, plays, and other mediums became subject to the supervision and review of his ministry. With a large budget, he was able to bride artists that cooperated with Nazi Party policies and threaten those who did not with violence. He argued that by controlling art, literature, and other forms of German culture, he brought about a spiritual mobilization of the German people. Some of his policies were an extension of Hitler's preferences; for example, the music of Paul Hindemith was banned by his ministry simply because Hitler did not like it.\nww2dbaseIn the late 1930s, Goebbels began to receive less attention from Hitler as war preparations began, and propaganda seemed to have lost its past importance. Perhaps to maintain his position in Hitler's inner circle, Goebbels, who at once thought systematic anti-Semitism was primitive, now embraced it. Still holding the position of the Gauleiter of Berlin, he began to implement policies that forced out Jewish businesses and banning Jewish citizens from using public transportation. \"The Jews must get out of Germany, indeed out of Europe altogether\", one entry in his diary dated Nov 1937 read. In Nov 1938, a Jewish youth, Herschel Grynszpan, shot German diplomat Ernst vom Rath in Paris, France, and Rath died from his wounds on 9 Nov. Goebbels, lying to Hitler noting that a nation-wide demonstration against Jews had already begun due to Rath's death, got Hitler's approval to launch a massive propaganda campaign against Jews which he knew would turn violent. The resulting Kristallnacht (\"Night of Broken Glass\") saw the death of somewhere between 90 and 200 deaths, while thousands of synagogues and Jewish businesses damaged or destroyed. 30,000 Jews were also sent to concentration camps as the result of that night. \"As was to be expected, the entire nation is in uproar\", he wrote.\nww2dbaseIn 1937, Goebbels' began an affair with Czech actress L�da Baarov�, and it was discovered by his wife Magda Goebbels in Oct 1938, who took the matter to Hitler. Hitler ordered Goebbels to end the affair, but Goebbels responded by handing a letter of resignation. Hitler rejected the request to resign. On 15 Oct, he attempted suicide but failed, angering Hitler, who ordered Heinrich Himmler to deport Baarov� to Czechoslovakia. Although this event damaged the relationship between Hitler and Goebbels (though he remained one of the key figures in Hitler's inner circle until the end of the war), it did not deter Goebbels from womanizing.\nww2dbaseIn the years that led up to the European War, Goebbels was instrumental in using propaganda to turn the still peaceful German sentiment into one that would be ready for war. Prior to the annexation of Sudetenland, he used his channels to stir up sympathy for Sudeten Germans and hatred toward Czechoslovakians. A similar campaign was launched against the Polish people, where from May 1938 and on he continuously published fabricated stories about Polish atrocities against ethnic Germans in Poland and the Free City of Danzig. Once the war began in Sep 1939, Hitler became engrossed with military matters, giving much less speeches and public appearances, thus in a way Goebbels filled in the void. He viewed Hermann G�ring, in charge of the economy, as his main political enemy as he aimed to become the chief of all domestic matters, but by Feb 1943 changing political atmosphere following the major defeat at the Battle of Stalingrad forced the two to form an alliance to thwart a bid for power by Martin Bormann. On 18 Feb, he delivered a passionate \"Total War\" speech at the Sports Palace in Berlin, urging the people to devote themselves entirely to the German war effort, warning that a German defeat would mean the destruction of western civilization at the hands of Jews and communists. He was a supporter of sending Jews to concentration camps and ghettos to the east, and pushed for Jews in his jurisdiction, Berlin, to be sent first. \"The world war is here\", he wrote in a diary entry dated Dec 1941, \"[T]he annihilation of Jewry must be the necessary consequence. The question is to be viewed without any sentimentality. We're not there to have sympathy with the Jews, but only sympathy with our own German people. If the German people has again now sacrificed around 160,000 dead in the eastern campaign, the originators of this bloody conflict will have to pay for it with their lives.\" In other entries, he wrote that the Jews remaining in Berlin should be \"carted off\", \"[i]t would be best to kill them altogether\", and that Jews must be \"liquidated\" signifying that he had a good idea what happened to Jews after deportation to concentration camps.\nww2dbaseIn 1944, as situations grew worse on the home front in Germany, Goebbels and Speer once again attempted to overthrow G�ring in terms of domestic matters. Hitler finally agreed with them in Jul 1944, granting Goebbels the title of Reich Plenipotentiary for Total War, thus in the final years of the war the home front in Germany was under the control of Goebbels, Speer, and Himmler; although Bormann remains a political enemy, he gave up the fight against Bormann some time in late 1944. During the failed July Plot attempt to overthrow Hitler's government, he was able to maintain an open line of communications with the Hitler, thus was able to convince the Berlin garrison commander Otto Ernst Remer to act against the conspirators. Near the end of the war, as German lines falling back toward its own borders, he continued to produce propaganda, trying to persuade the German people to keep fighting and keep producing as a victory was still possible. He said, in a speech,\nRarely in history has a brave people struggling for its life faced such terrible tests as the German people have in this war.... The misery that results for us all, the never ending chain of sorrows, fears, and spiritual torture does not need to be described in detail. We are bearing a heavy fate because we are fighting for a good cause, and are called to bravely endure the battle to achieve greatness.\nww2dbaseAs enemy troops neared Berlin, Goebbels was opposed to the notion that Hitler should abandon Berlin in order to establish another headquarters in Bavaria to continue the fight, arguing that the final battle should be fought in Berlin, and it likely have had influence on Hitler's decision to remain in Berlin. He made a proclamation to the people of Berlin on 23 Apr:\nI call on you to fight for your city. Fight with everything you have got, for the sake of your wives and your children, your mothers and your parents. Your arms are defending everything we have ever held dear, and all the generations that will come after us. Be proud and courageous! Be inventive and cunning! Your Gauleiter is amongst you. He and his colleagues will remain in your midst. His wife and children are here as well. He, who once captured the city with 200 men, will now use every means to galvanize the defense of the capital. The battle for Berlin must become the signal for the whole nation to rise up in battle.\nww2dbaseTrue to his word, Goebbels moved his family into Hitler's bunker under the Chancellery. On 30 Apr 1945, Hitler committed suicide after leaving a will, which was witness by four people, one of them being Goebbels. In it, Hitler named Goebbels the Chancellor of Germany. The only action he performed in this new capacity was to order General Hans Krebs to deliver a letter to Russian General Vasily Chuikov in an attempt to negotiate a conditional surrender, hinting that Germany and Russia could possibly work together against the future threat from the Western Allies, but it was rejected. With all hopes lost, he decided to end his own life, which was against Hitler's orders. \"It is a great pity that such a man is not with us any longer\", he said. \"For us, everything is lost now and the only way left for us is the one which Hitler chose. I shall follow his example.\" On 1 May, as German Vice Admiral Hans-Erich Vo� was leaving Berlin, he attempted to convince Goebbel to leave as well, which was rejected. \"The captain must not leave his sinking ship\", Goebbels responded, \"I have thought about it all and decided to stay here. I have nowhere to go because with little children I will not be able to make it.\" At 2000 hours, he arranged for SS doctor Helmut Kunz to drug his children, orally, with morphine; after the children became unconscious, they were administered cyanide by Magda Goebbels and Hitler's doctor Stumpfegger. Some bruises were found on the body of his oldest child, Helga, indicating that she might not have died peacefully as intended. SS Oberscharfuehrer Rochus Misch, who was Adolf Hitler's bodyguard, courier, and telephone operator, was in Hitler's bunker during his final days, as he noted during a 2009 interview with BBC journalist Steven Rosenberg. The telephone and teletype machine operator recalled:\nStraight after Hitler's death, Mrs. Goebbels came down to the bunker with her children.... She started preparing to kill them. She couldn't have done that above ground - there were other people there who would have stopped her. That's why she came downstairs - because no-one else was allowed in the bunker. She came down on purpose to kill them.... The kids were right next to me and behind me. We all knew what was going to happen. It was clear. I saw Hitler's doctor, Dr. Stumpfegger give the children something to drink. Some kind of sugary drink. Then Stumpfegger went and helped to kill them. All of us knew what was going on. An hour or two later, Mrs. Goebbels came out crying. She sat down at a table and began playing patience.\nww2dbaseShortly after, Goebbels and his wife walked up to the garden above the bunker where they killed themselves. Exact details were unknown, though it's likely that Magda Goebbels took a cyanide pill while Joseph Goebbels killed himself, possibly with aid from a SS trooper, with a gun. Their bodies were burned in a shell crater; due to the lack of gasoline, Goebbels' remains, with his metal leg brace and NSDAP badge only partially destroyed, were easily identifiable. The remains of the Goebbels family were cremated in 1970, and the ashes were thown into the Elbe.\nww2dbaseSources: BBC, the Fall of Berlin, Wikipedia.\nFamous Quote(s)\n\"Once more a red fire blows steeply upwards...the factory will do no more work for Herr Churchill... tomorrow morning Coventry will lie in smoke and ruins.\"\n    » 1 Sep 1940\n7 Jun 2011 02:11:18 PM\nBIG BROTHER, BIG BROTHER!\nGoebbels was the master of deception and was well-versed in the big lie, as minister of propaganda he was instrumental in feeding the Nazi machine, controlled all that was seen, heard and read.\nKept the German poeple on a diet of lies and falsehoods. He was responsible for setting up the \"Burning Of The Books\" in 1933 did you know, he held a Ph.D in Philosophy, how could an educated man, condemn the writings of others?\nMy answer is: The State will decide about books, and creativity, books create ideas and teaching not related to the State.\nThe State decides what the people will see and hear.\nThe State will educate the masses therefore, there is no reason for books...\n3.\n Bill says:\n7 Jun 2011 07:22:32 PM\nHistory is not an exact science, access to the facts and knowledge of what has happened\nand controversy will always exist.\nNazi Germany, under the dictatorship of\nAdolf Hitler was one of the most significent\nevents in human history.\nMore has been written about the Nazis, than most historical subjects there is a lot we don't know, and may never really know.\nSuggested Reading:\nTECHNOLOGY FOR GOOD AND EVIL:\nThe Nazis were developing an early form of\ncable television the system would broadcast\npropaganda and approved programs to the masses.\nEngineers were almost ready for program broadcast with large TV screens. One of the\nearlist televised program was the 1936 Berlin Olympics. Just think about Friday night..from Berlin its the Adolf and Hermann show! or the Saturday morning viewing of the\nFuhrer enjoying the day at the Richard Wagner\nmusic festival.\nBack to you Otto, its a real traffic jam, along the Unter den Linden traffic is slowing down to watch the construction of those large TV screens, so no citizen or party member will miss the Fuhrer speak and\nthose little camera's will see everything day and night and all for our safty those little Volkswagens are common today, for both loyal party members and trusted citizens. Everyone is off to the Party rally, and remember be one of the first in your district to have that new silver party button! and remember report any suspicious activity to Gestapo and Polizei at emergency\nnumber 2600.\nThis was almost like a scene from the HBO movie \"Fatherland\" 1994 starring Rutger Hauer as a Gestapo agent. Based on the book by Robert Harris.\nI thank the editor/ww2db for allowing me to present this comment.\n4.\n8 Jun 2011 03:16:56 PM\nBOOK BURNING A TOOL FOR TYRANTS:\nThe 19th Century German-Jewish poet Heinrich Heine said:\n\"Where they burn books, they will also burn people\".\nOver 25,000 known volumes of Un-German books were destroyed, among the books burned were authors Ernest Hemingway, Jack London, George Orwell, H.G. Wells, Thomas Mann and Helen Keller.\nI'm sure that was an estimate when the book burning frenzy starts everything will be burned. This set the stage for an era of state censorship and control of culture and people, it was the purge of literary freedom.\nAny Totalitarian State will prove there is no God, the state is the God, it will always provide and educate the masses, weed out the weak and helpless, has no concept for the dignity of man, only for the people to serve the state.\nThere is a memorial at the spot where the burning of the books took place in 1933.\nRomerberg Square Hesse, Germany.\nIn 1946 Allied occuption forces listed over\n30,000 titles from school books, to poetry\nincluding the works of von Clausewitz were\nconfiscated and destroyed.\nAdded collections of German militarism, and Nazi ideology were taken into custody.\nThere were dozens and dozens of book burnings\nover the centuries. The destruction of the\nLibrary of Alexandra, the Library of Baghdad\ndestruction of the Mayan Codices by the Spanish and recent times, the Nazi book burning of 1933.\nMayan Codices: Folding type picture book\nthere are three known to have survived.\n5. Anonymous says:\n2 May 2015 02:58:36 AM\ngood\n12 Nov 2015 08:56:19 AM\nIt was very helpful and useful for answers\n7. Anonymous says:\n30 Nov 2015 03:28:09 PM\nthis peice is a bunch of bs. Half of it is not true. They coppied of of other websites.\nAll visitor submitted comments are opinions of those making the submissions and do not reflect views of WW2DB.\nPosting Your Comments on this Topic\nYour Name", "Joseph Goebbels - World War II - HISTORY.com\nGoogle\nJoseph Goebbels: Early Years\nPaul Joseph Goebbels was born on October 29, 1897, in Rheydt, Germany, an industrial city located in the Rhineland. Because of a club foot that he acquired during a childhood bout with osteomyelitis, a swelling of the bone marrow, the young Goebbels was exempted from service in the German army during World War I (1914-18). Instead, he attended a series of German universities, where he studied literature and philosophy, among other subjects, and went on to earn a Ph.D. in German philology from Heidelberg University.\nDid You Know?\nDespite the anti-Semitism Joseph Goebbels promoted as Germany's minister for public enlightenment and propaganda, some of his favorite schoolteachers were Jewish, and Goebbels was even once engaged to a young woman who was part-Jewish.\nIn the first half of the 1920s, after unsuccessfully attempting to establish a career as a journalist, novelist and playwright, Goebbels became a member of the National Socialist German Workers’ (Nazi) Party, which promoted German pride and anti-Semitism. Goebbels eventually became acquainted with the organization’s leader, Adolf Hitler . At this time, inflation had wrecked the German economy, and the morale of the German citizenry, who had been defeated in World War I, was low. Hitler and Goebbels were both of the opinion that words and images were potent devices that could be used to exploit this discontent. Hitler was impressed with Goebbels’ ability to communicate his thoughts in writing, while Goebbels was enamored of Hitler’s talent for speaking in front of large crowds and employing words and gestures to play on German nationalistic pride.\nGoebbels: Rising in the Nazi Party Ranks\nGoebbels quickly ascended the ranks of the Nazi Party . First he broke away from Gregor Strasser (1892-1934), the leader of the more anti-capitalistic party bloc, who he initially supported, and joined ranks with the more conservative Hitler. Then, in 1926, he became a party district leader in Berlin. The following year, he established and wrote commentary in Der Angriff (The Attack), a weekly newspaper that espoused the Nazi Party line.\nIn 1928, Goebbels was elected to the Reichstag, the German Parliament. More significantly, Hitler named him the Nazi Party propaganda director. It was in this capacity that Goebbels began formulating the strategy that fashioned the myth of Hitler as a brilliant and decisive leader. He arranged massive political gatherings at which Hitler was presented as the savior of a new Germany. In a masterstroke, Goebbels oversaw the placing of movie cameras and microphones at pivotal locations to accentuate Hitler’s image and voice. Such events and maneuverings played a pivotal role in convincing the German people that their country would regain its honor only by giving unwavering support to Hitler.\nJoseph Goebbels: Hitler’s Propaganda Minister\nIn January 1933, Hitler became the German chancellor, and in March of that year he appointed Goebbels the country’s minister for public enlightenment and propaganda. In this capacity, Goebbels had complete jurisdiction over the content of German newspapers, magazines, books, music, films, stage plays, radio programs and fine arts. His mission was to censor all opposition to Hitler and present the chancellor and the Nazi Party in the most positive light while stirring up hatred for Jewish people.\nIn April 1933, at Hitler’s directive, Goebbels orchestrated a boycott on Jewish businesses. The following month, he was a guiding force in the burning of “un-German” books in a public ceremony at Berlin’s Opera House. The works of dozens of writers were destroyed, including German-born authors Erich Maria Remarque (1898-1970), Arnold Zweig (1887-1968), Thomas Mann (1875-1955), Albert Einstein (1879-1955) and Heinrich Mann (1871-1950), and such non-Germans as Émile Zola (1840-1902), Helen Keller (1880-1968), Marcel Proust (1871-1922), Upton Sinclair (1878-1968), Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), H. G. Wells (1866-1946), Jack London (1876-1916) and André Gide (1869-1951).\nIn September 1933, Goebbels became director of the newly formed Reich Chamber of Culture, whose mission was to control all aspects of the creative arts. An offshoot of the formation of the chamber was the forced unemployment of all Jewish creative artists, including writers, musicians and theater and film actors and directors. Because the Nazis viewed modern art as immoral, Goebbels instructed that all such “decadent” art be confiscated and replaced by works that were more representational and sentimental in content. Then in October came the passage of the Reich Press Law, which ordered the removal of all Jewish and non-Nazi editors from German newspapers and magazines.\nJoseph Goebbels: The Power of the Moving Image\nAt the start of World War II in 1939, Goebbels was entrusted with the task of uplifting the spirit of the German people and employing the media, and specifically the cinema, to convince the population to support the war effort. A typical project he instigated was “Der ewige Jude,” also known as “The Eternal Jew” (1940), a propaganda film that ostensibly charted the history of the Jews. In the film, however, Jews are depicted as parasites who disrupt an otherwise tidy world.Goebbels also orchestrated the production of “Jud Süss” (1940), a feature film depicting the life of Josef Süss Oppenheimer (1698-1738), a Jewish financial consultant who collected taxes for Duke Karl Alexander of Württemberg (1684-1737), ruler of the Duchy of Württemberg, in the early 18th century. After the duke’s sudden death, Oppenheimer was put on trial and executed. Under Goebbels’s stewardship of the project, the story of Jud Süss was transformed from a human tragedy to an allegory about Jewish self-importance and greed.\nJoseph Goebbels: The Beginning of the End\nIn 1942, Goebbels organized “The Soviet Paradise,” a large Nazi propaganda show that was exhibited in Berlin. Its purpose was to bolster the resolve of the German people by exposing the chicanery of Jewish Bolsheviks. On May 18, Herbert Baum (1912-42), a Berlin-based German-Jewish Resistance leader, and his accomplices partly demolished the exhibition by setting it on fire.\nGoebbels refused to allow this act to be reported in the German media. Nonetheless, Baum and his small but determined group succeeded in striking a sizeable psychological blow to Goebbels and his propaganda machine.\nJoseph Goebbels: Final Years\nAs the war plodded on and German casualties mounted, Goebbels became a proponent of an all-out battle to the death against the Allied forces. In this regard, he employed his own abilities as a public speaker to further incite the German populace. On one occasion, in August 1944, speaking from the Sports Palace in Berlin, he commanded the German people to support a total war effort. If Germany was destined to lose the war, he reasoned, it was fitting that the German nation and people be obliterated.\nAs 1944 segued into 1945, the German defeat seemed inevitable to the Nazi regime. While other Nazi higher-ups made contact with the Allies in the hope of negotiating lenient treatment after the German surrender, Goebbels remained steadfastly devoted to Hitler.\nDuring the last days of April 1945, as Soviet troops were on the threshold of Berlin, Hitler was holed up in his bunker. Goebbels was the lone senior Nazi official at his side. On April 30, Hitler committed suicide at age 56 and Goebbels replaced him as Germany’s chancellor. However, Goebbels’ reign was short-lived. The following day, he and his wife, Magda (1901-45), fatally poisoned their six children. The couple then took their own lives, although accounts of exactly how they died vary.\nTags", "Joseph Goebbels - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nYour continued donations keep Wikipedia running!    \nJoseph Goebbels\nDr. Paul Joseph Goebbels ( October 29 , 1897 – May 1 , 1945 ) was Adolf Hitler 's Propaganda Minister (see Propagandaministerium ) in Nazi Germany . Goebbels was known for his zealous and energetic oratory and virulent anti-Semitism . Following Hitler's death, he served as Chancellor for one day. He then committed suicide .\nContents\n[ edit ] Early life\nGoebbels was born to factory clerk Friedrich Goebbels [1] (1867–1929) and his wife Katharina Odenhausen in Rheydt (now a part of Mönchengladbach ), a Protestant area in the Rhineland , although his family was Roman Catholic . He had four siblings: Konrad (1895–1949), Hans (1893–1947), Elisabeth (1901–1915) and the youngest child Maria Katharina (b. 1910). His legal surname according to his birth certificate was Göbbels, but he seems always to have used the spelling Goebbels, as is not uncommon in Germany. At the age of seven he contracted osteomyelitis - an infection of the bone marrow - and an operation, in the days before antibiotics, was only partially successful. He was left with a left leg which was shorter and weaker than the right, which caused him to be rejected when he volunteered for military service at the beginning of World War I (he wore a metal brace on his leg for most of his life). Although he has been frequently described as having a club foot, this was not the case. As a student he often represented himself as a wounded veteran, but in fact the nearest that he came to wartime service was from June 1917 to October 1917; he was an \"Office Soldier\" with the \"Patriotic Help Unit\" in Rheydt . [2]\nAfter earning a Ph.D. in Literature and Philosophy from the University of Heidelberg in 1921 he worked as a journalist and tried for several years to become a published author. His work included an autobiographical novel called Michael which no publisher would take at the time, and two plays written in verse - The Wanderer, about Jesus Christ, and The Lonesome Guest - which no producer would stage. Joining the Nazi Party in 1924 (although he later claimed to have joined in 1922), Goebbels was initially closely aligned with the left faction around the Strasser brothers . From 1926, when he became gauleiter of Berlin, he moved away from his early associations, and his diary shows many instances of great admiration for Hitler.\nIn December 1931, after a stormy courtship, he married divorcee Magda Quandt , whose son, Harald (from her previous marriage to wealthy industrialist Günther Quandt) accompanied them beneath the raised arms of an SS honour guard (Harald, who served as a officer in the Luftwaffe , was the only one of Magda's seven children to survive World War II ).\nThe diaries of Joseph Goebbels, which have survived almost in their entirety, contain large numbers of entries detailing his philanderings, which he clearly regarded as great love affairs, and of which it would appear he had several at a time. In the 1925 and 1926 books the names Else, Alma and Anke are the most common to appear. \"Anke\" was Anke Helhorn. She left Goebbels, got married and divorced, and in 1934 he got her a job on one of the magazines he controlled. (Wheeler-Bennett, Nemesis p.58).\nA love affair with the actress Lída Baarová nearly took his life when he attempted suicide on October 15 , 1938 . Goebbels survived, and the affair was terminated at the behest of Adolf Hitler.\nTogether with Adolf Hitler at the Berghof\nFor more details on this topic, see Nazi propaganda .\nGoebbels played a large role in helping the Nazis achieve and retain power by creating propaganda to present the Nazi ideology to the German people. Some suggest he was a committed anti-Semite, involved with Kristallnacht in 1938 and later connected with the Nazi Endlösung ( Final Solution ) as well as the Judenfrage (\"Jewish Question\"), especially the deportation of Jews from Berlin . Others historians, such as Ian Kershaw , present the idea that Goebbels was not anti-semetic, but simply sold the message of the Nazis to the German people. Originally from the socialist side of the NSDAP, Goebbels saw potential with Hitler's side and rooted his commitments there with the nationalist members.\nGoebbels began to regulate all forms of artistic expression , banishing Jewish writers , journalists and artists from Germany's cultural life. He took control of the news media, making sure that it presented Germany's domestic and foreign policy aims in terms of Nazi ideology. He played probably the most important role in creating an atmosphere in Germany that made it possible for the Nazis to \"clean\" the Reich of Jews, homosexuals and other minorities. The Goebbels technique, also known as argumentum ad nauseam , is the name given to a policy of repeating a falsehood until it is taken to be the truth (see Big Lie ). Goebbels also pioneered the use of broadcasting in mass propaganda, promoting the distribution of inexpensive single frequency radio receivers (the so-called Volksempfänger (People's radio)) to the German public which ensured that millions of people heard the output of the Reich's propaganda ministry while being unable to receive news and other broadcasts from outside Germany. Meanwhile his ministry busily broadcast Nazi propaganda around the world by shortwave radio . Newsreels, movies and books were impossible to publish without prior approval and censorship by Goebbels' ministry. He is credited by historians with developing the techniques of modern communications and propaganda. He had a strong influence on German propaganda motion pictures throughout the Nazi era. He was the unaccredited Executive Producer and an uncredited writer of the film Kolberg (1945). [3]\nAlthough Goebbels was disappointed when Germany went to war with Britain in 1939, he remained steadfastly loyal to Hitler throughout the war and derived immense power and prestige from his position. Goebbels' ministry of propaganda controlled essentially every aspect of culture in Germany. In October 1941 he organized the \"Weimarer Dichtertreffen\" (Weimar Convention of Poets) inviting collaborating writers from all of Europe. Under Goebbels auspices the participating members (e.g. Pierre Drieu La Rochelle and Robert Brasillach ) founded the \"Europäische Schriftstellervereinigung\" (European Writer's League). Goebbels is often remembered for his Sportpalast speech , given on February 18 , 1943 (sometimes called the Total War speech) in which he tried to motivate the German people to continue their struggle after the tides of World War II had turned against Germany. By this time many Germans privately believed Germany was irrevocably on its way to defeat.\nThere was strong animosity between Goebbels and the popular Hermann Göring , whose political influence waned following his disastrous management of the Luftwaffe early during the war and Goebbels became the third most powerful leader in Germany (after Martin Bormann , Hitler's private secretary, of whom most Germans were not aware). As Germany's military situation collapsed, the increasing shrillness of the government's propaganda brought discreet ridicule from the German people who nicknamed Goebbels The Malicious Dwarf and The Wotan Mickey Mouse.\n[ edit ] Ruin and suicide\nJoseph Goebbels and his family, pictured around October 1942, with Magda's son Harald Quandt in the back row\nDuring the final stages of the war in the spring of 1945 Hitler split the offices of Reichskanzler (Chancellor of the Reich) and Reichspräsident (President of the Reich), both of which he had held as Führer since the death of Generalfeldmarschall Paul von Hindenburg in August 1934. He appointed Goebbels Chancellor of Germany in his will, with Grand-Admiral Karl Dönitz , the commander-in-chief of the Kriegsmarine, as President without the Führer title (the post-Hitler Flensburg government had hopes of being recognized by the Allied powers but was ultimately arrested towards the end of May 1945 when the Allies decided to formally replace it with their own military administration).\nShortly after Hitler committed suicide at about 3:30 in the afternoon (Berlin time) on April 30 , 1945 , an emotional and agitated Goebbels sought out Hitler's secretary Traudl Junge and dictated these lines as an addition to Hitler's political testament:\n\"The Führer has given orders for me, in case of a breakdown of defense of the Capital of the Reich, to leave Berlin and to participate as a leading member in a government appointed by him. For the first time in my life, I must categorically refuse to obey a command of the Führer. My wife and my children agree with this refusal. In any other case, I would feel myself (...) a dishonorable renegade and vile scoundrel for my entire further life, who would lose the esteem of himself along with the esteem of his people, both of which would have to form the requirement for further duty of my person in designing the future of the German Nation and the German Reich.\"\nAfter several hours of anxiously waiting for news that German troops might be able to rescue the bunker's occupants, Goebbels and his wife resolved to carry out a previously arranged plan to kill their children and then themselves. Magda had all six of their children put to sleep with morphine , then poisoned them with cyanide . Joseph Goebbels did not take a direct part in this but acquiesced throughout, even refusing the offers of others to take the children out of Berlin before it was too late. Contrary to what he hastily added to Hitler's last political will, by all accounts the children were in good spirits and entirely unaware of their parents' plans to kill them, except perhaps in the case of Helga, whose body showed signs of physical abuse (i.e. bruising). They were:\nHelga Susanne (born, September 1 , 1932 , aged 12) was the eldest of the six and her father's favorite. She had her father's chestnut brown hair and eyes.\nHildegard (Hilde) Traudel (born April 13 , 1934 aged 11) was also a brunette and the most diligent of the six.\nHelmut Christian (born October 2 , 1935 , aged 9) was the only boy and a dreamer who fell behind in school. He aspired to join the Hitler Youth when he became of age.\nToday there are surviving descendants in Ravenna, Michigan .\nThe Goebbels suicide as depicted in the film Der Untergang\nWhile early reports suggested Joseph and Magda Goebbels were shot by SS bodyguards in the ruins of the Chancellory garden at their own request on May 1 , 1945 , they likely took cyanide first. Another account claims Goebbels shot Magda then himself afterwards (as shown in the 2004 film, Der Untergang (Downfall), where Goebbels was portrayed by actor Ulrich Matthes ). Their bodies were partially burned, left unburied and quickly found by Soviet troops. The children's pyjama-clad bodies were found still in the three sets of two-tiered bunk beds in which they were killed. A photograph of Goebbels' incinerated face was widely published. [4] The bodies of the Goebbels family, along with those of Hitler and Eva Braun , were secretly buried. Later they were reburied together by the Soviets, ultimately in the courtyard of KGB headquarters in Magdeburg , Germany. In April 1970, all the remains were reburned and scattered in the Elbe river.\n[ edit ] Diaries\nGoebbels kept a diary for much of his life. From 1923 to 1941, he wrote the entries himself. From 1941 to 1945, he dictated lengthy passages to aides. He sometimes telephoned them in the middle of the night when he wanted to add some text. The dictations usually opened with a description of the military situation, followed by his personal comments. The dictated diary is not as personal as the earlier one he wrote himself.\nMuch of the diaries were thought to have been lost during World War II . However in 1992, Dr. Elke Fröhlich found a large portion of them in Russian archives. (Many believe they were first found by David Irving. He cites so in his biography of Goebbels). A 29 volume edition edited by Elke Fröhlich and others is said to be 98% complete. The last two volumes were expected to be published in 2006. [5]\n[ edit ] Goebbels in popular culture\nDas Goebbels-Experiment , a narrated biographic film based on Goebbels' diaries. [6]\nGoebbels is represented by the character Giuseppe Givola in the parody play The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui by Bertolt Brecht . The play is a parody of the rise of Hitler, written while Brecht was in exile at that time (1941), with various scenes added afterwards. The play has been translated into English by Ralph Manheim and published by Methuen Modern Plays." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Charles,_Prince_of_Wales.txt", "Elizabeth_II.txt" ], "title": [ "Charles, Prince of Wales", "Elizabeth II" ], "wiki_context": [ "Charles, Prince of Wales (Charles Philip Arthur George; born 14 November 1948), is the eldest child and heir apparent of Queen Elizabeth II. Known alternatively in Scotland as Duke of Rothesay and in South West England as Duke of Cornwall, he is the longest-serving heir apparent in British history, having held the position since 1952. He is also the oldest person to be next in line to the throne since Sophia of Hanover (the heir presumptive to Queen Anne), who died in 1714 at the age of 83.\n\nCharles was born at Buckingham Palace as the first grandchild of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. He was educated at Cheam and Gordonstoun Schools, which his father, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, had attended as a child, as well as the Timbertop campus of Geelong Grammar School in Victoria, Australia. After earning a bachelor of arts degree from Trinity College, Cambridge, Charles served in the Royal Navy from 1971 to 1976.\n\nIn 1981, he married Lady Diana Spencer and they had two sons: Prince William (born 1982) later to become Duke of Cambridge, and Prince Harry (born 1984). In 1996, the couple divorced, following well-publicised extramarital affairs. Diana died in a car crash in Paris the following year. In 2005, Charles married Camilla Parker Bowles, who uses the title Duchess of Cornwall.\n\nCharles's interests encompass a range of humanitarian and social issues: he founded The Prince's Trust in 1976, sponsors The Prince's Charities, and is patron of numerous other charitable and arts organisations. Charles has long championed organic farming for which he established the Duchy Home Farm, run by the Duchy of Cornwall, which produces ingredients for the Duchy Originals brand which he founded in 1990. Charles has sought to raise world awareness of the dangers facing the natural environment, such as climate change. As an environmentalist, he has received numerous awards and recognition from environmental groups around the world. His support for alternative medicine, including homeopathy, has been criticised by some in the medical community. He has been outspoken on the role of architecture in society and the conservation of historic buildings. Subsequently, Charles created Poundbury, an experimental new town based on his theories, in Dorset in 1993. He has authored a number of books, including A Vision of Britain: A Personal View of Architecture in 1989 and the children's book The Old Man of Lochnagar in 1980.\n\nEarly life\n\nCharles was born at Buckingham Palace on 14 November 1948, at 9.14 pm (GMT), the first child of Princess Elizabeth, Duchess of Edinburgh, and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, and first grandchild of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Geoffrey Fisher, baptised him in the palace's Music Room on 15 December 1948, using water from the River Jordan. The Prince's godparents were: the King (his maternal grandfather); the King of Norway (his cousin, for whom the Earl of Athlone stood proxy); Queen Mary (his maternal great-grandmother); Princess Margaret (his maternal aunt); Prince George of Greece and Denmark (his paternal great-uncle, for whom the Duke of Edinburgh stood proxy); the Dowager Marchioness of Milford Haven (his paternal great-grandmother); the Lady Brabourne (his cousin); and the Hon David Bowes-Lyon (his maternal great-uncle). As the child of a daughter of the sovereign, Charles would not usually have been accorded the titles of a British prince or the style Royal Highness. Instead, he would have taken his father's secondary title, Earl of Merioneth, as a courtesy title. However, on 22 October 1948, George VI had issued letters patent granting a royal and princely status to any children of Princess Elizabeth and the Duke of Edinburgh, making Charles a royal prince from birth. \n\nWhen Charles was aged three his mother's accession as Queen Elizabeth II made him her heir apparent. As the sovereign's eldest son, he automatically took the titles Duke of Cornwall, Duke of Rothesay, Earl of Carrick, Baron of Renfrew, Lord of the Isles and Prince and Great Steward of Scotland, in addition to being a prince of the United Kingdom. Charles attended his mother's coronation at Westminster Abbey on 2 June 1953, seated alongside his grandmother and aunt. As was customary for royal offspring, a governess, Catherine Peebles, was appointed and undertook his education between the ages of five and eight. Buckingham Palace announced in 1955 that Charles would attend school rather than have a private tutor, making him the first heir apparent ever to be educated in that manner. \n\nYouth\n\nEducation\n\nCharles first attended Hill House School in west London, receiving non-preferential treatment from the school's founder and then head, Stuart Townend, who advised the Queen to have Charles train in football because the boys were never deferential to anyone on the football field. Charles then attended two of his father's former schools, Cheam Preparatory School in Berkshire, England, followed by Gordonstoun in the north-east of Scotland. He reportedly despised the latter school, which he described as \"Colditz in kilts\". He spent two terms in 1966 at the Timbertop campus of Geelong Grammar School in Victoria, Australia, during which time he visited Papua New Guinea on a school trip with his history tutor, Michael Collins Persse. Upon his return to Gordonstoun, Charles emulated his father in becoming Head Boy. He left in 1967, with six GCE O-levels and two A-levels in history and French, at grades B and C, respectively. \n\nTradition was broken again when Charles proceeded straight from secondary school into university, as opposed to joining the British Armed Forces. In October 1967, the Prince was admitted to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he read anthropology, archaeology, and history. During his second year, Charles attended the University College of Wales in Aberystwyth, studying Welsh history and language for a term. He graduated from Cambridge with a 2:2 Bachelor of Arts on 23 June 1970, the first heir apparent to earn a university degree. On 2 August 1975, he was subsequently awarded a Master of Arts degree from Cambridge, per the university's tradition.\n\nCreated Prince of Wales\n\nCharles was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester on 26 July 1958, though his investiture as such was not conducted until 1 July 1969, when he was crowned by his mother in a televised ceremony held at Caernarfon Castle, and gave his replies and speech in both Welsh and English. The following year he took his seat in the House of Lords, and later in the decade became the first member of the Royal Family since King George I to attend a British Cabinet meeting, having been invited by Prime Minister James Callaghan so that the Prince might see the workings of the British government and Cabinet at first hand. Charles also began to take on more public duties, founding The Prince's Trust in 1976, and travelling to the United States in 1981. \n\nIn the mid-1970s, the Prince expressed an interest in serving as Governor-General of Australia; Commander Michael Parker explained: \"The idea behind the appointment was for him to put a foot on the ladder of monarchy, or being the future King and start learning the trade.\" However, because of a combination of nationalist feeling in Australia and the dismissal of the government by the Governor-General in 1975, nothing came of the proposal. Charles accepted the decision of the Australian ministers, if not without some regret; he reportedly stated: \"What are you supposed to think when you are prepared to do something to help and you are told you are not wanted?\" \n\nCharles is the oldest heir apparent to bear the title Prince of Wales, and the second-longest serving Prince of Wales, behind Edward VII, whose record he would surpass on 9 September 2017. If he became monarch at present he would be the oldest person to do so; the current record holder is William IV, who was 64 when he became king in 1830.\n\nMilitary training and career\n\nFollowing royal tradition, Charles served in the navy and air force. After requesting and receiving Royal Air Force training during his second year at Cambridge, on 8 March 1971, he flew himself to the Royal Air Force College Cranwell to train as a jet pilot. Following the passing-out parade that September, he embarked on a naval career, enrolling in a six-week course at the Royal Naval College Dartmouth and then serving on the guided missile destroyer (1971–1972) and the frigates (1972–1973) and (1974). He also qualified as a helicopter pilot at RNAS Yeovilton in 1974, just prior to joining 845 Naval Air Squadron, operating from .\n\nOn 9 February 1976, he took command of the coastal minehunter for his last ten months serving actively in the navy. He learned to fly on a Chipmunk basic pilot trainer, a BAC Jet Provost jet trainer, and a Beagle Basset multi-engine trainer; he then regularly flew the Hawker Siddeley Andover, Westland Wessex and BAe 146 aircraft of The Queen's Flight. \n\nEarly romances\n\nIn his youth, Charles was linked to a number of women. His great-uncle Lord Mountbatten advised him: \"In a case like yours, the man should sow his wild oats and have as many affairs as he can before settling down, but for a wife he should choose a suitable, attractive, and sweet-charactered girl before she has met anyone else she might fall for ... It is disturbing for women to have experiences if they have to remain on a pedestal after marriage.\"\n\nCharles's female friends included Georgiana Russell, daughter of the British Ambassador to Spain; Lady Jane Wellesley, daughter of the 8th Duke of Wellington; Davina Sheffield; Lady Sarah Spencer; and Camilla Shand, who later became his second wife and Duchess of Cornwall.\n\nEarly in 1974, Mountbatten began corresponding with Charles about a potential marriage to Amanda Knatchbull, Mountbatten's granddaughter. Charles wrote to Amanda's mother, Lady Brabourne (who was also his godmother), expressing interest in her daughter, to which she replied approvingly, though suggesting that a courtship with the not yet 16-year-old girl was premature. Four years later Mountbatten arranged for himself and Amanda to accompany Charles on his 1980 tour of India. Both fathers, however, objected; Philip feared that Charles would be eclipsed by his famous uncle (who had served as the last British Viceroy and first Governor-General of India), while Lord Brabourne warned that a joint visit would concentrate media attention on the cousins before they could decide on becoming a couple. However, in August 1979, before Charles would depart alone for India, Mountbatten was killed by the IRA. When Charles returned, he proposed to Amanda, but in addition to her grandfather, she had lost her paternal grandmother and youngest brother Nicholas in the bomb attack and was now reluctant to join the Royal Family. In June 1980, Charles officially turned down Chevening House, placed at his disposal since 1974, as his future residence. Chevening, a stately home in Kent, was bequeathed, along with an endowment, to the Crown by the last Earl Stanhope, Amanda's childless great-uncle, in the hope that Charles would eventually occupy it. In 1977, a newspaper report mistakenly announced his engagement to Princess Marie-Astrid of Luxembourg.\n\nFirst marriage\n\nAlthough Charles first met Lady Diana Spencer in 1977—while visiting her home, Althorp, as the companion of her elder sister, Sarah—he did not consider her romantically until mid-1980. While sitting together on a bale of hay at a friend's barbecue in July, he mentioned Mountbatten's death, to which Diana replied that Charles had looked forlorn and in need of care during his uncle's funeral. Soon, according to Charles's chosen biographer, Jonathan Dimbleby, \"without any apparent surge in feeling, he began to think seriously of her as a potential bride\", and she accompanied Charles on visits to Balmoral Castle and Sandringham House.\n\nCharles's cousin, Norton Knatchbull (Amanda's eldest brother), and his wife told Charles that Diana appeared awestruck by his position and that he did not seem to be in love with her. Meanwhile, the couple's continued courtship attracted intense press and paparazzi attention. When Prince Philip told him that the media speculation would injure Diana's reputation if Charles did not come to a decision about marrying her soon, and realizing that she was a suitable royal bride (according to Mountbatten's criteria), Charles construed his father's advice as a warning to proceed without further delay.\n\nPrince Charles proposed to Diana in February 1981 and they married in St Paul's Cathedral on 29 July. Upon his marriage, Charles reduced his voluntary tax contribution from the profits generated by the Duchy of Cornwall from 50% to 25%. The couple made their homes at Kensington Palace and at Highgrove House, near Tetbury, and had two children: Princes William (born 21 June 1982) and Henry (known as \"Harry\") (born 15 September 1984). Charles set precedent by being the first royal father to be present at his children's births. Persistent suggestions that Harry's father is not Charles but James Hewitt, with whom Diana had an affair, have been based on a physical similarity between Hewitt and Harry. However, Harry had already been born by the time the affair between Hewitt and Diana began. \n\nSeparation and divorce\n\nWithin five years, the couple's incompatibility and near thirteen-year age difference, as well as Diana's concern about Charles's previous girlfriend, Camilla Parker Bowles, became visible and damaging to their marriage. Their evident discomfort in each other's company led to them being dubbed \"The Glums\" in the press. Diana exposed Charles's affair with Camilla in a book by Andrew Morton, Diana, Her True Story. Tapes of her own extramarital flirtations also surfaced.\n\nIn December 1992, the British Prime Minister, John Major, announced their formal separation in Parliament. That same year, the British press published bugged recordings of a passionate private 1989 telephone conversation between Charles and Camilla Parker Bowles. Charles and Diana divorced on 28 August 1996. When Diana died in a car crash in Paris on 31 August 1997, Charles flew there, with Diana's sisters, to accompany her body back to Britain. \n\nSecond marriage\n\nThe engagement of Charles and Camilla Parker Bowles was announced on 10 February 2005; he presented her with an engagement ring which had belonged to his grandmother. The Queen's consent to the marriage (as required by the Royal Marriages Act 1772) was recorded in a Privy Council meeting on 2 March. In Canada, the Department of Justice announced its decision that the Queen's Privy Council for Canada was not required to meet to give its consent to the marriage, as the union would not result in offspring and would have no impact on the succession to the Canadian throne. \n\nCharles is the first member of the Royal Family to have a civil, rather than religious, wedding in England. Government documents from the 1950s and 1960s, published by the BBC, stated that such a marriage was illegal, though these were dismissed by Charles's spokesman, and explained to be obsolete by the sitting government. \n\nThe marriage was to take place in a civil ceremony at Windsor Castle, with a subsequent religious blessing at St George's Chapel. However, because a civil marriage at Windsor Castle would oblige the venue to be available to anyone wishing to be married there, the location was changed to Windsor Guildhall. On 4 April the originally scheduled date of 8 April was postponed by one day, to allow Charles and some of the invited dignitaries to attend the funeral of Pope John Paul II. \n\nCharles's parents did not attend the civil marriage ceremony; the Queen's reluctance to attend perhaps arising from her position as Supreme Governor of the Church of England. The Queen and Duke of Edinburgh did attend the service of blessing, and held a reception for the newlyweds at Windsor Castle afterwards. The blessing, by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams, at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, was televised. \n\nSocial interests\n\nPhilanthropy and charity\n\nSince founding The Prince's Trust in 1976, Charles has established sixteen more charitable organisations, and now serves as president of all of those. Together, these form a loose alliance called The Prince's Charities, which describes itself as \"the largest multi-cause charitable enterprise in the United Kingdom, raising over £100million annually ... [and is] active across a broad range of areas including education and young people, environmental sustainability, the built environment, responsible business and enterprise and international.\"\n\nIn 2010, The Prince's Charities Canada was established in a similar fashion to its namesake in the UK. Charles is also patron of over 350 other charities and organisations, and carries out duties related to these throughout the Commonwealth realms; for example, he uses his tours of Canada as a way to help draw attention to youth, the disabled, the environment, the arts, medicine, the elderly, heritage conservation, and education. In Canada, Charles has supported humanitarian projects, for example taking part, along with his two sons, in the ceremonies marking the 1998 International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination. Charles has also set up The Prince's Charities Australia, which is based in Melbourne, Victoria. The Prince's Charities Australia is to provide a coordinating presence for the Prince of Wales’s Australian and international charitable endeavors. \n\nCharles was one of the first world leaders to express strong concerns about the human rights record of Romanian dictator Nicolae Ceaușescu, initiating objections in the international arena, and subsequently supported the FARA Foundation, a charity for Romanian orphans and abandoned children. \n\nIn 2013, Charles donated an unspecified sum of money to the British Red Cross Syria Crisis appeal and DEC Syria appeal, which is run by 14 British charities to help victims of the Syrian civil war. According to The Guardian, It is believed that after turning 65 years old in 2013, Charles donated his state pension to an unnamed charity which supports elderly people. In March 2014, Charles arranged for five million measles-rubella vaccinations for children in the Philippines on the outbreak of measles in South-East Asia. According to Clarence House, Charles was affected by news of the damage caused by Typhoon Yolanda in 2013. International Health Partners, of which he has been Patron since 2004, sent the vaccines, which are believed to protect five million children below the age of five from measles. \n\nBuilt environment\n\nThe Prince of Wales has openly expressed his views on architecture and urban planning, fostering the advancement of New Classical Architecture, and asserting that he \"care[s] deeply about issues such as the environment, architecture, inner-city renewal, and the quality of life.\" In a speech given for the 150th anniversary of the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) on 30 May 1984, he memorably described a proposed extension to the National Gallery in London as a \"monstrous carbuncle on the face of a much-loved friend\" and deplored the \"glass stumps and concrete towers\" of modern architecture. He asserted that \"it is possible, and important in human terms, to respect old buildings, street plans and traditional scales and at the same time not to feel guilty about a preference for facades, ornaments and soft materials,\" called for local community involvement in architectural choices, and asked: \n\nHis book and BBC documentary A Vision of Britain (1987) was also critical of modern architecture, and he has continued to campaign for traditional urbanism, human scale, restoration of historic buildings, and sustainable design, despite criticism in the press. Two of his charities (The Prince's Regeneration Trust and The Prince's Foundation for Building Community) promote his views, and the village of Poundbury was built on land owned by the Duchy of Cornwall to a master plan by Léon Krier under the guidance of Prince Charles and in line with his philosophy.\n\nCharles helped establish a national trust for the built environment in Canada after lamenting, in 1996, the unbridled destruction of many of the country's historic urban cores. He offered his assistance to the Department of Canadian Heritage in creating a trust modelled on Britain's National Trust, a plan that was implemented with the passage of the 2007 Canadian federal budget. In 1999, the Prince agreed to the use of his title for the Prince of Wales Prize for Municipal Heritage Leadership, awarded by the Heritage Canada Foundation to municipal governments that have shown sustained commitment to the conservation of historic places. While visiting the United States and surveying the damage caused by Hurricane Katrina, Charles received the National Building Museum's Vincent Scully Prize in 2005, for his efforts in regard to architecture; he donated $25,000 of the prize money towards restoring storm-damaged communities. \n\nFrom 1997, the Prince of Wales has visited Romania to view and highlight the destruction of Orthodox monasteries and Transylvanian Saxon villages during the Communist rule of Nicolae Ceaușescu. Charles is patron of the Mihai Eminescu Trust, a Romanian conservation and regeneration organisation, and has purchased a house in Romania. Historian Tom Gallagher wrote in the Romanian newspaper România Liberă in 2006 that Charles had been offered the Romanian throne by monarchists in that country; an offer that was reportedly turned down, but Buckingham Palace denied the reports. Charles also has \"a deep understanding of Islamic art and architecture\", and has been involved in the construction of a building and garden at the Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies that combine Islamic and Oxford architectural styles.\n\nCharles has occasionally intervened in projects that employ architectural styles such as modernism and functionalism. In 2009, Charles wrote to the Qatari royal family, the developers of the Chelsea Barracks site, labelling Lord Rogers's design for the site \"unsuitable\". Subsequently, Rogers was removed from the project and The Prince's Foundation for the Built Environment was appointed to propose an alternative. Rogers claimed the Prince had also intervened to block his designs for the Royal Opera House and Paternoster Square, and condemned Charles's actions as \"an abuse of power\" and \"unconstitutional\". Lord Foster, Zaha Hadid, Jacques Herzog, Jean Nouvel, Renzo Piano, and Frank Gehry, among others, wrote a letter to The Sunday Times complaining that the Prince's \"private comments\" and \"behind-the-scenes lobbying\" subverted the \"open and democratic planning process\". Piers Gough and other architects condemned Charles's views as \"elitist\" in a letter encouraging colleagues to boycott a speech given by Charles to RIBA in 2009.\n\nIn 2010, The Prince's Foundation for the Built Environment decided to help reconstruct and redesign buildings in Port-au-Prince, Haiti after the capital was destroyed by the 2010 Haiti earthquake. The foundation is known for refurbishing historic buildings in Kabul, Afghanistan and in Kingston, Jamaica. The project has been called the \"biggest challenge yet\" for the Prince's Foundation for the Built Environment. \n\nLivery company commitments\n\nThe Worshipful Company of Carpenters installed Charles as an Honorary Liveryman \"in recognition of his interest in London's architecture.\" The Prince of Wales is also Permanent Master of the Worshipful Company of Shipwrights, a Freeman of the Worshipful Company of Drapers, an Honorary Freeman of the Worshipful Company of Musicians, an Honorary Member of the Court of Assistants of the Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths, and a Royal Liveryman of the Worshipful Company of Gardeners. \n\nNatural environment\n\nSince the early 1980s, Charles has promoted environmental awareness. Upon moving into Highgrove House, he developed an interest in organic farming, which culminated in the 1990 launch of his own organic brand, Duchy Originals, which now sells more than 200 different sustainably produced products, from food to garden furniture; the profits (over £6 million by 2010) are donated to The Prince's Charities. Documenting work on his estate, Charles co-authored (with Charles Clover, environment editor of The Daily Telegraph) Highgrove: An Experiment in Organic Gardening and Farming, published in 1993, and offers his patronage to Garden Organic. Along similar lines, the Prince of Wales became involved with farming and various industries within it, regularly meeting with farmers to discuss their trade. Although the 2001 foot-and-mouth epidemic in England prevented Charles from visiting organic farms in Saskatchewan, he met the farmers at Assiniboia town hall. In 2004, he founded the Mutton Renaissance Campaign, which aims to support British sheep farmers and make mutton more attractive to Britons. His organic farming has attracted media criticism: According to The Independent in October 2006, \"the story of Duchy Originals has involved compromises and ethical blips, wedded to a determined merchandising programme.\" \n\nIn 2007, he received the 10th annual Global Environmental Citizen Award from the Harvard Medical School's Center for Health and the Global Environment, the director of which, Eric Chivian, stated: \"For decades the Prince of Wales has been a champion of the natural world ... He has been a world leader in efforts to improve energy efficiency and in reducing the discharge of toxic substances on land, and into the air and the oceans\". Charles's travels by private jet drew criticism from Plane Stupid's Joss Garman. \n\nIn 2007, Charles launched The Prince's May Day Network, which encourages businesses to take action on climate change. Speaking to the European Parliament on 14 February 2008, he called for European Union leadership in the war against climate change. During the standing ovation that followed, Nigel Farage, the leader of the United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP), remained seated and went on to describe Charles's advisers as \"naive and foolish at best.\" In a speech to the Low Carbon Prosperity Summit in a European Parliament chamber on 9 February 2011, Charles said that climate change sceptics are playing \"a reckless game of roulette\" with the planet's future and are having a \"corrosive effect\" on public opinion. He also articulated the need to protect fisheries and the Amazon rain forest, and to make low-carbon emissions affordable and competitive. \n\nIn 2011, Charles received the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds Medal for his engagement with the environment, such as the conservation of rainforests. \n\nOn 27 August 2012, the Prince of Wales addressed the International Union for Conservation of Nature - World Conservation Congress, supporting the view that grazing animals are needed to keep soils and grassland productive:\n\n\"I have been particularly fascinated, for example, by the work of a remarkable man called Allan Savory, in Zimbabwe and other semi arid areas, who has argued for years against the prevailing expert view that is the simple numbers of cattle that drive overgrazing and cause fertile land to become desert. On the contrary, as he has since shown so graphically, the land needs the presence of feeding animals and their droppings for the cycle to be complete, so that soils and grassland areas stay productive. Such that, if you take grazers off the land and lock them away in vast feedlots, the land dies.\" \n\nIn February 2014, Charles visited Somerset levels to meet residents affected by winter flooding. During his visit, Charles remarked that, \"There's nothing like a jolly good disaster to get people to start doing something. The tragedy is that nothing happened for so long.\" He pledged a £50,000 donation, provided by the Prince's Countryside Fund, to help families and their businesses. \n\nAlternative medicine\n\nCharles has controversially championed alternative medicine. The Prince's Foundation for Integrated Health attracted opposition from the scientific and medical community over its campaign encouraging general practitioners to offer herbal and other alternative treatments to National Health Service patients, and in May 2006, Charles made a speech at the World Health Assembly in Geneva, urging the integration of conventional and alternative medicine and arguing for homeopathy. \n\nIn April 2008, The Times published a letter from Edzard Ernst, Professor of Complementary Medicine at the University of Exeter, which asked the Prince's Foundation to recall two guides promoting alternative medicine, saying \"the majority of alternative therapies appear to be clinically ineffective, and many are downright dangerous.\" A speaker for the foundation countered the criticism by stating: \"We entirely reject the accusation that our online publication Complementary Healthcare: A Guide contains any misleading or inaccurate claims about the benefits of complementary therapies. On the contrary, it treats people as adults and takes a responsible approach by encouraging people to look at reliable sources of information ... so that they can make informed decisions. The foundation does not promote complementary therapies.\" That year, Ernst published a book with Simon Singh, mockingly dedicated to \"HRH the Prince of Wales\" called Trick or Treatment: Alternative Medicine on Trial. The last chapter is highly critical of Charles's advocacy of complementary and alternative treatments. \n\nThe Prince's Duchy Originals produce a variety of complementary medicinal products including a \"Detox Tincture\" that Edzard Ernst has denounced as \"financially exploiting the vulnerable\" and \"outright quackery\". In 2009, the Advertising Standards Authority criticised an email that Duchy Originals had sent out to advertise its Echina-Relief, Hyperi-Lift and Detox Tinctures products saying that it was misleading. The Prince personally wrote at least seven letters to the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) shortly before they relaxed the rules governing labelling of such herbal products, a move that has been widely condemned by scientists and medical bodies. In October 2009, it was reported that Charles had personally lobbied the Health Secretary, Andy Burnham, regarding greater provision of alternative treatments in the NHS. In 2016 Charles said in a speech that he used homeopathic veterinary medicines to reduce antibiotic use at his farm. \n\nIn April 2010, following accounting irregularities, a former official at the foundation and his wife were arrested for fraud believed to total £300,000. Four days later, the foundation announced its closure, claiming that it \"has achieved its key objective of promoting the use of integrated health.\" The charity's finance director, accountant George Gray, was convicted of theft totalling £253,000 and sentenced to three years in prison. The Prince's Foundation was re-branded and re-launched later in 2010 as The College of Medicine. \n\nReligious and philosophical interests\n\nThe Prince of Wales was confirmed at age 16 by Archbishop of Canterbury Michael Ramsey at Easter 1965, in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. He attends services at various Anglican churches close to Highgrove, and attends the Church of Scotland's Crathie Kirk with the rest of the royal family when staying at Balmoral Castle. In 2000, he was appointed as Lord High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. The Prince of Wales has visited (amid some secrecy) Orthodox monasteries several times on Mount Athos as well as in Romania. Charles is also patron of the Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies at the University of Oxford. \n\nSir Laurens van der Post became a friend of Charles in 1977; he was dubbed his \"spiritual guru\" and was godfather to Charles's son, Prince William. From van der Post, the Prince of Wales developed a focus on philosophy, especially that of Asian and Middle Eastern nations. He has praised Kabbalistic artworks, and wrote a memorial for Kathleen Raine, the Neoplatonist poet who died in 2003. \n\nCharles expressed his philosophical views in his 2010 book, Harmony: A New Way of Looking at Our World, which won the Nautilus Book Award. Although it had been rumoured that Charles would vow to be \"Defender of the Faiths\" or \"Defender of Faith\" as king, he stated in 2015 that he will retain the monarch's traditional title of \"Defender of the Faith\", whilst \"ensuring that other people's faiths can also be practised\", which he sees as a duty of the Church of England. \n\nOfficial duties\n\nIn 2008, The Daily Telegraph declared Charles the \"hardest-working member of the royal family.\" He carried out 560 official engagements in 2008, 499 in 2010, and over 600 in 2011.\n\nAs Prince of Wales, Charles undertakes official duties on behalf of his mother and the Commonwealth realms. He officiates at investitures and attends the funerals of foreign dignitaries. At the funeral of Pope John Paul II, Charles unintentionally caused controversy when he shook hands with Robert Mugabe, the President of Zimbabwe, who had been seated next to him. Charles's office subsequently released a statement saying: \"The Prince of Wales was caught by surprise and not in a position to avoid shaking Mr Mugabe's hand. The Prince finds the current Zimbabwean regime abhorrent. He has supported the Zimbabwe Defence and Aid Fund which works with those being oppressed by the regime. The Prince also recently met Pius Ncube, the Archbishop of Bulawayo, an outspoken critic of the government.\" \n\nPrince Charles makes regular tours of Wales, fulfilling a week of engagements in the principality each summer, and attending important national occasions, such as opening the Senedd. The six Trustees of the Royal Collection Trust meet three times a year under his chairmanship. \n\nThe Prince of Wales travels abroad on behalf of the United Kingdom. The Prince has been regarded as an effective advocate of the country, with his visit to the Republic of Ireland in 1995, he delivered a personally researched and written speech on Anglo-Irish affairs that was warmly received by Irish politicians and the media, being cited as an example.\nIn 2000, Charles revived the tradition of the Prince of Wales having an official harpist, in order to foster Welsh talent at playing the harp, the national instrument of Wales. He and the Duchess of Cornwall also spend one week each year in Scotland, where the Prince is patron of several Scottish organisations. His service to the Canadian Armed Forces permits him to be informed of troop activities, and allows him to visit these troops while in Canada or overseas, taking part in ceremonial occasions. For instance, in 2001, the Prince placed a specially commissioned wreath, made from vegetation taken from French battlefields, at the Canadian Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, and in 1981 he became the patron of the Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum. \n\nIn 2010, he represented the Queen at the opening ceremony of the 2010 Commonwealth Games in Delhi, India. He attends official events in the United Kingdom in support of Commonwealth countries, such as the Christchurch earthquake memorial service at Westminster Abbey in 2011. From 15 to 17 November 2013, he represented the Queen for the first time at a Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting, in Colombo, Sri Lanka. \n\nLetters sent by the Prince of Wales to government ministers—the so-called black spider memos—during 2004 and 2005 have presented potential embarrassment following a challenge by The Guardian newspaper to release the letters under the Freedom of Information Act 2000. In March 2015, the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom decided that the Prince's letters must be released. The letters were published by the Cabinet Office on 13 May 2015. The Prince and the Duchess of Cornwall made their first joint trip to the Republic of Ireland in May 2015. The trip was called an important step in \"promoting peace and reconciliation\" by the British Embassy. During the trip, Charles shook hands with Sinn Féin and supposed IRA leader Gerry Adams in Galway which was described by the media as a \"historic handshake\" and a \"significant moment for Anglo-Irish relations\". \n\nHobbies and personal interests\n\nSports\n\nFrom his youth the Prince was an avid player of competitive polo until 1992. He continued to play informally, including for charity, until 2005. Charles also frequently took part in fox hunting, before the sport was banned in the United Kingdom in 2005. By the late 1990s, as opposition to the activity was growing, the Prince's participation was viewed as a \"political statement\" by those opposed to it, such as the League Against Cruel Sports, which launched an attack against Charles after he took his sons on the Beaufort Hunt in 1999, when the government was trying to ban hunting with hounds. \n\nCharles has been a keen salmon angler since youth, and supports Orri Vigfússon's efforts to protect the North Atlantic salmon. He frequently fishes the River Dee in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, while he claims his most special angling memories are from his time in Vopnafjörður, Iceland. Charles is a supporter of Burnley Football Club. \n\nVisual, performing and contemporary arts\n\nThe Prince is President or Patron of more than 20 performing arts organisations, including the Royal College of Music, the Royal Opera, the English Chamber Orchestra, the Philharmonia Orchestra, Welsh National Opera, and the Purcell School. In 2000, he revived the tradition of appointing harpists to the Royal Court, by appointing an Official Harpist to the Prince of Wales. As an undergraduate at Cambridge he played cello, and has sung with the Bach Choir twice.\n\nHe founded The Prince's Foundation for Children and The Arts in 2002, to help more children experience the arts first-hand. He is President of the Royal Shakespeare Company and attends performances in Stratford-Upon-Avon, supports fundraising events and attends the company's annual general meeting. He enjoys comedy, and is interested in illusionism, becoming a member of The Magic Circle after passing his audition in 1975 by performing the \"cups and balls\" effect. \n\nA keen and accomplished watercolourist, Charles has exhibited and sold a number of his works, and published books on the subject. In 2001, 20 lithographs of his watercolour paintings illustrating his country estates were exhibited at the Florence International Biennale of Contemporary Art. Charles was awarded the 2011 Montblanc de la Culture Arts Patronage Award by the Montblanc Cultural Foundation for his support and commitment to the arts, particularly in regard to young people. \n\nOn 23 April 2016, the Prince appeared in a comedy sketch for the Royal Shakespeare Company's Shakespeare Live! at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre, to commemorate the 400th anniversary of Shakespeare's death in 1616. Attended by the Prince with the Duchess of Cornwall, the gala was televised live by the BBC. Like Paapa Essiedu, Tim Minchin, Benedict Cumberbatch, David Tennant, Harriet Walter, Rory Kinnear, Sir Ian McKellen and Dame Judi Dench the Prince made a surprise entrance to settle the disputed delivery of Hamlet's celebrated line, \"To be or not to be, that is the question\". \n\nPublications\n\nThe Prince of Wales is an author of several books reflecting his own interests. He has also contributed a foreword or preface to books by other writers and has also written, presented and has been featured in documentary films. \n\nMedia image\n\nSince his birth, Prince Charles has undergone close media attention, which increased as he matured. It has been an ambivalent relationship, largely impacted by his marriages to Diana and Camilla and its aftermath, but also centred on his future conduct as king, such as the 2014 play King Charles III. \n\nImpact of marriage to Diana\n\nDescribed as the \"world's most eligible bachelor\" in the late 1970s, Prince Charles was subsequently overshadowed by Diana. After her death, the media regularly breached Charles's privacy and printed exposés.\n\nIn 2006, the Prince filed a court case against the Mail on Sunday, after excerpts of his personal journals were published, revealing his opinions on matters such as the transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong to China in 1997, in which Charles described the Chinese government officials as \"appalling old waxworks\". Mark Bolland, his ex-private secretary, declared in a statement to the High Court that Charles \"would readily embrace the political aspects of any contentious issue he was interested in ... He carried it out in a very considered, thoughtful and researched way. He often referred to himself as a 'dissident' working against the prevailing political consensus.\" Jonathan Dimbleby reported that the Prince \"has accumulated a number of certainties about the state of the world and does not relish contradiction.\" \n\nOthers formerly connected with the Prince have betrayed his confidence. An ex-member of his household handed the press an internal memo in which Charles commented on ambition and opportunity, and which was widely interpreted as blaming meritocracy for creating a combative atmosphere in society. Charles responded: \"In my view, it is just as great an achievement to be a plumber or a bricklayer as it is to be a lawyer or a doctor\". \n\nReaction to press treatment\n\nCharles's anguish was recorded in his private comments to Prince William, caught on a microphone during a press photo-call in 2005 and published in the national press. After a question from the BBC's royal reporter, Nicholas Witchell, Charles muttered: \"These bloody people. I can't bear that man. I mean, he's so awful, he really is.\" \n\nIn 2002, Charles, \"so often a target of the Press, got his chance to return fire\" when addressing \"scores of editors, publishers and other media executives\" gathered at St Bride's Fleet Street to celebrate 300 years of journalism. Defending public servants from \"the corrosive drip of constant criticism\", he noted that the press had been \"awkward, cantankerous, cynical, bloody-minded, at times intrusive, at times inaccurate and at times deeply unfair and harmful to individuals and to institutions.\" But, he concluded, regarding his own relations with the press, \"from time to time we are probably both a bit hard on each other, exaggerating the downsides and ignoring the good points in each.\"\n\nGuest appearances on television\n\nThe Prince of Wales has occasionally appeared on television. In 1984, he read his children's book The Old Man of Lochnagar for the BBC's Jackanory series. The UK soap opera Coronation Street featured an appearance by Charles during the show's 40th anniversary in 2000, as did the New Zealand young adult cartoon series bro'Town (2005), after he attended a performance by the show's creators during a tour of the country. \n\nCharles was interviewed with Princes William and Harry by Ant & Dec to mark the 30th anniversary of The Prince's Trust in 2006 and in 2016 was interviewed by them again along with his sons and the Duchess of Cornwall to mark the 40th anniversary. \n\nHis saving of the Scottish stately home Dumfries House was the subject of Alan Titchmarsh's documentary Royal Restoration, which aired on TV in May 2012. Also in May 2012, Charles tried his hand at being a weather presenter for the BBC, reporting the forecast for Scotland as part of their annual week at Holyrood Palace alongside Christopher Blanchett. He injected humour in his report, asking, \"Who the hell wrote this script?\" as references were made to royal residences. \n\nIn December 2015 Channel 4 News revealed that interviews with Charles were subject to a contract that restricts questions to those previously approved, and gives his staff oversight of editing and the right to \"remove the contribution in its entirety from the programme\". Channel 4 News decided not to proceed with an interview on this basis, which some journalists believed would put them at risk of breaching the Ofcom Broadcasting Code on editorial independence and transparency.\n\nResidences and finance\n\nClarence House in London is the Prince of Wales's current official residence. Previously, he had an apartment at St James's Palace. Charles also has two private homes: Highgrove House in Gloucestershire and Birkhall near Balmoral Castle. Both Clarence House and Birkhall were previously the residences of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother. His primary source of income is generated from the Duchy of Cornwall, which owns 133,658 acres of land (around 54,090 hectares), including farming, residential, and commercial properties, as well as an investment portfolio. Highgrove is owned by the Duchy of Cornwall, having been purchased for his use in 1980, and which Prince Charles rents for £336,000 per annum. The Public Accounts Committee published its 25th report into the Duchy of Cornwall accounts in November 2013 noting that the Duchy performed well in 2012–13, increasing its total income and producing an overall surplus of £19.1 million. \n\nIn 2007 the Prince purchased a 192-acre property (150 acres of grazing and parkland, and 40 acres of woodland) in Carmarthenshire, and applied for permission to convert the farm into a Welsh home for him and the Duchess of Cornwall, to be rented out as holiday flats when the royal couple is not in residence. A neighbouring family said the proposals flouted local planning regulations, and the application was put on hold temporarily while a report was drafted on how the alterations would affect the local bat population. Charles and Camilla first stayed at the new property, called Llwynywermod, in June 2008. \n\nStarting in 1993, the Prince of Wales has paid tax voluntarily under the Memorandum of Understanding on Royal Taxation, updated 2013. In December 2012, Her Majesty's Revenue and Customs were asked to investigate alleged tax avoidance by the Duchy of Cornwall. \n\nTitles, styles, honours and arms\n\nTitles and styles\n\nCharles has held titles throughout his life, as the grandson of the monarch, the son of the monarch and in his own right. There has been speculation as to what regnal name the Prince will choose upon his succession to the throne. If he keeps his current first name, he will be known as Charles III. However, it was reported in 2005 that Charles has suggested he may choose to reign as George VII in honour of his maternal grandfather, and to avoid association with the Stuart kings Charles I (who was beheaded) and Charles II (who was known for his playboy lifestyle), as well as to be sensitive to the memory of Bonnie Prince Charlie, who was called \"Charles III\" by his supporters. Charles's office responded that \"no decision has been made\". \n\nHonours and military appointments\n\nCharles has held substantive ranks in the armed forces of a number of countries since he was made a flight lieutenant in the Royal Air Force in 1972. Charles's first honorary appointment in the armed forces was as Colonel-in-Chief of the Royal Regiment of Wales in 1969; since then, the Prince has also been installed as Colonel-in-Chief, Colonel, Honorary Air Commodore, Air Commodore-in-Chief, Deputy Colonel-in-Chief, Royal Honorary Colonel, Royal Colonel, and Honorary Commodore of at least 32 military formations throughout the Commonwealth, including the Royal Gurkha Rifles, which is the only foreign regiment in the British army. Since 2009, Charles holds the second-highest ranks in all three branches of the Canadian Forces and, on 16 June 2012, the Queen awarded the Prince of Wales honorary five-star rank in all three branches of the British Armed Forces, \"to acknowledge his support in her role as Commander-in-Chief\", installing him as Admiral of the Fleet, Field Marshal and Marshal of the Royal Air Force. \n\nHe has been inducted into seven orders and received eight decorations from the Commonwealth realms, and has been the recipient of 20 different honours from foreign states, as well as nine honorary degrees from universities in the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand.\n\nArms\n\nIssue\n\nAncestry\n\nNotes\n\nFootnotes\n\nCitations", "Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary; born 21 April 1926) is, and has been since her accession in 1952, Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, and Head of the Commonwealth. She is also Queen of 12 countries that have become independent since her accession: Jamaica, Barbados, the Bahamas, Grenada, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Belize, Antigua and Barbuda, and Saint Kitts and Nevis.\n\nElizabeth was born in London to the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth, and was the elder of their two daughters. She was educated privately at home. Her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake public duties during the Second World War, serving in the Auxiliary Territorial Service. In 1947, she married Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, with whom she has four children: Charles, Anne, Andrew, and Edward.\n\nElizabeth's many historic visits and meetings include a state visit to the Republic of Ireland and reciprocal visits to and from the Pope. She has seen major constitutional changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation, and the decolonisation of Africa. She has also reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms. She is the world's oldest reigning monarch as well as Britain's longest-lived. In 2015, she surpassed the reign of her great-great-grandmother, Queen Victoria, to become the longest-reigning British monarch and the longest-reigning queen regnant and female head of state in world history.\n\nTimes of personal significance have included the births and marriages of her children, grandchildren and great grandchildren, her coronation in 1953, and the celebration of milestones such as her Silver, Golden and Diamond Jubilees in 1977, 2002, and 2012, respectively. Moments of sadness for her include the death of her father, aged 56; the assassination of Prince Philip's uncle, Lord Mountbatten; the breakdown of her children's marriages in 1992 (her annus horribilis); the death in 1997 of her son's ex-wife, Diana, Princess of Wales; and the deaths of her mother and sister in 2002. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and severe press criticism of the royal family but support for the monarchy remains high, as does her personal popularity. \n\nEarly life\n\nElizabeth was born at 02:40 (GMT) on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather, King George V. Her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York (later King George VI), was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York (later Queen Elizabeth), was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne. She was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfather's London house: 17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. She was baptised by the Anglican Archbishop of York, Cosmo Gordon Lang, in the private chapel of Buckingham Palace on 29 May, and named Elizabeth after her mother, Alexandra after George V's mother, who had died six months earlier, and Mary after her paternal grandmother. Called \"Lilibet\" by her close family, based on what she called herself at first, she was cherished by her grandfather George V, and during his serious illness in 1929 her regular visits were credited in the popular press and by later biographers with raising his spirits and aiding his recovery. \n\nElizabeth's only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930. The two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as \"Crawfie\". Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music. Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margaret's childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeth's love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, and her attitude of responsibility. Others echoed such observations: Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as \"a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant.\" Her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as \"a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved\". \n\nHeir presumptive\n\nDuring her grandfather's reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, as the Prince of Wales was still young. Many people believed that he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, after her father. Later that year Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeth's father became king, and she became heir presumptive. If her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession. \n\nElizabeth received private tuition in constitutional history from Henry Marten, Vice-Provost of Eton College, and learned French from a succession of native-speaking governesses. A Girl Guides company, the 1st Buckingham Palace Company, was formed specifically so that she could socialise with girls her own age. Later, she was enrolled as a Sea Ranger.\n\nIn 1939, Elizabeth's parents toured Canada and the United States. As in 1927, when her parents had toured Australia and New Zealand, Elizabeth remained in Britain, since her father thought her too young to undertake public tours.Pimlott, p. 54 Elizabeth \"looked tearful\" as her parents departed.Pimlott, p. 55 They corresponded regularly, and she and her parents made the first royal transatlantic telephone call on 18 May.\n\nSecond World War\n\nIn September 1939, Britain entered the Second World War, which lasted until 1945. During the war, many of London's children were evacuated to avoid the frequent aerial bombing. The suggestion by senior politician Lord Hailsham that the two princesses should be evacuated to Canada was rejected by Elizabeth's mother, who declared, \"The children won't go without me. I won't leave without the King. And the King will never leave.\" Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret stayed at Balmoral Castle, Scotland, until Christmas 1939, when they moved to Sandringham House, Norfolk. From February to May 1940, they lived at Royal Lodge, Windsor, until moving to Windsor Castle, where they lived for most of the next five years. At Windsor, the princesses staged pantomimes at Christmas in aid of the Queen's Wool Fund, which bought yarn to knit into military garments. In 1940, the 14-year-old Elizabeth made her first radio broadcast during the BBC's Children's Hour, addressing other children who had been evacuated from the cities. She stated: \"We are trying to do all we can to help our gallant sailors, soldiers and airmen, and we are trying, too, to bear our share of the danger and sadness of war. We know, every one of us, that in the end all will be well.\"\n\nIn 1943, at the age of 16, Elizabeth undertook her first solo public appearance on a visit to the Grenadier Guards, of which she had been appointed colonel the previous year. As she approached her 18th birthday, parliament changed the law so that she could act as one of five Counsellors of State in the event of her father's incapacity or absence abroad, such as his visit to Italy in July 1944. In February 1945, she joined the Women's Auxiliary Territorial Service as an honorary second subaltern with the service number of 230873. She trained as a driver and mechanic and was promoted to honorary junior commander five months later. \n\nAt the end of the war in Europe, on Victory in Europe Day, Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret mingled anonymously with the celebratory crowds in the streets of London. Elizabeth later said in a rare interview, \"We asked my parents if we could go out and see for ourselves. I remember we were terrified of being recognised ... I remember lines of unknown people linking arms and walking down Whitehall, all of us just swept along on a tide of happiness and relief.\" \n\nDuring the war, plans were drawn up to quell Welsh nationalism by affiliating Elizabeth more closely with Wales. Proposals, such as appointing her Constable of Caernarfon Castle or a patron of Urdd Gobaith Cymru (the Welsh League of Youth), were abandoned for various reasons, which included a fear of associating Elizabeth with conscientious objectors in the Urdd, at a time when Britain was at war. Welsh politicians suggested that she be made Princess of Wales on her 18th birthday. Home Secretary, Herbert Morrison supported the idea, but the King rejected it because he felt such a title belonged solely to the wife of a Prince of Wales and the Prince of Wales had always been the heir apparent. In 1946, she was inducted into the Welsh Gorsedd of Bards at the National Eisteddfod of Wales. \n\nIn 1947, Princess Elizabeth went on her first overseas tour, accompanying her parents through southern Africa. During the tour, in a broadcast to the British Commonwealth on her 21st birthday, she made the following pledge: \"I declare before you all that my whole life, whether it be long or short, shall be devoted to your service and the service of our great imperial family to which we all belong.\" \n\nMarriage and family\n\nElizabeth met her future husband, Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark, in 1934 and 1937. They are second cousins once removed through King Christian IX of Denmark and third cousins through Queen Victoria. After another meeting at the Royal Naval College in Dartmouth in July 1939, Elizabeth – though only 13 years old – said she fell in love with Philip and they began to exchange letters. She was 21 when their engagement was officially announced on 9 July 1947. \n\nThe engagement was not without controversy: Philip had no financial standing, was foreign-born (though a British subject who had served in the Royal Navy throughout the Second World War), and had sisters who had married German noblemen with Nazi links. Marion Crawford wrote, \"Some of the King's advisors did not think him good enough for her. He was a prince without a home or kingdom. Some of the papers played long and loud tunes on the string of Philip's foreign origin.\" Later biographies reported that Elizabeth's mother initially opposed the union, dubbing Philip \"The Hun\". In later life, however, the Queen Mother told biographer Tim Heald that Philip was \"an English gentleman\". \n\nBefore the marriage, Philip renounced his Greek and Danish titles, converted from Greek Orthodoxy to Anglicanism, and adopted the style Lieutenant Philip Mountbatten, taking the surname of his mother's British family. Just before the wedding, he was created Duke of Edinburgh and granted the style His Royal Highness. \n\nElizabeth and Philip were married on 20 November 1947 at Westminster Abbey. They received 2500 wedding gifts from around the world. Because Britain had not yet completely recovered from the devastation of the war, Elizabeth required ration coupons to buy the material for her gown, which was designed by Norman Hartnell. In post-war Britain, it was not acceptable for the Duke of Edinburgh's German relations, including his three surviving sisters, to be invited to the wedding. The Duke of Windsor, formerly King Edward VIII, was not invited, either. \n\nElizabeth gave birth to her first child, Prince Charles, on 14 November 1948. One month earlier, the King had issued letters patent allowing her children to use the style and title of a royal prince or princess, to which they otherwise would not have been entitled as their father was no longer a royal prince. A second child, Princess Anne, was born in 1950. \n\nFollowing their wedding, the couple leased Windlesham Moor, near Windsor Castle, until July 1949, when they took up residence at Clarence House in London. At various times between 1949 and 1951, the Duke of Edinburgh was stationed in the British Crown Colony of Malta as a serving Royal Navy officer. He and Elizabeth lived intermittently, for several months at a time, in the hamlet of Gwardamanġa, at Villa Guardamangia, the rented home of Philip's uncle, Lord Mountbatten. The children remained in Britain. \n\nReign\n\nAccession and coronation\n\nDuring 1951, George VI's health declined and Elizabeth frequently stood in for him at public events. When she toured Canada and visited President Harry S. Truman in Washington, D.C., in October 1951, her private secretary, Martin Charteris, carried a draft accession declaration in case the King died while she was on tour. In early 1952, Elizabeth and Philip set out for a tour of Australia and New Zealand by way of Kenya. On 6 February 1952, they had just returned to their Kenyan home, Sagana Lodge, after a night spent at Treetops Hotel, when word arrived of the death of the King and consequently Elizabeth's immediate accession to the throne. Philip broke the news to the new Queen. Martin Charteris asked her to choose a regnal name; she chose to remain Elizabeth, \"of course\". She was proclaimed queen throughout her realms and the royal party hastily returned to the United Kingdom. She and the Duke of Edinburgh moved into Buckingham Palace. \n\nWith Elizabeth's accession, it seemed probable that the royal house would bear her husband's name, becoming the House of Mountbatten, in line with the custom of a wife taking her husband's surname on marriage. The British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, and Elizabeth's grandmother, Queen Mary, favoured the retention of the House of Windsor, and so on 9 April 1952 Elizabeth issued a declaration that Windsor would continue to be the name of the royal house. The Duke complained, \"I am the only man in the country not allowed to give his name to his own children.\" In 1960, after the death of Queen Mary in 1953 and the resignation of Churchill in 1955, the surname Mountbatten-Windsor was adopted for Philip and Elizabeth's male-line descendants who do not carry royal titles. \n\nAmid preparations for the coronation, Princess Margaret informed her sister that she wished to marry Peter Townsend, a divorcé‚ 16 years Margaret's senior, with two sons from his previous marriage. The Queen asked them to wait for a year; in the words of Martin Charteris, \"the Queen was naturally sympathetic towards the Princess, but I think she thought—she hoped—given time, the affair would peter out.\" Senior politicians were against the match and the Church of England did not permit remarriage after divorce. If Margaret had contracted a civil marriage, she would have been expected to renounce her right of succession. Eventually, she decided to abandon her plans with Townsend. In 1960, she married Antony Armstrong-Jones, who was created Earl of Snowdon the following year. They divorced in 1978; she did not remarry. \n\nDespite the death of Queen Mary on 24 March, the coronation on 2 June 1953 went ahead as planned, as Mary had asked before she died. The ceremony in Westminster Abbey, with the exception of the anointing and communion, was televised for the first time. Elizabeth's coronation gown was embroidered on her instructions with the floral emblems of Commonwealth countries: English Tudor rose; Scots thistle; Welsh leek; Irish shamrock; Australian wattle; Canadian maple leaf; New Zealand silver fern; South African protea; lotus flowers for India and Ceylon; and Pakistan's wheat, cotton, and jute. \n\nContinuing evolution of the Commonwealth\n\nFrom Elizabeth's birth onwards, the British Empire continued its transformation into the Commonwealth of Nations. By the time of her accession in 1952, her role as head of multiple independent states was already established. In 1953, the Queen and her husband embarked on a seven-month round-the-world tour, visiting 13 countries and covering more than 40,000 miles by land, sea and air. She became the first reigning monarch of Australia and New Zealand to visit those nations.Marr, p. 126 During the tour, crowds were immense; three-quarters of the population of Australia were estimated to have seen her. Throughout her reign, the Queen has made hundreds of state visits to other countries and tours of the Commonwealth; she is the most widely travelled head of state. \n\nIn 1956, the British and French prime ministers, Sir Anthony Eden and Guy Mollet, discussed the possibility of France joining the Commonwealth. The proposal was never accepted and the following year France signed the Treaty of Rome, which established the European Economic Community, the precursor to the European Union. In November 1956, Britain and France invaded Egypt in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to capture the Suez Canal. Lord Mountbatten claimed the Queen was opposed to the invasion, though Eden denied it. Eden resigned two months later. \n\nThe absence of a formal mechanism within the Conservative Party for choosing a leader meant that, following Eden's resignation, it fell to the Queen to decide whom to commission to form a government. Eden recommended that she consult Lord Salisbury, the Lord President of the Council. Lord Salisbury and Lord Kilmuir, the Lord Chancellor, consulted the British Cabinet, Winston Churchill, and the Chairman of the backbench 1922 Committee, resulting in the Queen appointing their recommended candidate: Harold Macmillan. \n\nThe Suez crisis and the choice of Eden's successor led in 1957 to the first major personal criticism of the Queen. In a magazine, which he owned and edited, Lord Altrincham accused her of being \"out of touch\". Altrincham was denounced by public figures and slapped by a member of the public appalled by his comments. Six years later, in 1963, Macmillan resigned and advised the Queen to appoint the Earl of Home as prime minister, advice that she followed.Hardman, p. 22; Pimlott, pp. 324–335; Roberts, p. 84 The Queen again came under criticism for appointing the prime minister on the advice of a small number of ministers or a single minister. In 1965, the Conservatives adopted a formal mechanism for electing a leader, thus relieving her of involvement. \n\nIn 1957, she made a state visit to the United States, where she addressed the United Nations General Assembly on behalf of the Commonwealth. On the same tour, she opened the 23rd Canadian Parliament, becoming the first monarch of Canada to open a parliamentary session. Two years later, solely in her capacity as Queen of Canada, she revisited the United States and toured Canada. In 1961, she toured Cyprus, India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Iran. On a visit to Ghana the same year, she dismissed fears for her safety, even though her host, President Kwame Nkrumah, who had replaced her as head of state, was a target for assassins. Harold Macmillan wrote, \"The Queen has been absolutely determined all through ... She is impatient of the attitude towards her to treat her as ... a film star ... She has indeed 'the heart and stomach of a man' ... She loves her duty and means to be a Queen.\"Macmillan, pp. 466–472 Before her tour through parts of Quebec in 1964, the press reported that extremists within the Quebec separatist movement were plotting Elizabeth's assassination. No attempt was made, but a riot did break out while she was in Montreal; the Queen's \"calmness and courage in the face of the violence\" was noted. \n\nElizabeth's pregnancies with Princes Andrew and Edward, in 1959 and 1963, mark the only times she has not performed the State Opening of the British parliament during her reign. In addition to performing traditional ceremonies, she also instituted new practices. Her first royal walkabout, meeting ordinary members of the public, took place during a tour of Australia and New Zealand in 1970. \n\nAcceleration of decolonisation\n\nThe 1960s and 1970s saw an acceleration in the decolonisation of Africa and the Caribbean. Over 20 countries gained independence from Britain as part of a planned transition to self-government. In 1965, however, the Rhodesian Prime Minister, Ian Smith, in opposition to moves toward majority rule, declared unilateral independence from Britain while still expressing \"loyalty and devotion\" to Elizabeth. Although the Queen dismissed him in a formal declaration, and the international community applied sanctions against Rhodesia, his regime survived for over a decade. As Britain's ties to its former empire weakened, the British government sought entry to the European Community, a goal it achieved in 1973. \n\nIn February 1974, the British Prime Minister, Edward Heath, advised the Queen to call a general election in the middle of her tour of the Austronesian Pacific Rim, requiring her to fly back to Britain. The election resulted in a hung parliament; Heath's Conservatives were not the largest party, but could stay in office if they formed a coalition with the Liberals. Heath only resigned when discussions on forming a coalition foundered, after which the Queen asked the Leader of the Opposition, Labour's Harold Wilson, to form a government. \n\nA year later, at the height of the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, the Australian Prime Minister, Gough Whitlam, was dismissed from his post by Governor-General Sir John Kerr, after the Opposition-controlled Senate rejected Whitlam's budget proposals.Bond, p. 96; Marr, p. 257; Pimlott, p. 427; Shawcross, p. 110 As Whitlam had a majority in the House of Representatives, Speaker Gordon Scholes appealed to the Queen to reverse Kerr's decision. She declined, stating that she would not interfere in decisions reserved by the Constitution of Australia for the governor-general. The crisis fuelled Australian republicanism.\n\nSilver Jubilee\n\nIn 1977, Elizabeth marked the Silver Jubilee of her accession. Parties and events took place throughout the Commonwealth, many coinciding with her associated national and Commonwealth tours. The celebrations re-affirmed the Queen's popularity, despite virtually coincident negative press coverage of Princess Margaret's separation from her husband. In 1978, the Queen endured a state visit to the United Kingdom by Romania's communist dictator, Nicolae Ceaușescu, and his wife, Elena, though privately she thought they had \"blood on their hands\". The following year brought two blows: one was the unmasking of Anthony Blunt, former Surveyor of the Queen's Pictures, as a communist spy; the other was the assassination of her relative and in-law Lord Mountbatten by the Provisional Irish Republican Army. \n\nAccording to Paul Martin, Sr., by the end of the 1970s the Queen was worried that the Crown \"had little meaning for\" Pierre Trudeau, the Canadian Prime Minister. Tony Benn said that the Queen found Trudeau \"rather disappointing\". Trudeau's supposed republicanism seemed to be confirmed by his antics, such as sliding down banisters at Buckingham Palace and pirouetting behind the Queen's back in 1977, and the removal of various Canadian royal symbols during his term of office. In 1980, Canadian politicians sent to London to discuss the patriation of the Canadian constitution found the Queen \"better informed ... than any of the British politicians or bureaucrats\". She was particularly interested after the failure of Bill C-60, which would have affected her role as head of state. Patriation removed the role of the British parliament from the Canadian constitution, but the monarchy was retained. Trudeau said in his memoirs that the Queen favoured his attempt to reform the constitution and that he was impressed by \"the grace she displayed in public\" and \"the wisdom she showed in private\". \n\n1980s\n\nDuring the 1981 Trooping the Colour ceremony, six weeks before the wedding of Charles, Prince of Wales, and Lady Diana Spencer, six shots were fired at the Queen from close range as she rode down The Mall on her horse, Burmese. Police later discovered that the shots were blanks. The 17-year-old assailant, Marcus Sarjeant, was sentenced to five years in prison and released after three. The Queen's composure and skill in controlling her mount were widely praised. \n\nFrom April to September 1982, the Queen was anxious but proud of her son, Prince Andrew, who was serving with British forces during the Falklands War. On 9 July, the Queen awoke in her bedroom at Buckingham Palace to find an intruder, Michael Fagan, in the room with her. Remaining calm and through two calls to the Palace police switchboard, she spoke to Fagan while he sat at the foot of her bed until assistance arrived seven minutes later. After hosting US President Ronald Reagan at Windsor Castle in 1982 and visiting his California ranch in 1983, the Queen was angered when his administration ordered the invasion of Grenada, one of her Caribbean realms, without informing her. \n\nIntense media interest in the opinions and private lives of the royal family during the 1980s led to a series of sensational stories in the press, not all of which were entirely true. As Kelvin MacKenzie, editor of The Sun, told his staff: \"Give me a Sunday for Monday splash on the Royals. Don't worry if it's not true—so long as there's not too much of a fuss about it afterwards.\" Newspaper editor Donald Trelford wrote in The Observer of 21 September 1986: \"The royal soap opera has now reached such a pitch of public interest that the boundary between fact and fiction has been lost sight of ... it is not just that some papers don't check their facts or accept denials: they don't care if the stories are true or not.\" It was reported, most notably in The Sunday Times of 20 July 1986, that the Queen was worried that Margaret Thatcher's economic policies fostered social divisions and was alarmed by high unemployment, a series of riots, the violence of a miners' strike, and Thatcher's refusal to apply sanctions against the apartheid regime in South Africa. The sources of the rumours included royal aide Michael Shea and Commonwealth Secretary-General Shridath Ramphal, but Shea claimed his remarks were taken out of context and embellished by speculation. Thatcher reputedly said the Queen would vote for the Social Democratic Party – Thatcher's political opponents. Thatcher's biographer John Campbell claimed \"the report was a piece of journalistic mischief-making\". Belying reports of acrimony between them, Thatcher later conveyed her personal admiration for the Queen, and the Queen gave two honours in her personal gift – membership in the Order of Merit and the Order of the Garter – to Thatcher after her replacement as prime minister by John Major. Former Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney said Elizabeth was a \"behind the scenes force\" in ending apartheid.\n\nIn 1987, in Canada, Elizabeth publicly supported politically divisive constitutional amendments, prompting criticism from opponents of the proposed changes, including Pierre Trudeau. The same year, the elected Fijian government was deposed in a military coup. As monarch of Fiji, Elizabeth supported the attempts of the Governor-General, Ratu Sir Penaia Ganilau, to assert executive power and negotiate a settlement. Coup leader Sitiveni Rabuka deposed Ganilau and declared Fiji a republic. By the start of 1991, republican feeling in Britain had risen because of press estimates of the Queen's private wealth – which were contradicted by the Palace – and reports of affairs and strained marriages among her extended family. The involvement of younger members of the royal family in the charity game show It's a Royal Knockout was ridiculed, and the Queen was the target of satire. \n\n1990s\n\nIn 1991, in the wake of coalition victory in the Gulf War, the Queen became the first British monarch to address a joint meeting of the United States Congress. \n\nIn a speech on 24 November 1992, to mark the 40th anniversary of her accession, Elizabeth called 1992 her annus horribilis, meaning horrible year. In March, her second son, Prince Andrew, Duke of York, and his wife, Sarah, separated; in April, her daughter, Princess Anne, divorced Captain Mark Phillips; during a state visit to Germany in October, angry demonstrators in Dresden threw eggs at her; and, in November, a large fire broke out at Windsor Castle, one of her official residences. The monarchy came under increased criticism and public scrutiny. In an unusually personal speech, the Queen said that any institution must expect criticism, but suggested it be done with \"a touch of humour, gentleness and understanding\". Two days later, the Prime Minister, John Major, announced reforms to the royal finances planned since the previous year, including the Queen paying income tax from 1993 onwards, and a reduction in the civil list. In December, Prince Charles and his wife, Diana, formally separated. The year ended with a lawsuit as the Queen sued The Sun newspaper for breach of copyright when it published the text of her annual Christmas message two days before it was broadcast. The newspaper was forced to pay her legal fees and donated £200,000 to charity. \n\nIn the years to follow, public revelations on the state of Charles and Diana's marriage continued. Even though support for republicanism in Britain seemed higher than at any time in living memory, republicanism was still a minority viewpoint, and the Queen herself had high approval ratings. Criticism was focused on the institution of the monarchy itself and the Queen's wider family rather than her own behaviour and actions. In consultation with her husband and the Prime Minister, John Major, as well as the Archbishop of Canterbury, George Carey, and her private secretary, Robert Fellowes, she wrote to Charles and Diana at the end of December 1995, saying that a divorce was desirable. \n\nIn 1997, a year after the divorce, Diana was killed in a car crash in Paris. The Queen was on holiday with her extended family at Balmoral. Diana's two sons by Charles – Princes William and Harry – wanted to attend church and so the Queen and Prince Philip took them that morning. After that single public appearance, for five days the Queen and the Duke shielded their grandsons from the intense press interest by keeping them at Balmoral where they could grieve in private, but the royal family's seclusion and the failure to fly a flag at half-mast over Buckingham Palace caused public dismay. Pressured by the hostile reaction, the Queen agreed to return to London and do a live television broadcast on 5 September, the day before Diana's funeral. In the broadcast, she expressed admiration for Diana and her feelings \"as a grandmother\" for the two princes.Bond, p. 134; Brandreth, p. 359; Lacey, pp. 13–15; Pimlott, pp. 623–624 As a result, much of the public hostility evaporated.\n\nGolden Jubilee\n\nIn 2002, Elizabeth marked her Golden Jubilee. Her sister and mother died in February and March respectively, and the media speculated whether the Jubilee would be a success or a failure. She again undertook an extensive tour of her realms, which began in Jamaica in February, where she called the farewell banquet \"memorable\" after a power cut plunged the King's House, the official residence of the governor-general, into darkness. As in 1977, there were street parties and commemorative events, and monuments were named to honour the occasion. A million people attended each day of the three-day main Jubilee celebration in London, and the enthusiasm shown by the public for the Queen was greater than many journalists had expected. \n\nThough generally healthy throughout her life, in 2003 she had keyhole surgery on both knees. In October 2006, she missed the opening of the new Emirates Stadium because of a strained back muscle that had been troubling her since the summer. \n\nIn May 2007, The Daily Telegraph, citing unnamed sources, reported that the Queen was \"exasperated and frustrated\" by the policies of the British Prime Minister, Tony Blair, that she was concerned the British Armed Forces were overstretched in Iraq and Afghanistan, and that she had raised concerns over rural and countryside issues with Blair. She was, however, said to admire Blair's efforts to achieve peace in Northern Ireland. On 20 March 2008, at the Church of Ireland St Patrick's Cathedral, Armagh, the Queen attended the first Maundy service held outside England and Wales. At the invitation of the Irish President, Mary McAleese, the Queen made the first state visit to the Republic of Ireland by a British monarch in May 2011. \n\nThe Queen addressed the United Nations for a second time in 2010, again in her capacity as Queen of all Commonwealth realms and Head of the Commonwealth. The UN Secretary General, Ban Ki-moon, introduced her as \"an anchor for our age\". During her visit to New York, which followed a tour of Canada, she officially opened a memorial garden for the British victims of the September 11 attacks. The Queen's visit to Australia in October 2011 – her sixteenth visit since 1954 – was called her \"farewell tour\" in the press because of her age. \n\nDiamond Jubilee and beyond\n\nHer Diamond Jubilee in 2012 marked 60 years on the throne, and celebrations were held throughout her realms, the wider Commonwealth, and beyond. In a message released on Accession Day, Elizabeth wrote:\n\nShe and her husband undertook an extensive tour of the United Kingdom, while her children and grandchildren embarked on royal tours of other Commonwealth states on her behalf. On 4 June, Jubilee beacons were lit around the world. On 18 December, she became the first British sovereign to attend a peacetime Cabinet meeting since George III in 1781. \n\nThe Queen, who opened the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, also opened the 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics in London, making her the first head of state to open two Olympic Games in two different countries. For the London Olympics, she played herself in a short film as part of the opening ceremony, alongside Daniel Craig as James Bond. On 4 April 2013, she received an honorary BAFTA for her patronage of the film industry and was called \"the most memorable Bond girl yet\" at the award ceremony. \n\nOn 3 March 2013, Elizabeth was admitted to the King Edward VII's Hospital as a precaution after developing symptoms of gastroenteritis. She returned to Buckingham Palace the following day. Because of her age and the need for her to limit travelling, in 2013 she chose not to attend the biennial meeting of Commonwealth heads of government for the first time in 40 years. She was represented at the summit in Sri Lanka by her son, Prince Charles. \n\nThe Queen surpassed her great-great-grandmother, Queen Victoria, to become the longest-lived British monarch in December 2007, and the longest-reigning British monarch on 9 September 2015. She was celebrated in Canada as the \"longest-reigning sovereign in Canada's modern era\". (King Louis XIV of France reigned over part of Canada for longer.) She is the longest-reigning queen regnant in history, the world's oldest reigning monarch and second-longest-serving current head of state after King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand.\n\nThe Queen does not intend to abdicate, though Prince Charles is expected to take on more of her workload as Elizabeth, who celebrated her ninetieth birthday in 2016, carries out fewer public engagements.Marr, p. 395\n\nPublic perception and character\n\nSince Elizabeth rarely gives interviews, little is known of her personal feelings. As a constitutional monarch, she has not expressed her own political opinions in a public forum. She does have a deep sense of religious and civic duty, and takes her coronation oath seriously.Shawcross, pp. 194–195 Aside from her official religious role as Supreme Governor of the established Church of England, she is personally a member of that church and the national Church of Scotland. She has demonstrated support for inter-faith relations and has met with leaders of other churches and religions, including five popes: Pius XII, John XXIII, John Paul II, Benedict XVI and Francis. A personal note about her faith often features in her annual Christmas message broadcast to the Commonwealth. In 2000, she spoke about the theological significance of the millennium marking the 2000th anniversary of the birth of Jesus:\n\nShe is patron of over 600 organisations and charities. Her main leisure interests include equestrianism and dogs, especially her Pembroke Welsh Corgis. Her lifelong love of corgis began in 1933 with Dookie, the first corgi owned by her family. Scenes of a relaxed, informal home life have occasionally been witnessed; she and her family, from time to time, prepare a meal together and do the washing up afterwards. \n\nIn the 1950s, as a young woman at the start of her reign, Elizabeth was depicted as a glamorous \"fairytale Queen\". After the trauma of the Second World War, it was a time of hope, a period of progress and achievement heralding a \"new Elizabethan age\". Lord Altrincham's accusation in 1957 that her speeches sounded like those of a \"priggish schoolgirl\" was an extremely rare criticism. In the late 1960s, attempts to portray a more modern image of the monarchy were made in the television documentary Royal Family and by televising Prince Charles's investiture as Prince of Wales. In public, she took to wearing mostly solid-colour overcoats and decorative hats, which allow her to be seen easily in a crowd. \n\nAt her Silver Jubilee in 1977, the crowds and celebrations were genuinely enthusiastic, but in the 1980s, public criticism of the royal family increased, as the personal and working lives of Elizabeth's children came under media scrutiny. Elizabeth's popularity sank to a low point in the 1990s. Under pressure from public opinion, she began to pay income tax for the first time, and Buckingham Palace was opened to the public. Discontent with the monarchy reached its peak on the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, though Elizabeth's personal popularity and support for the monarchy rebounded after her live television broadcast to the world five days after Diana's death. \n\nIn November 1999, a referendum in Australia on the future of the Australian monarchy favoured its retention in preference to an indirectly elected head of state. Polls in Britain in 2006 and 2007 revealed strong support for Elizabeth, and in 2012, her Diamond Jubilee year, approval ratings hit 90 percent. Referenda in Tuvalu in 2008 and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines in 2009 both rejected proposals to become republics. \n\nElizabeth has been portrayed in a variety of media by many notable artists, including painters Lucian Freud, Peter Blake, Juliet Pannett, Chinwe Chukwuogo-Roy, Terence Cuneo, Tai-Shan Schierenberg and Pietro Annigoni. Notable photographers of Elizabeth have included Cecil Beaton, Yousuf Karsh, Lord Lichfield, Terry O'Neill, Annie Leibovitz and John Swannell. The first official portrait of Elizabeth was taken by Marcus Adams in 1926.\n\nFinances\n\nElizabeth's personal fortune has been the subject of speculation for many years. Jock Colville, who was her former private secretary and a director of her bank, Coutts, estimated her wealth in 1971 at £2 million (equivalent to about £ today). In 1993, Buckingham Palace called estimates of £100 million \"grossly overstated\". She inherited an estimated £70 million estate from her mother in 2002. The Sunday Times Rich List 2015 estimated her private wealth at £340 million, making her the 302nd richest person in the UK. \n\nThe Royal Collection, which includes thousands of historic works of art and the Crown Jewels, is not owned by the Queen personally but is held in trust, as are her official residences, such as Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle, and the Duchy of Lancaster, a property portfolio valued in 2014 at £442 million. Sandringham House and Balmoral Castle are privately owned by the Queen. The British Crown Estate – with holdings of £9.4 billion in 2014 – is held in trust by the sovereign and cannot be sold or owned by Elizabeth in a private capacity. \n\nTitles, styles, honours and arms\n\nTitles and styles\n\nElizabeth has held many titles and honorary military positions throughout the Commonwealth, is Sovereign of many orders in her own countries, and has received honours and awards from around the world. In each of her realms she has a distinct title that follows a similar formula: Queen of Jamaica and her other realms and territories in Jamaica, Queen of Australia and her other realms and territories in Australia, etc. In the Channel Islands and Isle of Man, which are Crown dependencies rather than separate realms, she is known as Duke of Normandy and Lord of Mann, respectively. Additional styles include Defender of the Faith and Duke of Lancaster. When in conversation with the Queen, the practice is to initially address her as Your Majesty and thereafter as Ma'am. \n\nArms\n\nFrom 21 April 1944 until her accession, Elizabeth's arms consisted of a lozenge bearing the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom differenced with a label of three points argent, the centre point bearing a Tudor rose and the first and third a cross of St George. Upon her accession, she inherited the various arms her father held as sovereign. The Queen also possesses royal standards and personal flags for use in the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Jamaica, Barbados, and elsewhere. \n\nIssue\n\nAncestry" ] }

{ "description": [ "The wife of Prince Edward, the Queen Elizabeth II's ... the Queen Elizabeth II's youngest son, ... will be the Queen's eighth grandchild and is ...", "... Prince Edward , Earl of Wessex Full ... Father: Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh Mother: Queen Elizabeth II ... Prince Edward is the third son and youngest child ...", "Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, ... Princess Elizabeth (Queen Elizabeth II) ... Queen Elizabeth II is shown with her youngest son, ...", "Watch Queen Elizabeth II's 1947 wedding to Prince Philip ... Elizabeth II's wedding. ... the youngest child and only son of Prince Andrew of Greece and Princess Alice ...", "Queen Elizabeth II through the years. ... Queen Elizabeth II and Prince ... (in blue) and Princess Margaret (left) and Prince Harry (youngest son of Diana Princess ...", "USA TODAY. Queen Elizabeth II to mark 90th birthday on Thursday. ... it gathers her grandchildren from her youngest son, Prince Edward, ...", "... “Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip’s Youthful Romance. ... Philip and young Elizabeth had crossed paths twice, ... Vanity Fair Worldwide: United Kingdom ..." ], "filename": [ "193/193_808.txt", "86/86_809.txt", "169/169_810.txt", "17/17_812.txt", "72/72_813.txt", "60/60_815.txt", "189/189_817.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9 ], "title": [ "Queen Elizabeth II is gran again - CNN.com", "Prince Edward - British Royal Family History", "Queen Elizabeth II's Life Through the Years Photos - ABC News", "Queen Elizabeth II and her husband Prince Philip - BBC", "Queen Elizabeth II through the years - CBS News", "See more Queen Elizabeth birthday pics - USA TODAY", "Inside the Dynastic Struggle That Rocked Queen Elizabeth II's" ], "url": [ "http://edition.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/europe/12/17/royal.birth/", "http://www.britroyals.com/family.asp?id=edward", "http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/photos/queen-elizabeth-iis-life-years-18641810", "http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/events/elizabeth_iis_wedding", "http://www.cbsnews.com/pictures/royal-life-queen-elizabeth-ii-through-the-years/8/", "http://www.usatoday.com/story/life/people/2016/04/20/see-more-queen-elizabeth-birthday-pics/83300300/", "http://www.vanityfair.com/style/society/2012/01/queen-elizabeth-201201" ], "search_context": [ "Queen Elizabeth II is gran again - CNN.com\nQueen Elizabeth II is gran again\nStory Highlights\nPrince Edward, the Queen Elizabeth II's youngest son, becomes father again\nChild, Queen Elizabeth II's eighth grandchild, is eighth in line to the throne\nPrince and wife have a daughter, Lady Louise Windsor, who was born in 2003\nNext Article in World »\nLONDON, England (CNN) -- The wife of Prince Edward, the Queen Elizabeth II's youngest son, gave birth to a baby boy Monday, Buckingham Palace confirmed in a statement.\nThe boy was delivered by caesarean section at Frimley Park Hospital in Surrey and weighed 6 pounds 2 ounces, the statement said. Prince Edward was with his wife -- the Countess of Wessex -- at the birth, it added.\nThe baby boy, who has not yet been named, will be the Queen's eighth grandchild and is eighth in line to the throne.\nEdward, 43, and his wife Sophie, 42, already have a daughter, three-year-old Lady Louise Windsor, who was born four weeks premature in 2003.\nSophie had suffered a life-threatening ectopic pregnancy in 2001 before becoming pregnant with Lady Louise.\nThe couple married in June 1999 after they met at a tennis event six years earlier. E-mail to a friend", "Prince Edward | Britroyals\nTitle: Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex\nFull Name: Edward Antony Richard Louis\nFather: Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh\nMother: Queen Elizabeth II\nRelation to Elizabeth II: Son\nBorn: March 10, 1964 at Buckingham Palace, London\nCurrent Age: 52 years, 9 months, and 30 days\nMarried: Sophie Rhys-Jones on June 19, 1999 at St. George's Chapel, Windsor\nChildren: Lady Louise Windsor, Viscount Severn\nPrince Edward is the third son and youngest child of Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip. He was born at Buckingham Palace on 10 March 1964, and christened at Windsor Castle on 2 May 1964. He was educated at Heatherdown Preparatory School, Ascot, and like his father and two brothers went on to Gordonstoun School in Scotland where he was head boy in his last term.\nIn 1982 he spent a gap year as a house tutor at the Collegiate School, Wanganui, in New Zealand. On his return he attended Jesus College, University of Cambridge and graduated in 1986 with a degree in History. His interests included theatrical productions. On leaving Cambridge he joined the Royal Marines but did not take to the army life. He resigned his army commission in 1987, and joined Andrew Lloyd Weber�s Really Useful theatrical company. In 1993 he formed the Ardent Television company and was involved in documentaries about the Royal Family, but in 2002 stepped down to concentrate on his royal duties in support of the Queen.\nHe met Sophie Rhys-Jones in 1993 while she was working in public relations, and they were married at St George�s Chapel, Windsor Castle, on 19 June 1999. On their wedding Edward was created Earl of Wessex, and Sophie became Countess of Wessex. They have two children Lady Louise Windsor born 8 November 2003, and James Viscount Severn born 17 December 2007. Edward has taken over several of the public roles of his father including President of the Commonwealth games, and the Duke of Edinburgh Award scheme founded by his father Prince Philip. It is believed that Prince Edward will eventually inherit the title Duke of Edinburgh", "Queen Elizabeth II's Life Through the Years Photos - ABC News\nABC News\nQueen Elizabeth II's Life Through the Years\n+\n−\nThis portrait of Queen Elizabeth II was released, April 20, 2014 to mark her majesty's 88th birthday, April 21. The photograph was taken at Buckingham Palace in March and was commissioned on behalf of the British Government's GREAT Britain campaign.\nDavid Bailey/WPA/Getty Images\nThis portrait of Queen Elizabeth II was released, April 20, 2014 to mark her majesty's 88th birthday, April 21. The photograph was taken at Buckingham Palace in March and was commissioned on behalf of the British Government's GREAT Britain campaign.\nDavid Bailey/WPA/Getty Images\nThe Duke and Duchess of York with their baby daughter Princess Elizabeth in Buckingham Palace at Princess Elizabeth's christening, 1926. Princess Elizabeth was born April 21, 1926.\nPress Association via AP Images\nPrincess Elizabeth (Queen Elizabeth II), daughter of The Duke and Duchess of York circa 1930.\nBob Thomas/Popperfoto/Getty Images\nPrincess Elizabeth the eldest daughter of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth celebrated her 13th birthday, April 21, 1939. The Princess was allowed to plan her own day, as it was her birthday, and after opening her presents in the morning, she went riding in Windsor Great Park with the King and Princess Margaret, her younger sister.\nAP Photo\nPrincess Elizabeth, the future Queen Elizabeth II, in the state apartments at Buckingham Palace during her engagement to Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, July 1947.\nHulton Archive/Getty Images\nPrincess Elizabeth and the Duke of Edinburgh pose for the press at Buckingham Palace in London after their wedding ceremony at Westminster Abbey in this Nov. 20, 1947 file photo.\nFox Photos/Hulton Archive/Getty Images\nBritain's Queen Elizabeth II is shown on her Coronation Day, in 1953.\nPA/AP\nQueen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, the Duke of Edinburgh, wave at the crowds from the balcony at Buckingham Palace in this June 2, 1953 file photo in London, England.\nKeystone/Getty Images\nPrincess Elizabeth (Queen Elizabeth II) holding her son Prince Charles after his christening ceremony at Buckingham Palace. (Photo by Keystone/Getty Images)\nKeystone/Getty Images\nQueen Elizabeth II plays with Princes Edward and Andrew at Windsor Castle in this June, 1965 photo.\nLisa Sheridan/Getty Images\nQueen Elizabeth II is shown with her youngest son, Prince Edward, 15 months, in a picture taken recently by Lisa Sheridan in a sitting room at Windsor Castle, Berkshire, June 11, 1965 in England.\nAP Photo\nPrincess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten are photographed with their daughter Anne and son Charles in 1951.\nGamma-Keystone via Getty Images\nQueen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh with their children, Prince Andrew (center), Princess Anne (left) and Charles, Prince of Wales sitting on a picnic rug outside Balmoral Castle in Scotland, Sept. 9, 1960.\nKeystone/Getty Images\nQueen Elizabeth II with one of her corgis at Sandringham, 1970.\nFox Photos/Hulton Archive/Getty Images\nPresident Gerald Ford dances with Queen Elizabeth II during the state dinner in honor of the Queen and Prince Philip at the White House, July 17, 1976, in Washington.\nUniversal History Archive/Getty Images\nQueen Elizabeth II crowns her son Charles, Prince of Wales, during his investiture ceremony at Caernarvon Castle, July 1, 1969.\nFox Photos/Getty Images\nLady Diana, Prince Charles And Queen Elizabeth II at Buckingham Palace, London.\nGamma-Keystone/Getty Images\nQueen Elizabeth II and British Prime Minister Edward Heath join President Richard Nixon and first lady Patricia at Chequers, Heath's official country residence, Oct. 3, 1970.\nHulton Archive/Getty Images\nPope John Paul II Visits Queen Elizabeth II at Buckingham Palace in London, May, 1982.\nTim Graham/Getty Images)\nQueen Elizabeth II smiles at Prince Harry as she inspects soldiers at their passing-out Sovereign's Parade at Sandhurst Military Academy, April 12, 2006, in Surrey, England.\nTim Graham/Getty Images\nBritain's Queen Elizabeth II looks up and waves to members of staff of The Foreign and Commonwealth Office as she ends an official visit, which is part of her Jubilee celebrations in London, Dec. 18, 2012.\nAlastair Grant/Pool/AP Photo\nFamily and members of the Royal Wedding party are shown in this April 29, 2011 file photo, with Britain's Prince William and Kate, Duchess of Cambridge.\nHugo Burnand/AFP/Getty Images\nQueen Elizabeth II is seated at her desk in her private audience room at Buckingham Palace with one of her official red boxes in this photo released Sept. 8, 2015.\nMary McCartney/Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II/Getty Images\nQueen Elizabeth Meets a Robot\nBritain's Queen Elizabeth II smiles as a little robot waves to the her during a reception at the 'Technische Universitaet' (Technical University) in Berlin, June 24, 2015. Queen Elizabeth II and her husband Prince Philip are on an official visit to Germany until Friday, June 26.\nMichael Sohn/AP Photo\nThe Royal Family is seen in a family photo during the summer of 2015 in the White Drawing Room at Buckingham Palace.\nRanald Mackechnie\nPrince George of Cambridge talks to Queen Elizabeth II outside the Church of St Mary Magdalene on the Sandringham Estate for the Christening of Princess Charlotte of Cambridge, July 5, 2015, in King's Lynn, England.\nChris Jackson/Getty Images\nQueen Elizabeth II returns to Buckingham Palace in the new Diamond Jubilee state coach following the State Opening of Parliament, June 4, 2014, in London.\nMatthew Lloyd/Getty Images\nThe official christening photo of Britain's Prince George in the Morning Room at Clarence House in London, Oct. 23, 2013. Kate Duchess of Cambridge holds her son Prince George seated next to Queen Elizabeth II and Prince William, back row from left, Prince Philip, Prince Charles, and the Duchess of Cornwall, Prince Harry, Pippa Middleton, James Middleton, Carole and Michael Middleton.\nJason Bell/Camera Press/Redux\nQueen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh pictured at Windsor Castle just after Easter in 2016, in this photo taken by Annie Leibovitz.\nAnnie Leibovitz/AFP/Getty Images\nQueen Elizabeth II Oversees a Royal Review\nQueen Elizabeth II, Captain-General of the Royal Regiment of Artillery, oversees a Royal Review on the occasion of their Tercentenary at Knighton Down, May 26, 2016, in Lark Hill, England. Queen Eliabeth II has been Captain-General of the Royal Regiment of Artillery since 6 February 1952.\nRichard Pohle - WPA Pool/Getty Images\nBritain's Queen Elizabeth II walks through a field of ceramic poppies at The Tower of London, Oct. 16, 2014.\nKirsty Wigglesworth/AP Photo", "BBC - History - Elizabeth II's wedding (pictures, video, facts & news)\nElizabeth II's wedding\nElizabeth II's wedding\n20 November 1947\nPrincess Elizabeth's wedding to Philip Mountbatten took place at Westminster Abbey and was broadcast to 200 million radio listeners around the world. After the ceremony, the pair waved to large crowds from the balcony of Buckingham Palace.\nPhoto: Princess Elizabeth leaves Westminster Abbey in London, with her husband, the Duke of Edinburgh, after their wedding ceremony, 20 November 1947. (Press Association)\nIntroduction\nHighlights from the Queen's wedding to the Duke of Edinburgh. Includes Pathe footage.\nHighlights from the Queen's wedding to the Duke of Edinburgh at Westminster Abbey, London. Includes Pathe footage.\nThis event features in:\nMore information about: Elizabeth II's wedding\nHow they met\nPrincess Elizabeth, born 21 April 1926, was the first child of Albert, Duke of York, and his wife, formerly Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon.\nThe abdication of her uncle, Edward VIII, in December 1936 meant her father became king and she became heir.\nElizabeth was educated at home. In 1940, she and her sister Margaret were evacuated to Windsor Castle to escape the Blitz. Their parents remained at London's Buckingham Palace - a promise made to the nation at the start of World War II.\nPhilip Mountbatten was born 10 June 1921 on the Greek island of Corfu, the youngest child and only son of Prince Andrew of Greece and Princess Alice of Battenberg. His early years were spent in France, but he came to England in 1928.\nHe attended Gordonstoun boarding school in Scotland, after which he joined the Royal Navy and saw active service in WWII.\nElizabeth and Philip were distant cousins, and first met at a wedding in 1934. After meeting again in 1939, they began to exchange letters. The pair became secretly engaged in 1946, but the formal engagement was delayed until Elizabeth turned 21 in April 1947.\nThe wedding day\nElizabeth and Philip were married at Westminster Abbey on 20 November 1947, in front of 2,000 invited guests. The ceremony was broadcast on radio, to 200 million listeners worldwide.\nThe wedding dress was designed by Norman Hartnell - a duchesse satin bridal gown with motifs of star lilies and orange blossoms. Princess Elizabeth had to use ration coupons to obtain the material.\nMore than 2,500 wedding presents arrived from around the world, and 10,000 telegrams of congratulations.\nThe couple went to Buckingham Palace after the ceremony where they waved from the balcony to large crowds. They spent their wedding night in Broadlands, Hampshire, the home of Philip's uncle, Earl Mountbatten. The rest of their honeymoon was spent at Birkhall on the Balmoral Estate.\nLife after the wedding\nThe couple's first child, Prince Charles, was born in 1948 and Princess Anne arrived in 1950.\nIn February 1952, King George VI died and Elizabeth, his daughter, immediately became Queen. In June 1953, her coronation was held at Westminster Abbey, televised by the BBC to a worldwide audience of millions.\nPrince Andrew was born in 1960, and four years later came Prince Edward.\nFor decades, the Queen has been performing public duties including ceremonies, receptions and visits. She has also supported numerous charities, and encouraged public and voluntary service. Weekly audiences with prime ministers have been held throughout her reign.\nThe Duke of Edinburgh abandoned his Royal Navy ambitions in order to take on more public duties and support the Queen. In 1956 he launched the Duke of Edinburgh Award Scheme.\nPrince Philip has earned a reputation for speaking his mind, which has sometimes landed him in trouble. Prince William said in 2004 that his grandfather \"will tell me something I don't want to hear and doesn't care if I get upset about it. He knows it is the right thing to say\".\nIn 2007 the Queen became the first British monarch to celebrate a diamond wedding anniversary.", "1927 - Britain's longest reigning monarch - Queen Elizabeth II through the years - Pictures - CBS News\nQueen Elizabeth II through the years\nHappy 90th, Queen Elizabeth II\nBritain’s Queen Elizabeth marked her 90th birthday on April 21, 2016.\nIn this photo, the queen views a painting of herself by British artist Henry Ward at Windsor Castle, on October 14, 2016. The painting was commissioned to commemorate the Queen’s six decades of patronage to the British Red Cross.\nCredit: Dominic Lipinski/AFP/Getty Images\nGovernor Generals celebrate Queen Elizabeth II\nGovernor Generals during a family photograph (L-R back row) Sir Tapley Seaton Saint Kitts and Nevis, Dame Marguerite Pindling The Bahamas, Dame Cecile La Grenade Grenada, Sir Jerry Mateparae New Zealand, Rt Hon David Johnston Canada, Sir Iakoba Italeli Tuvalu, Grand Chief Sir Michael Ogio Papua New Guinea, Sir Elliott Belgrave Barbados, Sir Peter Cosgrove Australia, Sir Rodney Williams Antigua and Barbuda, (L-R front row) Sir Patrick Allen Jamaica, Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall, Dame Pearlette Louisy St Lucia, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, Queen Elizabeth II, Sir Colville Young Belize, Prince Charles, Prince of Wales, Sir Frederick Ballantyne St Vincent and the Grenadines, Sir Frank Kabui Soloman Islands, ahead of a lunch at Buckingham Palace on June 10, 2016 in London, United Kingdom.\nCredit: John Stillwell - WPA Pool/Getty Images\nBirthday parade\n(L-R) Anne, Princess Royal, Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall, Charles, Prince of Wales, Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge, Princess Charlotte of Cambridge, Prince George of Cambridge, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, Prince Harry, Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh watch a fly past during the Trooping the Colour, this year marking the Queen’s 90th birthday at The Mall on June 11, 2016 in London, England. The ceremony is Queen Elizabeth II’s annual birthday parade and dates back to the time of Charles II in the 17th Century when the Colours of a regiment were used as a rallying point in battle.\nCredit: Ben A. Pruchnie/Getty Images\nBirthday lunch\nQueen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh wave to guests attending “The Patron’s Lunch” celebrations for The Queen’s 90th birthday on The Mall on June 12, 2016 in London, England.\n10,000 guests have gathered on The Mall for a lunch to celebrate The Queen’s Patronage of more than 600 charities and organisations. The lunch is part of a weekend of celebrations marking Queen Elizabeth II’s 90th birthday and 63 year reign. The Duke of Edinburgh and other members of The Royal Family are also in attendance. During the lunch a carnival parade will travel down The Mall and around St James’s Park.\nCredit: Toby Melville - WPA Pool/Getty Images\nVanity Fair cover for Queen Elizabeth II\nBritain’s Queen Elizabeth II turned 90 on April 21, 2016. To mark the milestone, she posed for a series of portraits at Windsor Castle by photographer Annie Leibovitz for Vanity Fair , including this cover photograph. The queen is seen here with her beloved corgis Holly (being held) and (from L-R) Willow, Vulcan and Candy. It must be said that Vulcan and Candy are actually dorgis, a breed the queen created. The issue of the magazine, which includes photos of the royal family is available Thursday, June 2, 2016.\nClick through for a look at Britain’s longest serving monarch from childhood to the present day.\nCredit: Annie Leibovitz/Vanity Fair\n2016 Queen Elizabeth\nBritain’s Queen Elizabeth II celebrated her 90th birthday in a giant extravaganza on May 15. She become the longest serving British monarch on September 9, 2015, surpassing the record set by her great-great-grandmother Queen Victoria with more than 63 years on the throne. Now at 90-years-old, Elizabeth is also the country’s oldest ever monarch.\nThe Queen delivers the Queen’s Speech during the State Opening of Parliament in central London, on May 18, 2016.\nCredit: Justin Tallis/Pool/REUTERS\n2016\nCamilla, Duchess of Cornwall, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh and Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge along with Queen Elizabeth II during the final night of the Queen’s 90th Birthday Celebrations at Windsor on May 15, 2016 in Windsor.\nCredit: Chris Jackson/Pool/REUTERS\n1927\nPrincess Elizabeth is taken for a ride in the grounds of Windsor Castle, with her cousin, the honorable Gerald Lascelles, right, son of Princess Royal in 1927.\nCredit: AP\nMay 1933\nPrincess Elizabeth, is introduced by her mother Elizabeth, the Duchess of York, to disabled soldiers at an exhibition of their work in London, May 16, 1933.\nCredit: AP\nMay 1935\nQueen Elizabeth II, then Princess Elizabeth, center, waves as she stands on the balcony of Buckingham Palace in London with her grandparents King George V and Queen Mary, May 6, 1935. Her sister, Princess Margaret, is just visible over the balcony edge.\nCredit: AP\nJune 1938\nQueen Elizabeth II, then Princess Elizabeth, and her companion Shaun Plunket take the penguins for a walk at London Zoo, June 30, 1938.\nCredit: AP\nAugust 1943\nQueen Elizabeth II, then Princess Elizabeth, right, and her sister, Princess Margaret, in their Girl Guide uniforms, practice their bandaging skills, August 1943. Princess Elizabeth is wearing the badge of the swallow patrol and two white stripes, which indicates that she is patrol leader.\nCredit: AP\nAugust 1946\nQueen Elizabeth II, then Princess Elizabeth, right, enjoys a joke with her father, King George VI, in the grounds of the Royal Lodge in Windsor, England, August 20, 1946.\nCredit: AP\nApril 1947\nQueen Elizabeth II, then Princess Elizabeth, sits in Natal National Park, South Africa on her 21st birthday, April 21, 1947. In the background are the Drakenberg Mountains.\nCredit: CBS\nNovember 1947\nQueen Elizabeth II, then Princess Elizabeth, and her husband Prince Philip, the Duke of Edinburgh, wave to the crowd from the balcony of Buckingham Palace in London, after their wedding on November 20, 1947. From left to right, King George VI, Princess Margaret, Lady Mary Cambridge, the bride and bridegroom, Queen Elizabeth and Queen Mary.\nCredit: AP\nAugust 1949\nQueen Elizabeth II, then Princess Elizabeth, wears a silver gown with a diamond tiara and pearl necklace on August 30, 1949.\nCredit: AP\nAugust 1951\nQueen Elizabeth II, then Princess Elizabeth, front left, helps her daughter Princess Anne stand on a wall, watched by King George VI, behind left, Queen Elizabeth, right, and Princess Margaret at Balmoral Castle, Scotland, in August 1951.\nCredit: AP\nAugust 1951\nQueen Elizabeth II, then Princess Elizabeth, stands with her husband Prince Philip, the Duke of Edinburgh, and their children, Prince Charles and Princess Anne, at Clarence House, the royal couple’s London residence, in August 1951.\nCredit: AP\nFebruary 1952\nQueen Elizabeth II, left, stands with her grandmother, Queen Mary, center, and her mother, Queen Elizabeth, at the entrance to London’s Westminster Hall as her father’s coffin arrives to lie in state on February 11, 1952.\nUpon the death of her father, Elizabeth ascended the throne at the age of 25 on February 6, 1952.\nCredit: Ron Case, Pool/AP\nJune 1953\nBritain’s Prince Philip, the Duke of Edinburgh, kneeling, places his hands between those of his wife, Queen Elizabeth II, as he swears homage, during her coronation ceremony in Westminster Abbey on June 2, 1953.\nThe coronation was postponed more than a year for an appropriate period of mourning for King George VI.\nCredit: AP\nJune 1953\nQueen Elizabeth II, wearing the Imperial Crown, carries the symbols of authority, the orb and the sceptre, as she leaves Westminster Abbey on June 2, 1953, at the end of her coronation ceremony.\nCredit: AP\nApril 1953\nQueen Elizabeth II, center, laughs with the Duke of Gloucester, left, while Princess Margaret smokes a cigarette in a long holder, behind, as they watch the Olympic horse trials at Badminton, Gloucestershire on April 23, 1953.\nCredit: AP\nJanuary 1961\nQueen Elizabeth II addresses a vast gathering of more than 250,000 people at the Ramlila Grounds, a huge public meeting place, outside the walls of Old Delhi, India on January 28, 1961.\nCredit: Alexander Chadwick/AP\nApril 1966\nQueen Elizabeth II is seen during the State Opening of Parliament in London in April 1966.\nCredit: CBS\nJune 1977\nQueen Elizabeth II receives congratulations from well-wishers during a brief walkabout in London on June 7, 1977.\nCredit: AP Photo/Pool\nJune 1982\nU.S. President Ronald Reagan, left, on Centennial, and Britain’s Queen Elizabeth II, on Burmese, go horseback riding on the grounds of Windsor Castle, England on June 8, 1982.\nCredit: AP Photo/Bob Daugherty\nAugust 1997\nQueen Elizabeth II -- the Queen Mother -- with her daughters, The Queen (in blue) and Princess Margaret (left) and Prince Harry (youngest son of Diana Princess of Wales) on right with other members of the Royal family watch an honor guard in London, August 4, 1997.\nCredit: Adrian Dennis/Getty Images\nSeptember 1997\nQueen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, look at the mass of floral tributes laid outside Buckingham Palace in memory of Diana, Princess of Wales, September 5, 1997.\nCredit: Ian Waldie/Reuters\nApril 2002\nQueen Elizabeth II and Prince Charles walk behind the Queen Mother’s coffin following her funeral at Westminster Abbey in central London, April 9, 2002.\nRoyal dignitaries and politicians from around the world gathered at Westminster Abbey to pay their respects to the Queen Mother who died March 30, aged 101.\nCredit: Dan Chung/Reuters\nJune 2002\nQueen Elizabeth II waves from the Gold State Coach during Golden Jubilee procession, London, June 4, 2002.\nCredit: AP\nApril 2003\nQueen Elizabeth II watches as a swarm of bees encircle chairs on the lawn of Windsor Castle in Berkshire April 15, 2003.\nThe Queen was amused when a swarm of bees delayed proceedings during her review of the Grenedier Guards at Windsor.\nCredit: Chris Young/Pool/Reuters\nApril 2006\nQueen Elizabeth II sits in the Regency Room at Buckingham Palace in London on April 19, 2006, as she looks at some of the cards which have been sent to her for her 80th birthday, which she celebrated two days later.\nCredit: AP Photo/Fiona Hanson\nApril 2006\nQueen Elizabeth II smiles with Prince Harry during the Sovereign’s Parade at the Royal Military Academy in Sandhurst, England, April 12, 2006.\nCredit: Dylan Martinez/Reuters\n2007\nQueen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, the Duke of Edinburgh, walk at Broadlands in Romsey, southern England in 2007.\nCredit: Fiona Hanson/Pool/Reuters\nMarch 2009\nBritain’s Prince Charles kisses the hand of his mother, Queen Elizabeth, during a visit to the Chelsea Flower Show in London in this May 18, 2009 file photo.\nCredit: Sang Tan/Pool/REUTERS\nApril 2007\nQueen Elizabeth ll receives a bouquet of flowers during a walkabout outside Manchester Cathedral following the traditional Royal Maundy Service on April 5, 2007, in Manchester, England.\nCredit: Pool/Anwar Hussein Collection/Getty\nApril 2009\nPresident Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama pose with Queen Elizabeth II during an audience at Buckingham Palace in London, April 1, 2009.\nCredit: AP Photo/John Stillwell\nOctober 2009\nQueen Elizabeth leaves after attending a service of commemoration to mark the end of combat operations in Iraq at St Paul’s Cathedral, London in this October 9, 2009.\nCredit: Luke MacGregor/Reuters\nNovember 2009\nQueen Elizabeth II walks with her husband Prince Philip through the Royal Gallery after delivering her speech during the State Opening of Parliament at the Houses of Parliament in London, November 18, 2009.\nCredit: Carl De Souza/Pool/Reuters\nMay 2010\nQueen Elizabeth II leaves Buckingham Palace in a horse drawn carriage to attend the State Opening of Parliament in London, May 25, 2010.\nCredit: Suzanne Plunkett/Reuters\nApril 2011\nQueen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, attend the Royal Wedding of Prince William to Kate Middleton (now Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge) in London, April 29, 2011.\nCredit: Getty Images\nOctober 2011\nQueen Elizabeth II accepts flowers from people crowding the banks for the Brisbane River after a river cruise in Brisbane, Australia, Octoer 24, 2011. The queen was on her first visit to Australia since 2006.\nCredit: Jodie Richter/AP\nJune 2011\nQueen Elizabeth II and Prince Edward watch the winners enclosure after the Queen’s horse lost in the Epsom Derby at Epsom Racecourse in southern England, June 4, 2011.\nCredit: Suzanne Plunkett/Reuters\nQueen Elizabeth in London, February 29, 2012.\nCredit: Eddie Mulholland/Pool/F/Reuters\nJune 2012\nCatherine, Duchess of Cambridge (L) laughs as Queen Elizabeth gestures during a visit to Vernon Park in Nottingham, England, June 13, 2012.\nCredit: Phil Noble/Reuters\nMay 2013\nBritain’s Queen Elizabeth leaves after the State Opening of Parliament at the Palace of Westminster in London, May 8, 2013.\nCredit: Dan Kitwood/Pool/Reuters\nJune 2013\nMembers of the British royal family (L-R) Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall, Prince Charles, Prince of Wales, Queen Elizabeth II, Prince Andrew, Duke of York, Prince Harry, and Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge, watch the fly-past on the balcony at Buckingham Palace following the Queen’s Birthday parade, ‘Trooping the Colour,’ in central London on June 15, 2013.\nCredit: Carl Court/Getty Images\nDecember 2014\nBritain’s Queen Elizabeth II is pictured after recording her Christmas Day broadcast in the State Dining Room at Buckingham Palace in central London on December 10, 2014. She spent Christmas Day at her Sandringham estate in Norfolk, England.\nCredit: John Stillwell/AFP/Getty Images\nMarch 2015\nQueen Elizabeth II looks at a Corgi dog as television presenter Paul O’Grady (2nd R) smiles during the Queen’s visit to Battersea Dogs & Cats Home in London, March 17, 2015.\nCredit: Ben Stansall/pool/Reuters\nJune 2015\nSenior members of Britain’s royal family stand on the balcony of Buckingham Palace in the annual Trooping of the Colour ceremony to celebrate the Queen’s official birthday in central London, June 13, 2015.\nCredit: Stefan Wermuth/Reuters\nJuly 2015\nCatherine, Duchess of Cambridge, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, Princess Charlotte of Cambridge and Prince George of Cambridge talk to Queen Elizabeth II, Prince Phillip, Duke of Cambridge and Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall arrive at the Church of St Mary Magdalene on the Sandringham Estate for the christening of Princess Charlotte of Cambridge on July 5, 2015 in King’s Lynn, England.\nCredit: Chris Jackson/Getty Images\nSeptember 2015\nQueen Elizabeth II sits in her private audience room in Buckingham Palace next to one of her official red boxes in which she receives documents and papers from government officials in the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth in London on September 8, 2015 in a photo taken to mark the moment she becomes Britain’s longest reigning monarch.\nCredit: Mary McCartney/Reuters\nSeptember 2015\nBritain’s Queen Elizabeth boards her carriage as she travels on the new Scottish Borders railway line, in Scotland, September 9, 2015.\nQueen Elizabeth officially opened the new Scottish Borders Railway on the day she became Britain’s longest reigning monarch.\nCredit: Andrew Milligan/Pool/REUTERS\nMarch 2016\nBritain’s Queen Elizabeth leaves after attending a Maundy Thursday service at St George’s Chapel in Windsor, Britain on March 24, 2016.\nCredit: Toby Melville/REUTERS\nThe line of succession\nFour generations of the Royal family, from left, Prince Charles, Queen Elizabeth II, Prince George and Prince William, the Duke of Cambridge. The image, released wednesday April 20, 2016, is from a photo shoot for the Royal Mail in the summer of 2015 in the White Drawing Room at Buckingham Palace in London for a stamp sheet to mark the 90th birthday of Britain’s Queen Elizabeth II.\nCredit: Ranald Mackechnie/Royal Mail via AP\nQueen Elizabeth II - 90th birthday\nQueen Elizabeth II is greeted by Prince Charles, Prince of Wales as she arrives for the final night of her week-long 90th birthday celebrations at Windsor on May 15, 2016 in England.\nCredit: Chris Jackson/Pool/REUTERS\n90th birthday\nScenes from the life of Britain’s Queen Elizabeth II are shown during the final night of The Queen’s 90th Birthday Celebrations at the Royal Windsor Horseshow in the grounds of Windsor Castle, west of London on May 15, 2016.\nThe event tells the remarkable story of the Queen’s life encompassing a reign spanning more than 60 years. The sovereign last year overtook her great-great-grandmother queen Victoria to become Britain’s longest-serving monarch\nCredit: Leon Neal/AFP/Getty Images\nQueen Elizabeth II - 90th birthday\nQueen Elizabeth laughs as she attends the final night of her week-long 90th birthday celebrations at Windsor on May 15, 2016 in England.\nCredit: Chris Jackson/Pool/REUTERS", "The queen poses with the littlest royals\nThe queen poses with the littlest royals\nBuckingham Palace shares photos of monarch with her sister, great-grandchildren and dogs.\nPost to Facebook\nThe queen poses with the littlest royals Buckingham Palace shares photos of monarch with her sister, great-grandchildren and dogs. Check out this story on USATODAY.com: http://usat.ly/1Suqt3G\nCancelSend\nA link has been sent to your friend's email address.\nPosted!\nA link has been posted to your Facebook feed.\n4\nTo find out more about Facebook commenting please read the Conversation Guidelines and FAQs\nThe queen poses with the littlest royals\nJayme Deerwester , USA TODAY 12:44 p.m. EDT April 21, 2016\nx\nShare\nWellwishers and fans gather at Windsor Castle hoping to catch a glimpse of Queen Elizabeth II amid ongoing festivities for her 90th birthday.Video provided by AFP Newslook\nQueen Elizabeth and daughter Princess Anne, the Princess Royal.\n(Photo: ANNIE LEIBOVITZ, AFP/Getty Images)\nLooks like that royal family photo featuring Prince George was just the beginning.\nOn Wednesday evening, Buckingham Palace unleashed more photos ahead of Queen Elizabeth's 90th birthday on Thursday.\nQueen Elizabeth II to mark 90th birthday on Thursday\nThe new batch of shots from Annie Leibovitz includes a portrait of the monarch with daughter Princess Anne, as well as one with her grandchildren and great-grandchildren. Shot in the Green Drawing Room at Windsor Castle, it gathers her grandchildren from her youngest son, Prince Edward, as well as the grandchildren of Princess Anne and Mark Phillips (by son Peter and daughter Zara) and Prince Charles (by Prince William).\n (Photo: ANNIE LEIBOVITZ, AFP/Getty Images)\nAnd there's even one with the queen's fur children —the corgis. It was also taken by Leibovitz on the east terrace of the garden at Windsor.\n (Photo: ANNIE LEIBOVITZ, AFP/Getty Images)", "Inside the Dynastic Struggle That Rocked Queen Elizabeth II’s Marriage | Vanity Fair\nTwitter\nPERFECT COUPLE Philip and Elizabeth on their honeymoon, at Broadlands, the Mountbatten estate in Hampshire, November 1947., Photograph FROM TOPICAL PRESS AGENCY/GETTY IMAGES; DIGITAL COLORIZATION BY LORNA CLARK.\nThere was a whole battalion of lively young men,” recalled Lady Anne Glenconner, whose family were friends and neighbors of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth at Sandringham, their estate in Norfolk. But Princess Elizabeth, the heiress presumptive to the British throne, “realized her destiny and luckily set her heart on Prince Philip at an early age. He was ideal—good-looking and a foreign prince.”\nHer choice was in some respects traditional, because the princess and Philip were relatives, but not too close to raise eyebrows. They were third cousins, sharing the same great-great-grandparents, Queen Victoria and Prince Albert. Philip was in fact more royal than Elizabeth, whose mother was mere British nobility (with distant links to English and Scottish kings), while his parents were Princess Alice of Battenberg (a great-grandchild of Queen Victoria) and Prince Andrew of Greece, the descendant of a Danish prince recruited for the Greek throne in the mid-19th century. Elizabeth and Philip were both connected to most of Europe’s reigning families, where consanguinity had been common for centuries. Queen Victoria and her husband had been even closer: first cousins who shared the same grandmother, the Dowager Duchess of Coburg.\nIn other ways, Philip was an outlier with a decidedly unconventional background. Queen Elizabeth had made no secret of her preference for one of her daughter’s aristocratic English friends from a family similar to her own English-Scottish Strathmores—the future Dukes of Grafton, Rutland, and Buccleuch, or Henry Porchester, the future Earl of Carnarvon. Philip could boast none of their extensive landholdings, and in fact had very little money.\nAlthough he was born on June 10, 1921, on the isle of Corfu, Philip spent scarcely a year in Greece before the entire royal family was expelled in a coup. His parents took him, along with his four older sisters, to Paris, where they lived rent-free in a house owned by wealthy relatives. A proud professional soldier with an extroverted personality and a quick wit, Prince Andrew found himself at loose ends, while Alice (properly known as Princess Andrew of Greece after her wedding) had difficulty managing a large family, not least because she was congenitally deaf.\nAfter Philip’s parents sent him at the age of eight to Cheam, a boarding school in England, his mother had a nervous breakdown and was committed to a sanitarium for several years, which precipitated his parents’ permanent separation. She eventually moved to Athens and established a Greek Orthodox order of nuns.\nPrince Andrew was mostly absent from his son’s life as well, living as a “boulevardier” in Monte Carlo with a mistress, and subsisting on a small annuity, while beneficent relatives and friends paid Philip’s school fees. He left Cheam in 1933 to spend one year at Salem, a boarding school in Germany run by a progressive Jewish educator named Kurt Hahn. After the Nazis briefly detained Hahn, he fled in 1934 to the North Sea coast of Scotland and founded Gordonstoun School, where Philip soon enrolled.\nOnce in the United Kingdom, Philip came under the wing of his relatives there, chiefly his Battenberg grandmother, the Dowager Marchioness of Milford Haven, who lived in a grace-and-favor apartment in Kensington Palace, and his mother’s younger brother, Louis “Dickie” Mountbatten, later the first Earl Mountbatten of Burma, who assiduously cultivated his royal relatives.\nSix feet tall, with intense blue eyes, chiseled features, and blond hair, Philip was an Adonis as well as athletic and engaging, exuding confidence and a touch of impudence. He was a resourceful and energetic self-starter, yet he was also something of a loner, with a scratchy defensiveness that sprang from emotional deprivation. “Prince Philip is a more sensitive person than you would appreciate,” said his first cousin Patricia Mountbatten, Dickie’s older daughter. “He had a tough childhood, and his life constrained him into a hard exterior in order to survive.”\nAs cousins, Philip and young Elizabeth had crossed paths twice, first at a family wedding in 1934 and then at the coronation of King George VI in 1937. But it wasn’t until July 22, 1939, when the King and Queen took their daughters to the Royal Naval College at Dartmouth, that the 13-year-old princess spent any time with 18-year-old Philip, who was a cadet in training at the school.\nAt the behest of Dickie Mountbatten, an officer in the Royal Navy, Philip was invited to have lunch and tea with the royal family. Marion “Crawfie” Crawford, Princess Elizabeth’s governess, observed the sparks, later writing that Lilibet, as she was called, “never took her eyes off him,” although he “did not pay her any special attention”—no surprise, since he was already a man of the world, and she only on the cusp of adolescence. While everything else in the life of Lilibet was laid out for her, she made the most important decision on her own. “She never looked at anyone else,” said Elizabeth’s cousin Margaret Rhodes.\nDuring the war years, Philip came to visit his cousins occasionally at Windsor Castle, and he and the princess corresponded when he was at sea, serving with the Royal Navy in the Mediterranean and the Pacific. Friends and relatives detected a flutter of romance between Philip and Elizabeth by December 1943, when he was on leave at Windsor for Christmas and watched Elizabeth, then 17, perform in the “Aladdin” pantomime. The King was quite taken by Philip, telling his mother the young man was “intelligent, has a good sense of humour and thinks about things in the right way.” But both the King and Queen thought that Lilibet was too young to consider a serious suitor.\nPhilip visited Balmoral, the royal family’s estate in the Scottish Highlands, in the summer of 1944, and he wrote Queen Elizabeth about how he savored “the simple enjoyment of family pleasures and amusements and the feeling that I am welcome to share them.” That December, while Philip was away on active duty, his father died of cardiac arrest at age 62 in the room where he lived at the Hotel Metropole, in Monte Carlo. All he left his 23-year-old son were some trunks containing clothing, an ivory shaving brush, cuff links, and a signet ring that Philip would wear for the rest of his life.\nWhile Philip was completing his deployment in the Far East, Lilibet enjoyed the freedom of the postwar period. At a party given by the Grenfell family at their Belgravia home in February 1946 to celebrate the peace, the princess impressed Laura Grenfell as “absolutely natural … she opens with a very easy and cosy joke or remark She had everyone in fits talking about a sentry who lost his hat while presenting arms.” Elizabeth “danced every dance Thoroughly enjoying herself” as the “Guardsmen in uniform queued up.”\nPhilip finally returned to London in March 1946. He took up residence at the Mountbatten home on Chester Street, where he relied on his uncle’s butler to keep his threadbare wardrobe in good order. He was a frequent visitor to Buckingham Palace, roaring into the side entrance in a black MG sports car to join Lilibet in her sitting room for dinner, with Crawfie acting as duenna. Lilibet’s younger sister, Margaret, was invariably on hand as well, and Philip included her in their high jinks, playing ball and tearing around the long corridors. Crawfie was taken with Philip’s breezy charm and shirtsleeve informality—a stark contrast to the fusty courtiers surrounding the monarch.\nDuring a month-long stay at Balmoral late in the summer of 1946, Philip proposed to Elizabeth, and she accepted on the spot, without even consulting her parents. Her father consented on the condition that they keep their engagement a secret until it could be announced after her 21st birthday, the following April. Like the princess, Philip didn’t believe in public displays of affection, which made it easy to mask his feelings. But he revealed them privately in a touching letter to Queen Elizabeth in which he wondered if he deserved “all the good things which have happened to me,” especially “to have fallen in love completely and unreservedly.”\nA Royal Wedding\nPalace courtiers and aristocratic friends and relatives of the royal family viewed Philip suspiciously as a penniless interloper. They were irked that he seemed to lack proper deference toward his elders. But mostly they viewed him as a foreigner, specifically a “German” or, in their less gracious moments, a “Hun,” a term of deep disparagement after the bloody conflict so recently ended. Even though his mother had been born in Windsor Castle, and he had been educated in England and served admirably in the British Navy, Philip had a distinctly Continental flavor, and he lacked the clubby proclivities of the Old Etonians. What’s more, the Danish royal family that had ruled in Greece was in fact predominantly German, as was his maternal grandfather, Prince Louis of Battenberg.\nNone of the criticisms of Philip’s German blood or cheeky attitude was of any concern to Princess Elizabeth. A man of ideas and appealing complexity, he was a breath of fresh air to the heiress presumptive. It was clear that he would not be easy, but he would certainly not be boring. He shared her commitment to duty and service, but he also had an irreverence that could help lighten her official burdens at the end of a tiring day. His life had been as unfettered as hers had been structured, and he was unencumbered by the properties and competing responsibilities of a landed British aristocrat. According to their mutual cousin, Patricia Mountbatten, the princess also saw that, behind his protective shell, “Philip had a capacity for love which was waiting to be unlocked, and Elizabeth unlocked it.”\nThe princess “would not have been a difficult person to love,” said Patricia Mountbatten. “She was beautiful, amusing and gay. She was fun to take dancing or to the theater.” In the seven years since their first meeting, Lilibet (which is what Philip now called her, along with “darling”) had indeed become a beauty, her appeal enhanced by being petite. She did not have classical features but rather what Time magazine described as “pin-up” charm: big bosom (taking after her mother), narrow shoulders, a small waist, and shapely legs. Her curly brown hair framed her porcelain complexion, with cheeks that the photographer Cecil Beaton described as “sugar-pink,” vivid blue eyes, an ample mouth that widened into a dazzling smile, and an infectious laugh. “She sort of expands when she laughs,” said Margaret Rhodes. “She laughs with her whole face.”\nThe press caught wind of the cousins’ romance as early as October 1946, at the wedding of Patricia Mountbatten to Lord Brabourne at Romsey Abbey. Philip was an usher, and when the royal family arrived, he escorted them from their car. The princess turned as she removed her fur coat, and the cameras caught them gazing at each other lovingly. But no official confirmation followed, and the couple kept up an active social life. Elizabeth’s guardsmen friends served as her escorts to restaurants and fashionable clubs, and Philip would take Elizabeth and Margaret out to a party or a play. But he was only one among many young men to dance with the heiress presumptive.\nHe had been working as an instructor at the Naval Staff College, in Greenwich, and with the help of Dickie Mountbatten had secured his British citizenship in February 1947, giving up his title as H.R.H. Prince Philip of Greece. Since he had no surname, Philip decided on Mountbatten, the English version of his mother’s Battenberg.\nThe long-delayed engagement announcement came on July 9, 1947, followed by the happy couple’s introduction at a Buckingham Palace garden party the next day. Philip’s mother retrieved a tiara from a bank vault, and he used some of the diamonds to design an engagement ring created by Philip Antrobus, Ltd., a London jeweler. Several months later Philip was confirmed in the Church of England by the Archbishop of Canterbury.\nJust before his daughter’s wedding, the King gave his future son-in-law a collection of grand titles—Duke of Edinburgh, Earl of Merioneth, and Baron Greenwich—and decreed that he should be addressed as “His Royal Highness.” He would be called the Duke of Edinburgh, although he would continue to be known popularly as Prince Philip and would use his Christian name for his signature.\nOn November 18, the King and Queen had a celebratory ball at Buckingham Palace that dramatist Noël Coward called a “sensational evening Everyone looked shiny and happy.” Elizabeth and Philip were “radiant The whole thing was pictorially, dramatically and spiritually enchanting.” As was his habit, the King led a conga line through the staterooms of the palace, and the festivities ended after midnight. Philip was in charge of distributing gifts to his fiancée’s attendants: silver compacts in the Art Deco style with a gold crown above the bride’s and groom’s entwined initials and a row of five small cabochon sapphires. With typical insouciance, “he dealt them out like playing cards,” recalled Lady Elizabeth Longman, one of the two non-family members among the eight bridesmaids.\nThe morning of the wedding, two days later, Philip gave up smoking, a habit that had kept his valet, John Dean, “busy refilling the cigarette boxes.” But Philip knew how anguished Elizabeth was by her father’s addiction to cigarettes, so he stopped, according to Dean, “suddenly and apparently without difficulty.” Patricia Brabourne, who was also with her cousin that morning, said that Philip wondered if he was being “very brave or very foolish” by getting married, although not because he doubted his love for Lilibet. Rather, he worried that he would be relinquishing other aspects of his life that were meaningful. “Nothing was going to change for her,” his cousin recalled. “Everything was going to change for him.”\nOutside Westminster Abbey, tens of thousands of spectators gathered in freezing temperatures to welcome the princess and her father in the Irish State Coach. Two thousand guests enjoyed the splendor of the 11:30 A.M. ceremony in the abbey, an event that Winston Churchill called “a flash of colour on the hard road we have to travel.” Elizabeth’s dress, which had been designed by Norman Hartnell, was of pearl-and-crystal-encrusted ivory silk satin, with a 15-foot train held by the two five-year-old pages, Prince William of Gloucester and Prince Michael of Kent, who wore Royal Stewart tartan kilts and silk shirts. Her tulle veil was embroidered with lace and secured by Queen Mary’s diamond tiara, and Philip’s naval uniform glinted with his new Order of the Garter insignia pinned to his jacket. The Archbishop of York, Cyril Garbett, presided, telling the young couple that they should have “patience, a ready sympathy, and forbearance.”\nAfter the hour-long service, the bride and groom led a procession down the nave that included the crowned heads of Norway, Denmark, Romania, Greece, and Holland. Noticeably absent was the King’s brother, former King Edward VIII, now the Duke of Windsor, and his wife, for whom he had abdicated the throne. The estranged Windsors were living in Paris, unwelcome in London except for periodic visits. Although their exile may have seemed harsh, George VI, Queen Elizabeth, and their advisers had seen no alternative. A king and former king living in the same country would have resulted in two rival courts.\nWhile the bells of the abbey pealed, Elizabeth and Philip were driven to Buckingham Palace in the Glass Coach, preceded and followed by two regiments of the Household Cavalry on horseback. It was the most elaborate public display since the war, and the crowds responded with ecstatic cheers.\nAs a concession to Britain’s hard times, only 150 guests attended the “wedding breakfast,” which was actually luncheon in the Ball Supper Room. The “austerity” menu featured filet de sole Mountbatten, perdreau en casserole, and bombe glacée Princess Elizabeth. The tables were decorated with pink and white carnations, as well as small keepsake bouquets of myrtle and white Balmoral heather at each place setting. The bride and groom cut the wedding cake—four tiers standing nine feet high—with Philip’s Mountbatten sword.\nThe King didn’t subject himself to the strain of making a speech, celebrating the moment instead with a raised glass of champagne to “the bride.” After being showered with rose petals in the palace forecourt, the newlyweds were transported in an open carriage drawn by four horses—“the bride snugly ensconced in a nest of hot-water bottles”—to Waterloo Station.\nThey spent a week at Broadlands, the Mountbatten estate in Hampshire, and two weeks in snowbound seclusion at Birkhall, an early-18th-century white stone lodge on the Balmoral estate, set in the woods on the banks of the river Muick. With its Victorian décor and memories of childhood summers before her parents became King and Queen, Elizabeth could relax in a place she considered home. Dressed in army boots and a sleeveless leather jacket lined with wool, she went deerstalking with her husband, feeling “like a female Russian commando leader followed by her faithful cut-throats, all armed to the teeth with rifles,” she wrote to Margaret Rhodes.\nShe also sent her parents tender letters thanking them for all they had given her, and the example they had set. “I only hope that I can bring up my children in the happy atmosphere of love and fairness which Margaret and I have grown up in,” she wrote, adding that she and her new husband “behave as though we had belonged to each other for years! Philip is an angel—he is so kind and thoughtful.” Philip revealed his carefully cloaked emotions when he wrote to his mother-in-law, “Cherish Lilibet? I wonder if that word is enough to express what is in me.” He declared that his new wife was “the only ‘thing’ in this world which is absolutely real to me and my ambition is to weld the two of us into a new combined existence that will not only be able to withstand the shocks directed at us but will also have a positive existence for the good.”\nA Sailor’s Wife\nThe honeymooners were back in London in time for the 52nd birthday of King George VI, on December 14, ready to begin their new life. They chose to live in Clarence House, the 19th-century residence adjacent to St. James’s Palace, just down the Mall from her parents. But the house needed extensive renovations, so they moved temporarily into an apartment in Buckingham Palace. Philip had a paper-pushing job at the Admiralty, to which he would walk on weekdays. Elizabeth was kept busy by her private secretary, John “Jock” Colville.\nBy May 1948, Elizabeth was four months pregnant, and behind closed doors was suffering from nausea. Even so, she and Philip kept up an active social life. They went to the races at Epsom and Ascot and joined friends at restaurants, nightclubs, and dances. For a costume party at Coppins, the home of the Duchess of Kent, Elizabeth dressed “in black lace, with a large comb and mantilla, as an Infanta,” wrote diarist Chips Channon, and “danced every dance until nearly 5 A.M.” Philip “was wildly gay,” Channon observed, in a “policeman’s hat and hand-cuffs. He leapt about and jumped into the air as he greeted everybody.”\nWhen they were with friends such as Rupert and Camilla Nevill and John and Patricia Brabourne, the royal couple showed an easy affection toward each other. During a visit to the Brabournes in Kent, John said to Philip, “I never realized what lovely skin she has.” “Yes,” Philip replied, “she’s like that all over.”\nIn the early evening of November 14, 1948, word went out that Princess Elizabeth had gone into labor in her second-floor bedroom at Buckingham Palace, where a hospital suite had been prepared for the baby’s arrival. Philip passed the time playing squash with three courtiers. Senior members of the household gathered in the Equerry’s Room, a ground-floor drawing room that was equipped with a well-stocked bar, and shortly afterward were told that Elizabeth had given birth to a seven-pound-six-ounce son at 9:14. They set to work writing “Prince” on telegrams and calling the Home Office, Prime Minister Clement Attlee, and Winston Churchill, the leader of the opposition. “I knew she’d do it!” exclaimed Commander Richard Colville, press secretary to the King, exultant over the arrival of a male heir. “She’d never let us down.”\nSir John Weir, one of the official physicians to the royal family, confided to Queen Elizabeth’s private secretary, Major Thomas Harvey, that he’d “never been so pleased to see a male organ in all his life.” Queen Elizabeth was “beaming with happiness,” and George VI was “simply delighted by the success of everything.” Philip, still dressed in sneakers and sports clothes, joined his wife as her anesthesia wore off, presented her with a bouquet of roses and carnations, and gave her a kiss.\nElizabeth and Philip named their son Charles Philip Arthur George. “I had no idea that one could be kept so busy in bed—there seems to be something happening all the time!,” Elizabeth wrote to her cousin Lady Mary Cambridge two weeks after giving birth. “I still find it hard to believe that I really have a baby of my own!” The new mother was particularly taken with her son’s “fine, long fingers—quite unlike mine and certainly unlike his father’s,” as she described them in a letter to her former music teacher, Mabel Lander. For nearly two months the princess breast-fed her son, until she fell ill with measles—one of several childhood diseases she had missed by being tutored at home rather than going to school with classmates—and Charles had to be sent away temporarily so that he wouldn’t catch the illness.\nWhen the family moved into Clarence House, early in the summer of 1949, Elizabeth and Philip had adjacent, connecting bedrooms. “In England the upper class always have had separate bedrooms,” explained their cousin Lady Pamela Mountbatten (later Hicks). “You don’t want to be bothered with snoring, or someone flinging a leg around. Then when you are feeling cozy you share your room sometimes. It is lovely to be able to choose.”\nThat October, Philip resumed active service when he was appointed first lieutenant and second-in-command of the destroyer H.M.S. Chequers, based on the small island nation of Malta, in the Mediterranean, which had been part of the British Empire since 1814 and served as an important shipping center and outpost for the Mediterranean Fleet. According to John Dean, the royal couple “were advised that conditions [in Malta] were not suitable for the infant Prince.” Elizabeth could have stayed in London with her son, but she decided instead to spend as much time as possible with her husband. She had been accustomed to long parental absences while she was growing up, so her decision to leave Charles wouldn’t have raised eyebrows. She had expert nannies in charge, not to mention her own parents, who were eager to keep their grandson company. Elizabeth would visit Malta for long stretches of time, returning at intervals to Clarence House.\nShe left six days after Charles’s first birthday, in time to join Philip for their second wedding anniversary. Beyond minimal royal obligations, Elizabeth was given unaccustomed freedom and anonymity. “I think her happiest time was when she was a sailor’s wife in Malta,” said Margaret Rhodes. “It was as nearly an ordinary a life as she got.” She socialized with other officers’ wives, went to the hair salon, chatted over tea, carried and spent her own cash—although shopkeepers “noticed that she was slow in handling money,” according to biographer Elizabeth Longford. The royal couple lived a significant cut above the ordinary, however, in Earl Mountbatten’s Villa Guardamangia, a spacious sandstone house built into a hill at the top of a narrow road, with romantic terraces, orange trees, and gardens. Dickie Mountbatten was commanding the First Cruiser Squadron, and his wife, Edwina, accompanied Elizabeth on her first flight to Malta.\nPhilip and Elizabeth spent Christmas of 1949 on the island, while their son stayed with his grandparents at Sandringham. After Chequers sailed out for duty in the Red Sea at the end of December, the princess flew back to England. She stopped first for several days in London, with a detour to Hurst Park to see her steeplechaser, Monaveen, win a race, before she was re-united with Charles in Norfolk after five weeks apart.\nWhen Philip returned from naval maneuvers, Elizabeth rejoined him in Malta at the end of March 1950 for an idyllic six weeks. Much to Uncle Dickie’s delight, he and his wife spent a lot of time with the royal couple, exploring the island’s coves by boat, sunbathing, and picnicking. They cheered the Mountbattens’ younger daughter, Pamela, when she won the ladies’ race at the riding club, and in the evenings they went to the Phoenicia Hotel for dinner and dancing.\nDuring these weeks, Elizabeth grew closer to the uncle who had taken such a prominent role in her husband’s life. He gave her a polo pony and went riding with her, encouraging her to perfect her skills at sidesaddle, which she “loathed,” recalled Pamela, “because she felt out of touch with the horse. She felt marooned up there and much preferred to ride astride.” But in part because of Uncle Dickie’s persistence, “she was a very good sidesaddle rider.”\nAlso at Dickie’s urging, Philip took up polo—“a very fast, very dangerous, very exciting game.” Elizabeth shrewdly advised him how to persuade her husband: “Don’t say anything. Don’t push it. Don’t nag. Just leave it alone.”\nOn May 9 she flew back to London, six months pregnant and ready to resume some of her royal duties. Jock Colville had left the household the previous autumn to return to the diplomatic corps, and his replacement was 36-year-old Martin Charteris, who was enraptured by the princess on their first meeting.\nElizabeth gave birth at Clarence House on August 15, 1950, at 11:50 A.M., to her second child, Anne Elizabeth Alice Louise. Philip had returned to London two weeks earlier, which gave him time to get re-acquainted with his 21-month-old son after almost a year away. But his first command, of the frigate H.M.S. Magpie—and a promotion to lieutenant commander—sent him back to Malta in early September. As she had with Charles, Elizabeth breast-fed her daughter for several months. She celebrated Charles’s second birthday and left shortly thereafter for Malta. Yet again the family was split at Christmas, with mother and father celebrating on their own while the children were at Sandringham with their grandparents, who unabashedly doted on them. Queen Elizabeth sent regular letters to her daughter, reporting Charles “giving himself an ecstatic hug,” Anne “so pretty & neat & very feminine,” and “Everybody loves them so, and they cheer us up more than I can say.”\nBut the couple’s time in the Mediterranean was coming to an end. King George VI had been in declining health since 1948, increasingly plagued by pain and numbness resulting from arteriosclerosis. In March 1949 he had undergone surgery to improve circulation in his legs. He continued to carry out his duties, but his appearance was gaunt, and by May 1951 he was seriously ill with a chronic cough that did not respond to treatment.\nElizabeth came home to stand in for her father at a variety of events, and Philip returned to London in July when it became clear that the royal couple would be needed full-time to represent the sovereign. He took an open-ended leave from the navy, but in effect the 30-year-old duke was ending his military career after only 11 months of enjoying the satisfaction of his own command—“the happiest of my sailor life.” Much later Philip would say philosophically, “I thought I was going to have a career in the Navy but it became obvious there was no hope… . There was no choice. It just happened. You have to make compromises. That’s life. I accepted it. I tried to make the best of it.”\nIn September, George VI had a biopsy that revealed a malignancy, and surgeons removed his left lung in a three-hour operation. The cancer diagnosis was not openly discussed and certainly not given out to the press, but the family understood the severity of the King’s condition.\nFrom Heiress Presumptive to Queen\nElizabeth and Philip had been scheduled to leave for a state visit to Canada and the United States, which they postponed by two weeks until they were reassured that her father was in no imminent danger. They departed at midnight on October 8, 1951, and arrived 16 hours later in Montreal—the beginning of a 35-day trek of more than 10,000 miles to the Pacific and back.\nThe essential public routine that the royal couple would use over the decades took shape in those long days: Elizabeth was the restrained presence, her smiles tentative and infrequent, which prompted criticism in some press accounts. “My face is aching with smiling,” she complained to Martin Charteris when she heard the reports on her dour demeanor. Philip, always at a discreet distance behind, was already providing comic relief. Once, he went over the line, committing the first of his famous “gaffes” when he jokingly observed that Canada was “a good investment”—a remark that stuck in the Canadians’ craw for its neo-imperial implication.\nThe scope and pace of the trip were punishing. They made more than 70 stops, and on a single day in Ontario they visited eight towns. Through it all, Elizabeth worried about the health of her father. Philip tried to keep the atmosphere light, but he clearly found the journey stressful. “He was impatient. He was restless,” recalled Martin Charteris. “He hadn’t yet defined his role He was certainly very impatient with the old-style courtiers and sometimes, I think, felt that the Princess paid more attention to them than to him. He didn’t like that. If he called her a ‘bloody fool’ now and again, it was just his way. I think others would have found it more shocking than she did.”\nFor much of the trip, Philip wore his naval uniform, and Elizabeth favored discreetly tailored suits and close-fitting hats, as well as fur coats and capes. During their visit to Niagara Falls, they had to wear oilskin suits on the spray-lashed observation deck. Pulling her hood tight, Elizabeth exclaimed, “This will ruin my hair!”\nSeveral weeks later, the royal couple boarded a plane for Washington and set foot on American soil for the first time on October 31. President Harry S. Truman observed that his daughter, Margaret, who had met the princess during a visit to England, “tells me when everyone becomes acquainted with you, they immediately fall in love with you.” The 67-year-old president counted himself among them, calling Elizabeth a “fairy princess.” Elizabeth enunciated every word of her reply, her high voice a model of cut-glass precision, proclaiming that “free men everywhere look towards the United States with affection and with hope.”\nAt a Rose Garden ceremony, the royal couple presented the Trumans with a mirror adorned with a painting of flowers, to be hung in the refurbished Blue Room as a “welcome ornament … a mark of our friendship.” Their visit ended with a white-tie dinner in honor of the Trumans at the Canadian Embassy.\nThey had a rough return trip across the North Atlantic aboard the Empress of Scotland. Only Elizabeth managed to avoid seasickness and show up regularly at mealtimes, and veteran sailor Philip was furious about his own weakness. On arrival at the Liverpool dockyards three days after Prince Charles’s third birthday, they boarded the Royal Train for London’s Euston Station. Waiting on the platform were Queen Elizabeth, Princess Margaret, and Prince Charles, who had not seen his parents in more than a month.\nWhen the princess and duke stepped off the train, Elizabeth rushed to hug her mother and kiss her on both cheeks. For tiny Charles, she simply leaned down and gave him a peck on the top of his head before turning to kiss Margaret. “Britain’s heiress presumptive puts her duty first,” explained a newsreel announcer. “Motherly love must await the privacy of Clarence House.” Prince Philip was even less demonstrative, touching his son on the shoulder to indicate they should move along to the waiting limousines. As they passed through the station, Prince Charles was again with his grandmother, while his parents walked ahead.\nAfter Christmas, the ailing King deputed Elizabeth and Philip to represent him on a long-planned six-month tour of Australia, New Zealand, and Ceylon. The couple decided to add several days in the beginning of the trip to visit the British colony of Kenya, which had given them a retreat at the foot of Mount Kenya called Sagana Lodge as a wedding gift. After settling into the lodge, Elizabeth and Philip spent a night at Treetops Hotel, a three-bedroom cabin built among the branches of a large fig tree above an illuminated salt lick in a game preserve. Dressed in khaki trousers and a bush scarf, Elizabeth excitedly filmed the animals with her movie camera. At sunset, she and Philip spotted a herd of 30 elephants. “Look, Philip, they’re pink!” she said, not realizing that the gray pachyderms had been rolling in pink dust.\nBack at Sagana on the morning of February 6, the princess’s aides learned that the 56-year-old King had died from a blood clot in his heart. Princess Elizabeth Alexandra Mary was now Queen, at age 25. When Philip was told, he muttered that it would be “the most appalling shock” for his wife, then walked into her bedroom and broke the news to her. She shed no tears, but looked “pale and worried.”\n“What are you going to call yourself?” asked Martin Charteris as Elizabeth came to grips with the loss of her father. “My own name, of course. What else?” she replied. But some clarification was necessary, since her mother had been called Queen Elizabeth. The new monarch would be Queen Elizabeth II (following her 16th-century predecessor, Elizabeth I), but she would be known as the Queen. Her mother would become Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother, rather than the fustier Dowager Queen. Elizabeth II would be Queen Regnant, and her royal cypher E II R.\n“It was all very sudden,” she recalled four decades later. Her task, she said, was “kind of taking it on, and making the best job you can. It’s a question of maturing into something that one’s got used to doing, and accepting the fact that here you are, and it’s your fate, because I think continuity is important.”\nDressed in a simple black coat and hat, she held her composure as she arrived at the airport in London near dusk on February 7, 1952, after a 19-hour flight. Waiting on the tarmac was a small delegation led by her uncle the Duke of Gloucester and Prime Minister Winston Churchill. She slowly shook hands with each of them, and they gave her deep bows. A Daimler bearing the sovereign’s coat of arms on its roof drove her to Clarence House, where 84-year-old Queen Mary honored her by reversing roles, curtsying and kissing her hand, although she couldn’t help adding, “Lilibet, your skirts are much too short for mourning.”\nThe next day, the new Queen went to St. James’s Palace, where she appeared for 20 minutes before several hundred members of the Accession Council, a ceremonial body including the Privy Council—the principal advisory group to the monarch, drawn from senior ranks of politicians, the clergy, and the judiciary—along with other prominent officials from Britain and the Commonwealth. She had been monarch since the moment of her father’s death, but the council was convened to hear her proclamation and religious oath. She would not be crowned until her coronation, in 16 months, but she was fully empowered to carry out her duties as sovereign.\nThe men of the council bowed to the 40th monarch since William the Conqueror took the English throne after the Battle of Hastings, in 1066. Elizabeth II declared in a clear voice that “by the sudden death of my dear father, I am called to assume the duties and responsibilities of sovereignty. My heart is too full for me to say more to you today than I shall always work, as my father did throughout his reign, to advance the happiness and prosperity of my peoples, spread as they are the world over.... I pray that God will help me to discharge worthily this heavy task that has been lain upon me so early in my life.” As her husband escorted her out, she was in tears.\nBy April, the royal family had moved to Buckingham Palace, and the new Queen adapted to an office schedule that has scarcely varied throughout her reign. Adjusting to his position as the Queen’s consort proved troublesome for Philip. “For a real action man, that was very hard to begin with,” said Patricia Brabourne. While everything was mapped out for Elizabeth II, he had to invent his job under the scrutiny of her courtiers, and he had no role model to follow.\nPrince Philip was still considered an outsider by some senior officials of the court. “Refugee husband,” he mockingly referred to himself. “Philip was constantly being squashed, snubbed, ticked off, rapped over the knuckles,” said John Brabourne. Much of the wariness stemmed from Philip’s closeness to Dickie Mountbatten. “My father was considered pink—very progressive,” Patricia Brabourne recalled. “The worry was that Prince Philip would bring into court modern ideas and make people uncomfortable.”\nThe Consort’s Role\nThe most hurtful rebuff had occurred in the days following the King’s death, after Queen Mary heard that Dickie Mountbatten had triumphantly announced that “the House of Mountbatten now reigned.” She and her daughter-in-law the Queen Mother were angered by his presumption, and the Queen shared their view that she should honor the allegiance of her grandfather and her father to the House of Windsor by keeping the Windsor name rather than taking that of her husband. Churchill and his Cabinet agreed. Philip responded with a memo to Churchill vigorously objecting to the prime minister’s advice and pressing instead for the House of Mountbatten, which was ironic. It was his mother’s family name, since his father had given him no surname.\nThe Queen failed to foresee that her actions would have a profound impact on Philip, leading to strains in their marriage. “She was very young,” said Patricia Brabourne. “Churchill was elderly and experienced, and she accepted his constitutional advice. I felt that if it had been later she would have been able to say, ‘I don’t agree.’ ”\n“I am the only man in the country not allowed to give his name to his children,” Philip fumed to friends. “I’m nothing but a bloody amoeba.” Dickie Mountbatten was even more outspoken, blaming “that old drunk Churchill” who “forced” the Queen’s position. The prime minister mistrusted and resented Earl Mountbatten, largely because as India’s last Viceroy, appointed by Prime Minister Clement Attlee, he had presided over that country’s move to independence. “Churchill never forgave my father for ‘giving away India,’ ” said Patricia Brabourne.\nBehind the scenes, Dickie continued a campaign to reverse the decision, with his nephew’s acquiescence. Meanwhile, Philip resolved to support his wife while finding his own niche, which would lead in the following decades to the active patronage of more than 800 different charities embracing sports, youth, wildlife conservation, education, and environmental causes.\nWithin the family, Philip also took over management of all the royal estates, to “save her a lot of time,” he said. But even more significantly, as Prince Charles’s official biographer Jonathan Dimbleby wrote in 1994, the Queen “would submit entirely to the father’s will” in decisions concerning their children.\nShe made Philip the ultimate domestic arbiter, Dimbleby wrote, because “she was not indifferent so much as detached.” Newspaper editor and Conservative politician William Deedes saw in Elizabeth’s detachment “her struggle to be a worthy head of state, which was a heavy burden for her. The Queen in her own quiet way is immensely kind, but she had too little time to fulfill her family care. I find it totally understandable, but it led to problems.”\nFollowing her coronation, on June 2, 1953, the Queen turned her full attention to an ambitious five-and-a-half-month world tour covering 43,000 miles, from Bermuda to the Cocos Islands, by plane and ship. It was her first extended trip as sovereign, and the first time a British monarch had circled the globe.\nFive-year-old Prince Charles and three-year-old Princess Anne spoke to the Queen and Prince Philip by radiotelephone, but otherwise news of their progress came in regular letters from the Queen Mother, who had them for weekends at Royal Lodge, her house in Windsor Great Park. Just as Elizabeth and Margaret had followed their parents’ travels on maps, Prince Charles traced his parents’ route on a globe in his nursery.\nThe crowds everywhere were enormous and enthusiastic. Masses of welcoming boats jammed Sydney Harbor, and by one count, three-quarters of Australia’s population came out to see the Queen. At age 27 she was hailed as the “world’s sweetheart.” But the royal couple refused to let their celebrity go to their heads. “The level of adulation, you wouldn’t believe it,” Philip recalled. “It could have been corroding. It would have been very easy to play to the gallery, but I took a conscious decision not to do that. Safer not to be too popular. You can’t fall too far.”\nThe Duke of Edinburgh also helped his wife stay on an even keel when she became frustrated after endless hours of making polite conversation. Meeting and greeting thousands of people at receptions and garden parties actually gave her a temporary facial tic. But when she was watching a performance or a parade, and her face was in repose, she looked grumpy, even formidable. As the Queen herself once ruefully acknowledged, “The trouble is that, unlike my mother, I don’t have a naturally smiley face.” From time to time, Philip would jolly his wife. “Don’t look so sad, Sausage,” he said during an event in Sydney. Or he might provoke a grin by reciting Scripture at odd moments, once inquiring sotto voce, “What meaneth then this bleating of the sheep?”\nAt Tobruk, in Libya, the Queen and Prince Philip transferred to Britannia, the new, 412-foot royal yacht with a gleaming deep-blue hull, which they had designed together with architect Sir Hugh Casson. For its maiden voyage, Britannia took Prince Charles and Princess Anne to be re-united with their parents in early May 1954 for the first time in nearly half a year. The Queen was pleased that she would be seeing her children earlier than she had anticipated, but she worried that they wouldn’t know their parents.\nStill, when the moment came and the Queen was piped aboard, her strict control and conformity to protocol prevailed as it had when she met her son after her Canada trip. “No, not you, dear,” she said as she greeted dignitaries first, then shook the five-year-old’s extended hand. The private reunion was warm and affectionate as Charles showed his mother all around the yacht, where he had been living for more than a week. The Queen told her mother how happy she was to be with her “enchanting” children again. They had both “gravely offered us their hands,” she wrote, “partly I suppose because they were somewhat overcome by the fact that we were really there and partly because they have met so many new people recently! However the ice broke very quickly and we have been subjected to a very energetic routine and innumerable questions which have left us gasping!”\nIn the autumn of 1957, the royal couple set off for their second trip to the United States, a state visit hosted by the 67-year-old president, Dwight D. Eisenhower, with whom the Queen had an affectionate relationship that dated back to World War II, when he was in London as supreme allied commander. Unlike the Queen’s lightning visit in 1951, this would be a full-dress affair: six days in Washington, New York, and Jamestown, Virginia, where she would celebrate the 350th anniversary of the founding of the first British colony in America.\nAfter a day-long visit to Williamsburg and Jamestown on October 16, the royal couple flew to Washington on Eisenhower’s aircraft, the Columbine III, a swift and sleek propeller plane with four powerful engines. As they waited to take off, Philip immersed himself in a newspaper while Elizabeth unlocked her monogrammed leather writing case and began writing postcards to her children. “Philip?” she suddenly said. Her husband kept reading. “Philip!” she repeated. He glanced up, startled. “Which engines do they start first on a big plane like this?” Her husband looked momentarily perplexed. “Come on now,” she said with a laugh. “Don’t wait until they actually start them, Philip!” He offered a guess, which turned out to be correct. (They went in sequence, first on one wing from the inner engine to the outer, then the inner followed by the outer on the other wing.) “He was flustered,” recalled Ruth Buchanan, wife of Wiley T. Buchanan Jr., Eisenhower’s chief of protocol, who sat nearby. “It was so like what an ordinary wife would do when her husband wasn’t paying attention.”\nRiding into the capital with the president and his wife, Mamie, in a bubbletop limousine, accompanied by 16 bands, they were cheered along the route into Washington by more than a million people, who were undaunted by intermittent rain showers. The royal couple spent their four nights in the most elegant guest quarters in the recently renovated White House—the Rose Suite, furnished in Federal style, for the Queen, and the Lincoln Bedroom for the Duke of Edinburgh.\nMuch of the visit was given over to the usual receptions, formal dinners at the White House and British Embassy (complete with gold plates flown over from Buckingham Palace), and tours of local sights. It was evident to Ruth Buchanan that the Queen was “very certain, and very comfortable in her role She was very much in control of what she did, although she did laugh at my husband’s jokes.” Once, when Buchanan was waiting for her husband to escort the royal couple to their limousine, “I could hear her guffawing. You didn’t realize she had that hearty laugh. But the minute she rounded the corner and saw us, she just straightened up.”\nVice President Richard Nixon treated the royal couple to a luncheon with 96 guests in the orchid-bedecked Old Supreme Court Chamber, in the Capitol. Elizabeth had specifically asked to see an American football “match,” so the White House arranged for her to sit in a “royal box” at the 50-yard line at the University of Maryland’s Byrd Stadium for a game against the University of North Carolina. On the way she spotted a Giant supermarket and asked if a visit might be arranged so she “could see how American housewives shop for food.”\nTo the cheers of 43,000 spectators, the Queen walked onto the field to chat with two opposing players. Dressed in a $15,000 mink coat given to her by the Mutation Mink Breeders Association, a group of American fur farmers, she watched the game intently but seemed “perturbed” whenever the players threw blocks. While the royal pair was being entertained at halftime, security men raced back to the supermarket to arrange for a royal visit on the fly. After Maryland’s 21–7 victory, the motorcade arrived at the Queenstown Shopping Center at five P.M., to the amazement of hundreds of shoppers. Elizabeth and Philip had never before seen a supermarket, a phenomenon then unknown in Britain.\nWith the curiosity of anthropologists and an informality they had not displayed publicly in Britain, they spent 15 minutes shaking hands, quizzing customers, and inspecting the contents of shopping carts. “How nice that you can bring your children along,” said Elizabeth, nodding toward the little seat in one housewife’s cart. She took a particular interest in frozen chicken pot pies, while Philip nibbled on sample crackers with cheese and joked, “Good for mice!”\nAn exuberant welcome awaited them in New York City. The Queen had asked specifically to see Manhattan “as it should be approached,” from the water, a vista she had been dreaming about since childhood. “Wheeeee!” she exclaimed as she caught her first glimpse of the Lower Manhattan skyline from the deck of a U.S. Army ferryboat. A crowd of 1.25 million lined the streets from Battery Park to City Hall and northward to the Waldorf-Astoria for their ticker-tape parade.\nShe had only 15 hours in the city to fulfill her wish list and shake some 3,000 hands. Wearing a dark-blue satin cocktail dress and close-fitting pink velvet hat, she addressed the representatives of 82 countries at the United Nations General Assembly. At the conclusion of her six-minute speech, the audience of 2,000 responded with “a thunderous standing ovation.” During a reception with delegates, Philip talked to Soviet ambassador Andrei Gromyko about the recently launched Sputnik satellite.\nThe royal couple were fêted at two meals at the Waldorf: a luncheon for 1,700 hosted by Mayor Robert Wagner and a dinner for 4,500 given by the English-Speaking Union and the Pilgrims of the United States. In between, the Queen took in the “tremendous” view from the 102nd floor of the Empire State Building at twilight—another specific request. As the white-tie banquet began, in the Grand Ballroom, the punishing schedule was beginning to take its toll, even on an energetic 31-year-old Queen. The New York Times noted that her speech was the “one time during the program … when the fatigue showed through … She made no effort to force a smile … and although she stumbled over her text only once, her voice plainly showed it.”\nHer final stop that night was a Royal Commonwealth ball for another 4,500 guests at the Seventh Regiment Armory, on Park Avenue. One aviator blinded in World War I tried to get up from his wheelchair to greet her. “She put a gentle hand on his shoulder and told him that he should not rise,” recalled Wiley Buchanan. “She spoke to him for several moments, then moved on.”\n“You both have captivated the people of our country by your charm and graciousness,” Eisenhower wrote in his farewell letter to the royal couple.\nHappy Ever Since\nAfter a hiatus of six years, the 31-year-old monarch was keen to have more children, as was her husband. Dickie Mountbatten blamed the delay on Philip’s anger over the Queen’s rejection of his family name after the accession. But by her own account, she had postponed her dream of having a large family primarily because she wanted to concentrate on establishing herself as an effective monarch.\nDuring a visit to Buckingham Palace in 1957, Eleanor Roosevelt met with Elizabeth for nearly an hour the day after Prince Charles had undergone a tonsillectomy. The former First Lady found her to be “just as calm and composed as if she did not have a very unhappy little boy on her mind.” Elizabeth reported that Charles had already been fed ice cream to soothe his painful throat, yet it was 6:30 in the evening, and she was compelled to entertain the widow of a former U.S. president rather than sit at the bedside of her eight-year-old son.\nWhile the Queen certainly loved her children, she had fallen into professional habits that kept her apart from them much of the time. They benefited from nurturing nannies and a doting grandmother. But because of her dogged devotion to duty, amplified by her natural inhibitions and aversion to confrontation, Elizabeth had missed out on many maternal challenges as well as satisfactions.\nIn May 1959, after Philip’s return from a four-month goodwill tour aboard Britannia, Elizabeth got pregnant at last. Once she hit the six-month mark, she withdrew from her official duties. But one bit of unfinished business needed to be resolved. When Prime Minister Harold Macmillan visited her at Sandringham in early January 1960, she told him that she needed to revisit the issue of her family name, which had been irritating her husband since she decided in 1952 to use Windsor rather than Mountbatten. “The Queen only wishes (properly enough) to do something to please her husband—with whom she is desperately in love,” the prime minister wrote in his diary. “What upsets me … is the Prince’s almost brutal attitude to the Queen over all this.” Somewhat cryptically he added, “I shall never forget what she said to me that Sunday night at Sandringham.”\nMacmillan left shortly afterward for a trip to Africa, leaving the resolution of the Queen’s tricky family problem to Rab Butler, his deputy prime minister, and Lord Kilmuir, who served as the government’s legal arbiter as the lord chancellor. Butler sent a telegram to Macmillan in Johannesburg on January 27, saying that the Queen had “absolutely set her heart” on making a change for Philip’s sake. By one account, Butler confided to a friend that Elizabeth had been “in tears.”\nFollowing discussions among her private secretaries and government ministers, a formula emerged in which the royal family would continue to be called “the House and Family of Windsor,” but the Queen’s “de-royalised” descendants—starting with any grandchildren who lacked the designation of “royal highness”—would adopt the surname “Mountbatten-Windsor.” Those in the immediate line of succession, including all of the Queen’s children, would continue to be called “Windsor.” It seemed clear-cut, but 13 years later Princess Anne, at the urging of Dickie and Prince Charles, would contravene the policy on her wedding day by signing the marriage register as “Mountbatten-Windsor.”\nElizabeth announced the compromise in a statement on February 8, 1960, saying, “The Queen has had this in mind for a long time and it is close to her heart.” On February 19, at 33, she gave birth to her second son. In a gesture of wifely devotion, Elizabeth named the boy Andrew, after the father Philip had lost 15 years earlier.\nShare" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Jehovah's_Witnesses.txt" ], "title": [ "Jehovah's Witnesses" ], "wiki_context": [ "Jehovah's Witnesses is a millenarian restorationist Christian denomination with nontrinitarian beliefs distinct from mainstream Christianity.Sources for descriptors:• Millenarian: • Restorationist: • Christian: • Denomination: The group claims a worldwide membership of more than 8.2 million adherents involved in evangelism, convention attendance figures of more than 15 million, and an annual Memorial attendance of more than 19.9 million. Jehovah's Witnesses are directed by the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses, a group of elders in Brooklyn, New York, which establishes all doctrines based on its interpretations of the Bible. They prefer to use their own translation, the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures, although their literature occasionally quotes and cites other translations. They believe that the destruction of the present world system at Armageddon is imminent, and that the establishment of God's kingdom over the earth is the only solution for all problems faced by humanity. \n\nThe group emerged from the Bible Student movement, founded in the late 1870s by Charles Taze Russell with the formation of Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society, with significant organizational and doctrinal changes under the leadership of Joseph Franklin Rutherford. The name Jehovah's witnesses was adopted in 1931 to distinguish themselves from other Bible Student groups and symbolize a break with the legacy of Russell's traditions.\n\nJehovah's Witnesses are best known for their door-to-door preaching, distributing literature such as The Watchtower and Awake!, and refusing military service and blood transfusions. They consider use of the name Jehovah vital for proper worship. They reject Trinitarianism, inherent immortality of the soul, and hellfire, which they consider to be unscriptural doctrines. They do not observe Christmas, Easter, birthdays or other holidays and customs they consider to have pagan origins incompatible with Christianity. Adherents commonly refer to their body of beliefs as \"the truth\" and consider themselves to be \"in the truth\". They consider secular society to be morally corrupt and under the influence of Satan, and most limit their social interaction with non-Witnesses. Congregational disciplinary actions include disfellowshipping, their term for formal expulsion and shunning. Baptized individuals who formally leave are considered disassociated and are also shunned. Disfellowshipped and disassociated individuals may eventually be reinstated if deemed repentant. \n\nThe religion's position regarding conscientious objection to military service and refusal to salute national flags has brought it into conflict with some governments. Consequently, some Jehovah's Witnesses have been persecuted and their activities are banned or restricted in some countries. Persistent legal challenges by Jehovah's Witnesses have influenced legislation related to civil rights in several countries. \n\nThe organization has attracted criticism over issues surrounding biblical translation, doctrines, handling of sexual abuse cases, and alleged coercion of its members. The claims are rejected by the religion's leaders, and some have been disputed by courts and religious scholars.\n\nHistory\n\nBackground (1870–1916)\n\nIn 1870, Charles Taze Russell and others formed a group in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to study the Bible. During the course of his ministry, Russell disputed many beliefs of mainstream Christianity including immortality of the soul, hellfire, predestination, the fleshly return of Jesus Christ, the Trinity, and the burning up of the world. In 1876, Russell met Nelson H. Barbour; later that year they jointly produced the book Three Worlds, which combined restitutionist views with end time prophecy. The book taught that God's dealings with humanity were divided dispensationally, each ending with a \"harvest,\" that Christ had returned as an invisible spirit being in 1874 inaugurating the \"harvest of the Gospel age,\" and that 1914 would mark the end of a 2520-year period called \"the Gentile Times,\" at which time world society would be replaced by the full establishment of God's kingdom on earth. Beginning in 1878 Russell and Barbour jointly edited a religious journal, Herald of the Morning. In June 1879 the two split over doctrinal differences, and in July, Russell began publishing the magazine Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence, stating that its purpose was to demonstrate that the world was in \"the last days,\" and that a new age of earthly and human restitution under the reign of Christ was imminent. \n\nFrom 1879, Watch Tower supporters gathered as autonomous congregations to study the Bible topically. Thirty congregations were founded, and during 1879 and 1880, Russell visited each to provide the format he recommended for conducting meetings. As congregations continued to form during Russell's ministry, they each remained self-administrative, functioning under the congregationalist style of church governance. In 1881, Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society was presided over by William Henry Conley, and in 1884, Charles Taze Russell incorporated the society as a non-profit business to distribute tracts and Bibles. By about 1900, Russell had organized thousands of part- and full-time colporteurs, and was appointing foreign missionaries and establishing branch offices. By the 1910s, Russell's organization maintained nearly a hundred \"pilgrims,\" or traveling preachers. Russell engaged in significant global publishing efforts during his ministry, and by 1912, he was the most distributed Christian author in the United States. \n\nRussell moved the Watch Tower Society's headquarters to Brooklyn, New York, in 1909, combining printing and corporate offices with a house of worship; volunteers were housed in a nearby residence he named Bethel. He identified the religious movement as \"Bible Students,\" and more formally as the International Bible Students Association. By 1910, about 50,000 people worldwide were associated with the movement and congregations re-elected him annually as their \"pastor.\" Russell died October 31, 1916, at the age of 64 while returning from a ministerial speaking tour. \n\nReorganization (1917–1942)\n\nIn January 1917, the Watch Tower Society's legal representative, Joseph Franklin Rutherford, was elected as its next president. His election was disputed, and members of the Board of Directors accused him of acting in an autocratic and secretive manner. The divisions between his supporters and opponents triggered a major turnover of members over the next decade. In June 1917, he released The Finished Mystery as a seventh volume of Russell's Studies in the Scriptures series. The book, published as the posthumous work of Russell, was a compilation of his commentaries on the Bible books of Ezekiel and Revelation, plus numerous additions by Bible Students Clayton Woodworth and George Fisher. It strongly criticized Catholic and Protestant clergy and Christian involvement in the Great War. As a result, Watch Tower Society directors were jailed for sedition under the Espionage Act in 1918 and members were subjected to mob violence; the directors were released in March 1919 and charges against them were dropped in 1920. \n\nRutherford centralized organizational control of the Watch Tower Society. In 1919, he instituted the appointment of a director in each congregation, and a year later all members were instructed to report their weekly preaching activity to the Brooklyn headquarters. At an international convention held at Cedar Point, Ohio, in September 1922, a new emphasis was made on house-to-house preaching. Significant changes in doctrine and administration were regularly introduced during Rutherford's twenty-five years as president, including the 1920 announcement that the Jewish patriarchs (such as Abraham and Isaac) would be resurrected in 1925, marking the beginning of Christ's thousand-year Kingdom. Disappointed by the changes, tens of thousands of defections occurred during the first half of Rutherford's tenure, leading to the formation of several Bible Student organizations independent of the Watch Tower Society, most of which still exist. By mid-1919, as many as one in seven of Russell-era Bible Students had ceased their association with the Society, and as many as two-thirds by the end of the 1920s. \n\nOn July 26, 1931, at a convention in Columbus, Ohio, Rutherford introduced the new name—Jehovah's witnesses—based on Isaiah 43:10: \"Ye are my witnesses, saith Jehovah, and my servant whom I have chosen\"—which was adopted by resolution. The name was chosen to distinguish his group of Bible Students from other independent groups that had severed ties with the Society, as well as symbolize the instigation of new outlooks and the promotion of fresh evangelizing methods. In 1932, Rutherford eliminated the system of locally elected elders and in 1938, introduced what he called a \"theocratic\" (literally, God-ruled) organizational system, under which appointments in congregations worldwide were made from the Brooklyn headquarters.\n\nFrom 1932, it was taught that the \"little flock\" of 144,000 would not be the only people to survive Armageddon. Rutherford explained that in addition to the 144,000 \"anointed\" who would be resurrected—or transferred at death—to live in heaven to rule over earth with Christ, a separate class of members, the \"great multitude,\" would live in a paradise restored on earth; from 1935, new converts to the movement were considered part of that class. By the mid-1930s, the timing of the beginning of Christ's presence (Greek: parousía), his enthronement as king, and the start of the \"last days\" were each moved to 1914. \n\nAs their interpretations of the Bible developed, Witness publications decreed that saluting national flags is a form of idolatry, which led to a new outbreak of mob violence and government opposition in the United States, Canada, Germany, and other countries. \n\nWorldwide membership of Jehovah's Witnesses reached 113,624 in 5,323 congregations by the time of Rutherford's death in January 1942. \n\nContinued development (1942–present)\n\nNathan Knorr was appointed as third president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society in 1942. Knorr commissioned a new translation of the Bible, the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures, the full version of which was released in 1961. He organized large international assemblies, instituted new training programs for members, and expanded missionary activity and branch offices throughout the world. Knorr's presidency was also marked by an increasing use of explicit instructions guiding Witnesses in their lifestyle and conduct, and a greater use of congregational judicial procedures to enforce a strict moral code. \n\nFrom 1966, Witness publications and convention talks built anticipation of the possibility that Christ's thousand-year reign might begin in late 1975 or shortly thereafter. The number of baptisms increased significantly, from about 59,000 in 1966 to more than 297,000 in 1974. By 1975, the number of active members exceeded two million. Membership declined during the late 1970s after expectations for 1975 were proved wrong. Watch Tower Society literature did not state dogmatically that 1975 would definitely mark the end, but in 1980 the Watch Tower Society admitted its responsibility in building up hope regarding that year. \n\nThe offices of elder and ministerial servant were restored to Witness congregations in 1972, with appointments made from headquarters (and later, also by branch committees). It was announced that, starting in September 2014, appointments would be made by traveling overseers. In a major organizational overhaul in 1976, the power of the Watch Tower Society president was diminished, with authority for doctrinal and organizational decisions passed to the Governing Body. Since Knorr's death in 1977, the position of president has been occupied by Frederick Franz (1977–1992) and Milton Henschel (1992–2000), both members of the Governing Body, and since 2000 by Don A. Adams, not a member of the Governing Body. In 1995, Jehovah's Witnesses abandoned the idea that Armageddon must occur during the lives of the generation that was alive in 1914 and in 2013 changed their teaching on the \"generation\". \n\nOrganization\n\nJehovah's Witnesses are organized hierarchically, in what the leadership calls a \"theocratic organization\", reflecting their belief that it is God's \"visible organization\" on earth. The organization is led by the Governing Body—an all-male group that varies in size, but since early 2014 has comprised seven members,Twelve members as of September 2005 (See The Watchtower, March 15, 2006, page 26)Schroeder died March 8, 2006. (See The Watchtower, September 15, 2006, page 31)Sydlik died April 18, 2006. (See The Watchtower, January 1, 2007, page 8)Barber died April 8, 2007. (See The Watchtower, October 15, 2007, page 31)Jaracz died June 9, 2010. (See The Watchtower, November 15, 2010, page 23)Barr died December 4, 2010. (See The Watchtower, May 15, 2011, page 6)Sanderson appointed September 1, 2012. (See The Watchtower, July 15, 2013, page 26)Pierce died March 20, 2014. (See The Watchtower, December 15, 2014, page 3) all of whom profess to be of the \"anointed\" class with a hope of heavenly life—based in the Watch Tower Society's Brooklyn headquarters. There is no election for membership; new members are selected by the existing body. Until late 2012, the Governing Body described itself as the representative and \"spokesman\" for God's \"faithful and discreet slave class\" (approximately 10,000 self-professed \"anointed\" Jehovah's Witnesses). At the 2012 Annual Meeting of the Watch Tower Society, the \"faithful and discreet slave\" was defined as referring to the Governing Body only. The Governing Body directs several committees that are responsible for administrative functions, including publishing, assembly programs and evangelizing activities. It appoints all branch committee members and traveling overseers, after they have been recommended by local branches, with traveling overseers supervising circuits of congregations within their jurisdictions. Traveling overseers appoint local elders and ministerial servants, and while branch offices may appoint regional committees for matters such as Kingdom Hall construction or disaster relief. \n\nEach congregation has a body of appointed unpaid male elders and ministerial servants. Elders maintain general responsibility for congregational governance, setting meeting times, selecting speakers and conducting meetings, directing the public preaching work, and creating \"judicial committees\" to investigate and decide disciplinary action for cases involving sexual misconduct or doctrinal breaches. New elders are appointed by a traveling overseer after recommendation by the existing body of elders. Ministerial servants—appointed in a similar manner to elders—fulfill clerical and attendant duties, but may also teach and conduct meetings. Witnesses do not use elder as a title to signify a formal clergy-laity division, though elders may employ ecclesiastical privilege such as confession of sins. \n\nBaptism is a requirement for being considered a member of Jehovah's Witnesses. Jehovah's Witnesses do not practice infant baptism, and previous baptisms performed by other denominations are not considered valid. Individuals undergoing baptism must affirm publicly that dedication and baptism identify them \"as one of Jehovah's Witnesses in association with God's spirit-directed organization,\" though Witness publications say baptism symbolizes personal dedication to God and not \"to a man, work or organization.\" Their literature emphasizes the need for members to be obedient and loyal to Jehovah and to \"his organization,\" Raymond Franz (In Search of Christian Freedom, 2007, p.449) cites various Watch Tower Society publications that stress loyalty and obedience to the organization, including: \"Following Faithful Shepherds with Life in View\", The Watchtower, October 1, 1967, page 591, \"Make haste to identify the visible theocratic organization of God that represents his king, Jesus Christ. It is essential for life. Doing so, be complete in accepting its every aspect.\"; The Watchtower, September 1, 2006, pg 15, \"Have we formed a loyal attachment to the organization that Jehovah is using today?\"; \"Your Reminders Are What I Am Fond Of\", The Watchtower, June 15, 2006, pg 26, \"We too should remain faithful to Jehovah and to his organization regardless of injustices we suffer and regardless of what others do.\"; \"Are You Prepared for Survival?\", The Watchtower, May 15, 2006, pg 22, \"Just as Noah and his God-fearing family were preserved in the ark, survival of individuals today depends on their faith and their loyal association with the earthly part of Jehovah’s universal organization.\"; Worship The Only True God (Watch Tower Society, 2002), pg 134, \"Jehovah is guiding us today by means of his visible organization under Christ. Our attitude toward this arrangement demonstrates how we feel about the issue of sovereignty ... By being loyal to Jehovah’s organization, we show that Jehovah is our God and that we are united in worship of him.\" stating that individuals must remain part of it to receive God's favor and to survive Armageddon. \n\nPublishing\n\nThe organization publishes a significant amount of literature as part of its evangelism activities. The Watch Tower Society has produced over 200 million copies of the Bible in whole or part in over 120 languages. The Watchtower and Awake! are the most widely distributed magazines in the world. Translation of Witness publications is done by over 2000 volunteers worldwide, producing literature in over 760 languages. \n\nFunding\n\nMuch of their funding is provided by donations, primarily from members. There is no tithing or collection. In 2001 Newsday listed the Watch Tower Society as one of New York's forty richest corporations, with revenues exceeding $950 million. The organization reported for the same year that it \"spent over 70.9 million dollars in caring for special pioneers, missionaries, and traveling overseers in their field service assignments.\" \n\nBeliefs\n\nSources of doctrine\n\nJehovah's Witnesses believe their religion is a restoration of first-century Christianity. Doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses are established by the Governing Body, which assumes responsibility for interpreting and applying scripture. The Governing Body does not issue any single, comprehensive \"statement of faith\", but prefers to express its doctrinal position in a variety of ways through publications published by the Watch Tower Society. Their publications teach that doctrinal changes and refinements result from a process of progressive revelation, in which God gradually reveals his will and purpose, and that such enlightenment or \"new light\" results from the application of reason and study, the guidance of the holy spirit, and direction from Jesus Christ and angels. The Society also teaches that members of the Governing Body are helped by the holy spirit to discern \"deep truths\", which are then considered by the entire Governing Body before it makes doctrinal decisions. The religion's leadership, while disclaiming divine inspiration and infallibility, is said to provide \"divine guidance\" through its teachings described as \"based on God's Word thus ... not from men, but from Jehovah.\" \n\nThe entire Protestant canon of scripture is considered the inspired, inerrant word of God. Jehovah's Witnesses consider the Bible to be scientifically and historically accurate and reliable and interpret much of it literally, but accept parts of it as symbolic. They consider the Bible to be the final authority for all their beliefs, although sociologist Andrew Holden's ethnographic study of the religion concluded that pronouncements of the Governing Body, through Watch Tower Society publications, carry almost as much weight as the Bible. Regular personal Bible reading is frequently recommended; Witnesses are discouraged from formulating doctrines and \"private ideas\" reached through Bible research independent of Watch Tower Society publications, and are cautioned against reading other religious literature. Adherents are told to have \"complete confidence\" in the leadership, avoid skepticism about what is taught in the Watch Tower Society's literature, and \"not advocate or insist on personal opinions or harbor private ideas when it comes to Bible understanding.\" The religion makes no provision for members to criticize or contribute to official teachings and all Witnesses must abide by its doctrines and organizational requirements. \n\nJehovah and Jesus Christ\n\nJehovah's Witnesses emphasize use of the name Jehovah—a representation of God's name based on the Tetragrammaton. They believe that Jehovah is the only true God, the creator of all things, and the \"Universal Sovereign\". They believe that all worship should be directed toward him, and that he is not part of a Trinity; consequently, the religion places more emphasis on God than on Christ. They believe that the holy spirit is God's applied power or \"active force\", rather than a person. \n\nJehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus is God's only direct creation, that everything else was created through Christ by means of God's power, and that the initial unassisted act of creation uniquely identifies Jesus as God's \"only-begotten Son\". Jesus served as a redeemer and a ransom sacrifice to pay for the sins of humanity. They believe Jesus died on a single upright post rather than the traditional cross. They believe that references in the Bible to the Archangel Michael, Abaddon (Apollyon), and the Word all refer to Jesus. Jesus is considered to be the only intercessor and high priest between God and humanity, and appointed by God as the king and judge of his kingdom. His role as a mediator (referred to in 1 Timothy 2:5) is applied to the 'anointed' class, though the 'other sheep' are said to also benefit from the arrangement. \n\nSatan\n\nJehovah's Witnesses believe that Satan was originally a perfect angel who developed feelings of self-importance and craved worship. Satan influenced Adam and Eve to disobey God, and humanity subsequently became participants in a challenge involving the competing claims of Jehovah and Satan to universal sovereignty. Other angels who sided with Satan became demons.\n\nJehovah's Witnesses teach that Satan and his demons were cast down to earth from heaven after October 1, 1914, at which point the end times began. Witnesses believe that Satan is the ruler of the current world order, that human society is influenced and misled by Satan and his demons, and that they are a cause of human suffering. They also believe that human governments are controlled by Satan, but that he does not directly control each human ruler. \n\nLife after death\n\nJehovah's Witnesses believe death is a state of non-existence with no consciousness. There is no Hell of fiery torment; Hades and Sheol are understood to refer to the condition of death, termed the common grave. Jehovah's Witnesses consider the soul to be a life or a living body that can die. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that humanity is in a sinful state, from which release is only possible by means of Jesus' shed blood as a ransom, or atonement, for the sins of humankind. \n\nWitnesses believe that a \"little flock\" go to heaven, but that the hope for life after death for the majority of \"other sheep\" involves being resurrected by God to a cleansed earth after Armageddon. They interpret Revelation 14:1–5 to mean that the number of Christians going to heaven is limited to exactly 144,000, who will rule with Jesus as kings and priests over earth. They believe that baptism as one of Jehovah's Witnesses is vital for salvation and that only they meet scriptural requirements for surviving Armageddon, but that God is the final judge.\"Remaining Organized for Survival Into the Millennium\", The Watchtower, September 1, 1989, page 19, \"Only Jehovah's Witnesses, those of the anointed remnant and the 'great crowd,'as a united organization under the protection of the Supreme Organizer, have any Scriptural hope of surviving the impending end of this doomed system dominated by Satan the Devil.\" During Christ's millennial reign, most people who died prior to Armageddon will be resurrected with the prospect of living forever; they will be taught the proper way to worship God to prepare them for their final test at the end of the millennium. \n\nGod's kingdom\n\nJehovah's Witnesses believe that God's kingdom is a literal government in heaven, ruled by Jesus Christ and 144,000 \"spirit-anointed\" Christians drawn from the earth, which they associate with Jesus' reference to a \"new covenant\". The kingdom is viewed as the means by which God will accomplish his original purpose for the earth, transforming it into a paradise without sickness or death. It is said to have been the focal point of Jesus' ministry on earth. They believe the kingdom was established in heaven in 1914, and that Jehovah's Witnesses serve as representatives of the kingdom on earth. \n\nEschatology\n\nA central teaching of Jehovah's Witnesses is that the current world era, or \"system of things\", entered the \"last days\" in 1914 and faces imminent destruction through intervention by God and Jesus Christ, leading to deliverance for those who worship God acceptably. They consider all other present-day religions to be false, identifying them with \"Babylon the Great\", or the \"harlot\", of Revelation 17, and believe that they will soon be destroyed by the United Nations, which they believe is represented in scripture by the scarlet-colored wild beast of Revelation chapter 17. This development will mark the beginning of the \"great tribulation\". Satan will subsequently attack Jehovah's Witnesses, an action that will prompt God to begin the war of Armageddon, during which all forms of government and all people not counted as Christ's \"sheep\", or true followers, will be destroyed. After Armageddon, God will extend his heavenly kingdom to include earth, which will be transformed into a paradise similar to the Garden of Eden. Most of those who had died before God's intervention will gradually be resurrected during \"judgment day\" lasting for one thousand years. This judgment will be based on their actions after resurrection rather than past deeds. At the end of the thousand years, Christ will hand all authority back to God. Then a final test will take place when Satan is released to mislead perfect mankind. Those who fail will be destroyed, along with Satan and his demons. The end result will be a fully tested, glorified human race. \n\nJehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus Christ began to rule in heaven as king of God's kingdom in October 1914, and that Satan was subsequently ousted from heaven to the earth, resulting in \"woe\" to humanity. They believe that Jesus rules invisibly, from heaven, perceived only as a series of \"signs\". They base this belief on a rendering of the Greek word parousia—usually translated as \"coming\" when referring to Christ—as \"presence\". They believe Jesus' presence includes an unknown period beginning with his inauguration as king in heaven in 1914, and ending when he comes to bring a final judgment against humans on earth. They thus depart from the mainstream Christian belief that the \"second coming\" of Matthew 24 refers to a single moment of arrival on earth to judge humans. \n\nPractices\n\nWorship\n\nMeetings for worship and study are held at Kingdom Halls, which are typically functional in character, and do not contain religious symbols. Witnesses are assigned to a congregation in whose \"territory\" they usually reside and attend weekly services they refer to as \"meetings\" as scheduled by congregation elders. The meetings are largely devoted to study of Watch Tower Society literature and the Bible. The format of the meetings is established by the religion's headquarters, and the subject matter for most meetings is the same worldwide. Congregations meet for two sessions each week comprising five distinct meetings that total about three-and-a-half hours, typically gathering mid-week (three meetings) and on the weekend (two meetings). Prior to 2009, congregations met three times each week; these meetings were condensed, with the intention that members dedicate an evening for \"family worship\". Gatherings are opened and closed with kingdom songs (hymns) and brief prayers. Twice each year, Witnesses from a number of congregations that form a \"circuit\" gather for a one-day assembly. Larger groups of congregations meet once a year for a three-day \"regional convention\", usually at rented stadiums or auditoriums. Their most important and solemn event is the commemoration of the \"Lord's Evening Meal\", or \"Memorial of Christ's Death\" on the date of the Jewish Passover. \n\nEvangelism\n\nJehovah's Witnesses are perhaps best known for their efforts to spread their beliefs, most notably by visiting people from house to house, distributing literature published by the Watch Tower Society in 700 languages. The objective is to start a regular \"Bible study\" with any person who is not already a member, with the intention that the student be baptized as a member of the group; Witnesses are advised to consider discontinuing Bible studies with students who show no interest in becoming members. Witnesses are taught they are under a biblical command to engage in public preaching. They are instructed to devote as much time as possible to their ministry and are required to submit an individual monthly \"Field Service Report\". Baptized members who fail to report a month of preaching are termed \"irregular\" and may be counseled by elders; those who do not submit reports for six consecutive months are termed \"inactive\". \n\nEthics and morality\n\nAll sexual relations outside of marriage are grounds for expulsion if the individual is not deemed repentant; homosexual activity is considered a serious sin, and same-sex marriages are forbidden. Abortion is considered murder. Suicide is considered to be \"self-murder\" and a sin against God. Modesty in dress and grooming is frequently emphasized. Gambling, drunkenness, illegal drugs, and tobacco use are forbidden. Drinking of alcoholic beverages is permitted in moderation.\n\nThe family structure is patriarchal. The husband is considered to have authority on family decisions, but is encouraged to solicit his wife's thoughts and feelings, as well as those of his children. Marriages are required to be monogamous and legally registered. Marrying a non-believer, or endorsing such a union, is strongly discouraged and carries religious sanctions. \n\nDivorce is discouraged, and remarriage is forbidden unless a divorce is obtained on the grounds of adultery, which they refer to as \"a scriptural divorce\". If a divorce is obtained for any other reason, remarriage is considered adulterous unless the prior spouse has died or is since considered to have committed sexual immorality. Extreme physical abuse, willful non-support of one's family, and what the religion terms \"absolute endangerment of spirituality\" are considered grounds for legal separation. \n\nDisciplinary action\n\nFormal discipline is administered by congregation elders. When a baptized member is accused of committing a serious sin—usually cases of sexual misconduct or charges of apostasy for disputing Jehovah's Witness doctrines —a judicial committee is formed to determine guilt, provide help and possibly administer discipline. Disfellowshipping, a form of shunning, is the strongest form of discipline, administered to an offender deemed unrepentant. Contact with disfellowshipped individuals is limited to direct family members living in the same home, and with congregation elders who may invite disfellowshipped persons to apply for reinstatement; formal business dealings may continue if contractually or financially obliged. Witnesses are taught that avoiding social and spiritual interaction with disfellowshipped individuals keeps the congregation free from immoral influence and that \"losing precious fellowship with loved ones may help [the shunned individual] to come 'to his senses,' see the seriousness of his wrong, and take steps to return to Jehovah.\" The practice of shunning may also serve to deter other members from dissident behavior. Members who disassociate (formally resign) are described in Watch Tower Society literature as wicked and are also shunned. Expelled individuals may eventually be reinstated to the congregation if deemed repentant by elders in the congregation in which the disfellowshipping was enforced. Reproof is a lesser form of discipline given formally by a judicial committee to a baptized Witness who is considered repentant of serious sin; the reproved person temporarily loses conspicuous privileges of service, but suffers no restriction of social or spiritual fellowship. Marking, a curtailing of social but not spiritual fellowship, is practiced if a baptized member persists in a course of action regarded as a violation of Bible principles but not a serious sin.A common example given is a baptized Witness who dates a non-Witness; see The Watchtower, July 15, 1999, p. 30.\n\nSeparateness\n\nJehovah's Witnesses believe that the Bible condemns the mixing of religions, on the basis that there can only be one truth from God, and therefore reject interfaith and ecumenical movements. They believe that only their religion represents true Christianity, and that other religions fail to meet all the requirements set by God and will soon be destroyed. Jehovah's Witnesses are taught that it is vital to remain \"separate from the world.\" The Witnesses' literature defines the \"world\" as \"the mass of mankind apart from Jehovah's approved servants\" and teach that it is morally contaminated and ruled by Satan. Witnesses are taught that association with \"worldly\" people presents a \"danger\" to their faith, and are instructed to minimize social contact with non-members to better maintain their own standards of morality. \n\nJehovah's Witnesses believe their highest allegiance belongs to God's kingdom, which is viewed as an actual government in heaven, with Christ as king. They remain politically neutral, do not seek public office, and are discouraged from voting, though individual members may participate in uncontroversial community improvement issues. Although they do not take part in politics, they respect the authority of the governments under which they live. They do not celebrate religious holidays such as Christmas and Easter, nor do they observe birthdays, nationalistic holidays, or other celebrations they consider to honor people other than Jesus. They feel that these and many other customs have pagan origins or reflect a nationalistic or political spirit. Their position is that these traditional holidays reflect Satan's control over the world. Witnesses are told that spontaneous giving at other times can help their children to not feel deprived of birthdays or other celebrations. \n\nThey do not work in industries associated with the military, do not serve in the armed services, and refuse national military service, which in some countries may result in their arrest and imprisonment. They do not salute or pledge allegiance to flags or sing national anthems or patriotic songs. Jehovah's Witnesses see themselves as a worldwide brotherhood that transcends national boundaries and ethnic loyalties. Sociologist Ronald Lawson has suggested the religion's intellectual and organizational isolation, coupled with the intense indoctrination of adherents, rigid internal discipline and considerable persecution, has contributed to the consistency of its sense of urgency in its apocalyptic message. \n\nRejection of blood transfusions\n\nJehovah's Witnesses refuse blood transfusions, which they consider a violation of God's law based on their interpretation of Acts 15:28, 29 and other scriptures. Since 1961 the willing acceptance of a blood transfusion by an unrepentant member has been grounds for expulsion from the religion. Members are directed to refuse blood transfusions, even in \"a life-or-death situation\". Jehovah's Witnesses accept non-blood alternatives and other medical procedures in lieu of blood transfusions, and their literature provides information about non-blood medical procedures. \n\nThough Jehovah's Witnesses do not accept blood transfusions of whole blood, they may accept some blood plasma fractions at their own discretion. The Watch Tower Society provides pre-formatted durable power of attorney documents prohibiting major blood components, in which members can specify which allowable fractions and treatments they will personally accept. Jehovah's Witnesses have established Hospital Liaison Committees as a cooperative arrangement between individual Jehovah's Witnesses and medical professionals and hospitals. \n\nDemographics\n\nJehovah's Witnesses have an active presence in most countries, but do not form a large part of the population of any country.\n\nAs of August 2015, Jehovah's Witnesses report an average of 8.2 million publishers—the term they use for members actively involved in preaching—in 118,016 congregations. In 2015, these reports indicated over 1.93 billion hours spent in preaching and \"Bible study\" activity. Since the mid-1990s, the number of peak publishers has increased from 4.5 million to 8.2 million. In the same year, they conducted \"Bible studies\" with over 9.7 million individuals, including those conducted by Witness parents with their children. Jehovah's Witnesses estimate their current worldwide growth rate to be 1.5% per year.\n\nThe official published membership statistics, such as those mentioned above, include only those who submit reports for their personal ministry; official statistics do not include inactive and disfellowshipped individuals or others who might attend their meetings. As a result, only about half of those who self-identified as Jehovah's Witnesses in independent demographic studies are considered active by the faith itself. The 2008 US Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life survey found a low retention rate among members of the religion: about 37% of people raised in the religion continued to identify themselves as Jehovah's Witnesses. \n\nSociological analysis\n\nSociologist James A. Beckford, in his 1975 study of Jehovah's Witnesses, classified the religion's organizational structure as Totalizing, characterized by an assertive leadership, specific and narrow objectives, control over competing demands on members' time and energy, and control over the quality of new members. Other characteristics of the classification include likelihood of friction with secular authorities, reluctance to co-operate with other religious organizations, a high rate of membership turnover, a low rate of doctrinal change, and strict uniformity of beliefs among members. Beckford identified the religion's chief characteristics as historicism (identifying historical events as relating to the outworking of God's purpose), absolutism (conviction that Jehovah's Witness leaders dispense absolute truth), activism (capacity to motivate members to perform missionary tasks), rationalism (conviction that Witness doctrines have a rational basis devoid of mystery), authoritarianism (rigid presentation of regulations without the opportunity for criticism) and world indifference (rejection of certain secular requirements and medical treatments). \n\nSociologist Bryan R. Wilson, in his consideration of five religions including Jehovah's Witnesses, noted that each of the religions: \n# \"exists in a state of tension with the wider society;\"\n# \"imposes tests of merit on would-be members;\"\n# \"exercises stern discipline, regulating the declared beliefs and the life habits of members and prescribing and operating sanctions for those who deviate, including the possibility of expulsion;\"\n# \"demands sustained and total commitment from its members, and the subordination, and perhaps even the exclusion of all other interests.\"\n\nA sociological comparative study by the Pew Research Center found that Jehovah's Witnesses in the United States ranked highest in statistics for getting no further than high school graduation, belief in God, importance of religion in one's life, frequency of religious attendance, frequency of prayers, frequency of Bible reading outside of religious services, belief their prayers are answered, belief that their religion can only be interpreted one way, belief that theirs is the only one true faith leading to eternal life, opposition to abortion, and opposition to homosexuality. In the study, Jehovah's Witnesses ranked lowest in statistics for having earned a graduate degree and interest in politics. \n\nOpposition\n\nControversy surrounding various beliefs, doctrines and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses has led to opposition from local governments, communities, and religious groups. Religious commentator Ken Jubber wrote that \"Viewed globally, this persecution has been so persistent and of such intensity that it would not be inaccurate to regard Jehovah's Witnesses as the most persecuted group of Christians of the twentieth century.\" \n\nPersecution\n\nPolitical and religious animosity against Jehovah's Witnesses has at times led to mob action and government oppression in various countries. Their doctrine of political neutrality and their refusal to serve in the military has led to imprisonment of members who refused conscription during World War II and at other times where national service has been compulsory. In 1933, there were approximately 20,000 Jehovah's Witnesses in Germany, of whom about 10,000 were later imprisoned. Of those, 2000 were sent to Nazi concentration camps, where they were identified by purple triangles; as many as 1200 died, including 250 who were executed. Shulman, William L. A State of Terror: Germany 1933–1939. Bayside, New York: Holocaust Resource Center and Archives. In Canada, Jehovah's Witnesses were interned in camps along with political dissidents and people of Chinese and Japanese descent. In the former Soviet Union, about 9,300 Jehovah's Witnesses were deported to Siberia as part of Operation North in April 1951.Валерий Пасат .\"Трудные страницы истории Молдовы (1940–1950)\". Москва: Изд. Terra, 1994 Their religious activities are currently banned or restricted in some countries, including China, Vietnam and some Islamic states. \n\nAuthors including William Whalen, Shawn Francis Peters and former Witnesses Barbara Grizzuti Harrison, Alan Rogerson and William Schnell have claimed the arrests and mob violence in the United States in the 1930s and 1940s were the consequence of what appeared to be a deliberate course of provocation of authorities and other religions by Jehovah’s Witnesses. Whalen, Harrison and Schnell have suggested Rutherford invited and cultivated opposition for publicity purposes in a bid to attract dispossessed members of society, and to convince members that persecution from the outside world was evidence of the truth of their struggle to serve God.Claims that Jehovah's Witnesses chose a deliberate course of martyrdom are contained in:Barbara Grizzuti Harrison, Visions of Glory, 1978, chapter 6. Watch Tower Society literature of the period directed that Witnesses should \"never seek a controversy\" nor resist arrest, but also advised members not to co-operate with police officers or courts that ordered them to stop preaching, and to prefer jail rather than pay fines. \n\nLegal challenges\n\nSeveral cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses have been heard by Supreme Courts throughout the world. The cases generally relate to their right to practice their religion, displays of patriotism and military service, and blood transfusions. \n\nIn the United States, their persistent legal challenges prompted a series of state and federal court rulings that reinforced judicial protections for civil liberties. Among the rights strengthened by Witness court victories in the United States are the protection of religious conduct from federal and state interference, the right to abstain from patriotic rituals and military service, the right of patients to refuse medical treatment, and the right to engage in public discourse. Similar cases in their favor have been heard in Canada. \n\nCriticism and controversy\n\nJehovah's Witnesses have attracted criticism over issues surrounding their Bible translation, doctrines, their handling of sexual abuse cases, and alleged coercion of members. Many of the claims are denied by Jehovah's Witnesses and some have also been disputed by religious scholars.\n\nFree speech and thought\n\nDoctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses are established by the Governing Body. The religion does not tolerate dissent over doctrines and practices; members who openly disagree with the religion's teachings are expelled and shunned. Witness publications strongly discourage followers from questioning doctrine and counsel received from the Governing Body, reasoning that it is to be trusted as part of \"God's organization\". It also warns members to \"avoid independent thinking\", claiming such thinking \"was introduced by Satan the Devil\" and would \"cause division\". Those who openly disagree with official teachings are condemned as \"apostates\" who are \"mentally diseased\". \n\nFormer members Heather and Gary Botting compare the cultural paradigms of the religion to George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-four, and Alan Rogerson describes the religion's leadership as totalitarian. Other critics charge that by disparaging individual decision-making, the religion's leaders cultivate a system of unquestioning obedience in which Witnesses abrogate all responsibility and rights over their personal lives. Critics also accuse the religion's leaders of exercising \"intellectual dominance\" over Witnesses, controlling information and creating \"mental isolation\", which former Governing Body member Raymond Franz argued were all elements of mind control. \n\nJehovah's Witness publications state that consensus of faith aids unity, and deny that unity restricts individuality or imagination. Historian James Irvin Lichti has rejected the description of the religion as \"totalitarian\". \n\nSociologist Rodney Stark states that Jehovah's Witness leaders are \"not always very democratic\" and that members \"are expected to conform to rather strict standards,\" but adds that \"enforcement tends to be very informal, sustained by the close bonds of friendship within the group\", and that Jehovah's Witnesses see themselves as \"part of the power structure rather than subject to it.\" Sociologist Andrew Holden states that most members who join millenarian movements such as Jehovah's Witnesses have made an informed choice. However, he also states that defectors \"are seldom allowed a dignified exit\", and describes the administration as autocratic. \n\nNew World Translation\n\nSome Bible scholars including Bruce M. Metzger, former Professor and Bible editor at Princeton Theological Seminary, have said that the translation of certain texts in its New World Translation of the Bible is biased in favor of Witness practices and doctrines. The Bible editor Harold H. Rowley criticized the pre-release edition of the first volume (Genesis to Ruth) published in 1953 as \"a shining example of how the Bible should not be translated.\" \n\nOn the other hand, in his study on nine of \"the Bibles most widely in use in the English-speaking world\", Bible scholar Jason BeDuhn, Professor of Religious Studies at the Northern Arizona University, wrote: “The NW [New World Translation] emerges as the most accurate of the translations compared.” Although the general public and many Bible scholars assume that the differences in the New World Translation are the result of religious bias on the part of its translators, BeDuhn stated: “Most of the differences are due to the greater accuracy of the NW as a literal, conservative translation of the original expressions of the New Testament writers.” He added however that the insertion of the name Jehovah in the New Testament \"violate[s] accuracy in favor of denominationally preferred expressions for God\". \n\nFailed predictions\n\nWatch Tower Society publications have claimed that God has used Jehovah's Witnesses (and formerly, the International Bible Students) to declare his will and has provided advance knowledge about Armageddon and the establishment of God's kingdom. Some publications also claimed that God has used Jehovah's Witnesses and the International Bible Students as a modern-day prophet.Raymond Franz cites numerous examples. In Crisis of Conscience, 2002, pg. 173, he quotes from \"They Shall Know That a Prophet Was Among Them\", (The Watchtower, April 1, 1972,) which states that God had raised Jehovah's Witnesses as a prophet \"to warn (people) of dangers and declare things to come\" He also cites \"Identifying the Right Kind of Messenger\" (The Watchtower, May 1, 1997, page 8) which identifies the Witnesses as his \"true messengers ... by making the messages he delivers through them come true\", in contrast to \"false messengers\", whose predictions fail. In In Search of Christian Freedom, 2007, he quotes The Nations Shall Know That I Am Jehovah—How? (1971, pg 70, 292) which describes Witnesses as the modern Ezekiel class, \"a genuine prophet within our generation\". The Watch Tower book noted: \"Concerning the message faithfully delivered by the Ezekiel class, Jehovah positively states that it 'must come true' ... those who wait undecided until it does 'come true' will also have to know that a prophet himself had proved to be in the midst of them.\" He also cites \"Execution of the Great Harlot Nears\", (The Watchtower, October 15, 1980, pg 17) which claims God gives the Witnesses \"special knowledge that others do not have ... advance knowledge about this system's end\". Jehovah's Witnesses' publications have made various predictions about world events they believe were prophesied in the Bible.The Watchtower, Jan. 15, 1959, pp. 39–41 Failed predictions have led to the alteration or abandonment of some doctrines. Some failed predictions had been presented as \"beyond doubt\" or \"approved by God\". \n\nThe Watch Tower Society rejects accusations that it is a false prophet, stating that its teachings are not inspired or infallible, and that it has not claimed its predictions were \"the words of Jehovah.\" George D. Chryssides has suggested that with the exception of statements about 1914, 1925 and 1975, the changing views and dates of the Jehovah's Witnesses are largely attributable to changed understandings of biblical chronology than to failed predictions. Chryssides further states, \"it is therefore simplistic and naïve to view the Witnesses as a group that continues to set a single end-date that fails and then devise a new one, as many counter-cultists do.\" However, sociologist Andrew Holden states that since the foundation of the movement around 140 years ago, \"Witnesses have maintained that we are living on the precipice of the end of time.\" \n\nHandling of sexual abuse cases\n\nJehovah's Witnesses have been accused of having policies and culture that help to conceal cases of sexual abuse within the organization. The religion has been criticized for its \"two witness rule\" for church discipline, based on its application of scriptures at Deuteronomy 19:15 and Matthew 18:15-17, which requires sexual abuse to be substantiated by secondary evidence if the accused person denies any wrongdoing. In cases where corroboration is lacking, the Watch Tower Society's instruction is that \"the elders will leave the matter in Jehovah's hands\". A former member of the church’s headquarters staff, Barbara Anderson, says the policy effectively requires that there be another witness to an act of molestation, \"which is an impossibility\". Anderson says the policies \"protect pedophiles rather than protect the children.\" Jehovah's Witnesses maintain that they have a strong policy to protect children, adding that the best way to protect children is by educating parents; they also state that they do not sponsor activities that separate children from parents. \n\nThe religion's failure to report abuse allegations to authorities has also been criticized. The Watch Tower Society's policy is that elders inform authorities when required by law to do so, but otherwise leave that action up to the victim and his or her family. The Australian Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse found that of 1006 alleged perpetrators of child sexual abuse identified by the Jehovah's Witnesses within their organization since 1950, \"not one was reported by the church to secular authorities.\" William Bowen, a former Jehovah's Witness elder who established the Silentlambs organization to assist sex abuse victims within the religion, has claimed Witness leaders discourage followers from reporting incidents of sexual misconduct to authorities, and other critics claim the organization is reluctant to alert authorities in order to protect its \"crime-free\" reputation. In court cases in the United Kingdom and the United States the Watch Tower Society has been found to have been negligent in its failure to protect children from known sex offenders within the congregation and the Society has settled other child abuse lawsuits out of court, reportedly paying as much as $780,000 to one plaintiff without admitting wrongdoing." ] }

{ "description": [ "Predictions of the end of the world by Jehovah's Witnesses after 1975. ... \"History of the Jehovah's Witnesses ... or to the \"WTS end of the world predictions ...", "Today they are known as Jehovah's Christian Witnesses . . . Of course, it is easy to say that this ... predicted an 'end to the world', ... Jehovah's Witness ...", "Jehovah’s Witnesses: End Of The World ... person to come forward with a time prediction for the end of the world! ... Did Jehovah’s Witnesses Predict 1914 As ...", "Jehovah’s Witnesses and the End ... is their focus on the end of the world. Witnesses have many specific ... that the founder of the Jehovah’s Witnesses, ...", "... and the end of the world was to occur in 1914. ... Jehovah's Witnesses ... Needless to say, the world is still here.\"", "5. History of Jehovah Witnesses: Most people have had a visit by Jehovah’s Witnesses from the local Kingdom Hall. Reactions vary, from rudeness, to hospitality." ], "filename": [ "71/71_857.txt", "159/159_858.txt", "83/83_859.txt", "59/59_861.txt", "2/2_863.txt", "0/0_865.txt" ], "rank": [ 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9 ], "title": [ "Predictions of the end of the world by Jehovah's Witnesses ...", "Jehovah's Witnesses and their many false prophecies | CARM", "Jehovah's Witnesses: End Of The World Predictions - The ...", "Jehovah’s Witnesses and the End Times - Explore God", "Failed date predictions of Jehovah 's Witnesses - JWFacts", "Challenging the Cults: History of Jehovah Witnesses" ], "url": [ "http://www.religioustolerance.org/witness8c.htm", "https://carm.org/jehovahs-witnesses-and-their-many-false-prophecies", "http://thewatchtowerfiles.com/endofworld/", "http://www.exploregod.com/jehovahs-witnesses-and-the-end-times", "http://www.jwfacts.com/watchtower/1800s.php", "http://www.truthnet.org/Christianity/Cults/Jehovahwitness5/" ], "search_context": [ "Predictions of the end of the world by Jehovah's Witnesses after 1975\nSponsored link:\nWill TEOTWAWKI happen in our near future?\nThe WTS had taught that the generation that saw the events of 1914 would experience TEOTWAWKI (The end of the world as we know it). But the people who were born in 1914 or earlier are now in their mid-90s or older. They are rapidly dying out.\nIn 1996-APR, the WTS changed their criteria for TEOTWAWKI. \"They now say that the generation that saw the events of 1914 is actually any generation that understands what happened\" at that time. 5 This allows an indefinite delay in the arrival of Armageddon -- for millennia if necessary.\nThe latest estimate is 6,000 years after the creation of Eve, for which no date can be determined with any accuracy. The Jehovah's Witnesses are no longer setting absolute dates, but still expect that TEOTWAWKI may happen at any time in our immediate future.\nIn their 1995-NOV issue of the Watchtower, the WTS suggested that earlier dates for Armageddon were speculation rather than settled doctrine. In 1995-DEC, Newsweek quoted Witnesses spokesperson Bob Pevy as saying: \"The end is still close. We just can't put numbers on Jesus' words.\" 6\nThe \"yeartext\" for 2004, published in the WTS Yearbook is: \"Keep on the Watch... Prove Yourselves Ready.\" It is a quotation taken from Matthew 24:42-44. This yeartext is accompanied with the following remarks:\n\"Consistently, God's Word reminds us that Jehovah's day will arrive with shocking suddenness. Hence, our yeartext for 2004 reflects Jesus' deep love for his disciples, whom he wants to preserve through 'the great tribulation.' (Rev. 7:14 ) How do we remain spiritually watchful and ready? By allowing nothing to distract us from our study of God's Word and from our privileges of sacred service.\" 7\nThe WatchTowerInformationService.org comments:\n\"Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the only chance for [personal] salvation is to actively preach the end of this world and the Kingdom of God . If they are not busy with their 'sacred service' when the 'day of Jehovah' will arrive with 'shocking suddenness' they believe that they will die with the wicked ones.\"\nThat is, they will be exterminated, along with all non-Christians, and with the vast majority of Christians who are not members in good standing of the WTS. 7\nCriticism of the WTS estimates:\nThe WTS has been criticized by some conservative Christians for having attempting to predict a precise date for Armageddon, in an apparent violation of Matthew 24:35-36:\n\"Heaven and earth shall pass away, but my words shall not pass away. But of that day and hour knoweth no man, no, not the angels of heaven, but my Father only.\" (KJV)\nHowever, the criticism does not appear to be valid, as the WTS' estimates have never involved the day and hour of the end -- only the year had been specified.\nReferences:\nThe following information sources were used to prepare and update the above essay. The hyperlinks are not necessarily still active today.\n\"History of the Jehovah's Witnesses,\" Catholic Answers, at: http://www.catholic.com/\n\"The Watchtower,\" 1976-JUL, Page 436.", "Jehovah's Witnesses and their many false prophecies | CARM Christian Apologetics & Research Ministry\nJehovah's Witnesses and their many false prophecies\nby Matt Slick\n12/05/08\nThe Witnesses make many claims in their attempt to convert you to their faith. They profess to have the only true Christian church, to be the only true representatives of God, to have the only correct biblical teaching, and to be the only true announcers of Jehovah's coming kingdom.\nIf they are the only true church and are the only true voice of God's word, then what they say should prove to be true and especially in prophecy. When it comes to predicting the future, the Watchtower organization fails miserably. Following are some of the false predictions made over the years by the Watchtower organization. If you present these to a JW, he will probably say something like, \"Those are taken out of context,\" or \"They didn't claim to be the prophet of God,\" or \"The light is getting brighter, and we are understanding Bible prophecy better now,\" etc. Make a copy of these false prophecies, found in the appendix, and give it to them to check. They are right out of the Witnesses' literature.\nRemember Deut. 18:22, \"If what a prophet proclaims in the name of the LORD does not take place or come true, that is a message the LORD has not spoken. That prophet has spoken presumptuously. Do not be afraid of him.\" If someone makes a false prophecy and they have claimed to be a prophet of God, then they are false prophets and are not to be listened to. Do the Witnesses claim to be the prophet of God? Yes, they do.\nIn 1972 the Jehovah's Witness Watchtower claimed to be the prophet of God.\nIDENTIFYING THE \"PROPHET\"--\"So does Jehovah have a prophet to help them, to warn them of dangers and to declare things to come? These questions can be answered in the affirmative. Who is this prophet? . . . This \"prophet\" was not one man, but was a body of men and women. It was the small group of footstep followers of Jesus Christ, known at that time as International Bible Students. Today they are known as Jehovah's Christian Witnesses . . . Of course, it is easy to say that this group acts as a 'prophet' of God. It is another thing to prove it,\" (Watchtower,  Apr. 1, 1972, p. 197). (See Deut. 18:21.)\n1897 \"Our Lord, the appointed King, is now present, since October 1874,\" (Studies in the Scriptures, vol. 4, p. 621).\n1899 \" . . . the 'battle of the great day of God Almighty' (Revelation 16:14), which will end in A.D. 1914 with the complete overthrow of earth's present rulership, is already commenced,\" (The Time Is at Hand, 1908 edition, p. 101).\n1916 \"The Bible chronology herein presented shows that the six great 1000 year days beginning with Adam are ended, and that the great 7th Day, the 1000 years of Christ's Reign, began in 1873,\" (The Time Is at Hand, forward, p. ii).\n1918 \"Therefore we may confidently expect that 1925 will mark the return of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and the faithful prophets of old, particularly those named by the Apostle in Hebrews 11, to the condition of human perfection,\" (Millions Now Living Will Never Die, p. 89).\n1922 \"The date 1925 is even more distinctly indicated by the Scriptures than 1914,\" (Watchtower, Sept. 1, 1922, p. 262).\n1923 \"Our thought is, that 1925 is definitely settled by the Scriptures. As to Noah, the Christian now has much more upon which to base his faith than Noah had upon which to base his faith in a coming deluge,\" (Watchtower, Apr. 1, 1923, p. 106).\n1925 \"The year 1925 is here. With great expectation Christians have looked forward to this year. Many have confidently expected that all members of the body of Christ will be changed to heavenly glory during this year. This may be accomplished. It may not be. In his own due time God will accomplish his purposes concerning his people. Christians should not be so deeply concerned about what may transpire this year,\" (Watchtower, Jan. 1, 1925, p. 3).\n1925 \"It is to be expected that Satan will try to inject into the minds of the consecrated, the thought that 1925 should see an end to the work,\" (Watchtower, Sept., 1925, p. 262).\n1926 \"Some anticipated that the work would end in 1925, but the Lord did not state so. The difficulty was that the friends inflated their imaginations beyond reason; and that when their imaginations burst asunder, they were inclined to throw away everything,\" (Watchtower, p. 232).\n1931 \"There was a measure of disappointment on the part of Jehovah's faithful ones on earth concerning the years 1917, 1918, and 1925, which disappointment lasted for a time . . . and they also learned to quit fixing dates,\" (Vindication, p. 338).\n1941 \"Receiving the gift, the marching children clasped it to them, not a toy or plaything for idle pleasure, but the Lord's provided instrument for most effective work in the remaining months before Armageddon,\" (Watchtower, Sept. 15, 1941, p. 288).\n1968 \"True, there have been those in times past who predicted an 'end to the world', even announcing a specific date. Yet nothing happened. The 'end' did not come. They were guilty of false prophesying. Why? What was missing? . . . Missing from such people were God's truths and evidence that he was using and guiding them,\" (Awake, Oct. 8, 1968).\n1968 \"Why are you looking forward to 1975?\" (Watchtower, Aug. 15, 1968, p. 494).\nA JW might say that the organization is still learning. If that is so, then how can they trust what they are taught now by the Watchtower? Will what they are being taught now change also?\n \nA true prophet of God won't err in prophesying. Only a false prophet does. The Jehovah's Witness organization, that claims to be a prophet of God, is really a false prophet. Jesus warned us by saying, \"For false Christs and false prophets will appear and perform great signs and miracles to deceive even the elect--if that were possible\" (Matt. 24:24).", "Jehovah's Witnesses: End Of The World Predictions - The Watchtower Files | The Watchtower Files\nHome » Jehovah's Witnesses: End Of The World Predictions - The Watchtower Files\nJehovah’s Witnesses: End Of The World Predictions\nEnd of The World Predictions\nFear, Hysteria, and The End of The WorldWell it came…and went without a peep.\nMay 21, 2011 at 6:00 p.m. the wrath of God was due to strike the earth at least according to Harold Camping founder of Family Radio.\nThe following link to the AP article has an excellent video on this failed prophecy as well as an interesting read about Camping’s group:\nhttp://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory?id=13658139\nYou know I never fail to find humor in these typically all too human endeavors. How can a man presume to know something Jesus Christ flatly stated that He Himself didn’t know? How presumptious it is for anyone to say that they have been able to calculate the time for the end to come! A preacher, a “man of God” someone who obviously knows what the bible says about false prophets should be the last person to come forward with a time prediction for the end of the world!\nMatthew 24:26\n“However, no one knows the day or hour when these things will happen, not even the angels in heaven or the Son himself. Only the Father knows.”\nWill Camping now turn his efforts to damage control stating that “This was an important date and while we may have been wrong about the exact events occurring then, we do know that Jesus Christ took His heavenly throne at that time.”?\nIt has been done before hasn’t it?\nThe Watchtower Bible & Tract Society’s founder, Charles Taze Russell predicted the end of times with specific years and months while he was alive as well. When the date ran its course and nothing happened they engaged in the typical Watchtower “spin control” and attempted to explain away the issue. For example, when they were wrong about 1914 they came out with several elaborate explanations. One was that this was a “spiritual Armageddon” and that Jesus took his throne at that time and began ruling over the earth “invisibly”. With regard to an explanation as to why Armageddon didn’t coincide they came out in writing stating that the time differential between the creation of Adam and the creation of Eve was the reason they were ”off” as to the exact coming of Armageddon. Then, when 1975 came and went they engaged in the very same justification with a totally new group of people who were blissfully unaware that this exact same argument had been used over sixty years prior to explain away the failure of 1914 to bring about Armageddon.\nThe rank and file Jehovah’s Witness of today is usually quite ignorant of this past activity of date setting by the “faithful and discreet slave”. However ignorant they may be it did happen and as always the “seven old men in Brooklyn” were proven wrong.\nWill the old WT ever set another date like this man did? Only time will tell. I guess it would depend on whether or not their membership / income starts to wane. It was a tremendous shot in the arm to their ranks and coffers both prior to 1914 as well as 1975.\nPerhaps Camping and his misled followers will point to the volcano that erupted in Iceland yesterday to try to beef up some sort of support for the date as the Watchtower did with the outbreak of World War I for 1914. Who knows?\nThe fact of the matter is this:\nIf you are saved by the shed blood of Jesus Christ and accept Him as your Savior today then you need never worry about when the end comes. Let’s face it: The end comes for all of us at some point in our lives. We live and we die. Jesus said that it would come “as a thief in the night” so nobody really expects it until it comes. If you die as a believer in Jesus Christ and His sacrifice for your sins then the scriptures give you assurance that you will be with Him in paradise. The thief that was crucified next to Jesus only had to show a little faith by asking him to “remember me when you get into your kingdom” and Jesus gave him instant passage to paradise in that very moment! Telling people that they have to work and slave to get to heaven is the mark of a man-made organization and not based on the real truth of Jesus Christ.\nWhen you accept Jesus Christ into your life you are instantly forgiven for everything you’ve ever done or ever will do. In man made terms: Your ticket has been punched!\nMost of these cult leaders call this view silly and simplistic as I’m sure the Pharisees of Jesus’ time did as well. They attempt to cloud the issue and make it complicated. They seek to create rules and regulations and a big question mark about whether you’re saved or not. It is by engaging in this contrived theology and teaching it to others that they can usurp the position of Jesus Christ and then make you do their bidding.\nMatthew 7:21-23\n21 “Not everyone who says to Me, ‘Lord, Lord,’ shall enter the kingdom of heaven, but he who does the will of My Father in heaven. 22 Many will say to Me in that day, ‘Lord, Lord, have we not prophesied in Your name, cast out demons in Your name, and done many wonders in Your name?’ 23 And then I will declare to them, ‘I never knew you; depart from Me, you who practice lawlessness!’\nIt was foretold that the end times will occur. That is a biblical fact. When it will happen is in God’s hands and not man’s.\nAnytime I hear of some ego driven preacher or cult leader screaming about a new prediction for the end of the world I smile and look up and can almost hear the angels snickering!\nDeuteronomy 18:22\nIf what a prophet proclaims in the name of the LORD does not take place or come true, that is a message the LORD has not spoken. That prophet has spoken presumptuously. Do not be afraid of him.\nYours in Christ,", "Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, “Armageddon—A Happy Beginning,” Watchtower ONLINE LIBRARY, http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/2005881 .\nRidenour, 118.\nWatchtower Bible and Tract Society, “Life in a Restored Paradise,” Watchtower ONLINE LIBRARY, http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/102008323 .\nTo read the story of Cain and Abel, see The Holy Bible, New International Version © 2011, Genesis 4.\nDavid L. Weddle, “Jehovah’s Witnesses,” in Encyclopedia of Religion 2nd ed. vol. 7 (New York: MacMillan Reference USA, 2005), 4821.\nThe Holy Bible, Mark 13:32.\nPhoto Credit: Eduard Bonnin / Stocksy.com .\nEmbed This Article\nCopy the following code and paste it into your website's code to display this article on your site.\n<div class=\"eg-article\" itemscope itemtype=\"http://schema.org/Article\"> <meta itemprop=\"isFamilyFriendly\" content=\"true\"> <meta itemprop=\"image thumbnailUrl\" content=\"http://www.exploregod.com/uploads/default/files/jehovahs-witnesses-and-end-times_article_thumbnail-268x200.jpg\"/> <meta itemprop=\"datePublished\" content=\"2014-10-31\"/> <meta itemprop=\"description\" content=\"Five times the Jehovah's Witnesses have predicted a specific date for the end of the world. What do they believe the end times will be like?\"/> <h1 itemprop=\"name headline\">Jehovah’s Witnesses and the End Times</h1> <span class=\"author\">By:  <span itemprop=\"author\">Chris Morton</span><br/> © ExploreGod.com </span> <p><p><span>Jehovah’s Witnesses have very specific beliefs about the end of the world.</span></p></p> <blockquote> <p class=\"Body\">“Armageddon will be the worst thing ever to hit the earth within the history of man. . . . That war is unavoidable. The facts of modern history prove we are in the ‘day of God the Almighty’ and his war is near.”<cite>Nathan Knorr, president of the Jehovah’s Witnesses Governing Body¹</cite></p> </blockquote> <p class=\"Body\">With over six million members around the world, the Jehovah’s Witnesses have grown from an American sect to a worldwide religious movement. They are known for their unique <a href=\"/ten-unique-teachings-of-the-jehovahs-witnesses\">practices</a>, such as the prohibition of holiday celebrations and blood transfusions. But perhaps their most prominent trait is their focus on the end of the world.</p> <p class=\"Body\">Witnesses have many specific views on how the world will end, which are, in part, derived from the Bible. Revelation, the last book of the Bible, focuses on the end times. The book contains a series of allegorical images that describe God’s sovereignty over all other powers.</p> <p class=\"Body\">Over the centuries, <a href=\"/are-jehovahs-witnesses-christian\">Christians</a> have differed on interpretations of these passages. Drawing on a handful of images taken primarily from Revelation, Jehovah’s Witnesses take a different route altogether.</p> <h3 class=\"Body\">Shifting Timelines</h3> <p class=\"Body\">Throughout their history, Witnesses have shifted their statements regarding the end of the world. They have claimed that the world would end on five specific occasions. They have also introduced “New Light”—new teachings that override failed prophecies.²</p> <p class=\"Body\">Many Jehovah’s Witness teachings are based on their concept of history. Founder C. T. Russell taught there would be six thousand years from the creation of Adam until Jesus would return and begin his reign on earth.³ Initially, Russell predicted the end of the world in 1914.</p> <p class=\"Body\">When this prophecy failed, his successor, Joseph Rutherford, announced a recalculation of the original creation of Adam, moving the date up to 1925.⁴ Three other specific dates for the end of the world have come and gone. Since November 1995, Witnesses have ceased to predict particular dates but insist “vehemently that they have never made any false prophecies.”⁵</p> <h3 class=\"Body\">Armageddon</h3> <p class=\"Body\">Revelation 16:14–16 mentions a cataclysmic battle between world rulers that takes place in a location called the valley of Armageddon. Witnesses believe this is a description of a great final battle that will result in the end of the world. It is considered a global battle between the forces of good and evil, and the final result will be a cleansing of all things <a href=\"http://www.exploregod.com/evil\">evil</a>.</p> <p class=\"Body\">The imminence of Armageddon is used to encourage conversion since “those who respond favorably to the good news can survive Armageddon and live forever in perfection on a paradise earth.”⁶ This message has defined much of the Witnesses’ actions and publications over the years. Although the world will end, “millions now living will never die!” they proclaim. Those millions are, of course, Jehovah’s Witnesses.</p> <h3 class=\"Body\">The Two Groups</h3> <p class=\"Body\">Witnesses also place a large emphasis on the 144,000 mentioned in Revelation 7. For Jehovah’s Witnesses, this number has had two distinct meanings.</p> <p class=\"Body\">In the early 1920s, Rutherford instituted the practice of door-to-door visitation. Witnesses were instructed to tell their neighbors that only 144,000 would make it into heaven after the battle of Armageddon, which was then predicted to happen in 1925. However, by the late 1920s, there were already over 144,000 Jehovah’s Witnesses committed to the religion, and the battle had yet to come.</p> <p class=\"Body\">The leaders announced New Light, which taught that “everyone who had become a Jehovah’s Witness before 1935 would go to heaven (the ‘little flock’), while everyone who came after 1935 would be among the ‘great crowd’ who would . . . look forward to living on Earth in a new paradise.”⁷</p> <h3 class=\"Body\">The Millennium</h3> <p class=\"Body\">In Revelation 20:1–6, we find mention of the millennial reign of Jesus. Again, Witnesses have a specific set of beliefs that grows out of this concept.</p> <p class=\"Body\">Having won the battle of Armageddon, Jesus will set up a government with the help of the 144,000. At this time, the world will be restored to perfect conditions. There will be no death, plenty of food, and lasting peace.⁸ Those who survive the battle of Armageddon, as well as any righteous person from Abel onward, will receive a second chance in the new world.⁹</p> <p class=\"Body\">At the end of one thousand years, Satan will be released to test the remnants of mankind. After this test, Jesus will step down from leadership and Jehovah will live with his people and reign forever.</p> <h3 class=\"Body\">Annihilation</h3> <p class=\"Body\">Historians note that the founder of the Jehovah’s Witnesses, C. T. Russell, had specific difficulty with the concept of <a href=\"http://www.exploregod.com/hell\">hell</a> as a place of eternal torment.¹⁰ Witnesses teach that those who die outside of the organization are annihilated and completely cease to exist. Those who die in Armageddon will be annihilated immediately. Those who fail the test of Satan at the end of the Millennium will also be annihilated.</p> <p class=\"Body\">Christians may differ on their understanding of the <a href=\"/what-happens-when-we-die-video\">afterlife</a>, but Witnesses stand out for their willingness to describe man’s eternal state with such specificity.</p> <h3 class=\"Body\">No One Knows</h3> <p class=\"Body\">When referring to great moments of judgment, such as the fall of governments and the eventual end of the world, even Jesus was reticent: “About that day or hour no one knows, not even the angels in heaven, nor the Son, but only the Father.”¹¹</p> <p class=\"Body\">In their short existence, Witnesses have calculated and recalculated the end of the world. They have made precise statements about how the world will end, as well as what will happen afterward. They have even described levels of the afterlife and the specific numbers of people who will enjoy each level.</p> <p class=\"Body\">Death and the end of the world as we know it are scary, enigmatic prospects, so it is easy to understand why we want to define them. The solution for the Jehovah’s Witnesses has been to create specific dogmas that address those fears. Yet again and again, they have had to readjust their statements.</p> <h3 class=\"Body\">Faith</h3> <p class=\"Body\">In describing the afterlife, the Apostle Paul stated, “Now we see only a reflection as in a mirror; then we shall see face to face.” The future will always have an element of mystery. This is, in part, because we do not currently have the faculties to comprehend what will come.</p> <p class=\"Body\">Some matters of faith will remain just that—matters of <a href=\"http://www.exploregod.com/faith\">faith</a>.</p> <div><hr /><ol id=\"footnotes\"> <li>Alan Rogerson, <em>Millions Now Living Will Never Die</em> (Great Britain: The Anchor Press, 1969), 107.</li> <li>Fritz Ridenour, <em>What’s the Difference: A Look at 20 Worldviews, Faiths and Religions and How They Compare to Christianity</em> (Ventura, CA: Regal, 2001), 120.</li> <li>N. H. Barbour and C. T. Russell, <em>The Three Worlds</em> (Rochester, NY: Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, 1877).</li> <li>Ridenour, 117.</li> <li>Ibid.</li> <li>Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, “Armageddon—A Happy Beginning,” <em>Watchtower ONLINE LIBRARY,</em> <a href=\"http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/2005881\" target=\"_blank\">http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/2005881</a>.</li> <li>Ridenour, 118.</li> <li>Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, “Life in a Restored Paradise,” <em>Watchtower ONLINE LIBRARY</em>, <a href=\"http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/102008323\" target=\"_blank\">http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/102008323</a>.</li> <li>To read the story of Cain and Abel, see <em>The Holy Bible, </em>New International Version © 2011, Genesis 4.</li> <li>David L. Weddle, “Jehovah’s Witnesses,” in <em>Encyclopedia of Religion</em> 2nd ed. vol. 7 (New York: MacMillan Reference USA, 2005), 4821.</li> <li><em>The Holy Bible</em>, Mark 13:32.</li> <li>Photo Credit: <a href=\"http://www.stocksy.com/117026\" target=\"_blank\">Eduard Bonnin / Stocksy.com</a>.</li> </ol></div></div>\nNOTICE: We work really hard to provide relevant, informative content free of charge. Please do not remove metadata, copyright information, or otherwise modify this content. Usage without proper attribution is not authorized or licensed.", "Failed date predictions of Jehovah's Witnesses\nOngoing\nNote regarding Watchtower dates:\nIn a number of cases two different years are said to represent the same event. There are two reasons for this.\n1. Watchtower chronology originally included a year \"zero\". When this error was rectified some calculations where extended by one year.\n2. In Biblical prophecy the Watchtower regularly uses the month October as the start and end of the year. For this reason a prophetic fulfilment could span two years.\nhome  > changed teachings  > changed dates\nChanged Dates :: Failed Predictions\nThis section covers some of the lesser known failed predictions and changed date doctrine of the Watchtower Society. For the more important dates see the pages on 1914 , 1925 , 1975 . Many of the following quotes are from the Watchtower Society's Studies in the Scriptures Series. Scanned copies of these books can be downloaded for free from jehovah.net.au .\nJesus said he would provide his followers Holy Spirit to correctly understand what the future holds.\n\"However, when that one arrives, the spirit of the truth, he will guide YOU into all the truth, for he will not speak of his own impulse, but what things he hears he will speak, and he will declare to YOU the things coming.\" John 16:13\nWhereas doctrine is subjective and un-provable, time prophecy leaves no room for error. On a number of occasions the Watchtower put a line in the sand when saying a specific event was going to happen on a specific date. When those dates passed without event those statements proved beyond argument to be false. When something predicted to happen does not occur there is irrefutable evidence that Jehovah did not direct the interpretation. In line with the Scriptures above, the following incorrect dates prove the Watchtower Society is not guided by Jehovah.\nIn 1876, Russell became interested in time prophecy, after reading a copy of Barbour's publication Herald of the Morning. The end had not come in 1874, as the Adventists had predicted. However, Barbour explained that Matthew 24:27 meant Jesus' invisible presence commenced in 1874, the rapture would be 1878, and the end of the world was to occur in 1914. (See Watch Tower, 1906 July 15 for a detailed account.)\nIn Russell's doctrinal chronology the most important dates were 1874 and 1914:\n\"The chapter in SCRIPTURE STUDIES, Vol. II, showing the parallels between the Jewish and Christian Dispensations, makes prominent four dates, viz., (1) October, 1874; (2) April, 1878; (3) October, 1881, and (4) October, 1914;\" Watch Tower 1911 June 15 p.190\n\"The careful student will have observed that the period designated 'The Time of the End' is very appropriately named, since not only does the Gospel age close in it, but in it, also, all prophesies relating to the close of this age terminate, reaching their fulfillments. The same class of readers will have noticed, too, the special importance of the last 40 of these 115 years (1874-1914), called 'The End' or 'Harvest.'\" Studies in the Scriptures Series III - Thy Kingdom Come p.121\nThe above timeline shows Russell's preached the Second Coming of Jesus was 1874, and the start of the 1000 year earthly reign was 1914, as it was to end in 2914 A.D.\nFor Rutherford the important dates were:\n\"WE HAVE no doubt whatever in regard to the chronology relating to the dates of 1874, 1914, 1918, and 1925.\" Watchtower 1922 May 15 p.147\nOver time, Rutherford replaced 1874, such that his time line was as follows.\nOther significant dates the Watchtower no longer refer to are;\n1799 A.D. - The beginning of the Last Days.\n539 A.D. - Thought to be the start of Catholic Papal rule and the start point of many prophetic interpretations.\nOf these above dates only 1914 is still considered significant, and even then, mostly for different reasons than originally prescribed. Though part of Watchtower lore for 60 years, most current Jehovah's Witnesses are unaware of their significance and that each one failed to eventuate as predicted.\nEach time the Watchtower has predicted an occurrence, it has not eventuated as foretold, a 100% failure rate. Does this inspire confidence in Watchtower interpretation? Jehovah's Witnesses promoted these falsehoods in the past, and continue to zealously advocate current doctrine as unfailing truths.\nIt is claimed that Jesus found a cleansed Slave Class dispensing truthful food in 1919. However, Rutherford continued to promote Russell's interpretation of the dates for the 1700's, 1800's and 1914 until the 1930's. Many of the date prophecies were re-explained between 1930 and 1932; the remainder were adjusted in 1943. Rutherford even dismissed the majority of his own 1900's predictions.\nChapter 10 of Jehovah's Witnesses - Proclaimers of God's Kingdom is devoted to the subject \"Growing in Accurate Knowledge of the Truth\". This discusses that truth is progressive, yet makes little reference to the failed dates. Relegated to a footnote on page 133 is the statement that;\n\"A clearer understanding of Biblical chronology was published in 1943, in the book \"The Truth Shall Make You Free\" and it was then refined the following year in the book \"The Kingdom Is at Hand,\" as well as in later publications.\nScant mention is made of the incredible list of dates that had been abandoned. Nor does it clarify that it was not until 1943 that the beginning of Christ's presence was specifically changed from the year 1874 to 1914. This change was in The Truth Shall Make You Free, released in the time of Knorr and the first book to be printed that did not list the author's name. This was after the death of Rutherford and well after 1919 when Jesus inspection supposedly found a spiritually cleansed Organization.\nOne can imagine that over time most of the current doctrine describing events of the 1900's will eventually be seen to be of little relevance and relegated to the forgotten annals of Watchtower history. It is yet to be seen what will become of 1914; being the most significant doctrine it will be the most difficult to eradicate without overwhelming consequences.\n1780\nMay 19, 1780 was the date for the first sign of the last days, \"The Dark Day.\" Certain Adventists still hold to this date. It was said by Ellen that \"Since the time of Moses no period of darkness of equal density, extent, and duration, has ever been recorded.\" (Great Controversy, p. 308) This was touched on in Studies in the Scriptures - The Day Of Vengeance (1897) p.604;\n\"Reckoning a hundred years from 1780, the date of the first sign, the limit would reach to 1880; and, to our understanding, every item predicted had begun to be fulfilled at that date\"\nThe time of darkness, the first sign of the end, was caused by fires in New England and was confined mostly to the North-Eastern part of the United States. Quite typically a new religion will think their country is predicted in prophecy. The Adventists, Mormons and Watchtower Society all began as US centric religions.\n1798\n\"And, perhaps we can answer: the \"time, times, and a-half,\" ended in 1798, at the taking away of the papal dominion, and is one of the great landmarks of prophecy.\" Three Worlds and The Harvest of This World (1877) p.158\nThe 1260 days in Revelation 12:7 were said to extend from 538 A.D. to 1798 A.D. and marked by the end of Papal rule. In 1889, Russell changed the last days from 1798 to 1799, based on a new understanding that papal rule started in 539 A.D.\n1799\nFew Witnesses today are aware of the relevance of the year 1799, that this year is pivotal to the very existence of Jehovah's Witnesses. 1799 was the beginning of \"the time of the end.\" This concept started the era of enlightenment and Adventist movement of the 1800's, resulting in Russell's end time belief system.\nIn no uncertain terms, Watchtower presented \"proof\" that 1799 was \"definitely\" the start of the time of the end.\n\"THE \"Time of the End,\" a period of one hundred and fifteen (115) years, from A.D. 1799 to A.D. 1914, is particularly marked in the Scriptures. \"The Day of His Preparation\" is another name given to the same period.\" Studies in the Scriptures - Thy Kingdom Come p.23\nIn 1796, George Bell postulated that the Pope was the Antichrist and would fall in 1797. The war that started shortly afterwards, along with Napoleon debasing the Pope, was seen as evidence of the fulfilment of this. So dramatic was the apparent fulfilment of this prophecy that it led to the start of the Adventist movement and belief that the last days started 1799. The reasoning was related to Daniel's prophecy of the King of the North and prophecies of the 1260 days in Daniel 7:25, Revelation 12:7 and 11:1-3.\nStudies in the Scriptures - The Time is as Hand and Zion's Watch Tower 1889 discussed this as relating to the 1799 date.\nCatholic Papal rule started in 539 A.D. and was said to have ended 1260 years later in 1799, thus starting the beginning of the time of the end. The prophecy of the 1355 days was similarly calculated to extend from 539 A.D. to 1874, another key date in Russell's understanding of the end times. Although Russell did not get involved in the Adventist movement until the 1870's, he accepted this date as truth and felt that God had chosen him as his mouthpiece to preach the urgency of the times.\nDespite Russell's death, and the failure of his teaching that Jesus earthly rulership would commence 1914, Watchtower continued with this doctrine, and even well after Jesus apparent cleansing of Watchtower in 1919.\n\"Napoleon began this Egyptian campaign in 1798, ... and being completed in 1799, marks, according to the Prophet's own words, the beginning of the \"time of the end\". The Harp of God (1921) pp.228,229\n\"The time of the end\" embraces a period from A.D. 1799, as above indicated, to the time of the complete overthrow of Satan's empire and the establishment of the kingdom of the Messiah.\" The Harp of God p.231\n\"Twelve-hundred sixty years from A.D. 539 brings us to 1799-another proof that 1799 definitely marks the beginning of \"the time of the end\".\" The Harp of God p.230\n\"How is the beginning of the “time of the end” definitely fixed at 1799 A. D.?\" The Harp of God p.269\n\"This great increase in knowledge and the tremendous running to and fro of the people in various parts of the earth without question is a fulfilment of the prophecy testifying as to \"the time of the end\".\" The Harp of God p.234\nIt is amusing to see the lengthy list of inventions The Harp of God used as proof that the 1800's was the time of the end. The locomotive and \"flying machine\" (p.231) were considered fulfilment of the \"day of God's preparation\" spoken of in Nahum 2:1-6. Evidence the Lord's presence commenced 1874 included - adding machines, aeroplanes, aluminium, antiseptic surgery, artificial dyes, automatic couplers, automobiles, barbed wire, bicycles, carborundum, cash registers, celluloid, correspondence schools, cream separators, Darkest Africa, fireless cookers, shoe-sewing machines, the telegraph, the telephone, Panama Canal, Pasteurization, and vacuum cleaners (page 235).\nThis teaching continued throughout the nineteen twenties in other publications.\n\"The indisputable facts, therefore, show that the \"time of the end\" began in 1799; that the Lord's second presence began in 1874.\" Watchtower 1922 Mar 1 p.73\n\"Napoleon began this Egyptian campaign in 1798, finished it, and then returned to France on October 1, 1799. The campaign is briefly, yet graphically described in the prophecy, verses 40-44; and its being completed in 1799 marks, according to the prophet's own words, the beginning of \"the time of the end. Twelve hundred and sixty years from 539 A.D. brings us to 1799, which is another proof that 1799 definitely marks the beginning of \"the time of the end.\" This also shows that it is from the date 539 A.D. that the other prophetic days of Daniel must be counted.\" Creation (1927) 2,175,000 ed. p.293\n\"These physical facts cannot be disputed and are sufficient to convince any reasonable mind that we have been in \"the time of the end\" since 1799.\" The Harp of God p.234\nThen as now, Watchtower resorted to insult, with Rutherford indicating above that a person is not of \"reasonable mind\" if they do not believe the time of the end started in 1799. Today, a Witness that does not believe 1914 was the start of the end is labelled as apostate or even the antichrist and disfellowshipped.\n1829\n1829 was the start of the Miller movement, as supposedly prophesied by the 1290 days of Daniel 12:11. This was 1290 years from the beginning of papal rule in 539 A.D, as explained in Studies in the Scriptures - Thy Kingdom Come p.84 and Studies in the Scriptures - The Finished Mystery pp.40, 60, 163.\n\"The Prophet Daniel's statement that \"the wise shall understand\" apparently refers to the end of the 1290 days mentioned in the same chapter. This period terminated in 1829. Shortly after 1829 the message of the nearness of the Second Advent of Christ began especially to be promulgated by William Miller. As a result of the exaltation of the Word of God, certain doctrines were brought forth in a very prominent way.\" Watchtower 1914 Nov 1 p.326\n1840\nSounding of the Seventh Trumpet.\n\"The seventh trumpet sounds from Aug. 1840, until \"the time of trouble,\" or day of wrath is ended. Hence, it doubtless ends with the times of the Gentiles, and this forty years of conquest; and therefore, sounds until A. D. 1914; at the end of which, Babylon the great, will have fallen, and the \"dragon\" be bound: that is, the nations will be subdued, and \"the prince of this world cast out.\"\" Three Worlds and the Harvest of This World (1877) p.27\n1844\nThis was a key date for the Adventist movement. In the early 1800's John Aquila Brown taught that the Daniel chapter 8 prophecy of 2,300 days ended in 1844. Miller took up this theme and said that the end of the world would come in this year. When it did not Miller renounced his teaching but the Adventists stuck to it. They reinterpreted it to be the start of the time of the end and that the end would be 1874. This did not occur either.\nIn the 1870's Russell became interested in time prophecy. He followed Barbour's concept that the 1700 and 1800 dates put forward by the Adventists were correct; it was the understanding of what was going to happen that was wrong. Studies in the Scriptures Series 2 p.240 discusses Russell's understanding of 1844.\n1846\nThe Sanctuary was cleansed in 1846, another understanding of the end of the 2,300 day prophecy. The cleansing was meant to be when G. Storrs abandoned false doctrines. Storrs was one of the preachers that Russell took his doctrines from. This is discussed in Studies in the Scriptures - Thy Kingdom Come p.108 and Studies in the Scriptures - The Finished Mystery p.163.\n\"The 2,300 days point to 1846 as the time when God's sanctuary would be cleansed of the defiling errors and principles of Papacy; and we have noted the cleansing there accomplished.\" Studies In the Scriptures - Thy Kingdom Come p.306\n1873\n1873 was the year that Second Adventists and Russell thought the 6,000 years of creation had ended.\n\"We are already living in the seventh millennium - since October 1872\" Studies In the Scriptures - The Time Is At Hand 1915 ed. p.363\n\"Here we furnish the evidence that from the creation of Adam to A.D. 1873 was six thousand years. And though the Bible contains no direct statement that the seventh thousand will be the epoch of Christ's reign, the great Sabbath Day of restitution to the world, yet the venerable tradition is not without reasonable foundation. If, then, the seventh thousand-year period of earth's history be an epoch specially noted as the period of Christ's reign, we shall, by showing that it began in A.D. 1873, be proving that we are already in it.\" Studies In the Scriptures - The Time Is At Hand 1915 ed. p.39\n\"Looking back to 1871, we see that many of our company were what are known as Second Adventists, and the light they held briefly stated, was that there would be a second advent of Jesus-- that he would come to bless and immortalize the saints, to judge the world and to burn up the world and all the wicked. This, they claimed would occur in 1873, because the 6,000 years from the creation of Adam were complete then.\" Zion's Watch Tower 1881 Feb p.3\nThis began the reign of Christ and the period of darkness on the earth. The signs of the last days were apparently proven by the start of political systems such as Socialism, Communism and Nihilism. Studies in the Scriptures - The Finished Mystery The Watchtower did not change their workings on the 6,000 years until 1943, when they started to say that due to inaccuracies in the King James Bible they had wrongly stated 1873 and that the 6,000 years actually ended in 1975. (See Proclaimers footnote p.133)\n1874\n1874 was a key date for Russell. In many ways, 1874 was to Russell what 1914 is to Jehovah’'s Witnesses today. 1874 was the time of the second coming or second advent, the start of Jesus' invisible presence, the start of the harvest work and the beginning of the time for the generation that would see the end.\n\"The second advent of our Lord in the end or harvest of the Gospel age, occurring in the fall of 1874, proves to be at a point of time exactly parallel to the time of his first advent, in the end of the Jewish age. ... the Jubilee Cycles show October 1874 to be the date of our Lord s return. ... While the time-prophecies thus point to and harmonize with 1874 as the date of our Lord s second presence, assuring us of the fact with mathematical precision, we find ourselves overwhelmed with evidence of another character; for certain peculiar signs, foretold by the Lord and the apostles and prophets, which were to precede his coming, are now clearly recognised as actually fulfilled. ... The cleansing of the sanctuary was also accomplished as predicted, and at a time sufficiently in advance of 1874 to make ready \"a people prepared for the Lord\" a people in devout expectancy of his coming\"\" The Time of the Harvest (1911 ed.) pp.125,127,129\n\"... he would in reality assume the kingly office, power, etc., viz., in the spring of 1878, three and a half years after his second advent at the beginning of the harvest period, in the fall of 1874.\" The Time of the Harvest (1911 ed.) p.234\n\"So short a time ago as 1870 we saw, in addition to the first principles of the Gospel, only the two bare facts - the Lord's second coming and the Restitution - and these but vaguely; for though we then saw restitution taught in Scripture, we were much in doubt as to its comprehensiveness, questioning often whether it would include all the billions of the dead whom the god of this world had in the present life blinded. And concerning the Lord's second coming, while we realized that he is no longer a man, but is now the new creature--the express image of the Father's person-- a quickening spirit, yet we failed somehow to make a proper application of this to his second coming, and unthinkingly and ignorantly, rather expected his coming to be as a glorified man, than as a spiritual being. It was not until about 1874 that these things became clearer, so that we realized that when Jesus should come, it would be as unobserved by human eyes as though an angel had come; and that it could be known only by some miracle, by some manifestation or demonstration....\nNext our attention was drawn to the subject of the TIME of our Lord's coming. Before this we had strenuously ignored time, partly because of its being made so much of by \"Second Adventists,\" and because of the frequent failures of their expectations. Moreover, the fact that they claimed the destruction of the world to be the impending event, and used the periods of time mentioned in Scripture to mark the time of that destruction, was another reason why we were disposed to ignore the subject of time. Their erroneous theory of the destruction of the world cast discredit on the time which they associated with it.\nWhen, however, the manner of our Lord's coming was seen in the light of what he is--a spiritual, and no longer a human being--then we saw that our Father had provided TIME in the Bible, that thus we might know, or see with the eye of our understanding, what we could not see with our natural eyes-- viz., the Lord's presence. A careful study of times and seasons taught in Scripture convinced us that the Lord was due to be present in 1874, and other time teachings of the Word showed that in the spring of 1875 the restitution of all things was due to commence.\" Zion's Watch Tower 1883 Aug p.1\nInitially, Russell felt that the battle of Armageddon started in 1874, based on his understanding that this was a social upheaval\n\"The date of the close of that \"battle\" is definitely marked in Scripture as October 1914. It is already in progress, its beginning dating from October, 1874.\" Zion's Watch Tower 1892 Jan 15 p.23\nIn 1904, Russell changed the start of Armageddon to be 1914.\nThere was a great deal of Scriptural \"proof\" used to show Jesus' presence began in 1874, such as:\nThe end of the jubilee cycles (Zion's Watch Tower 1881 January).\nIt was the end of 6000 years after creation\nDaniel's prophecy of the 1335 days. This was interpreted to mean 1335 years after papal rule had started in 539 AD. Historical years were changed and adjusted in order to fit the year to the prophecy.\nRussell followed Barbour's idea that the Adventists were wrong to think the end of the world would be 1874 as this was just 30 years from 1844. As a generation is 70 years, the end of the world itself would not be until 1914. This fitted nicely with Barbour's understanding of the seven times.\nIt is interesting that prophecies vigorously used today to point to special events in the 1900's were used to point to completely different events in the 1800's. Even the methodology to work out these prophecies has changed. For instance, the 1335 days were said to represent years, now we are supposed to believe they represent lunar days; that is, about 1320 solar days! These prophecies are meant to strengthen faith in the Watchtower interpretation of the Bible, when they are obviously being used to fit any situation the Watchtower Society desires.\n1874 was still being used well after 1914.\n\"Bible prophecy shows that the Lord was due to appear for the second time in the year 1874. Fulfilled prophecy shows beyond a doubt that he did appear in 1874. Fulfilled prophecy is otherwise designated the physical facts; and these facts are indisputable.\" Watchtower 1922 Nov 1 p.333\n\"Surely there is not the slightest room for doubt in the mind of a truly consecrated child of God that the Lord Jesus is present and has been since 1874;…\" Watchtower 1924 Jan 1 p.5)\n\"“The Scriptural proof is that the second presence of the Lord Jesus Christ began in 1874 A.D.”\" Prophecy 1929 1,589,000 ed. p.65\n\"“Applying the same rule then, of a day for a year, 1335 days after 539 A.D. brings us to 1874 A.D. at which time, according to Biblical chronology, the Lord's second presence was due.”\" Creation 1927 2,175,000 ed. p.298\n\"“The Scriptural proof is that the period of his presence and the day of God's preparation is a period from 1874 A.D. forward. The second coming of the Lord, therefore, began in 1874; and that date and the years 1914 and 1918 are specially marked dates with reference to his coming. “Prophecy can not be understood until it has been fulfilled or is in the course of fulfillment. From 1874 to 1914 the prophecy concerning the Lord's coming was being fulfilled and could be understood, and was understood, by those who were faithful to the Lord and who were watching the development of events, but not by others.\"” Creation 1927 2,175,000 ed. p.289\nThe Harp of God contains many references to 1874 in both the 1921 and 1928 editions. The 1927 edition of Creation uses inventions from 1874 onwards as evidence of the Lord's presence since that date. These included:\n\"But mention is made of some of those things that have come to light since 1874, as a further evidence of the Lord's presence since that date, as follows: Adding machines, aeroplanes, aluminium, antiseptic surgery, artificial dyes, automatic couplers, automobiles, barbed wire, bicycles, carborundum, cash registers, celluloid, cream separators, disc plows, electric railways, electric welding, elevators, escalators, fireless cookers, gas engines, harvesting machines, illuminating gas, induction motors, linotypes, monotypes, motion pictures, pasteurization, radium, railway signals, Roentgen rays, skyscrapers, smokeless powder, submarines, subways, talking machines, telephones, television, typewriters, vacuum cleaners, wireless telegraphy and wireless telephony.\" Creation 1927 2,175,000 ed. p.297\n1874 was not dropped as the start of the second coming until the 1930’s, when articles such as the following started to be released.\n\"The prophecy of the Bible, fully supported by the physical facts in fulfilment thereof, shows that the second coming of Christ dates from the fall of the year 1914.\" What is Truth? (1932) p.48\n1874 was not removed entirely from Watchtower doctrine until 1943, when a change in how the 6000 years were calculated meant it could no longer be used as the end of the 6000 years. (see God's Kingdom on a Thousand Years Has Approached p.209)\nThe Society generally glosses over its history and wrong interpretations. However, some of the excuses it provides for these errors are quite shocking;\n\"“According to an inaccurate chronology that had been worked out from the King James Authorized Version Bible, Russell calculated Christ's \"presence\" had begun in the year 1874 C.E., unseen to human eyes and seen only by the eye of faith.”\" Man's Salvation Out Of World Distress At Hand (1975) p.287\nIs indicating that God allowed the Bible to come down to us incorrectly really the best way to exonerate Russell’'s wrong teachings? Doesn't this raise more problems than it answers?\n1878\nToday, Jehovah's Witnesses longingly believe the New System and resurrection is just about to happen. The idea that it will be \"soon\" has been preached from the very start of the Watchtower Society, for over a century.\n\"... the spring of 1878 as the time when he would assume his power as heavenly King. They also thought they would be given their heavenly reward at that time.\" Jehovah's Witnesses - Proclaimers of God's Kingdom p. 632\n1878 was the first prediction that Russell publicized for his followers to receive their resurrection.\nIn January 1876, Charles Russell read a copy of Barbour's publication Herald of the Morning. This explained that Jesus had returned invisibly in 1874, and the Rapture would occur in 1878. As the kingdom had not come to earth in 1874 as predicted by the Adventists, Barbour started to preach that it was only invisibly present in 1874, (exactly the same justification used years later by Rutherford to explain why the kingdom did not manifest itself in 1914). 1878 was to be the year to fulfil many events, being 3 ½ years after 1874, based on Jesus 3 ½ year ministry. Russell was deeply affected by this and started to fund Barbour's publication, believing it would only be for two years.\nIn 1878, the first of the dead 144,000 saints would go to heaven, along with the 'rapture' of Barbour, Russell and his followers to heaven. He believed he had been led to the truth just in time for the resurrection 2 years later.\n\"Expecting the Lord Jesus to come in 1878 to catch them up miraculously to be with him in heaven, some who had been Second Adventists (including Barbour) were disappointed when that miracle did not occur. Russell, though, \"did not for a moment feel cast down,\" but \"realized that what God had so plainly declared must some time have a fulfillment\"; and he \"wanted to have it just in God's time and way.\"\nOn one occasion while talking with Russell about the events of 1878, I told him that Pittsburgh papers had reported he was on the Sixth Street bridge dressed in a white robe on the night of the Memorial of Christ's death, expecting to be taken to heaven together with many others. I asked him, \"Is that correct?\"\nRussell laughed heartily and said: \"I was in bed that night between 10:30 and 11:00 P.M. However, some of the more radical ones might have been there, but I was not. Neither did I expect to be taken to heaven at that time, for I felt there was much work to be done preaching the Kingdom message to the peoples of the earth before the church would be taken away.\" FAITH ON THE MARCH pp.26-27\nShortly after this time, Russell split from Barbour and in 1879 started his own magazine, Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence.\nEven after the failure of the Rapture to eventuate in 1878, this year continued to be considered a prophetic date by Russell and Rutherford. This was the year Jesus took rulership in heaven.\n\"... 1874 as the time of our Lord's second presence as Bridegroom and Reaper, and to April 1878 as the time when he began to exercise his office of King of kings and Lord of lords ...\" Studies in the Scriptures - Thy Kingdom Come (1911 ed.) p.150\nIt was the start of the resurrection of the dead saints.\n\"Our Lord's resurrection occurred three and a half years after his advent as the Messiah, in A.D. 29; and the resurrection of his body, the Church, we have seen, was due in the year 1878, three and a half years after his second advent, in October 1874.\" Studies In the Scriptures Series III - Thy Kingdom Come p.305\n\"In the year 1878, the dead in Christ were resurrected, as shown by number 8. It was time for them to be engaged in kingdom work. In that same year a call was issued for the saints on this side of the \"veil\" to come out of Babylon. The 1845 years of fleshly Israel's disfavor ended in 1878.\" Explanation of Chart Representing the Plan of the Ages\nIn 1906, Russell claimed that the \"Lord has helped and guided\" him to reveal the truth, but then goes on to explain that he had been wrong about his living followers being taken to heaven in 1878, and changed this to be the date when those already dead were taken to heaven. Despite the Lord's help this too was wrong, as the Watchtower now claims this event occurred in 1914.\n\"We did not then see, as we now do,* that that date (1878) marked the time for the beginning of the establishment of the Kingdom of God, by the glorification of all who already slept in Christ, and that the \"change\" which Paul mentions (I Cor. 15:51) is to occur in the moment of dying, to all the class described, from that date onward through the harvest period, until all the living members (\"the feet\") of the body of Christ shall have been changed to glorious spirit beings. But when at that date nothing occurred which we could see, a re-examination of the matter showed me that our mistake lay in expecting to see all the living saints changed at once, and without dying--an erroneous view shared in by the whole nominal church, and one which we had not yet observed or discarded.\" Zion's Watch Tower 1906 July p.230 \"Harvest Gathering and Siftings.\"\nThis was the first of many dates that the rapture and the sealing of the 144,000 were to occur.\nTo explain the failure of the rapture Barbour used the 'new light' concept. This concept of new light was seized upon by Russell and has been used by generations of Witnesses since. As can be seen from the quote above, 1878 was considered incontrovertible for decades, yet later was re-explained by 'brighter' light.\n\"The spring of A.D. 1878 (three and a half years later) corresponds to the date at which our Lord assumed the office of King, rode on the ass, cleansed the temple of its money-changers, and wept over and gave up to desolation that nominal church or kingdom; and it marks the date when the nominal church systems were \"spewed out\" (Rev. 3:16), and from which time (A.D. 1878) they are not the mouth pieces of God, nor in any degree recognized by him. So it was in this harvest also up to A.D. 1878 the time prophecies and the fact of the Lord's presence, substantially as here presented, though less clearly, was our message. Since then the work has widened, and the view of other truths has become brighter and clearer; but the same fact and scriptures, teaching the same time and presence, stand unchallenged and incontrovertible.\" Studies In the Scriptures Series II - The Time Is At Hand 1915 ed. p.235\nEventually the brighter light faded and 1878 is now considered completely irrelevant.\nOther events for 1878 were the 'end of the gospel age', with God's favour being returned to the Jews and the Kingdom of God starting to exercise power. (see Zion's Watch Tower October 1879, Three Worlds p.68, Jehovah's Witnesses-Proclaimers of God's Kingdom (1993) p.632, Divine purpose p.19, Studies in the Scriptures, Series 2 p.101, Studies in the Scriptures, Series 6 p.663 and Millions Now Living will Never Die (1920) pp.27-28)\n1880\nBy 1880 all the signs of the end were said to have started, great earthquakes, war, pestilence, bad behaviour of people and so forth.\n\"A \"generation\" might be reckoned as equivalent to a century (practically the present limit) or one hundred and twenty years, Moses' lifetime and the Scripture limit. (Gen. 6:3.) Reckoning a hundred years from 1780, the date of the first sign, the limit would reach to 1880; and, to our understanding, every item predicted had begun to be fulfilled at that date;-the \"harvest\" or gathering time beginning October 1874; the organization of the Kingdom and the taking by our Lord of his great power as the King in April 1878, and the time of trouble or \"day of wrath\" which began October 1874, and will cease about 1915; and the sprouting of the fig tree.\" Studies in the Scriptures Series IV - The Day of Vengeance p.604\nThe exact opposite is now stated. You Can Live Forever In Paradise on Earth claims that the time before 1914 was a period of peace, and it was not until 1914 that all these signs of the last days started to be fulfilled.\n\"Yet what were prominent world leaders foretelling just before 1914? They were saying that conditions promising world peace were never more favourable. Yet the terrible troubles the Bible foretold began right on time, in 1914!\" You Can Live Forever in Paradise on Earth p.5\nThis would seem to indicate that these signs can be comfortably fit to any generation.\n1881\n1881 became the next prophesied year that the sealing of the 144,000 was to be complete. This was to be at the end of 7 harvest years after the jubilee cycles had ended in 1874.\n\"the gathering of the bride into the place of safety, will occupy a parallel of seven years of time, ending in 1881\" Zion's Watch Tower 1881 January p.1\n\"To our understanding the general call to this joint heirship with our Redeemer as members of the New Creation of God, ceased in 1881.\" Studies In the Scriptures Series VI - New Creation 1915 ed. p.95\n\"As in the type that date - three and a half years after the death of Christ - marked the end of all special favor to the Jew and the beginning of favor to the Gentiles, so we recognize A.D. 1881 as marking the close of the high calling, or invitation to the blessing peculiar to this age - to become joint-heirs with Christ and partakers of the divine nature.\" Studies In the Scriptures Series II - The Time Is At Hand 1915 ed. p.235\n\"The General Call To The High Calling Ceased-9 Even though the general call ceased in 1881, the door to the high calling remains open, as shown by number 9. However, it is only when one who is spirit begotten has to be replaced, (on account of being overcharged with the cares of this world, or sinful living, or loss of faith), that one, desirous of doing the Father's will, is invited to enter the narrow way as a replacement. The door to the high calling will remain open until the bride has made herself ready.\" Explanation of Chart Representing the Plan of the Ages\n\"It was also reasoned that the end of God's special favor to natural Israel down to 36 C.E. might point to 1881 as the time when the special opportunity to become part of spiritual Israel would close.\" Jehovah's Witnesses-Proclaimers of God's Kingdom p.632\nOnce again it was believed that the remaining of the 144,000 would be taken by the rapture straight to heaven. In January 1881 the Watchtower stated that \"the translation or change from the natural to the spiritual condition, [is] due this side or by the fall of our year 1881.\"\n1906\nRussell predicted a great war for 1906. As early as the Zion's Watch Tower 1892 January 15 Russell had stated;\n\"Then \"Woe to the man or nation who starts the next war in Europe; for it will be a war of extermination.\" if not brought to an end by the establishment of god's Kingdom in the hands f his elect and then glorified Church, it would exterminate the race - Matt. 24:22.\"\nThe European War was said to be fulfilment of prophecy. When the Russo-Japanese war began in 1904, Russell suggested in Zion's Watch Tower 1904 March 1 that it would suck in all Europe fulfilling his prophecy for 1906.\n1910\n1910 was another date for the 'rapture', with the Bible Students expecting to be taken to heaven. Studies in the Scriptures Series 3 p.364 (versions printed before 1910) based this teaching on measurements from the Great Pyramid of Gizeh. It was also to Herald the time of Great trouble upon the Churches.\n\"It is but a few years before the full close of the time of trouble which ends the Gentile times; and when we remember the Lord's words-that the overcomers shall be accounted worthy to escape the severest of the trouble coming upon the world we may understand the reference to be to the anarchous trouble which will follow October, 1914; but a trouble chiefly upon the Church may be expected about 1910 A.D. The four years from 1910 to the end of 1914, indicated thus in the Great Pyramid, will doubtless be a time of \"fiery trial\" upon the Church (1 Cor. 3:15) preceding the anarchy of the world, which cannot last long- \"Except those days should be shortened there should no flesh be saved.\" Matt. 24:22\" Studies In the Scriptures Series III - Thy Kingdom Come p.364\n1914\n1914 has been a pivotal date for the Watchtower. The expectations prior to 1914 included it being the end of the Gentile Times, the end of Armageddon, the fall of false religion, the end of all governments, the resurrection, the start of Jesus 1000 year reign and paradise on earth. See 1914 for a in-depth article regarding this date.\n1915\nIn 1912 Russell explained that he did not know how to account for the year 0 between B.C. and A.D. and that the end could be in either 1914 or 1915. The 2520 years of Daniels seven times prophecy extends from 606 to 1915 once the year zero between B.C. and A.D. is removed.\n\"Then, we were content to say, \"606 B.C. seems a well authenticated date for the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, and B.C. 536 the date when the seventy years' appointed desolation of the land ceased.\" …\nAs to the methods of counting, Encyclopaedia Britannica says, \"Astronomers denote the year which preceded the first of our era as 0 and the year previous to that as B.C. 1-the previous year B.C. 2, and so on.\"\nWhichever of these ways we undertake to calculate the matter the difference between the results is one year. The seventy years of Jewish captivity ended October, 536 B.C., and if there were 536-1/4 years B.C., then to complete the 2,520 years' cycle of the Times of the Gentiles would require 1913-3/4 years of A.D., or to October, 1914. But if the other way of reckoning were used, then there were but 535-1/4 years of the period B.C., and the remainder of the 2,520 years would reach to A.D., 1914-3/4 years, otherwise October, 1915.\nSince this question is agitating the minds of a considerable number of the friends, we have presented it here in some detail. We remind the readers, however, that nothing in the Scriptures says definitely that the trouble upon the Gentiles will be accomplished before the close of the Times of the Gentiles, whether that be October, 1914, or October, 1915. The trouble doubtless will be considerable before the final crash, even though that crash come suddenly, like the casting of a great millstone into the sea. (Rev. 18:21.) The parallel between the Jewish Harvest and the present Harvest would corroborate the thought that the trouble to the full will be accomplished by October, 1915.\" Watch Tower 1912 Dec 1 pp. 377-8\nWith the outbreak of World War One in August 1914, Russell reconfirmed that the end would be October 1914. When nothing happened in October 1914 Russell reused the idea that 1915 would signal the end.\n\"In view of this strong Bible evidence concerning the Times of the Gentiles, we consider it an established truth that the final end of the kingdoms of this world, and the full establishment of the Kingdom of God, will be accomplished near the end of A.D. 1915. ...\nBe not surprised, then, when in subsequent chapters we present proofs that the setting up of the Kingdom of God is already begun, that it is pointed out in prophecy as due to begin the exercise of power in A.D. 1878, and that the \"battle of the great day of God Almighty\" (Rev. 16:14), which will end in A.D. 1915, with the complete overthrow of the earth's present rulership, is already commenced. ...\nThe \"Gentile Times\" prove that the present governments must all be overturned about the close of 1915 A.D.\" Studies In the Scriptures Series II - The Time Is At Hand 1915 ed. pp.99, 101, 242\n1915 was to herald the end of worldly government and the reestablishment of Palestine.\n\"Be that as it may, there is evidence that the establishment of the Kingdom in Palestine will probably be in 1925, ten years later than we once calculated.\" Studies In the Scriptures Series VII - The Finished Mystery p.128\nWhen nothing happened in 1915 the Watchtower went back to using 1914.\nIt was not until 1943 that the Watchtower Society explained once more that there is no year zero. However this time they did not use 1915 as Russell had done when acknowledging his mistake. The Watchtower decided to retain 1914, and was able to do so by changing the date for the destruction of Jerusalem from 606 B.C. to 607 B.C.\n\"Providentially, those Bible Students had not realized that there is no zero year between \"B.C.\" and \"A.D.\" Later, when research made it necessary to adjust B.C. 606 to 607 B.C.E., the zero year was also eliminated, so that the prediction held good at \"A.D. 1914.\"-See \"The Truth Shall Make You Free,\" published by the Watch Tower Society in 1943, page 239.\" Revelation - Its Grand Climax at Hand! p. 105\nSince it was prior to 1914 that Russell and the Bible Students identified there was \"no year zero,\" the above comment is dishonest. The year zero was not removed because research led to 607 B.C., but rather the elimination of the year zero led to moving from 606 B.C to 607 B.C.\nThe Society changed history with the stroke of a pen, however neither 607 B.C. nor 606 B.C. is correct. All historical evidence shows that Jerusalem fell in 587 B.C. an understanding that undermines the entire basis for 1914.\n1917\nThe first printing of Studies In the Scriptures Series VII - The Finished Mystery was June 1917, in which the end of World War One was predicted for October 1st, 1917. Subsequent printings retrospectively stated the war ended 1918.\np.268\n75,000 edition \"Is not yet come.- But is due to make its appearance with the close of the war, some time about October 1st, 1917. (See comments on Rev. 16:17-21; Ex. 10:23.)\" Click here for scan\n2,604,000 edition \"Is not yet come. - But is due to make its appearance after the close of the war, probably early in the year 1918. (See comments on Rev. 16:17-21; Ex. 10:23.)\" Click here for scan\n1918\nIt did not take long for the extension of the chronology following the failure of the end to come in 1914. In 1916, Rutherford predicted the \"harvest work\" would end in 1918, with the destruction of all religion. It also became the year that the resurrection for the heavenly ones was to start.\n\"Incidentally we remark that some historians put the end of the Jewish Time of Trouble as April A.D. 73, which would correspond to April 1918.\" Watch Tower 1916 Sep 1 p.265\n\"The parallel, therefore, would establish definitely that the harvest would close forty years thereafter; to wit, in the spring of A.D. 1918. If this be true, and the evidence is very conclusive that it is true, then we have only a few months in which to labor before the great night settles down when no man can work.\" Watch Tower Oct 1 1917 p.292,293\n\"That the harvest began in 1878, there is ample and convincing proof. The end of the harvest is due in the spring of 1918.\" Watch Tower May 1 1918 p.132\nThis was covered in detail with the release of the last book of Studies in the Scriptures - The Finished Mystery.\n\"The data presented in comments on Rev. 2:1 prove that the conquest of Judea was not completed until the day of the Passover, A.D. 73, and in the light of the foregoing Scriptures, prove that the Spring of 1918 will bring upon Christendom a spasm of anguish greater even than that experienced in the Fall of 1914. Reexamine the table of the Parallel Dispensations in STUDIES IN THE SCRIPTURES, Vol. 2, pages 246 and 247; change the 37 to 40, 70 to 73, and 1914 to 1918, and we believe it is correct and will be fulfilled ‘with great power and glory.’ (Mark 13:26)\" p.62\n\"The awakening of the sleeping saints, A. D. 1878, was just half way (three and one-half years each way) between the beginning of the Times of Restitution in 1874 and the close of the High Calling in 1881. Our proposition is that the glorification of the Little Flock in the Spring of 1918 A. D. will be half way (three and one-half years each way) between the close of the Gentile Times and the close of the Heavenly Way, A. D. 1921.\" p.64\n\"It seems conclusive that the hour of Nominal Zion’s travail is fixed for the Passover of 1918. (See Rev. 3:14.) That will be 7 years prior to 1925. At that time there is every reason to believe the fallen angels will invade the minds of many of the Nominal Church people, driving them to exceedingly unwise conduct and leading to their destruction at the hands of the enraged masses, who will later be dragged to the same fate.\" p.128\n\"Brother Russell put the question to three prominent brethren, all of whom replied that they did not know, but were willing to wait and see. When he called upon me I said, ‘Since the year 73 A.D. saw the complete overthrow of nominal Natural Israel in Palestine, so in the parallel year 1918, I infer we should look for the complete overthrow of nominal Spiritual Israel; i.e., the fall of Babylon.’ (Rev.18.) Brother Russell replied; ‘Exactly. That is exactly the inference to draw.’ The conclusion of the Church’s career comes first. (Rev. 3:14.)\" p.129\n\"The people who are the strength of Christendom shall be cut off in the brief but terribly eventful period beginning in 1918 A.D. A third part are 'burned with fire in the midst of the city.' Fire symbolizes destruction. One large part of the adherents of ecclesiasticism will die from pestilence and famine. (Deut. 32:24.) After 1918 the people supporting churchianity will cease to be its supporters, be destroyed as adherents, by the spiritual pestilence of errors abroad, and by the famine of the Word of God among them. The Sword of the Spirit (Eph. 6:17), which is the Word of God, will be wielded in the hands of 'Present Truth' believers in such a manner as to cause conscientious supporters of ecclesiasticism to cease to be supporters.\" pp.398-399\n\"Also, in the year 1918, when God destroys the churches wholesale and the church members by millions, it shall be that any that escape shall come to the works of Pastor Russell to learn the meaning of the downfall of ‘Christianity.’\" p.485\nThe Finished Mystery was heralded as further proof that the end of the harvest was nigh, and the heavenly class were due to be called beyond \"the veil\".\n\"It is with sincere joy that we are privileged to report that amongst the activities of the WATCH TOWER BIBLE AND TRACT SOCIETY for 1917 the Seventh Volume of STUDIES IN THE SCRIPTURES has been published and is now going forth. We count this as another one of the strong proofs that the harvest is nearing the end, and that in all probability the Spring of 1918 will mark the beginning of the closing up of all activities of the kingdom class on this side the veil.\" Watch Tower Dec 15 1917 pp.373-374\nA later quote claims that though these predictions were wrong, the dates were correct. That too has turned out to be wrong, since 1925 no longer holds significance to Jehovah's Witnesses.\nThere was a measure of disappointment on the part of Jehovah’s faithful ones on earth concerning the years 1914, 1918, and 1925, which disappointment lasted for a time. Later the faithful learned that these dates were definitely fixed in the Scriptures; and they also learned to quit fixing dates for the future and predicting what would come to pass on a certain date. Vindication I (1931) pp.338-339\n1920\n1920 was another of Rutherford's foretold ends for Christendom and all government. Notice how this prediction was changed between the 1918 and 1926 edition of Studies In the Scriptures - The Finished Mystery\np.179\n1918 ed. We anticipate that the \"earthquake\" will occur early in 1918, and that the \"fire\" will come in the fall of 1920.\n1926 ed. We anticipate that the \"earthquake\" will occur early in 1918, and that the \"fire\" will follow in due course.\np.258\n1918 ed. Even the republics will disappear in the fall of 1920. The three days In which Pharaoh's host pursued the Israelites into the wilderness represent the three years from 1917 to 1920 at which time all of Pharaoh's messengers will be swallowed up in the sea of anarchy.\n1926 ed. Even the republics will disappear in the time of anarchy. The three days in which Pharaoh's host pursued the Israelites into the wilderness may represent the three years preceding the time of anarchy at which time all of Pharaoh's messengers will be swallowed up in the sea of angry humanity.\np.313\n1918 ed. The masses of mankind, not under religious restraint - the condition of the whole world in the time of anarchy due in its full severity in the fall of 1920.\n1926 ed. The masses of mankind, not under religious restraint - the condition of the whole world in the time of anarchy due in its full severity in the end of the time of trouble.\np.542\n1918 ed. \"As the fleshly-minded apostates from Christianity, aiding with the radicals and revolutionaries, will rejoice at the inheritance of desolation that will be Christendom's after 1918, so will God do to the successful revolutionary movement; it shall be utterly desolated, \"even all of it\" Not one vestige of it shall survive the ravages of world-wide all-embracing anarchy, in the fall of 1920.\"\n1926 ed. \"As the fleshly-minded apostates from Christianity, siding with the radicals and revolutionaries, will rejoice at the inheritance of desolation that will be Christendom's after 1918, so will God do to the successful revolutionary movement; it shall be utterly desolated, \"even all of it.\" Not one vestige of it shall survive the ravages of world-wide all-embracing anarchy, in the end of the time of trouble.\"\n1921\n1921 was another foretold closing of the calling and for the 144,000 to go to heaven. Rutherford drew on a string of interesting prophetic reasoning's that the Watchtower no longer refers to, such as 'half way' signs.\n\"This confirms the hope of the Church's glorification forty years (a year for a day) after the awakening of the sleeping saints in the Spring of 1878. The Seventh-days before the Deluge may represent seven years, from 1914 to 1921, in the midst of which \"week of years' the last members of the Messiah pass beyond the veil. Our proposition is that the glorification of the Little Flock in the Spring of 1918 A.D. will be halfway between the close of the Gentile Times and the close of the heavenly way, A.D. 1921.\" Studies In the Scriptures - The Finished Mystery p.64\nThe half way signs in the article above went on the include;\nAbrahamic covenant 2045 B.C. was half way between Adam 4127 B.C. and Cornelius 36 A.D.\nLast typical jubilee 626 B.C. was half way between end of Adam's day 3127 B.C. and 1914 A.D.\nCaptivity 606 B.C. was half way between fall of man 4127 B.C. and full restoration 2914 A.D.\nChrists death 33 A.D. was half way between his baptism and the conversion of Cornelius\nAwakening of the Saints 1878 was half way between 1874 and the close of the calling in 1881.\nIt is mind boggling to see the number of teachings Rutherford presented, some from Russell and some of his own, that he later changed. Could Rutherford have really believed that the Angels directed him to write such a string of mistakes?\n1925\n1925 was a date set by Rutherford for the commencement of the earthly paradise and the resurrection onto earth of people such as Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. See 1925 for a full discussion on Watchtower expectations for this date.\n1932\nAnother date for the destruction of Christendom, apparently promoted within the congregations by elders.\n\"They [elected elders] had preached that in an early time God would overthrow \"Christendom\". Many had emphasized the year 1925 as the date, and then when that date did not materialize the date was moved up to 1932. Again, 1932 came and \"Christendom\" was not destroyed.... Because men tried to fix the date when God would destroy modern Nineveh and God did not back up their prophecy... is that any reason to be peeved?\" Watchtower 1938 Feb 15 p.55\n1935 - Sealing of the Anointed\nWith the progression of time obscure Watchtower interpretation relating to the 1700's, 1800's and 1900's fade into irrelevance. These are thrust aside, relegated to obscurity and replaced with new date concepts more palatable to current generations.\nA noteworthy example is the date for the sealing of the 144,000, a date constantly changed. Russell originally set it as being 1878. This was moved to 1881, 1910, 1914, 1925, 1931 and finally 1935. In 2007 it has admitted as unknown.\nThe Watchtower 1933 Nov 15 p.343 explained the parable of Matthew 20:1-16 related to the 12 years from 1919 to 1931 and hence the close of the sealing. \"Let God be True\" 1946 ed. p.298 also discussed 1931 as closing the sealing. (See Watchtower 2007 May 1 pp.30-31)\nIn 1966 this was reassigned to coincide with the introduction of the Great Crowd doctrine in 1935. From that time forward it was presented as gospel that the sealing concluded in 1935, such as in the following article. This is despite no Scriptural reasoning to support the 1935 date, or any other date for that matter.\n\"Logically, the calling of the little flock would draw to a close when the number was nearing completion, and the evidence is that the general gathering of these specially blessed ones ended in 1935.\" Watchtower 1995 Feb 15 p.19\nExactly what 'evidence' is that? Apparently none, as admitted in 2007.\n\"Thus it appears that we can not set a specific date for when the calling of Christians to the heavenly hope ends.\" Watchtower 2007 May 1 p.31\nThere are a number of likely contributors to this admission. By the year 2005 1935 was 70 years prior, somewhat of an irrelevant embarrassment. Even the Governing Body contained few born prior to 1935. Of utmost importance to Watchtower doctrine is the concept that the Great Crowd must obey the direction of the Anointed. In order to be identified as sheep rather than goats and saved at Armageddon they must have demonstrated good works towards the Anointed. With few new admissions to this class eventually who would be left for the Great Crowd to follow. Furthermore, from around 1980 the number of memorial partakers was no longer declining, stable at around 8,000 people.\n1940's\nAs Rutherford was approaching his final years he wrote ever more directly that the end was about to happen. Though not stating a particular year he was adamant that the end was about to occur, prompting the release of articles including topics on why marriage and child bearing should be put off until after Armageddon. In 1941 the book Children was released discussing such things. The Watchtower summed up the atmosphere after release of the book;\n\"Receiving the gift, the marching children clasped it to them, not a toy or plaything for idle pleasure, but the Lord's provided instrument for most effective work in the remaining months before Armageddon.\" Watchtower 1941 Sep 15 p.288\n1951\nJerusalem was destroyed in 70 A.D, 37 years after Jesus death. In 1950 Watchtower articles made comparison to this. In 1951 it was stated we are 37 years into the \"\"time of the end\" of Satan's world\", hinting that it could be the end of the world.\n\"More proof that such system had ended was given thirty-seven years later when the Jewish priests were forcibly deprived of their sacrificial work by the destruction of their typical temple, which has continued unrestored till this very day. Today, after more than thirty years of similar harvest work, how well we see prefigured in that Jewish harvesting and threshing what is in progress in Christendom today! When we call to mind the horrible end that came upon the Jewish capital and its besieged inhabitants back there, we shudder at the more terrible end that is shortly to come upon hypocritical Christendom and its confusion of religions.\" Watchtower 1950 Nov 1 pp.407-408\n\"The instruction these examples of divine help contain should not now be lost upon us. They were recorded for the benefit of God's people now \"upon whom the accomplished ends of the systems of things have arrived\". (1 Cor. 10:11, NW) Counting from the end of the \"appointed times of the nations\" in 1914, we are 37 years into the \"time of the end\" of this world.\" Watchtower 1951 Mar 15 p.179\n\"WHEREAS the \"appointed times of the nations\" ended in 1914, it is now 37 years that we have been in the \"time of the end\" of Satan's world. (Dan. 12:4; 11:40) During all this time Jehovah's witnesses have become increasingly active and prominent. Why? Who commissioned them and gave them their message? Has their witness accomplished its purpose after all these years? Or must it be classed as a failure? All this was answered in Isaiah's vision at the temple.\" Watchtower 1951 Apr 1 p.214\nIn 1952 this 37 year concept was abandoned. Rather the idea of a 'generation' was discussed.\n\"The Bible does speak of a man's days as being threescore and ten or fourscore years; but it assigns no specific number of years to a generation.-Ps. 90:10.\" Watchtower 1952 Sep 1 pp.542-543\nEven if it did, we could not calculate from such a figure the date of Armageddon, for the texts here under discussion do not say God's battle comes right at the end of this generation, but before its end. To try to say how many years before its end would be speculative. The texts merely set a limit that is sufficiently definite for all present practical purposes. Some persons living A.D. 1914 when the series of foretold events began will also be living when the series ends with Armageddon. All the events will come within the span of a generation. There are hundreds of millions of persons living now that were living in 1914, and many millions of these persons could yet live a score or more years. Just when the lives of the majority of them will be cut short by Armageddon we cannot say.\"\nThe \"generation\" concept is another doctrine that has had to go through numerous revisions. In 1995 it was extended to be able to include several generations of people, no longer just those \"living A.D. 1914\". In 2010, it was changed to an \"overlapping\" generation, which extends it to two full lifetimes from 1914; potentially as far as the year 2114.\n1975\nIt was implied that the end would occur in 1975, since this was 6,000 years from the creation of Adam. See 1975 for a full discussion of this date.\n1980\n1980 was said to potentially be the year that the Jews are resurrected, based on it being a 70 year period from Russell's 1910 lecture to the Jews.\n\"It is possible that A. D. 1980 may have something of special interest for Fleshly Israel, but certainly not for us. It is 70 years beyond 1910, the date when Pastor Russell gave his great witness to the Jewish people in the New York Hippodrome.\" Studies in the Scriptures - The Finished Mystery p.62\n\"The date 1980, mentioned on pages 61, 62, [of The Finished Mystery] probably marks the regathering of all of Fleshly Israel from their captivity in death.\" The Parable of the Penny p.6\n1986\n1986 was the United Nations year of peace. This was an exciting time for Witnesses, due to the implication that it could be the 'cry of peace and security' that precedes Armageddon, something I remember discussing at great lengths.\n\"Yet one more event will come as an unmistakable signal that world destruction is imminent. Of this the apostle Paul wrote: \"Jehovah's day is coming exactly as a thief in the night. Whenever it is that they are saying: 'Peace and security!' then sudden destruction is to be instantly upon them . . . and they will by no means escape.\"-1 Thessalonians 5:2, 3; Luke 21:34, 35. The world's leaders know that a nuclear war means virtual extinction. Also, critical problems such as pollution, the population explosion, and domestic problems demand attention and money. So they want to relax the strained international relations. An evidence of this is the proclamation by the United Nations of 1986 as the 'international year of peace and security.' This, no doubt, is a step toward the fulfillment of Paul's above-quoted words.\" True Peace and Security - How Can You Find It? (1986) p.85 When Will the Foretold World Destruction Come?\n2000\n2000 was not stated to be the end, but there was strong indication that it would be impossible for Armageddon not to come before 2000.\n\"And if the wicked system of this world survived until the turn of the century, which is highly improbable in view of world trends and the fulfillment of Bible prophecy, there would still be survivors of the World War I generation.\" Watchtower 1980 Oct 15 p.31\n\"Shortly, within our twentieth century, the \"battle in the day of Jehovah\" will begin against the modern antitype of Jerusalem, Christendom.\" The Nations Shall Know That I Am Jehovah p. 216\n\"Some of that \"generation\" could survive until the end of the century. But there are many indications that \"the end\" is much closer than that!\" Watchtower 1984 Mar 1 pp.18-19\n\"He was laying a foundation for a work that would be completed in our 20th century\". Watchtower 1989 Jan 1 p.12.\nThe 1989 Watchtower used the term \"in our 20th century\" in the magazine, but this was changed to \"in our day\" for the bound volume and subsequent CD library. Click on the thumbnails to compare the magazine version to the bound volume.\n          \nI pioneered during the late 1980's and was strongly influenced by the statements in the 1980's articles. I told my Bible studies and many people when preaching that it would be almost impossible that the end would not have arrived by the year 2000.\n2033\n2033 is not a changed date but shows the attitude of serving to a date still seems to exist within the Organization. In 2003 a concept was touched upon, with attention being draw to the fact that Noah's last days went for 120 years.\nIn Noah's day, Jehovah declared: \"My spirit shall not act toward man indefinitely in that he is also flesh. Accordingly his days shall amount to a hundred and twenty years.\" (Genesis 6:3) The issuance of this divine decree in 2490 B.C.E. marked the beginning of the end for that ungodly world. Just think what that meant for those then living! Only 120 years more and Jehovah would bring \"the deluge of waters upon the earth to bring to ruin all flesh in which the force of life is active from under the heavens.\"-Genesis 6:17. Noah received the warning of the upcoming catastrophe decades in advance, and he wisely used the time to prepare for survival. \"After being given divine warning of things not yet beheld,\" says the apostle Paul, \"[Noah] showed godly fear and constructed an ark for the saving of his household.\" (Hebrews 11:7) What about us? Some 90 years have passed since the last days of this system of things began in 1914. We are certainly in \"the time of the end.\" (Daniel 12:4) How should we respond to warnings we have been given? \"He that does the will of God remains forever,\" states the Bible. (1 John 2:17) Now is therefore the time to do Jehovah's will with a keen sense of urgency.\" Watchtower 2003 Dec 15 p.15 \"Warned of \"Things Not Yet Beheld\"\nThere is no specific statement in the article that the end must come by the end of 120 years or exactly on the 120th year. However, like with 1975, a parallel is drawn to yet another concept that is supposed to indicate that the end is soon to be upon us.\nKnowing what has been written in the pages of the Watchtower in regards to Armageddon's arrival at many different years in the past how can anyone trust the Society after reading a quote like the following?\n\"A real champion of God's Word, the Holy Bible, and of God's kingdom that will restore God's rightful place in the hearts of men is The Watchtower. For ninety years this faithful journal has been pointing forward to this very time, urging people to turn to the Bible because of the spiritual famine that the Bible itself foretold was to come in our generation.\" Awake! 1970 Jan 8 p.32\nAn aware Watchtower reader cannot help but see the irony in the following statement.\n\"Down through the centuries since Jesus’ day, so many unfulfilled predictions have been made that many no longer take them seriously. … Undeterred by previous failures, some seem to have been spurred on by the approach of the year 2000 and have made further predictions of the end of the world. … The flood of false alarms is unfortunate. They are like the wolf-wolf cries of the shepherd boy — people soon dismiss them, and when the true warning comes, it too is ignored.\" Awake 1993 Mar 22 3-4 Why So Many False Alarms?\nIt is sad to see how the Watchtower accounts for the wrong predictions of the past. Rather than accepting responsibility, subtle wording deflects the fault to the members.\n\"Out of zeal and enthusiasm for the vindication of Jehovah's name, Word and purposes, and the desire for the new system, some of his servants have at times been premature in their expectations.\" Watchtower 1979 Jul 1 p.29 How Jehovah Guides His People\nIt is an interesting attitude that the Governing Body shows towards its followers. It appears to feel that people will not serve Jehovah if the do not think he is about to shortly reward them with paradise; that if there is no urgency and no date to work for and pin hopes on, then people will drift away. This is an insult to individual motives. Many Churches are undergoing great growth without any such date as motivation. People have served God for generations based purely on the concept that they will see him in heaven at the end of their earthly life. Seventh-day Adventists follow the Witness concept of this being the last days; yet they have reached similar numbers of people sharing similar morals not based on working to a date but knowing that the time left is short and love of God is what is of primary importance.\nOngoing Date Implications\nDespite being known for their failed predictions of Armageddon, the Watchtower does not hold back from criticising other religions that do the same.\n\"RELIGIOUS LEADERS sometimes predict tragic worldwide events to warn mankind and gather followers. Doomsday prophet Harold Camping and his disciples widely advertised that the earth would be destroyed in 2011. Needless to say, the world is still here.\" Watchtower 2014 May 1 p.3\nThe history of the Watchtower Society has been based around the doomsday message that the end is about to come. Statements abound such as in the 1930's book The New World;\n\"The Scriptures give good reason to believe that it shall be shortly before Armageddon breaks.\"\nToward the end of the twentieth century, the Watchtower Society refrained from issuing specific dates for Armageddon, but still has not stopped implying dates and time frames.\nLuke warned about those whose message is that the \"due time has approached.\"\n\"He said: \"Look out that YOU are not misled; for many will come on the basis of my name, saying, 'I am he,' and, 'The due time has approached.' Do not go after them.\" Luke 21:8\nMoses warned against those that make predictions in the name of Jehovah that do not come true.\n\"And in case you should say in your heart: \"How shall we know the word that Jehovah has not spoken?\" When the prophet speaks in the name of Jehovah and the word does not occur or come true, that is the word that Jehovah did not speak...\" Deuteronomy 18:20-22\nThe Watchtower says that the standard by which to judge a false messenger is whether their messages \"come true.\"\n\"Jehovah is the Grand identifier of his true messengers. He identifies them by making the messages he delivers through them come true. Jehovah is also the Great Exposer of false messengers.\" Watchtower 1997 May 1 p.8\nIronic, considering the Watchtower specifically said the end would come in 1914 and then 1925 . This section demonstrated over 20 \"messages\" promoted by the Watchtower for decades that turned out not to be \"true.\" What does this prove about them as messengers and prophets ?", "Challenging the Cults: History of Jehovah Witnesses\n \n5. History of Jehovah Witnesses\nMost people have had a visit by Jehovah�s Witnesses from the local Kingdom Hall. Reactions vary, from rudeness, to hospitality.  Just who are these Witnesses? Are they Christian? Are they a cult? To find these answers we need to examine the facts.\n         Today, the active number of Jehovah Witnesses is 6,429,000, and there are 95,919 congregations. [1] In 2003, 258,845 new Jehovah Witnesses were baptized. The Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, the official name, claims to be God�s prophet on Earth.\n \n\"The historical facts show that 1919 was the year when the remnant on earth of the 144,000 Kingdom heirs began to be freed from Great Babylon. In that year the message of God's established kingdom began to be preached from house to house and publicly by Jehovah's Christian witnesses in a fearless way. This preaching of the Kingdom as established in 1914 was in fulfillment of Jesus' prophecy in Matthew 24:14: 'This good news of the kingdom will be preached in all the inhabited earth for a witness to all the nations.\"\nBabylon the Great Has Fallen!, 1963, p. 515. [2]\n We acknowledge as the visible organization of Jehovah on earth the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, and recognize the Society as the channel or instrument through which Jehovah and Christ Jesus give instruction and meat in due season to the household of faith.\nThe Watchtower April 15, 1939\n How can somebody know if this organization is speaking for God?   The Jehovah Witnesses give us the answer to this very question.\n ï¿½Reasonable persons agree that the only fair method is to examine the evidence on both sides, both for and against a disputed theory. That is how one arrives at the truth.� (Awake, Oct. 22, 1973, page 6)\n ï¿½Can there be false religion? It is not a form of religious persecution for anyone to say and to show that another religion is false. It is not religious persecution for an informed person to expose publicly a certain religion as being false, thus allowing persons to see the difference between false religion and true religion.� (Watchtower, Nov. 15, 1963, page 688)  \n A  Short history of the Jehovah Witnesses\n The founder of the Jehovah Witnesses is Charles Taze Russell, who was born in Pittsburgh Pennsylvania on February 16, 1852.   He was the son of Joseph L. and Anna Eliza Russell, young Charles was raised a Congregationalist and spent most of his early years in Allegheny and Pittsburgh Pennsylvania. At the age of 16, in the year 1868 he found himself losing faith in Churches, Church Creeds, the Bible and God.\n Adventist past\nAt this point, a chance encounter with Jonas Wendell, a Second Adventist preacher restored his faith.\n Seemingly  by accident, one evening I dropped into a dusty dingy hall in Allegheny, Pa., where I heard religious services were held, to see if the handful who met there had anything more sensible to offer than the creeds of the great churches.  There, for the first time, I heard something of the view of the Second Adventists, the preacher being Mr. Jonas Wendell. \nZion�s Watch Tower, July 15, 1906 Page 3821 Society�s reprints\n The Adventist movement and it teaching would influence the young Russell in the formation of his doctrines and teachings. The Adventist movement traces it roots back to William Miller a Baptist lay preacher who in 1816 began preaching Christ would return in 1843.  His preaching attracted many from Baptist and mainline churches, close to 50,000 put their trust in Miller�s timing of prophetic events.  When in March 1843 the Lord did not appear, the date was recalculated to March 1844 and then to October 1844.  Miller and the Millerites were disappointed and a shattered people.  Dr. Josiah Litch, a Millerite leader in Philadelphia wrote on October 24th,\n ï¿½It is a cloudy and dark day here�the sheep are scattered�the Lord has not come yet� [3]\n Most of his followers returned to their churches before his death in 1849. Others kept the movement alive and formed into several sects.  These �Adventist� groups included the Advent Christian Chruch, the Life and Advent Union, the Seventh-Day Adventist, and others  which split to form the Watch Tower movement.  David Reed, a former Jehovah�s Witnesses connects the dots between Russell and the �Adventist� movement.\n \nThe end of the Civil War in 1865 found former Millerites promoting new dates for the Second Coming.  George Storrs of Brooklyn, New York, who published the Bible Examiner and was instrumental in forming the Life and Advent Union, focused his followers� hopes on 1870, while a group headed by N.H. Barbour of Rochester, New York, looked to 1873 or 1874, and published their calculations in Barbour�s periodical the Herald of the Morning. �.Barbour and Storrs were among the Adventist leaders who shaped the thinking of a newcomer to the religious scene, teenager Charles Taze Russell. [4]\n \nCharles continued to study under Adventist teachers for sometime and at the age of 18 organized a Bible Study group.  Two Adventist he gave credit to guiding him into greener pastures were Advent Christian Church minister George Stetson and the Bible Examiner�s publisher George Storrs.\n \nThus I confess indebtedness to Adventists�And here I should and do gratefully mention assistance rendered by Brothers George Stetson and George Storrs, the later the editor of the The Bible Examiner, both now deceased.  The study of the  Word of God with these dear brethren led, step by step, into greener pastures�.\nZion�s Watch Tower, July 15, 1906, Page 3821 Society�s reprints [5]\n Russell�s Bible study continued and in 1876, when he was 23, his bible study group elected him �Pastor�.  During this time, Russell received a copy of the Herald of the Morning, N. H. Barbour�s magazine that foretold the return of Christ in 1874.  The year of 1874, having since past Russell noticed the group believed Christ returned invisibly in 1874.  The magazine was failing, as many readers refused to accept the invisible Second coming.\n \nThe summer of 1876, Russell became the financial backer of the magazine. He was added to the masthead as assistant editor, and he contributed articles and money to the publication.  Russell�s and Barbour�s groups became affiliates.  Since the Lord returned �invisibly� in 1874 they believed the saints would be �Caught away bodily� three and half years later, to be with the Lord in the spring of 1878. (Zion�s Watch Tower, July 15, 1906, Page 3823 Society�s reprints) When the �Catching away� (The rapture) did not occur as expected Barbour and Russell split. Barbour had �New Revelations� to account for the lack of the rapture but Russell and others rejected his �Revelations� .\n \nZion�s Watch Tower Magazine\nRussell would start his own magazine, His new magazine was called Zion�s Watch Tower and Herald of Christ�s Presence, and published its first issue in July, 1879.  Russell no longer considered himself a �Adventist� or �Millerite� but considered their movements of God. He viewed these movements as fulfillment of the �Midnight Cry� that the �Bridegroom cometh� in the Parable of the Ten Virgins in Matthew 25:1-13. Russell held that Christ came invisibly in 1874.\n \nBarbour of Rochester, was we believe, the chosen vessel of God through whom the �Midnight Cry� issued to the sleeping virgins of Christ, announcing a discrepancy of thirty years in some Miller�s calculations�and the Bridegroom due in that morning in 1874�\n            If these movements were of God, and if Bros. Miller and Barbour were his instruments, then that �Midnight Cry� based on the prophetic and other statements and evidences, was correct, and the �Bridegroom came� in 1874. We believe that Midnight Cry was of God�\nZion�s Watch Tower, November 1881, Pages 288-289 Society�s reprints [6]\n \nStarting with 6,000 initial issues the publication has grown to 17.8 million issues per month in 106 languages. In 1884, the �Pastor� incorporated �Zion�s Watch Tower Tract Society� in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.  In 1886, the Society published the first of seven volumes entitled Studies in the Scriptures, originally published as The Millennial Dawn.  The seventh volume was edited after his death in 1917.  This volume, the Finished Mystery caused a split in the organization. One group became known as the �Jehovah�s Witnesses� under Rutherford�s leadership and the other as �The Dawn Bible Students Association�\n \nIn 1908, the headquarters of the movement was changed to Brooklyn, New York at 17 Hicks Street and became known as the �Brooklyn Tabernacle�. Today large tracts of land are owned by the society, the society also owns are a large up-to-date printing plant, which has produced billions of pieces of literature.  All employees in factory are voluntary and receive a nominal amount of money per month for personal expenses.  (In 1995 that amount was $14.00/month)\n \nRussell�s life was filled with several legal entanglements including a divorce from his wife Maria Ackley who left him after seventeen years of marriage.\nIn 1897, filing for separation in 1903, the divorce revealed the financial structure of Watch Tower as recorded in his obituary in the Brooklyn Daily Eagle, November 1, 1916.\n \nThere was much litigation then that was quite undesirable from the �Pastor�s� point of view regarding alimony for his wife, but it was settled in 1909 by the payment of $6,036 to Mrs. Russell.  The litigation revealed that �Pastor� Russell�s activities in the religious field were carried on through several subsidiary societies and that all of the wealth hat flowed into him through these societies was under the control of a holding company in which the �Pastor� held $990 of the $1,000 capital and two of his followers the other $10. [7]\n \nThe teachings of Charles Taze Russell were central to the Watch Tower Society and its membership grew under his direction.  Russell commenting on his Studies in the Scriptures published by the Watchtower wrote,\n If the six volumes of Scripture Studies are practically the Bible, topically arranged with Bible proof texts given, we might not improperly name the volumes the Bible in an arranged form.  That is to say, they are not mere comments on the Bible, but  they are practically the Bible itself�.\n            Furthermore, not only do we find that people cannot see the divine plan in studying the Bible by itself, but we see, also, that if anyone lays the Scripture Studies aside, even after he has used them, after he has become familiar with the, after he has read them for ten years�if he then lays them aside and ignores them and goes to the Bible alone, though he understood his Bible for ten years, our experience shows that within two years he goes into darkness.  On the other hand, if he had merely read the Scripture Studies with their references, and had not read a page fo the Bible, as such, he would be in the light at the end of two years, because he would have the light of the Scriptures.\nThe Watchtower, September 15, 1910, Page 298 [8]\n \nIn 1886, Russell published The Divine Plan of the Ages projecting that 1914 would witness Armageddon and the dawn of Christ�s thousand-year rule on earth. The date was later changed to 1915.\n \nOctober 31st, 1916 Russell died aboard a transcontinental train in Texas.  He was buried in Pennsylvania and was succeeded by Judge Rutherford. In Russell�s cemetery, where early Jehovah Witnesses are buried there stands granite pyramid, measuring nine feet at its base with the name WATCH TOWER BIBLE AND TRACT SOCIETY with a Cross inside of a crown.\n \nRussell taught and wrote that the Great Pyramid of Gaza was designed by Jehovah and was a blueprint to end-times chronology. This teaching was held by the Jehovah Witnesses till November 15th 1928 when Judge Rutherford reversed the teaching calling it Satan�s teaching.\n \nJudge Rutherford  (November 1916-1942)\n \nAfter Russell�s death, there was a contentious battle for control of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society.  Russell had prepared detailed written instructions to distribute his authority with several followers. Joseph F. Rutherford served as legal counsel for Russell and the society. Rutherford ignored Russell�s instruction and consolidated power under his authority.\nThe book Faith on the March, by A.H. Macmillan published in 1957 with Watch Tower approval and still found in Kingdom Hall libraries details the legal battle.\n \nRutherford consolidated his power in the local congregations by sending �Service directors� to each congregation to handle the literature shipped from Brooklyn. He began to increase their authority and decreased the authority of locally elected elders.  He aimed to set up an organization ruled from the top, a theocratic organization with him being �God�s mouthpiece�.\n \nRutherford started to change doctrines taught by Russell, including the name of the organization to Jehovah�s Witnesses from International Bible Students Association.  Rutherford also denounced Russell�s �Pyramid� prophecies as an attempt to find God�s will outside of the Scriptures (1929). Rutherford credited the Pyramid to Satan rather then to Jehovah God as Russell attributed it construction.\nMany of the followers left the organization as a result of this action, they were later threatened by Rutherford to �suffer destruction� if they did not repent and recognize Jehovah�s will as expressed through the Society.\n \nBeth Sarim\n One of the more embarrassing episodes of Rutherford�s tenure is known as Beth Sarim. Rutherford, prophesied that Abraham and the other prophets of Hebrews 11 would soon rise from the dead by 1925. Beginning in 1920, Rutherford declared,\n  \"As we have heretofore stated, the great jubilee cycle is due to begin in 1925. At that time the earthly phase of the kingdom shall be recognized.\"\n How would it be recognized? What event would trigger the ushering in of the kingdom?  Rutherford explained,\n  \"Therefore we may confidently expect that 1925 will mark the return of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and the faithful prophets of old, particularly those named by the Apostle in Hebrews chapter eleven, to the condition of human perfection\" (Millions Now Living Will Never Die, pp. 89-90).\n Watch Tower members were excited. Jehovah Witnesses saw their organization�s vindication in the eyes of the world. In 1925 when Abraham and the rest of the prophets did not come, some of Rutherford's followers left. Still others believed, the arrival, the Hebrews 11 prophets would be soon. Though it had not occurred by 1929, it was still a topic of much excited anticipation.  Therefore, Rutherford gave instructions to build them a house. In his book, Salvation, Rutherford mentions this house and the purpose for building it.\n \n\"At San Diego, California, there is a small piece of land, on which, in the year 1929, there was built a house, which is called and known as Beth Sarim. The Hebrew words Beth Sarim mean `House of the Princes;' and the purpose of acquiring that property and building the house was that there might be some tangible proof that there are those on earth today who fully believe God and Christ Jesus and in His kingdom, and who believe that the faithful men of old will soon be resurrected by the Lord, be back on earth, and take charge of the visible affairs of earth\"\n Salvation (p. 311).\n With the house now built, there was nothing to do but wait. In the meantime, Judge Rutherford lived in this house while his wife lived in another part of the country. Moreover, Witnesses waited until 1942 when after the death of Rutherford, the house was sold.\n \nNathan H.  Knorr  (1944-1977)\n Following Rutherford, Nathan Knorr was immediately elected president and served in the position until June of 1977.  During his tenure, the New World Translation was created which was the first translation by the Watchtower Bible and Tract society.\nDuring his time, the Watch Tower experienced explosive growth. When he began in 1942 there were 98,076 active members by 1977 there were 2,223,538.\n \nArmageddon was to happen in 1975, and young Watch Tower men and women were discouraged from having children and pursuing careers. Knorr was responsible for designing the door-to-door evangelism system used today by the Watch Tower.\n \n \n \nFollowing Knorr death in June 1977, Fredreick W. Franz a long-time leader and then vice-president was elected president.\nAfter his death, Milton Henschel became the President over the Governing Body.\nHenschel passed away in March 2003.\n \n \nAre today�s Jehovah Witnesses connected with Charles Taze Russell?\n For many Jehovah�s Witnesses some of the teachings of Russell are an embarrassment, and many Jehovah Witnesses repudiate him, denying they follow his teachings.\n \n�But who is preaching the teachings of Pastor Russell? Certainly not Jehovah�s Witnesses! They cannot be accused of following him, for they neither quote him as an authority nor publish nor distribute his writings� [9]\n \nThis claim is not borne out in fact. Jehovah Witnesses have quoted Russell many times since his death in 1916.  His is listed as the founder of the Watchtower Organization on the official website�s short history of the modern Jehovah�s Witnesses, says, (Paraphrased)\n \nIn the 1870 an unassuming bible Study group started in Allegheny, Pennsylvania.  Charles T. Russell was the main mover of the group. On July 1879, the publication Zion�s Watch Tower was issued�In 1884 it was incorporated with CT Russell as president. [10]\n \n1. In 1923, seven years after the �Pastor�s� demise Judge Rutherford heir to the Russellite throne, wrote a booklet some fifty-odd pages long, entitled World Distress: Why and the Remedy\n�               Russell is quoted 16 times\n�               His book Studies in the Scriptures is referred to 12 times\n�               6 pages at the end of the book advertise Russell�s books\n \n2.  In 1953, the publication Jehovah�s Witnesses, Communists or Christians\n�               Russell is quoted 5 times\n�               His best known works, Plan of the Ages (1886) and The Battle of Armageddon (1897)\n \n3. The Watchtower (October 1, 1953)\n�                 Quotes Studies in the Scriptures (4:554)\n \n4. Jehovah�s Witnesses in the Divine Purpose (1959) a society history\n�                 50 pages are devoted to Russell and his contributions\n \nOrganization\n \nThe Governing Body of the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society controls their followers through a tightly knit organizational structure that is dictated from Brooklyn, New York.  This group is made of the �Heavenly Class� or �Anointed� [11] men (currently 12). Milton Henschel, the president presides over this group.\n \nFuture Members are baptized into the society through immersion at the local �Hall� level.  New members must immediately begin training for fieldwork by spending time with older members as they conduct their fieldwork.\n \n�                 Publishers: Are Witnesses who commit 1200 hours per year in �Fieldwork�, including door-to-door recruitment, sidewalk soliciting and book studies with new prospective members.\n�                 Pioneers: Are those who dedicate a significantly greater amount of time then 1200 hours\n \nGroups meeting together are called congregations; their meeting place is called a Kingdom Hall\nAppointed leaders are called Elders or Overseers, the person who heads the meeting is called Presiding Overseer. The Service Overseer handles service business within the congregation. Ministerial Servants are delegated administrative responsibilities to the elders.\n \n�                 Circuits: Are 20 congregations supervised by a Circuit Overseer.\n�                 Districts: Are geographical collections of circuits (22 are in the United States) District Overseer organizes the annual district convention. Here all new �Teachings� and �Rules� from the Governing Body are announced to members and new publications are presented.\n�                 Branches: Are collections of Districts\n�                 Zones: are Collections of Branches\n�                 Headquarters: Brooklyn Society Office\n \n�                 Memorial of Christ Death at Passover: The only day of the year which Jehovah�s Witnesses have ceremony.  This event held in large Auditoriums, requires all members be present along with family, friends and prospective members.  The elements of the Lord�s Supper are passed through the crowd.  Only the �Anointed Class� is allowed to partake of the elements.  No one born after 1914 is eligible for the class.\n \n5 meetings per Week all members are expected to attend.\n1.             Public Talk is held each Sunday\n2.             Watchtower Study follows the Public Talk\n3.             Theocratic Ministry School is a weekday evening meeting\n4.             Service Meeting follows the Theocratic Ministry School\n5.             Book Study: Each Witnesses is required to attend a �Book Study� in addition to field work [12] .\n \nAuthority\nThe Watchtower Society is absolute authority, The Governing body is vested with all authority including to teach and understand the Bible.  The Watchtower is God�s �Visible organization� on Earth, no dissent is allowed.\n \n�                So Jehovah�s visible organization under Christ is a channel for bringing he divine interpretation of his word to his devoted people. [13]\n�                We acknowledge as the visible organization of Jehovah on earth the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, and recognize the Society as the channel or instrument through which Jehovah and Christ Jesus give instruction and meat in due season to the household of faith. [14]\n�                If we are to walk in the light of truth we must recognize not only Jehovah God as our father but his organization as our �Mother� [15]\n�                Make haste to identify the visible theocratic organization of God that represents his king, Jesus Christ.  It is essential for life. Doing so be complete in accepting its every aspect. [16]\n�                They(Witnesses) must adhere absolutely to the decisions and scriptural understand of the Society because God has given it this authority over his people. [17]\n�                Avoid independent thinking�questioning the counsel that is provided by God�s visible organization�Fight against independient thinking. [18]\n�                To receive everlasting life in the earthly Paradise we must identify that organization and serve God as part of it. [19]\nI\n \nThose who choose to dissent are disfellowshipped.  The congregation is to have nothing to do with the individual. Those in the congregregation are not to have any communication the member.\n \nA disfellowshipped person is cut off from the congregation, and the congregation has nothing to do with him. Those in the congregation will not extend the hand of fellowship to this one, nor will they so much as say �Hello� or �Good-bye��(The congregation members) will not converse with such a one or show him recognition in any way. [20]\n \nAre only non-Witnesses are allowed to question their religion, but Jehovah Witnesses are not?\n \nWitnesses are not allowed to read any information this is contrary to the Watchtower. This includes material from those who have been disassociated Witnesses, disgruntled Witnesses or someone who was never a Witnesses.\n \nHave no dealings with apostates�For example, what will you do If you receive a letter or some literature, open it, and see right away that it is from an apostate?  Will curiosity cause you to read it, just to see what he has to say? You may even reason: �It wont affect me; I�m too strong in the truth.  And besides, if we have the truth, we have nothing to fear.  The truth will stand the test�  In thinking this way, some have fed their minds upon apostate reasoning and have fallen prey to serious questioning and doubt. [21]\n \nBut those who investigating the Jehovah Witnesses are told to question what they believe, to investigate and search out God�s will.\n \nWe need to examine not only what we personally believe but also what is taught by any religious organization with which we may be associated.  Are its teachings in full harmony with God�s Word, or are they based on the traditions of men?  If we are lovers of the truth, there is nothing to fear from such an examination. It would be the sincere desire of every one of us to learn what God�s will is for us, and then to do it. [22]\n \nCan anybody understand the Bible apart from the Jehovah Witnesses� Watch Tower Organization?\n \nThe Jehovah Witnesses believe without the aid of their organization it is impossible to understand the Bible or God�s will.\n \n�                            Rather we should seek for dependent Bible study, rather than for independent Bible study. [23]\n�                            He does not impart his holy spirit and understanding and appreciation of his Word apart form his visible organization. [24]\n�                            The Bible is an organizational book and belongs to the Christian congregation as a whole, not to individuals, regardless of how sincerely they may believe that they can interpret the bible.  For this reason the bible cannot be properly understood without Jehovah�s visible organization in mind. [25]\n�                            They (Questioners) say that it is sufficient to read the Bible exclusively, either alone or in small groups at home. But, strangely, through such �Bible reading� they have reverted right back to the apostate doctrines that commentaries by Christendom�s clergy were teaching 100 years ago. [26]\n \n \nThe Trinity\n1. �The doctrine, in brief, is that there are three gods in one: �God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost,� all three equal in power, substance, and eternity� (Let God Be True, Brooklyn: Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, 1946 ed., 100).\n2. �The obvious conclusion is, therefore, that Satan is the originator of the Trinity doctrine� (LGBT, 101).\n3. �Sincere persons who want to know the true God and serve Him find it a bit difficult to love and worship a complicated, freakish-looking, three-headed God� (LGBT, 102).\n4. �The Trinity doctrine was not conceived by Jesus or the early Christians� (LGBT, 111).\n5. �The plain truth is that this is another of Satan�s attempts to keep God-fearing persons from learning the truth of Jehovah and his Son, Christ Jesus. No, there is no Trinity� (LGBT, 111).\n6. �Any trying to reason out the Trinity teaching leads to confusion of mind. So the Trinity teaching confuses the meaning of John 1:1�2; it does not simplify it or make it clear or easily understandable� (�The Word,� Who Is He? According to John, 7).\n7. Is Jehovah a Trinity�three persons in one God? No! Jehovah, the Father, is �the only true God� (John 17:3; Mark 12:29). Jesus is His firstborn Son, and he is subject to God (1 Cor. 11:3). The Father is greater than the Son (John 14:28). The holy spirit is not a person; it is God�s active force (Gen. 1:2; Acts 2:18) (What Does God Require of Us?, Brooklyn: Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, 1997, electronic version).\n8. �Thus, neither the thirty-nine books of the Hebrew Scriptures nor the canon of twenty-seven inspired books of the Christian Greek Scriptures provide any clear teaching of the Trinity. � Thus, the testimony of the Bible and of history makes clear that the Trinity was unknown throughout biblical times and for several centuries thereafter� (Should You Believe in the Trinity?, Brooklyn: Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, 1997, electronic version).\n \nThe Deity of Christ\n1. �The true Scriptures speak of God�s Son, the Word, as �a god.� He is a �mighty god,� but not the Almighty God, who is Jehovah� (The Truth Shall Make You Free, Brooklyn: Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, 1943, 47).\n2. �In other words, he was the first and direct creation of Jehovah God� (The Kingdom Is at Hand, Brooklyn: Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, 1944, 46�47, 49).\n3. �The Bible shows that there is only one God � greater than His Son � and that the Son, as the Firstborn, Only-begotten, and �the creation by God,� had a beginning. That the Father is greater and older than the Son is reasonable, easy to understand, and is what the Bible teaches� (From Paradise Lost to Paradise Regained, Brooklyn: Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, 1958, 164).\n4. �Jesus was �the Son of God.� Not God himself!� (�The Word,� Who Is He?, 20).\n5. �The very fact that he was sent proves he was not equal with God but was less than God his Father� (TWWIH, 41).\n6. �Certainly the apostle John was not so unreasonable as to say that someone (the Word) was with some other individual (�God�) and at the same time was that other individual (�God�)� (TWWIH, 53).\n7. �Thus, Jesus had an existence in heaven before coming to the earth. But was it as one of the persons in an almighty, eternal triune Godhead? No, for the Bible plainly states that in his prehuman existence, Jesus was a created spirit being, just as angels were spirit beings created by God. Neither the angels nor Jesus had existed before their creation� (Should You Believe in the Trinity?).\n \nThe Holy Spirit\n1. �The holy spirit is the invisible active force of Almighty God that moves his servants to do his will� (Let God Be True, 108).\n2. �As for the �Holy Spirit,� the so-called �third Person of the Trinity,� we have already seen that it is not a person, but God�s active force� (The Truth That Leads to Eternal Life, Brooklyn: Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, 1968, 24).\n3. �The Scriptures themselves unite to show that God�s holy spirit is not a person but is God�s active force by which he accomplishes his purpose and executes his will� (Aid to Bible Understanding, Brooklyn: Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, 1969, 1971, 1543).\n4. �The Bible�s use of �holy spirit� indicates that it is a controlled force that Jehovah God uses to accomplish a variety of his purposes. To a certain extent, it can be likened to electricity, a force that can be adapted to perform a great variety of operations� (Should You Believe in the Trinity?).\n5. �No, the holy spirit is not a person and it is not part of a Trinity. The holy spirit is God�s active force that he uses to accomplish his will. It is not equal to God but is always at his disposition and subordinate to him� (SYBITT?).\n \nThe Virgin Birth\n1. �Mary was a virgin. � When Joseph learned that Mary was going to have a child, he did not want to take her as his wife. But God�s angel � said: �That which has been begotten in her is by holy spirit�. � He took Mary his wife home. �But he had no relations with her until she gave birth to a son�� (Matt. 1:20�25) (From Paradise Lost to Paradise Regained, 122�123).\n2. �Jesus was conceived by a sinless, perfect Father, Jehovah God. � The perfect child Jesus did not get human life from the sinner Adam, but received only a human body through Adam�s descendant Mary. Jesus� life came from Jehovah God, the Holy One. � Jehovah took the perfect life of his only-begotten Son and transferred it from heaven to � the womb of the unmarried girl Mary. � Thus God�s Son was conceived or given a start as a human creature. It was a miracle. Under Jehovah�s holy power the child Jesus, conceived in this way, grew in Mary�s womb to the point of birth� (FPLTPR, 126�127).\n3. �Jesus� birth on earth was not an incarnation. � He emptied himself of all things heavenly and spiritual, and God�s almighty spirit transferred his Son�s life down to the womb of the Jewish virgin of David�s descent. By this miracle he was born a man. � He was not a spirit-human hybrid, a man and at the same time a spirit person. � He was flesh� (What Has Religion Done for Mankind?, 231).\n4. �While on earth, Jesus was a human, although a perfect one because it was God who transferred the life-force of Jesus to the womb of Mary� (Should You Believe in the Trinity?).\n \nThe Atonement\n1. �That which is redeemed or bought back is what was lost, namely, perfect human life, with its rights and earthly prospects� (Let God Be True, 114).\n2. �Jesus as the glorified High Priest, by presenting in heaven this redemptive price, is in position to relieve the believing ones of Adam�s descendants from the inherited disability under which all are born� (LGBT, 118�119).\n3. �The human life that Jesus Christ laid down in sacrifice must be exactly equal to that life which Adam forfeited for all his offspring: it must be a perfect human life, no more, no less. � This is just what Jesus gave � for men of all kinds� (You May Survive Armageddon Into God�s New World, Brooklyn: Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, 1955, 39).\n4. �Jesus, no more and no less than a perfect human, became a ransom that compensated exactly for what Adam lost�the right to perfect human life on earth. � The perfect human life of Jesus was the �corresponding ransom� required by divine justice�no more, no less. A basic principle even of human justice is that the price paid should fit the wrong committed. � So the ransom, to be truly in line with God�s justice, had to be strictly an equivalent�a perfect human, �the last Adam.� Thus, when God sent Jesus to earth as the ransom, he made Jesus to be what would satisfy justice, not an incarnation, not a god-man, but a perfect man, �lower than angels�� (Should You Believe?).\n \nSalvation by Grace\n1. �Immortality is a reward for faithfulness. It does not come automatically to a human at birth� (Let God Be True, 74).\n2. �Those people of good will today who avail themselves of the provision and who steadfastly abide in this confidence will find Christ Jesus to be their �everlasting Father�� (Isaiah 9:6) (LGBT, 121).\n3. �We have learned that a person could fall away and be judged unfavorably either now or at Armageddon or during the thousand years of Christ�s reign or at the end of the final test � into everlasting destruction� (From Paradise Lost to Paradise Regained, 241).\n4. �Make haste to identify the visible theocratic organization of God that represents his king, Jesus Christ. It is essential for life. Doing so, be complete in accepting its every aspect� (The Watchtower, October 1, 1967: 591).\n5. �To receive everlasting life in the earthly Paradise we must identify that organization and serve God as part of it� (The Watchtower, February 15, 1983: 12).\n \nThe Resurrection of Christ\n1. �This firstborn from the dead was raised from the grave, not a human creature, but a spirit� (Let God Be True, 276).\n2. �Jehovah God raised him from the dead, not as a human Son, but as a mighty immortal spirit Son. � For forty days after that he materialized, as angels before him had done, to show himself alive to his disciples� (LGBT, 40).\n3. �Jesus did not take his human body to heaven to be forever a man in heaven. Had he done so, that would have left him even lower than the angels. � God did not purpose for Jesus to be humiliated thus forever by being a fleshly man forever. No, but after he had sacrificed his perfect manhood, God raised him to deathless life as a glorious spirit creature� (LGBT, 41).\n4. �Usually they could not at first tell it was Jesus, for he appeared in different bodies. He appeared and disappeared just as angels had done, because he was resurrected as a spirit creature. Only because Thomas would not believe did Jesus appear in a body like that in which he had died� (From Paradise Lost to Paradise Regained, 144).\n5. �Having given up his flesh for the life of the world, Christ could never take it again and become a man once more. For that basic reason his return could never be in the human body that he sacrificed once for all time� (You Can Live Forever in Paradise on Earth, Brooklyn: Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, 1982, 143).\n \nThe Return of Christ and Human Government\n1. �Christ Jesus returns, not again as a human, but as a glorious spirit person� (Let God Be True, 196).\n2. �Some wrongfully expect a literal fulfillment of the symbolic statements of the Bible. Such hope to see the glorified Jesus coming seated on a white cloud where every human eye will see him. � Since no earthly men have ever seen the Father � neither will they see the glorified Son� (LGBT, 186).\n3. �It does not mean that he [Christ] is on the way or has promised to come, but that he has already arrived and is here� (LGBT, 198).\n4. �Any national flag is a symbol or image of the sovereign power of its nation� (LGBT, 242).\n5. �All such likenesses [symbols of a national power, eagle, sun, lion, etc.] are forbidden by Exodus 20:2�6 [the commandment against idolatry]� (LGBT, 242).\n6. �Hence no witness of Jehovah, who ascribes salvation only to Him, may salute any national emblem without violating Jehovah�s commandment against idolatry as stated in His Word� (LGBT, 243).\n \nThe Existence of Hell and Eternal Punishment\n1. �Those who have been taught by Christendom believe the God-dishonoring doctrine of a fiery hell for tormenting conscious human souls eternally� (Let God Be True, 88).\n2. �It is so plain that the Bible hell is mankind�s common grave that even an honest little child can understand it, but not the religious theologians� (LGBT, 92).\n3. �Who is responsible for this God-defaming doctrine of a hell of torment? The promulgator of it is Satan himself. His purpose in introducing it has been to frighten the people away from studying the Bible and to make them hate God� (LGBT, 98).\n4. �Imperfect man does not torture even a mad dog, but kills it. And yet the clergymen attribute to God, who is love, the wicked crime of torturing human creatures merely because they had the misfortune to be born sinners� (LGBT, 99).\n5. �The doctrine of a burning hell where the wicked are tortured eternally after death cannot be true, mainly for four reasons: (1) Because it is wholly unscriptural; (2) it is unreasonable; (3) it is contrary to God�s love; and (4) it is repugnant to justice� (LGBT, 99).\n6. �It is � a lie, which the Devil has had spread, that the souls of the wicked are tormented in a hell or a purgatory� (You Can Live, 89).\n \nMan the Soul, His Nature and Destiny\n1. �Man is a combination of two things, namely, the �dust of the ground� and �the breath of life.� The combining of these two things (or factors) produced a living soul or creature called man� (Let God Be True, 68).\n2. �So we see that the claim of religionists that man has an immortal soul and therefore differs from the beast is not scriptural� (LGBT, 68).\n3. �The fact that the human soul is mortal can be amply proved by a careful study of the Holy Scriptures. An immortal soul cannot die, but God�s Word, at Ezekiel 18:4, says concerning humans: �Behold all souls are mine. � The soul that sinneth it shall die�� (LGBT, 69�70).\n4. �It is clearly seen that even the man Christ Jesus was mortal. He did not have an immortal soul: Jesus, the human soul, died� (LGBT, 71).\n5. �Thus it is seen that the serpent (the Devil) is the one that originated the doctrine of the inherent immortality of human souls� (LGBT, 74�75).\n6. �The Scriptures show that the destiny of the sinful man is death� (LGBT, 75).\n7. �The Holy Scriptures alone offer real hope for those who do seek Jehovah God and strive to follow his ways� (LGBT, 75).\n8. �At death man�s spirit, his life-force, which is sustained by breathing, �goes out.� It no longer exists. � When they are dead, both humans and animals are in this same state of complete unconsciousness. � That the soul lives on after death is a lie started by the Devil� (You Can Live, 77).\n9. �The human soul ceases to exist at death. � Hell is mankind�s common grave� (Jehovah�s Witnesses in the Twentieth Century, electronic version).\n \nThe Kingdom of Heaven\n1. �Who and how many are able to enter it [the Kingdom]? The Revelation limits to 144,000 the number that become a part of the Kingdom and stand on heavenly Mount Zion�(Let God Be True, 136).\n2. �In the capacity of priests and kings of God they reign a thousand years with Christ Jesus� (LGBT, 137).\n3. �He [Christ] went to prepare a heavenly place for his associate heirs, �Christ�s body,� for they too will be invisible spirit creatures� (LGBT, 138).\n4. �If it is to be a heavenly kingdom, who will be the subject of its rule? In the invisible realm angelic hosts, myriads of them, will serve as faithful messengers of the King. And on earth the faithful children of the King Christ Jesus, including faithful forefathers of his then resurrected, will be �princes in all the earth�. � Then, too, the �great crowd� of his �other sheep� � will continue to �serve him day and night,� and many of them will also be �princes�. � They will �multiply and fill the earth� in righteousness and their children will become obedient subjects of the King Christ Jesus. And finally the �unrighteous� ones that are to be resurrected then, to prove their integrity, must joyfully submit themselves to theocratic rule. � Those who prove rebellious or who turn unfaithful during the loosing of Satan at the end of Christ�s thousand-year reign will be annihilated with Satan, the Devil� (LGBT, 318�319).\n5. �The Creator loved the new world so much that he gave his only begotten Son to be its King� (LGBT, 143).\n6. �The undefeatable purpose of Jehovah God to establish a righteous kingdom in these last days was fulfilled in a.d. 1914� (LGBT, 143).\n7. �Obey the King Christ Jesus and flee, while there is still time, to the Kingdom heights. � Time left is short, for �the kingdom of the heavens has drawn near�� (LGBT, 144).\n8. �Only a little flock of 144,000 go to heaven and rule with Christ. � The 144,000 are born again as spiritual sons of God� (Jehovah�s Witnesses in the Twentieth Century, electronic version)." ] }

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{ "description": [ "A year after the remains of the Titanic were discovered, ... not one long gash as was originally believed. Regardless, time is running out for researchers, ...", "The Grave of the Titanic. ... The remains of the Titanic were found in 1985 by Dr. Robert Ballard, ... Find the Titanic again! 1.", "Discovery of the Titanic Shipwreck 2. ... found the Titanic over two miles below the ocean’s surface ... used it to find and explore the remains of the ...", "Human remains may be embedded in the mud of the North Atlantic where the New ... Human remains possibly found in Titanic shipwreck. THE ASSOCIATED ...", "Experts Split on Possibility of Remains at Titanic ... The fight for protection began shortly after the Titanic was found in 1985 more than two miles ...", "Are there human remains at the Titanic ... \"I've seen zero human remains,\" a \"visibly miffed\" Titanic director ... the explorer who discovered the Titanic in 1985 ...", "What remains: The fact that the ... 'Just found out Titanic really happened!' The tweeters who... A moment of silence, flowers on the sea and a whistle in the ...", "Soon news that the Titanic had been found had reached the corners of the world. Once more the RMS Titanic was in the minds of millions of people." ], "filename": [ "149/149_2592397.txt", "184/184_1062387.txt", "154/154_1074956.txt", "64/64_1074986.txt", "71/71_1575329.txt", "150/150_2592398.txt", "192/192_1074962.txt", "147/147_1074955.txt" ], "rank": [ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9 ], "title": [ "The 'Titanic' Discovery: A Brief History - TIME", "The Grave of the Titanic - gma.org", "Discovery of the Titanic Shipwreck in 1985", "Human remains possibly found in Titanic shipwreck - NY ...", "Titanic May Hold Passengers’ Remains, Officials Say - The ...", "Are there human remains at the Titanic wreck site?", "Titanic 100th anniversary: Shoes and coat found at wreck ...", "RMS Titanic is found by Dr Robert Ballad - Ship of Dreams" ], "url": [ "http://content.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,2015271,00.html", "http://www.gma.org/space1/titanic.html", "http://history1900s.about.com/od/1980s/a/Titanic-Shipwreck.htm", "http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/human-remains-possibly-found-titanic-shipwreck-article-1.1061974", "http://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/15/science/titanic-may-hold-passengers-remains-officials-say.html", "http://theweek.com/articles/476400/are-there-human-remains-titanic-wreck-site", "http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2130042/Titanic-100th-anniversary-Shoes-coat-wreck-site-implies-likely-resting-place-human-remains.html", "http://www.titanicandco.com/discovery.html" ], "search_context": [ "The 'Titanic' Discovery: A Brief History - TIME\nThe Titanic Discovery\nSend to Kindle\nRalph White / CORBIS\nOn Sept. 1, 1985, underwater explorer Robert Ballard located the world's most famous shipwreck. The Titanic lay largely intact at a depth of 12,000 ft. off the coast of St. John's, Newfoundland\nFollow @TIME\nAlmost 25 years to the day after the R.M.S. Titanic was discovered two and a half miles below the surface of the Atlantic, an expedition to the ocean floor has transmitted brand new images of history's most famous shipwreck. Legendary before it was found, the Titanic became even more so after the world caught its first glance of the ghostly ship, which met its end in April 1912. After years of speculation and educated guesses that had turned up nothing but empty ocean, researchers located the deteriorating bow and debris field on Sept. 1, 1985.\nExplorer Robert Ballard, an oceanographer and former Navy captain, had long wanted to find the wreck, first attempting the feat in 1977 to no avail. But it wasn't until 1985 that he would find a way to finance his research. Ballard approached the U.S. Navy for funding, which he secured on the condition of locating two sunken Navy submarines — the U.S.S. Thresher and U.S.S. Scorpion, both Cold War–era nuclear submarines — lost some years before. He was required to first find the submarines on the seafloor and photograph them (a secret mission that Ballard didn't reveal until 2008) before using the underwater robots to search for the Titanic. In the early hours of Sept. 1, Ballard, in conjunction with a French expedition, tracked a debris trail to the wreckage. Video and photographs were taken and later broadcast to the world.\n(Read an interview with two Titanic wreck divers.)\nA year after the remains of the Titanic were discovered, more oceanographers went to explore the sections of bow and stern and the extensive debris field that lay between the two. In 1993, the company RMS Titanic Inc. (formed by Premier Exhibitions, which designs museum exhibitions and maintains artifacts) was named salvor-in-possession of the wreck, gaining the rights to collect found artifacts and launch expeditions to the ship. They did so seven times between 1986 and 2004, collecting over 5,500 artifacts ranging from china dishes to leather trunks filled with preserved bank notes. A section of the debris field even became known as \"hell's kitchen\" for the overwhelming amount of cooking utensils found there. Through photographs taken on subsequent trips, the company was able to reconstruct images of the grand staircase, later made famous (as were all things Titanic) by James Cameron's blockbuster film.\nThe largest discovery was that of a 17-ton section of the hull. An attempt to raise it in 1996 failed when the hull was accidentally dropped back onto the muddy bottom. Two years later, the section was successfully taken to the surface and is now part of traveling exhibits across the country. The piece was temporarily displayed alongside a 16-ft. frozen aluminum block meant to represent an iceberg. Although observers couldn't touch the rusted metal, they were encouraged to hold onto the ice until they could no longer stand it, though \"the people in the water that night didn't have that choice,\" John Zaller of Premier Exhibitions told the San Francisco Chronicle.\nMany argue that collecting items from the wreckage violates a sacred resting ground and that all the disturbances are causing the ship to deteriorate faster than it would if left alone. Others blame the multimillion-dollar expeditions — with their robots that land on deck and probe into small spaces — for causing regular and unnecessary damage. But those same expeditions have dispelled some of the myths surrounding what actually happened that night almost 100 years ago. Scientists recently discovered that the compartments were flooded due to several punctures (each less than a foot tall) in the hull, not one long gash as was originally believed. Regardless, time is running out for researchers, some of whom claim the wreck will not exist 50 years from now. As such, the new photographs come courtesy of a new group that is attempting to \"virtually raise\" the wreck in order to build a 3-D image before the ship disintegrates entirely. Ironically, the act of discovering the Titanic may be the thing that results in its final destruction.", "The Grave of the Titanic\nThe Grave of the Titanic\nThe story of the Titanic and the iceberg has grown into a legend of the sea. It took her discovery in 1985 to begin to find the truth behind the myth. One of the things that makes the Titanic so fascinating is that she represented the best of technology when she set sail on her ill-fated voyage in 1912, and it took the best of technology in the form of sonar, satellite tracking, and deep-dive technology to locate her grave 73 years later. In the early 1900's, waterborne transportation was the norm; today, satellites are taken for granted by our society. But we tend to forget the immense effort that these two technologies require to operate to their maximum potential. Until recently, the technology did not exist to locate, photograph, and explore this ship that rested two and a half miles down on the ocean floor.\nOn April 10, 1912, the RMS Titanic set sail from Southampton on her maiden voyage to New York. At that time, she was the largest and most luxurious ship ever built. At 11:40 PM on April 14, 1912, she struck an iceberg about 400 miles off Newfoundland, Canada. Although her crew had been warned about icebergs several times that evening by other ships navigating through that region, she was traveling at near top speed of about 20.5 knots when one grazed her side.\nLess than three hours later, the Titanic plunged to the bottom of the sea, taking more than 1500 people with her. Only a fraction of her passengers were saved. The world was stunned to learn of the fate of the unsinkable Titanic. It carried some of the richest, most powerful industrialists of her day. Together, their personal fortunes were worth $600 million in 1912! In addition to wealthy and the middle class passengers, she carried poor emigrants from Europe and the Middle East seeking economic and social freedom in the New World.\nThe remains of the Titanic were found in 1985 by Dr. Robert Ballard, an oceanographer and marine biologist with the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. When he located the Titanic, he saw that, as some survivors reported, the ship had broken apart. He believed the weight of the water-filled bow raised the stern out of the water and snapped the ship in two just before it sank. Debris falling out of the ship was strewn over a 1/2 mile across the sea floor. The bow and the stern were found nearly 2000ft. apart.\nKeeping her location a secret, Bob Ballard used GPS to find theTitanic again when he returned the next year. He hoped to prevent treasure seekers from finding her and plundering the ship for booty such as coffee cups inscribed with RMS Titanic. On this second expedition, he visited the ship several times by submarine. On his last descent, he left a plaque honoring the 1500 victims and asking that subsequent explorers leave their grave undisturbed.\nFind the Titanic again!\n1. Eventually Bob Ballard released the coordinates of the Titanic's location. He recorded her coordinates as, stern section sits on ocean floor at 41o43'35\" N, 49o56'54\" W, boilers at 41o43'32\" N, 49o56'49\" W, bow at 41o43'57\" N, 49o56'49\" W. Find these coordinates and trace the outline of the sunken pieces of the Titanic on a chart of the North Atlantic.\n2. How far is it from its plotted course? At the time of the accident, the ship was reported to be at 41o46' N, 50o 14' W. (She was found 13½ miles southeast of the position given in her lastdistress call.)\n3. Discuss the fact that satellite technology through GPS can pinpoint any position on Earth to within 30 feet. In 1912, navigation techniques of dead reckoning and celestial navigation could only give one an approximate location within several miles of one's true position.If the Titanic had had better navigational aids, could its passengers have all been saved? Could it even have avoided the iceberg?\n4. Track the route she took from England to New York in April, 1912.\nShe started from Southampton, England, and stopped at Cherbourg, France and Queenstown, Ireland to pick up passengers. Her destination was New York. She sank 1000 miles due east of Boston, Massachusetts, and 375 miles southeast of St. John's, Newfoundland.\nUnsinkable challenge\nBuild an unsinkable boat. What would it be made of? How would it be shaped? How will you test your hypothesis? How much weight (\"passengers\") could it carry? How far can it tip to the side before it flips?\nReliving the moment\nDraw a picture of the Titanic on that fateful night, using literature connection references. Information that should be incorporated into the work: It was night. There were icebergs. As the bow sank, the stern lifted farther and farther out of the water.\"Just before the ship disappeared entirely,\" according to Bob Ballard,\"Many eyewitnesses agreed that the ship in fact broke in two, the bow plunging down while the stern briefly righted itself before turning almost vertical and sinking a few moments later.\"\nDetail what it might have been like aboard the Titanic between 11:40PM (when the ship gently grazed the iceberg) to 2:18 AM when it disappeared below the sea.\nOr draw an illustration of Jason finding the bow of the Titanic at the bottom of the sea at a depth of 12,460 ft. The ship was found in several pieces. Draw what the Titanic might look like after another 100 years on the ocean floor.\nLifeboats\nHow many lifeboats were needed? TheTitanic was owned by the British White Star Line, flew the British flag,and thus was under the rules and regulations of the British government. Although she was originally designed to carry 42 lifeboats, the ship carried only 20 lifeboats (four more than were required at the time by British regulations) for the 2,228 passengers and crew. (That number could supposedly hold 1,178 people.) The original designer of theTitanic had proposed 50 lifeboats, but the British owners of the White Star Line had decided against it. (If it had been under US Government regulation at the time, 42 lifeboats, enough to accommodate 2,367 persons would have been required for a ship that size.)\nOnly 705 people were rescued; 1523 drowned or froze to death in the icy water. Ironically, most of those who drowned were Americans. Assuming that each lifeboat could hold 65 people, how many lifeboats did they need? Unfortunately, the 20 lifeboats on board were launched in panic before they were filled to capacity, so the number of people rescued was even fewer than could have been accommodated.\nOnly 705 of 2,227 people on board survived. What percentage is that?\nWomen\n22%\n24%\nAnalyze these statistics. What do these figures tell you about the policy of saving women and children first, how social standing and wealth influenced who was rescued, and the tradition that the crew usually went down with the ship? Many of the poorest people were not aware of the seriousness of the damage to the Titanic until shortly before it sank.\n(chart source: The Titanic: End of a Dream)\nMaterials\nChart of the Atlantic Ocean with latitude/longitude, pencils, rulers, Robert Ballard's Exploring the Titanic or The Discovery of the Titanic\nMore classroom activities on the Titanic:\nLearn more about the Titanic's last moments and how the Titanic was found using submarines in What's in a Name?\nConsider how many different professionals assisted in the finding of the Titanic in Get a Job!\nLearn more about How Satellites Work.\nFor detailed information about the Titanic, crew, passengers, survivors and victims, please see Enclyclopedia Titanica\nSearch the Gulf of Maine Aquarium's extensive site:\nGulf of Maine Aquarium", "Discovery of the Titanic Shipwreck in 1985\nDiscovery of the Titanic Shipwreck\nFound by Famous Ocean Explorer Robert Ballard in 1985\nA 23 x 12 ft. piece of the Titanic weighing 20 tons is on display at 'TITANIC The Artifact Exhibit' at the California Science Center in Los Angeles, California. (2003).  (Photo by Michel Boutefeu/Getty Images)\nBy Jennifer L. Goss, Contributing Writer\nUpdated February 03, 2016.\nAfter the sinking of the Titanic on April 15, 1912, the great ship slumbered on the floor of the Atlantic Ocean for over 70 years before its wreckage was discovered. On September 1, 1985, a joint American-French expedition, headed by famous American oceanographer Dr. Robert Ballard, found the Titanic over two miles below the ocean’s surface by using an unmanned submersible called Argo. This discovery gave new meaning to the Titanic’s sinking and gave birth to new dreams in ocean exploration.\nThe Titanic’s Journey\nBuilt in Ireland from 1909 to 1912 on behalf of the British-owned White Star Line, the Titanic officially left its final European port of Queenstown, Ireland on April 11, 1912. Carrying over 2,200 passengers and crew, the Titanic began its maiden voyage across the Atlantic, headed for New York.\nThe Titanic carried passengers from all walks of life. Tickets were sold to first, second, and third class passengers; the latter group largely consisting of immigrants seeking a better life.\ncontinue reading below our video\n10 Best Universities in the United States\nFamous first class passengers included the Astors, the Strausses, J. Bruce Ismay, and Benjamin Guggenheim.\nThe Sinking of the Titanic\nOnly three days after setting sail, the Titanic struck an iceberg at 11:40 p.m. on April 14, 1912, somewhere in the North Atlantic. Although it took the ship over two and a half hours to sink, the vast majority of the crew and passengers perished due to a significant lack of lifeboats and improper use of those that did exist. The lifeboats could have held over 1,100 people, but only 705 people were saved; nearly 1,500 perished the night the Titanic sank.\nPeople around the world were shocked when they heard that the “unsinkable” Titanic had sunk. They wanted to know the details of the disaster. Yet, however much the survivors could share, theories about how and why the Titanic sank would remain unsubstantiated until the wreckage of the great ship could be found. There was just one problem -- no one was sure exactly where the Titanic had sunk.\nRobert Ballard\nRobert Ballard wanted to find the wreckage of the Titanic. Ballard had grown up in San Diego, California, near the ocean, where he began his life-long fascination with the ocean and learned to scuba dive. After graduating from University of California, Santa Barbara in 1965 with degrees in both chemistry and geology, Ballard signed up for the Army. Two years later, in 1967, Ballard transferred to the Navy, where he was assigned to the Deep Submergence Group at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Research Institution in Massachusetts, thus beginning his illustrious career with submersibles.\nBy 1974, Ballard had received two doctoral degrees (marine geology and geophysics) from the University of Rhode Island and had spent a lot of time conducting deep water dives in a manned submersible he helped design, called Alvin. During subsequent dives in 1977 and 1979 near the Galapagos Rift, Ballard helped discover hydrothermal vents . More importantly, though, were the amazing plants that grew around these vents; it was the scientific study of these plants that led to the discovery of chemosynthesis , a process in which plants use chemical reactions rather than sunlight to get energy.\nYet, however many shipwrecks Ballard explored and however much of the ocean floor he mapped, Ballard never forgot about the Titanic. Ballard has said, “I always wanted to find the Titanic. That was a Mt. Everest in my world -- one of those mountains that had never been climbed.”*\nPlanning the Mission\nBallard wasn’t the first to try to find the Titanic. Over the years, there had been several teams who had set out to find the wreckage of the famous ship; three of them had been funded by millionaire oilman Jack Grimm. On his last expedition in 1982, Grimm had taken an underwater picture of what he believed to be a propeller from the Titanic; others believed it was only a rock. The hunt for the Titanic was to continue; this time with Ballard. But first, he needed funding.\nBallard, who had a history working with the U.S. Navy, decided to ask them to fund his expedition. The Navy did decide to fund the project, but not because they had a vested interest in finding the Titanic; instead, the Navy wanted Ballard to create the technology needed to help them find and investigate the wreckage of two nuclear submarines (the USS Thresher and the USS Scorpion) that had been mysteriously lost in the 1960s.\nBallard’s search for the Titanic provided a nice cover story for the Navy, who wanted to keep their search for their lost submarines a secret from the Soviet Union. Amazingly, Ballard maintained the secrecy of his mission even as he built the technology, used it to find and explore the remains of the USS Thresher, and the remains of the USS Scorpion. Plus, while Ballard was investigating these wreckages, he learned more about debris fields, which gave him an idea as to how to find the Titanic.\nDone with his secret mission, Ballard was finally able to turn to his search for the Titanic. However, while other teams had spent months looking in vain for the Titanic, Ballard now had only two weeks for his search.\nLocating the Titanic\nIt was late August 1985 when Ballard finally began his search for the Titanic. Ballard had invited a French research team, led by Jean-Louis Michel, to join this expedition. Aboard the Navy’s oceanographic survey ship, the Knorr , Ballard and his team headed to the likely location of the Titanic’s resting place -- one thousand miles due east of Boston, Massachusetts.\nWhile previous expeditions had used close sweeps of the ocean floor to search for the Titanic, Ballard decided to conduct mile-wide sweeps with the hope of being able to cover more area. Ballard was able to do this for two reasons. First, after examining the wreckage of the two submarines, he discovered that ocean currents often swept lighter pieces of the wreck downstream, thus leaving a long debris trail. Secondly, Ballard had engineered a new unmanned submersible (Argo) that could explore wider areas, dive deeper, stay underwater for many weeks, and deliver crisp and clear pictures of what it found. This meant that Ballard and his team could stay on board the Knorr and monitor the images from Argo, hoping to find small, man-made pieces of debris.\nThe Knorr arrived in the area on August 22, 1985 and began sweeps of the area using Argo. In the early morning hours of September 1, 1985, the first glimpse of the Titanic in 73 years appeared on Ballard’s screen. Exploring 12,000 feet below the ocean’s surface, the Argo relayed the image of one of the Titanic’s boilers embedded within the sandy surface of the ocean’s floor. The team on the Knorr was ecstatic about the discovery, although the realization that they were floating atop the graves of nearly 1500 individuals brought a somber tone to their celebration.\nThe expedition proved to be instrumental in shedding light on the Titanic’s sinking. Prior to the discovery of the wreckage, there was some belief that the Titanic had sunk in one piece. The 1985 images did not give researchers definitive information on the ship’s sinking; however, it did establish some basic foundations that countered early myths.\nSubsequent Expeditions\nBallard returned to the Titanic in 1986 with new technology that allowed him to further explore the interior of the majestic ship. Images were collected that showed the remains of the beauty that so captivated those who had seen the Titanic at its height. The Grand Staircase, still-hanging chandeliers, and beautiful iron-work were all photographed during Ballard’s second successful expedition.\nSince 1985, there have been several dozen expeditions to the Titanic. Many of these expeditions have been controversial since salvagers brought up several thousand artifacts from the ship’s remains. Ballard has been widely outspoken against these efforts, claiming that he felt the ship deserved to rest in peace. During his two initial expeditions, he decided not to bring any discovered artifacts to the surface. He felt that others should honor the sanctity of the wreckage in a similar fashion.\nThe most proliferate salvager of Titanic artifacts has been RMS Titanic Inc. The company has brought many notable artifacts to the surface, including a large piece of the ship’s hull, passenger luggage, dinnerware, and even documents preserved in oxygen-starved compartments of steamer trunks. Due to negotiations between its predecessor company and the French government, the RMS Titanic group cannot sell the artifacts; however, they can put them on display and charge admission to recoup expenses and create profit. The largest exhibition of these artifacts today is located in Las Vegas, Nevada at the Luxor Hotel.\nTitanic Returns to the Silver Screen\nAlthough the Titanic has been featured in numerous films through the years, it was James Cameron’s 1997 film, Titanic, that stimulated massive, world-wide interest in the ship’s fate. The movie became one of the most popular films ever made.\nThe 100th Anniversary\nThe 100th Anniversary of the sinking of the Titanic in 2012 also fueled renewed interest in the tragedy, 15 years after Cameron’s film. The wreckage site is now eligible to be named a protected area as a UNESCO World Heritage site and Ballard is also working to preserve what remains.\nAn expedition in August 2012, revealed that increased human activity has caused the ship to break down at a faster rate than previously expected. Ballard has a plan to slow the process of degradation – painting the Titanic while it remains 12,000 feet below the ocean’s surface.\nThe discovery of the Titanic was a momentous accomplishment but now the world is conflicted about how to care for this historical wreck.\n* Quote by Dr. Robert Ballard from National Geographic’s Titanic: Ballard’s Secret Mission (2008).", "Human remains possibly found in Titanic shipwreck - NY Daily News\nHuman remains possibly found in Titanic shipwreck\nHuman remains possibly found in Titanic shipwreck\nTHE ASSOCIATED PRESS\nThe remains of a coat and boots, articulated in the mud on the sea bed near Titanic's stern, are suggestive evidence of where a victim of the disaster came to rest.\n(AP)\nTHE ASSOCIATED PRESS\nSunday, April 15, 2012, 9:41 AM\nHuman remains may be embedded in the mud of the North Atlantic where the New York-bound Titanic came to rest when it sank 100 years ago, a federal official said Saturday.\nA 2004 photograph, released to the public for the first time this week in an uncropped version to coincide with the disaster’s centenary, shows a coat and boots in the mud at the legendary shipwreck site.\n“These are not shoes that fell out neatly from somebody’s bag right next to each other,” James Delgado , the director of maritime heritage at the National Oceanic and Atmosphere Administration, told The Associated Press in a phone interview.\nPHOTOS: LOOKING BACK 100 YEARS LATER: THE SINKING OF THE TITANIC\nThe way they are “laid out” makes a “compelling case” that it is where “someone has come to rest,” he said.\nThe image, along with two others showing pairs of boots resting next to each other, were taken during an expedition led by NOAA and famed Titanic finder Robert Ballard in 2004. They were published in Ballard’s book on the expedition. Delgado said the one showing a coat and boots was cropped to show only a boot.\nAP\nFilmmaker James Cameron , who has visited the wreck 33 times, has said he has seen “zero human remains” during his extensive explorations of the Titanic.\nThe New York Times first reported about the photographs in Saturday editions.\nFilmmaker James Cameron, who has visited the wreck 33 times, told the newspaper that he had seen “zero human remains” during his extensive explorations of the Titanic. “We’ve seen shoes. We’ve seen pairs of shoes, which would strongly suggest there was a body there at one point. But we’ve never seen any human remains.”\nFor Delgado, who was the chief scientist on an expedition in 2010 that mapped the entire site, the difference in opinion is “one of semantics.”\n“I as an archaeologist would say those are human remains,” he said, referring to the photograph of the coat and boots specifically. “Buried in that sediment are very likely forensic remains of that person.”\nNEW BOOKS REVEAL MORE OF THE TITANIC STORY\nHe said in an email that the images “speak to the power of that tragic and powerful scene 2 1/2 miles below” and “to its resilience as an undersea museum, as well as its fragility.”\n“This is an appropriate time to note the human cost of that event, and the fact that in this special place at the bottom of the sea, evidence of the human cost, in the form of the shattered wreck, the scattered luggage, fittings and other artifacts, and the faint but unmistakable evidence that this is where people came to rest, is present,” he said.\nHe said the images are also evidence that society could do a better job protecting the site.\nThere has been a long fight to protect the Titanic since it was rediscovered by Ballard in 1985, beginning with a federal law passed by Congress aimed at creating an international agreement to transform the shipwreck into an international maritime memorial. Sen. John Kerry introduced what some observers see as stronger legislation April 1 aimed at protecting the site from “salvage and intrusive research.”\nBut the luxury liner, which went down April 14, 1912, after striking an iceberg, sits in international waters, limiting what the U.S. government can do.\nDelgado said an international treaty would need to be negotiated between Britain, Canada, France and the U.S.\nJoin the Conversation:", "Titanic May Hold Passengers’ Remains, Officials Say - The New York Times\nThe New York Times\nScience |Experts Split on Possibility of Remains at Titanic Site\nSearch\nContinue reading the main story\nPhoto\nA boot on the seabed lies near what is thought to be a coat in this 2004 image. “There are people inside,” said James P. Delgado, who works for the agency that released the image. James Cameron, the moviemaker, said that in his 33 visits to the wreck, “I’ve seen zero human remains.” Credit Institute for Exploration/Center for Ocean Exploration at the University of Rhode Island/NOAA Office of Exploration and Research\nFederal officials, who have long struggled to assert protective authority over the resting place of the Titanic, say the site may harbor many undiscovered corpses and thus should be accorded the respect of a graveyard and shielded from looters and artifact hunters.\n“There are people inside,” said James P. Delgado, director of maritime heritage at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , which monitors the wreck.\nHis agency, an arm of the Commerce Department, has released to the news media an image from 2004 that shows a boot on the seabed near what the agency calls a coat. “The articulation of the coat and boots are highly suggestive of someone coming to rest here,” Mr. Delgado said by e-mail. “This is the first full release of the whole image and the first explicit captioning.”\nThe bold federal assertions are dividing Titanic experts. The most experienced divers say they doubt that bodies lie intact in unexplored compartments of the deteriorating ship.\n“I’ve seen zero human remains,” James Cameron , the moviemaker and explorer, who has visited the wreck 33 times and extensively probed its interior, said in an interview.\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\n“We’ve seen clothing,” he added. “We’ve seen shoes. We’ve seen pairs of shoes, which would strongly suggest there was a body there at one point. But we’ve never seen any human remains.”\nRight now, of course, is an excellent time for federal officials to press their concerns and make their case for new protections.\nSunday is the centenary of the sinking, and — not coincidentally — Senator John Kerry, the Massachusetts Democrat, has introduced a bill that would give the Commerce Department new supervisory powers to protect the Titanic wreck site from salvagers and intrusive research.\nThe fight for protection began shortly after the Titanic was found in 1985 more than two miles down at the bottom of the North Atlantic, upright but split in two. The international waters ensured a long struggle over legal jurisdiction — even as salvagers made off with thousands of artifacts.\nIn 1986, Congress passed a protective law known as the R.M.S. Titanic Memorial Act , but officials at the ocean agency and elsewhere agree that it has no teeth. In 2004, the United States, France, Canada and Britain signed a draft treaty for better safeguards. But it has never been approved because it requires legislative support — which the Kerry bill would provide.\nWhile seeking to enhance their custodial role, federal officials are now pressing the question of the missing dead. After the Titanic sank, searchers recovered 340 bodies. Thus, of the roughly 1,500 people killed in the disaster, about 1,160 bodies remain lost.\nIn an interview, Dr. Delgado of the ocean agency said the muddy seabed showed “clear signs” of human imprint. “Yes, you don’t see much in the way of bone,” he said, referring to the newly released photograph. “But this is clearly where someone came to rest on the bottom. It speaks powerfully to it being a grave site.”\nPaul H. Nargeolet, a French mini-sub pilot who has visited the Titanic 30 times — the second-most experienced diver, after Mr. Cameron — said he had never seen any human remains.\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\nSkeptics say that federal officials are exaggerating scanty evidence in an effort to expand their powers.\n“It’s a legal tactic,” said David G. Concannon, a maritime lawyer who has dived to the Titanic’s resting place and advised the Explorers Club. “The opponents of salvage want to equate it to a grave site.”\nBut Mr. Delgado of NOAA defended his agency, saying: “We’re not pushing for bureaucratic turf. We’re pushing for international cooperation to protect the wreck.”\nScholars say most of the people who died were probably in life jackets and swept far to sea by wind and waves. After the sinking, a storm blew up that was reported to have scattered bobbing corpses in a line 50 miles long.\nPlease verify you're not a robot by clicking the box.\nInvalid email address. Please re-enter.\nYou must select a newsletter to subscribe to.\nSign Up\nPrivacy Policy\nBut some Titanic historians argue that as many as hundreds of people were trapped inside the sinking ship.\nIn the deep sea, a main factor that governs decomposition is the amount of oxygen dissolved in the surrounding seawater. When plentiful, oxygen supports the respiration of deep-sea scavengers. Currents that crisscross the global deep constantly deliver fresh oxygen that can energize armies of worms, fish and other organisms that display voracious appetites.\nLeather is typically unaffected. Archaeologists have found intact sandals in ancient shipwrecks.\nDecomposition slows if bodies get cut off from the open sea, reducing oxygen levels and scavengers. The interiors of old wrecks have thus yielded bones, teeth and sometimes whole bodies.\n“It’s totally dependent on where they were,” said Tom Dettweiler, a veteran sea explorer who helped find the Titanic’s resting place. “In modern wrecks, you can get microenvironments that preserve bodies.”\nFor the Titanic, the oxygen factor means scavengers long ago feasted on nearby corpses. But — in theory, at least — bodies in undamaged areas of the hull would be less vulnerable if sealed off from currents and oxygen.\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\nIn 1987, two years after the Titanic’s discovery, deep sea explorers began gathering artifacts and tiptoeing around the body issue.\nOne expedition found what appeared to be a wedding band and part of a human finger while probing a debris field, according to a new book, “Farewell, Titanic.” It says the explorers quickly decided to rebury the grim find and declare the area off limits.\nIn 2000, amid an escalating legal war with artifact hunters, the ocean agency issued draft guidelines for the site’s preservation. Of the disaster’s 1,500 victims, the paper asserted, “many of those were trapped in the ship’s hull.” It cited no evidence.\nToday the ocean agency is more specific. Its Web site says inner areas of the hull “may not be exposed” to the surrounding environment and thus have low oxygen levels, a state known as anoxia.\nIsolated environments, it says, “create a condition of stasis where constant pressure, low temperatures, no flow, and anoxic water levels have been known to preserve organic matter for centuries.”\nIn the interview, Mr. Cameron dismissed the idea. Ocean currents, he said, “blow through the ship like a drafty house with all the windows open.” He called preserved bodies “highly conjectural” and “not based on the data.”\nVisibly miffed, Mr. Cameron added that no federal official “has ever called me up and said, ‘Hey, why don’t you make all your hundreds of hours of interior survey available to us so we can actually have an informed opinion?’ ” Despite his reservations about the federal assertions, he noted that he was still in favor of the site’s preservation.\nOther Titanic experts — including Robert D. Ballard, a discoverer of the wreck who has long advocated its protection — echo federal officials and call it possible and perhaps likely that human remains lie intact in unexplored compartments.\n“I would not be surprised if highly preserved bodies were found in the engine room,” he said. “That was deep inside the ship.”\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\nAsked how many bodies the broken hull of the Titanic might hold, Dr. Ballard replied: “Dozens. Hundreds starts to feel uncomfortable. I know that lots landed on the bottom, because there are so many shoes.”\nA version of this article appears in print on April 15, 2012, on Page A14 of the New York edition with the headline: Experts Split On Possibility Of Remains At Titanic Site. Order Reprints | Today's Paper | Subscribe", "Are there human remains at the Titanic wreck site?\nAre there human remains at the Titanic wreck site?\nThe Week Staff\nThe Titanic's bow and railing 12,600 feet below the surface: Do bodies decomposed into mud constitute \"human remains\"?\nEmory Kristof/National Geographic\n10 things you need to know today\nToday's best articles\nToday's top cartoons\nDaily business briefing\nWhen the RMS Titanic sank 100 years ago, about 1,500 passengers and crew went down with it. Some 340 of these victims were found floating in their life jackets in the days following the shipwreck. But what happened to the other 1,160 is still a mystery. Newly released photos suggest that at least some of the unlucky travelers' remains are mixed in with the wreckage of the ship. The question is controversial — after 33 trips to the ship, \"I've seen zero human remains,\" a \"visibly miffed\" Titanic director James Cameron tells The New York Times — and a lot may ride on the answer. Here's a look at the dispute:\nWhat could have happened to the bodies?\nSome Titanic experts say a powerful storm the night of the wreck scattered the life-jacketed passengers in a 50-mile-wide area, so it's likely the bodies scattered across the seafloor. Other experts say hundreds of people were trapped inside the ship when it sank. The state of those bodies would depend on how exposed to currents of oxygenated water — and the deep-sea scavengers that thrive on it — they were over the years. \"Decomposition slows if bodies get cut off from the open sea, reducing oxygen levels and scavengers,\" says William J. Broad in The New York Times . \"The interiors of old wrecks have thus yielded bones, teeth, and sometimes whole bodies.\" As Titanic expert Robert Ballard tells the Times: \"I would not be surprised if highly preserved bodies were found in the engine room. That was deep inside the ship.\"\nWhat do the new photos show?\nThe most discussed photo captures leather boots and what appears to be a coat buried in the mud near the Titanic's stern. (Deep-sea scavengers are less interested in devouring leather than bodies.) The way the boots are laid out, says James Delgado, the director of maritime heritage at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), strongly suggests that they landed there while still on the feet and back of a person.  \"This is clearly where someone came to rest on the bottom,\" Delgado tells The New York Times . \"[The photo] speaks powerfully to this being a grave site.\"\nWhy is the photo just surfacing now?\nA cropped version of the photo actually appeared in a book by Ballard, the explorer who discovered the Titanic in 1985 and who worked with the NOAA on the 2004 expedition during which the images were captured. This is the first time the NOAA has released the uncropped version to the public and it did so just days after Sen. John Kerry (D-Mass.) introduced a bill that would give the Commerce Department more power to protect the site from artifact hunters and intrusive expeditions, which have been taking place since 1987. If the site is essentially declared an undersea cemetery, that would bolster the government's argument.\nWhat do skeptics say?\nThose who have spent the most time exploring the wreckage insist that any bodies at the site have long since decomposed, arguing against the graveyard designation. \"We've seen clothing,\" Cameron tells The Times . \"We've seen shoes. We've seen pairs of shoes, which would strongly suggest there was a body there at one point. But we've never seen any human remains.\" Skeptics accuse NOAA, a branch of the Commerce Department, of exaggerating the photographic evidence as part of a power grab.\nSo are there bodies at the site?\nWe may never know if bodies or skeletons are trapped inside the ship. The question of whether shoes, as depicted in the photos, constitute evidence of human remains on the ocean floor probably comes down to semantics, says NOAA's Delgado . The bodies may be reduced to sediment in the boots and under the coat: \"I, as an archaeologist, would say those are human remains,\" whereas explorers like Cameron might call them mud.", "Titanic 100th anniversary: Shoes and coat found at wreck site implies likely resting place of human remains | Daily Mail Online\ncomments\nNewly-released photos show the haunting images of Titanic victim's clothing lining the bottom of the ocean floor 100 years after the New York-bound ship sank in the North Atlantic.\nA 2004 photograph, released to the public for the first time this week in an uncropped version to coincide with the disaster's centenary, shows a coat and boots in the mud at the legendary shipwreck site.\nIt came as the passengers of a cruise ship retracing the route of the ill-fated liner RMS Titanic held an emotional memorial service at the exact spot where the ship sank on its maiden voyage a century ago.\n'These are not shoes that fell out neatly from somebody's bag right next to each other,' said James Delgado, the director of maritime heritage at the National Oceanic and Atmosphere Administration.\nWhat remains: The fact that the pair of boots were found so close to each other implies that they were probably on the feet of a victim whose body has since disintegrated\nThe way they are 'laid out' makes a 'compelling case' that it is where 'someone has come to rest,' he said.\nThe image, along with two others showing pairs of boots resting next to each other, were taken during an expedition led by NOAA and famed Titanic finder Robert Ballard in 2004. They were published in Ballard's book on the expedition. Mr Delgado said the one showing a coat and boots was cropped to show only a boot.\nRELATED ARTICLES\nShare\nThe New York Times first reported about the photographs in Saturday editions.\nFilmmaker James Cameron, who has visited the wreck 33 times, told the newspaper that he had seen 'zero human remains' during his extensive explorations of the Titanic.\n'We've seen shoes. We've seen pairs of shoes, which would strongly suggest there was a body there at one point. But we've never seen any human remains,' Mr Cameron said.\nMore findings: A number of pairs were found near a coat and some other items in the sea bed\nFor Mr Delgado, who was the chief scientist on an expedition in 2010 that mapped the entire site, the difference in opinion is 'one of semantics.'\n'I as an archaeologist would say those are human remains,' he said, referring to the photograph of the coat and boots specifically.\n'Buried in that sediment are very likely forensic remains of that person.'\nHe said in an email that the images 'speak to the power of that tragic and powerful scene 2 1/2 miles below' and 'to its resilience as an undersea museum, as well as its fragility.'\nExtrapolating: Though previous expeditions, like that of film-maker James Cameron, said that they did not see human remains, others feel that it is obvious that the victims bodies were there at one point\n'This is an appropriate time to note the human cost of that event, and the fact that in this special place at the bottom of the sea, evidence of the human cost, in the form of the shattered wreck, the scattered luggage, fittings and other artifacts, and the faint but unmistakable evidence that this is where people came to rest, is present,' he said.\nHe said the images are also evidence that society could do a better job protecting the site.\nThere has been a long fight to protect the Titanic since it was rediscovered by Mr Ballard in 1985, beginning with a federal law passed by Congress aimed at creating an international agreement to transform the shipwreck into an international maritime memorial.\nSenator John Kerry introduced what some observers see as stronger legislation April 1 aimed at protecting the site from 'salvage and intrusive research.'\nPoignant: Passengers take part in the Titanic memorial service 100 years after the disaster at the site where it sunk in the North Atlantic. About 50 of the 1,309 passengers on board have a direct link with the doomed liner\nRespect: Rev. Canon Huw Mosford, leads the service marking the 100th year anniversary of the Titanic disaster, aboard the MS Balmoral Titanic cruise ship, in the North Atlantic ocean\nBut the luxury liner, which went down April 14, 1912 after striking an iceberg, sits in international waters, limiting what the U.S. government can do. Mr Delgado said an international treaty would need to be negotiated between Britain, Canada, France and the U.S.\nAt 11.40pm last night - the time the ship hit the iceberg - passengers gathered on the decks of MS Balmoral, which has been retracing the route of the doomed voyage.\nAbout 50 of the 1,309 passengers on board Balmoral have a direct family connection to the\nsinking.\nThe Balmoral left Southampton last Sunday for a 12-night cruise to commemorate the centenary of the sinking of the liner that hit an iceberg on its maiden voyage.\nJane Allen, from Devon, whose great-uncle perished on the Titanic, said the moment vividly reminded her of the horror of the disaster.\nEmotional: A crew member throws a wreath overboard during the Titanic memorial service at the wreck site\nA wreath floats after being thrown into the sea during the Titanic service of remembrance\nSadness: Passengers take part in the Titanic memorial service 100 years after it sank\n'All you could hear was the swell splashing against the side of the ship. You could see the white breakers stretching out to sea,' she told the BBC.\n'You are in the middle of nowhere. And then you look down over the side of the ship and you realise that every man and every woman who didn't make it into a lifeboat had to make that decision, of when to jump or stay on the ship as the lights went out.\n'And when the lights went out it was horrendous.'\nPatricia Watts, 81, a retired teacher from Bristol, who is travelling with her husband David, 80, remembered her grandfather, George MacKie, 34, from Southampton, who was a second-class steward on board the Titanic.\nPatricia Watt with her husband David, holds a picture of her grandfather George Mackie, who died on Titanic\nCruise ship passengers and crew said prayers Sunday at the spot in the North Atlantic where the Titanic sank 100 years ago\nThree wreaths lie on the memorial cruise ship before they are thrown into the North Atlantic to remember those who died on board Titanic\nBefore the service she said: 'When we get to the wreck site there will be some sadness, but I think also some sense of release.\nTICKET FOR TITANIC'S DOOMED  MAIDEN VOYAGE SOLD FOR $56,000\nA New York auction house has sold an original ticket to the 1912 launch of the Titanic for $56,250.\nAlso in the block Sunday at Bonhams was a menu, touting choices like the tongue of a castrated rooster and beef sirloin with horseradish, which fetched  $31,250.\nBoth went to private American buyers.\nGregg Dietrich, Bonhams' maritime consultant,  said one surprise at the auction was the comparatively low price paid for a telegraph that read, 'We have struck an iceberg' which sold for  $27,500.\nThe most curious lot of the day, Dietrich said, sold for $12,500: three rivets and a piece of porthole glass recovered from the wreckage.\n'I shall feel a sense of accomplishment that I have achieved what I set out to do. I think the service will be a very memorable occasion, slightly sad, but also for a lot of people it will be the event of the cruise.'\nAnother cruise ship, Journey, which has travelled from New York, also held a service at the site of the disaster, 400 miles off the coast of Newfoundland.\nIn Belfast, a minute's silence also held during another poignant service.\nA great, great nephew of the ship's doctor helped to unveil bronze plaques listing more than 1,500 passengers, crew and musicians who died when the liner struck an iceberg and sank in the North Atlantic on April 15, 1912.\nThe boat was built in a Belfast shipyard and relatives of workmen who made and crewed the vessel were present for today's ceremony.\nJack Martin, a 12-year-old descendant of Dr John Simpson, lay a wreath and said: 'I am proud that I am keeping the memory of my ancestor alive and it keeps memories fresh.'\nA letter penned on board the Titanic by the Belfast doctor to his mother is to be brought back to Belfast for exhibition.\nThe letter, from assistant ship surgeon Dr John Edward Simpson, was written on notepaper headed RMS Titanic and brought ashore at Cobh, County Cork. From there it was posted to his mother, Elizabeth, who lived in south Belfast.\nDr Simpson was married and had one son when he took the commission on Titanic. He had previously worked on another White Star Line ship - the Olympic.\nRemembrance: Roses rest on a plaque bearing the names of those who died when the Titanic sank in Belfast's City Hall\nLegacy: Alex Aaronson, six, from north America, whose relative Artie Frost, 38, perished on the Titanic, in the new memorial garden at Belfast City Hall on the 100th anniversary of the ship sinking\nIn the letter, Dr Simpson said he was settling into his cabin well and that the accommodation on board his new vessel was larger.\nJack's father John Martin today said it meant a lot to him that the note was to be on display in Belfast.\n'It is the last tangible object that we have from John Simpson, everything else that he had was lost,' he said.\n'It is the last thing that we know he actually touched, that means a lot to the family.'\nDeputy First Minister Martin McGuinness (centre) attends a requiem service at St Anne's Church of Ireland Cathedral in Belfast, on the anniversary of the sinking of the Titanic 100 years ago\nThe service, held beside the city hall, took less than an hour and featured solo pieces by singer Brian Kennedy and reflections from actor Dan Gordon and minister the Rev Ian Gilpin.\nBelfast Lord Mayor Niall O`Donnghaile, Jack Martin and a representative of the Harland and Wolff shipyard, where the vessel was built, laid wreaths at the new memorial.\nThe names of the dead, from all classes on the doomed liner, are engraved in alphabetical order on five bronze plaques.\nWhen the Titanic sank with its three classes of passenger, a disproportionate number of victims were in third class. This is the first time all, including crew, are recognised on one memorial.\nDoomed: A photo taken of the 'unsinkable' Titanic in 1912 which sank in the North Atlantic on April 15\nThe sinking of the Titanic on its maiden voyage has fascinated people ever since it sunk 100 years ago in 1912\nThe Rev Ian Gilpin said: 'We behold the Titanic memorial, we remember all those who perished and whose names are herein inscribed - men, women and children who loved and we loved, their loss still poignantly felt by their descendants.\n'In the permanence of granite, marble and stone may there be a permanence in our remembrance, in diversity, in the colour and fragrance of the flowers of the memorial, that the memorial be an acknowledgement of the diversity of humankind.'\nAfter the wreath-laying a minute's silence was held for private reflection then the hymn Nearer My God to Thee, which was played by the band before the ship sank, rang out.\nHe said: 'This setting is dedicated to two people, one who died very old and one who died very young.\n'Within my own experience, they mirrored the huge range of people who lost their lives as a result of the Titanic disaster.'\nDr Robert Ballard, who discovered the wreck in 1985, was in Belfast for today's ceremony and delivered a memorial lecture yesterday.\nA funeral pall to commemorate the disaster will also be unveiled at St Anne's Church of Ireland Cathedral, in Belfast.\nChildhood home of Titanic captain to be put up for sale 100 years after tragedy\nCaptain Edward Smith's childhood home has gone up for sale and is on the market for £80,000\nThe house where Titanic captain Edward John Smith was born is up for sale at a bargain price.\nThe skipper of the ill-fated liner grew up in the two-bed Victorian terrace in Well Street, Hanley, Staffordshire, which is now on the market for £80,000.\nThe history of the humble home attracted the current owners to buy it 10 years ago and now they hope to pass it on to a historical custodian who can make the most of its past.\nNeil and Louise Bonner snapped the house up for less than £50,000 as an investment and rented it out.\nBut now on the 100th anniversary of the Titanic tragedy, they have put it on the market.\nMr Bonner, 64, who is a journalist said: 'It's been fascinating to have had a connection to the Titanic story. It's certainly provided an interesting talking point over the years.'\nThe couple from Stafford are hoping to capitalise on the interest in the centenary year of the loss of the passenger liner which collided with an iceberg and sank off the coast of Newfoundland.\nMore than 1,500 people including Captain Edward John Smith died in the 1912 tragedy.\nHe and his pottery worker parents are believed to have lived in the house for more than a decade. He worked at a local steelmaker before heading off to sea aged 13, where he progressed from ship's boy to captain.\nMrs Bonner, 60, who is a retired university lecturer, said: 'It's hard to understand what motivated him to go to sea.He came from a typical working class Potteries family and he went on to achieve so much.\n'The house has already attracted interest from Germany and America.'\nEstate agent Tabatha Cartlidge said: 'The history of this property is likely to be the draw for potential buyers. We anticipate it may attract interest from across the world.'", "RMS Titanic is found by Dr Robert Ballad\n1st September 1985\n \nIn the 1980s Dr. Robert Ballard was determined to discover the Titanic. On several occasions he tried to rally an expedition to find the most famous shipwreck of all time. To him undersea exploration was easy but the Titanic, deep on the Atlantic sea bed would push boundaries further than any deep sea diver had previously gone.\n \nEquipment had to be specially designed to withstand the water pressures of the depths they needed to explore. The Titanic would lay at a depth over 13,000 feet.\nIn 1973, the submersible Alvin went through design changes. Inparticular, her steel hull was replaced with titanium alloy which could better withstand the depths involved.\nEventually funding was granted from Woods Hole and equipment was borrowed from various sources that included a side scan sonar, a deep-towed magnetometer, an LIBEC imaging system and of course underwater cameras.\nThe Titanic's distress signal placed the Titanic at 41°46'N, 50° 14' west. Part of the British Enquiry was to ascertain if this was exact. It concluded that the position given was slightly inaccurate as the Carpathia, who raced to the Titanic's rescue, reached the lifeboats before they should have done if the position was accurate.\nBallard's search strategy was simply: they would scan the ocean floor within a best search triangle until they found the ship.\nEarlier in 1981 Jack Grimm led a team to find the ship, positive that they were searching the exact spot the ship foundered - they had not. Revised calculations suggested that the Titanic was eight miles further north than previously thought. They allowed for the speed of the lifeboats and the probable drift Titanic would have had on her way both after she had stopped and then down to the bottom of the ocean.\nAfter reworking these calculations, a second 1981 expedition failed again. The Deep-tow passed within a mile and a half of the wreck but the sonar scanners were out of range. After three weeks of searching Grimm was convinced he had found one of Titanic's propellers. He began to tell the world that Titanic had been found.\nTwo years later Grimm wanted to search the area again but the expedition failed. Ballard who had followed the expeditions with great interest realised that Grimm had not spent enough time looking for the ship. It was now Ballard's turn.\nBallard had a realisation which led him to develop the Argo/Jason concept. When assembled they were a remote controlled deep towed deep sea video vessel combined with a swimming robot on a cable leash. The name of the project was derived form Greek mythology (Jason and the Argonauts).\nArgo would be an unmanned submarine loaded with video cameras towed above the ocean bottom at the end of fibre-optical wires. The built in sonar could scan accurately the ocean floor for small debris.\nIn 1984 the US Navy agreed to fund a three week test for the following summer and Argo was built.\nAboard the Knorr, Ballard sailed to where he believed the Titanic sank. He hoped that his French colleagues had not beaten him to the wreck. However, by the end three weeks he had not found the ship and on August 6 1985 headed home.\nLateral thinking\n \nWhen a ship it sinks it leaves a path of debris (objects from within the ship or objects breaking off). Depending how deep the vessel sinks this debris can be scattered over a large distance. On a shorter descent, the debris falls more or less vertically. However, as the Titanic sank 21/2 miles a huge debris field was expected.\nA new search strategy was formed. This time they would first look for the debris field rather than the Titanic herself.\nThe logbook of the Californian enabled Ballard and his crew to estimate the speed and direction of drift of the lifeboats. The Californian was between five to ten miles away from the Titanic at the time of the disaster and reported in its log that they had experienced drift. Also Ballard knew that the Titanic had to be north of where the lifeboats were found.\n \nOn August 24 1985 Ballard returned to the vacinity of the Titanic. He had 12 days to locate the wreck. Argo was launched the next day but encountered technical problems. After another six days, the crew was fed up with the monotiny of observing sand, mud and the bottomless ocean.\nBut on the 1st September 1985 a strange appeared on the Video monitors. A BOILER!!!\n \nThe RMS Titanic had to be near.\nNew hopes were realised. Argo was launched to scan the search area for the Titanic. Eventually at an altitude of 160 feet above the bed, Argo passed over the main hull of the ship. They could see that the funnel had gone (the one which Lightoller recalled saved his life when it tore out of its fixtures moments before the ship went down).\nTheir first look at the Titanic lasted six minutes: she was upright and a large section of her hull was in tact. She laid 13,000 feet below the surface.\nFollowing much the cheering and clapping, reverential silence overcame the crew of the Knorr. It was almost 2 a.m. and very close to the time when the Titanic actually sank. Argo was used to photograph the wreck during the many passages made over her.\nSoon news that the Titanic had been found had reached the corners of the world. Once more the RMS Titanic was in the minds of millions of people.\n \nEXPLORATION OF THE TITANIC\nDay 1\nOn July 13th 1986 another Ballard expedition was underway to explore the Titanic in more detail.\nJason Junior (JJ) would be used to video the Titanic. JJ would be operated on a long cable attached to Alvin which contained three crew who would steer JJ.\nDay 2\nAfter a short lived dive due to battery failure, a second dive proved highly successful.\nApparently from nowhere, the razor sharp bow of the Titanic came into view. Both anchors were still in place. It appeared that the bow was buried more than 60 foot in the mud.\nBallard described the decaying metal as \"frozen rivers of rust covering the ships' side and spread out over the ocean floor.\"\nAs Alvin moved across the forward deck, the giant bollards and capstans were clearly visible although the wires and ropes once connected to them were gone. The wooden floor had been eaten away.\nThe expedition continued to the severed section of the intact bow section. A sudden strong current stopped the trip and Alvin was forced to head to the surface.\nDay 3\nJJ traversed the Grand Staircase, which at one time had been covered by a glass dome. Whatever JJ saw, Alvin's crew saw too. A Chandelier had survived the journey to the bottom of the sea. JJ's maiden voyage was a total success.\nDay 4\nThe team visited Captain Smith's cabin to find its outer walls collapsed to a heap on the deck. Next, JJ explored the Gym where pieces of equipment could be seen in amongst the rubble. Metal frames from the electric camel were also intact.\nDay 5\nThe debris field spans nearly 2000 feet between the two sections of the Titanic. The debris includes lumps of coal, wrought-iron deck benches, baths, crockery and other bric-a-brac.\nAnother boiler was found with an iron cup sitting peacefully on top of it. A safe was found on the ocean floor proudly showing off its brass handle. Ballard tried to open the safe but the door would not open to reveal its contents.\nDay 6\nIt was clear from the debris field that the torn-off stern section had been badly damaged during its journey to the bottom and now lay 1,970 feet from the bow section.\nBallard's next plan lead Alvin along the bottom of the ocean bed directly behind the stern section and sent JJ to examine the hull. He found that the stern section was also buried deep beneath the mud, probably to a depth of 45 feet. Both middle and starboard side propellers were under the mud.\nBefore leaving the wreck, Ballard placed a memorial plaque on the stern in memory of those who lost their lives on that fateful night." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Spice_Girls.txt" ], "title": [ "Spice Girls" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Spice Girls are an English pop girl group formed in 1994. The group originally consisted of Melanie Brown (\"Scary Spice\"), Melanie Chisholm (\"Sporty Spice\"), Emma Bunton (\"Baby Spice\"), Geri Halliwell (\"Ginger Spice\"), and Victoria Beckham, née Adams (\"Posh Spice\"). They were signed to Virgin Records and released their debut single \"Wannabe\" in 1996, which hit number one in 37 countries[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/2999872.stm Simon Fuller: Guiding pop culture] BBC. Retrieved 18 September 2011 and established them as a global phenomenon. Their debut album Spice sold more than 31 million copies worldwide, becoming the best-selling album by a female group in history. Their follow up album Spiceworld sold over 20 million copies worldwide. The Spice Girls have sold over 80 million records worldwide, making them the best-selling female group of all time, one of the best-selling pop groups of all time, and the biggest British pop phenomenon since Beatlemania. \n\nMeasures of their success include international record sales, a 2007–2008 reunion tour, merchandising, record-breaking achievements, iconic symbolism such as Halliwell's Union Jack dress representing \"girl power\", and a film, Spice World. The group became one of the most successful marketing engines ever, earning up to $75 million per year, with their global grosses estimated at $500–800 million between 1996 and 1998. Under the guidance of their mentor and manager Simon Fuller, the Spice Girls embraced merchandising and became a regular feature of the British and global press. In 1996, Top of the Pops magazine gave each member of the group aliases, which were adopted by the group and media. According to Rolling Stone journalist and biographer David Sinclair, \"Scary, Baby, Ginger, Posh and Sporty were the most widely recognised group of individuals since John, Paul, George, and Ringo\". With the \"girl power\" phenomenon, the Spice Girls were popular cultural icons of the 1990s. They are cited as part of the 'second wave' 1990s British Invasion of the US. \n\nOn 8 July 2016, Mel B, Emma Bunton and Geri Halliwell reunited as a trio under the name \"Spice Girls - GEM\". \n\nBand history\n\n1994–96: Formation and early years\n\nIn the mid-1990s, family management team Bob Herbert and Chris Herbert of Heart Management decided to create a girl group to compete with popular boy bands, such as Take That and East 17, which dominated the pop music scene at the time. In February 1994, together with financier Chic Murphy, they placed an advertisement in the trade magazine The Stage asking for singers to audition for an all-female pop band at Danceworks studios.Spice Girls Official. [http://www.thespicegirls.com/facts/timeline Timeline]. Retrieved 16 March 2009. Approximately 400 women attended the audition, during which they were placed in groups of ten and danced a routine to \"Stay\" by Eternal, followed by solo auditions in which they were asked to perform songs of their own choosing. After several weeks of deliberation, Victoria Adams, Melanie Brown, Melanie Chisholm and Michelle Stephenson were among twelve women chosen to a second round of auditions in April; Geri Halliwell also attended the second audition, despite missing the first one due to work.\n\nA week after the second audition, the women were asked to attend a recall at Nomis Studios in Shepherds Bush, performing \"Signed, Sealed, Delivered\" on their own and in a group. During the session, Adams, Brown, Chisholm, Halliwell and Stephenson were selected to the band, initially named Touch. The group moved to a house in Maidenhead, Berkshire, and spent most of 1994 training. During the first two months, they worked on demos at South Hill Park Recording Studios in Bracknell with producer/studio owner Michael Sparkes and songwriter/arranger Tim Hawes. According to Stephenson, the material the group was given was \"very, very young pop\"; one of the songs they recorded, \"Sugar and Spice\", would be the source of their final band name. They also worked on various dance routines at the Trinity Studios in Knaphill, near Woking, Surrey. During the training period, Stephenson was fired from the group and replaced with Emma Bunton, who came up with the band name Spice.\n\nThe group felt insecure about the lack of a contract and was frustrated by the direction in which Heart Management was steering them. In October 1994, armed with a catalogue of demos and dance routines, they began touring management agencies. They persuaded Bob Herbert to set up a showcase performance for the group in front of industry writers, producers and A&R men in December 1994 at the Nomis Studios, where they received an \"overwhelmingly positive\" reaction. Due to the large interest in the group, the Herberts quickly set about creating a binding contract for them. Encouraged by the reaction they had received at the Nomis showcase, all five members delayed signing contracts on the legal advice from, among others, Adams's father.\n\nIn March 1995, the group parted from Heart Management due to their frustration with the company's unwillingness to listen to their visions and ideas. To ensure they kept control of their own work, they allegedly stole the master recordings of their discography from the management offices. That same day, the group tracked down Sheffield-based producer Eliot Kennedy, who had been present at the showcase, and persuaded him to work with them. They were introduced to record producers Absolute, who in turn brought them to the attention of Simon Fuller of 19 Entertainment, who signed them to his company in March 1995. During the summer of that year, the group toured record labels in London and Los Angeles with Fuller, signing a deal with Virgin Records in September 1995. Their name was changed to Spice Girls, as a rapper was already using the name \"Spice\". From this point on until the summer of 1996, the group continued to write and record tracks for their debut album while extensively touring the west coast of the United States, where they signed a publishing deal with Windswept Pacific.\n\n1996–97: Spice and breakthrough\n\n \nOn 7 July 1996, the Spice Girls released their debut single \"Wannabe\" in the United Kingdom. In the weeks leading up to the release, the video for \"Wannabe\" (directed by Swedish commercials director Johan Camitz and shot in April at St Pancras Chambers in London), got a trial airing on music channel The Box. The video was an instant hit, and was aired up to seventy times a week at its peak. After the video was released, the Spice Girls had their first live TV slot on broadcast on LWT's Surprise Surprise. The first music press interview appears in Music Week. In July 1996, the group conducted their first interview with Paul Gorman, the contributing editor of music paper Music Week, at Virgin Records' Paris headquarters. His piece recognised that the Spice Girls were about to institute a change in the charts away from Britpop and towards out-and-out pop. He wrote: \"JUST WHEN BOYS with guitars threaten to rule pop life – Damon's all over Smash Hits, Ash are big in Big! and Liam can't move for tabloid frenzy – an all-girl, in-yer-face pop group have arrived with enough sass to burst that rockist bubble.\" The song entered the charts at number 3 before moving up to number 1 the following week and staying there for seven weeks. The song proved to be a global hit, hitting number one in 37 countries and becoming not only the biggest selling debut single by an all-female group but also the biggest-selling single by an all-female group of all time. \n\nRiding a wave of publicity and hype, the group released their next singles in the UK and Europe; in October \"Say You'll Be There\" was released topping the charts at number one for two weeks. In December \"2 Become 1\" was released, becoming their first Christmas number one and selling 430,000 copies in its first week, making it the fastest selling single of the year. The two tracks continued the group's remarkable sales by topping the charts in over fifty-three countries and cementing the group's reputation as the biggest pop act in the world. In November 1996, the Spice Girls released their debut album Spice in Europe. The success was unprecedented and drew comparisons to Beatlemania. In seven weeks Spice had sold 1.8 million copies in Britain alone,[http://www.bpi.co.uk/certifiedawards/search.aspx UK Sales certificates database]. British Phonographic Industry. Retrieved 25 November 2009. making the Spice Girls the fastest selling British act since the Beatles. In total, the album sold over 3 million copies in Britain, the biggest-selling album of all time in the UK by a female group, certified 10× Platinum, and peaked at number one for fifteen non-consecutive weeks. In Europe the album became the biggest-selling album of 1997 and was certified 8× Platinum by the IFPI for sales in excess of 8 million copies. \n\nThat same month the Spice Girls attracted a crowd of 500,000 when they switched on the Christmas lights in Oxford Street, London. At the same time, Simon Fuller started to set up million pound sponsorship deals for the Spice Girls with Pepsi, Walkers, Impulse, Cadbury's and Polaroid. In December 1996, the group won three trophies at the Smash Hits awards at the London Arena, including best video for \"Say You'll Be There\". In January 1997, the group released \"Wannabe\" in the United States. The single, written by the Spice Girls, Richard Stannard, and Matt Rowe also proved to be a catalyst in helping the Spice Girls break into the notoriously difficult US market when it debuted on the Hot 100 Chart at number 11. At the time, this was the highest-ever debut by a non-American act, beating the previous record held by the Beatles for \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" and the joint highest entry for a debut act beating Alanis Morissette with \"Ironic\". \"Wannabe\" reached number one in the US for four weeks. In February 1997, Spice was released in the US, and became the biggest-selling album of 1997 in the US, peaking at number one, and was certified 7× Platinum by the RIAA[http://www.riaa.com/gp/database/default.asp USA sales certificates database]. RIAA. Retrieved 10 March 2006. for sales in excess of 7.4 million\ncopies. The album is also included in the Top 100 Albums of All Time list of the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) based on US sales. In total, the album sold 28 million copies worldwide becoming the biggest-selling album of all-time by an all-female group.\n\nLater that month, the Spice Girls won two Brit Awards for Best British Video, \"Say You'll Be There\" and Best British Single for \"Wannabe\". The group performed \"Who Do You Think You Are\" to open the 1997 BRIT Awards with Geri Halliwell wearing a Union Jack mini-dress, causing it to become one of pop history's most famed outfits. In March 1997, a double A-side of \"Mama\"/\"Who Do You Think You Are\" was released in Europe, the last from Spice, which once again saw them at number one, making the Spice Girls the first group in history since the Jackson 5 to have four consecutive number one hits. Girl Power!, The Spice Girls' first book and manifesto was launched later that month at the Virgin Megastore. It sold 200,000 copies within a day, and was eventually translated into more than 20 languages. In April, Spice: the Official Video Volume One, was released, and sold half a million copies. In May, Spice World was announced by the Spice Girls at the Cannes Film Festival. The group also performed their first live British show, for the Royalty of Great Britain. At the show, they breached royal protocol when Mel B and then Geri Halliwell planted kisses on Prince Charles' cheeks and pinched his bottom, causing controversy. At the Ivor Novello Awards, the group won International Hit of the Year and Best-Selling British Single awards for \"Wannabe\". In June 1997, Spice World began filming and wrapped in August. In September, the Spice Girls performed \"Say You'll Be There\" at the 1997 MTV Video Music Awards at Radio City Music Hall in New York City, and won Best Dance Video for \"Wannabe\". At the 1997 Billboard Music Awards the group won four awards; New Artist of the Year, Hot 100 Singles Group of the Year, Album Group of the Year, and Album of the Year for Spice. \n\n1997–98: Groundbreaking success, Spiceworld and Halliwell's departure\n\nIn October 1997, the Spice Girls released the first single from Spiceworld, \"Spice Up Your Life\". It entered the UK Albums Chart at number one on 19 October 1997, making it the group's fifth consecutive number one hit single. That same month, Simon Fuller took the Spice Girls east to perform their first live major concert to 40,000 fans in Istanbul, Turkey. Later, the Girls travelled to South Africa to meet Nelson Mandela, who announced, \"These are my heroes.\" This was the year when the Spice Girls reached the height of their career. In November, the Spice Girls released their second album, Spiceworld. The album was a global best seller. It set a new record for the fastest-selling album when it shipped seven million copies over the course of two weeks. Gaining favourable reviews, the album went on to sell over 10 million copies in Europe, Canada,[http://www.cria.ca/cert_db_search.php CRIA Canadian sales certificates database]. Canadian Recording Industry Association. Retrieved 11 March 2006. and the United States\ncombined, and 20 million copies worldwide. Criticised in the United-States for releasing the album just nine months after their debut there, and suffering from over-exposure at home, the Spice Girls began to experience a media backlash. The group was criticised for the number of sponsorship deals signed —over twenty in total—and they began to witness diminishing international chart positions. Nevertheless, the Spice Girls remained the biggest-selling pop group of both 1997 and 1998.\n\nOn 7 November 1997, the group performed \"Spice Up Your Life\" in the 1997 MTV Europe Music Awards. After this performance, the Spice Girls made the decision to take over the running of the group themselves, and fired their manager Simon Fuller. The firing was front page news around the world. Many commentators speculated that Fuller had been the true mastermind behind the group, and that this was the moment when the band lost their impetus and direction. In December 1997, the second single from Spiceworld, \"Too Much\", was released. This became the second Christmas number one for the group and the sixth consecutive number one hit single in the UK. At the 1998 American Music Awards on 26 January, the Spice Girls won three awards; Favorite Pop Album, Favorite New Artist, and Favorite Pop Group. In February 1998, the Spice Girls won a special award for overseas success at the 1998 BRIT Awards, with combined sales of albums and singles for over of 45 million records worldwide, as of 7 February 1998 according to Billboard. That night, the group performed their next single, \"Stop\". This was their only track not to hit number one in Britain (it entered and peaked at number two). Further singles released from the album included \"Viva Forever\", which was scheduled to be released as a double A-side with \"Never Give Up on the Good Times\", but these plans were scrapped due to Halliwell's departure from the group in May 1998. The song became the seventh number one, and the video includes scenes of Halliwell stop motion animation.\n\nIn early 1998, the Spice Girls embarked upon the world tour that Fuller had set up for them covering Europe and North America. The Spiceworld Tour kicked off in Dublin, Ireland on 24 February 1998 before moving on to mainland Europe and then returning to Britain for two gigs at Wembley Arena and Twelve gigs at Birmingham's NEC Arena. Performing to 150,000 fans over the course of the tour. It was here that recordings were made for a planned live album, which was confirmed by the group: \"We've shown everyone we can do the business on stage, so now we want to do a live album for fans\". Despite masters of the recording being made, the idea was eventually dropped. Later that year, the Spice Girls were invited to sing on the official England World Cup song \"How Does It Feel (To Be on Top of the World)\", however, it was derided by England football fans in favour of a re-release of the Lightning Seeds anthem \"Three Lions\", which comfortably beat it to No. 1 on the singles chart. This was also the last song the group recorded with Geri's vocals until 2007. On 31 May 1998, Halliwell announced her departure from the Spice Girls. Through her solicitor (i.e. lawyer) she stated: \"Sadly I would like to confirm that I have left the Spice Girls. This is because of differences between us. I'm sure the group will continue to be successful and I wish them all the best.\" Halliwell claimed that she was suffering from exhaustion and wanted to take a break. Halliwell's departure from the group shocked fans, in the middle of rumours of fight with Mel B, the news of Halliwell's departure was covered as a major news story by media around the world, it made the covers of the most important tabloid and became one of the biggest entertainment news stories of the year, making news headlines the world over. Geri went on to launch an initially successful solo career.\n\nThe four remaining members were adamant that the group would carry on and that their approaching North American tour would continue as normal, however, Halliwell's departure threw most of the group's plans into disarray. It also meant that most of the material the group had recorded throughout the first half of 1998 at Dublin's Windmill Lane Studios with long-time collaborators Richard Stannard and Matt Rowe was eventually scrapped. A rumoured animated venture by Disney also failed to materialise. Finally, Halliwell's departure was the subject of a lawsuit by Aprilia World Service BV, a manufacturer of motorcycles and scooters. On 9 March 1998, Halliwell informed the other members of the group of her intention to withdraw from the group, yet the girls signed an agreement with AWS on 24 March and again on 30 April and participated in a commercial photo shoot on 4 May in Milan, eventually concluding a contract with AWS on 6 May 1998. The Court of Appeal of England and Wales held that their conduct constituted a misrepresentation, allowing AWS to rescind their contract with the Spice Girls. This is now the leading case in English law on misrepresentation by conduct. \"Viva Forever\" was the last single taken off Spiceworld. The video for the single was made before Geri's departure and features the girls in animated form – a decision made because there was no time to produce a video due to the heavy world tour schedule. Originally planned as a double A-side with \"Never Give Up on the Good Times\", the idea was dropped for several reasons, mainly due to time restraints (since there was no time to re-record and edit out Halliwell's vocals or make a video for the track). The North American tour was a big success, began in West Palm Beach on 15 June, and grossed $60 million in 40-date sold-out. \n\n1998–2000: Forever and indefinite hiatus\n\nWhile on tour in the United-States, the group continued to record new material and they released a new song, \"Goodbye\", before Christmas in 1998. The song was seen as a tribute to Geri Halliwell, and when it topped the UK Singles Chart it became their third consecutive Christmas number-one – equalling the record previously set by The Beatles. Later in 1998, Bunton and Chisholm appeared at the 1998 MTV Europe Music Awards without their other band members, and the group won two awards: \"Best Pop Act\" and \"Best Group\" for a second time. In late 1998, Brown and Adams announced they were both pregnant at the time, the former was also married to dancer Jimmy Gulzer and became known as Mel G for a brief period. She gave birth to daughter Phoenix Chi in February 1999. One month later, Adams gave birth to son Brooklyn, whose father was then Manchester United player David Beckham. Later that year, she married Beckham in a highly publicised wedding in Ireland. \n\nThe Spice Girls returned to the studio in August 1999, after an eight-month recording break to start work on their third and last studio album. The album's sound was initially more pop-influenced, similar to their first two albums, and included production from Eliot Kennedy. The album's sound took a mature direction when American producers like Rodney Jerkins, Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis came on to collaborate with the group. In December 1999 they performed live for a UK-only tour, named Christmas in Spiceworld, in London and Manchester, also showcasing new songs from the third album. During 1999, the group recorded the character Amneris' song \"My Strongest Suit\" in Elton John and Tim Rice's Aida, a concept album which would later go on to fuel the musical version of Verdi's Aida. The band performed again at the 2000 BRIT Awards, and it was announced that they had received the Outstanding Achievement in Music Award. Despite being at the event, Halliwell did not join her former bandmates on stage. In November 2000, the group released Forever. Sporting a new edgier R&B sound, the album received a lukewarm response from critics. \n\nIn the US, the album peaked at number thirty-nine on the Billboard 200 albums chart. In the UK, the album was released the same week as Westlife's Coast to Coast album and the chart battle was widely reported by the media, where Westlife won the battle reaching number one in the UK, leaving the Spice Girls at number two. The lead single from Forever, the double A-side \"Holler\"/\"Let Love Lead the Way\", became the group's ninth number one single in the UK. However the song failed to break onto the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart stateside, instead peaking at number seven on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles. \"Holler\" did peak at number thirty-one on the Hot Dance Music/Club Play chart in 2000. The only major performance of the lead single came at the MTV Europe Music Awards on 16 November 2000. In total, Forever achieved only a fraction of the success of its two best-selling predecessors, selling five million copies. In December 2000, the group unofficially announced that they were beginning an indefinite hiatus and would be concentrating on their solo careers in regards to their foreseeable future, although they pointed out that the group was not splitting. \n\n2007–08: Return of the Spice Girls and Greatest Hits\n\nOn 28 June 2007, the group held a press conference at The O2 Arena revealing their intention to reunite. The plan to reform had long been speculated by the media, but the group finally confirmed their intention to embark upon a worldwide concert tour, starting in Vancouver on 2 December 2007. Filmmaker Bob\nSmeaton, directed an official documentary on the reunion. It was entitled Spice Girls: Giving You Everything and was first aired on Australia's Fox8 on 16 December 2007, followed by BBC One in the UK, on 31 December. Ticket sales for the first London date of \"The Return of the Spice Girls\" World Tour sold out in 38 seconds. It was reported that over one million people signed up in the UK alone and over five million worldwide for the ticket ballot on the band's official website.BBC News. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/7021976.stm Fans snap up Spice Girls tickets]. BBC. Retrieved 14 October 2007. Sixteen additional dates in London had been added and sold out. In the United States, Las Vegas, Los Angeles and San Jose shows also sold out, prompting additional dates to be added. It was announced that the\nSpice Girls would be playing dates in Chicago and Detroit (Auburn Hills) and Boston, as well as additional dates in New York to keep up with the demand. On the first concert in Canada, they performed to an audience of 15,000 people, singing twenty songs and changing a total of eight times. Along with the tour sellout, the Spice Girls licensed their name and image to Tesco's UK supermarket chain. \n\nThe group's comeback single, \"Headlines (Friendship Never Ends)\", was announced as the official Children in Need charity single for 2007 and was released 5 November. The first public appearance on stage by the Spice Girls was made at the Kodak Theatre in Hollywood, where the group performed at the Victoria's Secret Fashion Show. They performed two songs, 1998 single \"Stop\" and the lead single from their greatest hits album, \"Headlines (Friendship Never Ends)\". The show was filmed by CBS on 15 November 2007 for broadcast on 4 December 2007. They also performed the song live for the BBC Children in Need telethon on 16 November 2007 from Los Angeles, in Roberto Cavalli gowns. The release peaked at number 11 on the UK Singles Chart, making it the group's lowest charting British single to date. However, the album fared better, peaking at number two on the UK Albums Chart. On 1 February 2008, it was announced that due to personal and family commitments their tour would come to an end in Toronto on 26 February 2008, meaning that tour dates in Beijing, Hong Kong, Shanghai, Sydney, Cape Town and Buenos Aires were cancelled.BBC News. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/7223629.stm Spice Girls cut short world tour]. BBC. Retrieved 2 February 2008. In March 2008, the group won the coveted \"Icon Awards\" at the 95.8 Capital Awards; Bunton and Chisholm collected the award. In June, they captured the Glamour Award for the Best Band; Bunton, Brown and Halliwell received the award at the event. In September, the Spice Girls won the \"Best Live Return Award\" at the 2008 Live Vodafone Music Awards, beating acts such as Led Zeppelin and the Sex Pistols. Bunton was there to collect the award. \n\n2010–12: Viva Forever musical and London Olympics\n\nIn 2010, the group was nominated for a BRIT Award in the new category, \"Best Performance of the 30th Year\" for their Brit Awards performance of their songs, \"Wannabe\" and \"Who Do You Think You Are\". The group later won the award which was received by Halliwell and Brown. The group along with Simon Fuller also teamed with Judy Craymer and Jennifer Saunders to develop a Spice Girls musical entitled Viva Forever!. Although the group were not in the musical, they influenced the show's cast and production choices in a story which uses; similar to that of ABBA's music in Mamma Mia!. \n\nTwo years later, in June 2012, the group reunited for the first time in four years for the press conference in London to promote the launch of Viva Forever: The Musical. The press conference was held at St. Pancras Renaissance London Hotel, the location where the group filmed the music video for \"Wannabe\", sixteen years earlier, to the day. In August 2012, after much speculation from the press and the public, the group performed a medley of \"Wannabe\" and \"Spice Up Your Life\" at the 2012 Summer Olympics closing ceremony, reuniting solely for the event. Their performance received great response from the audience and became the most tweeted moment of the Olympics with over 116,000 tweets on Twitter per minute. In December 2012, the group reunited once again for the premiere of Viva Forever: The Musical at the West End's Piccadilly Theatre. In addition to the promotion of the musical, the group appeared in the documentary, Spice Girls' Story: Viva Forever! which aired on 24 December 2012 on ITV1.\n\n2016: Spice Girls - GEM \n\nOn 8 July 2016, Mel B, Bunton and Halliwell unveiled a new website and released a short video celebrating the 20th anniversary of their first single \"Wannabe\", and teasing upcoming news from them as a three piece called Spice Girls - GEM. \n\nCultural impact and legacy\n\nBritish music scene\n\nThe image of the Spice Girls was deliberately aimed at young girls, an audience of formidable size and potential; reinforcing the range of appeal within the target demographic were the bandmates' five distinctive personalities, which encouraged fans to identify with one member or another. This marketing was helped in no small way by the aliases assigned to each member of the group, similar to the marketing ploy used in children's serial literature of including several different character types in the storyline. Shortly after \"Wannabe\"'s release, the group appeared in Top of the Pops magazine where each member was given a nickname based upon her image: Adams became \"Posh Spice\", Bunton became \"Baby Spice\", Brown became \"Scary Spice\", Halliwell became \"Ginger Spice\", and Chisholm became \"Sporty Spice\". \n\n\"Girl power\"\n\nThe phrase \"girl power\" put a name to a social phenomenon, but the slogan was met with mixed reactions. The phrase was a label for the particular facet of post classical neo-feminist empowerment embraced by the band: that a sensual, feminine appearance and equality between the sexes need not be mutually exclusive. This concept was by no means original in the pop world: both Madonna and Bananarama had employed similar outlooks. The phrase, whilst coined by Welsh indie band Helen Love in 1993 and used as the title of an album by British pop duo Shampoo in 1995, had been used in 1987 by a London a capella all-girl group called Mint Juleps. With the production might of Trevor Horn behind them, this group had released a track called \"Girl to the Power of 6\". The format of the song, whilst having an obvious 1980s sound, had a similar format to the Spice Girls' \"Wannabe\", where each girl presented a distinct personality trait. The phrases \"Girl to the Power\" and \"Girl Power\" are mentioned several times, as well as strong overtones of female empowerment, unity and loyalty. However, the formula did not work for the Mint Juleps, perhaps being too far ahead of its time. It was not until the emergence of the Spice Girls in 1996 with \"Wannabe\", over 9 years later, that the concept of \"Girl power\" exploded onto the common consciousness. The Spice Girls' version was distinctive. Its message of empowerment appealed to young girls, adolescents and adult women, and it emphasised the importance of strong and loyal friendship among females.\n\nIn all, the focused, consistent presentation of \"girl power\" formed the centrepiece of their appeal as a band. Some critics dismissed it as no more than a shallow marketing tactic, while others took issue with the emphasis on physical appearance, concerned about the potential impact on self-conscious and/or impressionable youngsters. Regardless, the phrase became a cultural phenomenon, adopted as the mantra for millions of girls and even making it into the Oxford English Dictionary. \nIn summation of the concept, author Ryan Dawson said, \"The Spice Girls changed British culture enough for Girl Power to now seem completely unremarkable.\" \n\nCool Britannia\n\n \nThe term \"Cool Britannia\" became prominent in the media and represented the new political and social climate that was emerging with the advances made by New Labour and the new UK Prime Minister Tony Blair. Coming out of a period of 18 years of Conservative government, Tony Blair and New Labour were seen as young, cool and very appealing, a main driving force in giving Britain a feeling of euphoria and optimism. \n\nAlthough by no means responsible for the onset of \"Cool Britannia\", the arrival of the Spice Girls added to the new image and re-branding of Britain, and underlined the growing world popularity of British, rather than American pop music. This fact was underlined at the 1997 BRIT Awards. The group won two awards but it was Halliwell's now iconic red, white and blue Union Jack mini-dress that appeared in media coverage around the world and became an enduring image of \"Cool Britannia\". \n\n1990s iconic status\n\nThe Union Jack dress that Halliwell wore has achieved iconic status, becoming one of the most prominent symbols of 1990s pop culture. The dress was sold at a charity auction to Hard Rock Cafe in Las Vegas for a record £41,320, giving Halliwell the Guinness World Record for the most expensive piece of pop star clothing ever sold after interest from a frenzy of bidders. The dress was one of many items of Spice Girls memorabilia sold at the auction, where total sales reached £146,511 for charity.\n\nThe iconic symbolism of the Spice Girls in the 1990s is also attributed to their merchandising and willingness to be a part of a media-driven world. They advertised for many brands and even parodied themselves in the video for the song \"Spice Up Your Life\", in which the band fly in a space ship surrounded by billboards and adverts featuring them. Because of their regular appearances in ads and the media, the band solidified themselves as a phenomenon—an icon of the decade and for British music. The Spice Girls ranked No. 10 in The 101 Reasons the '90s Ruled, special for TV channel E!. \n\nSome sources, especially those in the United Kingdom, revere the Spice Girls as \"gay icons\". In a survey in which more than 5,000 male and female homosexually oriented individuals from the UK had voted, Victoria Beckham placed 12th and Geri Halliwell placed 43rd in the Top 50 gay icons of all time. Halliwell joked at the Video Music Awards in 1998 about her appearance as Ginger Spice: \"As you have noted, I am no longer dressed like a drag queen.\" During an interview, Emma Bunton explained why the Spice Girls have so many gay fans: \"We were really flattered with having such a huge gay fan base because they know about fashion and they know about songs ... I'm so flattered that we've got such a huge gay following, it's amazing.\" \n\nTen years after the release of their debut single, the Spice Girls were voted the biggest cultural icons of the 1990s by 80 percent in a UK poll of 1,000 people carried out for the board game Trivial Pursuit, stating that \"Girl Power\" defined the decade.\n\nSpicy Crispy Chicks\n\nIn 1997, Jack in the Box, an American fast-food chain restaurant, sought to capitalise on Spice Girl Mania in America, by launching a major advertising campaign using a fictional musical group called the 'Spicy Crispy Chicks' (a take off of the Spice Girls). The comedic national television commercials were used to promote the new 'Spicy Crispy Sandwich', with the girls mimicking the Spice Girls, dancing in \"the Jack groove.\" The Spicy Crispy Chicks concept was used as a model for another successful advertising campaign called the 'Meaty Cheesy Boys'. At the 1998 Association of Independent Commercial Producers (AICP) Show, one of the Spicy Crispy Chicks commercials won the top award for humour. \n\nFashion trends and nicknames\n\nIn the summer of 1996 a lunch at a Notting Hill restaurant with the editor of Top of the Pops magazine, Peter Loraine would inadvertently lead the Spice Girls to adopt nicknames. The nicknames played a key role in their marketability and the way their international audience would identify with them. \n\n\"In the magazine we used silly language and came up with nicknames all the time so it came naturally to give them names that would be used by the magazine and its readers; it was never meant to be adopted globally,\" he explains.\n\n*Victoria Beckham: Victoria was called Posh Spice because of her more upper-middle-class background, her choppy brunette bob hairstyle and refined attitude, form-fitting designer outfits and her love of high-heeled footwear.\n*Melanie Brown: Melanie (also called Mel B) was given the nickname Scary Spice because of her outrageous, \"in-your-face\" attitude, \"loud\" Leeds accent, throaty laugh, pierced tongue, manner of dress (which often consisted of leopard-print outfits), and her voluminously curly Afro hair.\n*Emma Bunton: Emma was called Baby Spice because she was the youngest member of the group, wore her long blonde hair in pigtails, wore babydoll dresses, had an innocent smile, and had a girly girl personality.\n*Melanie Chisholm: Melanie (also called Mel C) was called Sporty Spice because she usually wore a tracksuit with her long dark hair in a ponytail and sported a tough girl attitude as well as tattoos on both of her arms. She also possessed true athletic abilities, her signature being her ability to perform back handsprings.\n*Geri Halliwell: Geri was called Ginger Spice because of her \"liveliness, zest, and flaming red hair.\" She often wore outrageous stage outfits, as in the iconic Union Jack dress. Geri was seen by some as the de facto leader of the group thanks to her articulate conversational style and business savvy nature. She was also the eldest member of the group.\n\nPortrayal in the media\n\nThe Spice Girls became media icons in Great Britain and a regular feature of the British press; during the peak of their worldwide fame in 1997, the paparazzi were constantly seen following them everywhere, to obtain stories and gossip about the group, as a supposed affair between Emma Bunton and manager Simon Fuller, or constant split rumours which became fodder for numerous tabloids. Rumours of in-fighting and conflicts within the group also made headlines, especially between Geri Halliwell and Melanie Brown; the rumours suggested that they were fighting to be the leader of the group. Brown, who later admitted that she used to be a \"bitch\" with Halliwell, said the problems had stayed in the past. The rumours reached their height when the Spice Girls dismissed their manager Simon Fuller during the power struggles, with Fuller reportedly receiving a 10 million pound severance cheque to keep quiet about the details of his sacking. Months later, in May 1998, Halliwell would leave the band in the midst of rumours of fighting with Brown; the news of Halliwell's departure was covered as a major news story by media around the world, and became one of the biggest entertainment news stories of the year.\n\nIn February 1997 at the BRIT Awards, Halliwell's Union Jack dress from a Spice Girls live performance made all the front pages the next day. During the ceremony, Halliwell's breasts were exposed twice, causing controversy. This would not be the only such exhibition published of Halliwell, because during the year the release of nude photos of Halliwell that she posed for earlier in her career caused some scandal. According to the documentary Giving You Everything, the rest of the women stated that they knew about the photos before they were famous, but when the photos were published they created friction inside the group that never abated.\n\nThe stories of their encounters with other celebrities also became fodder for the press; for example, in May 1997, at The Prince's Trust 21st anniversary concert, Mel B and Geri Halliwell breached royal protocol when they planted kisses on Prince Charles's cheeks, leaving it covered with lipstick, and later, Halliwell told him \"you're very sexy\" and also pinched his bottom. In November, the British Royal Family were considered fans of the Spice Girls, including The Prince of Wales and his son Prince Harry. That month, South African President Nelson Mandela said: \"These are my heroes. This is one of the greatest moments in my life\" in an encounter organised by Prince Charles, who said, \"It is the second greatest moment in my life, the first time I met them was the greatest\". In 1998 the video game magazine Nintendo Power created The More Annoying Than the Spice Girls Award, adding: \"What could possibly have been more annoying in 1997 than the Spice Girls, you ask?\" \n\nVictoria Adams started dating football player David Beckham in 1997 after they had met at a charity football match. The couple announced their engagement in 1998 and were dubbed \"Posh and Becks\" by the media. \n\nOther brand ventures\n\nFilm\n\nIn June 1997, the group began filming their movie debut with director Bob Spiers. Meant to accompany the album, the comical style and content of the movie was in the same vein as The Beatles' films in the 1960s such as A Hard Day's Night. The light-hearted comedy, intended to capture the spirit of the Spice Girls, featured a plethora of stars including Roger Moore, Hugh Laurie, Stephen Fry, Elton John, Richard O'Brien, Jennifer Saunders, Richard E. Grant, Elvis Costello, and Meat Loaf. Released in December 1997, Spiceworld: The Movie proved to be a hit at the box office, breaking the record for the highest-ever weekend debut for Super Bowl Weekend (25 January 1998) in the US, with box office sales of $10,527,222. The movie took in total $77 million at the box office worldwide, $100 million combining cinema tickets and DVD sales, including $30 million in the US and £11 million in Britain. Despite being a commercial success, the film was widely panned by critics; the movie was nominated for seven awards at the 1999 Golden Raspberry Awards where the Spice Girls collectively won the award for \"Worst Actress\". \n\nSince 18 July 2014, The Spice Bus, which featured in the film driven by Meat Loaf, is now on permanent display at the Island Harbour Marina on the Isle of Wight, England.\n\nTelevision\n\nThe first television special that the Spice Girls filmed was a documentary of their experiences from 1996 to 1997, titled One Hour of Girl Power. Later, Girl Talk was released. It was a television special where the Spice Girls spoke individually about themselves and the group. In April 1997, The Spice Girls appeared on the popular American television show Saturday Night Live, singing \"Wannabe\" and \"Say You'll Be There\". In November 1997, An Audience with...The Spice Girls was screened for British channel ITV. They also sang the song \"Power of Five\" on the day Channel 5 launched. The show attracted 11.8 million viewers in the UK, one fifth of the population. In December 1997 was the release of the first US television documentary Too Much Is Never Enough, focusing on their reaction to their sudden rise to fame around the world. In January 1998, the Spice Girls appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show, singing two songs, followed by an interview with Oprah.\n\nIn June 1999 the TV special, The Spice Girls in America: A Tour Story was aired. This followed the Spice Girls' exploits and adventures in America, focusing on their tour of the US, and when Geri Halliwell left the Spice Girls. In December 2000, T4 aired a documentary, \"Spice Girls on Film\", which focused on the Spice Girls' music videos. In November 2003, Melanie C and Geri appeared on the VH1 television series Behind the Music which devoted a chapter to tell the story of the Spice Girls, as well as E! True Hollywood Story, the TV documentary series on the cable network E!.\n\nThe first public appearance on stage by the Spice Girls Reunion was made at the Kodak Theatre in Hollywood, where the group performed at the Victoria's Secret Fashion Show. They performed two songs, 1998 single \"Stop\" and the lead single from their greatest hits album, \"Headlines (Friendship Never Ends)\". The show was filmed by CBS on 15 November 2007 for broadcast on 4 December 2007, the show attracts averaged 7.4 million total viewers. \n\nIn December 2007, the official documentary, Spice Girls: Giving You Everything that made its world première in Australia on FOX8, It aired in Canada on 19 December 2007 (on the CTV), and on the BBC in the United Kingdom on 31 December 2007. The film features narrative insight and commentary from the five girls themselves. The title of the documentary comes from chorus lyrics from their UK No. 1 single \"Say You'll Be There\". The documentary attracted 3.6 million viewers in the UK. \n\nViva Forever: The Musical\n\nA jukebox musical written by Jennifer Saunders, produced by Judy Craymer and directed by Paul Garrington. Based on the songs of the Spice Girls, the show began previews at the Piccadilly Theatre, London on 27 November 2012 and had its Press Night on 11 December 2012 and features some of the group's biggest hit songs including \"Wannabe\", \"Spice Up Your Life\" and the eponymous \"Viva Forever\".\n\nMerchandise and sponsorship deals\n\nThe year 1997 saw the Spice Girls capitalising on their fame through a multimillion-dollar phenomenon of merchandise, with hundreds of official products, including Chupa Chups, Walkers Crisps, Cadbury Chocolate, Polaroid, Impulse Deodorant, Aprilia Scooters, Domino Sugar, Spice Girls Dolls, a PlayStation video game, Sponsorship with ASDA Supermarket chain Channel 5, and signed contract with Pepsi earned the group over £5 million (US$10 million). The Spice Girls brand had produced over £300 million worldwide through merchandise in 1997. Globally, the group's total grosses are estimated to have been $500–800 millions of dollars between 1996 and 1998.\n\nAt the height of 1990s Spicemania, there were many official and unofficial products produced by numerous manufacturers, including clothes, stickers, postcards, pens, bags, shoes, watches, caps, cosmetics, toys, food products, mugs, backpacks, magazines, books, videos, etc. \n\nDuring the summer of 1997, the group was criticised for \"selling out\" to worldwide brands, being accused of overexposure and signing too many sponsorship contracts with large corporate businesses. The group responded to the presses criticisms by launching a music video of \"Spice Up Your Life\" where they are seen referring to the number of sponsorships they had.\n* Cadbury Chocolate: 10 chocolate bars, assorted boxes and holiday confectioneries including easter eggs featuring the girls individually or as a group were produced.\n* Chupa Chups: Different tins filled with assorted lollipops featuring a different girl were among the many products released, but the most widely produced was the \"Fantasy Ball\" Chupa Chups with six different packages each featuring a collectible sticker. Also Pushpops, Crazy Dips, Bubblegum with tattoos and toy microphones were produced.\n* Walkers Crisps: In this promotion, over 51 different packaging designs created, with 10 for each member, plus a group package. The girls starred in two television adverts for the products.\n* Pepsi Cola: In early 1997, the Spice Girls signed a multimillion sponsorship deal with Pepsi, and earned over £5 million (US$10 million) for the group. The girls were featured on several cans and bottles of Pepsi throughout Europe. Promotional giveaways included collectible drinking glasses and a music single, \"Step to Me\". The girls starred in three television adverts for Pepsi all featuring the song \"Move Over (Generation Next)\". \n* Spice Girls Dolls: Were released by Galoob Toys in 1997, became a huge hit during the Christmas season going on to become best-selling dolls. \n* Polaroid: A regular Polaroid instant camera with a pink-and-purple shell and Spice Girl badging was produced along with a Spice Girls branded disposable Polaroid camera and flashlight. Each of the girls filmed a television advert promoting new types of Polaroid film (i.e. black & white, writable, etc.), in addition to making a group advert.\n* Impulse: The girls launched a fragrance known as \"Impulse Spice\", Deodorant and shower gel products were produced. One television advertisement was made for the product.\n* PlayStation: Spice World, a video game featuring computer-animated cartoons of the girls was developed in 1998.\n* Aprilia Scooters: 5 different scooters, each promoting a Spice Girl, were created and marketed as the \"Spice Sonic Effect\".\n* ASDA Supermarkets: British supermarket chain ASDA, created over 40 different Spice Items for Christmas 1997 developing goods such as party supplies, xmas supplies, Chocolate biscuits, Cookies, Cakes, Pizzas, Towels, Pillows, Bean Bags, Clothing supplies even including spice branded platform shoe sneakers and even Spice Girl branded kids meals in the stores' restaurants. Signed contract with ASDA for earned over £1 million (US$2 million) \n* Tesco Supermarkets: A two-part television ad campaign celebrating Christmas with the Spice Girls aired in 2007, been paid £5 million (US$10 million).\n* Channel 5: The girls appeared in promotional print ads, recorded a song (\"1,2,3,4,5!\"), filmed a music video and launched Britain's fifth terrestrial television network in 1997.\n* Domino Sugar: The Girls promoted the sugar with a sponsor of their North American tour, with clips being played before shows and during intermission on video screens.\n* Target Stores: The American discount retailer was one of the largest suppliers of official Spice Girls merchandise in the United States and Australia, usually devoting an aisle to products such as bikes, school supplies, party supplies, and toys.\n\nCareer records and achievements\n\nAs a group, the Spice Girls received several awards including five BRIT Awards, three American Music Awards, three MTV Europe Music Awards, one MTV Video Music Awards and three World Music Awards. As of January 2010, they have sold more than 80 million records worldwide, achieving certified sales of 13 million albums in Europe, 14 million records in the US and 2.4 million in Canada. The group achieved the highest debut for a UK group on the Billboard Hot 100 at number five with \"Say You'll Be There\". They are also the first British band since The Rolling Stones in 1975 to have two albums in the US Billboard 200 albums chart at the same time (Spice and Spiceworld). In addition to this, the Spice Girls also achieved the highest ever annual earnings by an all-female group in 1998 with an income of £29.6 million (approximately US$49 million). \n\nThey produced a total of nine number one singles in the UK—tied with ABBA behind Take That (eleven), The Shadows (twelve), Madonna (thirteen), Westlife (fourteen), Cliff Richard (fourteen), The Beatles (seventeen) and Elvis Presley (twenty-one). The group had three consecutive Christmas number one singles in the UK (\"2 Become 1\", 1996; \"Too Much\", 1997; \"Goodbye\", 1998); they only share this record with The Beatles. Their first single, \"Wannabe\", is the most successful song released by an all-female group. Debuting on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 11, it is also the highest-ever debut by a British band in the US, beating the previous record held by The Beatles for \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" and the joint highest entry for a debut act, tying with Alanis Morissette.\n\nSpice is the 18th biggest-selling album of all time in the UK with over 3 million copies sold, and topped the charts for 15 non-consecutive weeks, the most by a female group in the UK. It is also the biggest-selling album of all time by a girl group, with sales of 28 million copies worldwide. Spiceworld shipped 7 million copies in just two weeks, including 1.4 million in Britain alone—the largest-ever shipment of an album over 14 days. They are also the first act (and so far only female act) to have their first six singles (\"Wannabe\", \"Say You'll Be There\", \"2 Become 1\", \"Mama\"/\"Who Do You Think You Are\", \"Spice Up Your Life\" and \"Too Much\") make number one on the UK charts. (Their run was broken by \"Stop\", which peaked at number two in March 1998.)\n\nSpiceworld: The Movie broke the record for the highest-ever weekend debut a film on Super Bowl weekend (25 January 1998) in the US, with box office sales of $10,527,222. Spiceworld: The Movie topped the UK video charts on its first week of release, selling over 55,000 copies on its first day in stores and 270,000 copies in the first week. \nThe Return of the Spice Girls Tour was announced as the highest-grossing concert act of 2008, netting £16.5 million (US$33 million) for the band. In total, the tour took more than $70 million, and produced $107.2 million in ticket sales and merchandising.\n\nDiscography\n\n* Spice (1996)\n* Spiceworld (1997)\n* Forever (2000)\n\nConcert tours\n\n* Spiceworld Tour (1998)\n* Christmas in Spiceworld (1999)\n* The Return of the Spice Girls (2007–08)" ] }

{ "description": [ "Spice Girls Character ... The statistics here are for entertainment purposes only and are not intended to accurately ... Scary Spice Real Name: Melanie Janine ...", "Birth Name: Victoria ... 5' 4¼\" (1.63 m) Mini Bio (1) Victoria Beckham was born Victoria ... She is the only member of Spice Girls not to have had a UK number ...", "And now only known as Victoria Beckham, Posh Spice married Manchester United soccer star ... In the middle of ... the Spice Girls may not have existed as ...", "Spice Girls (1996 -2000, 2007-2008 ... Geri came up with a name \"Spice ... hitting number 1 in 31 countries and becoming not only the biggest selling debut single by ...", "Spice Girls new music, ... And now only known as Victoria Beckham, Posh Spice married Manchester United soccer star David Beckham ... In the middle of ...", "Find Spice Girls biography and ... And now only known as Victoria Beckham, Posh Spice married Manchester United soccer star David ... 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She does not like being called Vicky. Instead, call her Posh, which stands for the best of everything (an old luxury liner term, P.O.S.H. stood for \"Port Out, Starboard Home\"-- the best rooms). Growing up, she didn't like being driven to school in her father's Rolls Royce (they were very wealthy; later, as Posh, she would have an image of someone who revels in wealth). Victoria began as a dancer before eventually landing a spot as a member of Spice Girls . While in college, Victoria was briefly in another band. After completing the 3-year course at Lanie Arts, she answered an ad in \"The Stage\" magazine, which was looking for 5 girls who could sing and dance. Victoria was picked, history was about to be made. (Victoria had met: Emma who had been in a play with her when they were kids; Geri while auditioning for a role in Tank Girl (1995); Mel C. attended a rival school when they were 15; and Mel B. at the audition for the forming of the band.) The Spice Girls became fantastically successful, achieving international fame. The wildly popular Spice Girls performed at sold-out concerts, did tours, and of course the Spice World (1997) movie. Victoria married soccer player David Beckham . The couple has four children.\n- IMDb Mini Biography By: [email protected]\nSpouse (1)\n( 4 July  1999 - present) (4 children)\nTrade Mark (4)\nHer hair styles & hair colour are sometimes changed\nRarely smiles.\nHolds her handbag over her mouth whenever she laughs.\nTrivia (55)\nWinner of the 1997 MTV Video Music Award for Best Dance Video, \"Wannabe\".\nWinner of the 1997 MTV Europe Music Award for Best Group.\nHas a tattoo of four eight-pointed stars representing herself, her husband and her two older sons at the base of her spine.\nIs a vegetarian.\nWhen her luggage was lost on a flight, she demanded free airfare for life (2000).\nTried out for the role of Lara Croft in Lara Croft: Tomb Raider (2001) but lost the role to Angelina Jolie\nIs a big fan of Simon Morley 's and David Friend 's Puppetry of the Penis: Live at the Forum (2012), and once attended a private screening of the show with her husband and other celebrities.\nSigned with Damon Dash 's Roc-a-Wear clothing line to promote the apparel in U.S. and European billboard ads. She has already appeared on a billboard on Times Square, the building opposite to MTV Studios in New York.\nHas a sister, Louise, and a brother, Christian. Used to dance ballet as a child and teenager.\nAfter being dropped from Virgin Records, she signed a 1.5 million pounds contract for Telstar Records (2001) and they will release and promote her music worldwide, except for USA where she signed a new deal (worth $2 million) with Rocc-A-Fella Records (2003) and they will release and promote her music in USA.\nWinner of five awards at \"Smash Hits Poll Winners Party 1996\" with The Spice Girls, in London.\nWinner of four awards at \"Brit Awards 1997\" with The Spice Girls.\nWinner of two awards at \"Billboard Awards 1997\" with The Spice Girls in Las Vegas.\nWinner of five awards at \"American Music Awards 1998\" with The Spice Girls in Los Angeles.\nWinner of Special award at \"Brit Awards 1998\" with The Spice Girls in London, UK.\nWinner of Best Dressed Female Award at \"Elle Style Awards 2000\" in London.\nWinner of Best Female Haircut at \"Pantene Pro-V Awards 2000\" in London, UK.\nWinner of Best Dressed Female Artist at \"Lycra British Style Awards 2003\" in London.\nVoted Best Dressed Woman for the year 2002 by British \"Prima\" magazine.\nVoted Best Dressed Woman for the year 2003 by British \"Prima\" magazine.\nWinner of Best Dressed International Female at \"Elle Style Awards 2003\" in Madrid, Spain.\nVoted Best Dressed Pop Artist for the year 2000 by \"Heat\" magazine. Also voted Best Dressed Couple (shared with her husband).\nWinner of two awards at \"MTV Europe Music Awards 1998\" with The Spice Girls in Milan, Italy.\nWinner of two awards at \"Smash Hits Poll Winners Party 1998\" with The Spice Girls and one award for Best Female Haircut, in London.\nWinner of a Special Award for Outstanding Contribution to the British Music Industry at \"Brit Awards 2000\" with The Spice Girls, in London.\nFavorite designers are Dolce & Gabbana and Donatella Versace .\nShe is the only member of Spice Girls not to have had a UK number one single as a solo artist.\nElton John and Elizabeth Hurley are godparents to her two older boys, Brooklyn and Romeo.\nHer son Romeo, suffers from epilepsy.", "Spice Girls on Apple Music\nTo preview a song, mouse over the title and click Play. Open iTunes to buy and download music.\nBiography\nSpice Girls were the first major British pop music phenomenon of the mid-'90s to not have a debt to independent pop/rock. Instead, the all-female quintet derived from the dance-pop tradition that made Take That the most popular British group of the early '90s, but there was one crucial difference. Spice Girls used dance-pop as a musical base, but they infused the music with a fiercely independent, feminist stance that was equal parts Madonna, post-riot grrrl alternative rock feminism, and a co-opting of the good-times-all-the-time stance of England's new lad culture. Their proud, all-girl image and catchy dance-pop appealed to younger listeners, while their colorful, sexy personalities and sense of humor appealed to older music fans, making Spice Girls a cross-generational success. The group also became chart-toppers throughout Europe in 1996, before concentrating in America in early 1997. Every member of Spice Girls was given a specific identity by the British press from the outset, and each label was as much an extension of their own personality as it was a marketing tool, since each name derived from their debut single and video, \"Wannabe.\" Geri Estelle Halliwell was the \"sexy Spice\"; Melanie Janine Brown was the \"scary Spice\"; Victoria Adams was \"the posh Spice\"; Melanie Jayne Chisholm was \"the sporty Spice\"; Emma Lee Bunton was \"the baby Spice.\" Each persona was exploited in the group's press articles and videos, which helped send \"Wannabe\" to the top of the charts upon its summer release in 1996. If all of the invented personalities made Spice Girls seem manufactured, that's because they were to a certain extent. Every member of the group was active in England's theatrical, film, and modeling circuit before the group's formation, and they all responded to an advertisement requesting five \"lively girls\" for a musical group in the summer of 1993. The manager who placed the ad chose all five members of Spice Girls, yet the women rejected his plans for their career and set out on their own two months after forming. For the next two years, the Girls fought to get a record contract, since most record labels insisted that the band pick one member as a clear leader, which is something the group refused. Eventually, Spice Girls signed a contract to Virgin Records. They were without a manager, though, which made recording a debut album nearly impossible. All five members moved into a house and went on the dole as they searched for a manager. By the end of 1995, the group had signed with Annie Lennox's manager Simon Fuller, and began writing songs with Elliot Kennedy. \"Wannabe,\" Spice Girls' first single, was released in the summer of 1996 and became the first debut single by an all-female band to enter the British charts at number one. It remained there for seven weeks, and by the end of the year, \"Wannabe\" had hit number one in 21 other countries. Immediately following the success of \"Wannabe,\" Spice Girls became media icons in Britain as stories of their encounters with other celebrities became fodder for numerous tabloids, as did nude photos of Halliwell that she posed for earlier in her career. All of this added to the group's momentum, and their second single, \"Say You'll Be There,\" entered the charts at number one in the fall, selling 200,000 copies a week. Spice, their debut album, was released at the end of the year, accompanied by their first ballad, \"2 Become 1.\" Both the album and single went directly to number one, staying there for several weeks; both records were at number one over the Christmas week, making Spice Girls one of three artists to achieve that feat. Having topped the charts in virtually every other country in the Western world, Spice Girls concentrated on America in early 1997, releasing \"Wannabe\" in January and Spice in February. They became massive stars in the U.S. as well, also scoring the hits \"Say You'll Be There\" and \"2 Become 1\"; Spiceworld, their second LP, appeared later in the year in conjunction with their feature film of the same name. In May 1998, Geri Halliwell departed from the band, not citing major reasons for leaving the group. She did release a solo album, Schizophonic, a year later, but nothing chart-topping to match the success of her former band. Still not deterred by the absence of Ginger Spice, Spice Girls trudged on -- Melanie B. married Spice Girls dancer Jimmy Gulzar and released the solo single, a duet with Missy \"Misdemeanor\" Elliot called \"I Want You Back.\" By Christmas, Spice Girls scored a number one hit with Goodbye and with a career floating high, their personal lives were moving as well. Melanie B. gave birth to a daughter named Phoenix Chi in February 1999, and Adams followed a month later with a son, Brooklyn Joseph. And now only known as Victoria Beckham, Posh Spice married Manchester United soccer star David Beckham later that summer. Becoming now more noticeable for their social status than their singing, Spice Girls took a well-deserved break while Melanie C. took over the English charts with her successful solo effort Northern Star, which was released in the U.S. in fall 1999. The following year, the girls headed back into the studio with high-profile producers Rodney Jerkins, Terry Lewis, and Jimmy Jam (Janet Jackson, Mary J. Blige) to record a follow-up to their pop-friendly Spiceworld. In the middle of recording, Melanie B. divorced Gulzar and endured a bitter custody battle throughout the remainder of 2000. Spice Girls' creative power overruled media scrutiny so that they could fully focus on the new R&B sound they were trying for and a the new collaboration united the foursome once again to release the third album Forever, which hit American shores in fall 2000. The group began to splinter not long after the release of Forever, which made little impact outside of the UK where it only had one hit single -- the chart-topping double-sided single “Holler”/”Let Love Lead the Way” -- before the Spice Girls stopped promoting the album. Just three months after the album's November 2000 release, the band announced that they were separating in February of 2001. Over the next few years, the Spice Girls may not have existed as a group, but they were never out of various taboild headlines in the UK and America. As the wife of football superstar David Beckham, Victoria got the most attention, but Mel B wasn't far behind thanks to her ill-fated romance with actor Eddie Murphy, which resulted in an out-of-wedlock child. Mel Chisholm had a steady career as a pop singer while Emma Bunton had some chart success of her own with her 2001 album A Girl Like Me and its 2004 successor, Free Me. Meanwhile, Geri Halliwell split her time between recording and TV projects. After years of persistent rumors of a reunion -- peaking heavily yet never materializing for Bob Geldolf's 2005 charity event Live 8 -- the Spice Girls announced in June 2007 that they would be reuniting for an eleven-concert tour beginning that December, which would be accompanied by a new greatest hits album and documentary. In 2010, it was announced that the Spice Girls had joined forces with Simon Fuller to develop a musical based on their songs. Viva Forever: The Musical - penned by British comedienne Jennifer Saunders - was announced at a press conference in June 2012. After much speculation in the British press, the Spice Girls reformed once more for the closing ceremony of the London 2012 Olympics. ~ Stephen Thomas Erlewine\nTop Albums", "Spice Girls | Spice Girls Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia\nEdit\nAuditions In the mid-1990s, father-and-son management team Bob and Chris Herbert together with their financier Chic Murphey placed an advertisement in The Stage for auditions for a girl group, which was suppose to respond and compete with the boy bands that dominated the early 1990s. This prompted hundreds of girls to audition which was whittled down to five girls that included Melanie Brown , Melanie Laccohee , Lianne Morgan , Michelle Stephenson and Suzanne Tinker .\nLine-Up Changes\nEdit\nThe line-up changed when Melanie Laccohee was offered to sing solo and replaced with Victoria Beckham and because of the bomb scare on the London tube that caused Suzanne Tinker to unable to arrive at the last set of auditions, subsequently causing Geri Halliwell to replace her. The group was then given the name Touch, and moved into a house together in Maidenhead, Berkshire, (owned by Murphy) where they were subsidised by Heart Management and each was claiming unemployment benefit. However, Lianne Morgan was taken off the group as the management felt that she was more suited as a solo, which she then was replaced by Melanie Chisholm .\nWith the original line up, they started to work on demos and dance routines, which Stephenson didn't like. She considered it as \"very, very young pop\" included the song We're Gonna Make It Happen , a song that was never officially released, but footage of the girls performing it can be seen in their 2008 documentary. It soon became apparent that Stephenson did not have the drive and belief that the rest of the group had, so the decision was made to fire her from the group. She was to be replaced by Abigail Kis , who was too young and had personal commitments causing her to quit the band, so they were led to invite eighteen-year-old Emma Bunton at the suggestion of vocal coach Pepe Lemer. Bunton instantly impressed the Herberts and was invited to meet the group in July, who welcomed her with open arms after feeling an instant connection with the other girls.\nBeginnings\nEdit\nDuring an aerobics lesson, Geri came up with a name \"Spice\" for the band, which Emma commented on how it fit in the band saying, \"Because we are all really different\", additionally they had already wrote a song named Sugar and Spice . However, an Amerian artist had already had that name so they added \"Girls\" at the end, finally forming the band that would grow to be loved by fans called the \"Spice Girls\".\nLater on, each member of the Spice k Girls all were given notable nicknames by Top of the Pops magazine that described and gave them their individual persona: Victoria Adams who was nicknamed Posh Spice, Melanie Brown nicknamed Scary Spice, Emma Bunton who was Baby Spice, Melanie Chisholm , Sporty Spice, and Geri Halliwell Ginger Spice.\nTaking Control\nEdit\nThings turned into another direction as the group felt insecure with the lack of a contract and were fustrated with the direction Heart Management was steering them. In October, armed with a catalogue of demos and dance routines, the group began touring management agencies.They persuaded Bob Herbert to set up a showcase performance for the group in front of industry writers, producers and A&R men in December at the Nomis Studios in Shepherd Bush where they received an \"overwhelmingly positive\" reaction. Due to the large interest in the group, the Herberts quickly set about creating a binding contract for the group. Encouraged by the reaction they had received at the Nomis showcase, the five girls delayed signing contracts on the legal advice from, amongst others, Victoria's father Tony Adams.\n1995\nEdit\nIn March, because of the group's frustration at their management's unwillingness to listen to their visions and ideas, they parted from Heart Management. In order to ensure they kept control of their own work, the group allegedly stole the master recordings of their discography from the management offices. That same day the Spice Girls tracked down Sheffield-based producer Eliot Kennedy , who had been present at the showcase, and persuaded him to work with them. The group was introduced to record producers Absolute , who in turn brought them to the attention of Simon Fuller of 19 Entertainment . The girls began a relationship with Fuller and finally signed with him in March 1995. During the summer of that year the group toured record labels in London and Los Angeles with Fuller and finally signed a deal with Virgin Records in September, and the girls were given £500,000 advance. From this point up to the summer of 1996 the girls continued to write and record tracks for their debut album while extensively touring the west coast of the United States, where they had signed a publishing deal with Windswept Pacific.\n1996\nMain Article: Spice and Merchandising\nIn June, Wannabe is released as a single,and peaks at the number 1 spot in the UK Singles Charts. The song proved to be a global hit, hitting number 1 in 31 countries and becoming not only the biggest selling debut single by an all-female group but also the biggest-selling single by an all-female group of all time.\nRiding a wave of publicity and hype, the group released their next singles in UK and Europe; in October Say You'll Be There was released topping the charts at number one for two weeks. In December 2 Become 1 was released, becoming their first Christmas Number 1 and selling 430,000 copies in its first week which made it the fastest selling single of the year. The two tracks continued the group's remarkable sales by topping the charts in over fifty-three countries and solidifying the group's reputation as the biggest pop act in the world.\nIn November, the Spice Girls released their debut album Spice in Europe. The success was unprecedented and drew comparisons to Beatlemania due to the sheer volume of interest in the group. In seven weeks Spice had sold 1.8 million copies in Britain alone, making the Spice Girls the fastest selling British act since the Beatles.\nThat same month the Spice Girls attracted a crowd of 500,000 when they switched on the Christmas lights in Oxford Street, London. At the same time, Simon Fuller started to set up million pound sponsorship deals for the Spice Girls with Pepsi, Walkers, Impulse, Cadbury’s and Polaroid.\n1997\nEdit\nIn January, the group released Wannabe in the United States. The single also proved to be a catalyst in helping the Spice Girls break into the notoriously difficult U.S. market when it debuted on the Hot 100 Chart at number 11. Wannabe reached number one in the US for four weeks. In February, Spice was release in U.S., became the biggest-selling album of 1997, peaking at number one.\nIn March, a double A-side of Mama / Who Do You Think You Are was released in Europe, the last from Spice, which once again saw them at number one, making the Spice Girls the first group in history to have four consecutive number one hits in the UK. Girl Power! , The Spice Girls' first book and manifesto was launched later that same month at the Virgin Megastore. In April, Spice: the Official Video Volume One is released.\nIn May, Spiceworld: The Movie was announced by the Spice Girls at the Cannes Film Festival. The group also performed their first live British show, for the Royalty of Great Britain. At the show, they breached royal protocol when Mel B and then Geri Halliwell planted kisses on Prince Charles' cheeks and pinched his bottom, causing controversy.\nGlobal Domination and Spicemania\nMain Article: Spiceworld\nIn October, the Spice Girls released the first single from Spiceworld, Spice Up Your Life . This entered in the UK charts at number one making it the girls' fifth consecutive number one hit single. That same month, Simon Fuller took the Spice Girls east to perform their first live major concert in Istanbul, Turkey. Later, the Girls traveled to South Africa to meet Nelson Mandela, during the height of their career.\nIn November, the Spice Girls released their second album, Spiceworld . The album was a global best seller as it set a new record for the fastest-selling album when it shipped seven million copies over the course of two weeks. Gaining favourable reviews, the album went on to sell over 10 million copies in Europe, Canada, and the United States combined, and 20 million copies worldwide. Criticised in the United-States for releasing the album just nine months after their debut there, and suffering from over-exposure at home, the Spice Girls began to experience a media backlash. The group was criticised for the number of sponsorship deals signed – over twenty in total – and they began to witness diminishing international chart positions. Nevertheless, the Spice Girls remained the biggest-selling pop group of both 1997 and 1998.\nSelf-Management\nEdit\nOn November 7, the girls performed Spice Up Your Life in the 1997 MTV Europe Music Awards and won awards for Best Group. After this performance, the Spice Girls made the decision to take over the running of the group themselves, and fired their manager Simon Fuller . The firing was front page news around the world. Many commentators speculated that Fuller had been the true mastermind behind the group, and that this was the moment when the band lost their impetus and direction. According to their various autobiographies, it was mainly Geri and Melanie B who pushed for Fuller’s dismissal, claiming that he had become too controlling by restricting their personal and artistic freedom. The group quickly found the burden of managing themselves time consuming, so they assigned various responsibilities to each member of the group: Melanie B . was responsible for tour control; Geri Halliwell for sponsorship; Emma Bunton for personnel, schedule, and charities; Victoria Adams for merchandising and finance; and Melanie C for the record company, singles, and formats. They later built their own team, headed by Nancy Phillips, to deal with their affairs. Two of the Spice Girls, Emma Bunton and Victoria Adams, later returned to Fuller's stable once it was clear that the impetus behind the group was starting to disappear.\n1998\nMain Article: Spiceworld (tour) and (album)\nIn December 1997, the second single from Spiceworld, Too Much , was released. This became the second Christmas number one for the group and the sixth consecutive number one hit single in the UK. In February 1998, the Spice Girls won a special award for overseas success at the 1998 Brit Awards, for sales of 32 million albums worldwide, That night, the girls performed their next single, Stop . This was their only track not to hit number one in Britain (it entered and peaked at number two).\nIn early 1998 the Spice Girls embarked upon the world tour that Fuller had set up for them covering Europe and North America. The Spiceworld tour kicked off in Dublin, Ireland on 24 February 1998 before moving on to mainland Europe and then returning to Britain for two gigs at Wembley Arena and Twelve gigs at Birmingham’s NEC Arena. Performing to 150,000 fans over the course of the tour. It was here that recordings were made for a planned live album. Despite masters of the recording being made, the idea was eventually dropped. Later that year, the Spice Girls were invited to sing on the official England World Cup song \"How Does It Feel (To Be on Top of the World)\". This was their last song recorded with Geri's vocals, until 2007.\nHalliwell's Departure\nEdit\nOn May 31, Geri announced her departure from the Spice Girls after many rumours cropped up about her disappearance from the group in interviews, which the girls were fully unaware about her status at the time. A statement was released by the Spice Girls sent a statement to the offices of their solicitors in central London at 1400 BST:\n\"We are upset and saddended by Geri's departure, but we are very supportive in whatever she wants to do. The Spice Girls are here to stay, see ya at the stadiums. We are sorry to all of our fans for having to go through all this. All our love Victoria, Emma, Mel B, Mel C, friendship never ends. One final thing if I can add, and that's there is no problems with the American tour going ahead as planned.\"\nThe four remaining girls were adamant though that the group would carry on and that their approaching North American tour would continue as normal; however, Halliwell's departure threw most of the group's plans into disarray. It was cited as the reason the planned live album was cancelled. It also meant that most of the material the girls had recorded throughout the first half of 1998 at Dublin's Windmill Lane Studios with long-time collaborators Richard Stannard and Matt Rowe was eventually scrapped. A rumoured animated venture by Disney also failed to materialise.\n1999\nEdit\nThe Spice Girls performed again at the 2000 BRIT Awards, and it was announced that they had received the Outstanding Achievement in Music Award. Despite being at the event, Halliwell did not join her former bandmates on stage.\nIn November 2000 the group released Forever . Sporting a new edgier R&B sound, the album received a lukewarm response and achieved only a fraction of the success of its two best-selling predecessors, selling three million copies.\nSolo Careers\nEdit\nFurther planned single releases off the album never materialised. Promo singles of Tell Me Why, Weekend Love, and If You Wanna Have Some Fun came into circulation, but to fans' dismay the Forever project was abandoned as the girls each began to concentrate on solo careers.\n2007- 2008\nMain Article: Second Reunion\nIn September 2009, rumours emerged of a second Spice Girls reunion after Brown, Chisholm, Halliwell and Bunton were photographed having a meal together in London. Victoria Beckham was absent from the night due to her work schedule. Brown then mused about the possibilities of another tour on her Twitter .\nIn mid-October, Melanie C denied on GMTV all rumours about a possible reunion with Spice Girls, explaining that it is not feasible to have a comeback at the moment. In the same month, Brown admited in a Colombian interview that she is planning to get together with the groups' former members for a reality show, stating that she was looking for \"girls\" inspired in the Spice Girls.\n2012\nEdit\nIn 2010, Judy Craymer teamed up with the Spice Girls and Simon Fuller to start developing a Spice Girls musical entitled \"Viva Forever\".The musical was written by British comedian Jennifer Saunders. Although the girls will not be in the show, they will influence the show's cast and production choices in a story which uses their music but bears no relation to their personal story; similar to that of ABBA 's music in Mamma Mia!. The show opened on December 12, 2012, and all of the Spice Girls were present at the first performance. \"Viva Forever\" closed on June 29, 2013 due to low ticket sales.\nOn August 12, 2012 the Spice Girls performed as a quintet for the last time at the London 2012 Olympics Closing Ceremony. This was the last Spice Girls concert to feature Victoria Beckham and Mel C.\n2016 - present\nEdit\nIn 2016 Mel B, Emma Bunton, and Geri Halliwell reunited for the 20th anniversary of The Spice Girls debut album and are working on new music. Their fourth album and tour are expected to be released in 2017. Former Spice Girls members Victoria Beckham and Mel C opted to not take part in the reunion to focus on their own careers. During an interview with James Corden on \"Late Late Show\" Mel B announced that The Spice Girls will go on tour again for the 20th anniversary of their debut album. Victoria Beckham and Mel C gave Mel B, Emma, and Geir their blessing to reunite and go on tour without them. The Spice Girls are working on releasing a new single. The Spice Girls new single \"Song For Her\" was leaked on YouTube.\nAlbums", "Spice Girls | New Music And Songs |\nSpice Girls\nAbout Spice Girls\nSpice Girls were the first major British pop music phenomenon of the mid-'90s to not have a debt to independent pop/rock. Instead, the all-female quintet derived from the dance-pop tradition that made Take That the most popular British group of the early '90s, but there was one crucial difference. Spice Girls used dance-pop as a musical base, but they infused the music with a fiercely independent, feminist stance that was equal parts Madonna, post-riot grrrl alternative rock feminism, and a co-opting of the good-times-all-the-time stance of England's new lad culture. Their proud, all-girl image and catchy dance-pop appealed to younger listeners, while their colorful, sexy personalities and sense of humor appealed to older music fans, making Spice Girls a cross-generational success. The group also became chart-toppers throughout Europe in 1996, before concentrating in America in early 1997.\nEvery member of Spice Girls was given a specific identity by the British press from the outset, and each label was as much an extension of their own personality as it was a marketing tool, since each name derived from their debut single and video, \"Wannabe.\" Geri Estelle Halliwell was the \"sexy Spice\"; Melanie Janine Brown was the \"scary Spice\"; Victoria Adams was \"the posh Spice\"; Melanie Jayne Chisholm was \"the sporty Spice\"; Emma Lee Bunton was \"the baby Spice.\" Each persona was exploited in the group's press articles and videos, which helped send \"Wannabe\" to the top of the charts upon its summer release in 1996. If all of the invented personalities made Spice Girls seem manufactured, that's because they were to a certain extent. Every member of the group was active in England's theatrical, film, and modeling circuit before the group's formation, and they all responded to an advertisement requesting five \"lively girls\" for a musical group in the summer of 1993. The manager who placed the ad chose all five members of Spice Girls, yet the women rejected his plans for their career and set out on their own two months after forming. For the next two years, the Girls fought to get a record contract, since most record labels insisted that the band pick one member as a clear leader, which is something the group refused.\nEventually, Spice Girls signed a contract to Virgin Records. They were without a manager, though, which made recording a debut album nearly impossible. All five members moved into a house and went on the dole as they searched for a manager. By the end of 1995, the group had signed with Annie Lennox's manager Simon Fuller, and began writing songs with Elliot Kennedy. \"Wannabe,\" Spice Girls' first single, was released in the summer of 1996 and became the first debut single by an all-female band to enter the British charts at number one. It remained there for seven weeks, and by the end of the year, \"Wannabe\" had hit number one in 21 other countries. Immediately following the success of \"Wannabe,\" Spice Girls became media icons in Britain as stories of their encounters with other celebrities became fodder for numerous tabloids, as did nude photos of Halliwell that she posed for earlier in her career. All of this added to the group's momentum, and their second single, \"Say You'll Be There,\" entered the charts at number one in the fall, selling 200,000 copies a week. Spice, their debut album, was released at the end of the year, accompanied by their first ballad, \"2 Become 1.\" Both the album and single went directly to number one, staying there for several weeks; both records were at number one over the Christmas week, making Spice Girls one of three artists to achieve that feat.\nHaving topped the charts in virtually every other country in the Western world, Spice Girls concentrated on America in early 1997, releasing \"Wannabe\" in January and Spice in February.\nThey became massive stars in the U.S. as well, also scoring the hits \"Say You'll Be There\" and \"2 Become 1\"; Spiceworld, their second LP, appeared later in the year in conjunction with their feature film of the same name. In May 1998, Geri Halliwell departed from the band, not citing major reasons for leaving the group. She did release a solo album, Schizophonic, a year later, but nothing chart-topping to match the success of her former band. Still not deterred by the absence of Ginger Spice, Spice Girls trudged on -- Melanie B. married Spice Girls dancer Jimmy Gulzar and released the solo single, a duet with Missy \"Misdemeanor\" Elliot called \"I Want You Back.\" By Christmas, Spice Girls scored a number one hit with Goodbye and with a career floating high, their personal lives were moving as well. Melanie B. gave birth to a daughter named Phoenix Chi in February 1999, and Adams followed a month later with a son, Brooklyn Joseph. And now only known as Victoria Beckham, Posh Spice married Manchester United soccer star David Beckham later that summer. Becoming now more noticeable for their social status than their singing, Spice Girls took a well-deserved break while Melanie C. took over the English charts with her successful solo effort Northern Star, which was released in the U.S. in fall 1999. The following year, the girls headed back into the studio with high-profile producers Rodney Jerkins, Terry Lewis, and Jimmy Jam (Janet Jackson, Mary J. Blige) to record a follow-up to their pop-friendly Spiceworld.\nIn the middle of recording, Melanie B. divorced Gulzar and endured a bitter custody battle throughout the remainder of 2000. Spice Girls' creative power overruled media scrutiny so that they could fully focus on the new R&B sound they were trying for and a the new collaboration united the foursome once again to release the third album Forever, which hit American shores in fall 2000.\nThe group began to splinter not long after the release of Forever, which made little impact outside of the UK where it only had one hit single -- the chart-topping double-sided single “Holler”/”Let Love Lead the Way” -- before the Spice Girls stopped promoting the album. Just three months after the album's November 2000 release, the band announced that they were separating in February of 2001.\nOver the next few years, the Spice Girls may not have existed as a group, but they were never out of various taboild headlines in the UK and America. As the wife of football superstar David Beckham, Victoria got the most attention, but Mel B wasn't far behind thanks to her ill-fated romance with actor Eddie Murphy, which resulted in an out-of-wedlock child. Mel Chisholm had a steady career as a pop singer while Emma Bunton had some chart success of her own with her 2001 album A Girl Like Me and its 2004 successor, Free Me. Meanwhile, Geri Halliwell split her time between recording and TV projects.\nAfter years of persistent rumors of a reunion -- peaking heavily yet never materializing for Bob Geldolf's 2005 charity event Live 8 -- the Spice Girls announced in June 2007 that they would be reuniting for an eleven-concert tour beginning that December, which would be accompanied by a new greatest hits album and documentary.\nIn 2010, it was announced that the Spice Girls had joined forces with Simon Fuller to develop a musical based on their songs. Viva Forever: The Musical - penned by British comedienne Jennifer Saunders - was announced at a press conference in June 2012. After much speculation in the British press, the Spice Girls reformed once more for the closing ceremony of the London 2012 Olympics. ~ Stephen Thomas Erlewine, Rovi", "Spice Girls | Biography & History | AllMusic\ngoogle+\nArtist Biography by Stephen Thomas Erlewine\nSpice Girls were the first major British pop music phenomenon of the mid-'90s to not have a debt to independent pop/rock. Instead, the all-female quintet derived from the dance-pop tradition that made Take That the most popular British group of the early '90s, but there was one crucial difference. Spice Girls used dance-pop as a musical base, but they infused the music with a fiercely independent, feminist stance that was equal parts Madonna , post-riot grrrl alternative rock feminism, and a co-opting of the good-times-all-the-time stance of England's new lad culture. Their proud, all-girl image and catchy dance-pop appealed to younger listeners, while their colorful, sexy personalities and sense of humor appealed to older music fans, making Spice Girls a cross-generational success. The group also became chart-toppers throughout Europe in 1996, before concentrating in America in early 1997.\nEvery member of Spice Girls was given a specific identity by the British press from the outset, and each label was as much an extension of their own personality as it was a marketing tool, since each name derived from their debut single and video, \"Wannabe.\" Geri Estelle Halliwell was the \"sexy Spice\"; Melanie Janine Brown was the \"scary Spice\"; Victoria Adams was \"the posh Spice\"; Melanie Jayne Chisholm was \"the sporty Spice\"; Emma Lee Bunton was \"the baby Spice.\" Each persona was exploited in the group's press articles and videos, which helped send \"Wannabe\" to the top of the charts upon its summer release in 1996. If all of the invented personalities made Spice Girls seem manufactured, that's because they were to a certain extent. Every member of the group was active in England's theatrical, film, and modeling circuit before the group's formation, and they all responded to an advertisement requesting five \"lively girls\" for a musical group in the summer of 1993. The manager who placed the ad chose all five members of Spice Girls , yet the women rejected his plans for their career and set out on their own two months after forming. For the next two years, the Girls fought to get a record contract, since most record labels insisted that the band pick one member as a clear leader, which is something the group refused.\nEventually, Spice Girls signed a contract to Virgin Records. They were without a manager, though, which made recording a debut album nearly impossible. All five members moved into a house and went on the dole as they searched for a manager. By the end of 1995, the group had signed with Annie Lennox 's manager Simon Fuller , and began writing songs with Elliot Kennedy . \"Wannabe,\" Spice Girls ' first single, was released in the summer of 1996 and became the first debut single by an all-female band to enter the British charts at number one. It remained there for seven weeks, and by the end of the year, \"Wannabe\" had hit number one in 21 other countries. Immediately following the success of \"Wannabe,\" Spice Girls became media icons in Britain as stories of their encounters with other celebrities became fodder for numerous tabloids, as did nude photos of Halliwell that she posed for earlier in her career. All of this added to the group's momentum, and their second single, \"Say You'll Be There,\" entered the charts at number one in the fall, selling 200,000 copies a week. Spice , their debut album, was released at the end of the year, accompanied by their first ballad, \"2 Become 1.\" Both the album and single went directly to number one, staying there for several weeks; both records were at number one over the Christmas week, making Spice Girls one of three artists to achieve that feat.\nHaving topped the charts in virtually every other country in the Western world, Spice Girls concentrated on America in early 1997, releasing \"Wannabe\" in January and Spice in February.\nThey became massive stars in the U.S. as well, also scoring the hits \"Say You'll Be There\" and \"2 Become 1\"; Spiceworld , their second LP, appeared later in the year in conjunction with their feature film of the same name. In May 1998, Geri Halliwell departed from the band, not citing major reasons for leaving the group. She did release a solo album, Schizophonic , a year later, but nothing chart-topping to match the success of her former band. Still not deterred by the absence of Ginger Spice, Spice Girls trudged on -- Melanie B. married Spice Girls dancer Jimmy Gulzar and released the solo single, a duet with Missy \"Misdemeanor\" Elliot called \"I Want You Back.\" By Christmas, Spice Girls scored a number one hit with Goodbye and with a career floating high, their personal lives were moving as well. Melanie B. gave birth to a daughter named Phoenix Chi in February 1999, and Adams followed a month later with a son, Brooklyn Joseph. And now only known as Victoria Beckham , Posh Spice married Manchester United soccer star David Beckham later that summer. Becoming now more noticeable for their social status than their singing, Spice Girls took a well-deserved break while Melanie C. took over the English charts with her successful solo effort Northern Star , which was released in the U.S. in fall 1999. The following year, the girls headed back into the studio with high-profile producers Rodney Jerkins , Terry Lewis , and Jimmy Jam ( Janet Jackson , Mary J. Blige ) to record a follow-up to their pop-friendly Spiceworld .\nIn the middle of recording, Melanie B. divorced Gulzar and endured a bitter custody battle throughout the remainder of 2000. Spice Girls ' creative power overruled media scrutiny so that they could fully focus on the new R&B sound they were trying for and a the new collaboration united the foursome once again to release the third album Forever , which hit American shores in fall 2000.\nThe group began to splinter not long after the release of Forever , which made little impact outside of the UK where it only had one hit single -- the chart-topping double-sided single “Holler”/”Let Love Lead the Way” -- before the Spice Girls stopped promoting the album. Just three months after the album's November 2000 release, the band announced that they were separating in February of 2001.\nOver the next few years, the Spice Girls may not have existed as a group, but they were never out of various taboild headlines in the UK and America. As the wife of football superstar David Beckham, Victoria got the most attention, but Mel B wasn't far behind thanks to her ill-fated romance with actor Eddie Murphy, which resulted in an out-of-wedlock child. Mel Chisholm had a steady career as a pop singer while Emma Bunton had some chart success of her own with her 2001 album A Girl Like Me and its 2004 successor, Free Me. Meanwhile, Geri Halliwell split her time between recording and TV projects.\nAfter years of persistent rumors of a reunion -- peaking heavily yet never materializing for Bob Geldolf's 2005 charity event Live 8 -- the Spice Girls announced in June 2007 that they would be reuniting for an eleven-concert tour beginning that December, which would be accompanied by a new greatest hits album and documentary.\nIn 2010, it was announced that the Spice Girls had joined forces with Simon Fuller to develop a musical based on their songs. Viva Forever: The Musical - penned by British comedienne Jennifer Saunders - was announced at a press conference in June 2012. After much speculation in the British press, the Spice Girls reformed once more for the closing ceremony of the London 2012 Olympics.", "Who Is The Best Spice Girl ? - YouTube\nWho Is The Best Spice Girl ?\nWant to watch this again later?\nSign in to add this video to a playlist.\nNeed to report the video?\nSign in to report inappropriate content.\nRating is available when the video has been rented.\nThis feature is not available right now. Please try again later.\nUploaded on Apr 27, 2010\nWho Is The Best Spice Girl © http://www.shanagrant.com\nMelanie Brown aka Scary Spice\nEmma Bunton aka Baby Spice\nMelanie Chisholm aka Sporty Spice\nGeri Halliwell aka Ginger Spice\nVictoria Beckham aka Adams Posh Spice\nThe Spice Girls were a British girl group formed in 1994. They consist of Victoria Beckham (née Adams) who is nicknamed Posh Spice, Melanie Brown nicknamed Scary Spice, Emma Bunton who was Baby Spice, Melanie Chisholm , Sporty Spice, and Geri Halliwell Ginger Spice.\nThey were signed to Virgin Records and released their debut single, \"Wannabe\", in 1996. The song hit number-one in 31 countries and helped establish the group. Credited in the US for being the pioneers that paved the way for the commercial breakthrough of teen pop in the 1990s, their first album, Spice, sold more than 23 million copies worldwide, becoming the best-selling album by a female group in music history. They have sold 75 million records worldwide with only four albums and eleven singles, making them the most successful British band since The Beatles. Under the guidance of their long time mentor and manager Simon Fuller, the group embraced merchandising and became a regular feature of the British press. Each member of the group was given an alias by Top of the Pops magazine in 1996, which were adopted by the group and media alike. According to biographer David Sinclair, \"Scary, Baby, Ginger, Posh and Sporty were the most widely recognized group of individuals since John, Paul, George and Ringo.\"\nThey were the biggest cultural icons of the 1990s, according to a survey carried out by Trivial Pursuit, winning by 80 percent in a poll of 1,000 people carried out for the board game, stating that \"Girl Power\" defined the decade.\nIn June 1998, Geri Halliwell left the group in the middle of numerous rumours. The four remaining members released the third album, but went their separate ways in late 2000 to focus on their solo careers. On 28 June 2007 all five re-formed before the launch of their Reunion Tour in December, alongside the release of their Greatest Hits album. In December, a new official documentary Giving You Everything aired on various television networks around the globe.\nIn September 2009, rumours emerged of a second Spice Girls reunion after Brown, Chisholm, Halliwell and Bunton were photographed having a meal together in London. Victoria Beckham was absent from the night due to her work schedule. Brown then mused about the possibilities of another tour on her Twitter.\nHalliwell was then quoted during a television interview saying; We always talk about creative plans and possibilities, definitely... And yes [we did talk about that last week]. Right now, we are gathering information and thinking about possibilities... but when you're evolving a plan you don't share it to the world until it's concrete...If they do cement themselves, I'll be the first to tell you.\" watch video\nBrown then responded to questions regarding another reunion via her official message board, saying; \"I would love to tell you. But until all 5 of us have finalised everything, out of respect for each other and the Spice brand, mum's the word for now. All 5 of us are in discussions right now, Ill let you know what we decide on once all 5 of us agree. But it is all very exciting!\"\nBunton then told readers of Now Magazine that they had been discussing work-related subjects and that she's \"...sure all five of us will be catching up again soon. Watch this space!\" Bunton also stated later that the Spice Girls would not be reuniting for the world cup.\nIn mid-October, Melanie C denied on GMTV all rumours about a possible reunion with Spice Girls, explaining that it is not feasible to have a comeback at the moment. watch video\nCategory", "SPICE GIRLS | FACTS\nTIMELINE\nLate 1992\nEmma, Geri, Mel B, Melanie C and Victoria, meet on the auditions circuit while chasing work in shows and as TV extras.\nFriday 4 March 1993\n400 girls have one minute each to sing and dance at the Danceworks studios in Balderton Street, near Selfridges in London. They had all seen an ad in The Stage newspaper, placed by father-and-son management team Bob & Chris Herbert, which said:\nWANTED\nR. U. 18-23 with the ability to sing/dance?\nR U streetwise, outgoing, ambitious, and dedicated?\nHeart Management Ltd are a widely successful music industry management consortium currently forming a choreographed, singing/dancing, all-female pop act for a recording deal.\nOpen audition\nPlease bring sheet music or backing cassette\nMelanie C sings I'm So Excited by the Pointer Sisters.\nMel B sings The Greatest Love Of All by Whitney Houston\nVictoria Adams sings Mein Herr from Cabaret\n17 May 1993\nSecond and final auditions are held at Nomis Studios, Sanctuary Road, W14.\nGeri misses the first audition because she was working that day. She begs Chris Herbert to give her a try. At the second audition, Geri looks older than the others and when asked her age she replies: \"I'm as old as you want me to be. I'll be ten with big boobs if you want.\" She won the panel over with her charm.\nFrom the auditions, girl group Touch is formed. The original line-up is Victoria Adams, Melanie Brown, Melanie Chisholm, Geri Halliwell and Michelle Stephenson.\n7 June 1993\nThe girls meet for the first time at Trinity Studios in Woking, Surrey. Chris rents a house for them (58 Boyn Hill Road, near Maidenhead) and the girls move in – living frugally because they have no wages. They are given minimal pocket money.\nEvery day the girls go to the studio to work on their singing & dancing. Geri has to put in the most work because she isn't as good as the others. She often says: \"Time is running out. This is my last chance and I am going to make it.\"\nIt soon becomes clear that Michelle doesn't fit in, so she leaves to care for her sick mum and to then go on to university. She is replaced by Emma Bunton.\n\"It was quite funny coming into the band late because the others had all known each other for a bit. I had to meet them at a train station the first time and there were quite a few girls hanging around. But as soon as I saw them I knew who they were. We just clicked straight away.\" – Emma\nEmma's first night with the girls is her first night away from home. \"I got a bit homesick, so I went and had a cry on Geri's shoulder. That linked us and it's been the same with all the other girls,\" she says.\nJuly 1993 - March 1994\nThe girls live in the house in Maidenhead, rehearsing dance routines, going to the studio and eating a lot of toast.\nAugust 1993\nGeri comes up with the name Spice during an aerobics class. It seems to fit because \"Because we're all really different,\" says Emma. And they've already recorded a song called Sugar and Spice.\n7 December 1993\nThe girls perform a showcase at Nomis Studios in West London, and meet industry figures, producers and songwriters.\n3 March 1994\nThe girls officially take control of the band. They don't agree with Chris Herbert's idea to dress them all the same and sing cover versions. They retrieve the backing tracks of the songs they had been working on at Trinity Studios and left.\n \nOctober 1994\nWith a catalogue of songs, demos and dance routines, the girls set out to find a manager. Travelling around in Geri's car with a Filofax and a phone, they go to meetings around the country. After a couple of months of not getting anywhere they meet Simon Fuller of 19 Management.\n“I remember them coming into my office for the first time very well” says Simon later.“They had so much energy and determination, all of them were talking at once and they were very funny. They were very different to the boy groups that were dominating the chart at that time, they had a real sense of personality and I knew that we could achieve great things together”.\nMarch 1995\nThe girls sign with Simon Fuller / 19 Management and immediately go into the recording studio to start recording the songs that would make them famous.\nMarch – August 1995\nSimon Fuller’s first job is to arrange a record deal, and several record labels start to make offers to sign the band. Virgin Records throws a surprise party for them before they fly off to explore record deals in LA – club class.\nSeptember 1995\nSimon Fuller signs the Spice Girls to Virgin Records and immediately arranges for the girls to pay back their first management company for its investment during the early days of their career. The name Spice is already in use by a US rapper. So, the group name is changed to Spice Girls.\n14 October 1995\nThe Spice Girls are guests of honour at a race meeting at Kempton Park in Surrey. While posing for a photo call with a statue of Desert Orchid, the girls take control and begin to climb on the statue. Race goers look on in disgust and it causes uproar, and it gives them their first publicity – receiving tabloid and local television coverage.\n\"Simon arranged a day out at the races to introduce us to everybody – all the media-type people. We thought it was funny because it was all stiff upper lip and we were just our normal selves and being really quite mad. Anyway, we jumped on the statue of that old horse, Desert Storm. I've got a great photo of us on it, and you can see the security guards in the background running towards us. There were a few journalists there and I remember we took one into the girls' toilet where the acoustics were good and then sang Wannabe, a capella.\" – Geri\nNovember 1995\nSimon Fuller signs the Girls to music publishers Windswept Pacific, and then takes them to the States to undertake a promotional tour in LA.\nApril 1996\nThe girls shoot their first video, for Wannabe, at St Pancras Station, London.\nGeri on the video: \"I remember the chaos and the cold. It wasn't very controlled – we didn't want it to be. We wanted the camera to capture the madness of Spice. I had very big shoes on and fell over many times. I watched it again recently and thought it was like a comedy, really. All the other girls gave me the award for being the biggest prat in it! It's the most spontaneous of our videos.\"\nMay 1996\nThe video for Wannabe gets a trial airing on The Box music channel. It's an instant hit, and is played 70 times a week. The first music press interview appears in Music Week.\n19 June 1996\nQuarter-page mini article appears in Smash Hits, titled \"Introducing: Spice Girls\"\nJuly 1996\nA feature in Top of the Pops magazine gives the Spice Girls their nicknames, Posh, Baby, Scary, Sporty and Ginger. Editor Peter Loraine suggests the names during lunch with the girls in Notting Hill.\n\"I simply said it would be a good idea if they had some nicknames. The girls liked the idea, so I had an editorial meeting back at the office and about four of us started thinking of names. Posh was the first one to be thought up because Victoria looks pretty sophisticated. The rest were pretty easy really because the girls' characters were already really strong. The names jumped out at us. We laughed the most when we came up with Scary. Jennifer Cawthron, who was also from Leeds, came up with that one because Mel B was so loud and had tried to take over our whole photo shoot.\n\"We ran the names for a couple of issues and the first time the girls saw them they thought it was funny. Then the newspapers started picking up on the names and they cropped up everywhere until they were fully accepted by everyone.\"\nJuly 1996\nA full-page advertisement appears in Smash Hits, saying: \"Wanted: Anyone with a sense of fun, freedom and adventure. Hold tight, get ready – Girl Power is comin' at you.\"\n8 July 1996\nDebut single Wannabe is released. On the single, Mel C says: \"It was recorded in under an hour. Whereas, a lot of the other songs on the album took two or three days at least.\"\n14 July 1996\nWannabe enters the chart at number 3.\n18 July 1996\nThe first national newspaper interview appears in the Daily Star.\n21 July 1996\nWannabe climbs to number one (where it stays for seven weeks); the Spice Girls are the first all-female group to top the charts with their debut single. Wannabe stays at number one for seven weeks and goes on to sell four million copies. It reaches the top spot in 31 countries, making it the most successful debut single ever.\nWannabe steals the limelight from two ex Take That stars. The single knocks Gary Barlow's debut solo track Forever Love off the top spot, and it forces Robbie Williams to settle for a number two with his debut single, Freedom.\nVictoria says: \"We're as shocked as everyone else by the success of Wannabe. It doesn't put us under any pressure to follow it up. If it's the only number one we ever have, at least it proves what we're capable of. It's brilliant because it was the public who put it there, so it shows they enjoy what we do, but it's still just a paper fact about record sales. It's only one tiny step for us as a band. We've already recorded an album which we're incredibly proud of and that is what we're really anxious for people to get into.\"\nSeptember 1996\nSimon Fuller takes the girls back to the USA to film the video for second single Say You'll Be There in the Mojave Desert.\nEmma says: \"This was one of my favourites. We were out in the desert and all getting on really well, so it was a complete laugh. It was very hot and I nearly got sunstroke! Two of the nights we went back to this hotel in the middle of nowhere – it was like Thelma and Louise.”\nMel B says: \"It was really friendly and vibey – the crew were great. One night, Geri and I drove out into the desert. It was absolutely amazing. I sat on the car roof and gazed up at the stars. I felt so in touch with everything.\"\n14 October 1996\nSay You’ll Be There is released. Mel C says: \"We recorded it in our trackies and socks in our studio at the producer's house. It was a cool vibe, dead laid-back. A lot of sentiment in the song is to do with what we've been through together. We've always been there for each other, so we wrote about that.\"\nEmma say: \"The track was recorded in Elliot Kennedy's studio, which he actually named Spice, because it had never been used before.\"\n20 October 1996\nSay You'll Be There enters the chart at number one, replacing Boyzone's cover version of Words.\n4 November 1996\nThe debut album, Spice, is released and is awarded silver disc status on advance sales alone. Two million copies are sold in the first two weeks, and it goes on to become the biggest album of 1996 in the UK, and the biggest album of 1997 in the US, selling 10 million copies worldwide in less than seven months. Later updates put the UK sales figure around three million and worldwide sales at some 23 million.\nNovember 1996\nThe Spice Girls attract a crowd of 500,000 when they switch on the Christmas lights in Oxford Street, London – bringing traffic in the West End to a standstill. It is one of several events staged by Simon Fuller to give them added publicity and boost their record sales.\nAt the same time, Simon Fuller starts to set up million pound sponsorship deals for the Spice Girls with Pepsi, Walkers, Impulse, Cadbury’s and Polaroid. They make the girls more famous than ever, as well as ensuring that their records are constantly being played on the radio, on TV and even in shopping centres and supermarkets.\nDecember 1996\nThe Spice Girls win three trophies at the Smash Hits awards at the London Arena, including best video for Say You'll Be There.\n12 December 1996\nThe band are interviewed by The Spectator. The issue is the highest selling in the 200-year history of the magazine, and has political commentators beginning to assess the influence of \"The Spice Vote\".\nGeri's \"Maggie was the first Spice Girl\" is the sound bite which captured the headlines.\nWhat Geri says is: \"We Spice Girls are true Thatcherites. Thatcher was the first Spice Girl, the pioneer of our ideology, Girl Power. Thatcher had ideals all right – we love Maggie.\" She added: \"We met Tony Blair and he seemed nice enough. His hair's all right, but we don't agree with his tax policies. He's just not a safe pair of hands for the economy.\"\nVictoria says she would never vote Labour but added that John Major was a \"boring pillock\".\nThe girls aren't happy to be labelled Thatcherites – particularly Mel B because she's an anarchist and Mel C who is a Labour supporter.\n16 December 1996\n2 Become 1 is released and sells 209,000 copies in the first three days alone.\nVictoria says: \"This video was my favourite. My coat was wicked in it and it was really different to the other videos – shot entirely in the studio with high technology and loads of effects. It was really weird having to sing passionately into the camera – I was feeling a right mug in front of all those people singing 'wanna make love to you baby'.\"\n22 December 1996\nThe Spice Girls have their third number one with 2 Become 1, and their first Christmas number one. It sells 500,000 copies in its first week, making it the fastest selling single of the year.\nDecember 1996\nMel C looks back on the year, saying: \"Mad! Totally messed-up and mad. This had been the craziest most knackering year of our lives!\"\nJanuary 1997\nDuring the promotional tour of the US and Canada, Wannabe goes in at number 11 on the US Billboard chart, and is the highest ever entry for a British band in the USA – beating the Beatles by one place – and the joint highest entry for a debut act (tying with Alanis Morissette).\nFebruary 1997\nThe video for Who Do You Think You Are? is filmed for Comic Relief, featuring Spice wannabes The Sugar Lumps.\n24 February 1997\nThe girls collect two Brit Awards. Fans vote Say You’ll Be There as Best Video and Wannabe wins Best Single. Geri's union jack dress from the girls' live performance hogs the headlines the next day. The following year, the dress was sold for £36,200 at auction.\nDuring the ceremony Geri's boobs pop out twice, but she says: \"This is the best night of our lives, so I don't care what happens.\"\nLiam Gallagher causes a stir before the event by refusing to attend, saying he would \"probably chin the Spice Girls\".\n\"I've never been so nervous in my life and I will never be that nervous again. I had to be physically put in the car to take me to the Brits show. I was proud – really, really proud. I will never forget Ben Elton saying: 'We've got Sporty, Baby, Posh, Ginger and Scary!' and I remember thinking: 'Well, this is it. I'm going on.' Once on stage, I sort of went on autopilot. It was great though.\" – Victoria\n13 February 1997\nWannabe climbs to number one in the US singles chart, knocking Toni Braxton's Un-Break My Heart off the top. The Spice Girls are the first British group to have a US number one with their first single. The Beatles only managed number 12.\n3 March 1997\nDouble A side Mama/Who Do You Think You Are is released.\nVictoria says: \"It took a long time to film it, but it was nice that our mums were there and could see what we're doing. They were actually knackered at the end of the day and I said to my mum, 'Ha! Now you know how I feel every day.'\"\n5 March 1997\nSales of Wannabe reach four million, making it the most successful debut single ever.\n9 March 1997\nMama/Who Do You Think You Are goes straight in at number one – making the Spice Girls the first group in history to have four consecutive number one hits. Profits from the single go to Comic Relief and provide the biggest individual contribution of 1997. Worldwide CD sales reach six million albums and seven million singles.\n15 March 1997\nSimon Fuller takes Victoria Adams to a Chelsea v Manchester United game. Afterwards he introduces her to David Beckham for the first time, in the players' lounge.\n26 March 1997\nAt the Capital FM awards, the Spice Girls win London's Favourite Female Group.\n28 March 1997\nGirl Power! The Spice Girls first book and manifesto is launched at the Virgin Megastore. It sells 200,000 copies within a day, and is eventually translated into more than 20 languages.\n30 March 1997\nSpice Girls launch Britain's new Channel 5, singing a re-written version of the 1960s hit 5-4-3-2-1.\nMarch 1997\nThe album Spice achieves quadruple platinum status across Europe…\n5 April 1997\n… and quadruple platinum sales of more than 400,000 in Italy alone.\n14 April 1997\nSpice: the Official Video Volume One is released. It sells half a million copies.\nMay 1997\nThe Spice Girls sign a deal with Pepsi for a promo single – Step To Me which comes free, when fans collect special ringpulls. Pepsi records its biggest-ever take up on the promotion.\nMay 1997\nSimon Fuller has one more ace up his sleeve for the band: a major Hollywood film. Written by his brother Kim Fuller, Spiceworld is announced by the Spice Girls at the Cannes Film Festival. They appear on top of the Hotel Martinez entrance for a photo call and bring the area to a standstill.\n11 May 1997\nThe girls perform their first live British gig for the Prince's Trust 21st anniversary concert at the Manchester Opera House. At the show, they breach royal protocol when Mel B and then Geri plant big kisses on Prince Charles's cheeks. Geri told HRH: \"You're very sexy. We could spice up your life,\" and pinched his bottom.\n15 May 1997\nSpice goes to number one in the US album charts, making the Spice Girls the first British group to top the US charts with a debut album. On the same day, Say You'll Be There enters the Billboard charts at number five.\nMel B says: \"We can't believe the album is top of the chart – it's mind-blowing. We were hoping to get in the top ten, but not this.\"\nGeri adds: \"It's great. This isn't luck – we have worked damned hard for it.\"\nAnd in a joint statement, the girls declared: \"Pop is back by Girl Power demand and we're thrilled. This proves that with hard work and determination you can do anything. The encouragement of our fans has helped us in our mission to conquer America.\"\n29 May 1997\nAt the Ivor Novella Awards the girls win International Hit Of The Year and Bestselling British Single in the UK for Wannabe.\n\"Novellos are special because they're for writing, which is something we don't often get recognised for. Most people don't actually believe that we write our songs, even thought we do. It was great to get them – they're quite serious awards.\" – Mel C\n\"It was good to be recognised for not just standing there and singing but for actually having a brain and being able to write songs. That was very important. Actually, I remember thinking I wish I had worn a different pair of knickers because Mel B pulled my skirt up on stage.\" – Victoria\nJune 1997\nSpiceworld the movie begins filming, with the second album being recorded on location.\n\"My favourite scene in the film is the one we shot in the Albert Hall. It was performing and that's what we like doing best. We did our new single, Spice Up Your Life, which is really good, and we were all done up and had mics on like Madonna. All the fans were there, which gave us a taster of what our concerts are going to be like. We all loved it.\" – Mel C\nJuly 1997\nSpice has now sold more than 14 million copies. Between them, the singles Say You’ll Be There and 2 Become 1 have reached number 1 in 53 countries.\n1 August 1997\nFilming of the movie finishes. It is released on Boxing Day and it becomes one of the most profitable films in the history of British cinema. It grossed a total of £8.5 million in the UK, and $30 million in America.\nOctober 1997\nFifth single Spice Up Your Life enters the charts at number one, the girls' fifth consecutive number one hit single.\nOctober 1997\nSimon Fuller takes the Spice Girls east to perform their first live concert to 40,000 fans in Istanbul, Turkey.\n“It was Las Vegas on The Bosphorous. In terms of pure spectacle, you’d be hard pressed to find anything better.” – The Guardian.\n“The girls’ debut was competent and capable and a triumph.” – The Sun.\n1 November 1997\nThe Girls travel to South Africa to meet Nelson Mandela, who announces, “These are my heroes. This is one of the greatest moments in my life”. Prince Charles is in attendance, and when asked if it was his greatest moment he responds “second greatest. The first time I met them was the greatest.”\n3 November 1997\nThe album Spiceworld is released. It is their second number one album, and makes the Spice Girls the first British band since the Beatles to have two albums in the US chart at the same time. Spice and Spiceworld have amassed enough sales for one out of every two people in Britain to own a Spice Girls album.\n6 November 1997\nAfter performing at the MTV Europe Music Awards at the Ahoy Stadium, Rotterdam the Spice Girls make the decision to take over the running of the group and to drop Simon Fuller as their manager.\nThe news flashes around the world and generates front page headlines in all the British newspapers. A week later the album they recorded under Simon Fuller’s guidance, Spiceworld, enters the charts at number one. The album sold 191,000 copies in its first week.\n29 November 1997\nAn Audience With The Spice Girls is screened and attracts 11.8 million viewers – one fifth of the population.\n15 December 1997\nToo Much is released, and becomes their second Christmas number one.\n26 December 1997\nSpiceworld The Movie is released, featuring Richard E Grant, Roger Moore, Sir Elton John and Stephen Fry. The movie makes £6.8m in its first week of release.\n25 January 1998\nVictoria Adams and David Beckham announce their engagement\n24 February 1998\nThe 102-date Spiceworld tour kicks off at The Point in Dublin, Republic of Ireland. Ticket sales in New York break records by selling at a rate of 1,200 a minute.\nThe tour set list:\nNever Give Up On The Good Times\nWe Are Family\n15 March 1998\nWithout Simon Fuller’s guiding light the run of number one singles comes to an end when seventh release, Stop, enters the UK chart at number two. It is stopped from getting to number one by It's Like That by Run DMC v Jason Nevins.\n31 May 1998\nDays of speculation follow Geri's no-show at two concerts in Norway (May 28 and 29) and the Wednesday National Lottery show. These come to an end with the confirmation that Ginger has left the Spice Girls. Her lawyer announces on her behalf:\n\"Sadly I would like to confirm that I have left the Spice Girls. This is because of differences between us. I'm sure the group will continue to be successful and I wish them all the best… PS, I'll be back.\"\nPrince Charles sends Geri a letter to say: \"The group will not be the same without you.\"\nShares in record label EMI drop by 10p.\n15 June 1998\nWith their new line-up, the Spice Girls begin their 40-date US tour at the Coral Sky/Sound Advice Amphitheatre in West Palm Beach. Due to a dance accident, the set list was modified slightly – Walk of Life was dropped from the North American shows, and Do It was replaced with Step To Me.\n\"I really miss Geri a lot. Right at the beginning, I was really upset and gutted. The next minute I wanted to punch her in the head. It kept changing from day to day. We'll get through it. I got on really well with Geri and I really like her. I will always be her friend.\" – Victoria\n\"The first few times on stage without Geri were strange. Obviously we had to share out the lines she sang between us and sometimes I'd forget to sing her lines.\" – Mel B\n\"Thankfully we've been really busy, so we didn't have a lot of time to think about it when Geri first left. But it really hit home when we had a few days off. We were just gutted, we couldn’t even get out of bed. You know, when you feel just so deflated, absolutely deflated. It was like you had just lost part of you, like a death. And on stage it was hard because there is always interaction in the show and there was quite a lot between Geri and me. For the first few shows it was really weird because I kept thinking, where is she?\" – Mel C\n20 July 1998\nViva Forever is released and enters the chart at number one on 26 July. It stays at number one for two weeks – it is the Spice Girls seventh number one out of eight releases. Geri appears in the animated video, produced by Aardman.\n24 August 1998\nSpice Girls issue a statement denying rumours that they are on the verge of splitting up, after Melanie Brown and Victoria Adams both announce they are pregnant.\n12 & 13 September 1998\nThe Spice Girls bring the world tour back to the UK with two dates at the Don Valley Stadium in Sheffield. For the \"Back To Britain\" leg of the tour, the set list was changed again, Denying was replaced with Something Kinda Funny and Move Over was replaced with Love Thing.\n19 & 20 September 1998\nThe Spiceworld tour finishes triumphantly with two sell-out gigs at Wembley Stadium.\n26 September 1998\nMel B becomes Mel G when she marries dancer Jimmy Gulzar in a 12th century church in Buckinghamshire.\n14 December 1998\nGoodbye is released and on December 20, it becomes the Spice Girls' third Christmas number one. They are the only act in history to score three consecutive Christmas number ones. (The Beatles did it with I Want To Hold Your Hand, I Feel Fine and Day Tripper)\n22 May 1999\nGeri's first solo single, Look At Me, goes to number two.\n4 July 1999\nVictoria Adams marries David Beckham at Luttrellstown Castle near Dublin.\n3 March 2000\nSpice Girls receive a Lifetime Achievement award at the Brits. BPI chairman Rob Dickens says: \"The Spice Girls have smashed most worldwide records books in their own way, much as the Beatles did in the 1960s.\"\n23 October 2000\nDouble A-side Holler/Let Love Lead The Way goes to number one – the Spice Girls ninth (and final, so far) and a week later their album Forever is released, and charts at number two, going platinum.\n21 June 2007\nAfter two years of talking, all five Spice Girls reunite with the manager who made them a worldwide phenomenon. Simon Fuller makes the historic press announcement that the Spice Girls would re-unite.\n28 June 2007\nAll five Spice Girls appear in public for the first time together at the Greenwich Observatory in London to announce that they would be re-uniting for a World Tour, Greatest Hits album and Documentary.\n\"For us it's about celebrating the past, enjoying each other and it's about our fans. It was kind of now or never,\" Geri says at the press conference in London.\nREFERENCES\nThe Spice Girls by Julia Hold, Hodder & Stoughton\nReal Life: Real Spice by the Spice Girls, Zone/Chameleon 1997\nWannabe: How the Spice Girls Reinvented Pop Fame by David Sinclair, Omnibus Press 2004\nbbc.co.uk\nSpice Power, The Inside Story by Rob McGibbon, Boxtree 1997\nGirl Power magazine\nGirl Power by Spice Girls, Zone/Chameleon 1997\nPosh Spice In My Pocket, Boxtree 1997\nScary Spice In My Pocket, Boxtree 1997\nOfficial Spice Girls Minibook: Mel C Tuff Enuff, Zone Chameleon 1997\nOfficial Spice Girls Minibook: Geri Ginger Nutter, Zone Chameleon 1997\nOfficial Spice Girls Minibook: Mel B Don’t Be Scared, Zone Chameleon 1997\nAll Things Spice The Complete, Unofficial Story of The Spice Girls by Fergus Kelly, Penguin 1997\nSpice Girls Giving You Everything by Rebecca Aplin, UFO Music 1997\nForever Spice by The Spice Girls, Little, Brown & Company 1999\nSpiceworld The Official Book Of The Movie by The Spice Girls, Ebury Press 1997", "Spice Girls Bio | Spice Girls Career | MTV\nwww.facebook.com/130367563704935\nPop\nSpice Girls were the first major British pop music phenomenon of the mid-'90s to not have a debt to independent pop/rock. Instead, the all-female quintet derived from the dance-pop tradition that made Take That the most popular British group of the early '90s, but there was one crucial difference. Spice Girls used dance-pop as a musical base, but they infused the music with a fiercely independent, feminist stance that was equal parts Madonna, post-riot grrrl alternative rock feminism, and a co-opting of the good-times-all-the-time stance of England's new lad culture. Their proud, all-girl image and catchy dance-pop appealed to younger listeners, while their colorful, sexy personalities and sense of humor appealed to older music fans, making Spice Girls a cross-generational success. The group also became chart-toppers throughout Europe in 1996, before concentrating in America in early 1997.\nEvery member of Spice Girls was given a specific identity by the British press from the outset, and each label was as much an extension of their own personality as it was a marketing tool, since each name derived from their debut single and video, \"Wannabe.\" Geri Estelle Halliwell was the \"sexy Spice\"; Melanie Janine Brown was the \"scary Spice\"; Victoria Adams was \"the posh Spice\"; Melanie Jayne Chisholm was \"the sporty Spice\"; Emma Lee Bunton was \"the baby Spice.\" Each persona was exploited in the group's press articles and videos, which helped send \"Wannabe\" to the top of the charts upon its summer release in 1996. If all of the invented personalities made Spice Girls seem manufactured, that's because they were to a certain extent. Every member of the group was active in England's theatrical, film, and modeling circuit before the group's formation, and they all responded to an advertisement requesting five \"lively girls\" for a musical group in the summer of 1993. The manager who placed the ad chose all five members of Spice Girls, yet the women rejected his plans for their career and set out on their own two months after forming. For the next two years, the Girls fought to get a record contract, since most record labels insisted that the band pick one member as a clear leader, which is something the group refused.\nEventually, Spice Girls signed a contract to Virgin Records. They were without a manager, though, which made recording a debut album nearly impossible. All five members moved into a house and went on the dole as they searched for a manager. By the end of 1995, the group had signed with Annie Lennox's manager Simon Fuller, and began writing songs with Elliot Kennedy. \"Wannabe,\" Spice Girls' first single, was released in the summer of 1996 and became the first debut single by an all-female band to enter the British charts at number one. It remained there for seven weeks, and by the end of the year, \"Wannabe\" had hit number one in 21 other countries. Immediately following the success of \"Wannabe,\" Spice Girls became media icons in Britain as stories of their encounters with other celebrities became fodder for numerous tabloids, as did nude photos of Halliwell that she posed for earlier in her career. All of this added to the group's momentum, and their second single, \"Say You'll Be There,\" entered the charts at number one in the fall, selling 200,000 copies a week. Spice, their debut album, was released at the end of the year, accompanied by their first ballad, \"2 Become 1.\" Both the album and single went directly to number one, staying there for several weeks; both records were at number one over the Christmas week, making Spice Girls one of three artists to achieve that feat.\nHaving topped the charts in virtually every other country in the Western world, Spice Girls concentrated on America in early 1997, releasing \"Wannabe\" in January and Spice in February.\nThey became massive stars in the U.S. as well, also scoring the hits \"Say You'll Be There\" and \"2 Become 1\"; Spiceworld, their second LP, appeared later in the year in conjunction with their feature film of the same name. In May 1998, Geri Halliwell departed from the band, not citing major reasons for leaving the group. She did release a solo album, Schizophonic, a year later, but nothing chart-topping to match the success of her former band. Still not deterred by the absence of Ginger Spice, Spice Girls trudged on -- Melanie B. married Spice Girls dancer Jimmy Gulzar and released the solo single, a duet with Missy \"Misdemeanor\" Elliot called \"I Want You Back.\" By Christmas, Spice Girls scored a number one hit with Goodbye and with a career floating high, their personal lives were moving as well. Melanie B. gave birth to a daughter named Phoenix Chi in February 1999, and Adams followed a month later with a son, Brooklyn Joseph. And now only known as Victoria Beckham, Posh Spice married Manchester United soccer star David Beckham later that summer. Becoming now more noticeable for their social status than their singing, Spice Girls took a well-deserved break while Melanie C. took over the English charts with her successful solo effort Northern Star, which was released in the U.S. in fall 1999. The following year, the girls headed back into the studio with high-profile producers Rodney Jerkins, Terry Lewis, and Jimmy Jam (Janet Jackson, Mary J. Blige) to record a follow-up to their pop-friendly Spiceworld.\nIn the middle of recording, Melanie B. divorced Gulzar and endured a bitter custody battle throughout the remainder of 2000. Spice Girls' creative power overruled media scrutiny so that they could fully focus on the new R&B sound they were trying for and a the new collaboration united the foursome once again to release the third album Forever, which hit American shores in fall 2000.\nThe group began to splinter not long after the release of Forever, which made little impact outside of the UK where it only had one hit single -- the chart-topping double-sided single “Holler”/”Let Love Lead the Way” -- before the Spice Girls stopped promoting the album. Just three months after the album's November 2000 release, the band announced that they were separating in February of 2001.\nOver the next few years, the Spice Girls may not have existed as a group, but they were never out of various taboild headlines in the UK and America. As the wife of football superstar David Beckham, Victoria got the most attention, but Mel B wasn't far behind thanks to her ill-fated romance with actor Eddie Murphy, which resulted in an out-of-wedlock child. Mel Chisholm had a steady career as a pop singer while Emma Bunton had some chart success of her own with her 2001 album A Girl Like Me and its 2004 successor, Free Me. Meanwhile, Geri Halliwell split her time between recording and TV projects.\nAfter years of persistent rumors of a reunion -- peaking heavily yet never materializing for Bob Geldolf's 2005 charity event Live 8 -- the Spice Girls announced in June 2007 that they would be reuniting for an eleven-concert tour beginning that December, which would be accompanied by a new greatest hits album and documentary.\nIn 2010, it was announced that the Spice Girls had joined forces with Simon Fuller to develop a musical based on their songs. Viva Forever: The Musical - penned by British comedienne Jennifer Saunders - was announced at a press conference in June 2012. After much speculation in the British press, the Spice Girls reformed once more for the closing ceremony of the London 2012 Olympics. ~ Stephen Thomas Erlewine, Rovi" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Algeria.txt" ], "title": [ "Algeria" ], "wiki_context": [ "Algeria ( '; ; ), officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria, is a sovereign state in North Africa on the Mediterranean coast. Its capital and most populous city is Algiers, located in the country's far north. With an area of 2381741 km2, Algeria is the tenth-largest country in the world, and the largest in Africa. Algeria is bordered to the northeast by Tunisia, to the east by Libya, to the west by Morocco, to the southwest by the Western Saharan territory, Mauritania, and Mali, to the southeast by Niger, and to the north by the Mediterranean Sea. The country is a semi-presidential republic consisting of 48 provinces and 1,541 communes (counties). Abdelaziz Bouteflika has been President since 1999.\n\nAncient Algeria has known many empires and dynasties, including ancient Numidians, Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals, Byzantines, Umayyads, Abbasids, Idrisid, Aghlabid, Rustamid, Fatimids, Zirid, Hammadids, Almoravids, Almohads, Ottomans and the French colonial empire. Berbers are generally considered to be the indigenous inhabitants of Algeria. Following the Arab conquest of North Africa, most indigenous inhabitants were Arabised; thus, although most Algerians are Berber in origin, most identify with Arab identity. En masse, Algerians are a mix of Berbers with some additional elements such as Arabs, Turks and Andalusians (people from southern Spain who migrated after the reconquista).\n\nAlgeria is a regional and middle power. The North African country supplies large amounts of natural gas to Europe, and energy exports are the backbone of the economy. According to OPEC Algeria has the 17th largest oil reserves in the world and the second largest in Africa, while it has the 9th largest reserves of natural gas. Sonatrach, the national oil company, is the largest company in Africa. Algeria has one of the largest militaries in Africa and the largest defence budget on the continent; most of Algeria's weapons are imported from Russia, with whom they are a close ally. Algeria is a member of the African Union, the Arab League, OPEC, the United Nations and is the founding member of the Maghreb Union.\n\nEtymology\n\nThe country's name derives from the city of Algiers. The city's name in turn derives from the Arabic al-Jazā'ir (الجزائر, \"The Islands\"), a truncated form of the older Jazā'ir Banī Mazghanna (جزائر بني مزغنة, \"Islands of the Mazghanna Tribe\"),al-Idrisi, Muhammad (12th century) Nuzhat al-Mushtaq employed by medieval geographers such as al-Idrisi.\n\nHistory\n\nAncient history\n\nIn the region of Ain Hanech (Saïda Province), early remnants (200,000 BC) of hominid occupation in North Africa were found. Neanderthal tool makers produced hand axes in the Levalloisian and Mousterian styles (43,000 BC) similar to those in the Levant. \n\nAlgeria was the site of the highest state of development of Middle Paleolithic Flake tool techniques. Tools of this era, starting about 30,000 BC, are called Aterian (after the archeological site of Bir el Ater, south of Tebessa).\n\nThe earliest blade industries in North Africa are called Iberomaurusian (located mainly in Oran region). This industry appears to have spread throughout the coastal regions of the Maghreb between 15,000 and 10,000 BC. Neolithic civilization (animal domestication and agriculture) developed in the Saharan and Mediterranean Maghreb perhaps as early as 11,000 BC or as late as between 6000 and 2000 BC. This life, richly depicted in the Tassili n'Ajjer paintings, predominated in Algeria until the classical period.\n\nThe amalgam of peoples of North Africa coalesced eventually into a distinct native population that came to be called Berbers, who are the indigenous peoples of northern Africa. \n\nFrom their principal center of power at Carthage, the Carthaginians expanded and established small settlements along the North African coast; by 600 BC, a Phoenician presence existed at Tipasa, east of Cherchell, Hippo Regius (modern Annaba) and Rusicade (modern Skikda). These settlements served as market towns as well as anchorages.\n\nAs Carthaginian power grew, its impact on the indigenous population increased dramatically. Berber civilization was already at a stage in which agriculture, manufacturing, trade, and political organization supported several states. Trade links between Carthage and the Berbers in the interior grew, but territorial expansion also resulted in the enslavement or military recruitment of some Berbers and in the extraction of tribute from others.\n\nBy the early 4th century BC, Berbers formed the single largest element of the Carthaginian army. In the Revolt of the Mercenaries, Berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 BC after being unpaid following the defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War. They succeeded in obtaining control of much of Carthage's North African territory, and they minted coins bearing the name Libyan, used in Greek to describe natives of North Africa. The Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in the Punic Wars.\n\nIn 146 BC the city of Carthage was destroyed. As Carthaginian power waned, the influence of Berber leaders in the hinterland grew. By the 2nd century BC, several large but loosely administered Berber kingdoms had emerged. Two of them were established in Numidia, behind the coastal areas controlled by Carthage. West of Numidia lay Mauretania, which extended across the Moulouya River in modern-day Morocco to the Atlantic Ocean. The high point of Berber civilization, unequaled until the coming of the Almohads and Almoravids more than a millennium later, was reached during the reign of Massinissa in the 2nd century BC.\n\nAfter Masinissa's death in 148 BC, the Berber kingdoms were divided and reunited several times. Massinissa's line survived until 24 AD, when the remaining Berber territory was annexed to the Roman Empire.\n\nFor several centuries Algeria was ruled by the Romans, who founded many colonies in the region. Like the rest of North Africa, Algeria was one of the breadbaskets of the empire, exporting cereals and other agricultural products. Saint Augustine was the bishop of Hippo Regius (modern-day Algeria), located in the Roman province of Africa. The Germanic Vandals of Geiseric moved into North Africa in 429, and by 435 controlled coastal Numidia. They did not make any significant settlement on the land, as they were harassed by local tribes, in fact by the time the Byzantines arrived Lepcis Magna was abandoned and the Msellata region was occupied by the indigenous Laguatan who had been busy facilitating an Amazigh political, military and cultural revival. \n\nMiddle Ages\n\nAfter negligible resistance from the locals, the Arabs conquered Algeria in the mid-7th century and a large number of the indigenous people converted to the new faith. After the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate, numerous local dynasties emerged, including the Aghlabids, Almohads, Abdalwadid, Zirids, Rustamids, Hammadids, Almoravids and the Fatimids.\n\nDuring the Middle Ages, North Africa was home to many great Scholars, Saints, and Sovereigns including Judah Ibn Quraysh the first grammarian to suggest the Afroasiatic language family, the great Sufi masters Sidi Boumediene (Abu Madyan) and Sidi El Houari, as well as the Emirs Abd Al Mu'min and Yāghmūrasen. It was during this time period that the Fatimids or children of Fatima, daughter of Muhammad, came to the Maghreb. These \"Fatimids\" went on to found a long lasting dynasty stretching across the Maghreb, Hejaz, and the Levant, boasting a secular inner government, as well as a powerful army and navy, primarily made of Arabs and levantians extending from Algeria to their capital state of Cairo. The Fatimid caliphate began to collapse when its governors the Zirids seceded. In order to punish them the Fatimids sent the Arab Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym against them. The resultant war is recounted in the epic Tāghribāt. In Al-Tāghrībāt the Amazigh Zirid Hero Khālīfā Al-Zānatī asks daily, for duels, to defeat the Hilalan hero Ābu Zayd al-Hilalī and many other Arab knights in a string of victories. The Zirids however were ultimately defeated ushering in an adoption of Arab customs and culture. The indigenous Amazigh tribes however remained largely independent, and depending on tribe, location, and time controlled varying parts of the Maghreb, at times unifying it (as under the Fatimids). The Fatimid Islamic state, also known as Fatimid Caliphate made an Islamic empire that included North Africa, Sicily, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Egypt, the Red Sea coast of Africa, Tihamah, Hejaz, and Yemen. Caliphates from Northern Africa traded with the other empires of their time, as well as forming part of a confederated support and trade network with other Islamic states during the Islamic Era.\n\nThe Amazighs historically consisted of several tribes. The two main branches were the Botr and Barnès tribes, who were divided into tribes, and again into sub-tribes. Each region of the Maghreb contained several tribes (for example, Sanhadja, Houara, Zenata, Masmouda, Kutama, Awarba, and Berghwata). All these tribes made independent territorial decisions. \n\nSeveral Amazigh dynasties emerged during the Middle Ages in the Maghreb and other nearby lands. Ibn Khaldun provides a table summarizing the Amazigh dynasties of the Maghreb region, the Zirid, Banu Ifran, Maghrawa, Almoravid, Hammadid, Almohad, Merinid, Abdalwadid, Wattasid, Meknassa and Hafsid dynasties. \n\nIn the early 16th century, Spain constructed fortified outposts (presidios) on or near the Algerian coast. Spain took control of few coastal towns like Mers el Kebir in 1505; Oran in 1509; and Tlemcen, Mostaganem, and Ténès, in 1510. In the same year, few merchants of Algiers ceded one of the rocky islets in their harbor to Spain, which built a fort on it. The presidios in North Africa turned out to be a costly and largely ineffective military endeavor that did not guarantee access for Spain's merchant fleet. \n\nArabization\n\nThere reigned in Ifriqiya, current Tunisia, a Berber family, Zirid, somehow recognizing the suzerainty of the Fatimid caliph of Cairo. Probably in 1048, the Zirid ruler or viceroy, el-Mu'izz, decided to end this suzerainty. The Fatimid state was too weak to attempt a punitive expedition; The Viceroy, el-Mu'izz, also found another means of revenge.\n\nBetween the Nile and the Red Sea were living Bedouin tribes expelled from Arabia for their disruption and turbulent influence, both Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym among others, whose presence disrupted farmers in the Nile Valley since the nomads would often loot. The then Fatimid vizier devised to relinquish control of the Maghreb and obtained the agreement of his sovereign. This not only prompted the Bedouins to leave, but the Fatimid treasury even gave them a light expatriation cash allowance.\n\nWhole tribes set off with women, children, ancestors, animals and camping equipment. Some stopped on the way, especially in Cyrenaica, where they are still one of the essential elements of the settlement but most arrived in Ifriqiya by the Gabes region. The Zirid ruler tried to stop this rising tide, but each meeting, the last under the walls of Kairouan, his troops were defeated and Arabs remained masters of the field.\n\nThe flood was still rising and in 1057, the Arabs spread on the high plains of Constantine where they gradually choked Qalaa of Banu Hammad, as they had done Kairouan few decades ago. From there, they gradually gained the upper Algiers and Oran plains, some were forcibly taken by the Almohads in the second half of the 12th century. We can say that in the 13th century there were in all of North Africa, with the exception of the main mountain ranges and certain coastal regions remained entirely Berber.\n\nOttoman Algeria\n\nThe region of Algeria was partially ruled by Ottomans for three centuries from 1516 to 1830. In 1516 the Turkish privateer brothers Aruj and Hayreddin Barbarossa, who operated successfully under the Hafsids, moved their base of operations to Algiers. They succeeded in conquering Jijel and Algiers from the Spaniards but eventually assumed control over the city and the surrounding region, forcing the previous ruler, Abu Hamo Musa III of the Bani Ziyad dynasty, to flee. When Aruj was killed in 1518 during his invasion of Tlemcen, Hayreddin succeeded him as military commander of Algiers. The Ottoman sultan gave him the title of beylerbey and a contingent of some 2,000 janissaries. With the aid of this force, Hayreddin conquered the whole area between Constantine and Oran (although the city of Oran remained in Spanish hands until 1791).\n\nThe next beylerbey was Hayreddin's son Hasan, who assumed the position in 1544. Until 1587 the area was governed by officers who served terms with no fixed limits. Subsequently, with the institution of a regular Ottoman administration, governors with the title of pasha ruled for three-year terms. The pasha was assisted by janissaries, known in Algeria as the ojaq and led by an agha. Discontent among the ojaq rose in the mid-1600s because they were not paid regularly, and they repeatedly revolted against the pasha. As a result, the agha charged the pasha with corruption and incompetence and seized power in 1659.\n\nPlague had repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa. Algiers lost from 30,000 to 50,000 inhabitants to the plague in 1620–21, and suffered high fatalities in 1654–57, 1665, 1691, and 1740–42.\n\nIn 1671, the taifa rebelled, killed the agha, and placed one of its own in power. The new leader received the title of dey. After 1689, the right to select the dey passed to the divan, a council of some sixty nobles. It was at first dominated by the ojaq; but by the 18th century, it had become the dey's instrument. In 1710, the dey persuaded the sultan to recognize him and his successors as regent, replacing the pasha in that role, although Algiers remained a part of the Ottoman Empire.\n\nThe dey was in effect a constitutional autocrat. The dey was elected for a life term, but in the 159 years (1671–1830) that the system survived, fourteen of the twenty-nine deys were assassinated. Despite usurpation, military coups, and occasional mob rule, the day-to-day operation of Ottomon government was remarkably orderly. Although the regency patronized the tribal chieftains, it never had the unanimous allegiance of the countryside, where heavy taxation frequently provoked unrest. Autonomous tribal states were tolerated, and the regency's authority was seldom applied in the Kabylie. \n\nPrivateers era\n\nThe Barbary pirates preyed on Christian and other non-Islamic shipping in the western Mediterranean Sea. The pirates often took the passengers and crew on the ships and sold them or used them as slaves. They also did a brisk business in ransoming some of the captives. According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th century, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves. They often made raids, called Razzias, on European coastal towns to capture Christian slaves to sell at slave markets in North Africa and the Ottoman Empire. \n\nIn 1544, Hayreddin captured the island of Ischia, taking 4,000 prisoners, and enslaved some 9,000 inhabitants of Lipari, almost the entire population. In 1551, Turgut Reis enslaved the entire population of the Maltese island of Gozo, between 5,000 and 6,000, sending the captives to Libya. In 1554, pirates sacked Vieste in southern Italy and took an estimated 7,000 captives as slaves. \n\nIn 1558, Barbary corsairs captured the town of Ciutadella (Minorca), destroyed it, slaughtered the inhabitants and took 3,000 survivors as slaves to Istanbul. Barbary pirates often attacked the Balearic Islands, and in response, the residents built many coastal watchtowers and fortified churches. The threat was so severe that residents abandoned the island of Formentera. \n\nBetween 1609 and 1616, England lost 466 merchant ships to Barbary pirates.\n\nIn July 1627 two pirate ships from Algiers sailed as far as Iceland, raiding and capturing slaves. Two weeks earlier another pirate ship from Salé in Morocco had also raided in Iceland. Some of the slaves brought to Algiers were later ransomed back to Iceland, but some chose to stay in Algeria. In 1629 pirate ships from Algeria raided the Faroe Islands. \n\nIn the 19th century, the pirates forged affiliations with Caribbean powers, paying a \"license tax\" in exchange for safe harbor of their vessels. One American slave reported that the Algerians had enslaved 130 American seamen in the Mediterranean and Atlantic from 1785 to 1793. \n\nPiracy on American vessels in the Mediterranean resulted in the United States initiating the First (1801–1805) and Second Barbary Wars (1815). Following those wars, Algeria was weaker, and Europeans, with an Anglo-Dutch fleet commanded by the British Lord Exmouth, attacked Algiers. After a nine-hour bombardment, they obtained a treaty from the Dey that reaffirmed the conditions imposed by Decatur (US navy) concerning the demands of tributes. In addition, the Dey agreed to end the practice of enslaving Christians. \n\nFrench colonisation of Algeria\n\nUnder the pretext of a slight to their consul, the French invaded and captured Algiers in 1830. Algerine slave trade and piracy ceased when the French conquered Algiers. The conquest of Algeria by the French took some time and resulted in considerable bloodshed. A combination of violence and disease epidemics caused the indigenous Algerian population to decline by nearly one-third from 1830 to 1872. The population of Algeria, which stood at about 1.5 million in 1830, reached nearly 11 million in 1960. French policy was predicated on \"civilizing\" the country. Algeria's social fabric suffered during the occupation; literacy plummeted. During this period, a small but influential French-speaking indigenous elite was formed, made up of Berbers mostly from Kabyles.\nAs a consequence, French government favored the Kabyles. About 80% of Indigenous Schools were constructed for Kabyles.\n\nFrom 1848 until independence, France administered the whole Mediterranean region of Algeria as an integral part and département of the nation. One of France's longest-held overseas territories, Algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands of European immigrants, who became known as colons and later, as Pied-Noirs. Between 1825 and 1847, 50,000 French people immigrated to Algeria. These settlers benefited from the French government's confiscation of communal land from tribal peoples, and the application of modern agricultural techniques that increased the amount of arable land. Many Europeans settled in Oran and Algiers, and by the early 20th century they formed a majority of the population in both cities. \n\nGradually, dissatisfaction among the Muslim population, which lacked political and economic status in the colonial system, gave rise to demands for greater political autonomy, and eventually independence from France. Tensions between the two population groups came to a head in 1954, when the first violent events of what was later called the Algerian War began. Historians have estimated that between 30,000 and 150,000 Harkis and their dependents were killed by the Front de Libération Nationale (FLN) or by lynch mobs in Algeria. The FLN used hit and run attacks in Algeria and France as part of its war, and the French conducted severe reprisals. The war led to the death of hundreds of thousands of Algerians and hundreds of thousands of injuries. The war concluded in 1962, when Algeria gained complete independence following the March 1962 Evian agreements and the July 1962 self-determination referendum.\n\nThe number of European Pied-Noirs who fled Algeria totaled more than 900,000 between 1962 and 1964. The exodus to mainland France accelerated after the Oran massacre of 1962, in which hundreds of militants entered European sections of the city, and began attacking civilians.\n\nIndependence\n\nAlgeria's first president was the Front de Libération Nationale (FLN) leader Ahmed Ben Bella. Morocco's claim to portions of western Algeria led to the Sand War in 1963. Ben Bella was overthrown in 1965 by Houari Boumediene, his former ally and defence minister. Under Ben Bella, the government had become increasingly socialist and authoritarian; Boumédienne continued this trend. But, he relied much more on the army for his support, and reduced the sole legal party to a symbolic role. He collectivised agriculture and launched a massive industrialization drive. Oil extraction facilities were nationalized. This was especially beneficial to the leadership after the international 1973 oil crisis.\n\nIn the 1960s and 1970s under President Houari Boumediene, Algeria pursued a programme of industrialisation within a state-controlled socialist economy. Boumediene's successor, Chadli Bendjedid, introduced some liberal economic reforms. He promoted a policy of Arabisation in Algerian society and public life. Teachers of Arabic, brought in from other Muslim countries, spread conventional Islamic thought in schools and sowed the seeds of a return to Orthodox Islam.\n\nThe Algerian economy became increasingly dependent on oil, leading to hardship when the price collapsed during the 1980s oil glut. Economic recession caused by the crash in world oil prices resulted in Algerian social unrest during the 1980s; by the end of the decade, Bendjedid introduced a multi-party system. Political parties developed, such as the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS), a broad coalition of Muslim groups.\n\nCivil War and aftermath\n\nIn December 1991 the Islamic Salvation Front dominated the first of two rounds of legislative elections. Fearing the election of an Islamist government, the authorities intervened on 11 January 1992, cancelling the elections. Bendjedid resigned and a High Council of State was installed to act as Presidency. It banned the FIS, triggering a civil insurgency between the Front's armed wing, the Armed Islamic Group, and the national armed forces, in which more than 100,000 people are thought to have died. The Islamist militants conducted a violent campaign of civilian massacres. At several points in the conflict, the situation in Algeria became a point of international concern, most notably during the crisis surrounding Air France Flight 8969, a hijacking perpetrated by the Armed Islamic Group. The Armed Islamic Group declared a ceasefire in October 1997.\n\nAlgeria held elections in 1999, considered biased by international observers and most opposition groups which were won by President Abdelaziz Bouteflika. He worked to restore political stability to the country and announced a 'Civil Concord' initiative, approved in a referendum, under which many political prisoners were pardoned, and several thousand members of armed groups were granted exemption from prosecution under a limited amnesty, in force until 13 January 2000. The AIS disbanded and levels of insurgent violence fell rapidly. The Groupe Salafiste pour la Prédication et le Combat (GSPC), a splinter group of the Group Islamic Armée, continued a terrorist campaign against the Government.\n\nBouteflika was re-elected in the April 2004 presidential election after campaigning on a programme of national reconciliation. The programme comprised economic, institutional, political and social reform to modernise the country, raise living standards, and tackle the causes of alienation. It also included a second amnesty initiative, the Charter for Peace and National Reconciliation, which was approved in a referendum in September 2005. It offered amnesty to most guerrillas and Government security forces.\n\nIn November 2008, the Algerian Constitution was amended following a vote in Parliament, removing the two-term limit on Presidential incumbents. This change enabled Bouteflika to stand for re-election in the 2009 presidential elections, and he was re-elected in April 2009. During his election campaign and following his re-election, Bouteflika promised to extend the programme of national reconciliation and a $150-billion spending programme to create three million new jobs, the construction of one million new housing units, and to continue public sector and infrastructure modernisation programmes.\n\nA continuing series of protests throughout the country started on 28 December 2010, inspired by similar protests across the Middle East and North Africa. On 24 February 2011, the government lifted Algeria's 19-year-old state of emergency. The government enacted legislation dealing with political parties, the electoral code, and the representation of women in elected bodies. In April 2011, Bouteflika promised further constitutional and political reform. However, elections are routinely criticized by opposition groups as unfair and international human rights groups say that media censorship and harassment of political opponents continue.\n\nGeography\n\nFile:Kabylie-neige.jpg|The Djurdjura Range in snow\nFile:Tadrart Rouge.jpg|The Tadrart Rouge near Djanet.\nFile:El Tarf-Algerie.jpg|El Taref Province, In eastern Algeria.\nFile:Ouarsenis 2012, Wilaya de Tissemsilt (Algérie).jpg|Ouarsenis, range of mountains in North-Western (1985m)\nFile:Les Aiguades.jpg|Maritime front of Bejaïa\nFile:Djanet, Tassili.jpg|The Tassili n'Ajjer.\nFile:Seraidi-Annaba.jpg|Edough National Park, Annaba\n\nAlgeria is the largest country in Africa, the Arab world, and the Mediterranean Basin. Its southern part includes a significant portion of the Sahara. To the north, the Tell Atlas form with the Saharan Atlas, further south, two parallel sets of reliefs in approaching eastbound, and between which are inserted vast plains and highlands. Both Atlas tend to merge in eastern Algeria. The vast mountain ranges of Aures and Nememcha occupy the entire northeastern Algeria and are delineated by the Tunisian border. The highest point is Mount Tahat ( m).\n\nAlgeria lies mostly between latitudes 19° and 37°N (a small area is north of 37°), and longitudes 9°W and 12°E. Most of the coastal area is hilly, sometimes even mountainous, and there are a few natural harbours. The area from the coast to the Tell Atlas is fertile. South of the Tell Atlas is a steppe landscape ending with the Saharan Atlas; farther south, there is the Sahara desert.\n\nThe Ahaggar Mountains (), also known as the Hoggar, are a highland region in central Sahara, southern Algeria. They are located about 1500 km south of the capital, Algiers, and just west of Tamanghasset. Algiers, Oran, Constantine, and Annaba are Algeria's main cities.\n\nClimate and hydrology\n\nIn this region, midday desert temperatures can be hot year round. After sunset, however, the clear, dry air permits rapid loss of heat, and the nights are cool to chilly. Enormous daily ranges in temperature are recorded.\n\nThe highest official temperature was at In Salah. \n\nRainfall is fairly plentiful along the coastal part of the Tell Atlas, ranging from 400 to annually, the amount of precipitation increasing from west to east. Precipitation is heaviest in the northern part of eastern Algeria, where it reaches as much as 1000 mm in some years.\n\nFarther inland, the rainfall is less plentiful. Algeria also has ergs, or sand dunes, between mountains. Among these, in the summer time when winds are heavy and gusty, temperatures can get up to 110 °F.\n\nFauna and flora\n\nThe varied vegetation of Algeria includes coastal, mountainous and grassy desert-like regions which all support a wide range of wildlife. Many of the creatures comprising the Algerian wildlife live in close proximity to civilization. The most commonly seen animals include the wild boars, jackals, and gazelles, although it is not uncommon to spot fennecs (foxes), and jerboas. Algeria also has a small African leopard and Saharan cheetah population, but these are seldom seen. A species of deer, the Barbary stag, inhabits the dense humid forests in the north-eastern areas.\n\nA variety of bird species makes the country an attraction for bird watchers. The forests are inhabited by boars and jackals. Barbary macaques are the sole native monkey. Snakes, monitor lizards, and numerous other reptiles can be found living among an array of rodents throughout the semi arid regions of Algeria. Many animals are now extinct, including the Barbary lions, Atlas bears and crocodiles. \n\nIn the north, some of the native flora includes Macchia scrub, olive trees, oaks, cedars and other conifers. The mountain regions contain large forests of evergreens (Aleppo pine, juniper, and evergreen oak) and some deciduous trees. Fig, eucalyptus, agave, and various palm trees grow in the warmer areas. The grape vine is indigenous to the coast. In the Sahara region, some oases have palm trees. Acacias with wild olives are the predominant flora in the remainder of the Sahara.\n\nCamels are used extensively; the desert also abounds with venomous and nonvenomous snakes, scorpions, and numerous insects.\n\nPolitics\n\nAlgeria is an authoritarian regime, according to the Democracy Index 2014. The Freedom of the Press 2015 report gives it a rating of \"Not Free\". \n\nElected politicians are considered to have relatively little sway over Algeria. Instead, a group of unelected civilian and military \"décideurs\", known as \"le pouvoir\" (\"the power\"), actually rule the country, even deciding who should be president. The most powerful man may be Mohamed Mediène, head of the military intelligence. In recent years, many of these generals have died or retired. After the death of General Larbi Belkheir, Bouteflika put loyalists in key posts, notably at Sonatrach, and secured constitutional amendments that make him re-electable indefinitely. \n\nThe head of state is the president of Algeria, who is elected for a five-year term. The president was formerly limited to two five-year terms, but a constitutional amendment passed by the Parliament on 11 November 2008 removed this limitation. Algeria has universal suffrage at 18 years of age. The President is the head of the army, the Council of Ministers and the High Security Council. He appoints the Prime Minister who is also the head of government. \n\nThe Algerian parliament is bicameral; the lower house, the People's National Assembly, has 462 members who are directly elected for five-year terms, while the upper house, the Council of the Nation, has 144 members serving six-year terms, of which 96 members are chosen by local assemblies and 48 are appointed by the president. According to the constitution, no political association may be formed if it is \"based on differences in religion, language, race, gender, profession, or region\". In addition, political campaigns must be exempt from the aforementioned subjects. \n\nParliamentary elections were last held in May 2012, and were judged to be largely free by international monitors, though local groups alleged fraud and irregularities. In the elections, the FLN won 221 seats, the military-backed National Rally for Democracy won 70, and the Islamist Green Algeria Alliance won 47.\n\nForeign relations\n\nIn October 2009, Algeria cancelled a weapons deal with France over the possibility of inclusion of Israeli parts in them. \n\nTensions between Algeria and Morocco in relation to the Western Sahara have been an obstacle to tightening the Arab Maghreb Union, nominally established in 1989, but which has carried little practical weight. \n\nAlgeria is included in the European Union's European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer.\nGiving incentives and rewarding best performers, as well as offering funds in a faster and more flexible manner, are the two main principles underlying the European Neighbourhood Instrument (ENI) that came into force in 2014. It has a budget of €15.4 billion and provides the bulk of funding through a number of programmes.\n\nMilitary\n\nThe military of Algeria consists of the People's National Army (ANP), the Algerian National Navy (MRA), and the Algerian Air Force (QJJ), plus the Territorial Air Defence Forces. It is the direct successor of the National Liberation Army (Armée de Libération Nationale or ALN), the armed wing of the nationalist National Liberation Front which fought French colonial occupation during the Algerian War of Independence (1954–62).\n\nTotal military personnel include 147,000 active, 150,000 reserve, and 187,000 paramilitary staff (2008 estimate). Service in the military is compulsory for men aged 19–30, for a total of 12 months. The military expenditure was 4.3% of the gross domestic product (GDP) in 2012. Algeria has the second largest military in North Africa with the largest defence budget in Africa ($10 billion).\n\nIn 2007, the Algerian Air Force signed a deal with Russia to purchase 49 MiG-29SMT and 6 MiG-29UBT at an estimated cost of $1.9 billion. It also agreed to return old aircraft purchased from the former USSR. Russia is also building two 636-type diesel submarines for Algeria. \n\nAdministrative divisions\n\nAlgeria is divided into 48 provinces (wilayas), 553 districts (daïras) and 1,541 municipalities (baladiyahs). Each province, district, and municipality is named after its seat, which is usually the largest city.\n\nThe administrative divisions have changed several times since independence. When introducing new provinces, the numbers of old provinces are kept, hence the non-alphabetical order. With their official numbers, currently (since 1983) they are\n\nEconomy\n\nAlgeria is classified as an upper middle income country by the World Bank. Algeria's currency is the dinar (DZD). The economy remains dominated by the state, a legacy of the country's socialist post-independence development model. In recent years, the Algerian government has halted the privatization of state-owned industries and imposed restrictions on imports and foreign involvement in its economy.\n\nAlgeria has struggled to develop industries outside hydrocarbons in part because of high costs and an inert state bureaucracy. The government's efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector have done little to reduce high youth unemployment rates or to address housing shortages. The country is facing a number of short-term and medium-term problems, including the need to diversify the economy, strengthen political, economic and financial reforms, improve the business climate and reduce inequalities amongst regions.\n\nA wave of economic protests in February and March 2011 prompted the Algerian government to offer more than $23 billion in public grants and retroactive salary and benefit increases. Public spending has increased by 27% annually during the past 5 years. The 2010–14 public-investment programme will cost US$286 billion, 40% of which will go to human development.\n\nThe Algerian economy grew by 2.6% in 2011, driven by public spending, in particular in the construction and public-works sector, and by growing internal demand. If hydrocarbons are excluded, growth has been estimated at 4.8%. Growth of 3% is expected in 2012, rising to 4.2% in 2013. The rate of inflation was 4% and the budget deficit 3% of GDP. The current-account surplus is estimated at 9.3% of GDP and at the end of December 2011, official reserves were put at US$182 billion. Inflation, the lowest in the region, has remained stable at 4% on average between 2003 and 2007. \n\nIn 2011 Algeria announced a budgetary surplus of $26.9 billion, 62% increase in comparison to 2010 surplus. In general, the country exported $73 billion worth of commodities while it imported $46 billion. \n\nThanks to strong hydrocarbon revenues, Algeria has a cushion of $173 billion in foreign currency reserves and a large hydrocarbon stabilization fund. In addition, Algeria's external debt is extremely low at about 2% of GDP. The economy remains very dependent on hydrocarbon wealth, and, despite high foreign exchange reserves (US$178 billion, equivalent to three years of imports), current expenditure growth makes Algeria's budget more vulnerable to the risk of prolonged lower hydrocarbon revenues.\n\nIn 2011, the agricultural sector and services recorded growth of 10% and 5.3%, respectively. About 14% of the labor force are employed in the agricultural sector. Fiscal policy in 2011 remained expansionist and made it possible to maintain the pace of public investment and to contain the strong demand for jobs and housing.\n\nAlgeria has not joined the WTO, despite several years of negotiations. \n\nIn March 2006, Russia agreed to erase $4.74 billion of Algeria's Soviet-era debt during a visit by Russian President Vladimir Putin to the country, the first by a Russian leader in half a century. In return, Algerian President Abdelaziz Bouteflika agreed to buy $7.5 billion worth of combat planes, air-defence systems and other arms from Russia, according to the head of Russia's state arms exporter Rosoboronexport. \n\nHydrocarbons\n\nAlgeria, whose economy is reliant on petroleum, has been an OPEC member since 1969. Its crude oil production stands at around 1.1 million barrels/day, but it is also a major gas producer and exporter, with important links to Europe. Hydrocarbons have long been the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues, 30% of GDP, and over 95% of export earnings. Algeria has the 10th-largest reserves of natural gas in the world and is the sixth-largest gas exporter. The U.S. Energy Information Administration reported that in 2005, Algeria had 160 Tcuft of proven natural-gas reserves. It also ranks 16th in oil reserves.\n\nNon-hydrocarbon growth for 2011 was projected at 5%. To cope with social demands, the authorities raised expenditure, especially on basic food support, employment creation, support for SMEs, and higher salaries. High hydrocarbon prices have improved the current account and the already large international reserves position.\n\nIncome from oil and gas rose in 2011 as a result of continuing high oil prices, though the trend in production volume is downwards. Production from the oil and gas sector in terms of volume, continues to decline, dropping from 43.2 million tonnes to 32 million tonnes between 2007 and 2011. Nevertheless, the sector accounted for 98% of the total volume of exports in 2011, against 48% in 1962, and 70% of budgetary receipts, or USD 71.4 billion.\n\nThe Algerian national oil company is Sonatrach, which plays a key role in all aspects of the oil and natural gas sectors in Algeria. All foreign operators must work in partnership with Sonatrach, which usually has majority ownership in production-sharing agreements. \n\nLabour market\n\nDespite a decline in total unemployment, youth and women unemployment is high. Unemployment particularly affects the young, with a jobless rate of 21.5% among the 15–24 age group.\n\nThe overall rate of unemployment was 10% in 2011, but remained higher among young people, with a rate of 21.5% for those aged between 15 and 24. The government strengthened in 2011 the job programmes introduced in 1988, in particular in the framework of the programme to aid those seeking work (Dispositif d'Aide à l'Insertion Professionnelle).\n\nTourism\n\nThe development of the tourism sector in Algeria had previously been hampered by a lack of facilities, but since 2004 a broad tourism development strategy has been implemented resulting in many hotels of a high modern standard being built.\n\nThere are several UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Algeria including Al Qal'a of Beni Hammad, the first capital of the Hammadid empire; Tipasa, a Phoenician and later Roman town; and Djémila and Timgad, both Roman ruins; M'Zab Valley, a limestone valley containing a large urbanized oasis; also the Casbah of Algiers is an important citadel. The only natural World Heritage Sites is the Tassili n'Ajjer, a mountain range.\n\nTransport\n\nThe Algerian road network is the densest in Africa; its length is estimated at 180,000 km of highways, with more than 3,756 structures and a paving rate of 85%. This network will be complemented by the East-West Highway, a major infrastructure project currently under construction. It is a 3-way, 1,216 km long highway, linking Annaba in the extreme east to the Tlemcen in the far west. Algeria is also crossed by the Trans-Sahara Highway, which is now completely paved. This road is supported by the Algerian government to increase trade between the six countries crossed: Algeria, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Chad and Tunisia.\n\nWater supply and sanitation\n\nThere is a substantial increase in the amount of drinking water supplied from reservoirs, long-distance water transfers and desalination at a low price to consumers, thanks to the country's substantial oil and gas revenues. In 2011 the capital Algiers transformed its intermittent water supply into a to continuous one, along with considerable improvements in wastewater treatment. However, there is still poor service quality in many cities outside Algiers with 78% of urban residents suffering from intermittent water supply. Another challenge is the pollution of water resources.\n\nDemographics\n\nIn January 2016 Algeria's population was an estimated 40,4  million, who are mainly Arab-Berber ethnically. At the outset of the 20th century, its population was approximately four million. About 90% of Algerians live in the northern, coastal area; the inhabitants of the Sahara desert are mainly concentrated in oases, although some 1.5 million remain nomadic or partly nomadic. 28.1% of Algerians are under the age of 15.\n\nWomen make up 70% of the country's lawyers and 60% of its judges and also dominate the field of medicine. Increasingly, women are contributing more to household income than men. 60% of university students are women, according to university researchers. \n\nBetween 90,000 and 165,000 Sahrawis from Western Sahara live in the Sahrawi refugee camps, in the western Algerian Sahara desert. There are also more than 4,000 Palestinian refugees, who are well integrated and have not asked for assistance from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). In 2009, 35,000 Chinese migrant workers lived in Algeria. \n\nThe largest concentration of Algerian migrants outside Algeria is in France, which has reportedly over 1.7 million Algerians of up to the second generation. \n\nEthnic groups\n\n \nIndigenous Berbers as well as Phoenicians, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Turks, various Sub-Saharan Africans, and French have contributed to the history of Algeria. Descendants of Andalusian refugees are also present in the population of Algiers and other cities. Moreover, Spanish was spoken by these Aragonese and Castillian Morisco descendants deep into the 18th century, and even Catalan was spoken at the same time by Catalan Morisco descendants in the small town of Grish El-Oued. \n\nThere are 600,000 to 2 million former Algerian Turks, descendants of Turkish rulers, soldiers, doctors and others who ruled the region during the Ottoman rule in North Africa. Today's Turkish descendants are often called Kouloughlis, meaning descendants of Turkish men and native Algerian women. \n\nDespite the dominance of the Berber culture and ethnicity in Algeria, majority of Algerians identify with an Arabic-based identity, especially after the Arab nationialism rising in the 20th century. Berbers and Berber-speaking Algerians are divided into many groups with varying languages. The largest of these are the Kabyles, who live in the Kabylie region east of Algiers, the Chaoui of Northeast Algeria, the Tuaregs in the southern desert and the Shenwa people of North Algeria. \n\nDuring the colonial period, there was a large (10% in 1960) European population who became known as Pied-Noirs. They were primarily of French, Spanish and Italian origin. Almost all of this population left during the war of independence or immediately after its end. \n\nLanguages\n\nModern Standard Arabic is the official language. Algerian Arabic (Darja) is the language used by the majority of the population. Colloquial Algerian Arabic is heavily infused with borrowings from French and Berber.\n\nBerber has been recognized as a \"national language\" by the constitutional amendment of 8 May 2002. Kabyle, the predominant Berber language, is taught and is partially co-official (with a few restrictions) in parts of Kabylie.\n\nAlthough French has no official status, Algeria is the second-largest Francophone country in the world in terms of speakers, and French is widely used in government, media (newspapers, radio, local television), and both the education system (from primary school onwards) and academia due to Algeria's colonial history. It can be regarded as the de facto co-official language of Algeria. In 2008, 11.2 million Algerians could read and write in French. ([http://www.webcitation.org/6FhBO8XsN Archive]) p. 9 \"Nous y agrégeons néanmoins quelques données disponibles pour des pays n'appartenant pas à l'OIF mais dont nous savons, comme pour l'Algérie (11,2 millions en 20081),\" and \"1. Nombre de personnes âgées de cinq ans et plus déclarant savoir lire et écrire le français, d'après les données du recensement de 2008 communiquées par l'Office national des statistiques d'Algérie.\" An Abassa Institute study in April 2000 found that 60% of households could speak and understand French or 18 million in a population of 30 million then. In recent decades the government has reinforced the study of French and TV programs have reinforced use of the language.\n\nAlgeria emerged as a bilingual state after 1962. Colloquial Algerian Arabic is spoken by about 72% of the population and Berber by 27–30%. \n\nReligion\n\nIslam is the predominant religion with 99% of the population. There are about 150,000 Ibadis in the M'zab Valley in the region of Ghardaia. \n\nThere were an estimated 10,000 Christians in Algeria in 2008. In a 2009 study the UNO estimated there were 45,000 Catholics and 50,000–100,000 Protestants in Algeria. A 2015 study estimates 380,000 Muslims converted to Christianity in Algeria. \n\nFollowing the Revolution and Algerian independence, all but 6,500 of the country's 140,000 Jews left the country, of whom about 90% moved to France with the Pied-Noirs and 10% moved to Israel.\n\nAlgeria has given the Muslim world a number of prominent thinkers, including Emir Abdelkader, Abdelhamid Ibn Badis, Mouloud Kacem Nait-Belkacem, Malek Bennabi, and Mohamed Akroun.\n\nCities\n\nBelow is a list of the most important Algerian cities:\n\nCulture\n\nModern Algerian literature, split between Arabic, Tamazight and French, has been strongly influenced by the country's recent history. Famous novelists of the 20th century include Mohammed Dib, Albert Camus, Kateb Yacine and Ahlam Mosteghanemi while Assia Djebar is widely translated. Among the important novelists of the 1980s were Rachid Mimouni, later vice-president of Amnesty International, and Tahar Djaout, murdered by an Islamist group in 1993 for his secularist views. \n\nMalek Bennabi and Frantz Fanon are noted for their thoughts on decolonization; Augustine of Hippo was born in Tagaste (modern-day Souk Ahras); and Ibn Khaldun, though born in Tunis, wrote the Muqaddima while staying in Algeria. The works of the Sanusi family in pre-colonial times, and of Emir Abdelkader and Sheikh Ben Badis in colonial times, are widely noted. The Latin author Apuleius was born in Madaurus (Mdaourouch), in what later became Algeria.\n\nContemporary Algerian cinema is various in terms of genre, exploring a wider range of themes and issues. There has been a transition from cinema which focused on the war of independence to films more concerned with the everyday lives of Algerians. \n\nArt\n\nAlgerian painters, like Mohamed Racim or Baya, attempted to revive the prestigious Algerian past prior to French colonization, at the same time that they have contributed to the preservation of the authentic values of Algeria. In this line, Mohamed Temam, Abdelkhader Houamel have also returned through this art, scenes from the history of the country, the habits and customs of the past and the country life. Other new artistic currents including the one of M'hamed Issiakhem, Mohammed Khadda and Bachir Yelles, appeared on the scene of Algerian painting, abandoning figurative classical painting to find new pictorial ways, in order to adapt Algerian paintings to the new realities of the country through its struggle and its aspirations. Mohammed Khadda and M'hamed Issiakhem have been notable in recent years.\n\nLiterature\n\nThe historic roots of Algerian literature goes back to the Numidian era, when Apuleius wrote The Golden Ass, the only Latin novel to survive in its entirety. This period had also known Augustine of Hippo, Nonius Marcellus and Martianus Capella, among many others. The Middle Ages have known many Arabic writers who revolutionized the Arab world literature, with authors like Ahmad al-Buni, Ibn Manzur and Ibn Khaldoun, who wrote the Muqaddimah while staying in Algeria, and many others.\n\nAlbert Camus was an Algerian-born French Pied-Noir author. In 1957 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in literature.\n\nToday Algeria contains, in its literary landscape, big names having not only marked the Algerian literature, but also the universal literary heritage in Arabic and French.\n\nAs a first step, Algerian literature was marked by works whose main concern was the assertion of the Algerian national entity, there is the publication of novels as the Algerian trilogy of Mohammed Dib, or even Nedjma of Kateb Yacine novel which is often regarded as a monumental and major work. Other known writers will contribute to the emergence of Algerian literature whom include Mouloud Feraoun, Malek Bennabi, Malek Haddad, Moufdi Zakaria, Abdelhamid Ben Badis, Mohamed Laïd Al-Khalifa, Mouloud Mammeri, Frantz Fanon, and Assia Djebar.\n\nIn the aftermath of the independence, several new authors emerged on the Algerian literary scene, they will attempt through their works to expose a number of social problems, among them there are Rachid Boudjedra, Rachid Mimouni, Leila Sebbar, Tahar Djaout and Tahir Wattar.\n\nCurrently, a part of Algerian writers tends to be defined in a literature of shocking expression, due to the terrorism that occurred during the 1990s, the other party is defined in a different style of literature who staged an individualistic conception of the human adventure. Among the most noted recent works, there is the writer, the swallows of Kabul and the attack of Yasmina Khadra, the oath of barbarians of Boualem Sansal, memory of the flesh of Ahlam Mosteghanemi and the last novel by Assia Djebar nowhere in my father's House.\n\nMusic\n\nChaâbi music is a typically Algerian musical genre characterized by specific rhythms and of Qacidate (Popular poems) in Arabic dialect. The undisputed master of this music is El Hadj M'Hamed El Anka. The Constantinois Malouf style is saved by musician from whom Mohamed Tahar Fergani is one of the best performers.\n\nFolk music styles include Bedouin music, characterized by the poetic songs based on long kacida (poems); Kabyle music, based on a rich repertoire that is poetry and old tales passed through generations; Shawiya music, a folklore from diverse areas of the Aurès Mountains. Rahaba music style is unique to the Aures. Souad Massi is a rising Algerian folk singer. Other Algerian singers of the diaspora include Manel Filali in Germany and Kenza Farah in France. Tergui music is sung in Tuareg languages generally, Tinariwen had a worldwide success. Finally, the staïfi music is born in Sétif and remains a unique style of its kind.\n\nModern music is available in several facets, Raï music is a style typical of Western Algeria. Rap, relatively recent style in Algeria, is experiencing significant growth.\n\nCinema\n\nThe Algerian state's interest in film-industry activities can be seen in the annual budget of DZD 200 million (EUR 1.8) allocated to production, specific measures and an ambitious programme plan implemented by the Ministry of Culture in order to promote national production, renovate the cinema stock and remedy the weak links in distribution and exploitation.\n\nThe financial support provided by the state, through the Fund for the Development of the Arts, Techniques and the Film Industry (FDATIC) and the Algerian Agency for Cultural Influence (AARC), plays a key role in the promotion of national production. Between 2007 and 2013, FDATIC subsidised 98 films (feature films, documentaries and short films). In mid-2013, AARC had already supported a total of 78 films, including 42 feature films, 6 short films and 30 documentaries.\n\nAccording to the European Audiovisual Observatory's LUMIERE database, 41 Algerian films were distributed in Europe between 1996 and 2013; 21 films in this repertoire were Algerian-French co-productions. (Days of Glory) (2006) and Outside the Law (2010) recorded the highest number of admissions in the European Union, 3,172,612 and 474,722, respectively. \n\nAlgeria won the Palme d'Or for Chronicle of the Years of Fire (1975), two Oscars for Z (1969), and other awards for The Battle of Algiers.\n\nSports\n\nVarious games have existed in Algeria since antiquity. In the Aures, people played several games such As El Kherdba or El khergueba (chess variant). Playing cards, checkers and chess games are part of Algerian culture. Racing (fantasia) and the rifle shooting are part of cultural recreation of the Algerians. \n\nThe first Algerian and African gold medalist is Boughera El Ouafi in 1928 Olympics of Amsterdam in the Marathon. The second Algerian Medalist was Alain Mimoun in 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne. Several men and women were champions in athletics in the 1990s including Noureddine Morceli, Hassiba Boulmerka, Nouria Merah-Benida, and Taoufik Makhloufi, all specialized in middle distance running. \n\nFootball is the most popular sport in Algeria. Several names are engraved in the history of the sport, including Lakhdar Belloumi, Rachid Mekhloufi, Hassen Lalmas, Rabah Madjer, Salah Assad and Djamel Zidane. The Algeria national football team qualified for the 1982 FIFA World Cup, 1986 FIFA World Cup, 2010 FIFA World Cup and 2014 FIFA World Cup. In addition, several football clubs have won continental and international trophies as the club ES Sétif or JS Kabylia. The Algerian Football Federation is an association of Algeria football clubs organizing national competitions and international matches of the selection of Algeria national football team. \n\nCuisine\n\nAlgerian cuisine is rich and diverse. The country was considered as the \"granary of Rome\". It offers a component of dishes and varied dishes, depending on the region and according to the seasons. The cuisine uses cereals as the main products, since they are always produced with abundance in the country. There is not a dish where cereals are not present.\n\nAlgerian cuisine varies from one region to another, according to seasonal vegetables. It can be prepared using meat, fish and vegetables. Among the dishes known, couscous, chorba, Rechta, Chakhchoukha, Berkoukes, Shakshouka, Mthewem, Chtitha, Mderbel, Dolma, Brik or Bourek, Garantita, Lham'hlou, etc. Merguez sausage is widely used in Algeria, but it differs, depending on the region and on the added spices.\n\nCakes are marketed and can be found in cities either in Algeria, in Europe or North America. However, traditional cakes are also made at home, following the habits and customs of each family. Among these cakes, there are Tamina, Chrik, Garn logzelles, Griouech, Kalb el-louz, Makroud, Mbardja, Mchewek, Samsa, Tcharak, Baghrir, Khfaf, Zlabia, Aarayech, Ghroubiya and Mghergchette. Algerian pastry also contains Tunisian or French cakes. Marketed and home-made bread products include varieties such as Kessra or Khmira or Harchaya, chopsticks and so-called washers Khoubz dar or Matloue.\nOther tradionel meals (Chakhchokha-Hassoua-T'chicha-Mahjouba and Doubara) are famous in Biskra.\n\nHealth\n\nIn 2002, Algeria had inadequate numbers of physicians (1.13 per 1,000 people), nurses (2.23 per 1,000 people), and dentists (0.31 per 1,000 people). Access to \"improved water sources\" was limited to 92% of the population in urban areas and 80% of the population in rural areas. Some 99% of Algerians living in urban areas, but only 82% of those living in rural areas, had access to \"improved sanitation\". According to the World Bank, Algeria is making progress toward its goal of \"reducing by half the number of people without sustainable access to improved drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015\". Given Algeria's young population, policy favors preventive health care and clinics over hospitals. In keeping with this policy, the government maintains an immunization program. However, poor sanitation and unclean water still cause tuberculosis, hepatitis, measles, typhoid fever, cholera and dysentery. The poor generally receive health care free of charge. \n\nHealth records have been maintained in Algeria since 1882 and began adding Muslims living in the South to their Vital record database in 1905 during French rule. \n\nEducation\n\nSince the 1970s, in a centralized system that was designed to significantly reduce the rate of illiteracy, the Algerian government introduced a decree by which school attendance became compulsory for all children aged between 6 and 15 years who have the ability to track their learning through the 20 facilities built since independence, now the literacy rate is around 78.7%.\n\nSince 1972, Arabic is used as the language of instruction during the first nine years of schooling. From the third year, French is taught and it is also the language of instruction for science classes. The students can also learn English, Italian, Spanish and German. In 2008, new programs at the elementary appeared, therefore the compulsory schooling does not start at the age of six anymore, but at the age of five. \nApart from the 122 private, learning at school, the Universities of the State are free of charge. After nine years of primary school, students can go to the high school or to an educational institution. The school offers two programs: general or technical. At the end of the third year of secondary school, students pass the exam of the bachelor's degree, which allows once it is successful to pursue graduate studies in universities and institutes. \n\nEducation is officially compulsory for children between the ages of six and 15. In 2008, the illiteracy rate for people over 10 was 22.3%, 15.6% for men and 29.0% for women. The province with the lowest rate of illiteracy was Algiers Province at 11.6%, while the province with the highest rate was Djelfa Province at 35.5%. \n\nAlgeria has 26 universities and 67 institutions of higher education, which must accommodate a million Algerians and 80,000 foreign students in 2008. The University of Algiers, founded in 1879, is the oldest, it offers education in various disciplines (law, medicine, science and letters). 25 of these universities and almost all of the institutions of higher education were founded after the independence of the country.\n\nEven if some of them offer instruction in Arabic like areas of law and the economy, most of the other sectors as science and medicine continue to be provided in French and English. Among the most important universities, there are the University of Sciences and Technology Houari Boumediene, the University of Mentouri Constantine, University of Oran Es-Senia. Best universities of qualifications remain the University of Abou Bekr Belkaïd in Tlemcen and University of Batna Hadj Lakhdar, they occupy the 26th and 45th row in Africa." ] }

{ "description": [ "International banks in Algeria primarily serve private ... Letters of credit are now limited to a ... the State Department's travel registration ..." ], "filename": [ "144/144_960.txt" ], "rank": [ 8 ], "title": [ "Algeria - U.S. Department of State" ], "url": [ "http://www.state.gov/e/eb/rls/othr/ics/2013/204588.htm" ], "search_context": [ "Algeria\nBureau of Economic and Business Affairs\nFebruary 2013\nReport\nOpenness to Foreign Investment\nAlgeria, with its population of more than 37 million, hydrocarbon wealth, expanding infrastructure needs, and growing consumer product demand, is attracting interest from companies around the world. U.S. firms continue to consider Algeria an emerging and growing market. The climate for international firms considering direct investments in Algeria has stabilized in the wake of a series of restrictive foreign investment rules enacted in 2009 and 2010, which imposed a requirement of at least 51 percent Algerian ownership of foreign investments. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in Algeria waned as a result of those measures. Investors highlight regulatory uncertainty, tight foreign exchange controls, lax intellectual property rights (IPR) protections, customs delays, and a large informal sector among ongoing commercial challenges. However, the Government of Algeria (GOA) has invested more than USD 286 billion in infrastructure development, making the local market sufficiently profitable for firms adapted to emerging markets to weather those challenges and explore new opportunities, especially in sectors like energy, power, water, health, telecommunications, transportation, and agribusiness.\nThe number of foreign trade missions to Algeria reportedly grew from 30 in 2010 to 60 in 2012, illustrating the increased focus and competition in the local market. In 2012, Algeria concluded commercial agreements with several Arab and European nations. U.S. firms, such as Northrop Grumman and General Electric won multi-million dollar tenders. President Abdelaziz Bouteflika appointed former Minister of Water Resources, Abdelmalek Sellal, as the new Prime Minister. Sellal is trusted by the political elite and viewed as a pragmatic politician who seeks new economic partnerships to tackle long-standing issues, such as housing shortages and unemployment. Algerian leadership remains focused on building domestic production capacity and reducing imports and seeks U.S. expertise and partnership. Minister of Commerce Mustapha Benbada visited the United States in December 2012 for discussions with the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative related to Algeria’s World Trade Organization (WTO) accession and cooperation under the U.S.-Algeria Trade and Investment Framework Agreement (TIFA).\nThe signs of change are positive and Algeria’s macroeconomic outlook is stable, but vulnerabilities and challenges persist, including dependence on hydrocarbon revenue and risks posed by rising inflation. The public sector still dominates the economy and inefficient state-owned enterprises are a drag on productivity. The GOA has supported state-owned companies experiencing financial difficulties by cancelling their debts and providing investment credits and technical assistance. Such economic vulnerabilities have prodded the GOA to court FDI and reconsider the importance of private-sector development. This trend should continue through 2013. The longer-term political environment is somewhat clouded by expected presidential elections in 2014, as well as Algeria’s legalistic and bureaucratic regulatory environment and apprehension about foreign exploitation of natural resources.\nThird Party Indicators:\n2012\n152 (out of 185)\nAlgeria wants foreign investment but has imposed protectionist policies requiring majority local ownership. In 2009, the government adopted a Complementary Finance Law (CFL) which imposed restrictions on imports and foreign investment. These measures require 51 percent Algerian ownership of new foreign investment, 30 percent Algerian ownership of foreign import companies, and the use of letters of credit for the payment of import bills. The 2010 CFL requires foreign bidders who win construction contracts to invest in a joint venture with a local partner. Another measure in the 2010 CFL gave the government the right of first refusal on sales of companies to foreigners and aimed at controlling the sale of assets to foreigners. The government has maintained its prerogative to exercise this right of first refusal, permitting it to take a majority stake in foreign businesses in Algeria. The 2010 CFL introduced a new tax on private firms’ importation of durum wheat at prices below that of the Algerian market. Durum wheat imported by the Algerian Cereal Agency (OAIC) is exempt from this tax. A 2010 Central Bank regulation stipulated that all invoices must state a due date for payment. Invoices without a due date or a date that exceeds 360 days may not be paid.\nThe 49/51 rule remains controversial but foreign investors have adapted. In some cases, foreign firms have partnered with multiple Algerian companies that agree to share the majority percentage, so the foreign partner maintains overall control. Some investors have expressed a preference for working through a local partner, which can help the foreign firm navigate the challenging local bureaucracy and business norms. U.S. investment outside of the oil and gas sector currently consists of a pharmaceutical factory, a desalination plant, a bottling plant, a cable-making factory, and a tractor plant.\nAs of January 2013, the GOA was finalizing and publishing a new hydrocarbons law and the 2013 Finance Law. Both contain measures relevant to foreign investment and the measures’ full implications were not clear at the drafting of this report. The hydrocarbon law amendments were expected to include provisions to encourage foreign investment, especially in non-conventional hydrocarbons (e.g., shale gas exploration). The 2013 Finance Law reportedly includes measures to ease tax and customs procedures for companies, but accounting firms have requested clarity on provisions in the law relevant to transferring dividends and reinvestment requirements for foreign investors with certain tax benefits. Current tax law has required that investors re-invest within four years the equivalent value of any tax benefits they obtain as incentives to locate in Algeria.\nAlgerian officials seek technology and know-how transfer and have been pursuing efforts to secure greater returns for Algerian interests since the 2006 amendments to the hydrocarbons law. The amendments required majority state partnership in all oil and gas projects and imposed a heavy windfall profits tax when prices are above USD 30 per barrel. Recent public tenders have included a “localization” component to encourage foreign investors to contribute to local manufacturing or other production-capacity development.\nThree agencies have mandates to encourage and manage investment in Algeria. The National Agency for Investment Development (ANDI) ( www.andi.dz ) is responsible for facilitating investments and granting tax exemptions. The National Investment Council (CNI) under the Ministry of Industry, SME, and Investment Promotion ( http://www.mipmepi.gov.dz ) was created to define investment strategies and priorities and to approve special investment incentives by sector. In late 2012, the government raised the threshold for investments eligible for CNI investment-promotion benefits from 500 million dinars (USD 6.4 million) to 1.5 billion dinar (USD 19.2 million).\nConversion and Transfer Policies\nThe Algerian dinar is considered fully convertible for all commercial transactions. The Bank of Algeria (Banque d'Algerie, the nation's central bank) manages Algeria's foreign reserves and controls foreign exchange. The 2010 CFL reinforced the lead role of the Bank of Algeria in overseeing the banking sector. A network of public banks still controls 80 percent of the banking market. International banks in Algeria primarily serve private multinationals and Algerian private-sector firms. Legally registered economic operators can access foreign currency to make payments, subject to bank domiciliation, without pre-authorization. Operators must possess a clean audit report and a certificate from the tax authority in order to repatriate funds. The Central Bank put in place new restrictions on foreign shareholders’ loans to Algerian subsidiaries in December 2010. These new provisions mandate that firms receiving such loans after July 26, 2009 must book them as additions to capital.\nForeign investors can repatriate dividends, profits, and real net income out of their assets through transfers or liquidation. In certain cases, due to the inefficiency of the banking system and the heavy bureaucracy, it may take longer to obtain official permission from the Central Bank to make transfers/payments, or for the local bank to proceed with the transfer. In 2011 and 2012, businesses and international banks faced stricter interpretations of the foreign exchange control rules. Commercial disputes developed because the Central Bank, over reportedly small paperwork details, delayed repatriation of dividends. Certain cases were referred to the courts to reach a resolution. Foreign investors and the international banks serving them are seeking greater clarity on the rules around repatriating dividends, a central concern for foreign investors.\nU.S. suppliers can benefit from faster and more predictable payments as a result of the mandatory letter of credit requirement. In addition, payment delays may result due to the new regulation that limits Algerian importers' payment options to letters of credit. Direct wire payments are no longer authorized. Letters of credit are now limited to a maximum of 60 days and are not required for raw material import transactions amounting to less than 4 million DZD (approximately USD 53,000) per year.\nExpropriation and Compensation\nThe government of Algeria has not engaged in expropriation actions against U.S. or other foreign firms.\nDispute Settlement\nAlgeria is a signatory to the convention on the Paris-based International Center for the Settlement of Investment Disputes ( http://www.worldbank.org/icsid ). Algeria ratified its accession ( http://arbiter.wipo.int/arbitration ) to the New York Convention on Arbitration, and is a member of the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency ( http://www.miga.org ). The code of civil procedure allows both private and public-sector companies full recourse to international arbitration. Algeria permits the inclusion of international arbitration clauses in contracts.\nIn 2010 an American oil company exercised the dispute settlement mechanism in its contracts with the state oil company Sonatrach to contest the implementation of a windfall profits tax imposed long after the company began doing business in Algeria. Negotiations prior to arbitration were very slow. The dispute resolution process, including arbitration, can take 18 to 24 months and in some cases longer.\nPerformance Requirements and Incentives\nAlgeria does not impose general performance requirements on foreign investments. However, in accordance with the 2009 Complementary Finance Law, foreign investments in any sector require a 51 percent Algerian partnership.\nThe investment code provides a number of incentives for investment in Algeria, which are primarily related to VAT and other tax exemptions, for periods of time that are dependent on the type of investment and the nature of the package agreed between the investor and the National Agency for Investment Development (ANDI). The 2009 Complementary Finance Law requires foreign investors to reinvest in Algeria the equivalent of any tax benefits bestowed upon them, in a manner similar to the offset investment requirements commonly seen in Gulf countries.\nRight to Private Ownership and Establishment\nForeign entities have largely equal rights to establish and own business enterprises in Algeria and engage in most forms of remunerative activity, within the framework of the requirement for majority (51 percent) Algerian participation in all new foreign investments, including those in the banking sector. Private enterprises formally have equal status with public enterprises and compete on an equal basis with respect to access to markets, credit, and business operations.\nProtection of Property Rights\nSecured interests in property are generally recognized and enforceable, but court proceedings can be lengthy and results unpredictable. Most real property in Algeria remains in government hands, and controversy over the years has resulted in conflicting claims for real estate titles, which has made purchasing and financing real estate difficult. One prospective U.S. investor seeking to build a factory in Algeria tried in vain for two years to obtain approvals from a local governor to purchase suitable land for the project.\nWhile there is legislation protecting copyright and related rights, trademarks, patents, and integrated circuits, implementation has been inconsistent and enforcement remains spotty. Algeria was again named to the USTR Special 301 Priority Watch List in 2012, notably for insufficient protections for data associated with the development and market approval for pharmaceuticals.\nThe Ministry of Culture organized a ceremony in October 2012 to highlight its commitment to IPR protections by destroying USD 800,000 worth of counterfeit or pirated fashion, music, and film that had been seized by Algerian customs and border police. However, Algeria’s vast informal economy remains a major source of counterfeit goods, especially in sportswear and consumer goods.\nTransparency of Regulatory System\nGenerally, Algeria's regulatory system is transparent, but decision-making authority remains opaque. Each ministry defines its rules for doing business in the sectors it manages, and regulatory bodies are established to administer them. Challenges arise in managing the bureaucracy, because authority is generally vested at the top of every organization, and access to decision-makers is often limited. Furthermore, the Algerian bureaucracy is slow and protocol-oriented, such that even minor deficiencies in paperwork can lead to significant delays and fines. In some cases, authority over a matter may rest among multiple ministries, which imposes additional bureaucratic steps and the likelihood of inaction due to errors or unusual circumstances.\nEfficient Capital Markets & Portfolio Investment\nAfter twelve years, the Algerian stock exchange remains nascent with only six companies listed. In 2010 the Algerian insurance company Alliance held the first private company IPO, which was valued at 1.49 billion dinars (USD19.5 million dollars). Alliance became the seventh firm listed on the Algerian stock exchange in February 2011. Long-term treasury bonds were listed on the stock market in 2008, but trading has sharply declined due to the increased number of fees required to trade the bonds. Shorter yield bonds continue to be managed through bond dealers. Other private bond investment vehicles are occasionally offered to the public for major construction or other ventures.\nThe bond market plays a marginal role in the financing of the Algerian economy, which is mainly done through public expenditure or traditional banking credits. Most bonds are issued by public companies; however, a small number of private firms have issued bonds to finance investment in public works projects. In order to finance development projects and absorb excess liquidity, some state-owned companies have launched corporate bonds. Public companies, such as national oil company Sonatrach often choose to finance through a bank investment pool which is guaranteed by the government.\nCompetition from State-Owned Enterprises\nAbout two thirds of the Algerian economy is state-owned, led by the national oil-and-gas company Sonatrach. Other sectors in which the government operates directly include telecoms with Algerie Telecom and transportation with Air Algerie.\nA distinctive feature of the Algerian economy is the 51/49 rule, under which 51 percent of new investments in Algeria must be owned by Algerians. Implemented in 2006 for the hydrocarbons industry, it was expanded in 2009 to cover investments in all sectors of the economy. While the 51/49 rule initially was controversial, foreign firms have adapted to it and formed joint ventures with local partners. In 2012 an Algerian-American joint venture began production of tractors, while the Algerians signed agreements with French, Turkish, and other European companies in the automotive, construction and agricultural sectors.\nCorporate Social Responsibility\nMultinational firms operating in Algeria are spreading the concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR) practices, which have traditionally been less common among domestic firms. Companies such as Anadarko, Cisco, Microsoft, and Nedjma have supported programs aimed at youth employment and entrepreneurship. CSR activities are gaining acceptance as a way for companies to contribute to local communities while often addressing business needs, such as a better-educated workforce. The national oil and gas company, Sonatrach, funds some social services for its employees and desert communities near production sites. Still, many Algerian companies view social programs as areas of government responsibility and do not consider such activities in their corporate decision-making process.\nPolitical Violence\nPolitical violence has declined since the widespread terrorism of the 1990s. The government's effort to reduce terrorism through military pressure and social reconciliation and reintegration has been markedly effective. However, incidents of terrorism, including suicide bombings against government and international organization installations, occurred in 2006 and 2007, and armed attacks against army and police continue sporadically to this day. In March 2012 a suicide bomber attacked the regional headquarters of the national police in Tamanrasset, a southern city of 75,000. In 2006, a group of Algerian terrorists known as the Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat (French acronym GSPC), formally affiliated itself with al-Qa'ida and assumed the name Al-Qa'ida in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM).\nThe U.S. Government considers the potential threat to U.S. Embassy personnel assigned to Algiers sufficiently serious to require them to live and work under significant security restrictions. These practices limit and occasionally prevent the movement of U.S. Embassy officials and the provision of consular services in certain areas of the country. The GOA requires U.S. Embassy personnel to seek permission to travel to the Casbah within Algiers or outside the province of Algiers and to have a security escort. Travel to the military zone established around the Hassi Messaoud oil center requires GOA authorization. Daily movement of Embassy personnel in Algiers is limited, and prudent security practices are required at all times. Travel by Embassy personnel within parts of the city requires prior coordination with the Embassy's Regional Security Office. American visitors are encouraged to contact the Embassy's Consular Section for the most recent safety and security information.\nAmericans living or traveling in Algeria are encouraged to register with the U.S. Embassy in Algiers through the State Department's travel registration website, https://step.state.gov , and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Algeria. Americans without internet access may register directly with the U.S. Embassy Algiers. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy to contact them in case of emergency.\nCorruption\nThere is an ongoing government effort to root out corruption, notably in key GOA agencies, such as Customs. Many Algerian citizens believe that corruption is a problem within the upper reaches of government. Some evidence suggests that bribes are paid to bypass Algerian bureaucracy or to avoid government interference.\nIn June 2012, the Algerian lower court found two Algerian citizens and three Chinese citizens guilty of corruption. The court sentenced the Algerian citizens to 15 years in prison, and sentenced the Chinese citizens in absentia to 10 years in prison and issued an international warrant for their arrest.\nThe government investigated several high-profile corruption scandals in 2009 and 2010. One investigation implicated officials at the Ministry of Public Works on charges of fraud related to the construction of the East-West highway. Another involved senior officials of the state oil company Sonatrach investigated for corruption in procurement. Several former Sonatrach senior officials are in custody, while others are under investigation. Lower-level investigations involved customs officials and private sector executives charged with embezzlement, illegal currency transfers, and misuse of public funds.\nIn 2010, GOA created the National Commission for the Prevention and Fight Against Corruption as stipulated in the 2006 anti-corruption law. The Chairman and members of this commission were appointed by a presidential decree. The commission studies financial holdings of public officials and carries out investigations. Algeria is not a financial center, and financial transactions are tightly regulated. However, it is estimated that half of the country's economic transactions are carried out within the informal sector, effectively escaping the purview of state auditors.\nIn 2006, GOA adopted an anti-corruption bill that reinforced existing legislation and brought Algeria into compliance with the UN Convention against Corruption, which Algeria ratified in August 2004. The law was designed to promote transparency in government and public procurement, introduce new crimes such as illicit enrichment and reinforce existing penal sanctions.\nIn 2012, the government updated 2005 anti-money laundering and counter-terrorist finance legislation to bolster the authority of the financial intelligence unit to monitor suspicious financial transactions and refer violations of the law to prosecutorial magistrates.\nBilateral Investment Agreements\nThe United States and Algeria signed a TIFA in 2001 to create a forum for economic and trade discussion. The last TIFA council meeting was held in 2004. The United States and Algeria may hold a TIFA council meeting in 2013.\nAlgeria executed a European Union association agreement in 2005. The agreement provided for the gradual removal of import duties on EU industrial products over 12 years and removed duties immediately on 2,000 other products. However, the EU complained that some provisions in the 2009 Complementary Finance Law violated that agreement. In December 2010, Algeria requested a three year extension (to 2020) of the deadline for completing the tariff dismantling process with the EU under the EU-Algeria Association Agreement.\nAlgeria signed bilateral investment agreements for the protection and promotion of investments with the following countries in the indicated years: Belgium/Luxembourg (1991), Italy (1991), France (1993), Romania (1994), Spain (1994), China (1996), Germany (1996), Jordan (1996), Mali (1996), Vietnam (1996), Egypt (1997), Bulgaria (1998), Mozambique (1998), Niger (1998), Turkey (1998), Denmark (1999), Yemen (1999), Czech Republic (2000), Greece (2000), and Malaysia (2000). There is no bilateral investment treaty between Algeria and the United States.\nAlgeria has also signed bilateral treaties to prevent double taxation with the following nations: United Kingdom (1981), France (1982), Tunisia (1985), Libyan Arab Jamahirya (1988), Morocco (1990), Belgium (1991), Italy (1991), Romania (1994), Turkey (1994), Syrian Arab Republic (1997), Bulgaria (1998), Canada (1999), Mali (1999), Vietnam (1999), Bahrain (2000), Oman (2000), Poland (2000), Ethiopia (2002), Lebanon (2002), Spain (2002), and Yemen (2002). There is no double taxation treaty between Algeria and the United States.\nIn 1990, Algeria signed both investment protection and double taxation agreements with the Arab Maghreb Union (AMU) countries (Libya, Morocco, Mauritania, and Tunisia).\nOPIC & Other Investment Insurance Programs\nThe U.S. Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) ( http://www.opic.gov ), the U.S. Export-Import Bank (Ex-Im)( http://www.exim.gov ), and the U.S. Trade and Development Agency (USTDA) ( http://www.ustda.gov ) have supported projects in Algeria. However, GOA announced in 2009 that all financing for foreign investments in the country must be financed through Algerian banks. There are no projects currently under way in Algeria using support from these programs.\nA USD 250 million water desalination project in Algiers was completed in 2008 with OPIC support. Ex-Im Bank supported the U.S. content of a power project in Skikda in 2003. USTDA supplied a grant to the Ministry of Water resources to support a feasibility study of wastewater management practices in Oran in western Algeria in 2010.\nLabor\nAlgeria's labor force consists of roughly 10 million people out of a total population of over 37 million. According to the National Office of Statistics, in 2011 over 55 percent of the population was under age 30. Beginning January 1, 2010 the monthly minimum wage increased to DA 15,000 (USD215) from DA 12,000 (USD170). The official unemployment rate is approximately 10 percent, but international organizations and other observers believe it to be as high as 25 percent.\nAlgeria's labor code sets minimum work standards, including a minimum work age of 16, a 40-hour workweek, and higher rates for overtime pay. Employers pay 26 percent of gross salaries in social security taxes, including provisions for both retirement and health/accident insurance.\nU.S. companies are able to hire trained technical staff. However, recruiting and retention has become more difficult as well-educated and trained Algerians are increasingly lured by higher salaries offered in the Gulf region. English speakers remain difficult to find, but English-language acquisition is increasing among youth. Arabic is Algeria's official language and French is the most common language of business.\nThere are no restrictions on the number of expatriate supervisory personnel a company may establish as long as they are able to justify that no local persons can be found that meet the requirements for the position. Entry visas for foreign workers can be requested through Algerian embassies overseas with the employer providing, among other requirements, a certified true copy of the work contract or the provisional work permit issued by the Ministry of Labor, Employment and Social Security (MTESS), and an attestation certified by the same authorities stating that the employer will bear the repatriation expenses of the foreign worker once the work relation is completed. Foreign workers must then obtain work permits from MTESS ( http://www.mtess.gov.dz/mtss_fr_N/index.htm ) and a residency card from the local police office in the district where they will be working. The employer is responsible for submitting all tax payments for individual workers to the proper local tax collection authorities.\nForeign-Trade Zones/Free Trade Zones\nThere are currently no free trade zones in Algeria.\nForeign Direct Investment Statistics\nThe World Bank’s latest available FDI figures for Algeria were USD 2.7 billion during 2011, compared to USD 2.3 billion for 2010, 3.1 billion in 2009 and 2.7 billion in 2008.\nWeb Resources\nAlgerian Embassy in Washington, D.C.: http://www.algeria-us.org/\nBank of Algeria (central bank): http://www.bank-of-algeria.dz/\nMinistry of Energy and Mines: http://www.mem-algeria.org/\nMinistry of Finance: http://www.mf.gov.dz/\nMinistry of Labor, Employment and Social Security: http://www.mtess.gov.dz/mtss_fr_N/index.htm\nMinistry of Industry, Small and Medium Enterprises and Investment Promotion: http://www.mipmepi.gov.dz\nNational Investment Development Agency: http://www.andi.dz/" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "Jock_Ewing.txt" ], "title": [ "Jock Ewing" ], "wiki_context": [ "John Ross \"Jock\" Ewing, Sr. (1909–82) is a character in the popular American television series Dallas, played by Jim Davis (1978–81); in the made-for-TV movie prequel to the series, Dallas: The Early Years (1986), he was played by Dale Midkiff. Jock Ewing founded Ewing Oil in 1930 and was the patriarch of the Ewing family.\n\nBackground\n\nEarly life and career\n\nJock was born in 1909, the younger of two sons. Through his older brother Jason, Jock got a job in an oil field in east Texas. While riding in a train boxcar he met Willard \"Digger\" Barnes, and the two became friends. Jock, Digger, and Jason all became wildcatters and began drilling their own fields. Digger had a unique ability to smell oil underground, and with Jock's business skills they began making a fortune.\n\nJason and Digger didn't get on much, while Jock stood up for Digger in those days. Jason eventually left Texas to wildcat in Alaska, marrying a woman named Nancy Shaw, with whom he had a son Jack (played by Dack Rambo) and a daughter Jamie (played by Jenilee Harrison). Jock and Digger returned to Dallas and Southfork, where Jock met Digger's girlfriend, Ellie Southworth. In the long run, Digger's drinking and undependability made Miss Ellie see that Digger would never change, and that Digger was not the type of man to marry, and she left Digger for Jock. Digger started to wander across the country after Ellie left him, but Jock and Digger continued with their oil business ventures for a few more years. Even as late as 1939, Jock and Digger both signed a deal to share the profits of Ewing 23 between themselves and their heirs in perpetuity. However, when Ewing 6 came in, Jock put the field in his name only, to prevent Digger from gambling and drinking his half away. Digger was furious and he claimed that Jock had stolen the wells for himself, ending their friendship and business relationship.\n\nMarriages and children\n\nEllie Southworth was desperate to save Southfork, which was hit hard by the Great Depression of the 1930s, but Jock was reluctant to marry, even after Miss Ellie chose him over Digger, because unbeknownst to Miss Ellie, Jock was previously married to a woman named Amanda Lewis and looked after her psychiatric needs. Amanda had suffered a mental breakdown shortly after she and Jock were married, and Jock put her in a mental hospital. The doctor told Jock that Amanda would never recover and advised Jock to divorce her, which he eventually did in 1930. In 1936, Miss Ellie came to Jock, told him that she was pregnant with J.R., and demanded that he marry her. Jock and Miss Ellie married on the day that her family was to lose Southfork, and it was well known that Jock was the only man in Dallas with the money to save the ranch. Jock had a fragile and stormy relationship with Miss Ellie's father, Aaron Southworth, and with her brother, Garrison Southworth. On his deathbed, Aaron accepted Jock as part of his family by giving him his favorite gun.\n\nJock and Miss Ellie had three sons together, J.R, Gary and Bobby. Jock served in World War II, where he and an old army buddy, Tom Mallory, were shot down in a mission in Holland. They later returned to save the families who sheltered them. During his term in Britain, Jock had an affair with an Army nurse from Emporia, Kansas, named Margaret Hunter. Jock was shipped off to France, and Margaret returned to the United States. She married her fiancé, Amos Krebbs, and soon thereafter gave birth to Jock's illegitimate son, Ray Krebbs.\n\nAfter the war, Jock returned to Southfork and confessed to Miss Ellie about his affair with Margaret Hunter. She forgave him and they moved on. In 1948, Amos Krebbs left Margaret Hunter, leaving her to raise Ray as a single parent. In 1960, a 15-year-old Ray Krebbs showed up at Southfork with a note from his mother asking Jock to help Ray. Jock made Ray a hand on Southfork. Neither Jock, Miss Ellie nor Ray knew that Jock was Ray's father until 20 years later, when Amos Krebbs came to Dallas and revealed that Jock was Ray's father, bringing proof to back up his claim. Jock then welcomed Ray into the Ewing family, and personally explained it all to his family.\n\nAs the years passed from the 1930s onwards, Jock built Ewing Oil into one of the most powerful independent oil companies in Texas, much to the bitterness and jealousy of his former friend and business partner, Digger Barnes. Jock also became a successful rancher. Jock \"took over raising\" his eldest son J.R., showing him \"tough love\" and made him one of the most cunning and ruthless oil barons in the oil business. Jock came to heavily rely on J.R. in the management of Ewing Oil giving J.R. \"the fever for big business\" but \"never taught him when to stop\". Jock, for the most part, ignored his second son Gary, whom Jock considered weak and lacking the Ewing character, as Gary ran away from responsibility, began drinking excessively to handle the pressures of being a teenage husband and father, and couldn't stand up to J.R.'s bullying. Jock generally spoiled his youngest son, Bobby, who Jock considered to be \"the best of the lot\". Bobby had the morals that J.R. lacked and embraced Jock's favoritism. However, Bobby was often emotional, short-tempered and lacked the intelligence, drive, and focus to succeed in the oil business preferring football, women, ranching, and enjoying the social benefits of being a Ewing, which was earned by the hard work of Jock and J.R.\n\nRetirement\n\nIn 1977, Jock retired as president of Ewing Oil. He made J.R. his successor and took a more active role in running Southfork with foreman Ray Krebbs.\n\nDeath\n\nJock and Ellie briefly separated in 1981 after Miss Ellie learned that Jock was the power behind Takapa, a land development deal that she was fighting against on the grounds of conservationism. After Ellie refused his order to back down and stay out of the matter, he left Southfork. However, they quickly reconciled and went on a second honeymoon to Paris. Upon returning to the United States, Jock and Miss Ellie arrived in Washington. D.C., where they were met by the U.S. State Department with a request for Jock to lead the development of the oil industry in South America. Ellie returned to Southfork alone, while Jock had conferences in Washington. Jock briefly returned to Dallas for a few hours before leaving for South America. While flying back from Venezuela to Texas, the helicopter he was in collided with a small plane and landed in a lake. Jock's body was never found, but he was declared dead in the fall of 1982. The storyline involving Jock's death was necessitated by the death of actor Jim Davis. A tribute to Davis was shown at the end of the episode \"The Search\"; a picture of Davis and the words \"Jim Davis 1909-1981\" was quietly displayed for some moments before the credits and music started. A memorial headstone to Jock stands on Southfork Ranch, beside Miss Ellie's headstone and grave.\n\nWes Parmalee storyline\n\nIn a storyline during the 1986–87 season of the show, a man named Wes Parmalee (portrayed by Steve Forrest) came to Dallas, where Clayton and Ray hired him as ranch foreman on Southfork. One day, Miss Ellie found Jock's belt buckle, knife, letters, and photo of a young Miss Ellie in Parmalee's room. Wes then claimed to be Jock Ewing, and that he had survived the helicopter accident, which necessitated plastic surgery and rehab in a South American hospital. After passing a series of tests set by J.R. and Bobby, including X-ray tests, a polygraph test and knowledge about the Ewing family, including Jock's first wife Amanda and Ray being Jock's son, Wes convinced many in Dallas, in addition to Miss Ellie, Ray, and several other members of the Ewing family, that he could be Jock. However, Clayton, Bobby and J.R. utterly refused to believe any suggestion that Wes was Jock.\n\nBobby flew down and talked with the doctor who had treated Jock for a severe fever while he was in South America. Bobby returned to Southfork and revealed this information at a Ewing barbecue, where Jock's best friend Punk Anderson said that while he had the fever, Jock was telling the history of the Ewing family. This small piece of evidence against Wes Parmalee being Jock Ewing was seized on. By then, Ray had told Wes that his presence was causing a lot of trouble to the family, just before Wes went to see Miss Ellie. Miss Ellie told her family that Wes had told her that he wasn't Jock, that he had met Jock while working in South America and was on the helicopter with Jock, where he took Jock's things and learned about the Ewings. Wes wanted to have such a wonderful family again since he had had lost his wife and children years ago. Miss Ellie claimed that Wes had apologized for the pain he'd caused, and had left Dallas for good.\n\nThe storyline was an experiment to gauge an attempt to restore the late Jim Davis' character to the show, after efforts to recast proved futile after no suitable actor could be found to replace Davis. Ultimately, viewer reaction was mixed, but not favorable, as Miss Ellie had found happiness with her remarriage to Clayton Farlow, and that actor Steve Forrest, then at 61, was 16 years younger than his predecessor. Producers finally yielded to viewers and ended the storyline, leaving Jock dead for good by the end of the tenth season.\n\nLegacy\n\nAfter Jim Davis' death, artist Ro Kim painted a portrait of the actor in his role as Jock Ewing. The portrait became a focal point of the Dallas set and was featured in a number of episodes. The painting hung in the home of Larry Hagman, who played antagonist J.R. Ewing for many years until he decided to sell the portrait at auction in spring 2011. The Southfork Ranch in Parker, Texas, where Dallas exteriors were shot, features a different Jock Ewing portrait as a focal point of its \"Jock's Living Room\".\n\nJock drove a 1977 Lincoln Mark V with the license plate EWING 1, which is still on the grounds of Southfork, parked in one of the gift shops.\n\nNotes" ] }

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{ "description": [ "Astrology: Michael Caine, ... a star role that Caine later accepted. ... Dominants: Planets, Signs and Houses for Michael Caine." ], "filename": [ "8/8_2866481.txt" ], "rank": [ 1 ], "title": [ "Astrology: Michael Caine, date of birth: 1933/03/14 ..." ], "url": [ "http://www.astrotheme.com/astrology/Michael_Caine" ], "search_context": [ "Astrology: Michael Caine, date of birth: 1933/03/14, Horoscope, Astrological Portrait, Dominant Planets, Birth Data, Biography\n1st Fire sign - 1st Cardinal sign (spring equinox) - Masculine\nIn analogy with Mars, his ruler, and the 1st House\nAries governs the head.\nHis colour is red, his stone is the heliotrope, his day is Tuesday, and his professions are businessman, policeman, sportsman, surgeon...\nIf your sign is Aries or your Ascendant is Aries: you are courageous, frank, enthusiastic, dynamic, fast, bold, expansive, warm, impulsive, adventurous, intrepid, warlike, competitive, but also naive, domineering, self-centred, impatient, rash, thoughtless, blundering, childish, quick-tempered, daring or primitive.\nSome traditional associations with Aries: Countries: England, France, Germany, Denmark. Cities: Marseille, Florence, Naples, Birmingham, Wroclaw, Leicester, Capua, Verona. Animals: Rams and sheeps. Food: Leeks, hops, onions, shallots, spices. Herbs and aromatics: mustard, capers, Cayenne pepper, chilli peppers. Flowers and plants: thistles, mint, bryonies, honeysuckles. Trees: hawthorns, thorny trees and bushes. Stones, Metals and Salts: diamonds, iron, potassium phosphate.\nSigns: Taurus\n1st Earth sign - 1st Fixed sign - Feminine\nIn analogy with Venus, his ruler, and the 2nd House\nTaurus governs the neck and the throat.\nHer colour is green or brown, her stone is the emerald, her day is Friday, her professions are cook, artist, estate agent, banker, singer...\nIf your sign is Taurus or your Ascendant is Taurus: you are faithful, constant, sturdy, patient, tough, persevering, strong, focused, sensual, stable, concrete, realistic, steady, loyal, robust, constructive, tenacious. You need security, but you are also stubborn, rigid, possessive, spiteful, materialistic, fixed or slow.\nSome traditional associations with Taurus: Countries: Switzerland, Greek islands, Ireland, Cyprus, Iran. Cities: Dublin, Palermo, Parma, Luzern, Mantua, Leipzig, Saint Louis, Ischia, Capri. Animals: bovines. Food: apples, pears, berries, corn and other cereals, grapes, artichokes, asparagus, beans. Herbs and aromatics: sorrels, spearmint, cloves. Flowers and plants: poppies, roses, digitales, violets, primroses, aquilegia, daisies. Trees: apple trees, pear trees, fig-trees, cypresses, ash trees. Stones, Metals and Salts: copper, calcium and potassium sulphate, emeralds.\nSigns: Gemini\n1st Air sign - 1st Mutable sign - Masculine\nIn analogy with Mercury, his ruler, and the 3rd House\nGemini governs the arms, the lungs and the thorax.\nHis colour is green or silver, his stone is the crystal, his day is Wednesday, his professions are journalist, lawyer, presenter, dancer, salesman, travel agent, teacher...\nIf your sign is Gemini or if your Ascendant is Gemini: you are expressive, lively, adaptable, quick-witted, humorous, sparkling, playful, sociable, clever, curious, whimsical, independent, polyvalent, brainy, flexible, ingenious, imaginative, charming, fanciful but also capricious, scattered, moody, shallow, inquisitive, opportunistic, unconcerned, selfish, fragile, ironical or changeable.\nSome traditional associations with Gemini: Countries: Belgium, Wales, United-States, Lower Egypt, Sardinia, Armenia. Cities: London, Plymouth, Cardiff, Melbourne, San Francisco, Nuremberg, Bruges, Versailles. Animals: monkeys, butterflies, parrots, budgerigars. Food: dried fruits, chestnuts, ground-level vegetables: peas, broad beans, etc. Herbs and aromatics: aniseed, marjoram, lemon balm, cumin. Flowers and plants: lilies of the valley, lavenders, myrtle, ferns, Venus-hair-ferns, bittersweets. Trees: nut trees such as chestnut trees. Stones, Metals and Salts: agates, mercury, silicas and potashes.\nSigns: Cancer\n1st Water sign - 2nd Cardinal sign (summer solstice) - Feminine\nIn analogy with the Moon, her ruler, and the 4th House\nCancer governs the stomach and the breast.\nHer colour is white or black, her stone is the moonstone, her day is Monday, her professions are catering, the hotel trade, property, antique dealer, archaeologist...\nIf your sign is Cancer or your Ascendant is Cancer: you are emotional, sentimental, peaceful, imaginative, sensitive, faithful, resistant, protective, vulnerable, generous, romantic, nostalgic, tender, poetic-minded, motherly or fatherly, dreamy, indolent, greedy, devoted but also timorous, unrealistic, evasive, passive, anxious, dependent, stubborn, moody, passive, lazy, touchy, stay-at-home or inaccessible.\nSome traditional associations with Cancer: Countries: Holland, Scotland, North and West Africa, New-Zealand, Paraguay, Algeria. Cities: Amsterdam, Manchester, Tokyo, New York, Istanbul, Stockholm, Milan, Venice, Genoa, Cadix, Alger, Tunis, Bern, Magdeburg. Animals: crabs, animals with shells. Food: milk, fishes, watery fruits and vegetables, turnips, white and red cabbages. Herbs and aromatics: tarragon, verbena, saxifrage. Flowers and plants: geraniums, white roses and white flowers in general, water lilies, morning glory, bear's breeches, and lilies. Trees: all trees full of sap. Stones, Metals and Salts: pearls, silver, lime and calcium phosphate.\nSigns: Leo\n2nd Fire sign - 2nd Fixed sign - Masculine\nIn analogy with the Sun, his ruler, and the 5th House\nLeo governs the heart and the spine, and the eyes, according to some authors.\nHis colour is gold or orange, his stone is the diamond, his day is Sunday, his professions are actor, manager, jeweller, fashion and arts, and action (e.g. fireman)...\nIf your sign is Leo or your Ascendant is Leo: you are proud, determined, strong-willed, loyal, solemn, generous, ambitious, courageous, heroic, conquering, creative, confident, seductive, happy, daring, fiery, majestic, honest, magnanimous, charismatic, responsible, noble, dramatic but also domineering, vain, susceptible, bossy, stubborn, intolerant, self-centred, violent, quick-tempered, nonchalant.\nSome traditional associations with Leo: Countries: Italy, Romania, Sicily, Czechoslovakia, Iraq, Lebanon, Southern France. Cities: Rome, Prague, Bombay, Madrid, Philadelphia, Chicago, Los Angeles, Bath, Bristol, Portsmouth, Syracuse, Damas. Animals: lions and felines in general. Food: meat and especially red meat, rice, honey, cereals, grapes, iron-rich vegetables: watercress, spinach etc. Herbs and aromatics: saffron, mint, rosemary, common rue (Ruta graveolens). Flowers and plants: marigolds, sunflowers, celandines, passion flowers. Trees: palm trees, laurel, walnuts, olive trees, lemon and orange trees. Stones, Metals and Salts: gold, rubies, magnesium and sodium phosphate.\nSigns: Virgo\n2nd Earth sign - 2nd Mutable sign - Feminine\nIn analogy with Mercury, her ruler, and the 6th house\nVirgo governs the intestine.\nHer colour is green or yellow, her stone is the agate, her day is Wednesday, her professions are accountant, secretary, writer, computer scientist, nurse, doctor...\nIf your sign is Virgo or your Ascendant is Virgo: you are brainy, perspicacious, attentive to detail and numbers, analytical, serious, competent, scrupulous, sensible, modest, logical, tidy, well-organized, clean, hard-working, provident, honest, faithful, reserved, shy, helpful, a perfectionist, but also narrow-minded, calculating, irritating, petty, anxious, cold, repressed or caustic.\nSome traditional associations with Virgo: Countries: Brazil, Greece, Turkey, West Indies, United-States (the same as Gemini), Yugoslavia, Crete, Mesopotamia, Lower Silesia, State of Virginia. Cities: Paris, Boston, Athens, Lyon, Corinthia, Heidelberg, spa towns in general. Animals: dogs, cats and all pets. Food: root vegetables: carrots, celeriac, kohlrabies, potatoes etc... Also dried fruits such as chestnuts. Herbs and aromatics: the same as Gemini whose ruler is Mercury too, lilies of the valley, lavenders, myrtles, ferns, Venus-hair-ferns, bittersweets, clovers. Flowers and plants: small bright-coloured flowers, especially blue and yellow, such as dandelions, buttercups, yellow dead-nettles, buglosses, forget-me-nots ; cardamoms, oak leaves, acorns. Trees: all nut trees, e.g. the hazelnut tree... Stones, Metals and Salts: sards (red agate), mercury, nickel, potassium sulphate and iron phosphate.\nSigns: Libra\n2nd Air sign - 3rd Cardinal sign (autumn equinox) - Masculine\nIn analogy with Venus, his ruler and the 7th House\nLibra governs the kidneys and the bladder.\nHis colour is blue or red (not too bright), his stone is the opal, his day is Friday, his professions are in the beauty, luxury or fashion industry, musician, artistic creator, lawyer, mediator...\nIf your sign is Libra or your Ascendant is Libra: you are sentimental, charming, polite, refined, loyal, a pacifist, fair, distinguished, light-hearted, romantic, learned, ethereal, nice, well-groomed, a perfectionist, calm, sweet, tolerant, sociable, elegant, considerate, seductive, aesthetic, indulgent, but also hesitant, weak, indecisive, selfish, fragile, fearful, indolent, cool or even insensitive.\nSome traditional associations with Libra: Countries: Japan, Canada, Indo-China, South Pacific Islands, Burma, Argentina, Upper Egypt, Tibet. Cities: Lisbon, Vienna, Frankfurt, Leeds, Nottingham, Johannesburg, Antwerp, Fribourg. Animals: lizards and small reptiles. Food: berries, apples, pears, grapes, artichokes, asparagus, beans, spices, corn and other cereals. Herbs and aromatics: mint, Cayenne pepper. Flowers and plants: hydrangea, big roses, blue flowers and those associated with Taurus also ruled by Venus, namely, poppies, digitales, violets, primroses, aquilegia, and daisies. Trees: ash trees, poplars, apple trees, pear trees, fig-trees, cypresses. Stones, Metals and Salts: sapphires, jade, copper, potassium and sodium phosphate.\nSigns: Scorpio\n2nd Water sign - 3rd Fixed sign - Feminine\nIn analogy with Pluto, her ruler with Mars, and the 8th House\nScorpio governs the sexual organs and the anus.\nHer colour is black or dark red, her stone is the malachite, her day is Tuesday, her professions are gynaecologist, psychiatrist, detective, the military, army, stockbroker, asset managemer...\nIf your sign is Scorpio or your Ascendant is Scorpio: you are secretive, powerful, domineering, resistant, intuitive, asserted, charismatic, magnetic, strong-willed, perspicacious, passionate, creative, independent, vigorous, generous, loyal, hard-working, persevering, untameable, possessive, cunning, ambitious, sexual, proud, intense, competitive but also aggressive, destructive, stubborn, anxious, tyrannical, perverse, sadistic, violent, self-centred, complex, jealous.\nSome traditional associations with Scorpio: Countries: Morocco, Norway, Algeria, Syria, Korea, Uruguay, Transvaal. Cities: Washington, New Orleans, Valencia, Liverpool, Milwaukee, Fes, Halifax, Hull, Cincinnati. Animals: insects and other invertebrates. Food: the same strong tasting food as for Aries: red meat, garlic, onions, leeks, spices. Herbs and aromatics: aloes, witch hazels, nepeta, mustard, capers, peppers. Flowers and plants: geraniums, rhododendrons, thistles, mint, honeysuckles. Trees: blackthorns, bushes. Stones, Metals and Salts: opals, steel and iron, calcium and sodium sulphate.\nSigns: Sagittarius\n3rd Fire sign - 3rd Mutable sign - Masculine\nIn analogy with Jupiter, his ruler, and the 9th House\nSagittarius governs the thighs and the liver.\nHis colour is indigo, orange or red, his stone is the carbuncle, his day is Thursday, his professions are explorer, commercial traveller, pilot, philosopher, writer, clergyman...\nIf your sign is Sagittarius or your Ascendant is Sagittarius: you are charismatic, fiery, energetic, likeable, benevolent, tidy, jovial, optimistic, extraverted, amusing, straightforward, demonstrative, charming, independent, adventurous, straightforward, bold, exuberant, freedom-loving.\nSome traditional associations with Sagittarius: Countries: Spain, Australia, Hungary, South Africa, Arabia, Yugoslavia. Cities: Stuttgart, Toledo, Budapest, Cologne, Avignon, Sheffield, Naples, Toronto. Animals: fallow deers, hinds, and all games. Food: grapefruits, raisins, onions, leeks, bulb vegetables. Herbs and aromatics: aniseeds, sage, bilberries, cinnamon, borage, mosses, sage, blueberry, patience, balsam. Flowers and plants: dandelions, carnations, thistles. Trees: mulberry trees, chestnut trees, ash trees, lemon trees, oaks. Stones, Metals and Salts: topaz, tin, silica, potassium chloride.\nSigns: Capricorn\n3rd Earth sign - 4th Cardinal sign (winter solstice) - Feminine\nIn analogy with Saturn, her ruler, and the 10th House\nCapricorn governs the knees, the bones and the skin.\nHer colour is black, or grey, green or brown, her stone is the jade, her day is Saturday, her professions are politician, researcher, jurist, scientist, engineer, administrator...\nIf your sign is Capricorn or your Ascendant is Capricorn: you are serious, cold, disciplined, patient, focused, thoughtful, ambitious, indomitable, cautious, lucid, persistent, provident, steady, introverted, stern, wilful, hard-working, responsible, persevering, honest, realistic, loyal, reserved, resolute, moralistic, quiet, rigorous, attached and reliable. But you may also be curt, withdrawn, calculating, petty, cruel, unpleasant, ruthless, selfish, dull, rigid, slow or sceptical.\nSome traditional associations with Capricorn: Countries: India, Mexico, Afghanistan, Macedonia, Thrace, the Yugoslavian coast, the Orkneys and Shetland Islands, Albania, Bulgaria, Saxony. Cities: Delhi, Oxford, Brussels, Mexico, Port-Saïd, Gent, Constance, Mecklenburg, all the administrative centres of capital cities. Animals: goats, pigs and animals with split hooves. Food: meat, potatoes, barley, beets, spinach, medlars, onions, quinces, flour and starchy food in general. Herbs and aromatics: indian hemp, comfreys, centaureas, hemlocks, henbanes. Flowers and plants: ivies, wild pansies, amaranths, pansies. Trees: pines, willows, flowering ashes, aspens, poplars, alders. Stones, Metals and Salts: turquoises, amethysts, silver, lead, calcium phosphate, calcium fluorine.\nSigns: Aquarius\n3rd Air sign - 4th Fixed sign - Masculine\nIn analogy with Uranus his ruler, with Saturn, and the 11th House\nAquarius governs the ankles and the legs.\nHis colour is navy blue or indigo, his stone is the sapphire, his day is Saturday, his professions are astrologer, high technologies, scientist, astronaut, psychiatrist, actor, electrician...\nIf your sign is Aquarius or your Ascendant is Aquarius: you are idealistic, altruistic, detached, independent, original, surprising, gifted, contradictory, innovative, humanistic, likeable, friendly, self-confident, impassive, quiet, intuitive, creative, charitable, elusive, disconcerting, generous, tolerant, paradoxical, and you cannot stand any kind of constraint. But you may also be marginal, resigned, distant, utopian, maladjusted, eccentric and cold.\nSome traditional associations with Aquarius: Countries: Russia, Sweden, Poland, Israel, Iran, Abyssinia. Cities: Moscow, Salzburg, Bremen, Hamburg, Saint Petersburg. Animals: long distance big birds such as the albatross. Food: citrus fruits, apples, limes, dried fruits and easily preserved food. Herbs and aromatics: peppers, hot red peppers, star-fruits, and generally herbs that are spicy or with an unusual flavour. Flowers and plants: orchids, dancing ladies, polygonatum. Trees: fruit trees. Stones, Metals and Salts: aquamarines, aluminium, sodium chloride and magnesium phosphate.\nSigns: Pisces\n3rd Water sign - 4th Mutable sign - Feminine\nIn analogy with Neptune her ruler with Jupiter, and the 12th House\nPisces governs the feet and the blood circulation.\nHer colour is green or purple or turquoise blue, her stone is the amethyst, her day is Thursday, her professions are seamanship and and faraway travels, musician, social and emergency worker, doctor, writer and jobs in remote places...\nIf your sign is Pisces or your Ascendant is Pisces: you are emotional, sensitive, dedicated, adaptable, nice, wild, compassionate, romantic, imaginative, flexible, opportunist, intuitive, impossible to categorized, irrational, seductive, placid, secretive, introverted, pleasant, artistic, and charming. But you may also be indecisive, moody, confused, wavering, lazy, scatterbrained, vulnerable, unpredictable and gullible.\nSome traditional associations with Pisces: Countries: Portugal, Scandinavia, small Mediterranean islands, Gobi desert, Sahara. Cities: Jerusalem, Warsaw, Alexandria, Seville, Santiago de Compostela. Animals: fishes, aquatic mammals and all animals living in the water. Food: melons, cucumbers, lettuces, vegemite sugar, pumpkins. Herbs and aromatics: lemon, chicory, limes, mosses. Flowers and plants: water lilies, willows, aquatic plants. Trees: fig-trees, willows, aquatic trees. Stones, Metals and Salts: heliotropes, moonstone, platinum, tin, iron phosphate and potassium sulphate.\nSun 23�23' Pisces, in House XI\nSun Aspects\nSun trine Pluto orb -2�03'\nSun inconjunction Moon orb -0�26'\nSun opposite Jupiter orb -5�42'\nSun conjunction Venus orb +9�45'\nSun semi-sextile Uranus orb -1�43'\nPlanets: Sun\nThe Sun represents vitality, individuality, will-power and creative energy and honours. For a woman, it also represents her father, and later her husband. The Sun is one of the most important symbols in the birth chart, as much as the Ascendant, then the Moon (a bit less for a man), the ruler of the Ascendant and the fast-moving planets.\nIt's element is fire; it is hot and dry, it governs Leo, is in exaltation in Aries and is in analogy with the heart. It represents the boss, authority, beside the father and the husband ; the age of the Sun goes from 20 years old to about 40, following the Venus age when one is aware of his seductive power.\nTemperament : Bilious\nCharacterology : Emotive, Active, Secondary, passionate type.\nSun in Pisces\nYour deep intuition and your extreme sensitivity allow you to perceive naturally what others understand through analysis. You do not follow the norms in use, societal or educational models and you prefer to create a moral for yourself. A feeling of isolation may come from your ability to live emotions that are unknown to your entourage. This strong impressionability endows you with a sixth sense and acute feelings. In some circumstances, distance and detachment are needed in order not to get bogged down in the necessities of the moment, in useless transient struggles and in barren conflicts. Pisces work wonders. Your strength: a sharp intuition of underlying stakes, a sensitivity that turns �the spirit of the times� into a real compass. All activities requiring stepping back are suitable for you. Before anyone else, you pick up the dangers of an adventure, the risks of defeats or of suspension� with your clear-sightedness more than due to pessimism. Therefore, you may abandon an objective that is not yet obsolete. It is important that you protect yourself against unnecessary disenchantments. Pisces hide a perceptiveness that many claim to possess. But your low-key advices are formulated in a peculiar language. The person who can understand your dazzling intuitions is very lucky.\nSun in House XI\nWith the Sun in the 11th House of your natal chart, you are able to recreate the world, provided that you can rely on loyal friends. Your idealism prompts you to give of your best to great causes, and to believe in the virtues of friendship, dedication, and universal love. So many disillusions lie ahead of you! But also so many hopes and so many moments of exaltation! In some way, you feel that your mission is to change other people's life in order to enliven them and to restore hope. Friendship rules!\nSun Dominant\nIf the Sun is part of your natal chart's planetary dominants, in astrology, you are said to be a Solarian: you loathe pettiness and Machiavellian manoeuvre, and you are fond of natural nobleness as well as of direct and honest attitudes. You endeavour to get out of muddled or dark situations as quickly as possible. Your need for transparency may lead you to make cut-and-dried judgments such as yes or no, and black or white. However, your honesty commands your entourage's consideration. At times, you come across as authoritarian. It is true that you never want to be thought of the notable absentee, and that you manage to make people pay attention to you, as well as to your plans and your assessments. To this end, the Solarian sometimes develops a great talent for placing himself under the spotlight without missing a single opportunity to arouse interest. Some other Solarians, although more discreet, still manage to be the focus of any debate, even in situations of exclusion. It is your way of being present even though you are actually not there... More than other people, you appreciate the esteem extended to you. It is useless to cheat with you, since in all areas you consider establishing enduring relationships only with those who love you, admire you, respect you, or express some degree of affection to you. Your will to straighten out your inter-personal relationships is your strength and sometimes, your Achilles' heel. You cannot achieve anything behind the scenes. Therefore, your comportment is marked with heroism, and your stands are devoid of ambiguity, in the sense that your commitments are unfailing, and your rebuffs, final.\nInterpretation of the 23� Pisces symbolic degree\n\"Under a dark sky enlightened by a moon crescent and a flash of lightning, two men are wrestling.\" ( Janduz version)\nAssertive, courageous, and discerning character endowed with physical and intellectual strength. One is free to use one's personal qualities at the service or justice and the collective good, or on the contrary, in the pursuit of reprehensible goals. In both cases, many hurdles and setbacks disrupt one's happiness and success. However, thanks to one's fortitude, one can overcome ordeals with flying colours. It is in the dark hours of the night that danger lurks.\nN.B.: symbolic degrees belong to a branch of fatalistic astrology. Their interpretation must be regarded with the utmost caution, especially given the fact that different authors give different meanings to symbolic degrees. This is the reason why they are not included in our Astrotheme reports.\nIf you wish, you can receive immediately in your mailbox your detailed astrological portrait , a nice gift for yourself or for your close friends and relatives, who will deeply appreciate it.\nMoon 23�49' Libra, in House V\nMoon Aspects\nMoon opposite Uranus orb -2�09'\nSun inconjunction Moon orb -0�26'\nMoon square Pluto orb +2�29'\nMoon semi-square Neptune orb +0�24'\nPlanets: Moon\nThe Moon represents instinctive reaction, unconscious predestination, everyday mood, sensitivity, emotions, the feminine side of the personality, intuition, imagination. For a man, she represents his mother and later his wife, and his relationship with women in general. For a woman, the Moon is almost as important as the Sun and the Ascendant. Her element is water, she is cold and moist, she rules Cancer, is in exaltation in Taurus and is in analogy with the stomach.\nShe symbolizes the mother, wife, the crowd, the Moon is associated with birth and childhood. Tradition also matches her with the end of life, after Saturn the old age, it is thus customary to go back to one's place of birth to die: the end of life meets the very beginning.\nTemperament : Lymphatic\nCharacterology : Emotive, non Active and Primary type or Non-Emotive, non Active and Primary, Nervous or Amorphous type.\nMoon in Libra\nOn the day and at the time of your birth, the Moon was in the sign of Libra. You loathe violence. Your nature is sociable and you are keen to maintain harmony in your environment. You are sensitive to �the spirit of the times�, to prevailing trends and currents. Because you pick up the moods of the people who surround you, you can be diplomatic. As you adopt the characteristics of your environment, your may become vulnerable. Your surrounding models may influence your tastes and your habits: you readily espouse your entourage�s standards and aesthetic concepts. You can take advantage of your strong sensitivity in order to express yourself through a �beyond the home� activity that requires fineness, aesthetical sense, and good taste.\nMoon in House V\nWith the Moon is in 5th House, you never feel as good as when you are playing. Of course, adults' games are often disguised and marked by the seriousness of age. Short-lived pleasures, seduction enterprises, and dramatic postures are integral parts of your private world. You enjoy childhood and children. You feel that you can easily access their world. The vocations in which you are most likely to be successful are linked to this love for playfulness: teaching, education, theatre, etc.\nMoon Dominant\nIf the Moon is part of your natal chart's planetary dominants, in astrology, you are said to be a Lunarian: the driving force behind your actions is mainly the pursuit of well-being and tranquillity. Your sensitive and romantic self lives on those periods of rest during which you let your imagination wander at will. This is your way of finding inspiration and balance. Nothing is allowed to disturb your feeling of fulfilment and security within a harmonious cell, be it a family or a clan. More than other people, the Lunarian is attached to those moments during which one forgets one's worries and lets oneself cast adrift aimlessly, with no other goal than to be lulled into an ambiance, a situation, or a perfect moment. Many people do not understand such absences and their meaning, which is to regain strength. These people readily describe you with such unflattering terms as apathy and nonchalance. Never mind! Some inspirations require surrendering as well as striking a balance derived from alternate action and passivity. Your qualities are expressed to the fullest in situations which demand familiarity and privacy. Your capacities to respect and blend into your environment is at least as valuable as some other people's aggressive dispositions. However, you are well-advised to avoid indolence and renunciation out of laziness or indifference.\nInterpretation of the 23� Libra symbolic degree\n\"In the neighbourhood of a splendid tree on top of a rocky promontory, a centaur shoots arrows at snakes, which are running away in the grass.\" ( Janduz version)\nRighteous, humble, and independent character. One has the capacity to wisely manage private companies or institutions dealing with public interests. High-ranking positions in the ministry of Finance or the Central Bank are very favoured. However, since success often arouses envy one must beware of jealous people and steer clear of political intrigues, especially if in the natal chart, Mars is dominant. As a matter of rule, this degree is a splendid omen for happiness, wealth, and honour.\nN.B.: symbolic degrees belong to a branch of fatalistic astrology. Their interpretation must be regarded with the utmost caution, especially given the fact that different authors give different meanings to symbolic degrees. This is the reason why they are not included in our Astrotheme reports.\nIf you wish, you can receive immediately in your mailbox your detailed astrological portrait , a nice gift for yourself or for your close friends and relatives, who will deeply appreciate it.\nMercury 7�26' Я Aries, in House XI\nMercury Aspects\nMercury inconjunction Neptune orb +0�59'\nMercury inconjunction Mars orb -1�22'\nMercury sextile Saturn orb -4�54'\nPlanets: Mercury\nMercury represents communication, logical and rational mind, intellectual skills. Earth is its element, it is cold and dry, and it rules Virgo and Gemini, is in exaltation in Virgo and is in analogy with the arms, hands, nervous system.\nIt represents tradesmen, lawyers, messengers; the age of Mercury goes from 8 or10 years old to about 15..\nTemperament : Nervous\nCharacterology : Emotive, non Active and Primary type or Non-Emotive, Active and Primary, Nervous or Sanguine type.\nMercury in Aries\nMercury describes your relations, your communication skills and the way you relate to the external world. However, other astrological elements also influence these areas. The sign Mercury occupies is significant only if Mercury is part of your planetary dominantes. In your chart, Mercury is in Aries. You respond very quickly to the stimulations of your environment. Your mind is constantly on the lookout, searching for new information. Communication is a matter of spontaneity and emotions experienced day-to-day. You always have a quick retort, you are fond of debates and you are avid for novelties. The danger is that you may get carried away by an impulsiveness detrimental to your relationships. Beware of bad language!\nMercury in House XI\nWith Mercury in the 11th House, you seek intellectual contacts and friendships based on common centres of interest. Love may be platonic, and relationships, idealistic. You communicate in order to build a better world, at least at home, or at your door. Projects, such as promises and commitments, abound... But how many of them will materialise? Making friends is a game you are crazy about. This is fine, provided you are wary of superficial relationships.\nMercury Dominant\nIf Mercury is part of your natal chart's planetary dominants, in astrology, you are said to be a Mercurian: the tradition points out the importance of communication. From idle but enriching chatters to observation gift, such a dominant endows you with a wide range of expression. Human beings have one thousand facets and one thousand masks they wear according to circumstances and the fortunes of the game of life. You take the role of an observer who is avid for novelties, discoveries, and surprises. Everything catches your attention and becomes an opportunity for new encounters, relationships, and learning. The world amazes you, amuses you sometimes, and stimulates your curiosity. Because the most important thing is to discover, and because you consider that each new situation is packed with potentialities, you try to fill the gaps in your knowledge. Although your open-mindedness may scatter your centres of interest, it also enables you to carefully avoid sticking to only one immutable and rigid view. The slightest sign enables you to perceive the other side of the coin, as well as the infinite complexity of people and of situations. On the human plane, you seek the dialogue and the information without which you know that you are not able to fully grasp the nature of your interlocutor. This keen interest in the Unknown sharpens your inter-relational skills. All these qualities are traditionally associated with Mercury.\nInterpretation of the 7� Aries symbolic degree\n\"A man with a dagger in his hand tries to provoke a group of men who are quietly playing bowls. He is seething with rage because the players pay no attention to him.\" ( Janduz version)\nHot-tempered, quarrelsome and reckless character. One always wants to create conflicts, antagonise everyone, criticise other people's opinions, and stir trouble. One is heading for serious problems because of one's own animosity. A career requiring aggressiveness is an excellent outlet for these violent impulses and brings about success and fame. If in the natal chart, Mars and Mercury form hard aspects with this degree, it portends bad reputation and misfortunes caused by one's own brutality. If Saturn is in conjunction with this degree, it describes a person who chooses to live in poverty or who is a professional beggar.\nN.B.: symbolic degrees belong to a branch of fatalistic astrology. Their interpretation must be regarded with the utmost caution, especially given the fact that different authors give different meanings to symbolic degrees. This is the reason why they are not included in our Astrotheme reports.\nIf you wish, you can receive immediately in your mailbox your detailed astrological portrait , a nice gift for yourself or for your close friends and relatives, who will deeply appreciate it.\nVenus 13�38' Pisces, in House X\nVenus Aspects\nVenus opposite Neptune orb -5�13'\nVenus opposite Jupiter orb -4�02'\nVenus opposite Mars orb -7�34'\nSun conjunction Venus orb +9�45'\nVenus trine Pluto orb +7�41'\nVenus semi-sextile Saturn orb +1�18'\nPlanets: Venus\nVenus represents the way one loves, relationships, sharing, affectivity, seductive ability. For men, she also corresponds to the kind of woman he's attracted to (but not especially in marriage which is more symbolized by the Moon, Venus is the lover and not the wife). Her element is the Air, she is moist, rules Taurus and Libra, is in exaltation in Pisces and is in analogy with the kidneys, the venous system, the bladder, the neck.\nShe represents the artists, tradesmen, occupations linked to beauty and charm; the age of Venus goes from 15 to about 25 years old.\nTemperament : Sanguine and Lymphatic\nCharacterology : Emotive, non Active and Primary type or Emotive, non Active and Secondary type.\nVenus in Pisces\nVenus describes your affective life. On the day of your birth, she is found in Pisces. Your emotionalism is very strong and very unusual. You have your own manner to experience your emotions and your sensations, in an atmosphere that may be odd, you complicate your amorous life� and this is part of your charm, at the same time. On the chessboard of your sentimental life, quite strange games enfold. Your affectivity is subtle, fabulous and unusual: love reinvents everything and anything becomes possible when your heart is sincere. You dream of a complete fusion and of giving yourself totally. No rules, no moral or social code is more important than the feeling of shared passion and than living for your partner. Your affective life is complex, sometimes mysterious: you don�t know why you love, or why you don�t love any more� Your sentimental life obeys a different logic than that of the external world. Love is elusive and fragile. Nothing is easier than to destroy a feeling and to forget a passion. Your sensitivity responds to an unknown call, a strange signal. Therefore, you may shift from intense and absolute feelings to cruel indifference. Although you don�t know why, you are being transformed. The most difficult thing is to love a real being and not a shadow. You give yourself to persons who can understand and respect the fragile realm of your affectivity.\nVenus in House X\nVenus expresses her characteristics through the 10th House values. Your vocation is related to aesthetics, art, or decoration. Obviously, life does not always offer you the means to fully achieve your aspirations. Nevertheless, your Venusian qualities, namely charm, aesthetic taste, and receptiveness, remain valuable assets in order to assert your ambitions and to play a social role matching your true nature. You are endowed with a few artistic gifts, and an innate sense of beauty.\nVenus Dominant\nIf Venus is part of your natal chart's planetary dominants, in astrology, you are said to be a Venusian: you are a sensual and emotional person particularly receptive to the natural likes and dislikes aroused by your contact with people. You are prone to frequent instinctive aversions and true passions which are exclusively driven by the feeling of love. The heart has its reasons which Reason knows nothing of... Your balance is based on the richness of your affective life. Without love, the Venusian is resourceless, lost, and deprived of any reason for living. You have an obvious and strong will to charm and to arouse the attachments without which you cannot properly function. Every area of your life is thus marked by your affectivity. The danger is that you may \"be taken in\" by charm. In such cases, you would prefer to keep your emotions under better control. Thus, hyper-sensitivity has its own inconveniences. Nevertheless, better than anyone else, you know how to play with feelings and attractions. Although you are sometimes caught in the traps of an over sensitive emotionalism, feelings remain your best assets in many circumstances. There is another aspect to the Venusian dominant. According to the Tradition, this planet rules the Arts, and you are endowed with some degree of artistic dispositions, ranging from good to excellent.\nInterpretation of the 13� Pisces symbolic degree\n\"A man chops wood in a glade. Near the logs neatly arranged in piles, children do a circle dance.\" ( Janduz version)\nHonest, benevolent, and persevering character. After years of hard work, one achieves success and wealth in the wood or construction industry, in agriculture or horticulture. All occupations related to urbanism, especially the design of new cities, or the rebuilding of places destroyed by war or natural disasters, are also very favoured. Even after having reached the pinnacle of one's career, one remains simple and accessible, which commands people's respect.\nN.B.: symbolic degrees belong to a branch of fatalistic astrology. Their interpretation must be regarded with the utmost caution, especially given the fact that different authors give different meanings to symbolic degrees. This is the reason why they are not included in our Astrotheme reports.\nIf you wish, you can receive immediately in your mailbox your detailed astrological portrait , a nice gift for yourself or for your close friends and relatives, who will deeply appreciate it.\nMars 6�03' Я Virgo, in House IV\nMars Aspects\nMars conjunction Neptune orb +2�21'\nMars sesqui-quadrate Uranus orb -0�36'\nVenus opposite Mars orb -7�34'\nMercury inconjunction Mars orb -1�22'\nMars semi-square Pluto orb -0�16'\nPlanets: Mars\nMars represents the desire for action and physical energy, sexuality, strength. For a woman, Mars corresponds to the kind of man she's attracted to (but not especially in marriage which is rather symbolized by the Sun, Mars is the lover, not the husband). Fire is its element, it is hot and dry, and it rules Aries and Scorpio (along with Pluto), is in exaltation with Capricorn and is in analogy with the muscles and the spleen.\nIt represents the soldiers, sportsmen, warriors, surgeons, blacksmiths... ; the age of Mars goes from 42 to 50 years old.\nTemperament : Bilious\nCharacterology : Emotive, Active, Primary type. It is a Choleric.\nMars in Virgo\nThe planet Mars indicates how you react to life concrete stimulations. It also describes your fighting spirit, your abilities to stand for yourself and to take action. With Mars in Virgo, you strive to control your emotions and to reduce your field of activity in order to keep a maximal level of efficiency in your actions. When you commit yourself into something, you display a strong ingenuity and resourcefulness and you intervene at the right time. Your actions are as efficient as they are discreet. You may not feel comfortable when the situation you face is not logical. The whims of fate are not your allies: but you analyze properly more stable situations and you handle them methodically well. You seldom take inconsiderate actions and you prefer to take the time to weigh up the pros and the cons before undertaking anything. Your entourage may see your reserve and your restraint as a lack of boldness.\nMars in House IV\nWith Mars in the 4th House, life is a duel between your private world and social structures, as well as between your family roots and the external world's imperatives. You put your fighting spirit at the service of the defence of your clan. Family and homeland: here are your reasons to take action as well as to fight for your rights and your interests. You do not let anybody endanger your cell, your little world, and your close friends. Should these values be threatened, you immediately mobilise all your resources in order to protect them.\nMars Dominant\nIf Mars is part of your natal chart's planetary dominants, in astrology, you are said to be a Marsian: in your hand-to-hand struggle for life, you demonstrate an acute and active sense of confrontation with the world, with other people, and with your own destiny. You need to take action and to fight for your projects and your desires. You perceive all situations with deep intensity, and you react to the here and now without bothering to step back in order to ensure that events are under your control. You take up challenges with excessive foolhardiness as a consequence of your impulsiveness. However, better than anyone else, you know how to mobilise your resources in case of crisis. You take action whenever it is necessary to do so, and you are present in a timely manner. With Mars, your attitudes are dictated by the realities of the moment, by your emotions, and by everything which proved to have worked in the past. When this dominant is not well integrated, it may bring about an aggressive or impulsive behaviour. Therefore, you must learn to control your hyper-sensitivity and your fits of temper. You are also endowed with Marsian qualities: the fighting spirit and the taste for duel without which one may find oneself overwhelmed by events. When this willpower is well channelled, its precious energy enables to cope with all sorts of contingencies. There are a thousand ways to win, and a thousand challenges to take up with the enthusiasm and the dynamism which make life so worthy. A certain idea of life which is wild, passionate, and in tune with events.\nInterpretation of the 6� Virgo symbolic degree\n\"A poor woman steps aside as an arrogant and lavishly dressed lady walks towards a couple who is standing back-to-back.\" ( Janduz version)\nHumble, generous, and passive character which, although not unsociable, behaves gawkily when dealing with other people, particularly with persons of the opposite gender. Marriage is an area which is fraught with problems. A nasty female who enjoys doing harm, just for the sake of it, may prove to have a devastating influence.\nN.B.: symbolic degrees belong to a branch of fatalistic astrology. Their interpretation must be regarded with the utmost caution, especially given the fact that different authors give different meanings to symbolic degrees. This is the reason why they are not included in our Astrotheme reports.\nIf you wish, you can receive immediately in your mailbox your detailed astrological portrait , a nice gift for yourself or for your close friends and relatives, who will deeply appreciate it.\nJupiter 17�41' Я Virgo, in House IV\nJupiter Aspects\nVenus opposite Jupiter orb -4�02'\nSun opposite Jupiter orb -5�42'\nJupiter conjunction Neptune orb +9�15'\nJupiter sextile Pluto orb -3�38'\nJupiter bi-quintile Saturn orb +0�38'\nPlanets: Jupiter\nJupiter represents expansion and power, benevolence, large vision and generosity. Its element is Air, it is hot and moist, and it rules Sagittarius and Pisces (along with Neptune), is in exaltation with Cancer and is in analogy with the hips and endocrinal system.\nIt represents the governors, magistrates, professors, religious men too; the age of Jupiter goes from 50 to 55 or even 70 years old.\nTemperament : Sanguine\nCharacterology : Emotive, Active, Primary type; it is an extrovert Choleric. Actually the humid version of Mars, inclined to action like him.\nJupiter in Virgo\nThe planet Jupiter symbolizes expansion, broadness and generosity. Jupiter is associated with the functions of synthesis, enthusiasm and optimism. In your natal chart, his house position is more important than his sign position because, like Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto, he is a slow planet. Many people born in the same period have Jupiter in the same sign. This is the reason why the sign occupied here is less meaningful than when it is occupied by the so-called fast planets, i.e. the Sun, the Moon, Mercury, Venus and Mars. Therefore, some caution is to be exercised as you read what follows. Jupiter in Virgo gives you a talent for work, for practical activities and a higher than average dexterity. You have a strong sense of duty. You are very appreciated in your work environment because you are a perfectionist. The Tradition underlines that all the fields related to health and physical wellbeing are favoured.\nJupiter in House IV\nWith Jupiter in the 4th House, the world is a big family! You get easily integrated within the most diverse social structures, and you know how to establish a climate of confidence and intimacy even though you are not familiar with the situation. Life is made of encounters and integrations. Sometimes, in order that the other person becomes an integral part of your personal world, and that you feel you both belong to the same clan, all you need to do is to get to understand the other one, and to find a common language.\nJupiter Dominant\nIf Jupiter is part of your natal chart's planetary dominants, in astrology, you are said to be a Jupiterian: because this planet brings about a keen interest in social and professional success, the Tradition considers it to be beneficial. Indeed, you know how to adjust to events and to jump at the chance when it arises. The members of you entourage gladly entrust you with high responsibilities because they are often impressed by your learning skills and your adaptation abilities as you deal with new structures and new languages. What is the secret of your good star? It is your self-confidence which wins public support. Now, what is the secret of your charm? Definitely, enthusiasm, euphoria, and exaltation. Exaggeration also. When this dominant is well integrated, it is a factor of affluence and optimism, and a certain degree of joviality enables you to easily fit into various spheres. It constitutes your main asset to manage your life. However, you must at times curb your desire for integration, lest your sense of opportunity turns into extreme opportunism. Here also, the key to success lies in a correct estimate of everyone's chances and possibilities. Although management is one of your forte, and you can adjust your objectives to current realities better than other people, you lack the hindsight which enables you to avoid short-term vagaries and daily fluctuations. If you strive too much to adapt, you run a risk of betraying yourself. This is the other traditional side of the coin with \"The Greater Benefic\"!\nInterpretation of the 17� Virgo symbolic degree\n\"An old man happily watches children play cheerfully under a beautiful tree.\" ( Janduz version)\nLenient, generous, and sensitive character. One protects and devotes oneself to the family members, but one also cares for other people's needs. In some cases, one suffers the loss of a child. One's major goal is to found and run a centre dedicated to children and youths in distress, even though financial resources are not sufficient, or despite the disapproval expressed by the spouse or the other family members. Success can be achieved in the civil service, in an administrative position in the military or in the police. This degree heralds longevity and happiness, in spite of the fact that one is not really understood by the entourage. If in the natal chart, Venus is in Taurus and forms a trine with this degree, it indicates talents for artwork, especially painting and pottery.\nN.B.: symbolic degrees belong to a branch of fatalistic astrology. Their interpretation must be regarded with the utmost caution, especially given the fact that different authors give different meanings to symbolic degrees. This is the reason why they are not included in our Astrotheme reports.\nIf you wish, you can receive immediately in your mailbox your detailed astrological portrait , a nice gift for yourself or for your close friends and relatives, who will deeply appreciate it.\nSaturn 12�20' Aquarius, in House IX\nSaturn Aspects\nMercury sextile Saturn orb -4�54'\nJupiter bi-quintile Saturn orb +0�38'\nVenus semi-sextile Saturn orb +1�18'\nPlanets: Saturn\nSaturn represents concentration, effort, perseverance, time, the hard reality, inevitable consequences. Earth is its element, it is cold and dry, and it rules Capricorn and Aquarius (along with Uranus), is in exaltation in Libra and is in analogy with the bones (skeleton) and the skin.\nIt represents the grandparents, old people, scientists, knowledgeable men, Saturn corresponds to old age; it goes from 70 years old until death.\nTemperament : Nervous\nCharacterology : Non-Emotive, Active and Secondary type or Emotive, non Active and Secondary type or sometimes Non-Emotive, non Active and Secondary type; it is a Phlegmatic, a Sentimental or an Empathic type\nSaturn in Aquarius\nThe planet Saturn symbolizes contraction, effort, time, limitation and concentration. Saturn eliminates anything that is not authentic, sooner or later. It is impossible to cheat him as he gives an irresistible desire to form a coherent whole with oneself, in responsible and wise ways. He is the great purifier. He represents our limitations but also our truth. In your natal chart, the house position where Saturn is posited is more important than his sign position because, like Jupiter, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto, he is a slow planet. Many people born in the same period have Saturn in the same sign. This is the reason why the sign occupied here is less meaningful than when it is occupied by the so-called fast planets, i.e. the Sun, the Moon, Mercury, Venus and Mars. Therefore, some caution is to be exercised as you read what follows. Saturn in Aquarius endows you with the capacity to deliver in collective areas, humanitarian causes or avant-gardist projects. Your sensitivity is withdrawn but it is offset by your ability to handle human relationships in a daring and efficient way, which allows you to achieve your goals for the sake of a cause.\nSaturn in House IX\nIn your natal chart, Saturn is in the 9th House. Between conservative rigour and intolerance, as well as between seriousness and austerity, the line is very thin. You must not cross it. Then, your honesty can work wonders. Firstly, owing to your intellectual honesty, you do not fake your knowledge, and you do not compromise with truth. Secondly, owing to your moral integrity, you feel that it is essential that your relationships be transparent, sometimes at the cost of a few sacrifices. In such a context, how is it possible to criticise you for any lack of flexibility?\nSaturn Dominant\nIf Saturn is part of your natal chart's planetary dominants, in astrology, you are said to be a Saturnian: you gladly leave to other people the decision to take life as it comes. As far as you are concerned, you prefer to take advantage of your experiences in order to discover, to grow, and to question yourself.\nInterpretation of the 12� Aquarius symbolic degree\n\"An infuriated lion struggles against the bars of its cage.\" ( Janduz version)\nAmbitious, independent, and fiery character. It is indispensable to give up vengeful projects and to ensure that one's authority is not misused, lest all kinds of disastrous events and setbacks crop up. In a figurative sense, this degree indicates that one may be kept in prison by one's rebellious and anarchistic tendencies.\nN.B.: symbolic degrees belong to a branch of fatalistic astrology. Their interpretation must be regarded with the utmost caution, especially given the fact that different authors give different meanings to symbolic degrees. This is the reason why they are not included in our Astrotheme reports.\nIf you wish, you can receive immediately in your mailbox your detailed astrological portrait , a nice gift for yourself or for your close friends and relatives, who will deeply appreciate it.\nUranus 21�40' Aries, in House XI\nUranus Aspects\nMoon opposite Uranus orb -2�09'\nUranus square Pluto orb -0�20'\nMars sesqui-quadrate Uranus orb -0�36'\nUranus sesqui-quadrate Neptune orb +1�44'\nSun semi-sextile Uranus orb -1�43'\nPlanets: Uranus\nUranus represents individual freedom, originality, independence, marginality, avant guard inspiration, ultra modernism. Fire is its element, it is dry, and it rules Aquarius, is in exaltation with Scorpio and is in analogy with the brain and the nerves.\nIt represents inventors, odd characters, revolutionaries.\nTemperament : Nervous to the extreme\nCharacterology : Emotive, Active, Secondary type; it is a Passionate type.\nUranus in Aries\nThe planet Uranus symbolizes originality, independence and cerebral energy bursting suddenly. Uranus triggers the irresistible need for freedom that we have in ourselves. Uranus tends to break the constraints that have become unbearable and gives us the courage and the will to get rid of what has become a burden; when he is well aspected, he also indicates genius. In your natal chart, Uranus� house position is more important than his sign position because, like Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune and Pluto, he is a slow planet. Many people born in the same period have Uranus in the same sign. This is the reason why the sign occupied here is less meaningful than when it is occupied by the so-called fast planets, i.e. the Sun, the Moon, Mercury, Venus and Mars. Therefore, some caution is to be exercised as you read what follows. The sign positions of Uranus, Neptune and Pluto have a collective meaning. They do not influence your personality, unless they are involved in numerous aspects or when they emphasize a personal point of your natal chart such as your Ascendant�s ruler, an angular planet, i.e. a planet near the Ascendant, the Midheaven, the Nadir or the Descendant. In such cases, the activity of the slow planet is very highlighted. Uranus in Aries increases your dynamism and your charisma but he may give you a self-centered nature through excessive drive and confidence.\nUranus in House XI\nWith Uranus in the 11th House, you are interested in projects of society. But the individual has the first place! You need to protect everyone's freedom, and to build a fraternal world. Your conceptions are liberal, often original, and personal. You never compromise over certain principles. Your friendships are straightforward, devoid of hidden agenda or ambiguity. You link up with other people because you want to share an ideal and assert the values you have in common. Without these objectives, you cannot develop a genuine relationship.\nUranus Dominant\nIf Uranus is part of your natal chart's planetary dominants, in astrology, you are said to be a Uranian: personal values are prevailing. Inner certainties fuel an inflexible will and a desire to call attention on yourself as well as to follow your beliefs through. This planet prompts you to behave with determination, to put forward your own truth, and to start your personal revolution. More than other people, you are willing to keep some degree of autonomy in all circumstances, and you often display an individualistic nature. In order to achieve your ideal of freedom and independence, you may act like a despot as you try to convince and to impose your views, whether smoothly or forcefully. Regardless of the flexibility of your comportment, some situations demand an absolute firmness as well as uncompromising, frank and straightforward attitudes. People may criticise you for your intransigence and say that you are a hardliner. Outsider's opinions don't matter! The most important thing is that you act in all conscience and reach your primary objectives. More than anyone else, you know how to use your willpower and to focus your energy on a precise aim, relentlessly, whatever the consequences might be. In the chapter of qualities, let's mention a definite sense of responsibility, an innovative mind open to techniques and modern ideas, as well as a natural self-discipline which overcomes many an obstacle. Therefore, people are well-advised not to hound you into a corner.\nInterpretation of the 21� Aries symbolic degree\n\"A man, who just filled his jug at the fountain, walks so carelessly that the water spills on the ground. A bear bites a tree trunk.\" ( Janduz version)\nLazy, carefree and conceited character. One loses one's credibility and wealth owing to one's indecisiveness and wrong judgements. Furthermore, one nurtures ambitions which are out of proportion with one's intellectual and financial abilities. The bear indicates that one keeps other people responsible for one's failures instead of acknowledging that one's negligence and lack of skills are the real causes of repeated setbacks.\nN.B.: symbolic degrees belong to a branch of fatalistic astrology. Their interpretation must be regarded with the utmost caution, especially given the fact that different authors give different meanings to symbolic degrees. This is the reason why they are not included in our Astrotheme reports.\nIf you wish, you can receive immediately in your mailbox your detailed astrological portrait , a nice gift for yourself or for your close friends and relatives, who will deeply appreciate it.\nNeptune 8�25' Я Virgo, in House IV\nNeptune Aspects\nMars conjunction Neptune orb +2�21'\nVenus opposite Neptune orb -5�13'\nMoon semi-square Neptune orb +0�24'\nMercury inconjunction Neptune orb +0�59'\nJupiter conjunction Neptune orb +9�15'\nUranus sesqui-quadrate Neptune orb +1�44'\nPlanets: Neptune\nNeptune represents escapism, impressionability, daydreaming, delusions, carelessness, deception or intuition, dishonesty or inspiration, telepathy. Water is its element, it is moist, it rules Pisces, is in exaltation in Cancer, though some authors say it is Leo, and is in analogy with the vegetative system.\nIt represents dreamers, mediums, magicians, merchants of illusion, drug addicts.\nTemperament : rather Lymphatic\nCharacterology : Emotive, non Active, Primary or Secondary type; it is a Sentimental, or sometimes Amorphous type.\nNeptune in Virgo\nThe planet Neptune symbolizes extreme receptivity, intense emotional sharpness, impressionability and inspiration; it is the planet of mediums, mystics and religious faith. In an astrological chart, it indicates dilution, vagueness, understanding one�s environment through emotions and the absence of clear and determined limits and structures. In your natal chart, Neptune�s house position is more important than his sign position because, like Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Pluto, he is a slow planet. Many people born in the same period have Neptune in the same sign. This is the reason why the sign occupied here is less meaningful than when it is occupied by the so-called fast planets, i.e. the Sun, the Moon, Mercury, Venus and Mars. Therefore, some caution is to be exercised as you read what follows. The sign positions of Uranus, Neptune and Pluto have a collective meaning. They do not influence your personality, unless they are involved in numerous aspects or when they emphasize a personal point of your natal chart such as your Ascendant�s ruler, an angular planet, i.e. a planet near the Ascendant, the Midheaven, the Nadir or the Descendant. In such cases, the activity of the slow planet is very highlighted. Neptune in Virgo inclines you to be doubtful because your emotions bring about questions to which your logic cannot answer. Logic and intuition must become complementary and to that end, you must step back, as required.\nNeptune in House IV\nWith Neptune in the 4th House, the family cell is your source for inspiration, and the goldmine from which you draw your intuitions and your dearest motivations. You are impressionable. You tend to let your close friends guide you, and you rely on the comfortable assistance of your clan. Your acute sense of psychology enables you to take advantage of atmospheres, and to effortlessly seize the opportunities offered by your family circle.\nNeptune Dominant\nIf Neptune is part of your natal chart's planetary dominants, in astrology, you are said to be a Neptunian: your intuition is highly developed. You are of a contemplative nature, and you are particularly receptive to ambiances, places, and people. You gladly cultivate the art of letting-go, and you allow the natural unfolding of events to construct your world. You follow your inspirations, for better or for worse. At times, you display an extraordinary clairvoyance gift. You seem to be able to read your subconscious like a book, and you track down subtle underlying mechanisms, flaws, or open breaches. This innate intuition might explain the strokes of good luck which the Neptunian is sometimes credited with. However, you may also be the victim of illusions and misleading intuitions. You are an idealist, and you let your deepest aspirations prevail over the realities of the moment. Then, you set off in quest of some quixotic objective, living like a Don Quixote who relentlessly pursues an impossible dream. You have a great talent for psychology and the mysteries of the human soul. Since you instinctively perceive people's intents and motivations, as you swim in the complexity of human nature, you feel in your element. The subtlety of your perceptiveness is the source of both special affections and irrevocable rejections. What is the danger of such a dominant? If it is not offset by other influences in your natal chart, you may not have an iron will. Your trump card is your instinct, which may be developed to the extent that it becomes clairvoyance.\nInterpretation of the 8� Virgo symbolic degree\n\"A man and a woman wearing a mask stand at both ends of a table on which there are bags of money and beautiful fruits. The woman protects the money with her hand while the man grasps a fruit.\" ( Janduz version)\nSociable and generous character lacking willpower. It seems that money falls on one's laps, whether it comes through inheritance or through work. However, one does not know how to deal with it, and it becomes a source of troubles because of a female's machinations. One is driven by greed and passions and may fall prey of dishonest people.\nN.B.: symbolic degrees belong to a branch of fatalistic astrology. Their interpretation must be regarded with the utmost caution, especially given the fact that different authors give different meanings to symbolic degrees. This is the reason why they are not included in our Astrotheme reports.\nIf you wish, you can receive immediately in your mailbox your detailed astrological portrait , a nice gift for yourself or for your close friends and relatives, who will deeply appreciate it.\nPluto 21�19' Я Cancer, in House II\nPluto Aspects\nUranus square Pluto orb -0�20'\nSun trine Pluto orb -2�03'\nMoon square Pluto orb +2�29'\nMars semi-square Pluto orb -0�16'\nJupiter sextile Pluto orb -3�38'\nVenus trine Pluto orb +7�41'\nPlanets: Pluto\nPluto represents deep transformations, mutations and eliminations, sexuality and magnetism, power and secrets, destruction with a view to regeneration, the phoenix rising from the ashes. Its element is indefinite; burning (like lava in fusion ?), it rules Scorpio, is in exaltation in Pisces and is in analogy with the sexual organs and excretion.\nIt represents dictators, sadistic people, violent characters, is instinctive and powerful but also mysterious with hidden strengths.\nTemperament : rather Bilious\nCharacterology : Emotive or non-Emotive, Active, Primary type; it is a Passionate Choleri typec.\nPluto in Cancer\nThe planet Pluto symbolizes deep disruptions and upheavals, domination and sexual instincts, and the inner power we have in ourselves. Pluto destroys in order to reconstruct and he provokes painful crises that are needed in metamorphosis. Pluto is our deepest instincts� brutal force. It is the hidden and unconscious violence that can explode in us with incredible intensity before being projected in our actions; in itself, the planet is not negative: the might and the intensity of its energy are beyond the conceivable but it can be funnelled. Pluto is the only possibility we have at our disposal to overcome our inner blocks and to eliminate outgrown situations that have become inextricable. Pluto�s energy is valuable because of its usefulness for the irreversible destruction of what constitutes a problem and not because of its negative side and its perversity. Pluto allows to reconstruct and to regenerate parts of our personality or whole stretches of our life, provided that we manage to funnel his wild energy and to step back. It is impossible to tame this energy, given its essence. However, it is possible to take advantage of it for a precise aim, through a temporary identification of some parts of us with this energy. In such a case, the outcome is our final evolution and even, our transformation. In your natal chart, Pluto�s house position is more important than his sign position because, like Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, Pluto is a slow planet. Many people born in the same period have Pluto in the same sign. This is the reason why the sign occupied here is less meaningful than when it is occupied by the so-called fast planets, i.e. the Sun, the Moon, Mercury, Venus and Mars. Therefore, some caution is to be exercised as you read what follows. The sign positions of Uranus, Neptune and Pluto have a collective meaning. They do not influence your personality and they are not to be really taken into account, unless they are involved in numerous aspects or when they emphasize a personal point of your natal chart such as your Ascendant�s ruler, an angular planet, i.e. a planet near the Ascendant, the Midheaven, the Nadir or the Descendant. In such cases, the activity of the slow planet is very highlighted. Pluto in Cancer may create troubles in your home because your will to control is too strong or because you are exceedingly sensitive.\nPluto in House II\nWith Pluto in the 2nd House, what are your most precious possessions? It's a secret! In any case, you are not quite sure to know what is really valuable. Your capital is hidden. You do not flaunt your money, if you have any, and you do not reveal your dearest feelings. You are not interested in possessing, which does not prevent you from working behind the scenes in order to make your assets yield profit. Some day, you may be rich. However, you will always look poor.\nPluto Dominant\nIf Pluto is part of your natal chart's planetary dominants, in astrology, you are said to be a Plutonian: you sometimes feel like a foreigner who does not belong to the world, to its laws, and its concerns. The rules of life in society are not necessarily yours. You are interested in what is unknown and in the subtle laws of a hidden order. So, you take malicious pleasure in ridiculing the patterns you find too simplistic or too rigid. You also revel in underlining the limits of explanations you deem too common. There is something unconventional about the way you are, the way you think, and the way you act. What is your specificity made of? Is it an extraordinary partner? A life off the beaten path? Or do you only distance yourself from conventional morals? In any case, you have the feeling, sometimes quite vague, that you come from nowhere, and that you do not belong to any definite group... In short, it means that you cannot be simplified in order to conform to existing models. The gap between you and ordinary mortals is also an element of your strength. Your deep clear-sightedness, firstly, enables you to put things into perspective and to grant them only the attention they deserve. Your other remarkable asset is your capacity to intervene from behind the scenes, to secretly organise events, and to bring about the desirable outcome without seeming to impose or to dictate anything. However, you must still overcome one of the major difficulties of this dominant, which is to get people to accept your difference and to smoothly fit into your environment.\nInterpretation of the 21� Cancer symbolic degree\n\"A man stands on top of a mountain with a commanding staff in his hand, his face ablaze with the setting sun.\" ( Janduz version)\nAmbitious, enduring, and radiant character. Owing to one's exceptional intelligence and physical strength, one can accomplish sporting feats. One is attracted to adventures and interested in the natural laws which rule such topics as waves or astronomy. At the height of one's career, when one least expects it, one may be toppled from one's position. Despite numerous ordeals, one always gets out of bad situations thanks to one's own merits, and one achieves success, fame, honours, and wealth. Mid-life is a period when one may experience sudden threats through water such as floods or drowning. Therefore, one must avoid foolhardiness. Old age is happy.\nN.B.: symbolic degrees belong to a branch of fatalistic astrology. Their interpretation must be regarded with the utmost caution, especially given the fact that different authors give different meanings to symbolic degrees. This is the reason why they are not included in our Astrotheme reports.\nIf you wish, you can receive immediately in your mailbox your detailed astrological portrait , a nice gift for yourself or for your close friends and relatives, who will deeply appreciate it.\n%DYNAMIQUE_22%\nAsteroids: Chiron\nChiron is almost renowned and used everywhere. Most astrologers consider it as a kind of \"mediator\" between Saturn and outer planets. Consequently, Chiron is of Saturn's nature and at the same time is influenced by Uranus, the first slow-moving planet. Astrologically, it symbolizes wisdom, patience and the faculty to reduce others' sufferings: it is said to be the \"great healer\" of the zodiac. Like all the secondary bodies, it must be in close conjunction with planets or angles in order to fully express its action.\n%TEXTES_22%\n%DYNAMIQUE_23%\nAsteroids: Ceres\nCeres, the biggest of the four minor asteroids used besides Chiron, is associated with the mythological goddess of growing plants and harvest and also symbolizes physical constitution, vitality and fertility. She's also known as Demeter, according to the astrologer Zipporah Dobyns, linked to the symbolism of the mother but in a less emotive and more physical way than the Moon. Ceres is thought to be the ruler of Virgo, in exaltation in Gemini, in exile in Pisces and in fall in Sagittarius. Keywords associated with Ceres could be order, practical sense, worry, precision, modesty, method, sobriety, motherhood, fertility, the Earth: a kind of a more cerebral Moon...\n%TEXTES_23%\n%DYNAMIQUE_24%\nAsteroids: Pallas\nPallas is sometimes used in modern Astrology: she represents intelligence, abstract and global thinking talents. It is usually considered to be a determining element in political strategy.\n%TEXTES_24%\n%DYNAMIQUE_25%\nAsteroids: Juno\nJuno is the asteroid corresponding to the adaptation to the marital partner and to the defence of individual rights; it is thus used in the field of marriage.\n%TEXTES_25%\nVesta is rarely used and brings the ability to efficiently devote oneself to a cause.\n%TEXTES_26%\nTrue North Node 7�44' Я Pisces, in House X\nNorth Node\nThe North Node (True Node here) represents the goals that must be achieved during life, in the karmic sense according to some traditions. Its position in house indicates in what field an effort is necessary in order to evolve. The North Node is often called the Dragon's head, it is usually considered beneficial, a bit like Jupiter with the planets. The Lunar nodes are fictional points and not actual heavenly bodies: they are the intersections of the Moon with the Ecliptic (the path made by the Sun in its orbit as seen from the Earth). The axis of the Lunar nodes moves 19 degrees each year, namely a bit more than three minutes each day.\nThe South Node is diametrically opposed to the North Node, therefore it faces it (it's not drawn here, it's the same symbol but upside down). It symbolizes what has already been achieved or acquired, in a karmic sense: it's the past from which it's advised to move on in order to progress. The South Node is rather negative, of a Saturnian nature: the experience through suffering.\nInterpretation of the 7� Pisces symbolic degree\n\"A man and a woman on their horses progress at a quiet pace, side by side. Behind them are two concentric circles.\" ( Janduz version)\nObliging, passive, and gentle character endowed with magnetism or gifts for occultism. The decision-making process requires quite some time, as if one revolved endlessly around the same centre, as suggested by the image. This degree promises long-lasting happiness in love and perhaps an early marriage. One prefers to enjoy the pleasures of life in one-to-one contexts, be it in the affective, friendly, or professional areas.\nN.B.: symbolic degrees belong to a branch of fatalistic astrology. Their interpretation must be regarded with the utmost caution, especially given the fact that different authors give different meanings to symbolic degrees. This is the reason why they are not included in our Astrotheme reports.\nTrue Lilith 13�17' Я Taurus, in House XII\nLilith\nLilith or the Dark Moon (True Lilith here) represents the uncrossable threshold, taboos, the individual's provocative and fascinating side, including on a sexual level. She symbolizes violence and \"untameability\", the radical and deep-seated refusal to submit. The keywords for Lilith can be sterility, sadism, perversity, castration, sadomasochism, eroticism, orgasm, forbidden fantasies, marginality, cruelty; redemption, illumination, rebelliousness... Lilith's opposite point is called Priapus; it is the Lunar perigee, the position where the Moon is closest to the Earth. It symbolizes man's primitive nature, the horror hidden in our deepest self; masochism, extreme sensuality, impulsiveness, irrationality and excess. Physically speaking, the Dark Moon is the focal point unoccupied by the Earth: it is not a concrete body but a mathematical point.\nInterpretation of the 13� Taurus symbolic degree\n\"Measuring devices are tidily kept in a small carpenter shop. The door is wide open, but a strong man blocks the way with a long rod he holds across the entrance.\" ( Janduz version)\nHumble, accommodating, and hardworking character. One appreciates well-done work and dedicates one's life to other people. Endeavours aiming at defending the cause of justice and fraternity are fully rewarded. The man with the rod symbolises a protection against hatred and negative forces. This degree endows with great moral authority and, at a higher level, gifts for occultism.\nN.B.: symbolic degrees belong to a branch of fatalistic astrology. Their interpretation must be regarded with the utmost caution, especially given the fact that different authors give different meanings to symbolic degrees. This is the reason why they are not included in our Astrotheme reports.\nFortune 27�10' Capricorn, in House VIII\nPart of Fortune\nThe Part of Fortune is an ancient concept, used by Ptolemy and other astrologers before him. Firstly, it has nothing to do with fortune! In modern astrology, it is actually used to enhance a planet or angle when in close conjunction with it: it thus amplifies the meaning associated to the point affected by its presence. It is calculated in the following way:\nPart of Fortune = AS + Moon - Sun (it is the Moons position when the Sun rises)\nThe classical Part of Fortune, of which the calculus method is unchanged whether in a diurnal or nocturnal chart, is usually distinguished from the diurnal/nocturnal Part of Fortune which is calculated by the formula AS + Sun - Moon for a nocturnal chart, and AS + Moon - Sun in a diurnal chart.\nWe currently use the latter formula for our astrological programmes.\nInterpretation of the 27� Capricorn symbolic degree\n\"A man with a shining globe above his head holds a sextant in one hand and a pair of compasses in the other.\" ( Janduz version)\nPrecise, brilliant, and passionate character endowed with a vivid imagination and sharp analytical skills. Owing to one's personal qualities and exacting work, one achieves remarkable success and fame in science or in all occupations involving fire, ice, or furs. This degree heralds good luck.\nN.B.: symbolic degrees belong to a branch of fatalistic astrology. Their interpretation must be regarded with the utmost caution, especially given the fact that different authors give different meanings to symbolic degrees. This is the reason why they are not included in our Astrotheme reports.\nAscendant 26�44' Gemini\nAscendant or House I\nThe First House or Ascendant represents one's behaviour in the eyes of others, and also one's health. It corresponds to the way the individual acts in the world. It is the image of the personality seen by others and the person's visible behaviour expressed outwardly. The 1st House is in analogy with Aries and thus Mars too, and then the Sun. It is an angular house, the most important one with the Midheaven, maybe even more so due to its link with the body and health.\nAscendant in Gemini\nYour mobility is such that you are in every place where you are not expected. You spend lots of time asking questions and� answering them. Your curiosity and your quick-wittedness are insatiable. Your mind is in constant turmoil, hopping from one topic to another, solving problems, accumulating anecdotes and knowledge within a short range of time. Your mobility is mostly mental, it takes you afar and turns your daily life into a mosaic of intense and pleasant moments that are not necessarily related to each other: provided things are moving, your neurons are kept busy and you can meet with people, everything is fine!\nWith this Ascendant, you come across as nervous, expressive, lively, adaptable, with a good sense of humour, bubbling, playful, sociable, clever, whimsical, independent, intellectual, flexible, ingenious, fanciful, imaginative, charming, cerebral, and you are into everything. You may also be capricious, unfocused, quirky, superficial, indiscreet, opportunist, unmindful, selfish, sarcastic or mercurial.\nInterpretation of the 26� Gemini symbolic degree\n\"By the seaside, a man and a woman weep, seated on rocks.\" ( Janduz version)\nRomantic, melancholic, and trusting character prone to become affectively dependent. In a male chart, there is a lack of manliness, and therefore, the necessity to assert oneself more strongly. In a female chart, after a disappointing marriage, one develops a deep contempt and mistrust for men and turns down any proposal for fear of being hurt again. For both genders, this degree describes a mismatched couple. Marriage ends in divorce or widowhood.\nN.B.: symbolic degrees belong to a branch of fatalistic astrology. Their interpretation must be regarded with the utmost caution, especially given the fact that different authors give different meanings to symbolic degrees. This is the reason why they are not included in our Astrotheme reports.\nMidheaven 21�41' Aquarius\nMidheaven or House X\nThe Tenth House still called the Midheaven, is the highest point amidst the houses, at the top of the chart, in the South, and relates to destiny in general and career (and not daily work as meant by the Sixth House). The Midheaven represents our achievements and goals in the social sphere, our social position in society, and becomes more and more important as we get older. It is in analogy with Capricorn and Saturn. The Tenth House is the most important angular house along with the Ascendant.\nMidheaven in Aquarius\nYour destiny is commensurate with your unpredictable nature. Your life is full of changes in direction which are caused by your sudden surges of independence and freedom. They enable you to evade monotony and recreate different environments in which you feel good again.\nThe following professions are most likely to suit you very well: pilot, IT expert, electronics or network engineer, astronaut, astronomer, astrologer, occultism specialist, neurosurgeon, atomist researcher, scientist, electrician, webmaster, stunt pilot, photographer, film-maker, humorist, humanitarian activist, NGO manager, and philosopher.\nInterpretation of the 21� Aquarius symbolic degree\n\"A furious bull tramples on a dog. A man examines a corpse.\" ( Janduz version)\nViolent, excessive, and spiteful character. If one is able to control one's outbursts of fury, success can be attained in the military and in all occupations requiring physical strength, or in surgery and medical research. This degree warns against vengeful deeds because extreme brutality can only result in equally extreme disasters.\nN.B.: symbolic degrees belong to a branch of fatalistic astrology. Their interpretation must be regarded with the utmost caution, especially given the fact that different authors give different meanings to symbolic degrees. This is the reason why they are not included in our Astrotheme reports.\nAscendant 26�44' Gemini\nHouse I (AC)\nThe First House or Ascendant represents one's behaviour in the eyes of others and also one's health. It corresponds to the way the individual acts in the world. It is the image of the personality as seen by others and the person's visible behaviour expressed outwardly. The 1st House is in analogy with Aries and thus Mars too and then the Sun. It is an angular house, the most important one with the Midheaven, maybe even more so due to its link with the body and health; the Ascendant is as important as the Sun in a natal chart.\nInterpretation of the 26� Gemini symbolic degree\n\"By the seaside, a man and a woman weep, seated on rocks.\" ( Janduz version)\nRomantic, melancholic, and trusting character prone to become affectively dependent. In a male chart, there is a lack of manliness, and therefore, the necessity to assert oneself more strongly. In a female chart, after a disappointing marriage, one develops a deep contempt and mistrust for men and turns down any proposal for fear of being hurt again. For both genders, this degree describes a mismatched couple. Marriage ends in divorce or widowhood.\nN.B.: symbolic degrees belong to a branch of fatalistic astrology. Their interpretation must be regarded with the utmost caution, especially given the fact that different authors give different meanings to symbolic degrees. This is the reason why they are not included in our Astrotheme reports.\nHouse II 13�42' Cancer\nHouse II\nThe Second House is the sphere of material security, the money we earn, our possessions, also in a symbolic meaning (close people etc). It is in analogy with Taurus and Venus. It is a succedent house, quite important.\nHouse III 0�46' Leo\nHouse III\nThe Third House is the sphere of social and intellectual apprenticeship, studies, relationships with close people and surroundings, short trips, light-hearted and quick contacts, correspondences. It is in analogy with Gemini and Mercury. It's a cadent house, less important than the angular and succedent ones.\nHouse IV 21�41' Leo\nHouse IV (IC)\nThe Fourth House also called Immum Coeli is the sphere of inner emotions, family, the father, home and roots, but also the home one creates. It's Home Sweet Home, security and cocoon. It is in analogy with Cancer and the Moon. It's an angular and important house.\nInterpretation of the 21� Leo symbolic degree\n\"A sparrow hawk glides above a nest of fledglings. In the nearby thatched cottage, an ailing man lies in bed.\" ( Janduz version)\nNaive, indecisive, and weak character. Dangers and deceits crop up since childhood. They come from outsiders but also from the family circle. One tends to seek help from the very people who are envious and willing to harm. It is strongly recommended not to trust anyone, and never to talk about one's successes, even with family members, because some relatives covet the assets of the person born under the influence of this degree. Should the natal chart concur, a sudden disease such as meningitis may affect the head.\nN.B.: symbolic degrees belong to a branch of fatalistic astrology. Their interpretation must be regarded with the utmost caution, especially given the fact that different authors give different meanings to symbolic degrees. This is the reason why they are not included in our Astrotheme reports.\nHouse V 22�07' Virgo\nHouse V\nThe Fifth House is the sphere of pleasures and love affairs (but not commitment or marriage), creations and entertainments, children, arts and game. It is in analogy with Leo and the Sun. It's a succedent and quite important house.\nHouse VI 8�50' Scorpio\nHouse VI\nThe Sixth House is the sphere of apprenticeship and effort in the work environment, daily life, health on a daily basis and not operations or long-term diseases, relationships with co-workers or subordinates, desire for improvement, analysis and detail. It is in analogy with Virgo and Mercury. It is a cadent house, less important than the angular and succedent ones.\nHouse VII 26�44' Sagittarius\nHouse VII (DS)\nThe Seventh House also called the Descendant (in front of the Ascendant) is the sphere of partnership, marriage, contracts, relationships with others, the outer world. It is in analogy with Libra and Venus, and Saturn to a lesser extent. It is an angular and important house.\nInterpretation of the 26� Sagittarius symbolic degree\n\"A lion tries to catch a man hanged to a tree by the feet.\" ( Janduz version)\nCourageous, enterprising, and honest character. One may be the victim of unfair, less scrupulous or less skilled superiors. Despite numerous enemies, one reaches a prominent position. Nevertheless, one must remain very careful, adopt a low profile, and be prepared to thwart the machinations concocted by higher-ups.\nN.B.: symbolic degrees belong to a branch of fatalistic astrology. Their interpretation must be regarded with the utmost caution, especially given the fact that different authors give different meanings to symbolic degrees. This is the reason why they are not included in our Astrotheme reports.\nHouse VIII 13�42' Capricorn\nHouse VIII\nThe Eighth House is the sphere of emotional security, the depths of the self, secrets and paranormal, transcendence, sexuality, mysteries, upheavals, surgical operations, others' money (investments, inheritances), crises, transformation after evolution, death. It is in analogy with Scorpio and Pluto, and Mars to a lesser extent. It is a succedent and quite important house.\nHouse IX 0�46' Aquarius\nHouse IX\nThe Ninth House is the sphere of high studies, both physical and mental journeys (philosophy, spirituality), rebelliousness, changes of scenery, desire for dealing with the unknown. It is in analogy with Sagittarius and Jupiter. It is a cadent house, less important than the angular and succedent ones.\nMidheaven 21�41' Aquarius\nHouse X (MC)\nThe Tenth House still called the Midheaven, is the highest point amidst the houses, at the top of the chart, in the South, and relates to destiny in general and career (and not daily work as meant by the Sixth House). The Midheaven represents our achievements and goals in the social sphere, our social position in society, and becomes more and more important as we get older. It is in analogy with Capricorn and Saturn. The Tenth House is the most important angular house along with the Ascendant.\nInterpretation of the 21� Aquarius symbolic degree\n\"A furious bull tramples on a dog. A man examines a corpse.\" ( Janduz version)\nViolent, excessive, and spiteful character. If one is able to control one's outbursts of fury, success can be attained in the military and in all occupations requiring physical strength, or in surgery and medical research. This degree warns against vengeful deeds because extreme brutality can only result in equally extreme disasters.\nN.B.: symbolic degrees belong to a branch of fatalistic astrology. Their interpretation must be regarded with the utmost caution, especially given the fact that different authors give different meanings to symbolic degrees. This is the reason why they are not included in our Astrotheme reports.\nHouse XI 22�07' Pisces\nHouse XI\nThe Eleventh House is the sphere of friendship and protection, projects, search for social acceptance and security, collective and humanitarian actions. It is in analogy with Aquarius and Uranus, and Saturn to a lesser extent. It's a succedent and quite important house.\nHouse XII 8�50' Taurus\nHouse XII\nThe Twelfth House is the sphere of hidden things, enemies, closed or remote places (hospital, prison, convent etc.), ordeals, secrecy, solitude, long-term illnesses but also sincere devotion and genuine compassion. It is in analogy with Pisces and Neptune.\nVertex 13�16' Scorpio, in House VI\nThe Vertex\nThe Vertex, sometimes called counter-Ascendant, is a fictitious point which is at the intersection of two great circles, the Ecliptic and the great vertical circle (Prime Vertical) in the West of the birthplace, linking the East, the Zenith, the West, and the Nadir. It is always located in the West of the chart around the Descendant. It is the chart's fifth angle, so to speak, less important than the other angles. Its interpretation is controversial, because certain astrologers pay no attention to it.\nThe Vertex is sometimes considered to be the second Descendant because, like the latter, it is related to communication and exchanges. It has to do with associations and fated encounters, those that are not chosen, and reveals the type of sensitivity and reactivity we have in our dealings with other people: a refined and tolerant way in Libra, straightforward and spontaneous in Aries, etc.\nInterpretation of the 13� Scorpio symbolic degree\n\"Under a flowery arbour, a group of cheerful guests have a feast. Water overflows from a well adorned with beautiful roses.\" ( Janduz version)\nJovial, sincere, and generous character. One confides in anyone, including in persons who are not trustworthy. Owing to one's excessive and undiscerning generosity, one is easily taken advantage of by greedy people, and thus, one endangers one's wealth. If in the natal chart, the Sun is in conjunction with this degree, it indicates frail health.\nN.B.: symbolic degrees belong to a branch of fatalistic astrology. Their interpretation must be regarded with the utmost caution, especially given the fact that different authors give different meanings to symbolic degrees. This is the reason why they are not included in our Astrotheme reports.\nEast Point 26�22' Taurus, in House XII\nThe East Point\nThe East Point is a fictitious point at the intersection of two great circles, the Ecliptic and the great vertical circle (Prime Vertical) in the East of the birthplace, linking the East, the Zenith, the West, and the Nadir. It is always located in the East of the chart, around the Ascendant.\nThe East Point is sometimes considered to be a second Ascendant, less important, but also related to how one is seen by other people, and to how one expresses one's personality.\nInterpretation of the 26� Taurus symbolic degree\n\"An alchemist works in his laboratory. A heap of gold coins are on his table. The window overlooks a field covered with wheat.\" ( Janduz version)\nIngenious, simple and noble character. Success and wealth are achieved in an unusual profession or in activities dealing with metal. It is most likely that a major discovery or invention is rewarded by a prestigious prize. Even though one earns a lot of money, one does not change one's frugal lifestyle.\nN.B.: symbolic degrees belong to a branch of fatalistic astrology. Their interpretation must be regarded with the utmost caution, especially given the fact that different authors give different meanings to symbolic degrees. This is the reason why they are not included in our Astrotheme reports.\n%DYNAMIQUE_46%\nCupido\nCupido is a hypothetical trans-Neptunian planet, the existence of which is not proven. It was invented by Alfred Witte, founder of the famous Hamburg School, and by his student, Friedrich Sieggrün. N.B.: numerous astrologers believe neither in the influence of Cupido, nor in that of all hypothetical planets, asteroids, Arabic parts or other fictitious points.\nOn the upside, Cupido is related to socialisation, the arts, and marital life. On the downside, it indicates vanity, addiction to pleasures, and being strongly influenced by groups of people.\n%TEXTES_46%\n%DYNAMIQUE_47%\nHades\nHades is a hypothetical trans-Neptunian planet, the existence of which is not proven. It was invented by Alfred Witte, founder of the famous Hamburg School, and by his student, Friedrich Sieggrün. N.B.: numerous astrologers believe neither in the influence of Hades, nor in that of all hypothetical planets, asteroids, Arabic parts or other fictitious points.\nHades corresponds to intellectual rigour, service rendered to people, the purpose of being useful. On the downside; it leads to carelessness, indifference, apathy, and mess.\n%TEXTES_47%\n%DYNAMIQUE_48%\nZeus\nZeus is a hypothetical trans-Neptunian planet, the existence of which is not proven. It was invented by Alfred Witte, founder of the famous Hamburg School, and by his student, Friedrich Sieggrün. N.B.: numerous astrologers believe neither in the influence of Zeus, nor in that of all hypothetical planets, asteroids, Arabic parts or other fictitious points.\nZeus is related to creativity, as well as to organisational and leadership capacities. On the downside, it may lead to aggressiveness and to excessive militancy.\n%TEXTES_48%\n%DYNAMIQUE_49%\nKronos\nKronos is a hypothetical trans-Neptunian planet, the existence of which is not proven. It was invented by Alfred Witte, founder of the famous Hamburg School, and by his student, Friedrich Sieggrün. N.B.: numerous astrologers believe neither in the influence of Kronos, nor in that of all hypothetical planets, asteroids, Arabic parts or other fictitious points.\nKronos is related to authority and cleverness. In tough aspect, it may make the person conceited, presumptuous, or elitist.\n%TEXTES_49%\n%DYNAMIQUE_50%\nApollon\nApollon is a hypothetical trans-Neptunian planet, the existence of which is not proven. It was invented by Alfred Witte, founder of the famous Hamburg School, and by his student, Friedrich Sieggrün. N.B.: numerous astrologers believe neither in the influence of Apollon, nor in that of all hypothetical planets, asteroids, Arabic parts or other fictitious points.\nApollon is related to the ability to synthesise, as well as to broad-mindedness, and fame. In difficult aspect, it may bring about superficiality or extravagance.\n%TEXTES_50%\n%DYNAMIQUE_51%\nAdmetos\nAdmetos is a hypothetical trans-Neptunian planet, the existence of which is not proven. It was invented by Alfred Witte, founder of the famous Hamburg School, and by his student, Friedrich Sieggrün. N.B.: numerous astrologers believe neither in the influence of Admetos, nor in that of all hypothetical planets, asteroids, Arabic parts or other fictitious points.\nAdmetos is related to the deepness of the mind, asceticism, simplicity, and analytical mind. In tough aspect, it may make the person nit-picking, inflexible, and narrow-minded.\n%TEXTES_51%\n%DYNAMIQUE_52%\nVulcanus\nVulcanus is a hypothetical trans-Neptunian planet, the existence of which is not proven. It was invented by Alfred Witte, founder of the famous Hamburg School, and by his student, Friedrich Sieggrün. N.B.: numerous astrologers believe neither in the influence of Vulcanus, nor in that of all hypothetical planets, asteroids, Arabic parts or other fictitious points.\nVulcanus, sometimes said to be the higher octave of Saturn, provides strength to improve collective relations, to structure things, to be efficient, and to get straight to the point. On the downside, he may bring about arrogance and scattered efforts.\n%TEXTES_52%\n%DYNAMIQUE_53%\nPoseidon\nPoseidon is a hypothetical trans-Neptunian planet, the existence of which is not proven. It was invented by Alfred Witte, founder of the famous Hamburg School, and by his student, Friedrich Sieggrün. N.B.: numerous astrologers believe neither in the influence of Poseidon, nor in that of all hypothetical planets, asteroids, Arabic parts or other fictitious points.\nPoseidon brings about wisdom, a clear mind, and sometimes spirituality. On the downside, it may make the person dogmatic, manipulative, or out of touch with reality.\n%TEXTES_53%\n%DYNAMIQUE_54%\nProserpina\nProserpina, sometimes referred to as Persephone, is a trans-Plutonian hypothetical planet. N.B.: numerous astrologers believe neither in the influence of Proserpina, nor in that of all hypothetical planets, asteroids, Arabic parts or other fictitious points.\nProserpina is related to mysteries, revival and reconstruction, as well as cycles. She enriches the unconscious, and gives the possibility to combine modern life with spirituality, the East with the West, and mysticism with concrete life.\n%TEXTES_54%\n\"Not many people know that.\" (Educating Rita)\n\"You were only supposed to blow the bloody doors off!\" (The Italian Job)\n\"Hang on a minute, lads, I've got a great idea. Errr...\" (The Italian Job)\n\"You're a big man, but you're in bad shape. With me it's a full time job. Now behave yourself!\" (Get Carter)\n\"Look what you done to my bloody car!!\" (Blue Ice)\n\"Pull my finger!\" (Children of Men)\n\"What ever is the point of all those push-ups if you can't even lift a bloody log?\" (Batman Begins)\n\"It's not the size mate, it's how you use it.\" (Austin Powers in Goldmember)\n\"Don't play the laughing boy.\" (Austin Powers in Goldmember)\n\"Obsession is a young man's game.\" (The Prestige)\nPersonal life\nCaine lives near Leatherhead in Surrey, having recently moved from North Stoke in Oxfordshire, and Chelsea Harbour in London.\nHe has been married twice:\nThe actress Patricia Haines (1955-1958); one daughter Dominique\nThe actress and model Shakira Baksh (2 January 1973-); one daughter Natasha\nSome time after his mother died, Caine and his younger brother learned they had an elder half-brother, named David. He suffered from severe epilepsy and had been kept in hospital his entire life. Although their mother regularly visited her first son in hospital, even her husband did not know the child existed. David died in 1992.\nFriendship with Terence Stamp\nIn the 1960s, Terence Stamp shared a flat with Caine before and during their rise to fame (Stamp became famous first after his Oscar-nominated role in Billy Budd). In his autobiography, \"Double Feature\", Stamp describes various incidents with Caine, including the moment when Caine was offered his breakthrough role in Zulu. This was a couple of hours before Caine's thirtieth birthday, which was a deadline Caine had set himself to \"make it\" or quit acting. Also, Caine tried to force Stamp to reverse his decision to turn down the role of Alfie; a star role that Caine later accepted. In his later autobiography, What's it All About, Caine states that he still wakes up sweating in the night as he sees Terence agreeing to \"accept my advice\". The friendship eventually dwindled at the tail-end of the '60s, and this is described in contrast by Stamp and Caine in their respective autobiographies.\nAwards and Nominations\n1966 - Nominated - Best Actor in a Leading Role - Alfie\n1972 - Nominated - Best Actor in a Leading Role - Sleuth\n1983 - Nominated - Best Actor in a Leading Role - Educating Rita\n1986 - Won - Best Actor in a Supporting Role - Hannah and Her Sisters\n1999 - Won - Best Actor in a Supporting Role - The Cider House Rules\n2002 - Nominated - Best Actor in a Leading Role - The Quiet American\nOther Notable Awards\nNew York Film Critics' Best Actor Award for Alfie\nBAFTA for Best Actor for Educating Rita\nGolden Globe for Best Actor for Educating Rita\nGolden Globe for Best Actor for Dirty Rotten Scoundrels\nGolden Globe for Best Actor for Jack the Ripper\nGolden Globe for Best Actor for Little Voice" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Evening_Class_(novel).txt" ], "title": [ "Evening Class (novel)" ], "wiki_context": [ "Evening Class is a novel by Maeve Binchy. It was adapted as the award-winning film Italian for Beginners (2000) by writer-director Lone Scherfig, who failed to formally acknowledge the source, although at the very end of the closing credits is the line 'with thanks to Maeve Binchy'.\n\nPlot introduction\n\nA story of many Irish men and women from various backgrounds and how a teacher, Nora O'Donoghue (known as \"Signora\"), and an Italian evening class changes their lives over the course of a year. Each chapter deals with the life story of one or more students in the class. In a Dickensian way, they bump into each other and are affected by the decisions of those around them.\n\nMajor themes\n\nIt is a story of love and deceit, family drama, wealth and poverty, of friendship and courage.\n\nRelated\n\nNora O'Donoghue and Aidan Dunne also appear in Quentins, another novel by Maeve Binchy, and play a more significant role in Heart and Soul.\n\nFilm adaptation\n\nThe novel heavily inspired the plot of the Danish feature film Italian for Beginners (2000), which won a Silver Berlin Bear and several other major international awards. Maeve Binchy was not paid, credited nor informed of this, but was later paid an undisclosed sum, when her publisher contacted the producers of the movie, Lars von Trier's company Zentropa. Although the film's writer-director Lone Scherfig had told the press that the film was based on her idea, executive producer Peter Aalbæk Jensen later admitted that she had made him aware of the similarities but that he had simply decided not to pay the original author." ] }

{ "description": [ "Book Review: Evening Class Title: Evening Class Author: Maeve Binchy Pages: 520 ... it’s just written it a lovely book. I loved the ending, ...", "Evening Class by Maeve Binchy. From TheBookbag. ... The book is written from several perspectives, ... The book goes back to her life in Sicily, ...", "Discover Maeve Binchy; Quotes, ... Her novel Circle of Friends was made into a 1995 Hollywood movie starring Chris O'Donnell ... 2007 - Evening Class ...", "Listen to Evening Class Audiobook by Maeve Binchy, ... stories that were written over the decades ... I wouldn't remane this novel Evening Class is perfect.", "Listen to Evening Class Audiobook by Maeve Binchy, ... both the written and audio versions. ... this novel is worth curling up with any evening, ...", "Evening Class by Maeve Binchy, 9780752876825, available at Book Depository with free delivery worldwide.", "A nice happy ending novel! MostlyFiction Book Reviews ... Binchy's fans will recognize Signora from Evening Class, ... Maeve Binchy was born in Dalkey, ..." ], "filename": [ "138/138_1088.txt", "138/138_1089.txt", "92/92_1091.txt", "57/57_1093.txt", "81/81_1094.txt", "60/60_1095.txt", "60/60_1096.txt" ], "rank": [ 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 ], "title": [ "Jules' Book Reviews: Book Review: Evening Class", "Evening Class by Maeve Binchy - TheBookbag.co.uk book review", "Maeve Binchy: Quotes, Themes, Bibliography, and a List of ...", "Evening Class Audiobook | Maeve Binchy | Audible.com", "Evening Class Audiobook | Maeve Binchy | Audible.com", "Evening Class : Maeve Binchy : 9780752876825", "Maeve Binchy : Quentins : Book Review - MostlyFiction" ], "url": [ "http://www.julesbookreviews.com/2011/05/book-review-evening-class.html", "http://www.thebookbag.co.uk/reviews/index.php?title=Evening_Class_by_Maeve_Binchy", "http://www.paperbackswap.com/Maeve-Binchy/author/", "http://www.audible.com/pd/Fiction/Evening-Class-Audiobook/B002V019YI", "http://www.audible.com/pd/Fiction/Evening-Class-Audiobook/B002VA9JIG", "https://www.bookdepository.com/Evening-Class-Maeve-Binchy/9780752876825", "http://www.mostlyfiction.com/contemp/binchy.htm" ], "search_context": [ "Jules' Book Reviews: Book Review: Evening Class\nJules' Book Reviews\nCome in, sit back with a coffee or hot chocolate, and read reviews of the books I've read.\nPages\nAuthor: Maeve Binchy\nPages: 520\nSummary: Aiden Dunne needs his new evening class project to succeed almost as much as his pupils do. They too are lookng for something more: Bill to find a way to keep spendthrigt Lizzie at his side and Fran to make sure that young Kathy finds her way out from behind the kitchen sink.\nThe key to their success lies with the Sinora. Her passion has drawn her from Ireland to Italy and backhome again with a burning desire to share her love of all things Itlaian - and a secret hidden in her heart. . . .\nMy Rating: 8/10\nWhat I liked/disliked about the book: Although it had a bit of a slow start, this book turned out to be a wonderful read. I can’t believe I’ve let the author’s books sit on my shelf for as long as I have. She is a fantastic writer, who spends time to really create concrete characters, in a wide range of ages and backgrounds, who you really learn to appreciate and watch develop throughout the books, mixed with great writing, and story, turned out to be a wonderful read for me.\nOnce the book got moving, I found my self really enjoying the book and its characters. Although some characters bothered me, like Aiden’s family, what a miserable lot, some characters intrigued me, and I really found myself, caring about them. One of my favourite aspects of the books were how it was written, each section focused on a different character, and while that section’s character was the main focus, it still gave you information and pulled in other characters stories as well. They way the author balanced this was extremely well done - I was surprised how well it all came together, as it is broken down in multiple short stories, but it’s one continuous story as well.\nI also enjoyed the story as a whole, I loved how the class brought all of these people together, who wouldn’t normally come together as a group, and in some way helped them develop as people, help them stretch out to others, and enjoy a fun class. It sends a powerful message, of working towards your goals, helping your selves and helping others, but it doesn’t go overboard in that message, it’s just written it a lovely book. I loved the ending, although there was one part in near the ending that was a little, out of left field, I think the book could have been without, it was the only real part that didn’t flow well with the rest of the story. The only other complaint was the slow start. Starting with Aiden, and his miserable family, almost made me give up. His wife really is a miserable, miserable person, and having a book start out on that made for a slow start. But, other than that, a fantastic read.\nWould I recommend it to read: I would recommend it to read. It has a bit of a slow start, but it was a good book. An interesting and eclectic cast of characters, and a very strong message of coming together and helping the others grow, and great storytelling. I'd also recommend any of the authors books.\nWhat to read next: Sushi for Beginners, More books by the author", "Evening Class by Maeve Binchy - TheBookbag.co.uk book review\nEvening Class by Maeve Binchy\nFrom TheBookbag\nSummary: Evening Class comes highly recommended for all those who like character-based novels with a little more depth than many books more recently published.\nBuy? Yes\nISBN: 0752876821\nShare on:\nThis is one of my favourite novels by Maeve Binchy. As with much of her work, the setting is Ireland. The main focus of the story is an Italian evening class, set up by a rather disillusioned school teacher, employing an Irish lady who has lived in Sicily for many years. Thirty students gather and become deeply involved in each other's lives.\nThe book is written from several perspectives, starting with the school teacher, explaining why he is unhappy, and how the idea of the evening class arose. His wife and daughters are introduced, along with some other people who will appear later in the novel.\nIn the second section we meet Signora, who is to become the Italian teacher. The book goes back to her life in Sicily, her reasons for being there, and why she eventually leaves. Then we follow her as she returns to Ireland, finds somewhere to live, and is eventually persuaded to try her hand at teaching.\nThe novel continues in this way, changing perspectives in each section, but this is not at all disruptive; instead, each viewpoint adds to the understanding of the story as a whole. I did find the rather large cast-list a bit confusing at times, and couldn't always remember what relationship each one had with the rest, but this wasn't too disturbing. Each chapter starts a way back in a character's life, and ends a little further forward in time than the previous one, so there's a sense of moving forward as well as the ever-increasing knowledge of different people.\nI found it very enjoyable. I first read this book eight years ago, and found that re-reading it, I had forgotten almost everything, so was surprised anew by some of the revelations.\nHighly recommended to anyone who likes character-based novels with more depth than many average modern books.\nYou can read more book reviews or buy Evening Class by Maeve Binchy at Amazon.co.uk .\nYou can read more book reviews or buy Evening Class by Maeve Binchy at Amazon.com .", "Maeve Binchy: Quotes, Themes, Bibliography, and a List of Books by Author Maeve Binchy\nHow to Swap Books Sign Up Login Community Help Center Kiosk\nSearch - List of Books by Maeve Binchy\n\"I was very pleased, obviously, to have outsold such great writers. But I'm not insane - I do realize that I am a popular writer who people buy to take on vacation.\" -- Maeve Binchy\nMaeve Binchy (born 28 May 1940 Dalkey, County Dublin) is an Irish novelist, newspaper columnist and speaker. Educated at University College Dublin, she worked as a teacher then a journalist at The Irish Times and later become a writer of novels and short stories.\nMany of her novels are set in Ireland, dealing with the tensions between urban and rural life, the contrasts between England and Ireland, and the dramatic changes in Ireland between World War II and the present day.\nHer novel Circle of Friends was made into a 1995 Hollywood movie starring Chris O'Donnell and Minnie Driver with a radical change of ending.\nBinchy announced in 2000 that she would not be going on tours with any more novels, but would be devoting her time to other activities, and to her husband, Gordon Snell, a children's author. She has written four further novels since then — Quentins, Night of Rain and Stars, Whitethorn Woods, and Heart and Soul. She lives in Dalkey, not far from where she grew up.\nIn 1978, Binchy won a Jacob's Award for her RT� play, Deeply Regretted By. A second award went to the lead actor, Donall Farmer. A 1993 photograph of her by Richard Whitehead belongs to the collection of the National Portrait Gallery and a painting of her by Maeve McCarthy, commissioned in 2005, is on display in the National Gallery of Ireland.", "Evening Class Audiobook | Maeve Binchy | Audible.com\nView full details >\nStoneybridge is a small town on the west coast of Ireland where all the families know one another. When Chicky Starr decides to take an old, decaying mansion set high on the cliffs overlooking the windswept Atlantic Ocean and turn it into a restful place for a holiday by the sea, everyone thinks she is crazy. Helped by Rigger (a bad boy turned good who is handy around the house) and Orla, her niece (a whiz at business), Chicky is finally ready to welcome the first guests to Stone House’s big warm kitchen, log fires, and understated elegant bedrooms.\nA User says:\nnext page\nPublisher's Summary\nThe Mountainview School in working-class Dublin boasts a brightly festooned room brimming with paper flowers and Renaissance posters. There, in an evening class, \"An Introduction to Italian,\" come Aiden Dunne, the supervisor, Signora, the professoressa, and 30 or so students, whose hopes and dreams are bound up in the Tuesday and Thursday lessons.\nAiden Dunne has been passed over for headmaster of the school, and his family is falling apart. He desperately needs the evening class to be a success to restore his self-respect. Nora O'Donoghue, \"Signora,\" followed the man she loved to Italy and waited 23 years for him, never faltering in her love. Signora, needy in a different way, will be the teacher, and together she and Aiden will conduct the class.\nThe students couldn't be more different. There is Bill Burke, a young bank clerk who goes to the classes hoping he might be considered for a job in international banking and that his spendthrift girlfriend, who has agreed to go to class with him, will have fewer opportunities to waste their money. Kathy Clark works too hard at school. She joins the Italian class for relaxation. There is Lou, whose wife Suzy Sullivan, has no idea why her husband is studying Italian; Laddy, the hotel porter, who's thought of by family and friends as slow and dim; and Connie, the society hostess who has an oddly empty calendar. For all of the students the thought of a trip to Italy when the course has been completed involves a different kind of drama. And by the time they are ready to set out on the journey, each one's life has changed utterly.\n©1997 Maeve Binchy; (P)1997 Bantam Doubleday Dell Audio Publishing, Bantam Doubleday Dell Audio Publishing, A Division of Random House, Inc.\nMore from the same", "Evening Class Audiobook | Maeve Binchy | Audible.com\nOverall\n\"A great way to spend your evening(s)\"\nThis has to be my favourite of all Maeve Binchy's books, both the written and audio versions. A medley of characters, portrayed with generosity and sympathy, all embarking on the class for different reasons. I loved the way the back stories of the characters are melded together and how, the group moves forward together, to plan and then embark on their trip to Italy - which visit is the scene of some surprises for more than a few of them.\nThe marvellous 'Signora' - Nora - tugs at your heart with her heart warming simplicity and honesty and how good to have a love story where the key characters are not young, trendy, aspirational and career oriented 'thirty somethings' but instead are gently middle-aged with disappointments and disillusion behind them. Other individuals and couples in the story, similarly chime true and with the bonus of picking up some handy Italian phrases on the way, this novel is worth curling up with any evening, several times - it is always pleasant to revisit Mountain View - both in Italy and Ireland, to meet up again with these old friends. Hats off, again, to Kate Binchy, for her flawless and characterful narration.\n7 of 7 people found this review helpful\nSuzanne\nOverall\n\"Loved it Loved it Loved it\"\nWhat a wonderful book. It brought tears to my eyes and joy to my soul. Following the lives of what seems at first a mismatch of people who all embark on an Italian evening class for a wide variety of reasons takes you on a roller coaster of emotions and secrets. It also brings you into the world of Italy. For those of us who have been lucky to have visited it also is a trip down memory lane - I just with I had taken the class before I went. A fabulous listen!\n7 of 7 people found this review helpful\nSally-AnneR", "Evening Class : Maeve Binchy : 9780752876825\nEvening Class\nUS$9.85 US$12.64 You save US$2.79\nFree delivery worldwide\nAdd to basket Add to wishlist\nDescription\nA group of people, all looking for something more in their lives, and all they have in common is their Italian evening class...The Italian evening class at Mountainview School is like hundreds of others starting up all over the city. But this class has its own special quality - as the focus for the varied hopes and dreams of teacher and pupils alike. Aidan Dunne needs his new evening class project to succeed almost as much as his pupils do. They too are looking for something more: Bill to find a way to keep spendthrift Lizzie at his side, and Fran to make sure that young Kathy finds her way out from behind the kitchen sink. The key to their success lies with the Signora. Her passion has drawn her from Ireland to Italy and back home again with a burning desire to share her love of all things Italian - and a secret hidden in her heart... show more\nProduct details\n130 x 190 x 38mm | 439.98g\nPublication date\nOrion (an Imprint of The Orion Publishing Group Ltd )\nPublication City/Country\nContemporary Fiction\nAbout Maeve Binchy\nMaeve Binchy was born in County Dublin and educated at the Holy Child convent in Killiney and at University College, Dublin. After a spell as a teacher she joined the Irish Times. Her first novel, LIGHT A PENNY CANDLE, was published in 1982 and she went on to write over twenty books, all of them bestsellers. Several have been adapted for cinema and television, including TARA ROAD. Maeve Binchy received a LIFETIME ACHIEVEMENT AWARD at the BRITISH BOOK AWARDS in 1999 and the Irish PEN/A. T. CROSS AWARD in 2007. In 2010 she was presented with the BOB HUGHES LIFETIME ACHIEVEMENT AWARD at the BORD GAIS IRISH BOOK AWARDS by the President of Ireland. She was married to the writer and broadcaster Gordon Snell for 35 years, and died in 2012. Visit her website at www.maevebinchy.com show more\nReview quote\nThe Italian evening class starting at a Dublin school appears like any other. But those involved are desperate for a new life, and by the time they reach Italy at the end of the course their lives are changed forever. Another winner from Binchy PRIMA Reading Maeve Binchy has always acted as therapy of a sort. Her witty, literate small-town tales exude a rosy glow to ease the troubled mind THE TIMES EVENING CLASS is a deliciously gossipy read ... it will not disappoint DAILY MAIL Binchy, as always, treats her characters with a generous empathy and an intense affection. By the time the book closes with the group enjoying a longed-for holiday in Italy, the story seems to gurgle with joy. EVENING CLASS is a wonderfully enjoyable tale of moral evolution, guaranteed to produce a run on every Italian class in the country IRISH TIMES It's a grand read ... EVENING CLASS will keep endless readers happy as the nights draw in and swell many a Christmas stocking IRISH INDEPENDENT Warm, witty and with a deep understanding of what makes us tick, it's little wonder that Maeve Binchy's bewitching stories have become world-beaters OK MAGAZINE Gripping WOMAN'S JOURNAL show more\nFollow us", "Maeve Binchy : Quentins : Book Review\nMaeve Binchy\nBefore You Know Kindness\nMostlyFiction.com links to Amazon.com, but we wholeheartedly encourage you to buy books from your local brick-n-mortar stores and to visit your library frequently.\nIf you happen to click on one of links and make a purchase, we earn a commission and we always appreciate your support.\nThank you... and don't forget to tell your friends about us.\n \n\"Quentins\"\n(Reviewed by Shannon Bloomstran OCT 31, 2002)\nHeads up all you \"happy ending\" junkies. You know who you are. You're the ones who want to remake Casablanca so Ilsa leaps off the plane and into Rick's arms, the ones who cheer when Dorothy returns wto Kansas, the ones who break out in a cold sweat just thinking about Anna Karenina. I'm giving you this heads up because Maeve Binchy, who I call the Queen of Happy Endings has a new book out. It's called \"Quentins,\" (the missing apostrophe is intentional) and tells two stories; one about young Ella Brady and her ill-fated love life and the other about a stylish Dublin restaurant, Quentins. It also boasts a bushel of happy endings.\nWhen I review books, I try hard to evaluate each on its own merits and not compare different works from the same author. However, Binchy makes that a difficult task here because she incorporates several characters from her previous novels into the action at Quentins. Binchy's fans will recognize Signora from Evening Class, Ria from Tara Road and several others. I have read several of these works, although I couldn't recall much about them. Therefore, I found this a bit distracting, something akin to a singer throwing in previous hits on a new CD. More serious fans will probably appreciate knowing a little bit more about what happens to these beloved characters.\nBinchy does have a knack for creating strong, believable characters and the main character in Quentins, Ella Brady, is no exception. Like many of the other lead characters in Binchy's novels, Ella is a strong and warm young woman living in the new Ireland. Over the years, Binchy's novels have chronicled the changes in Ireland as well as the lives and loves of its citizens. Our heroine, a young science teacher, meets and falls for a stylish older man, financier Don Richardson who is seemingly locked in a marriage of convenience. Ella takes up with Don over her parents' and friends' strenuous objections. As you might guess, all is not what it seems with Vile Don and unsuspecting Ella finds herself in the middle of an international scandal. Binchy weaves a taught story around Ella and Don and although one probably knows in her heart what will happen, it's still compelling enough to stick around for the ride.\nAs Ella's scandal reaches its apex, she resigns from her teaching job and takes a position with a tiny, independent film company run by an old friend. They decide to make documentary about the day in the life of the restaurant, Quentins, focusing on the unique stories of the patrons and staff. Binchy intersperses these stories throughout the novel and although they are very sweet and quite compelling on their own right, they tend to distract from the overall plot involving Don and Ella. I liked Ella, and was of course rooting for her to dump Don and move on, so I found it difficult to leave her story midstream to read about say, a waitress and her attempts to find love. All of the stories are fast paced, though, so one doesn't have to wait too long to get back to the action.\nQuentins (both the novel and the restaurant) is peopled with warm and lovable characters. From the couple who put their heart and soul into Quentins, to Ella's friend, Deirdre who is \"cross as a pack of weasels\" to soulful American philanthropist, Derry, who rediscovers his Irish roots, Binchy has given every reader someone to cheer for. It's a big sloppy Golden Retriever of a book. You can see the endings, all of them happy, coming a mile away, and even though the writing is not always crisp and sparkling, everyone can find something to like about Quentins.\nAmazon readers rating:\nBookPage review of Whitehorn Woods\n \n(back to top)\nAbout the Author:\nMaeve Binchy was born in Dalkey, a small village outside of Dublin, Ireland in 1940. To this day she draws on her experiences there when creating the rural villages so often found at the heart of her novels. Binchy received her B.A. from University College in Dublin and became a teacher. Her teaching post at a Jewish school and subsequent vacation in Israel inspired her to work on a kibbutz there. While abroad, Binchy wrote letters to her father every week describing life in a land that was ever on the brink of war. When her father sold one of her letters to The Irish Times for 18 pounds, Binchy, who had been making £16 working at the school, thought that she had truly arrived. She soon became a popular columnist, writing twice-weekly articles distinguished by a quirky, self-deprecating humour.\nFrom these humble beginnings, Binchy's success has been astounding. As well as her many bestselling novels, she writes short stories, and plays.\nMaeve Binchy lives with her husband, Gordon Snell, in Dublin." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Fiji_Airways.txt" ], "title": [ "Fiji Airways" ], "wiki_context": [ "Air Pacific Limited, trading as Fiji Airways (and formerly as Air Pacific), is the flag carrier airline of Fiji. It is based in Nadi and operates international and domestic services to 10 countries and 17 cities around the Pacific Ocean, including Oceania, the United States and Hong Kong. Fiji Airways annually transports almost two-thirds of the visitors to the country.\n\nThe first commercial flight as Fiji Airways was made in 1951 but the airline's origins date back to Katafaga Estates Ltd. formed in 1947. After being acquired by Qantas in 1958, Katafaga Estates was retooled as a regional airline and renamed Air Pacific. In May 2012, the airline announced that it would reintroduce the name Fiji Airways to reinforce its role as the national airline of Fiji. The Fiji government owns 52% of the airline and Qantas 46%, with the governments of several Pacific island nations holding the remainder.\n\nHistory\n\nOrigins\n\nThe airline was founded by Australian aviator Harold Gatty who in 1931 had been the navigator on a record-breaking round-the-world flight with Wiley Post. Gatty moved to Fiji after World War II and registered the airline in 1947 as Katafaga Estates Ltd., after the coconut estate Gatty had established on Fiji's eastern island group. Gatty renamed the airline as Fiji Airways in September 1951. The New Zealander Fred Ladd was Fiji Airways' first Chief Pilot. \n\nAir Pacific\n\nAfter Gatty's death in 1958, Fiji Airways was acquired by Qantas. Initially, Qantas tried to create international support for a multinational, shared, regional airline. By 1966 Fiji Airways's shareholders included the governments of Tonga, Western Samoa, Nauru, Kiribati and the Solomon Islands.\n\nAfter Fiji gained independence from Great Britain in 1970, the new national government began buying shares and the airline was renamed Air Pacific to reflect its regional presence.\n\nBy the early 1970s, seven Pacific island governments, some still under British rule at the time, held shares in Air Pacific, in addition to shares held by Qantas, TEAL (now Air New Zealand) and the British Overseas Airways Corporation (later merged to form British Airways). However, the regional airline idea lost support as some of the shareholding Pacific island governments sold their shares and created their own national airlines.\n\nIn the 1970s, tourism became the nation's leading industry, which made the airline even more important to the Fijian economy; and the government of Fiji acquired a controlling interest in Air Pacific in 1974. In 1981, the New York Times published an article that included details on the Fiji government's plan to buy out more shareholders in order to gain more control of Air Pacific as the national airline. However, the airline received no subsidies from the government and had to buy its own aircraft.\n\nIn the 1990s the airline relocated its headquarters from the capital city of Suva to the coastal town of Nadi where the main international airport is located. The company also constructed an elaborate aircraft maintenance center there. In 2007, Air Pacific acquired Sun Air, a domestic airline, renamed it Pacific Sun and began operations as Air Pacific's domestic and regional subsidiary. In June 2014, Pacific Sun was rebranded to Fiji Link.\n\nFlight history\n\nFiji Airways' first flight was on 1 September 1951, when a seven-seater de Havilland Dragon Rapide biplane departed Suva's Nausori Airport for Drasa Airport near Lautoka, on the west coast of the main island. The airline's first international flight to Brisbane, Australia was on 1 June 1973.\n\nIn 1983 it started flights to the USA with a route to Honolulu called “Project America.”\n\nIn December 2009, Air Pacific commenced a twice weekly service to Hong Kong, which was increased to three services in January 2014. In July 2010 Air Pacific announced a new Suva-Auckland service.\n\nToday, the airline and its domestic/regional subsidiary, Fiji Link, operate over 400 flights a week to almost 15 cities in 10 countries around the world.\n\nFleet history\n\nIn the beginning Fiji Airways used small de Havilland Dragon Rapide and de Havilland Australia DHA-3 Drover aircraft. The fleet grew to include two ATR 42 turboprops and two leased jets, a Boeing 747 and a Boeing 767. By the late 1990s, the fleet included both Boeing 737 and 767 jets, while the ATR 42 turboprops were used on flights to neighboring islands.\n\nThe 2000 Fijian coup d'état devastated the country's tourism industry and overall economy, which led to a substantial decrease in travel to Fiji. Faced with a falloff in air traffic, Air Pacific returned one of its two leased Boeing 747s.\n\nIn April 2011, Air Pacific announced that it had cancelled its order of eight Boeing 787-9s due to delivery delays of almost four years by Boeing. In October 2011, Air Pacific announced that it had ordered three Airbus A330-200s.\n\nIn March 2013 the company received its first Airbus A330. It was christened The Island of Taveuni and had its first flight to Auckland on 2 April. Today the fleet includes three Airbus A330-200s, one Airbus A330-300, four Boeing 737-800s and one Boeing 737-700. Fiji Link operates with two ATR 72-600, an ATR 42-600 and three de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter aircraft.\n\nPartnerships\n\nIn conjunction with Qantas, Air Pacific helped pioneer the concept of codeshare agreements in the early 1980s. Today, codesharing is an accepted airline practice the world over. In the 1990s Air Pacific signed a codeshare agreement with Canadian Airlines, allowing it to transport traffic from Toronto on to Auckland, New Zealand. Soon after it struck a codeshare deal with American Airlines. As of 2014 Fiji Airways partners with Qantas, Air New Zealand, Alaska Airlines, American Airlines, Cathay Pacific and Solomon Airlines.\n\nQantas, which owned less than 20% of Air Pacific at the time, began a ten-year management contract with the airline in 1985 to help reverse the financial losses the company was struggling with. In 1986, Air Pacific posted a profit of nearly $100,000. In 1987 Qantas paid a reported $3.5 million for a 20 percent stake in Air Pacific. Qantas raised its equity from 17.45 percent to 46 percent in 1998.\n\nOn 25 January 1995 Air Pacific and the then Royal Tongan Airlines began a joint leasing of aircraft. The concept came complete with the livery of the two airlines painted on each side of the Boeing 737-300 fuselage.\n\nFiji Airways has a subsidiary airline Fiji Link (formerly Pacific Sun) that offers domestic flights and flights to the nearby islands of Tonga, Samoa, Tuvalu and Vanuatu. Fiji Airways is also a partner with the frequent flyer programmes of Alaska Airlines, American Airlines, and Qantas.\n\nRebranding\n\nIn May 2012, the airline announced that it would be rebranding and revert to its original name of Fiji Airways, with the rebranding coinciding with the delivery of the A330 aircraft in 2013. Fiji Airways' new brandmark, a \"Masi symbol that epitomises Fiji and enhances the new name of Fiji's national carrier\", was announced on 17 August 2012. The design was created by local Fijian Masi artist, Makereta Matemosi. The airline's new brand identity and colour scheme were fully revealed on 10 October 2012, in conjunction with Fiji Day.\n\nThe rebranding to Fiji Airways officially took place on 27 June 2013. The name change aimed to associate the airline more closely with the nation and to be more visible in search results. In China, the name Air Pacific was often confused with Hong Kong airline Cathay Pacific, Philippine airline Cebu Pacific and a Chinese air conditioning company. With the rebranding came a name change for the airline's booking classes. The Pacific Voyager (economy) and Tabua Class (business) of Air Pacific became the Fiji Airways' Economy and Fiji Airways' Business Class. The airline also launched a new [http://www.fijiairways.com/ website] with the rebranding.\n\nCorporate affairs\n\nOwnership and structure\n\nFiji Airways is part of the Air Pacific Group (which includes the national airline, its wholly owned subsidiary Fiji Link, and a 38.75% stake in the Sofitel Fiji Resort & Spa on Denarau Island). The Air Pacific Group itself is owned by the Fijian government (51%), the Australian flag-carrier Qantas (46.32%), and Air New Zealand and the governments of Kiribati, Tonga, Nauru and Samoa each hold minor stakes.\n\nBusiness trends\n\nThe airline was largely profitable from 1995 to 2004, but suffered back-to-back record losses of FJ$5.2 million for fiscal year 2008/2009 and FJ$65.3 million for 2009/2010. In early 2010 a new MD/CEO, Dave Pflieger, was recruited to turn the airline around and restore it to profitability. Pflieger returned to the United States at the end of his contract with the airline in the third quarter of 2013. Stefan Pichler was selected as the airline's new MD/CEO and assumed his role in September 2013.\n\nThe key trends for Fiji Airways, and the overall Group (including Fiji Link operations), are shown below (as at year ending 31 March until March 2013; year ending 31 December thereafter):\n\nDestinations \n\nFiji Airways has 17 direct-flight destinations in the Pacific Ocean region.\n\nCodeshare agreements\n\nFiji Airways has the following codeshare agreements:\n\n*Air New Zealand \n*Alaska Airlines \n*American Airlines \n*Cathay Pacific\n*Etihad Airways\n*Qantas \n*Solomon Airlines\n\nFleet\n\nCurrent Fleet\n\nAs of December 2015 the Fiji Airways fleet consists of the following aircraft:\n\nHistorical fleet \n\nFormer aircraft include examples of the Boeing 777 (on wet lease), Boeing 767, Boeing 747, de Havilland Dragon Rapide, de Havilland Heron, Douglas DC-3, BAC One-Eleven, Hawker Siddeley HS 748 and the McDonnell Douglas DC-10. Known details include:" ] }

{ "description": [ "Our History - Six Decades of ... Government to operate the country’s domestic airline and registered ... Air Pacific a world-class international airline. “Air ...", "Cheap Flights to Fiji, Fiji | Expedia ... Fiji is more than just a place where bottled water comes from; ... Air New Zealand, Air Pacific, Air Vanuatu, Jetstar, ..." ], "filename": [ "83/83_1141.txt", "72/72_1146.txt" ], "rank": [ 4, 9 ], "title": [ "Our History | Fiji Airways", "Cheap Flights to Fiji, Fiji | Expedia" ], "url": [ "http://www.fijiairways.com/about-fiji-airways/our-history/", "https://www.expedia.com/Cheap-Flights-To-Fiji.d6023598.Travel-Guide-Flights" ], "search_context": [ "Our History | Fiji Airways\nProcurement\nOur History - Six Decades of Flying to Fiji\nOn 1st September 1951, a 7-seater De Havilland Dragon Rapide took off from the Fiji’s Nausori Airport to Drasa Airport near Lautoka, on the west coast of the main island. This first commercial flight saw the birth of what today is a truly international, Fijian airline. Together with its domestic/regional subsidiary of Pacific Sun, Fiji Airways flies over 400 flights a week to almost 15 cities in 10 countries around the world.\nTaking on various challenges that no airline in the global airline industry is immune from, Fiji Airways has passed various tests with flying colours, more than ably fulfilling its dual roles of flying Fiji and contributing significantly to its economy.\nHarold George Gatty\nHarold George Gatty was born to British parents in Campelltown in Tasmania on 5 January 1903 and came to settle in Fiji after World War II. He was no stranger to the island nation, as he was based in Auckland before the war as Australasia’s representative of Pan American World Airways. He joined the US Army Air Force during the war, serving first in Java before relocating to Brisbane at General Douglas McArthur’s headquarters and New Guinea after that. He returned to his Pan American job in Auckland at the end of the war and moved to settle in Fiji a few years later. Here he bought an island in Fiji’s eastern island group called Katafaga and turned it into a coconut estate. Before his Pan American job, Gatty had made his name in air navigation in the United States. Using his good sea navigation skills acquired as a cadet midshipman trainee at the Australian Naval College, Gatty invented a navigation system for pilots.\nIn conjunction with the so called ‘Weems Curves’,Gatty devised his revolutionary ground speed and drift indicator. This allowed for navigation by dead reckoning and did away with the need to take shots from the sun or stars, and it was the forerunner of the automatic pilot, now standard equipment on virtually all commercial and military aircraft.\nGatty got to use his own invention that shot him to international fame when Canadian pilot Lieutenant Harold Bromley invited him to be his navigator in his attempt to fly across the Pacific from Honshu, Japan, to Tacoma in Washington State, USA in September 1930. Fuel tank problem forced the plane back to Honshu after 1,900km of flying, and it is said that despite heavy fogs, Gatty navigated the plane by dead reckoning back to their starting point.\nAgain he followed this up in 1931 when Wiley Post, a native American oil rigger and stuntman flew around the world in eight days. Gatty was his navigator and that feat earned the two aviators a ticker-tape welcome in New York City. As a British citizen, the US Congress awarded him the Distinguished Flying Cross. It was said that despite the accolades, Gatty declined the offer to become an American citizen. His appointment not long thereafter as Pan American World Airways representative based in Auckland brought him to the Pacific, and to Fiji.\nGatty submitted a proposal to Fiji’s then Colonial Government to operate the country’s domestic airline and registered it as Katafaga Estates. The first commercial flight was one September 1st, 1951. While Gatty died on August 30th1958, his bold and visionary initiative had taken off to greater heights, and today has etched its place in Fiji’s aviation history.\n \nThe Past\nDuring the eventful 60-years, Air Pacific was also about an attempt at regionalism that almost succeeded. By the early 1970s, up to seven island governments of the Pacific, some of them still under British colonial rule then, held shares in Air Pacific. This was in addition to shares held by QANTAS, New Zealand’s TEAL and the British Overseas Airways Corporation, forerunners of Air New Zealand and British Airways respectively. But the regional airline idea fizzled as other Government’s bailed out, leaving Fiji as the majority shareholders in the airline.\nFor a small airline, Fiji Airways has always been punching way above its weight. Early in the 1980s, it pioneered the code-share concept with Qantas. Today, code-sharing is an accepted airline practice the world over. 25 January 1995 was another watershed date for Fiji’s airline when it launched what was believed to be a trail blazing concept of joint leasing of aircraft with the then Royal Tongan Airline. The concept came complete with the livery of the two airlines painted on each half of the Boeing 737-300 fuselage.\nGiving thanks where it’s due\nThere’s general consensus that a long list of men and women helped Fiji’s international airline get to where it is today. From the pioneers and visionaries brave enough to operate an airline out of the middle of the Pacific during its early years to the hundreds of dedicated and committed Fijians working hard to make it the world’s friendliest airline; words cannot do justice to describe the gratitude of the company.\nSeveral years ago, long serving former chairman of the airline, retired business executive Gerald Barrack paid tribute to Gatty’s vision and the pioneering spirit of men and women like him “from the days when pilots flew Dragon Rapides and Drovers by the seat of their pants.” Days like the one where passengers boarded the Rapides plane and realized that there was no pilot, so a man wearing a bright bula (floral) shirt volunteered to fly the machine. Little did they realize that the man with the bright shirt was actually Fred Ladd, Gatty’s first Chief Pilot, playing his usual practical jokes!\nInvited for his observations as \"Air Pacific\" celebrated its 60th anniversary, past CEO John Campbell said the men and women who built the airline are a source of great pride. “It is not easy to operate a reliable airline with a wide spread network from a small country in the middle of the Pacific. There are logistical, training, spare parts inventory and skill retention and development issues that an airline based in a major market does not face. That the airline has been able to overcome these barriers is a credit to its people and a testament to their commitment and frequent personal sacrifice.\n“Fiji citizens can take pride in the overall success of their airline, which truly is the critical link between Fiji and the world and has been and hopefully will continue to be fully committed to serving Fiji's aviation needs. I believe this is what was hoped for by Harold Gatty when establishing the airline.”\nAs it celebrates its 60th birthday, the Managing Director & CEO at the time, Dave Pflieger, joined his predecessor in praising Harold Gatty’s vision and the people of Fiji for making Air Pacific a world-class international airline.\n“Air Pacific’s greatest asset is its people – from our maintenance and ground crews, to the pilots and flight attendants, to our schedulers and administrative staff,” Mr. Pflieger told Fiji Islands magazine. \"The many changes and the improvements they are making now will serve Fiji and Fijians well for another 60 years. They are rising to the challenge of new competition and an ever changing world, and creating a strong legacy. It is an honour to work with everyone here.\"\nThe Present\nFor an airline that was started by an acclaimed air navigator, inventor, airline manager, plantation baron and legislator, Fiji Airways has grown into Fiji’s proud flag carrier.  From flying De Havilland Dragon Rapide in those days to the new Airbus 330-200 jets of today, the airline has truly come of age. It boasts a strong position within the region, and is often ranked among the region’s top carriers.\nIn May 2012, the airline announced that it would reintroduce the name Fiji Airways to reinforce its role as the proud national airline of Fiji. Offering its customers brand new Airbus A330-200 aircraft and warm friendly Fijian service, Fiji Airways connects the islands of Fiji to the world and proudly welcomes visitors to its home.\nAs our airline proudly returned to its roots as Fiji Airways, we embarked on a new and exciting chapter of our story.\nRelated Information", "Cheap Flights to Fiji, Fiji $449.50 | Expedia\nCheap Flights to Fiji, Fiji $449.50 | Expedia\nFlights to Fiji Flights to Fiji, current page\nCheap Tickets to Fiji\nThese prices were available within the past 7 days. Prices quoted are per person, round trip, for the period specified. Prices and availability are subject to change. Additional terms apply.\n\" SIN Singapore to NAN Nadi $982.20 \"\nSINSingapore\nSat, Mar 04 - Fri, Mar 17\n$982.20\n\" SFO San Francisco to NAN Nadi $1,114.86 \"\nSFOSan Francisco\nSun, May 14 - Wed, May 31\n$1,114.86\n\" LAX Los Angeles to NAN Nadi $1,142.86 \"\nLAXLos Angeles\nFri, Jun 09 - Sun, Jun 18\n$1,142.86\n\" BOS Boston to NAN Nadi $1,343.36 \"\nBOSBoston\nMon, May 15 - Mon, May 22\n$1,343.36\n\" EWR Newark to NAN Nadi $1,396.36 \"\nEWRNewark\nWed, Mar 15 - Sun, Mar 19\n$1,396.36\n\" JFK New York to NAN Nadi $1,420.96 \"\nJFKNew York\nTue, Feb 28 - Thu, Mar 09\n$1,420.96\n\" ORD Chicago to NAN Nadi $1,486.36 \"\nORDChicago\nThu, Jul 27 - Tue, Aug 01\n$1,486.36\n\" MSP Minneapolis to NAN Nadi $1,601.36 \"\nMSPMinneapolis\nMon, Mar 13 - Sun, Mar 19\n$1,601.36\n\" PHL Philadelphia to NAN Nadi $1,671.36 \"\nPHLPhiladelphia\nTue, Jun 13 - Wed, Jun 21\n$1,671.36\n\" SLC Salt Lake City to NAN Nadi $2,065.76 \"\nSLCSalt Lake City\nThu, Mar 16 - Tue, Mar 21\n$2,065.76\nFiji Flights\nVisit Fiji\nFiji is more than just a place where bottled water comes from; it is an idyllic paradise that can provide you the vacation experience of a lifetime. Fiji offers any type of vacation you could possibly want; for example, you can get pampered in a resort hotel, or you can rough it out in a tent on an uninhabited island. Nature lovers will enjoy Fiji's tropical rainforests, mountains and beaches and sand dunes, and people more interested in getting to know Fiji's urban side can hang out in Suva, the capital of Fiji. Get ready to escape to Fiji by booking your cheap flights to Fiji on Expedia today.\nAirports in Fiji\nMost flights to Fiji land at Nadi Intl. Airport (NAN). NAN is located near the city of Nadi on the west coast of Viti Levu. Around 1.2 million people pass through NAN each year. Airlines that service NAN include Aircalin, Air Kiribati, Air New Zealand, Air Pacific, Air Vanuatu, Jetstar, Korean Air, Virgin Australia and Air Pacific. Fiji flights may also land at Nausori International Airport (SUV), which is also known as Luvuluvu. SUV is around 30 minutes away from the city of Suva. Airlines that service SUV include Air Pacific and Air Vanuatu.\nBook your flight with Expedia\nExpedia lets you search across the largest number of airlines and flights, which means that you'll be able to find great flight deals at the perfect travel date and time. There's simply no substitute for great prices suited to your flight needs and backed by excellent customer support.\nWhen to purchase Fiji airfare\nTickets to Fiji tend to be in demand throughout the entire year thanks to its warm climate. High season is from July to September, which is the dry season in Fiji. Due to the fact that Fiji is located in the Southern Hemisphere, this period of time corresponds to Fiji's winter. Shoulder season is from May to June and October, and low season is from November to April, which is Fiji's summer. Wet season takes place during the summer, and it can get very hot and humid. Also, be aware of the fact that the summer is typhoon season. That said, if you are willing to brave the weather during Fiji's summer, you will get fantastic deals on accommodations and airfare.\nGet up to 100% off your flight to Fiji when booking a Flight + Hotel\nFlying to Fiji? Explore Fiji with Expedia's Travel Guides to find the best hotels, vacation packages, car rental deals and more!\n**Savings based on all vacation package bookings with Flight + Car on Expedia.com from April 2015 through September 2015, as compared to price of the same components booked separately. Savings will vary based on origin/destination, length of trip, stay dates and selected travel supplier(s). Savings not available on all cars." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Allegra_Kent.txt" ], "title": [ "Allegra Kent" ], "wiki_context": [ "Allegra Kent (born August 11, 1937) is an American ballet dancer and actress.\n\nIris Margo Cohen was born to Jewish parents, Harry Herschel and Shirley (née Weissman) Cohen, and later changed her name to Allegra Kent. Kent grew up in what she later described as a dysfunctional environment. In Once a Dancer: An Autobiography,Once a Dancer: An Autobiography © 1997, St. Martin's Press; ISBN 0-312-15051-2, 1st edition January 1997. she describes her Texan father (\"who liked to substitute 'Cowboy' for Herschel\") as having \"a gambler's soul and a restless nature\" (at pgs 5, 7). She describes her Wisznice (present-day Poland)-born immigrant mother as feeling \"neither European nor American; she was ashamed of her [own] parents... she borrowed a neighbor's working papers and took a job at twelve. By fourteen, she was teaching ballroom dancing at night in someone's private home, mostly to Japanese men\" (at pg. 6). \n\nBorn in Santa Monica, Kent studied with Bronislava Nijinska and Carmelita Maracci before joining the School of American Ballet. She had completely flat feet as a little girl and consulted a doctor, who prescribed wedges in her shoes to give her arches. She then began taking ballet. \n\nAfter graduating, she joined the New York City Ballet in 1953 at the age of 15, and was promoted to principal in 1957. Many roles in George Balanchine's ballets were created for her, including Seven Deadly Sins, Ivesiana and Bugaku. She danced the role of Dewdrop in the 1958 Playhouse 90 telecast of Balanchine's version of The Nutcracker. \n\nShe performed in such ballets as Serenade, Agon and Dances at a Gathering. She retired in 1981, becoming a ballet teacher, and in 1997 published an autobiography, Once a Dancer. In 2012, Kent published her first book for children, Ballerina Swan, with Holiday House Books for Young People, illustrated by Caldecott Medalist Emily Arnold McCully. It has received rave reviews from The New York Times, Kirkus Reviews, and School Library Journal. In Fall of 2013, Ballerina Swan was adapted for the stage as a dance piece by New York City Children's Theater, featuring choreographer Michael McGowan and artistic director Barbara Zinn Krieger. The adaptation received positive reviews by the New York Times, Time Out New York Kids, The Mama Maven, and many others. Due to its success, in December 2015, New York City Children's Theater produced a revival of \"Ballerina Swan.\"\n\nAllegra Kent currently teaches ballet at Barnard College. \n\nSources\n\n*The Encyclopedia of Dance & Ballet (1977), Rainbird Reference Books Ltd.; ISBN 0-907408-63-X \n*[http://www.ballerinagallery.com/kent.htm Profile], ballerinagallery.com; accessed November 10, 2014." ] }

{ "description": [ "... Allegra Kent, Balanchine's Ballerina. ... Arts & Life. Intersections: ... while he pushed them to work harder than they ever had.", "Allegra Kent. Born in Santa Monica ... stemming from their hard work. ... then the Arts Center is also closed for classes for the day and the evening.", "... The Dancers’ Body Book and Allegra Kent’s Water Beauty Book. Allegra ... do?id=9363185 “Allegra Kent ... Arts and Culture \"Intersections: Allegra Kent, ...", "Once a Dancer... by Allegra Kent, ... Autobiography: Arts & Entertainment; 12% off. Once a Dancer... : An Autobiography. Paperback; English; By (author) Allegra Kent ...", "Leaps and Bounds By JOAN ACOCELLA. The ... She took ''something strong,'' but it didn't work, ... Allegra Kent was accepted into the New York City Ballet ...", "Review/Dance; Allegra Kent With the ... when it appeared Friday night at the Performing Arts Center of the State ... included Allegra Kent, ...", "Allegra Kent Allegra Kent joined ... when Allegra was in her editor's office looking at a variety of art samples from illustrators, ... including Allegra. Hard work ...", "Art Travel Nightlife Events ... Allegra Kent. The NYCB star ... You changed your first name from Iris to Allegra." ], "filename": [ "154/154_1234.txt", "6/6_1235.txt", "62/62_1236.txt", "1/1_1237.txt", "138/138_1238.txt", "128/128_1239.txt", "168/168_1241.txt", "181/181_1242.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8 ], "title": [ "Intersections: Allegra Kent, Balanchine's Ballerina : NPR", "Allegra Kent | Greenwich Ballet Academy", "The My Hero Project - Allegra Kent", "Once a Dancer... : Allegra Kent : 9780813034409", "Leaps and Bounds - Breaking News, World News & Multimedia", "Review/Dance - Allegra Kent With the Ballet of Los Angeles ...", "Children's Literature - Meet Allegra Kent - CLCD", "Allegra Kent - The best things to do in cities worldwide" ], "url": [ "http://www.npr.org/2004/01/19/1594107/intersections-allegra-kent-balanchines-ballerina", "http://greenwichballetacademy.org/about-greenwich-ballet-academy/our-faculty/allegra-kent/", "http://myhero.com/hero.asp?hero=A_Kent_glenbrook_ms_2008", "https://www.bookdepository.com/Once-Dancer-Allegra-Kent/9780813034409", "http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/01/19/reviews/970119.19acocelt.html", "http://www.nytimes.com/1989/03/20/arts/review-dance-allegra-kent-with-the-ballet-of-los-angeles.html", "http://www.clcd.com/features/mai_kent_allegra.php", "http://www.timeout.com/newyork/dance/allegra-kent" ], "search_context": [ "Intersections: Allegra Kent, Balanchine's Ballerina : NPR\nHeard on Morning Edition\nAllegra Kent and partner Conrad Ludlow dance a pas de deux in Symphony in C, choreographed by Balanchine, during a 1965 performance in New York. From \"Dancing for Mr. B,\" directed by Anne Belle/Courtesy John Belle hide caption\ntoggle caption\nFrom \"Dancing for Mr. B,\" directed by Anne Belle/Courtesy John Belle\nOne of the most important choreographers of the 20th century, George Balanchine, would have been 100 years old this week. Born in Russia, he made his career in the United States, where he died in 1983. He left behind the New York City Ballet, the company he founded, along with hundreds of original ballets inspired by the unique abilities of his dancers.\nIn a report for Intersections, a Morning Edition series on artists and their sources of inspiration, Kim Kokich talks with New York City Ballet star Allegra Kent — one of Balanchine's greatest ballerinas — about her relationship with \"Mr. B.\"\nKent was 10 when she first told her mother she wanted to be a ballerina. Soon after, she was taken to the ballet for the first time to see a performance of Night Shadow, a tale of a sleepwalking wife, choreographed by Balanchine. Kent — now in her 60s — remembers the event as a life-defining experience: \"After that evening, I did believe that ballet was really what I wanted to pursue, and that ballet was the most exalted form of dance... I still feel that way.\"\nKent joined the New York City Ballet company in 1952, at age 15. Within a few years, Balanchine began creating ballets inspired by her complexities as a dancer: her otherworldly stage presence, her innocent sensuality, her hyperactivity, her tendency to go outside technique to move in beautiful and strange ways. (In 1958, he even revived Night Shadow, renamed La Sonnambula, for Kent.)\nWatch Kent and Ludlow dance. (RealPlayer Required.)\nKent's relationship with Balanchine exemplified his technique: Balanchine saw ways to uncover the gifts of his ballerinas that, in turn, revealed his own talents. They inspired him to challenge ballet's conventions, while he pushed them to work harder than they ever had. Balanchine acknowledged this symbiosis in a 1970s' interview with the BBC.\nArticle continues after sponsorship\nAllegra Kent with George Balanchine Courtesy Bert Stern hide caption\ntoggle caption\nCourtesy Bert Stern\n\"I try to push people to a certain level that I like. I have to satisfy myself,\" Balanchine said. \"...I look all the time, and I borrow from them. I mean, I use their bodies. I use what they are.\"\nFor Kent, the relationship also proved rewarding. She enjoyed a successful 30-year career with the New York City Ballet, and now helps coach a new generation of dancers for The George Balanchine Trust.\nWeb Extra: Extended Interview with Allegra Kent\nOnly Available in Archive Formats.", "Allegra Kent | Greenwich Ballet Academy\n“GBA is the best thing that has ever happened to Greenwich”\nMarianne W.\n“My daughter thoroughly enjoys attending the GBA summer intensive, she loves the rigor and the progression she makes by attending on a daily basis.”\nAlessandra L.- Parent\nSee All Testimonials\n“Last summer my daughter trained for five weeks in the GBA Summer Intensive. Much like the well-known prominent Summer Intensives throughout the country, GBA offered a program designed to accelerate a young dancers training by intensive daily classes in technique, pointe, variations, modern and character dance. The Vaganova training was taught by the Artistic Director and the year-round faculty of the school. Unique to this program was the small class size which facilitated the development of…\nJeanne H. - Parent\n“Every time I go to a GBA performances I am amazed at the quality of the performance.  It is not everyday that top ballet dancers agree to dance on the stage with students.  There is a reason why!”\nAnonymous – Parent\nSee All Testimonials\n“If your child genuinely wants to improve his or her classical ballet technique, and be inspired by amazing & passionate Vagonova method instructors, the GBA Summer Intensive is the place for you. Add in the small class-size and camaraderie of other committed dancers and it is truly the best package you can find.”\nMimi C. - Parent\nSee All Testimonials\n“The Greenwich Ballet Academy is an amazing dance school.  The classes are small and the students are friendly.  The teachers are very professional and give you the attention you need to improve your ballet technique.  The staff works very hard to organize special events for the students at GBA.  They allow the students to gain experience in the world of ballet.”\nMelodie M. - Student\nSee All Testimonials\n“GBA has helped me as a dancer by challenging my artistic abilities to become a better dancer.  It has also improved my musicality and timing skills.  GBA has also gotten me started on pointe.  Through my past few months at this magnificent school the teachers have helped e boost my dancing in the fields of ballet and character.”\nMelodie M. - Student\nSee All Testimonials\n“The Greenwich Ballet Academy performance was a fantastic performance.  This was my first performance with GBA and it was very organized.  The stage was wonderful and so were the dancers.  The excerpts from La Bayadère were performed beautifully by the students.  Irina Dvorovenko looked stunning with the dancers as well as the other guest dancers.  The performance really demonstrated the abilities of the students and showcased their talents brilliantly.”\nMelodie M. - Student\nSee All Testimonials\n“GBA has brought a level of rigor to my son’s ballet training that surpassed my expectations.  The expertise of the GBA faculty along with their high standards have made my son a better dancer and his goal of being a professional dancer is now within reach.”\nCarissa G. - Parent", "The My Hero Project - Allegra Kent\nWelcome, guest! Login or Register\n \n\"All we actually have is our body and its muscles that allow us to be under our own power.\" ~ Allegra Kent\nARTIST HERO:\nALLEGRA KENT\nby Mikayla from Glenbrook\nWhen you think about a hero, what comes to mind? It could be many different things like dedication, leadership, being an inspiration to someone, or being courageous. I think being a hero requires all of that and much more.\nAllegra Kent (also known as Iris Margo Cohen), an accomplished ballerina, is a person whom I consider a hero. She was an inspiration to many who proclaimed her to have muscular lyricism. She made all of her performances seem unreal.\nAllegra realized her dream of being a ballerina at the young age of ten, and started training at eleven. At thirteen she was accepted into the School of American Ballet, on scholarship, and moved to New York. Famed choreographer, George Balanchine, discovered her talent. Allegra became a permanent member of the New York City Ballet at age fifteen\nAllegra became a principal dancer at age 18 and was the star of the New York City Ballet. She was George Balanchine�s inspiration and was known for her Balanchine style. Allegra studied dance with many different people and performed many dances for a number of choreographers.\nPeople were mystified by her beautiful dance technique, and when she started to miss shows for the New York City Ballet it added to her mystique. She quietly left the company in the 1980s but never stopped coaching and teaching.\nAllegra married Bert Stern in 1959 and they had three children, but they later divorced. Joseph Cornell was an artist who was inspired by Allegra. He dedicated some of his collages to her and her children.\nAllegra is an author of two physical therapy books: The Dancers� Body Book and Allegra Kent�s Water Beauty Book. Allegra also wrote an autobiography entitled, Once a Dancer.\nAllegra is an extremely talented author, dancer, and mother and for that she is my hero.\nBibliography\n�Intersections: Allegra Kent, Balanchine�s Ballerina.� Npr.org. 19 January 2004. February 2008 http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1594107\n�Allegra Kent Biography (1938- ).� A&E Television Networks. 1996-2007. February 2008 http://www.biography.com/search/article.do?id=9363185\n�Allegra Kent.� Biography Resource Center-Biography Display. 1 January 1993. 15 February 2008 http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/BioRC?vrsn=149&OP=contain", "Once a Dancer... : Allegra Kent : 9780813034409\nAdd to basket Add to wishlist\nDescription\nOne of the greatest of George Balanchine's ballerinas, Allegra Kent joined the New York City Ballet at the age of fifteen and only two years later inspired Balanchine's \"The Unanswered Question\" (from Ivesiana). Beautiful, sensuous, mysterious, she quickly became an essential Balanchine dancer. He created central roles for her in 'Episodes', 'Bugaku', 'The Seven Deadly Sins, Stars and Stripes', and the 'Brahms-Schoenberg Quartet', as well as reviving 'La Sonnambula' for her. An immense favorite of audiences here and abroad, she had a particularly spectacular success on the company's famous Russian tour in 1962. But the story of her personal life is at least as dramatic as the story of her rise to fame. Raised haphazardly by a mostly absent father and an all-too-present mother, she married the first man she ever dated, the celebrated (and complicated) photographer Bert Stern. And she suspended her career three times to have children, no matter what the cost to her work. Allegra Kent is today a triumphant survivor of a difficult, troubled, yet deeply gratifying life, and her writing reflects the intelligence, grace, and artistry that characterized her dancing. Her account of a bizarre childhood, a magnificent if unusual dance career, a charged, complicated, domestic life, and a never-ending struggle with emotional, physical, and financial pressures is fascinating as are her portraits of the other great dance figures who punctuated her life, from Balanchine to Baryshnikov. show more\nProduct details\n152.4 x 228.6 x 25.4mm | 498.95g\nPublication date", "Leaps and Bounds\nLeaps and Bounds\nThe autobiography of Allegra Kent, one of George Balanchine's finest ballerinas\nONCE A DANCER . . .\nIllustrated. 340 pp. New York:\nSt. Martin's Press. $26.95.\n've had a strange career,'' says Allegra Kent. No one who reads her book will disagree. After a childhood that sounds like a dadaist performance, she walked into George Balanchine's life at a time, the mid-1950's, when his genius was undergoing a fabulous reflowering. Together, they made her a great dancer. But from the very beginning, by her account, she sabotaged her own career. At 21, already saddled with a despotic mother who didn't want her to dance, she married Mr. Wrong and quickly had three children. (A ballet dancer! Three children! In her 20's!) But that's not the half of it. Illness, depression, disfiguring facial surgery, bank foreclosures, pursuit through the streets of New York by amphetamine-crazed husband on bicycle: you name it, she experienced it, often by her own arranging.\nIn 1937 Shirley Cohen, an immigrant from Poland living in Texas, discovered that she was pregnant again. She took ''something strong,'' but it didn't work, and Iris Cohen was born. The Cohens soon became Kents, because why should everyone know they were Jewish? And at 11 Iris became Allegra, because her older sister, Barbara, had become Wendy. The father, Harry (Cowboy) Cohen, was a charming no-account who divided his time between oil deals, gambling and God knows what else. Shirley divorced him and proceeded to drag the family back and forth between Florida and California. Meanwhile, she pursued philosophies. From Christian Science she progressed to Bates eye exercises, then to Krishnamurti.\nIn her Krishnamurti period, Shirley heard of a boarding school based on that guru's philosophy in Ojai, Calif. But she forgot its name, so she picked a school at random in the Ojai Valley and dropped Allegra off. The child now plotted how to get her mother back. In gym class she discovered she was a great jumper. She wrote her mother that she wanted to become a ballerina -- an idea that must have strummed some chord deep in Shirley's brain, for she fetched Allegra and took her to the two best ballet teachers in Los Angeles, Bronislava Nijinska and Carmelita Maracci. By the age of 12, Allegra was in ballet class nine hours a week. Her future as a dancer was Shirley's new religion, until, pretty soon, it wasn't. Allegra, she now decided, should quit dancing, go to college. But it was too late. Allegra Kent was accepted into the New York City Ballet at age 15.\nThis childhood section is the best part of the book: witty, fast-paced, full of deft omissions, wonderful catchings-up. It is a comedy born of fear. For Ms. Kent, as for so many autobiographers, childhood, because its circumstances were arranged by others, has a special poetry, on which they can report with disinterestedness and clarity. Only with the later life -- the life, they are told, that was arranged by them -- does the confusion set in.\nWhen Ms. Kent was 17, Balanchine made her her first big role. When she was 19, he promoted her from the corps de ballet to principal dancer, skipping the middle rank of soloist. And over a period of 10 years, ballet by ballet, he created what was to be her unique theatrical image. In ''Ivesiana'' (1954) she was carried aloft on the shoulders of four men -- her feet never touched the ground -- while another man prostrated himself before her. In ''The Seven Deadly Sins'' (revived in 1958) she acted out pride, lust, etc., but almost blindly; she simply obeyed the orders of the singer, Lotte Lenya. In ''La Sonnambula'' (revived in 1960), she was a sleepwalker. In ''Bugaku'' (1963), a Japanese wedding piece, she performed the frankest sex dance Balanchine ever put on stage, but in a blank, ritualized manner.\nThe idea, throughout, was eroticism coupled with unavailability. She was passive; you could bend her in your hands. (She had a famously pliant body.) Yet she was unresponsive, unconscious, childlike. You had her, but you didn't. In his portrayals of love, Balanchine rarely stooped to psychology, but with Ms. Kent he came close: her image seemed the product of some aching need, some decisive refusal. At the same time, it remained poetic, shedding a moonglow over the desperate dramas that Balanchine conjured around it.\nWas the stage image his creation or hers? This question is asked of all Balanchine's ballerinas, and what they answer -- Ms. Kent too -- is that they made it with him. As has often been said, Balanchine's art was the story of his attachment to a series of ballerinas. One by one, these young women came to him. He saw them, understood them and dreamed about them. The dreams became the ballets, imaginary worlds in which they could be themselves but better: artists, symbols.\nIn psychology, the word for Ms. Kent's stage persona is passive-aggressive, and that is what she was, consistently, in her work. Whatever success she had, she managed to cap it with a compensating failure. After ''Ivesiana'' she let her mother bully her into a nose job, whose results so humiliated her that for months she rarely left home. When she returned to the company, Balanchine put her in ''The Seven Deadly Sins,'' which made her a star; she responded by entering into a loveless marriage with the fashion photographer and fast-tracker Bert Stern, who also makes an unattractive appearance in Claire Bloom's new memoir. (He was soon spending his evenings out. The newspapers kept Ms. Kent posted on his infidelities.) Probably to cheer her up, Balanchine now revived ''La Sonnambula'' for her, another triumph, whereupon she got herself pregnant. Again she returned, and was the sensation of New York City Ballet's historic 1962 Russian tour. At the end of that tour, Balanchine begged her to devote herself to her work. She demurely agreed. The following year, she was pregnant again.\nIn 1964, after the birth of the second baby, she turned up at the theater one night and greeted Balanchine:\n''My hair was caught up in two bunches, one over each shoulder. The style was a bit juvenile, but Mr. B. liked it. He put one palm under each ponytail. For the moment he had me gently in hand. I was in his grasp. . . . He wanted me on stage and dancing because he loved my dancing. . . .\n'' 'Now, Allegra, no more babies. Enough is enough.' . . .\n''I delivered a soft-spoken and playful 'All right.' ''\nAnd in that moment, she says, she vowed to have another child.\nIn this creepy little scene -- with its infantilism, its lisped assent, its silent refusal -- Ms. Kent, with great literary skill, sums up her relationship with Balanchine. As she did not realize at the time, the relationship was now over. Balanchine had been in love with her. (Some people believe she had an affair with him. She says no, and I believe her. It fits the pattern.) More than that, he had desperately needed her talents. Hence his willingness, again and again, to lure her back, cajole her, baby her. But in 1963 he had fastened on a new young dancer, this one willing to work: Suzanne Farrell. (Indeed, Balanchine's budding attraction to Ms. Farrell may have been one of Ms. Kent's reasons for retreating into pregnancy a second time.) After 1966, Balanchine never made a ballet for Ms. Kent again. He was loyal, though; he didn't get rid of her. She stayed with the company for 17 more years, often dancing superbly. But she performed less and less. In 1983, when Balanchine lay dying in the hospital and could no longer protect her, the company fired her.\nThis later period makes for grim reading at times. Ms. Kent has a reputation as an eccentric, and she tries to liven things up with tales of her wacky deeds: how she liked to drive with her left leg sticking out the car window (I hope she had an automatic), how she helped her son set fire to the family living room as part of a school project. But these episodes are not especially cheering. They seem merely the antic face of her habit of self-defeat. Also, eccentricity is less charming when described by the eccentric herself.\nTo what extent are our lives our fault? This terrible question, never explicitly posed in the book, is nevertheless its theme, and Ms. Kent's answer invites comparison with Gelsey Kirkland's in her 1986 ''Dancing on My Grave,'' the trailblazer in this odd new genre of memoirs by ballerinas who messed up. Ms. Kirkland's account is all dirt and spite. Ms. Kent is noble minded: she takes responsibility.\nMaybe too much. She seems to feel that she actually destroyed her career. She didn't, or not quickly. Ten years of growth may seem to her a short time, but it is all that many artists have. The films of her early years are astonishing. I didn't see her till later; still, she was tremendous. She created a kind of hush around herself on the stage. The symbol she placed before us -- this sphinx, this child-idol, this cry in the night -- was perhaps a narrow one, but it was a crucial discovery, irreplaceable.\nJoan Acocella, the author of ''Mark Morris,'' is the dance critic of The Wall Street Journal.", "Review/Dance - Allegra Kent With the Ballet of Los Angeles - NYTimes.com\nReview/Dance; Allegra Kent With the Ballet of Los Angeles\nBy JENNIFER DUNNING, Special to the New York Times\nPublished: March 20, 1989\nPURCHASE, N.Y., March 16— John Clifford's Ballet of Los Angeles would have been attraction enough when it appeared Friday night at the Performing Arts Center of the State University College at Purchase. Mr. Clifford was a popular dancer with the New York City Ballet, which he left in 1973. And his company visits New York infrequently. But this visit included Allegra Kent, a former ballerina of the City Ballet, who seldom performs these days, but whose magic is legendary.\nMiss Kent is now associate director of the Los Angeles company, formed in 1987 by Mr. Clifford as the successor to his Los Angeles Ballet, which closed in 1985. She is also to become the faculty chairwoman at the Stamford (Conn.) City Ballet school. But the dancer who emerged from the wings in Mr. Clifford's recent ''Notturno'' would probably not be taken for a ballet administrator. Miss Kent, who is 50 years old, is still a ravishingly lovely performer, with all the delicacy, radiance and buried hint of daffiness that made her so beloved at City Ballet.\n''Notturno,'' set to a Schubert piano trio, is a chiffon-rippler, a ballet intended to spread an aura of rapture about the stage. And Mr. Clifford's choreogaphy does succeed at that, with a central pas de deux that is a succession of ardent supported turns and swoons and partnered walks. Six dancers serve as a shifting background, flowing back and forth across the stage with an occasional darting run or two. They also pay homage to Miss Kent in one sequence, standing in gentle salute, then kneeling as she crisscrosses through their line.\nBut Miss Kent is an endearing expert at having and eating her cake, an art she displayed at the curtain calls, when she plucked the traditional flower from her bouquet to give to her partner, then dropped the entire bouquet into his arms and ran offstage. Antonio Lopez was her gracious, solid partner, in a cast completed by Jill Albertson, Cheryl Dickens, Betsy Schamet, Sean Carey, John Ferrare and Georges Vargas.\nThe years may have fallen away at first sight of Miss Kent, but they seemed curiously unchanged in the balance of the program. For Mr. Clifford's ''Fantasies,'' created in 1969 for City Ballet, and his new ''Songs of a Wayfarer'' seem cut from the same bolt of cloth. It is not that Mr. Clifford is a one-note choreographer. His ballets are unvaryingly well crafted and sometimes too literal a reading of music and theme, but he has taken on a good many kinds of dance in his 21 years as a professional choreographer. But the men and women of both ballets inhabit the same dark and measured landscape.\nIn ''Fantasies,'' set to Ralph Vaughan Williams's ''Fantasia on a Theme of Thomas Tallis,'' young lovers in white and mature lovers in dark green come to terms with their illusions and choose the appropriate mates. It was danced by Karyn Connell and David Rodriguez as the young lovers and Courtland Weaver and the lyrically elegiac Diane Dickson as the older lovers.\nMiss Kent, the lone wayfarer of the new ballet, moves through a country peopled with lovers. The ballet, which is set to Mahler songs, opens with a strong image of columnar bodies shifting ranks on a darkened stage, leaving Miss Kent alone at last. Lighthearted peasants, danced by Miss Connell and Mr. Weaver, romp through the second section, but lose each other in the bittersweet final moments. Nancy Davis is the ''glowing dagger'' of the third song, her imperiousness turning to voluptuous abandon as she dances.\nMr. Lopez is Miss Kent's lonely counterpart in the fourth section, juxtaposed against groups of dreamers and strutters, in a portrayal as strong in its way as that of Miss Davis in the previous dance. And then it is Miss Kent's turn again, in the closing section, and she makes the most of the ballet's resonant closing image when, left alone on stage, she walks slowly off.\nIt is Miss Kent's lyrical arms that stand out in ''Notturno.'' Here, it is her carriage and head and neck so delicately yet intensely expressive of the subtlest degrees of emotion. The 11-member company that complements her so well is still a little short on projected personality. But as one would expect of Mr. Clifford it is an assemblage of forthright and well-trained dancers with strong clean body lines.\nGeorge Balanchine's ''Allegro Brillante'' completed the program.", "Children's Literature - Meet Allegra Kent\nAllegra Kent\nAllegra Kent\n   Allegra Kent joined the New York City Ballet when she was fifteen years old. Born in Santa Monica, California, she moved to New York when she began studying at the School of American Ballet. Only a few short years after graduating and joining the company, Allegra was promoted to principal. In the era of George Balanchine, the famous choreographer created several roles for Allegra. After a long and impressive career Allegra retired in 1981 and turned to teaching. Today, she is busy teaching at Barnard College and working on her blossoming writing career. Her first children's book, Ballerina Swan, was published by Holiday House in early 2012. Allegra graciously spoke to me about working on her picture book, her life as a ballerina, and her future writing plans.\n   Her previous publishing experience came in the form of two books for adults, and she revealed that delving into the world of children's publishing went a little differently. When I asked if the process was different than she expected, she responded that after her manuscript was accepted the task of finding an illustrator was entirely new to her. She had seen Emily Arnold McCully's—the illustrator of Ballerina Swan—amazing work, way before she began the hunt. Specifically, she was familiar with Emily's Caldecott winning picture book Mirette and the High Wire. Funnily enough, when Allegra was in her editor's office looking at a variety of art samples from illustrators, she was excited to discover the illustration she selected was by Emily. Another card fell into place when Allegra's editor discovered Emily was in fact available. With so many details to coordinate, this process does not always run so smoothly. The deal was sealed quickly and Ballerina Swan was produced a full year ahead of schedule. Allegra expressed how thrilled she was to to collaborate with the illustrator of her dreams.\n   In Ballerina Swan, Sophie, a New York City swan, dreams of becoming a ballerina. She loves sneaking a look at the young ballerinas in school and desperately wants to join their class. Originally, Allegra says the story was too text heavy and dense. In changing the storyline a bit, Allegra kept Sophie's aspirations to become a dancer because they paralleled her own young dreams. As a child Allegra didn't know what she wanted to do; she had heard of ballet, but never seen one. In boarding school she took a folk dance class, and from there told her mother she wanted to leave boarding school to learn to dance. The first school at which she studied had no beginner classes, another similarity to Sophie—having natural ability but feeling slightly out of your depth in regards to technique.\n   The imagery of birds and ballet is nothing new. As Allegra put it, ballerinas always strive to be as beautiful and graceful as birds. The twist here is a swan that yearns to be a ballet star. Sophie's entry into ballet class does not go well—the teacher, the strict Madam Myrtle—does think swans belong in such places. Rejection is something with which all dancers are faced, including Allegra. Hard work is critical, but each person has different strengths to draw upon. Sophie is an example of this; because certain moves and techniques seem to come easily to her while she struggles with others. Allegra drew on her observations of her own and other's dancing strengths and weaknesses in creating Sophie. As she said, there will always be \"certain things you have to work harder on.\" Sophie seems to have mastered the split leap, helped by her instincts to fly high—good DNA. Allegra cheekily noted that she was glad the room had such a high ceiling.\n   When the young Miss Willow takes over the dance class one day, she is more tolerant of Sophie's \"bird-ness\" and allows her in the class. I asked Allegra if she preferred teachers like Madam Myrtle or Miss Willow. She \"would have preferred Miss Willow, but for the sake of the story, we need Madam Myrtle.\" Allegra never had a teacher quite as strict as Madam Myrtle, but never had one exactly like Miss Willow either. She commented on how much she loved the way Emily stylized the two teachers. Giving Madam Myrtle her severe and formidable appearance but also illustrating how she strikes a balance between demanding and caring. Allegra's own teaching style is very different, mostly due to the fact that her students are in college.\n   Ballerina Swan shows what hard work and perseverance can do when following your passion. When it comes to advice for others pursuing their dreams Allegra said to \"work! And of course don't give up too easily.\" The mother of three adult children, she feels the rest of her advice would be of the usual grandmother variety. A caring grandmother, she dedicated her book to her grandchildren. At the end of our conversation, I asked Allegra about her ballet past—she listed Red Shoes as her favorite ballet-themed movie and said that her favorite ballet to dance is always the one she's just done. As for future writing plans she would like to write another book for young readers, and if the reviews for Ballerina Swan are any indication, many will be clamoring for more Sophie.\nContributor: Emily Griffin", "Share Tweet\nBy Gia Kourlas Posted: Sunday November 1 2009\nAllegra Kent’s scintillating autobiography, Once a Dancer..., begins with these prescient words: “As a child, I knew I had one great possession: my body. It was little and quick. I lived within it.” -This month, Kent, who danced with the New York City Ballet for more than 30 years, celebrates a couple of milestones. The first is the reissue of her memoir, charming and juicy by turns; the second occurs on Monday 9, when Kent is presented with a Dance Magazine Award. In the program, held at Florence Gould Hall, Janie Taylor of NYCB will perform Kent’s original part in “The Unanswered Question,” in which a ballerina is held aloft, her feet never touching the floor. Interviewing Kent is a little like trying to catch a butterfly without a net. Her ballerina days aren’t exactly over; now she dances with words.\nFor the Dance Magazine ceremony, you requested that Janie Taylor perform “The Unanswered Question” from Ivesiana. Why did you want her?\nWell, she’s done it and she’s beautiful. It’s a piece we don’t get to see that often, but it’s also the first piece that Mr. Balanchine did for me. Ivesiana was so unusual, part of his kind of stories about that figure: the unattainable or metaphysical figure. Or, also, totally physical figure.\nBut what do you admire about Taylor?\nShe is almost of another world herself, which great ballet dancers are.\nWhat first drew you to her?\nHer imagination, her musicality and individuality. Individual peculiarity. That’s what also drew Balanchine to everyone—their individual qualities—and then he’d create a story or a movement or a dance. Or no story. [Laughs]\nCan you take me back to—\n1954? Of course! How do you want to travel? By chariot? Apollo’s chariot? Well, I was so new in the company and so hopeful, of course. And then, suddenly, there was my name for this dance on the bulletin board. I thought it was going to be jumping, but it wasn’t. Who was in the company? Maria Tallchief. Tanaquil Le Clercq. Melissa Hayden. They were all great individual ballerinas to watch. And also they would come running back and say, “Your eyes are too round!” “Not enough rouge!” [Laughs] They were all very involved with the company and that was wonderful—the input. Not just from the top, from everyone.\nTell me about the rehearsals.\nThe music! Oh, the music. No one had really heard that. Ives just wasn’t played. Balanchine discovered music and it wasn’t like there were CDs around; he would just play musical scores. He was so informed about what was happening.\nSo you’re in the rehearsal for Ivesiana—\n“Take your shoes off and climb on the barre.” [Happily] Oh, just let me climb on the barre! I climbed mountains in Ojai Valley [California]. I’ll climb anything in front of me. Well, not the subway. [Laughs]\nSo you climbed on the barre?\nYeah. In the corner. And then got on the boy’s shoulders. Nobody had any idea; [Balanchine] didn’t give a description. “Step on the boy’s back and straighten up and let go. And when you hear the trumpet, that’s your cue.” I was so thrilled that I had Mr. B’s vote of confidence. That, psychologically? Oh my gosh. Because I basically came from nowhere. I wasn’t brought up anywhere. [Pauses] I was the original understudy for Agon. I like being the original understudy. It has a certain ring to it. At that time, no one had done anything like it. People still refer to [Agon] in their choreography. Not directly, but it expanded ideas of choreography.\nWhich principal part did you understudy?\nBoth. But I eventually did Diana Adams’s role. More quickly than I thought. Diana was fragile. She’d be out. Well, dancers are fragile. You have to go see them the minute you discover them. Dancers are also generous. When you get on stage and give a performance, that is generosity.\nWhen you’re an understudy—\nYou’re in the back of the room where you can really think and watch. And also not have a certain amount of tension; although it’s good to be in the front of the room too. It’s good to be in the room. [Laughs]\nWhat did you observe back there?\nMaybe sometimes how I’d change something to suit myself more. Or be inspired by what I saw but always with an idea because you have to put everything on your own body a little bit. Like this poncho you’re wearing. Which is fantastic. Get me my crochet hook! [Laughs] I also crochet, but I don’t have time. We mustn’t go off on crocheting too much, but I made this. [She pulls a blue hat out of her bag.] I don’t have that much time.\nYou were also famously in Seven Deadly Sins, which paired you with the singer Lotte Leyna.\nOh, I love to sin.\nWhat’s your favorite sin?\nMy gosh. They’re all so much fun. Maybe sloth is not as much fun, but lust is fun. Changing the costumes was fun. Diving through aluminum foil. Eddie Bigalow would catch me—always. [Laughs]\nDo you remember much about it?\nI do. But they tried to revive it and they waited too long. Well, Balanchine wanted to revive it, but there were always problems because Lenya wasn’t available; then, Barbra Streisand; then, Bette Midler; then, a union strike. I remember gluttony so well: A scale and an ice cream cone and a back walkover, which I didn’t know how to do. I needed more acrobatic training, but my mother didn’t believe in tap, toe and acrobatic. Those were the schools in those days! But my mother chose really good teachers for me: Carmelita Maracci. Nijinska.\nWhat is a snapshot memory of Nijinska?\nOh! Black pajamas only! In class, she didn’t wear a [Felia] Doubrovska dress. No. There we would go across the room—furious, demonic energy! And she would run over to the pianist and make them do it right when they had the wrong tempo. After class, she was very, very loving. No chewing gum. The other day I was teaching at Barnard and I said to a girl, “Are you chewing gum?” and she said, “No, I’m eating an apple!” I said, “What? Is it green or red?” I didn’t know what to say. No eating apples. No chewing gum. This is an old Russian principle. Not just that. It’s an always principle. But she didn’t know.\nDid Nijinska encourage you?\nYeah. And that was wonderful to be encouraged by a teacher. It’s inexplicable why I’m winning this award, but I’m delighted. I got into the ballet company and I watched and watched. I listened. I hadn’t heard any of that music before. I didn’t grow up with classical music; we grew up with the radio. We were a one nutcracker family. And I mean [She cracks a nut with an invisible crank] that kind of nutcracker." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Billy_Don't_Be_a_Hero.txt", "Paper_Lace.txt" ], "title": [ "Billy Don't Be a Hero", "Paper Lace" ], "wiki_context": [ "\"Billy Don't Be a Hero\" is a 1974 pop song that was first a hit in the UK for Paper Lace and then some months later it was a hit in the US for Bo Donaldson and The Heywoods. The song was written by two British songwriters Mitch Murray and Peter Callander.\n\nBecause the song was released in 1974, it was associated by some listeners with the Vietnam War, though it actually refers to an unidentified war. But the drum pattern, references to a marching band leading soldiers in blue, and \"riding out\" (cavalry) would seem to be referencing the American Civil War.\n\nA young woman is distraught that her fiancé chooses to leave the area with Army recruiters passing through the town and go with them to fight. She laments,\n\nThe song goes on to describe how Billy is killed in action in a pitched battle after volunteering to ride out and seek reinforcements (which suggests mounted infantry and a lack of modern two-way radio communications). In the end, the woman throws away the official letter notifying her of Billy's \"heroic\" death.\n\nChart performances\n\nPaper Lace's version of \"Billy Don't Be a Hero\" hit number one in the UK Singles Chart on 16 March 1974, and thereafter Bo Donaldson & The Heywoods version hit number one in the U.S. on the Billboard Hot 100 on 15 June 1974, and number one in Canada on 7 July. The US version sold over three and a half million copies, and was awarded a gold disc by the R.I.A.A. in June 1974. The Bo Donaldson version was a massive hit in North America but is largely unknown elsewhere. Billboard ranked it as the No. 21 song for 1974. \n\nQuoted in other media\n\nThe song is mentioned as having played on K-Billy's Super Sounds of the 70s Weekend in the film Reservoir Dogs.\n\nThe song features in the film The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert (1993).\n\nMystery Science Theater 3000 often riffs on movies by saying \"Billy, don't be a hero!\", including the episode \"The Creeping Terror\".\n\nIn the first episode of Friends, Ross is sad because it has been so long since he last picked up a woman, saying \"Do the words 'Billy, Don't Be a Hero' mean anything to you?\"\n\nMassive Attack's 1991 track \"Blue Lines\" (from the album of the same name) features the lyrics \"take a walk, Billy, don't be a hero\".\n\nIn Walk Hard: The Dewey Cox Story, the song is briefly heard during a montage in a disco cover by Dewey Cox (John C. Reilly) performing on rollerblades during \"The Dewey Cox Show\". A much longer cut of this scene can be seen in the director's cut, and the whole performance was included in the extras for the 2-Disc editions.\n\nIn the Powerpuff Girls, the leader of the Gang Green Gang, Ace, says to another member, Billy, \"Billy, don't be a hero!\" when he decides to save the Powerpuff Girls from a subway train.\n\nIn The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack, the episode \"K'nuckles, Don't Be a Hero\" is named after the song.\n\nIn The Justice Friends (Cartoon Network, 1996), Major Glory says \"Billy, don't be a hero!\" to William, Valhallen's pet goat, when it jumps to save Krunk from the attack of Valhallen's living clothes.\n\nIn an episode of ALF, Alf uses the line \"Willie, don't be a hero, don't be a fool with your life,\" referring to the head of the household, Wille Tanner, after Willie comes up with a bad idea.\n\nThe Doug Anthony Allstars performed a comedic cover of this song, featuring the altered line, \"Where did Billy's head go?\" in place of \"Keep your pretty head low\".\n\nDav Pilkey named the hero of The Adventures of Super Diaper Baby Billy solely to make possible a passing homage to Billy Don't Be a Hero.", "Paper Lace are a Nottingham-based pop group who rose to sudden, brief success in 1974. They are known to Americans as a one-hit wonder; however, they had other hits in the UK. Their best known songs are \"Billy Don't Be a Hero\" and \"The Night Chicago Died\".\n\nHistory\n\nThe core of the band originally formed in 1967 as Music Box, but changed their name to Paper Lace in 1969. Paper Lace was one of hundreds of pop bands in England looking for the big time while slogging their way through small club gigs and brief television appearances. A season at Tiffany's, a Rochdale club, and also at The Birdcage in Ashton-Under-Lyne in 1971, led to more television appearances, but a passport to the charts did not arrive until a 1973 victory on Opportunity Knocks, the ITV talent contest series.\nAccording to drummer and lead singer Phil Wright:\nOpportunity Knocks was pretty much the 1970s version of The X-Factor. There was a huge audition week in 1970 at the Bridgford Hotel, which is now the Rushcliffe Borough Council building near the City Ground. And there were thousands of people queuing up. We turned up in our best suits, did a few numbers, and were told that they liked us but not to expect to go on straight away. When they finally got back to us in 1973, we thought; do we really need this now? But they were getting viewing figures of 7 million, so we went for it. And we won five weeks on the trot! There were two songwriters (Mitch Murray and Peter Callander) who got in touch with our management and offered us \"Billy Don't Be a Hero\", with the possibility of more songs if it took off. We went down, recorded it, and they said \"Hey, this is a great song, it's going to be a hit\". And the song proved to be stronger than the band, because everyone knows it, they just can't remember who recorded it. Except in Nottingham, of course…Needham, Al. [http://www.leftlion.co.uk/articles.cfm/id/621 Paper Lace interview]. LeftLion.co.uk. Retrieved 8 September 2006.\n\nThanks to that show, songwriters/producers, Mitch Murray and Peter Callender quickly signed them. The smash hit \"Billy Don't Be a Hero\" spent three weeks at Number 1 on the UK Singles Chart in March 1974. It was followed by the story song \"The Night Chicago Died\" which reached Number 3. Another release, \"The Black-Eyed Boys\", took Paper Lace to number 11 in late 1974[http://www.sonsandlovers.co.uk/PAPER%20LACE.htm \"Paper Lace\"]. [http://www.sonsandlovers.co.uk/ Sons and Lovers website], 2003. Retrieved 9 September 2006. and number 37 in Canada.\n\nWith their subject matter assumed in America to be about the American Civil War, it was logical that \"Billy Don't Be a Hero\" should become a hit in the United States; however, Bo Donaldson and the Heywoods were the first to release \"Billy\" in the United States, and Paper Lace had to be content with a #96 placing. However, the follow-up song \"The Night Chicago Died\", set in the Prohibition era with reference to Al Capone, was untroubled by any such competition and topped the Billboard Hot 100. It sold over three million copies, and was awarded a gold disc by the R.I.A.A. in August 1974. \n\nAccording to Phil Wright:\nWell, that [Chicago song] was even more successful. Number 1 in America. I got a platinum disc for that... and I certainly didn't give that away! I remember us being on Top Of The Pops and Elton John shaking my hand backstage and congratulating us on a US No.1, which he hadn't achieved at the time! The really strange thing was we couldn't even perform the song in America, due to some contractual hassles. And the label told us that they could make it a hit without us having to be there. We did a few radio stations, but that's all.\n\nThe group released two albums, First Edition (1972) and Paper Lace and Other Bits of Material (1974) however, they quickly faded from the public eye as the band's popularity waned. Philip Wright and Cliff Fish carried on as Paper Lace, with other musicians filling in for the missing band members. In 1978, they surfaced briefly with a sing-along version of \"We've Got the Whole World in Our Hands\" with their local football team, Nottingham Forest F.C. (Sendra, 2006). The 7\" single, with \"The Nottingham Forest March\" as the B-side, reached Number 24 in the UK chart but went Top 10 in the Netherlands.\n\nIn 1997, Wright joined Sons and Lovers, but he has occasional gigs billed as Philip Wright's Paper Lace.\n\nThey were the most successful band Nottingham ever produced, and were invited to perform on the Royal Variety Performance in front of the Queen Mother.\n\nOriginal Hit band members\n\n*\n* Philip Wright (born 9 April 1948, St. Ann's, Nottingham, England) — Drums / Lead Vocals\n*Mick Vaughan (born Michael Vaughan, 27 July 1950, Sheffield, Yorkshire) - Lead/Rhythm Guitar/Arranger\n*Cliff Fish (born Clifford Fish, 13 August 1949, Ripley) - Bass Guitar\n*Chris Morris (born Christoper Morris, 1 November 1954, Nottingham, England) - Guitar - Vocals\n* Carlo Paul Santanna [born 1947] guitar/lead vocals.\n\nLater band members\n\n* Chris Raynor - joined 1978 [formally Billy Fury's guitarist]\n* Jamie Moses\n* Peter Oliver, formerly of the New Seekers 1975-78\n\nDiscography\n\nAlbums\n\n*First Edition (March 1972) PHILIPS 6382 101 / reissued on CONTOUR 6870 637\n\nSide 1\n# \"In the Morning\"\n# \"Stoney End\"\n# \"Lady\"\n# \"I've Got You That's Enough For Me\"\n# \"Threw My Love Away\"\n# \"Martha (Whatever Happened)\"\n\nSide 2\n# \"Games People Play\"\n# \"Please Be My Friend\"\n# \"You Can't Touch Me\"\n# \"Elsie\"\n# \"Like a Rolling Stone\"\n# \"Early One Morning\"\n\n*And Other Bits of Material (June 1974) BUS STOP BUSLP 8001\n\nSide 1\n#\"Billy Don't Be a Hero\"\n#\"Hitchin' a Ride '74\"\n#\"I Did What I Did for Maria\"\n#\"Mary in the Morning\"\n#\"Sealed with a Kiss\"\n#\"Bye Bye Blues\"\n\nSide 2\n#\"Happy Birthday Sweet Sixteen\"\n#\"The Night Chicago Died\"\n#\"Love Song\"\n#\"Dreams Are Ten a Penny\"\n#\"Love You're a Long Time Coming\"\n#\"Cheek to Cheek\"\n\n*Paper Lace (1974, USA) Mercury SRM-1-1008\n\nSide 1\n#\"The Night Chicago Died\" – 3:30\n#\"Billy Don't Be a Hero\" – 3:55\n#\"Hitchin' a Ride '74\" – 2:45\n#\"Sealed with a Kiss\" – 3:01\n#\"Love Song\" – 4:10\n#\"Love – You're a Long Time Coming\" – 2:50\n\nSide 2\n#\"The Black–Eyed Boys\" – 3:45\n#\"Dreams Are Ten a Penny\" – 2:30\n#\"Mary in the Morning\" – 3:04\n#\"I Did What I Did for Maria\" – 3:49\n#\"Happy Birthday Sweet Sixteen\" – 3:00\n#\"Cheek to Cheek\" – 3:23\n\nSingles\n\n*\"You Can't Touch Me\" / \"I've Got You, That's Enough for Me\" (1971) Concord CON 020\n*\"In the Morning (Morning of My Life)\" / \"Elsie\" (14 January 1972) Concord CON 021\n*\"Raggamuffin Man\" / \"Martha (Whatever Happened)\" (18 May 1973) Concord CON 027\n*\"Billy Don't Be A Hero\" / \"Celia\" (11 January 1974) Bus Stop Bus 1014 (# 96 Hot 100 / US)\n*\"The Night Chicago Died\" / \"Can You Get It When You Want It\" (3 May 1974) Bus Stop Bus 1016 (# 1 for 1 week, Hot 100 / US)\n*\"The Black Eyed Boys\" / \"Jean\" (July 1974) Bus Stop Bus 1019 (# 41 Hot 100 / US)\n*\"Hitchin' A Ride '75\" / \"Love You're a Long Time Coming\" (7 February 1975) Bus Stop Bus 1024\n*\"So What If I Am\" / \"Himalayan Lullaby\" (6 June 1975) Bus Stop Bus 1026\n*\"I Think I'm Gonna Like It\" / \"Lost Love\" (23 July 1976) EMI EMI 2486\n*\"We've Got The Whole World In Our Hands\" / \"The Forrest March\" (24 February 1978) Warner Bros K 171i7\n\nCD releases\n\n*Paper Lace and Other Material / First Edition (Double CD) - Cherry Red / 7t's Label Cat No. Glam Cdd 109; both albums, plus B-sides to all singles released until 1975" ] }

{ "description": [ "Billy, Don't Be a Hero ... You Think You Are,\" can be found on the 1970s Rhino Records' compilation Super Hits of the '70s: ... The Heywoods had one more hit record, ...", "One Hit Wonders of the 70s March 5, ... Billy Don’t Be a Hero/ ... ”Which Way You Goin’ Billy? He had ONLY this one as a solo act, ...", "They scored a gold record with \"Billy, Don't Be a Hero\" in 1974.Formed ... band called \"Jigsaw\" who also had a hit in the US ... music like Billy, Shannon, and ...", "... the anti-war billy, don't be a hero was a huge hit in the US for bo donaldson and the heywoods ... blatantly bad 70s songs: billy, don’t be a hero ...", "U.K. pop group Paper Lace wrote \"Billy Don't Be A Hero\" at the tail end of the Vietnam War, but it's actually about the American Civil War. But much like M*A*S*H was ...", "Bo Donaldson & the Heywoods shot to prominence in 1974 with \"Billy, Don't Be a Hero.\" Sales that topped three million copies brought the group a gold record. The ..." ], "filename": [ "71/71_1284.txt", "94/94_1285.txt", "64/64_1286.txt", "42/42_1290.txt", "196/196_1291.txt", "192/192_1293.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 1, 2, 6, 7, 9 ], "title": [ "\"Billy, Don't Be a Hero\" - Bo Donaldson and the Heywoods", "One Hit Wonders of the 70s « K-EARTH 101", "Billy Don't be a Hero - the Data Lounge", "blatantly bad 70s songs: billy, don’t be a hero (bo ...", "8. Bo Donaldson and the Heywoods - 'Billy Don't Be A Hero ...", "Bo Donaldson on Apple Music - iTunes" ], "url": [ "http://www.superseventies.com/sw_billydontbeahero.html", "http://kearth101.cbslocal.com/2010/03/05/the-complete-and-definitive-list-of-one-hit-wonders-of-the-seventies/", "https://www.datalounge.com/thread/16766282-billy-don-t-be-a-hero", "https://wrekehavoc.wordpress.com/2008/11/24/blatantly-bad-70s-songs-billy-dont-be-a-hero-bo-donaldson-and-the-heywoods/", "http://www.rollingstone.com/music/pictures/readers-poll-the-10-worst-songs-of-the-1970s-20111019/8-bo-donaldson-and-the-heywoods-billy-dont-be-a-hero-0775699", "https://itunes.apple.com/us/artist/bo-donaldson/id3645185" ], "search_context": [ "\"Billy, Don't Be a Hero\" - Bo Donaldson and the Heywoods\n\"Billy, Don't Be a Hero\"\nBo Donaldson and the Heywoods\nABC 11435\nBillboard: #1    \n \nilly, Don't Be a Hero\" was a tale about the Civil War, composed by two British songwriters. Mitch Murray had already scored a number one single in America with Freddie and the Dreamers (\"I'm Telling You Now\") as well as hits by Gerry and the Pacemakers (\"How Do You Do It,\" \"I Like It\"). His partner Peter Callander had written for Cliff Richard, Sandie Shaw and Tom Jones, among others. After collaborating for six years, they formed their own British company in 1974, Bus Stop Records. One of the first acts signed to the label was a group from Nottingham, Paper Lace.\nCincinnati, Ohio septet Bo Donaldson and the Heywoods' May 1974 No. 1 single \"Billy, Don't Be a Hero\" was featured on their eponymous debut LP,\nBo Donaldson & The Heywoods.\nFirst charting on July 6, 1974, the album peaked at No. 97 on the\nBillboard\nHot 200 album chart, spending a total of 16 weeks on the chart. Their chart-topping hit single, along with their follow-up No. 15 hit \"Who Do You Think You Are,\" can be found on the 1970s Rhino Records' compilation\nSuper Hits of the '70s: Have a Nice Day, Vol. 13.\n(right).\nMurray and Callander had half-written a song called \"Billy Don't Be a Hero\" when Peter's wife Connie saw Paper Lace win a talent contest on the television series\nThe writers/producers were looking for a strong lead singer to record the story-song and contacted the group through the\nOpportunity Knocks\nproduction office.\nPaper Lace passed the audition, and Murray and Callander finished the song, adapting it for Paper Lace's style. Released in Britain on their own label, the single went to number one on March 16, 1974.\nWhile the song was climbing the British chart, Murray and Callendar were trying to make a deal for the song in the United States. They had already been disappointed with the reaction from Australia and New Zealand, where representatives of EMI had sent them a letter: \"You've sent us quite a few records. This is the worst one you've sent us.\"\nNegotiations dragged on in America while \"Billy, Don't Be a Hero\" closed in on the top spot in the United Kingdom. By the time Chicago-based Mercury Records bought the master, it was too late.\nProducer Steve Barri had heard the Paper Lace version when it was offered to the label he worked for, ABC Records. Certain the song could be a hit in America, ABC Records chief Jay Lasker decided to cut a cover version. \"We had signed Bo Donaldson and the Heywoods,\" Barri recalls. \"We cut it that very night and had it out two or three days later.\"\nThe Heywoods had one previous chart single, \"Special Someone,\" released on Artie Ripp's Family label in late 1972. It made an unimpressive showing at number 64. But the Heywoods, all from Cincinnati, Ohio, had built up a tremendous following from their appearances on Dick Clark's\nAction '73\ntelevision show. The group got its start after keyboards and trumpet player Bo Donaldson's mother, Bea Donaldson, went to work in Clark's Cincinnati office in August, 1966. Soon the Heywoods were touring on Clark's\nCaravan of Stars,\nas the opening act for groups like the Rascals, the Raiders and Herman's Hermits.\nBo Donaldson and the Heywoods' version of \"Billy, Don't Be a Hero\" debuted on the\nBillboard\nHot 100 on April 20, 1974, just one week ahead of Paper Lace's version. Many radio stations pitted the two records against each other on the air. Once typical competition took place at WFIL in Philadelphia, where the Heywoods won in a landslide. The program director telephoned Bo Donaldson with the results. \"He said he knew we had fans there, but he didn't realize they were crawling out of the woodwork.\"\nPaper Lace had to settle for a peak position of 96, while Bo Donaldson and the Heywoods spent two weeks at number one. The Heywoods had one more hit record, \"Who Do You Think You Are\" (number 15 in September, 1974). Paper Lace had the last laugh just two months later, with the 1940s gangster-themed tune \"The Night Chicago Died.\"\n- Fred Bronson,\nThe Billboard Book of Number One Hits,\nBillboard, 1988.", "One Hit Wonders of the 70s « K-EARTH 101\nWe were doing a little research today and got very  extremely ridiculously carried away.\nWe couldn’t stop until we came up with the definitive list of SEVENTIES “One Hit Wonders!!”\nThese were all National Top Ten Songs…by various one hit wonders…who were not ever heard from again “hit-wise” and never made it close to the top ten a second time…in a few instances, barely made it into the top 20 just one other time with a highly forgettable tune that quickly disappeared!\nSome of these tunes even hit #1!! (denoted by **)\nBTW:  Established Country Music singers who only had one top ten song on the rock/pop charts weren’t included, since they were established artists in another genre.\nSo, here they are, ALL 70’s Top Ten Hits in no particular order…print and keep this list, if you wish 🙂\nVenus/[lastfm]Shocking Blue[/lastfm]  **\nTheme From S.W.A.T./[lastfm]Rhythm Heritage[/lastfm] **\nPoetry Man/[lastfm]Phoebe Snow[/lastfm]\nHey There Lonely Girl/[lastfm]Eddie Holman[/lastfm]\nSunshine/[lastfm]Jonathan Edwards[/lastfm]\nSometimes When We Touch/[lastfm]Dan Hill[/lastfm]\nThe Rapper/[lastfm]Jaggerz[/lastfm]\nAll Right Now/[lastfm]Free[/lastfm]\nHouse of the Rising Sun/[lastfm]Frijid Pink[/lastfm]\nReflections of My Life/[lastfm]Marmalade[/lastfm]\nTighter, Tighter/[lastfm]Alive and Kicking[/lastfm]\nSweet Mary/[lastfm]Wadsworth Mansion[/lastfm]\nPut Your Hand In the Hand/[lastfm]Ocean[/lastfm]\nSmiling Faces Sometimes/[lastfm]Undisputed Truth[/lastfm]\nI’ve Found Someone of My Own/[lastfm]Free Movement[/lastfm]\nMa Belle Amie/[lastfm]Tee Set[/lastfm]\nMagic/[lastfm]Pilot[/lastfm]\nSky High/[lastfm]Jigsaw[/lastfm]\nAfternoon Delight/[lastfm]Starland Vocal Band[/lastfm] **\nConvoy/[lastfm]C.W. McCall[/lastfm] **\nJust When I Needed You Most/[lastfm]Randy Vanwarmer[/lastfm]\nStumblin’ In/[lastfm]Suzie Quatro[/lastfm]\nHeaven on the 7th Floor/[lastfm]Paul Nicholas[/lastfm]\nWildfire/[lastfm]Michael Murphy[/lastfm]\nWildflower/[lastfm]Skylark[/lastfm]\nPopcorn/[lastfm]Hot Butter[/lastfm]\nOh Babe, What Would You Say?/[lastfm]Hurricane Smith[/lastfm]\nHocus Pocus/[lastfm]Focus[/lastfm]\nPillow Talk/[lastfm]Sylvia[/lastfm]\nBilly Don’t Be a Hero/[lastfm]Bo Donaldson & the Heywoods[/lastfm]  **\nPlayground In My Mind/[lastfm]Clint Holmes[/lastfm]\nNatural High/[lastfm]Bloodstone[/lastfm]\nHeartbeat-It’s a Lovebeat/[lastfm]The DeFranco Family [/lastfm]\nSmokin’ In The Boys’ Room/[lastfm]Brownsville Station[/lastfm]\nThe Lords’ Prayer/[lastfm]Sister Janet Mead[/lastfm]\nI Can Help/[lastfm]Billy Swan[/lastfm] **\nMidnight At The Oasis/[lastfm]Maria Muldaur[/lastfm]\nBe Thankful For What You’ve Got/[lastfm]William DeVaughn[/lastfm]\nPlease Come To Boston/[lastfm]Dave Loggins[/lastfm]\nThe Night Chicago Died/[lastfm]Paper Lace[/lastfm]  **\nLife Is a Rock/[lastfm]Reunion[/lastfm]\nKung Fu Fighting/[lastfm]Carl Douglas[/lastfm]  **\nEverlasting Love/[lastfm]Carl Carlton[/lastfm]\nGet Dancin’/[lastfm]Disco Tex & the Sex-0-lettes[/lastfm]\nSammy Johns/[lastfm]Chevy Van[/lastfm]\nWalkin’ In Rhythm/[lastfm]The Blackbyrds[/lastfm]\nRockin’ Chair/[lastfm]Gwen McCrae[/lastfm]\nDynomite-Pt 1/[lastfm]Bazuka[/lastfm]\nRun Joey Run/[lastfm]David Geddes[/lastfm]\nRocky/[lastfm]Austin Roberts[/lastfm]\nJunk Food Junkie/[lastfm]Larry Gross[/lastfm]\nShannon/[lastfm]Henry Gross[/lastfm]\nThe Rapper/[lastfm]Jaggerz[/lastfm]\nHot Rod Lincoln/[lastfm]Commander Cody & his Lost Planet Airmen[/lastfm]\nGood Time Charlie’s Got the Blues/[lastfm]Danny O’Keefe[/lastfm]\nWhy Can’t We Live Together/[lastfm]Timmy Thomas[/lastfm]\nMy Maria/[lastfm]B.W. Stevenson[/lastfm]\nAmericans/[lastfm]Byron MacGregor[/lastfm]\nTubular Bells/[lastfm]Mike Oldfield[/lastfm]\nThe Entertainer/[lastfm]Marvin Hamlisch[/lastfm]\nFeelings/[lastfm]Morris Albert[/lastfm]\nLove Hurts/[lastfm]Nazareth[/lastfm]\nHappy Days/[lastfm]Pratt and McClain[/lastfm]\nGonna Fly Now (“Rocky” Theme)/[lastfm]Bill Conti[/lastfm]\nYou’re Only Lonely/[lastfm]J.D. Souther[/lastfm] (note:  he did team up later with James Taylor for “Her Town Too” which peaked at #11 but this was his only solo hit.)\nPrecious and Few/[lastfm]Climax[/lastfm] (lead singer Sonny Geraci of the “Outsiders”)\nLove Grows Where My Rosemary Goes/[lastfm]Edison Lighthouse[/lastfm]\nMore More More/[lastfm]Andrea True Connection[/lastfm]\nMisty Blue/[lastfm]Dorothy Moore[/lastfm]\nTorn Between Two Lovers/[lastfm]Mary MacGregor[/lastfm]  **\nDazz/[lastfm]Brick[/lastfm]\nCouldn’t Get It Right/[lastfm]Climax Blues Band[/lastfm]\nFloat On/[lastfm]The Floaters[/lastfm]\nThunder Island/[lastfm]Jay Ferguson[/lastfm]\nMagnet and Steel/[lastfm]Walter Egan[/lastfm]\nYou Take My Breath Away/[lastfm]Rex Smith[/lastfm]\nMakin’ It/[lastfm]David Naughton[/lastfm]\nRing My Bell/[lastfm]Anita Ward[/lastfm]  **\nPop Muzik/[lastfm]M[/lastfm]  **\nThe Rapper/[lastfm]The Jaggerz[/lastfm]\nMa Belle Amie/[lastfm]The Tee Set[/lastfm]\nGive Me Just a Little More Time/[lastfm]Chairman of the Board[/lastfm]\nVehicle/[lastfm]Ides of March[/lastfm]\nSpirit In the Sky/[lastfm]Norman Greenbaum[/lastfm]\nRide Captain Ride/[lastfm]Blues Image[/lastfm]\nOoh Child/[lastfm]Five Stairsteps[/lastfm]\nGimme Dat Ding/[lastfm]Pipkins[/lastfm]\nIn The Summertime/[lastfm]Mungo Jerry[/lastfm]\nIndiana Wants Me/[lastfm]R. Dean Taylor[/lastfm]\nMontego Bay/[lastfm]Bobby Bloom[/lastfm]\nSomebody’s Been Sleeping/[lastfm]100 Proof Aged in Soul[/lastfm]\nOne Toke Over the Line/[lastfm]Brewer and Shipley[/lastfm]\nGroove Me/[lastfm]King Floyd[/lastfm]\nStay Awhile/[lastfm]The Bells[/lastfm]\nPut Your Hand In the Hand/[lastfm]Ocean[/lastfm]\nChick-a-Boom/[lastfm]Daddy Dewdrop[/lastfm]\nMr. Big Stuff/[lastfm]Jean Knight[/lastfm]\nJoy/[lastfm]Apollo 100[/lastfm]\nBang a Gong/[lastfm]T. Rex[/lastfm]\nHow Do You Do?/[lastfm]Mouth and McNeal[/lastfm]\nRock and Roll Part 2/[lastfm]Gary Glitter[/lastfm]\nIt Never Rains In Southern California/[lastfm]Albert Hammond[/lastfm]\nJungle Fever/[lastfm]Chakachas[/lastfm]\nAlso Sprach Zarathustra/[lastfm]Deodato[/lastfm]\nDueling Bangos/[lastfm]Eric Weissberg & Steve Mandell[/lastfm]\nStuck In the Middle With You/[lastfm]Stealers Wheel[/lastfm]\nRight Place, Wrong Time/[lastfm]Dr. John[/lastfm]\nBrother Louie/[lastfm]The Stories[/lastfm] **\nEres Tu (Touch the Wind)/[lastfm]Mocedades[/lastfm]\nTubular Bells/[lastfm]Mike Oldfield[/lastfm]\nRock Your Baby/[lastfm]George McCrae [/lastfm]**\nBeach Baby/[lastfm]First Class[/lastfm]\nHang On In There Baby/[lastfm]Johnny Bristol[/lastfm]\nJackie Blue/[lastfm]Ozark Mountain Daredevils[/lastfm]\nHow Long/[lastfm]Ace[/lastfm]\nI’m Not Lisa/[lastfm]Jessie Colter[/lastfm]\nLove Won’t Let Me Wait/[lastfm]Major Harris[/lastfm]\nThe Hustle/[lastfm]Van McCoy[/lastfm] **\nLet Your Love Flow/[lastfm]Bellamy Brothers[/lastfm] **\nFooled Around and Fell In Love/[lastfm]Elvin Bishop[/lastfm]\nTurn The Beat Around/[lastfm]Vicki Sue Robinson[/lastfm]\nPlay That Funky Music/[lastfm]Wild Cherry[/lastfm] **\nA Fifth of Beethoven/[lastfm]Walter Murphy & the Big Apple Band[/lastfm] **\nDisco Duck/[lastfm]Rick Dees[/lastfm] **\nNadia’s Theme/[lastfm]Barry DeVorzon[/lastfm]\nTryin’ To Love Two/[lastfm]William Bell[/lastfm]\nAngel In Your Arms/[lastfm]Hot[/lastfm]\nUndercover Angel/[lastfm]Alan O’Day[/lastfm] **\nDo You Wanna Make Love/[lastfm]Peter McCann[/lastfm]\nYou Light Up My Life/[lastfm]Debbie Boone[/lastfm]  ** (see below)\nBack In Love Again/[lastfm]L.T.D.[/lastfm]\nEmotion/[lastfm]Samantha Sang[/lastfm]\nShort People/[lastfm]Randy Newman[/lastfm]\nKiss You All Over/[lastfm]Exile[/lastfm] **\nLove Is In the Air/[lastfm]John Paul Young[/lastfm]\nHot Child In the City/[lastfm]Nick Gilder[/lastfm] **\nGet Off/[lastfm]Foxy[/lastfm]\nI Love the Nightlife/[lastfm]Alicia Bridges[/lastfm]\nLotta Love/[lastfm]Nicolette Larson[/lastfm]\nWhat You Won’t Do For Love/[lastfm]Bobby Caldwell[/lastfm]\nKnock on Wood/[lastfm]Amii Stewart[/lastfm] **\nMusic Box Dancer/[lastfm]Frank Mills[/lastfm]\nChuck E.’s in Love/[lastfm]Rickie Lee Jones[/lastfm]\nGold/[lastfm]John Stewart[/lastfm]\nThe Night The Lights Went Out In Georgia/[lastfm]Vicki Lawrence[/lastfm] **\nRock the Boat/[lastfm]The Hues Corporation[/lastfm]  **\nLovin’ You/[lastfm]Minnie Riperton[/lastfm]  **\nTheme From S.W.A.T./[lastfm]Rhythm Heritage[/lastfm]  **\nStar Wars Theme/[lastfm]Meco[/lastfm] **\nI Was Made For Dancin’/[lastfm]Leif Garrett[/lastfm]\nSeasons In the Sun/[lastfm]Terry Jacks[/lastfm] **  (however, he did have another top 10 hit in the 70’s as a member of the Poppy Family with wife Susan…”Which Way You Goin’ Billy?  He had ONLY this one as a solo act, so we’re including him.)\nDon’t Give Up On Us Baby/[lastfm]David Soul[/lastfm] **  Oh, and we can’t forget Run Joey Run/David Geddes and, just added:  Smoke From a Distant Fire/Sanford/Townsend Band\nnote:  Debbie Boone (Pat’s daughter) was the Seventies “One Hit Wonder” queen…”You Light Up My Life” was #1 for an incredible 10 weeks and won the Song of the Year GRAMMY and an OSCAR for “Best Song!!!”  She had two other songs after this, but they didn’t even make the national Top 40!\nSo, if you think we may have missed one or two, let us know in “comments”…..", "Billy Don't be a Hero\nBilly Don't be a Hero\nMike Gibbons (1945 - 2016)\nMusician. Best known as the lead vocalist for the music ensemble \"Bo Donaldson and the Heywoods\". They scored a gold record with \"Billy, Don't Be a Hero\" in 1974.\nFormed by Donaldson during his high school years, the group under the influence of \"The British Invasion\" bands initially covered songs by The Beatles and Rolling Stones. They performed at school dances and other functions which led to local radio airplay in Cincinnati.\nDuring the mid 1960s, they opened for such acts as \"The Rascals\" and \"Paul Revere and the Raiders\". They gained national attention with an appearance on \"American Bandstand\" and landed their own record deal while serving as an opening act for \"The Osmonds\" during the early 1970s.\nIn 1972, they recorded their debut album \"Someone Special\" and followed this with their 1974 self-titled record. The later included the number one hit \"Billy Don't Be a Hero\", in addition to the Top-20 song \"Who Do You Think You Are\". Their final Top-40 charting single was \"The Heartbreak Kid\" (1974). Gibbons remained an active performer in his later years.\nby Anonymous", "blatantly bad 70s songs: billy, don’t be a hero (bo donaldson and the heywoods) | wrekehavoc.com\nblatantly bad 70s songs: billy, don’t be a hero (bo donaldson and the heywoods)\nbilly, don’t be a hero. be a hoagie instead.\nin 1974, the anti-war billy, don’t be a hero was a huge hit in the US for bo donaldson and the heywoods . strange, considering the song had been a monster hit in the UK earlier for the band paper lace , whose version didn’t chart well here. (don’t cry for them, argentina. they later gave us the ear-bleeder the night chicago died , a song i’d write novels about if november had more than 30 days. lord, that one sucks worse.) i think they had another minor hit, and then, bo went buh-bye!\nfor a time, every sunday (or so it seemed), we would pile into the car at dinner and meet our friends, the weiners, at Sizzler in Brick (or Bricktown, or Brick Township — no one ever knew what the place was really called; my old biology teacher, who drove through there every day on his way to school merely referred to it as land of the free and home of the truck driver. may he rest in peace.) i really hated sizzler — i don’t care for steak, so i pretty much was relegated to the salad bar and the texas toast. but i loved having dinner with these folks — there was my BTD’s best friend as well as his younger brother, who was a year older than i. so there i was with two 15 year old guys, a 12 year old, and an 11 year old. (nevermind that two of those boys were my brothers, BTD and the now-dubbed middlebro, so they didn’t count as guys.)\nsometimes, they’d even talk to 9-year-old moi.\none time, we went back to the weiner’s house. for reasons i cannot fathom, i recall all of us kids in the older son’s room, listening to the single of billy don’t be a hero, and lip synching the whole thing. i remember we had to organize ourselves into parts (i suspect BTD was behind that) — who was singing, who was playing guitar.  because i had taken up the flute, i was the person who played that flute-y-fife-y part that runs through the song, over and over, like a demented pennywhistle. and oh! i felt special. they. were. talking. to. me.\nlater, i’d thank them by eavesdropping on their conversation when the oldest son came and slept over with BTD. [note to all 9 year old little siblings out there: don’t eavesdrop by leaning into the bedroom door. it’s probably not closed, and when you fall in, there will be hell to pay. promise.]\nmiddlebro seems to remember us seeing bo donaldson and the heywoods perform this at disneyworld. maybe he’ll chime in on the comments, as i don’t somehow remember that.\ni suspect i’ve blocked it out.\nLike this:", "8. Bo Donaldson and the Heywoods - 'Billy Don't Be A Hero' | Readers' Poll: The 10 Worst Songs of the 1970s | Rolling Stone\nReaders' Poll: The 10 Worst Songs of the 1970s\nDonald Trump's Inauguration: By the Numbers\nReaders' Poll: The 10 Worst Songs of the 1970s\nYou chose to include 'Billy Don't Be A Hero,' 'Disco Duck,' 'You Light Up My Life' and more\nOctober 19, 2011\nAll Stories\n8. Bo Donaldson and the Heywoods - 'Billy Don't Be A Hero'\nU.K. pop group Paper Lace wrote \"Billy Don't Be A Hero\" at the tail end of the Vietnam War, but it's actually about the American Civil War. But much like M*A*S*H was about the Korean War but really about Vietnam, people will forever associate \"Billy Don't Be A Hero\" with Vietnam. They'll also associate it with insipid 1970s drivel. Paper Lace were planning on releasing the song in America, but Bo Donaldson and the Heywoods beat them to it. It was their only hit.", "Bo Donaldson on Apple Music\nTo preview a song, mouse over the title and click Play. Open iTunes to buy and download music.\nBiography\nBo Donaldson & the Heywoods shot to prominence in 1974 with \"Billy, Don't Be a Hero.\" Sales that topped three million copies brought the group a gold record. The single spent two weeks in the top spot on the charts. The number one single was the band's greatest success, but it didn't mark the first time that the group charted. Bo Donaldson & the Heywoods made a showing on the charts with \"Someone Special\" in 1972 and \"Deeper and Deeper\" the following year. The band was ten years old when \"Billy, Don't Be a Hero\" made such a splash, and it had already performed as the opening act for such artists as Herman's Hermits, the Box Tops, the Osmond Brothers, the Rascals, the Grass Roots, and Paul Revere & the Raiders. The group also performed on American Bandstand. After \"Billy, Don't Be a Hero,\" the band took \"Who Do You Think You Are\" into the Top 20. \"The Heartbreak Kid\" followed, reaching the Top 40. The group charted again with \"House on Telegraph Hill\" and \"Our Last Song Together.\" Donaldson, whose real name is Robert Walter Donaldson, sang and played keyboard and the trumpet. The group also included lead vocalist James Michael Gibbons on bass and trumpet; lead vocalist Richard Leon Joswick on percussion; Gary James Coveyou on vocals, woodwinds, and reeds; David Alan Krock on vocals, trumpet, and bass; Richard Brunetti on vocals, percussion, and drums; and Earl Baker Scott on vocals and guitar. Danny Loveland, a co-vocalist on the Heywoods' number one single, dropped out in 1975 to pursue a solo career and record \"Black Is Black.\" Originally a drummer, Loveland began singing because the group kept losing its lead singers. When he gave up singing, the Kansas native launched a disco that he named Backstage. He went on to establish a restaurant in Bangkok, Thailand. ~ Linda Seida\nTop Albums" ] }

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{ "description": [ "The Discovery of Insulin . Before the discovery of insulin, ... Banting and Best showed their result to Macleod, who was impressed ...", "Banting and Best isolate insulin ... Banting and his assistant Charles Best began their experiments. By August they had the first conclusive results: ...", "Frederick Banting (1891-1941) and Charles Best ... Canadian doctor Frederick Banting and American biomedical scientist Charles Best co-discovered insulin in 1921.", "Frederick Grant Banting, Charles Herbert Best, ... Banting and Best began to study diabetes through an experimental combination of duct ligation, ...", "In acknowledgment of Best's work, Banting gave him a share of his portion of the Nobel Prize. The American Heritage® Science Dictionary Copyright © 2002.", "... and in 1923 he was elected to the Banting and Best Chair of Medical Research, which had ... Frederick G. Banting died on February 21, 1941.", "There is still no cure for diabetes but if it hadn't been for the work of Frederick Banting and Charles Best, ... was a compassionate surgeon who pioneered work in ...", "Insulin: Discovery and Controversy. ... Banting, Best, ... lipotropic effects of the dietary factor choline and pioneered in the isolation and ..." ], "filename": [ "90/90_1331.txt", "75/75_1332.txt", "119/119_1334.txt", "67/67_1335.txt", "137/137_1336.txt", "170/170_1337.txt", "133/133_1339.txt", "54/54_1340.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9 ], "title": [ "The Discovery of Insulin - Nobel Prize", "Banting and Best isolate insulin - PBS", "Frederick Banting (1891-1941) and Charles Best (1899-1978)", "Frederick Grant Banting, Charles Herbert Best, James ...", "Banting | Define Banting at Dictionary.com", "Frederick G. Banting - Biographical", "The My Hero Project - Frederick Banting", "Insulin: Discovery and Controversy - Clinical Chemistry" ], "url": [ "http://www.nobelprize.org/educational/medicine/insulin/discovery-insulin.html", "http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/dm22in.html", "http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/people/frederickbanting", "http://www.chemheritage.org/discover/online-resources/chemistry-in-history/themes/pharmaceuticals/restoring-and-regulating-the-bodys-biochemistry/banting--best--collip--macleod.aspx", "http://www.dictionary.com/browse/banting", "http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1923/banting-bio.html", "http://myhero.com/hero.asp?hero=Banting", "http://www.clinchem.org/content/48/12/2270.full" ], "search_context": [ "The Discovery of Insulin\nThe Discovery of Insulin\n \nBefore the discovery of insulin, diabetes was a feared disease that most certainly led to death. Doctors knew that sugar worsened the condition of diabetic patients and that the most effective treatment was to put the patients on very strict diets where sugar intake was kept to a minimum. At best, this treatment could buy patients a few extra years, but it never saved them. In some cases, the harsh diets even caused patients to die of starvation.\nDuring the nineteenth century, observations of patients who died of diabetes often showed that the pancreas was damaged. In 1869, a German medical student, Paul Langerhans, found that within the pancreatic tissue that produces digestive juices there were clusters of cells whose function was unknown. Some of these cells were eventually shown to be the insulin-producing beta cells. Later, in honor of the person who discovered them, the cell clusters were named the islets of Langerhans.\nIn 1889 in Germany, physiologist Oskar Minkowski and physician Joseph von Mering, showed that if the pancreas was removed from a dog, the animal got diabetes. But if the duct through which the pancreatic juices flow to the intestine was ligated - surgically tied off so the juices couldn't reach the intestine - the dog developed minor digestive problems but no diabetes. So it seemed that the pancreas must have at least two functions:\nTo produce digestive juices\nTo produce a substance that regulates the sugar glucose\nThis hypothetical internal secretion was the key. If a substance could actually be isolated, the mystery of diabetes would be solved. Progress, however, was slow.\n \nBanting's Idea\nIn October 1920 in Toronto, Canada, Dr. Frederick Banting, an unknown surgeon with a bachelor's degree in medicine, had the idea that the pancreatic digestive juices could be harmful to the secretion of the pancreas produced by the islets of Langerhans.\nHe therefore wanted to ligate the pancreatic ducts in order to stop the flow of nourishment to the pancreas. This would cause the pancreas to degenerate, making it shrink and lose its ability to secrete the digestive juices. The cells thought to produce an antidiabetic secretion could then be extracted from the pancreas without being harmed.\nEarly in 1921, Banting took his idea to Professor John Macleod at the University of Toronto, who was a leading figure in the study of diabetes in Canada. Macleod didn't think much of Banting's theories. Despite this, Banting managed to convince him that his idea was worth trying. Macleod gave Banting a laboratory with a minimum of equipment and ten dogs. Banting also got an assistant, a medical student by the name of Charles Best. The experiment was set to start in the summer of 1921.\nBanting, right, and Best, left, with one of the diabetic dogs used in experiments with insulin.\nCredits: University of Toronto Archives\n \nThe Experiment Begins\nBanting and Best began their experiments by removing the pancreas from a dog. This resulted in the following:\nIt's blood sugar rose.\nIt became thirsty, drank lots of water, and urinated more often.\nIt became weaker and weaker.\nThe dog had developed diabetes.\nExperimenting on another dog, Banting and Best surgically ligated the pancreas, stopping the flow of nourishment, so that the pancreas degenerated.\nAfter a while, they removed the pancreas, sliced it up, and froze the pieces in a mixture of water and salts. When the pieces were half frozen, they were ground up and filtered. The isolated substance was named \"isletin.\"\nThe extract was injected into the diabetic dog. Its blood glucose level dropped, and it seemed healthier and stronger. By giving the diabetic dog a few injections a day, Banting and Best could keep it healthy and free of symptoms.\nBanting and Best showed their result to Macleod, who was impressed, but he wanted more tests to prove that their pancreatic extract really worked.\nBanting's and Best's laboratory, where insulin was discovered.\nCredits: University of Toronto Archives\n \nExtended Tests\n \nFor the increased testing, Banting and Best realized that they required a larger supply of organs than their dogs could provide, and they started using pancreases from cattle. With this new source, they managed to produce enough extract to keep several diabetic dogs alive.\nThe new results convinced Macleod that they were onto something big. He gave them more funds and moved them to a better laboratory with proper working conditions. He also suggested they should call their extract \"insulin.\" Now, the work proceeded rapidly.\nIn late 1921, a third person, biochemist Bertram Collip, joined the team. Collip was given the task of trying to purify the insulin so that it would be clean enough for testing on humans.\nDuring the intensified testing, the team also realized that the process of shrinking the pancreases had been unnecessary. Using whole fresh pancreases from adult animals worked just as well.\n \nTesting on Humans\nThe team was eager to start testing on humans. But on whom should they test? Banting and Best began by injecting themselves with the extract. They felt weak and dizzy, but they were not harmed.\nCollip continued his work to purify the insulin. He also experimented with trying to find the correct dosage. He learned how to diminish the effect of an insulin overdose with glucose in different forms. He discovered that the glucose should be as pure as possible. Orange juice and honey are good examples of foods rich in glucose.\nIn January 1922 in Toronto, Canada, a 14-year-old boy, Leonard Thompson, was chosen as the first person with diabetes to receive insulin. The test was a success. Leonard, who before the insulin shots was near death, rapidly regained his strength and appetite. The team now expanded their testing to other volunteer diabetics, who reacted just as positively as Leonard to the insulin extract.\n \nThe Nobel Prize\nThe news of the successful treatment of diabetes with insulin rapidly spread outside of Toronto, and in 1923 the Nobel Committee decided to award Banting and Macleod the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.\nThe decision of the Nobel Committee made Banting furious. He felt that the prize should have been shared between him and Best, and not between him and Macleod. To give credit to Best, Banting decided to share his cash award with him. Macleod, in turn, shared his cash award with Collip.\nThe Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for insulin has been much debated. It has been questioned why Macleod received the prize instead of Best and Collip. However, Macleod played a central role in the discovery of insulin. It was he who supported the project from the beginning. He supervised the work and it is also most likely that Macleod's contacts in the scientific world helped the team in getting a speedy recognition of their discovery.\nFrederick G. Banting and John Macleod were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1923 \"for the discovery of insulin.\"\n \nThe Legacy of Insulin\nBanting, Macleod, and the rest of the team patented their insulin extract but gave away all their rights to the University of Toronto, which would later use the income from insulin to fund new research.\nVery soon after the discovery of insulin, the medical firm Eli Lilly started large-scale production of the extract. As soon as 1923, the firm was producing enough insulin to supply the entire North American continent.\nAlthough insulin doesn't cure diabetes, it's one of the biggest discoveries in medicine. When it came, it was like a miracle. People with severe diabetes and only days left to live were saved. And as long as they kept getting their insulin, they could live an almost normal life.", "A Science Odyssey: People and Discoveries: Banting and Best isolate insulin\nBanting and Best isolate insulin\n1922\nPhoto: In this lab, Banting and Best carried out early experiments which led to the discovery of insulin.\nIn 1920, Canadian surgeon Frederick Banting visited the University of Toronto to speak to the newly appointed head of the department of physiology, John J.R. Macleod. Macleod had studied glucose metabolism and diabetes, and Banting had a new idea on how to find not only the cause but a treatment for the so-called \"sugar disease.\"\nLate in the nineteenth century, scientists had realized there was a connection between the pancreas and diabetes. The connection was further narrowed down to the islets of Langerhans, a part of the pancreas. From 1910 to 1920, Oscar Minkowski and others tried unsuccessfully to find and extract the active ingredient from the islets of Langerhans. While reading a paper on the subject in 1920, Banting had an inspiration. He realized that the pancreas' digestive juice was destroying the islets of Langerhans hormone before it could be isolated. If he could stop the pancreas from working, but keep the islets of Langerhans going, he should be able to find the stuff! He presented this idea to Macleod, who at first scoffed at it. Banting badgered him until finally Macleod gave him lab space, 10 experimental dogs, and a medical student assistant.\nIn May, 1921, as Macleod took off for a holiday in his native Scotland, Banting and his assistant Charles Best began their experiments. By August they had the first conclusive results: when they gave the material extracted from the islets of Langerhans (called \"insulin,\" from the Latin for \"island\") to diabetic dogs, their abnormally high blood sugars were lowered. Macleod, back from holiday, was still skeptical of the results and asked them to repeat the experiment several more times. They did, finding the results the same, but with problems due to the varying purity of their insulin extract.\nMacleod assigned chemist James Bertram Collip to the group to help with the purification. Within six weeks, he felt confident enough of the insulin he had isolated to try it on a human for the first time: a 14-year-old boy dying of diabetes. The injection indeed lowered his blood sugar and cleared his urine of sugars and other signs of the disease. Banting and Best published the first paper on their discovery a month later, in February, 1922. In 1923, the Nobel Prize was awarded to Banting and Macleod for the discovery, and each shared their portion of the prize money with the other researchers on the project.\nIronically, Banting's original idea wasn't entirely correct. He and Best later found they could obtain insulin even from an intact pancreas. Improved technology for testing and detecting sugar in the blood and urine provided information that earlier researchers didn't have, and this encouraged them to pursue a line of thinking that may have looked like a dead end to those working in the decades before them.\nThe discovery of insulin was one of the most revolutionary moments in medicine. Though it took some time to work out proper dosages and to develop manufacturing processes to make enough insulin of consistent strength and purity, the introduction of insulin seemed literally like a miracle. One year the disease was an automatic death sentence; the next, people -- even children -- had hopes of living full and productive lives even with the disease. Estimates show there are more than 15 million diabetics living today who would have died at an early age without insulin.\nRelated Features", "Frederick Banting (1891-1941) and Charles Best (1899-1978)\nSelect from the menus below to find out more about a particular person.\nFrederick Banting (1891-1941) and Charles Best (1899-1978)\nAdd image to my collection\nCanadian doctor Frederick Banting and American biomedical scientist Charles Best co-discovered  insulin in 1921. This is a life-saving treatment for diabetes .\nBanting became interested in diabetes when working at the University of Western Ontario. In the early 1920s doctors hypothesised that lack of insulin , a hormone made in the pancreas, caused the illness. However, insulin had proved impossible to extract from the pancreas.\nBanting got an idea of how to extract insulin from a medical journal article, but he needed  laboratory facilities for further investigations. He convinced John Macleod, Professor of  Physiology at the University of Toronto, to let him use a laboratory to conduct his research. Macleod appointed Charles Best, a biomedical science student, as Banting’s assistant.\nBanting and Best performed pancreas  experiments on dogs to measure sugar in their urine and blood. Over a summer they extracted the first antidiabetic substance. In January 1922 a diabetic teenager called  Leonard Thompson was the first person to receive an insulin injection.\nBanting and Best received many awards for their discovery. However, only Banting and Macleod received the  Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1923. In protest, Banting shared half his award money with Best. In 1929, Best succeeded Macleod as Professor of  Physiology at the University of Toronto. Banting was killed in an air disaster in Newfoundland in 1941.", "Frederick Banting, Charles Best, James Collip, and John Macleod | Chemical Heritage Foundation\nFrederick Banting, Charles Best, James Collip, and John Macleod\nThese four Toronto researchers discovered and purified insulin, creating a new and effective treatment for diabetes.\nHome / Learn / Historical Biographies\nIn the early 1920s Frederick Banting and Charles Best discovered insulin under the directorship of John Macleod at the University of Toronto. With the help of James Collip insulin was purified, making it available for the successful treatment of diabetes. Banting and Macleod earned a Nobel Prize for their work in 1923.\nAt the turn of the 20th century a strict low-calorie, no-carbohydrate diet was the only effective treatment for diabetes. But this method, with food intake sometimes as low as 500 calories per day, had its consequences, as slow starvation, like diabetes, drained patients of their strength and energy, leaving them semi-invalids. The diet treatment also required an inordinate amount of willpower on the part of the patient, very few of whom were able to maintain low-calorie diets over the long term. In 1921 researchers at the University of Toronto began a series of experiments that would ultimately lead to the isolation and commercial production of insulin—a pancreatic hormone essential for metabolizing carbohydrates—and the successful treatment of diabetes.\nSetting the Stage for the Discovery of Insulin\nThe connection between pancreatic secretions and diabetes was first shown in 1889 by two German physiologists at the University of Strasbourg, Oskar Minkowski and Joseph von Mering. While investigating the effect of pancreatic secretions on the metabolism of fat, they performed a complete pancreatectomy on a laboratory dog, only to discover that the animal developed a disease indistinguishable from diabetes. Twenty years earlier a German medical student, Paul Langerhans, had discovered two systems of cells in the pancreas: the acini, which he knew produced the pancreatic digestive secretions, and another system whose function was unknown to him. These cells looked to Langerhans like tiny clusters of cells, or islands, floating among the acini. In 1901 Eugene Opie, an American pathologist at Johns Hopkins University, made the association between the degeneration of these cells, which had been named the “islets of Langerhans,” and the onset of diabetes. Through the experimental efforts of these and many other researchers, the stage was set for the discovery of insulin—the hormonal antidiabetic secretion of the islets of Langerhans—in the first decades of the 20th century.\nFrederick Banting\nIn 1920 Frederick Grant Banting (1891–1941) was a surgeon in a floundering practice in London, Ontario, Canada. The youngest son of Methodist farmers from Alliston, Ontario, Banting almost entered the Methodist ministry but decided at the last moment that his calling lay in medicine. World War I shortened his five-year medical course at the University of Toronto: his class did its entire fifth year during the summer of 1916 and, upon receiving their hasty degrees, went off to war. Banting served as a battalion medical officer in the Canadian Army Medical Corps; he returned to Toronto in 1919 after having been wounded in the arm by shrapnel. He trained as a surgeon at the Hospital of Sick Children in Toronto, then decided to open a small practice as a surgeon in London, Ontario. Unfortunately, his earnings from his practice were meager, forcing him to take a position as a demonstrator in the local medical school. It was in this capacity that Banting was preparing a lecture about the function of the pancreas on October 30, 1920. He stopped at the medical school library, where he picked up the latest issue of Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics, and read an article titled “The Relation of the Islets of Langerhans to Diabetes, with Special Reference to Cases of Pancreatic Lithiasis.”\nBanting Approaches John Macleod\nWhile thinking about pancreatic secretions after reading the article, Banting jotted down an idea for a preliminary experiment to further investigate the relationship between pancreatic secretions and diabetes. On November 7, following the advice of a colleague, Banting brought his idea to the attention of John James Rickard Macleod (1876–1935), a Scottish physiologist and expert in carbohydrate metabolism at his alma mater, the University of Toronto.\nJohn Macleod in 1923. \nCourtesy the C. H. Best Papers, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto.\nMacleod, the son of a minister, received his medical training at the University of Aberdeen and his biochemical training at the University of Leipzig. In 1903 Macleod emigrated to the United States to take a position as professor of physiology at Western Reserve University (now Case Western Reserve University) in Cleveland, Ohio. After 15 years at Western, Macleod accepted a professorship at the University of Toronto, where he conducted research on respiration.\nEarlier in his career Macleod had published a series of papers on glycosuria, or the presence of sugar in the urine (a common indication of diabetes). As a scientist familiar with the literature on the subject, he was unimpressed with Banting’s range of knowledge about diabetes and the pancreas and skeptical about the soundness of Banting’s idea. However, Macleod decided to give him lab space, an assistant, and some laboratory dogs for two months at the end of the academic year.\nExperiments Commence\nBanting and his assistant, Charles Herbert Best (1899–1978), began their experiments in May 1921. Best, the American son of Canadian parents, had just finished his bachelor’s degree in physiology and biochemistry at the University of Toronto and had been hired as a research assistant to Macleod, his former teacher. Macleod assigned him to Banting, and the 29-year-old surgeon and the 22-year-old assistant began their work together.\nFrederick Banting and Charles Best on the roof of the University of Toronto’s Medical Building in 1922. Dogs were used as experimental subjects in the insulin tests.\nCourtesy the F. G. Banting Papers, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto.\nA combination of timing and good luck enabled the Toronto researchers to be the first to announce the discovery of insulin. Scientists in Germany and Hungary had come very close to finding pure insulin, but lack of funding and the devastation of World War I halted their progress. Following in the footsteps of earlier researchers, Banting and Best began to study diabetes through an experimental combination of duct ligation, which involved tying off the pancreatic duct to the small intestine, and pancreatectomies, or the complete surgical removal of the pancreas. Duct ligation served to atrophy the acini cells that produced the digestive secretions, leaving behind only the cells of the islets of Langerhans. Duct-ligated dogs, it was discovered, did not develop diabetes. Pancreatectomy was the method of inducing diabetes: when all pancreatic tissue was removed, the experimental dogs immediately showed signs of glycosuria.\nBanting’s idea of October 30 involved ligation of the pancreatic ducts of a dog and the extraction and isolation of whatever secretions were produced after the atrophy of the acini cells. He and Best began this experiment, only to find that it was difficult to keep duct-ligated, depancreatized dogs alive long enough to carry out any tests. After a summer of many setbacks and failures, however, the team reported in the fall that they were keeping a severely diabetic dog alive with injections of an extract made from duct-ligated pancreas and prepared, following Macleod’s instructions, in saline. Amazingly, this extract dramatically lowered the blood sugar levels of diabetic experimental dogs.\nFindings Are Presented and Tensions Begin\nOn December 30, 1921, Macleod, Banting, and Best presented their findings at the conference of the American Physiological Society, at Yale University. Banting, out of nervousness and inexperience, did a poor job delivering the paper, and the audience was highly critical of the findings presented. Macleod, as the chair of the session, joined the discussion in an attempt to rescue Banting from the scathing commentary. After this fiasco Banting became convinced that Macleod had stepped in to steal the credit from him and Best, and relations between the two began to deteriorate.\nPurifying Insulin and the First Human Tests\nAt the end of 1921 Macleod invited James Bertram Collip (1892–1965), a biochemist in the department of physiology at the University of Toronto, to help Banting and Best with purifying their extract. Collip, another University of Toronto graduate, was on sabbatical from the University of Alberta and, supported by a fellowship, had returned to his alma mater. As the experimental pace quickened, Banting and Best needed large amounts of their extract, and Collip set to work purifying the extract for clinical testing in humans.\nJames Collip as a graduate student, ca. 1914.\nCourtesy the J. B. Collip Papers, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto.\nThe first clinical tests on a human patient were conducted on a severely diabetic 14-year-old boy. Although the injections of the extract failed to have resoundingly beneficial effects, the Toronto team continued to experiment. A short while later Collip made a breakthrough in purifying the extract, using alcohol in slightly over 90 percent concentration to precipitate out the active ingredient (insulin). At the same time, though, personal tension was mounting among the four scientists, as Banting became increasingly bitter toward Macleod and pitted himself and Best against Collip in the race to purify the extract. At the end of January, Collip came to Banting and Best’s lab and informed the two that although he had discovered a method to produce pure extract, he would share it only with Macleod. It was only Best’s quick restraint that stopped Banting from attacking Collip. Fortunately for the future of insulin an uneasy agreement made a few days later allowed them to continue to work together. On May 3, 1922, Macleod, representing the group, announced to the international medical community at a meeting of the Association of American Physicians that they had discovered “insulin”—the antidiabetic agent.\nNobel Prize\nBanting and Macleod received the 1923 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of insulin. That the Nobel committee chose only Banting and Macleod for the award caused more animosity. Banting, outraged that Macleod was chosen to share the prize with him, immediately announced that he would split his winnings with Best. Macleod, perhaps in reaction to Banting’s gesture, announced that he, too, would be splitting his award, with Collip. By the end of 1923 insulin had been in commercial production for a year at the Eli Lilly and Company laboratories in Indianapolis. Diabetic patients who received insulin shots recovered from comas, resumed eating carbohydrates (in moderation), and realized they had been given a new lease on life.\nThe information contained in this biography was last updated on August 3, 2015.\nSaveSave\nTaking Control\nDistillations Magazine\nInsulin was first used to treat diabetes in the 1920s. Since then doctors have used a multitude of tests to screen for the disease.\nAdditional Resources", "Banting | Define Banting at Dictionary.com\nBanting\nnoun\n1.\nSir Frederick Grant, 1891–1941, Canadian physician: one of the discoverers of insulin; Nobel Prize 1923.\n2.\nverb (used without object), Medicine/Medical.\n1.\nto lose weight by practicing Bantingism.\nOrigin of bant\n1860-65; back formation from Banting\nbanteng\nnoun, plural bantengs (especially collectively) banting.\n1.\na wild ox, Bos banteng (javanicus), of southeastern Asia and the Malay Archipelago, resembling the domestic cow: now greatly reduced in number.\nExpand\n[bahn-ting] /ˈbɑn tɪŋ/ (Show IPA).\nOrigin\n< Indonesian Malay banténg < Javanese banṭéng\nDictionary.com Unabridged\nExamples from the Web for Banting\nExpand\nDietetics for Nurses Fairfax T. Proudfit\nI'd Banting you, and fit you to run without puffing, and get on without four or five meals a day.\nJo's Boys Louisa May Alcott\nBritish Dictionary definitions for Banting\nExpand\n(obsolete) slimming by avoiding eating sugar, starch, and fat\nWord Origin\nC19: named after William Banting (1797–1878), London undertaker who popularized this diet\nBanting\nnoun\n1.\nSir Frederick Grant. 1891–1941, Canadian physiologist: discovered the insulin treatment for diabetes with Best and Macleod (1922) and shared the Nobel prize for physiology or medicine with Macleod (1923)\nbant\nstrength or springiness of material\nWord Origin\nprobably a dialect pronunciation of band²\nCollins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition\n© William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins\nPublishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012\nWord Origin and History for Banting\nExpand\nn.\nsystem for weight loss through diet control, named for William Banting (1797-1878), English undertaker who invented it, tested it himself, and promoted it in his 1863 booklet \"Letter on Corpulence, Addressed to the Public.\" Although the word is a surname, it was used like a verbal noun in -ing. (\"She is banting\").\nOnline Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper", "Frederick G. Banting - Biographical\nFrederick G. Banting\nThe Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1923\nFrederick G. Banting, John Macleod\nShare this:\nFrederick G. Banting - Biographical\nFrederick Grant Banting was born on November 14, 1891, at Alliston, Ont., Canada. He was the youngest of five children of William Thompson Banting and Margaret Grant. Educated at the Public and High Schools at Alliston, he later went to the University of Toronto to study divinity, but soon transferred to the study of medicine. In 1916 he took his M.B. degree and at once joined the Canadian Army Medical Corps, and served, during the First World War, in France. In 1918 he was wounded at the battle of Cambrai and in 1919 he was awarded the Military Cross for heroism under fire.\nWhen the war ended in 1919, Banting returned to Canada and was for a short time a medical practitioner at London, Ontario. He studied orthopaedic medicine and was, during the year 1919-1920, Resident Surgeon at the Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto. From 1920 until 1921 he did part-time teaching in orthopaedics at the University of Western Ontario at London, Canada, besides his general practice, and from 1921 until 1922 he was Lecturer in Pharmacology at the University of Toronto. In 1922 he was awarded his M.D. degree, together with a gold medal.\nEarlier, however, Banting had become deeply interested in diabetes. The work of Naunyn, Minkowski, Opie, Schafer, and others had indicated that diabetes was caused by lack of a protein hormone secreted by the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. To this hormone Schafer had given the name insulin, and it was supposed that insulin controls the metabolism of sugar, so that lack of it results in the accumulation of sugar in the blood and the excretion of the excess of sugar in the urine. Attempts to supply the missing insulin by feeding patients with fresh pancreas, or extracts of it, had failed, presumably because the protein insulin in these had been destroyed by the proteolytic enzyme of the pancreas. The problem, therefore, was how to extract insulin from the pancreas before it had been thus destroyed.\nWhile he was considering this problem, Banting read in a medical journal an article by Moses Baron, which pointed out that, when the pancreatic duct was experimentally closed by ligatures, the cells of the pancreas which secrete trypsin degenerate, but that the islets of Langerhans remain intact. This suggested to Banting the idea that ligation of the pancreatic duct would, by destroying the cells which secrete trypsin, avoid the destruction of the insulin, so that, after sufficient time had been allowed for the degeneration of the trypsin-secreting cells, insulin might be extracted from the intact islets of Langerhans.\nDetermined to investigate this possibility, Banting discussed it with various people, among whom was J.J.R. Macleod , Professor of Physiology at the University of Toronto, and Macleod gave him facilities for experimental work upon it. Dr. Charles Best, then a medical student, was appointed as Banting's assistant, and together, Banting and Best started the work which was to lead to the discovery of insulin.\nIn 1922 Banting had been appointed Senior Demonstrator in Medicine at the University of Toronto, and in 1923 he was elected to the Banting and Best Chair of Medical Research, which had been endowed by the Legislature of the Province of Ontario. He was also appointed Honorary Consulting Physician to the Toronto General Hospital, the Hospital for Sick Children, and the Toronto Western Hospital. In the Banting and Best Institute, Banting dealt with the problems of silicosis, cancer, the mechanism of drowning and how to counteract it. During the Second World War he became greatly interested in problems connected with flying (such as blackout).\nIn addition to his medical degree, Banting also obtained, in 1923, the LL.D. degree (Queens) and the D.Sc. degree (Toronto). Prior to the award of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for 1923, which he shared with Macleod, he received the Reeve Prize of the University of Toronto (1922). In 1923, the Canadian Parliament granted him a Life Annuity of $7,500. In 1928 Banting gave the Cameron Lecture in Edinburgh. He was appointed member of numerous medical academies and societies in his country and abroad, including the British and American Physiological Societies, and the American Pharmacological Society. He was knighted in 1934.\nAs a keen painter, Banting once took part of a painting expedition above the Arctic Circle, sponsored by the Government.\nBanting married Marion Robertson in 1924; they had one child, William (b. 1928). This marriage ended in a divorce in 1932, and in 1937 Banting married Henrietta Ball.\nWhen the Second World War broke out, he served as a liaison officer between the British and North American medical services and, while thus engaged, he was, in February 1941, killed in an air disaster in Newfoundland.\nFrom Nobel Lectures , Physiology or Medicine 1922-1941, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1965\nThis autobiography/biography was written at the time of the award and first published in the book series Les Prix Nobel . It was later edited and republished in Nobel Lectures . To cite this document, always state the source as shown above.\n \nFrederick G. Banting died on February 21, 1941.", "The My Hero Project - Frederick Banting\nFREDERICK BANTING\nby Edward Ortiz\nFrederick Banting never knew he was on the road to saving countless lives as he worried over the empty waiting room of his humble surgical practice in London, Ontario. He was an unknown entity in London and patients were few. What he did know was that he had a nagging interest and several ideas concerning a fatal disease--diabetes. Banting's failure would lead him on the road to identifying insulin--the life-saving hope of all diabetics, and a Nobel Prize in Medicine. Ironically, his success would be achieved in a discipline not of his choosing.\nAs Banting's practice struggled, the best and brightest physiologists of the day considered finding a treatment for diabetes close to impossible. A disease that robs the body's ability to burn body sugar for energy, diabetes forces the body to feed upon itself. Banting had a nagging hunch about what might be done. To adequately prove his hunch, Banting would have to give up his surgical practice and forge blindly into the future in a humble laboratory in Toronto. For a young physician supporting a family, this difficult decision was akin to career suicide. Debts and other financial troubles loomed for Banting. Banting loved to work deep into the night and it was on one of these that Banting was struck by an idea.\nHe reasoned that if the pancreas was destroyed but the nearby tangle of tubes called the Islets of Langerhans were kept intact, the absence of digestive enzymes would allow the isolation of insulin.\nWith the help of his assistant Charles Best, Banting began to experiment on the pancreases of dogs. Ironically, Banting was a lover of dogs ever since his farm days, and would suffer the misery of watching many dogs die for the sake of his research. Banting's goal quickly became finding a way to isolate insulin from a dog's degenerated pancreas. Two sets of dogs were set up: those for which the pancreas would be removed and the other for which the pancreas would be purposely degenerated. The dogs with removed pancreases would show the debilitating effect of diabetes.\nResults were promising as an extract of the dogs'degenerated pancreases were injected into the dogs without pancreases. The clinical condition of the dogs without pancreases improved remarkably. Hence, the discovery of insulin was born. Unfortunately, this procedure meant that many dogs had to be sacrificed to keep one diabetic dog alive. Banting called this life-saving pancreatic extract \"isletin\"...the name of which would later be changed to insulin.\nBut how was Banting to secure this precious insulin without having to kill more animals than it saved? This is where Banting's background on a farm helped. Banting realized, from his experience breeding cattle, that pure insulin tissue could be extracted from the pancreases of embryonic calves.\nBanting and Best took to injecting themselves with insulin before testing it on their first human research subject. After establishing the safety of this crude form of insulin, Banting was ready for his first patient. In January of 1922, he injected it into a 14-year-old diabetic boy. The turnaround in his condition was both rapid and conclusive. A month later Banting would inject insulin into the veins of a childhood friend, bringing about such an improvement in his health that friends and family thought it a miracle.\nFor his valiant effort, Banting was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1923. He was the first Canadian to receive the award. He divided his share of the prize with his invaluable assistant, Charles Best.\nWhat is often overlooked about Banting is that he was an accomplished artist who signed his drawings and paintings with the alias \"Frederick Grant\". Art was his escape from the rigors of late night research and the misery of failed experiments.\nBanting's life came to a tragic end in 1941 on a military mission for the Canadian Army Medical Corps during World War II. Banting's plane crashed near a frozen lake in Newfoundland. An exemplary life was over at the age of 49.\nIt is interesting to note that Banting realized how his initial failure at a medical practice in Ontario led him on the road to a Nobel Prize. Like most heroes and discoverers, Banting showed the quality of perseverance, intuition, and courage in the face of what appeared to be insurmountable obstacles. Banting wrote in 1940: \"...had I not failed in my one year at London, I might never have started my research work...\" Nobel prize winner, accomplished painter, knighted by the queen, and a recipient of the Military Cross for bravery during World War I, Frederick Banting was a saver of lives.", "Insulin: Discovery and Controversy | Clinical Chemistry\nInsulin: Discovery and Controversy\nPDF\nAbstract\nDuring the first two decades of the 20th century, several investigators prepared extracts of pancreas that were often successful in lowering blood sugar and reducing glycosuria in test animals. However, they were unable to remove impurities, and toxic reactions prevented its use in humans with diabetes. In the spring of 1921, Frederick G. Banting, a young Ontario orthopedic surgeon, was given laboratory space by J.J.R. Macleod, the head of physiology at the University of Toronto, to investigate the function of the pancreatic islets. A student assistant, Charles Best, and an allotment of dogs were provided to test Banting’s hypothesis that ligation of the pancreatic ducts before extraction of the pancreas, destroys the enzyme-secreting parts, whereas the islets of Langerhans, which were believed to produce an internal secretion regulating sugar metabolism, remained intact. He believed that earlier failures were attributable to the destructive action of trypsin. The name “insuline” had been introduced in 1909 for this hypothetic substance. Their experiments produced an extract of pancreas that reduced the hyperglycemia and glycosuria in dogs made diabetic by the removal of their pancreases. They next developed a procedure for extraction from the entire pancreas without the need for duct ligation. This extract, now made from whole beef pancreas, was successful for treating humans with diabetes. Facilitating their success was a development in clinical chemistry that allowed blood sugar to be frequently and accurately determined in small volumes of blood. Success with purification was largely the work of J.B. Collip. Yield and standardization were improved by cooperation with Eli Lilly and Company. When the Nobel Prize was awarded to Banting and Macleod for the discovery of insulin, it aggravated the contentious relationship that had developed between them during the course of the investigation. Banting was outraged that Macleod and not Best had been selected, and he briefly threatened to refuse the award. He immediately announced that he was giving one-half of his share of the prize money to Best and publicly acknowledged Best’s contribution to the discovery of insulin. Macleod followed suit and gave one-half of his money award to Collip. Years later, the official history of the Nobel Committee admitted that Best should have been awarded a share of the prize.\nHailed as one of the most dramatic events in the history of the treatment of disease, the discovery of insulin at the University of Toronto in 1921–1922 extended the life-span of diabetic patients and made Fred Banting an international celebrity.\nChanging Careers\nFrederick Grant Banting (1891–1941) (Fig. 1 ⇓ )grew up on a small Ontario farm and was educated in local schools. He entered Victoria College, the divinity school of the University of Toronto, to study for the ministry, but after three semesters of arts courses and no premedical preparation, he transferred to the university’s medical school in the fall of 1912. When his studies were interrupted by World War I, he and other students enlisted in the Royal Canadian Army Medical Corps in 1915, but were sent back to finish medical school in an accelerated 15-month program. They were graduated in December 1916 with a bachelor of medicine degree. Banting was sent overseas with the rank of captain. After serving as a medical officer in a Canadian hospital in England, he was transferred to France with a field ambulance unit. In September 1918, he was wounded and moved to a hospital in England. For valorous conduct during the Cambrai campaign, he was awarded the Military Cross by the British government.\nFrederick Grant Banting.\nFrom The Discovery of Insulin. ©1982 by Michael Bliss, The University of Chicago Press.\nHe returned to Toronto in March 1919 and joined the staff of the Hospital for Sick Children as a resident in surgery. In July 1920, he opened a general surgical practice in London, Ontario, ∼110 miles west of Toronto. When this was slow in developing, he took on a part-time position as demonstrator at the local medical school (now the University of Western Ontario). For nearly a year, he taught anatomy and physiology. Although hardly qualified to teach physiology, he convinced F.R. Miller, head of the department, that he could stay ahead of his assignments to the students. He also assisted Miller, a distinguished neurophysiologist, with experiments on the electric stimulation of the cerebellar cortex of cats.\nAnatomy of Diabetes\nOn October 30, 1920, in preparation for a lecture on the pancreas, Banting’s attention was drawn to the lead article in his November issue of Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics, “The Relation of the Islets of Langerhans to Diabetes, With Special Reference to Cases of Pancreatic Lithiasis” by Moses Barron of the University of Minnesota ( 1 ). While doing routine autopsies, Barron had come across a rare case of the formation of a pancreatic stone. Rarer still, the stone had completely obstructed the main pancreatic duct. Although all the acinar cells had disappeared through degeneration (atrophy), most of the islet cells had apparently survived intact. In reviewing the literature, Barron pointed out the similarity of these observations to those that occur when the pancreatic ducts were blocked experimentally by ligation. In 1901, L.V. Ssobolew (1876–1919) had shown that a ligature of the pancreatic ducts in rabbits, cats, and dogs leads to gradual atrophy and destruction of the enzyme-secreting acinar cells, whereas the islet cells remained intact for weeks, with no evidence of sugar in the urine (glycosuria) ( 2 ). Thus, experimental and pathologic evidence reinforced the belief that the islets were the key to explaining diabetes.\nThe islets were first described by Paul Langerhans (1847–1888), a German medical student, in his dissertation in 1869, but he could not suggest any function for them. They were named after Langerhans by E. Laguesse ( 3 ) in 1893. The importance of the pancreas in carbohydrate metabolism had been known since experiments by Joseph Freiherr von Mering (1849–1908) and Oscar Minkowski (1858–1931) in 1890 ( 4 ). They successfully removed the entire pancreas from a dog and observed all the symptoms of severe diabetes, namely, high blood sugar (hyperglycemia), glycosuria, and finally death involving ketosis and coma in 2 or 3 weeks. Their finding was the first experimental proof that diabetes may be of pancreatic origin.\nIn 1900, another piece of the puzzle was provided by Eugene Lindsay Opie (1873–1971), an instructor in pathology at Johns Hopkins, who described hyaline degeneration of the islands of Langerhans in cases of diabetes mellitus ( 5 ). This discovery directed closer attention to the islets as the probable source of an internal secretion of the pancreas necessary for normal metabolism of sugar and lacking in diabetes. This was clearly inferred from the absence of glycosuria after ligation of the ducts and the atrophy of most of the gland. Apparently, the part of the gland that prevented the disease was the part that remained almost intact many weeks after ligation of the ducts. Islet tissue is also affected, but much more slowly than the acinar tissue.\nIn 1905, Ernest Henry Starling (1866–1927) coined the term “hormone” (Greek: hormaein, to set in motion) to designate the chemical messengers of the body’s endocrine glands. As early as 1894, Sir Edward Albert Sharpey–Schäfer (1850–1935), who often stated that histology was in the service of physiology, suggested that on morphologic grounds the islet tissue might be responsible for the internal secretion by which the pancreas produced its effect on the blood sugar concentration. In 1913, in lectures at Stanford University, he suggested the name “insuline” for the still hypothetical substance in the islets ( 6 ). He later acknowledged that he was unaware that the term had been introduced by Jean de Meyer (1878–1934) in 1909 ( 7 ). “Insulin” (Latin: insula, island) was independently adopted by the Toronto workers in 1922.\nThe Big Idea\nBanting suspected that in failed attempts by others, the active principle was probably destroyed by digestive enzymes in the acinar tissue of the pancreas during extraction of whole gland. That night, unable to sleep for thinking about the article and the lecture, Banting, at ∼0200 in the morning, had an idea and wrote a note to himself. In what is considered his most authoritative statement on the discovery, the Cameron Lecture ( 8 ), delivered in Edinburgh in 1928, he recalled writing: “Ligate pancreatic ducts of dogs. Wait six to eight weeks for degeneration. Remove the residue and extract”. In an unpublished 1940 memoir ( 9 ), Banting gives a slightly different wording and time interval. In his notebook kept in the archives of the Academy of Medicine in Toronto, he actually wrote: “Diabetus. Ligate pancreatic ducts of dog. Keep dogs alive till acini degenerate leaving Islets. Try to isolate the internal secretion of these to relieve glycosurea” ( 10 ).\nIn addition to the obvious misspelling of diabetes and glycosuria, the true notation does not contain the word “extract”. In seeking to relieve glycosuria, he appears to be identifying diabetes with glucose in the urine in the traditional way, rather than following the newer concept of hyperglycemia as the identifying parameter of diabetes. Unfortunately, blood sugar analysis was difficult, required from 10 to 20 mL of blood, and was time-consuming and not very accurate. Furthermore, repeated withdrawal of such large volumes of blood could be harmful to human or animal. Consequently, it was more practical and safer to test the urine. Banting did not know about recent improvements in analysis of blood sugar on small volumes of blood, which would provide more frequent results that were clinically more useful and reliable than tests on urine, for measuring short-term fluctuations. These new sugar methods (discussed later in the text) were a very important development for diabetes research.\nBy ligating the ducts and allowing time for the degeneration of the acinar cells, Banting hoped to obtain the internal secretion of the islet cells free from the destructive action of trypsin and other pancreatic enzymes in the external secretion of the acinar cells. All of Banting’s accounts of his inspiration and of the subsequent events were written years after his life had been changed by these events, and not everywhere did he record them the same. Consequently, they are not a reliable guide to the events in which he participated ( 10 ).\nBanting’s conception was not new or altogether correct, because the digestive ferments of the pancreas must be activated in the intestine before they can exercise their destructive action. Many attempts to prepare extracts of the pancreas had been made by other investigators. Temporary sugar-reducing effects were often accompanied by harmful side-effects, such as fever and painful abscesses, which overshadowed any benefit. Georg Ludwig Zuelzer ( 11 ), Ernest Lyman Scott ( 12 ), Israel S. Kleiner ( 13 ), John Murlin ( 14 ), and Nicolas C. Paulesco ( 15 ) had all been able to produce pancreatic extracts that often reduced hyperglycemia or glycosuria in animals and, in some cases, in humans. However, toxic reactions after the initial relief of symptoms usually brought the tests to a halt.\nA Cool Reception\nF.R. Miller advised Banting to bring his idea to John James Rickard Macleod (1876–1935) (Fig. 2 ⇓ ), professor of physiology and department head at the University of Toronto and a leading authority on carbohydrate metabolism, who was in a position to provide Banting with research facilities to test his proposal. Macleod had come to Toronto in 1918 after 15 years as professor at Western Reserve University in Cleveland, OH, and was president of the American Physiological Society during the year of discovery of insulin. In 1913 he had published Diabetes: Its Pathological Physiology. Although he concluded that there was an internal secretion of the pancreas, he believed it might never be separated in a pancreatic extract.\nJohn James Rickard Macleod.\nCourtesy of the Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine, Vol. 20, 1934–35.\nThe conventional wisdom during Macleod’s training had been the primacy of the nervous system in the control of physiologic functions, with the liver having the central role in carbohydrate metabolism. Macleod’s concept of diabetes was the traditional one of hyperglycemia and/or glycosuria, attributable to a failure of glycogen formation and storage in the liver producing an increase of blood glucose. His long-time interest was in trying to locate the center in the brain where the nervous control of carbohydrate metabolism, i.e., glycogenic function of the liver, originated ( 16 ).\nOnly 4 months after arriving in London, Ontario, Banting visited Macleod for the first time on Monday, November 7, 1920. Macleod, knowledgeable about the literature, was skeptical; he found that Banting had only a superficial textbook knowledge of previous work on the effects of pancreatic extracts in diabetes and showed very little practical familiarity with methods for investigating such a problem. Macleod pointed out that many eminent scientists had tried to isolate this hormone and failed, without obtaining any conclusive evidence of the existence of an internal secretion ( 17 ).\nIt is easy to understand why Macleod was not impressed with Banting or his idea. Banting was at a marked disadvantage in facing Macleod. He had no advanced degree, no honors, publications, experience in research, or teaching or private practice or surgery. Except for his work in the army, he had virtually no credentials. Lacking both training and expertise, Banting did not understand the advances made by others or the limitations of his own research proposal. Ignorant of the field and unsure of his methods and the chemical testing procedures he would need, Banting would require much help and direction ( 16 ). He also failed to evaluate his own original erroneous assumption that the external and internal secretions are antagonistic within the pancreas. His weak background knowledge and inexperience in research kept him from a careful review of the literature for others who had searched for the internal secretion. He admitted on more than one occasion that had he been thoroughly acquainted with the literature before beginning the research, he might never have begun. “Too much reading of the literature is … inadvisable for [the] wide diversity of opinion and confusion of thought” ( 18 )( 19 ).\nChange of Mind\nBanting met twice more with Macleod. Whether it was the persistence, the boundless enthusiasm, or the possibility of more reliable results with the new glucose methods on small volumes of blood, Macleod may have considered Banting’s proposal worth thinking about. Finally, having cautioned Banting about the time it would take and the likelihood of negative results, Macleod agreed to provide laboratory space ( 17 ). Now Banting became cautious. He did not want to give up his appointments in surgery and physiology in London to get negative results, even if they were of “great physiological value”, as Macleod repeated several times. He told Macleod he would consider the whole matter carefully. Although there was nothing new in producing atrophy of the acinar tissues by duct ligation, there was interest in the relative degeneration of the acinar and islet cells. Nobody had tried to administer an extract from a fully degenerated pancreas. The great difficulty had been in getting ligation to work so that the pancreas atrophied. It was not until March 8, 1921, that Banting wrote to Macleod saying he would like to spend the second half of May plus June and July in Macleod’s laboratory, if the offer of facilities was still open ( 17 ). Whatever the experimental surgical techniques were to be, the results would be measured by tests of glucose in the blood and urine.\nHeads or Tails\nOne day in May, Macleod introduced Banting to the two student assistants he had employed as demonstrators in the physiology laboratory. Charles Herbert Best (1899–1978) (Fig. 3 ⇓ ), and Edward Clark Noble (1900–1978) were seniors in the physiology and biochemistry honors program and were planning to pursue a master of arts degree. They had also been working as research assistants in the production of experimental diabetes and had acquired experience in the analysis of blood sugar. Macleod also wanted measurements of the ratio of glucose (dextrose) to nitrogen (D:N ratio) in the urine. The D:N ratio was thought to be a particularly accurate reflection of the diabetic state. Macleod left it to Best and Noble to decide how they would divide the summer in helping Banting test his hypothesis. What began as a summer research job for a student turned into one of the most exciting and controversial medical adventures of modern times.\nCharles Herbert Best.\nCourtesy of Eli Lilly and Company Archives.\nA coin toss decided who would go first. Best won. Stevenson ( 20 ) cites Banting’s Cameron Lecture ( 8 ) as the source of the story, but adds that Best and Noble dismissed it as a newspaper fiction. When this version was repeated by J.R. Henderson ( 21 ) in 1971, Noble was quick to respond that the coin toss did occur ( 22 )( 23 ). When he did return he did not replace Best because Best was getting on so well with the experiments. There was no point in having a new assistant start fresh to pick up on the procedures at this stage of the work. Banting and Best had both become proficient with each other’s techniques and worked well together. Noble did participate later in the post-discovery development work, and his name appears on several of the publications.\nBest did all the chemical testing, measuring blood and urine sugar and urinary nitrogen, and assisted in other ways in the experiments on the depancreatized, duct-ligated, and normal dogs and in the preparation of active extracts. Blood sugar estimations were made by the Myers–Bailey ( 24 ) modification of the Lewis–Benedict ( 25 ) method. The results with this procedure were confirmed by the recently published Shaffer–Hartmann ( 26 ) iodometric titration method at high and low percentages of blood sugar. In the follow-up report on human subjects with diabetes mellitus ( 27 ), blood sugar was estimated at intervals by the revised Folin–Wu ( 28 ) method, urine sugar by Benedict’s ( 29 ) method, and acetone bodies by Van Slyke’s methods.\nOff and Running\nWork began on May 17, 1921. The general pattern of the research was worked out with Macleod, who gave them suggestions about the surgical techniques, the preparation of chilled saline extracts of pancreas (he later suggested alcohol extraction) and helped them get started by assisting on the first dog. The widely held belief that Macleod set Banting and Best to work and then immediately left town for vacation in Scotland is not true. They had been at the research for almost 1 month, consulting with Macleod during this time. Macleod reviewed the status of the project, left his address, and gave parting instructions before leaving on June 14.\nAfter ligation of the ducts, the dogs were expected to recover from the surgery and live more or less normally. After several weeks, the pancreas, unable to secrete fluid into the duodenum, would gradually atrophy and would be removed and processed to extract the internal secretion. The extract would then be administered to other dogs made diabetic by removal of the pancreas. It was a laborious task for some one with no experience in animal work, and it did not go well at first as Banting struggled to improve his surgical technique. By the end of the second week, 7 of their 10 dogs had died. To resupply the animal cages, they resorted to buying dogs on the streets of Toronto for $1.00 to $3.00 with no questions asked of the suppliers ( 30 )( 31 ).\nBecause of surgical problems and the necessary passage of time before evaluation of the dogs after duct ligation, it was July 27 before both a depancreatized dog and a duct-tied dog were ready. On July 30, following Macleod’s directions, they chopped a degenerated pancreas into small pieces and placed it in ice-cold Ringer’s solution in a chilled mortar seated in freezing brine solution until the mixture partly froze. The mass was ground up with sand and a pestle, filtered, and warmed to body temperature. Five milliliters were administered intravenously to a dog whose pancreas had been removed. Samples of blood were taken at 0.5-h intervals. The dog’s blood sugar fell from 0.200% to 0.120% in 1 h. The improvement was of short duration. Despite additional injections, the dog’s blood sugar started to increase, and its death the next morning was probably hastened by infection ( 32 ). It was their first experimental evidence that they had isolated an extract with antidiabetic principle.\nThe duo repeated their experiments and recorded frequent decreases in blood sugar and in sugar excreted in the urine on two additional depancreatized dogs. They named the extract “Isletin”. Although the dogs died, Banting and Best were excited by what they had seen. “I have so much to tell you that I scarcely know where to begin”, Banting wrote to Macleod on August 9. He added that the extract “invariably” causes a reduction in blood sugar, improves the clinical condition of the dog, and is destroyed by boiling and that extracts of other organs are inactive. They gradually eliminated possible sources of error by running control experiments. However, they also had many failures with dogs that died shortly after some of the surgeries.\nA New Approach\nAs early as August 17, 1921, having run out of duct-tied dogs, they made an extract of a dog’s whole fresh pancreas. A decrease in blood sugar from 0.300% to 0.170% was obtained 1 h after 10 mL of extract was administered ( 32 ). On August 19, with the dog starting to weaken, they tried something different to avoid the external secretion with its toxic materials. They stimulated a pancreas with the hormone secretin until the pancreas was exhausted. This involved a complicated surgical procedure to obtain the crude secretin, followed by the slow injection of secretin for almost 4 h until the flow of pancreatic fluid through a cannula in the pancreatic duct stopped. The pancreas was quickly removed and processed to obtain the extract, which worked very well. Although exhausted gland extracts were not practical, they provided evidence supporting the goal of obtaining extracts of the islet cells free from the products of the acinous cells. Their work with duct-ligated dogs had been unnecessary, but they had gained knowledge without which they might never have developed the skill and insight to get the internal secretion from an easier source.\nClash of Personalities\nWhen Macleod returned from vacation on September 21, he could hardly believe how much had been accomplished. He questioned the accuracy of their data. Banting resented this as a reflection on his integrity and could not restrain his natural tendency to be combative. His temper flared, and a bitter argument followed. Mutual friends interceded and the immediate storm blew over, but an atmosphere of friction settled in and clouded the background of their relationship and never entirely cleared. Macleod’s aloof scorn of Banting’s ability and Banting’s growing bitterness at what he perceived to be Macleod’s negative attitude kept relations always painfully strained ( 33 ).\nMacleod wanted them to repeat the summer’s work to confirm their results before they proceeded with purification and assay. Macleod suggested an experiment to rule out dilution by the injections as causing the decrease in blood sugar. Banting used the meeting to request a salary, a separate room to work in, a laboratory boy to look after the dogs, and repairs to the floor of the operating room. Macleod was reluctant to provide these, believing that some other research would suffer. Banting threatened to leave and go to the Mayo Clinic or Rockefeller Institute. Macleod said he could go, but then relented and within a day or two after the confrontation Banting’s requests were met. Macleod provided a salary and arranged for retroactive pay for Banting ($150) and Best ($170) in view of the decidedly satisfactory results of the summer. To provide further help to Banting, professor Velyien Henderson gave him an appointment in the department of pharmacology at $250 a month to fill a temporary vacancy. It was a great relief to Banting to have financial support for the winter months.\nBanting, driven by conviction and passion, was eager for the work to advance more rapidly to testing humans with diabetes. He asked Macleod if J.B. Collip, a biochemist who was spending part of his sabbatical in the department of pathological chemistry, could join them. Collip had met Banting and learned about the insulin project shortly before Macleod left for Scotland. Macleod advised against expanding the team at this stage. He wanted Banting and Best to complete their independent research as originally planned. If the results continued to be satisfactory, Macleod would join them with his assistants ( 18 ). So they went back to their dogs.\nThere Must Be a Better Way\nDuct ligation and secretin exhaustion, although of great scientific interest, were strictly laboratory procedures and incapable of large-scale repetition to produce enough material for clinical use. On November 15, with only one duct-ligated dog on hand and faced with the built-in delay of this procedure, they realized that supply of extract was the bottleneck limitation of their project. There could never be a practical clinical application of the internal secretion of the pancreas unless they could come up with a better way of obtaining pancreatic extract.\nIn their reading they recalled that Laguesse had found that in the pancreas of fetal and newborn animals, islet cells were more abundant in relation to the acini than in the adult animal. Because there was no need for digestion until after birth, it was likely that there was little or no active acinar tissue in the fetus and that external secretion was absent or weak. Therefore, the fetal pancreas might be a practical source of an extract rich in internal secretion but free from the destructive enzymes of pancreatic juice. Although their focus was to avoid getting trypsin into the extract, they were also eliminating, to a considerable degree, the proteins other than insulin that were the real offenders causing toxic reactions ( 20 )( 34 )( 35 ).\nHaving been born and raised on a farm and familiar with stock breeding, Banting remembered that cattle prepared for slaughter would first be impregnated to make them heavier eaters to hasten their fattening. There would always be a supply of fetal calves at the abettoirs to maintain an adequate supply of active principle for testing. Extracts of fetal pancreas worked well. Here too, however, although more productive than duct ligation or secretin exhaustion, it was obviously limited as a supplier of raw material. There was only one sufficient source—the pancreas of the adult animal.\nPreliminary Communication\nMacleod asked Banting and Best to present their research to university students and staff at the Physiological Journal Club in November. Best was to show charts of dogs, and Banting was to describe the work. However, in his opening remarks, Macleod said all the things Banting had planned to say about earlier research. Banting was inexperienced as a speaker, nervous, and not very articulate, especially after Macleod’s surprising introduction. In writing about the meeting a year later, he noted how often Macleod was using “we” in describing the work. His state of mind was not helped when he learned that afterward, students were talking about the remarkable work of Professor Macleod ( 36 ).\nBanting and Best finished their first paper in late November. Macleod polished the final draft but declined being listed as a coauthor because it was Banting and Best’s work ( 17 ). The paper’s title was “The Internal Secretion of the Pancreas” ( 32 ), and it was to appear in the Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine in February 1922. Before actual publication, there would be an occasion for the first public presentation before the American Physiological Society in New Haven, CT, on December 30, 1921. As a member of the society, Macleod’s name was listed first on the program and Banting and Best were identified as “by invitation”. On the published half-page abstract, the order was reversed ( 37 ). Banting was nervous and “spoke haltingly, Macleod beautifully” ( 38 ).\nThe leading investigators of diabetes were there. Two of them, Kleiner and Scott, had made extracts that reduced hyperglycemia and glycosuria. Participants asked many questions about the experiments, some of which were difficult for Banting to answer satisfactorily. It was obvious to Banting how badly he spoke and that he had failed to convince the audience that their results proved the presence of an internal secretion of the pancreas any more effectively than had previous investigators. Macleod came to his rescue by joining the discussion and trying to answer the friendly but serious criticisms. What especially bothered Banting was how smoothly Macleod had stepped in as though he owned the project, referring to “our work” and using the word “we” although he had never done a single experiment. Banting began to revisit all the previous negative interactions with Macleod. It was this intervention in the discussion that convinced Banting, who had never liked Macleod or felt at ease in his presence, that Macleod was trying to take over the project and steal his results and the fame. He began telling this to his friends ( 9 )( 17 )( 36 )( 39 ).\nAlso in the audience was George H.A. Clowes, research director for Eli Lilly and Company. He recognized the potential of the research and asked whether his company could collaborate with the Toronto group in preparing the extract commercially. Macleod told him the work was not sufficiently advanced for commercial manufacture ( 17 ).\nOmitted from the published paper were the badly done experiments of the early summer. The paper contained minor factual errors. Figures in their graphs sometimes disagreed with figures in the text and/or, according to Bliss ( 34 ), with figures in their laboratory notebooks. The clutter of data in their graphic displays reveals their inexperience in preparing papers for publication. Their statement that the extract always produced a decrease of the concentration of sugar in the blood and in excretion of sugar in the urine is not correct. Some extracts had not worked at all. Despite claiming that their extract contained the internal secretion of the pancreas, Banting and Best specifically said they did not yet have an agent that would “justify the therapeutic administration of degenerated gland extracts to cases of diabetes mellitus in the clinic” ( 32 ). What was impressive about their experiments was the overall pattern of successful results.\nWhole Pancreas\nOn December 6, they decided to use alcohol in preparation of a fetal calf extract. Macleod had suggested alcohol months earlier. Best recalled later that it had occurred to the three of them independently. Alcohol had been used by Zuelzer and Scott. The problem with an aqueous saline extract was that any attempt to concentrate it by boiling off the water also destroyed the active principle. Alcohol evaporates at a much lower temperature than water. They used a technique Macleod had shown them of a current of warm air flowing over the solution. Could they get a similar result from fresh adult pancreas? On December 11, whole pancreas was macerated and extracted with slightly acidic 95% alcohol, the filtrate was evaporated to dryness in a warm air current, and the dry residue was emulsified in Ringer’s solution and given intravenously. The solution was injected into the dog whose pancreas they had removed. Its blood sugar dropped from 0.460% to 0.180% in 3 h. This was a major advance. Whole pancreas extracted with alcohol worked; there was no need for degenerated pancreas or fetal pancreas. Now the research could go ahead using cheap easily obtained fresh whole beef pancreas ( 35 ).\nConvinced of their success with diabetic dogs, Macleod finally agreed to help them develop their valuable discovery. He discontinued his own research on anoxemia and turned all the resources of his laboratory over to the new work. They needed help because the pace was speeding up now that they had the means for producing large amounts of extract. There was much to be done, and Banting wanted it done quickly so they could get to clinical testing. Macleod had now agreed to everything Banting had asked for, including his earlier request for Collip to join them.\nInsulin Purified\nIn early December, Macleod invited James Bertram Collip (1892–1965) (Fig. 4 ⇓ ), an experienced Canadian biochemist from the University of Alberta in Edmonton, to work on the task of purification. Collip was a Toronto alumnus of 1912 (BA) and PhD (1916), and had some knowledge of glandular secretions and the making of tissue extracts ( 40 ). His sabbatical was supported by a Rockefeller Foundation Traveling Fellowship. Collip’s laboratory was in the pathology building on the grounds of the hospital and several blocks from the dog quarters in the medical building. New research was now begun under Macleod’s direction.\nJames Bertram Collip.\nFrom The Discovery of Insulin. ©1982 by Michael Bliss, The University of Chicago Press.\nThe pancreatic extract consisted of fats, proteins, water, salts, other organic materials, and the active principle. Different proteins are soluble at different concentrations of alcohol and different degrees of acidity. Banting and Best had discovered that the active principle from whole pancreas was soluble in ∼50% concentration of alcohol. They discontinued fractionation at 65% alcohol because at this point the trypsin had been eliminated. Collip joined them at this stage. Applying standard experimental techniques to the problem, he started with fresh whole beef pancreas ground up in alcohol. After the mixture was filtered, Collip gradually increased the concentration of alcohol and found that the active principle remained in solution at progressively higher concentrations, whereas most of the proteins precipitated. The lipids and salts could eventually be removed by centrifugation and washing.\nOn the night of January 19, Collip discovered a limit; somewhere over 90% alcohol the active principle itself was precipitated. Using this cutoff point he could remove most of the protein contaminants as a precipitate below 90% alcohol, then move to a higher concentration to precipitate and then isolate the active principle, as a powder, still with impurities but far purer than any previous extract. Collip tested the potency of the powders with methods he developed, using rabbits for the assay. After checking them for abscesses, he realized he had an extract sufficiently pure for testing on humans. Collip had found that pancreatic extracts were effective in lowering the blood sugar of healthy rabbits just as extracts had been in lowering blood sugar of diabetic dogs. This had great practical importance for it dispensed with the need to use depancreatized dogs for testing the potency of a batch of extract. This could now be done quickly and easily by testing the blood, easily obtainable from a vein in the rabbit’s ear, and using the new micromethod of Shaffer–Hartmann. Clark Noble was added to the team to help with the rabbit testing. Macleod claims to have suggested using rabbits, which Collip then acted on ( 17 )( 33 )( 34 ).\nClinical Trial Failure\nIn the winter of 1922, Best did the preliminary processing of the pancreas and making the initial concentration of material before handing it over to Collip for completion. By now Banting began to feel that he and Best were being brushed aside in the research. He became insistent that Macleod allow the first clinical test to be with an extract made by him and Best, for he was determined to participate in the first clinical trial. However, Banting, a surgeon not currently in practice, had no qualifications for experimenting on patients, and he had no standing at Toronto General Hospital, the university’s teaching hospital across the street, where the trial would take place. He was not an expert clinician, and his limited postgraduate training had been surgical rather than medical. He had neither the knowledge nor the experience to take part on equal terms with his colleagues in the early clinical application of his discovery. On one side of the street he was no physiologist, no chemist; on the other side, he was no clinician. It was not an easy situation. Only a mature and well-balanced personality could have handled this state of affairs in good humor. Banting’s personality was not mature. He was dynamic, forceful, impatient, and not always easy to get along with ( 41 ). He applied for a temporary appointment in the department of medicine so he could test the pancreatic extract at the hospital, but was turned down. This only added to his sense of injustice. Macleod interceded with the head of the clinic to allow use of their preparation.\nThe extract, recalled several years later as “a murky, light-brown liquid containing much sediment, which dissolved to a considerable extent on being warmed” ( 42 ), was administered by a young house physician on the afternoon of January 11, 1922. A total of 7.5 mL was injected into each buttock of the patient. Banting and Best waited in the hallway. They were not given samples of the urine because these were the property of the hospital. They would get the results the next day ( 9 )( 36 )( 39 ). The patient was Leonard Thompson, a 14-year-old boy with severe diabetes who weighed only 65 pounds on admission on December 2, 1921. There was a drop in blood sugar from 0.440% to 0.320%, and the 24-h excretion of glucose fell from 91.5 g to 84 g. The Rothera test for ketone bodies continued to be strongly positive. No clinical benefit was observed ( 27 ). A sterile abscess developed at the site of one of the injections, caused by the impurities in the extract. The extract was not effective enough to justify further administration. The record of the hospital indicated that Thompson received “Macleod’s serum”.\nA reporter for the Toronto Star learned about the test and found his way to Macleod, who emphasized that the work was preliminary. The article appearing on January 14 emphasized Macleod’s cautious responses. Banting was not pleased by the repetition of “we”. Macleod, still unaware of Banting’s suspicions, finally learned of his accusations of stealing his work and that he had been spreading these sentiments for some time. Banting’s chief complaints concerned the New Haven session and the Star interview as evidence of Macleod’s bad faith. He produced confirmation of Macleod’s domination of the New Haven meeting from others who were there. Although Banting’s and Macleod’s recollections of the involvement of a mutual friend trying to broker a peaceful settlement do not match, they agreed on a modus vivendi and effort at better communication. Macleod also agreed to continue the collaboration and said he “had no intention of robbing him of any of the glory that was his due”. All those who participated in the researches on the physiologic action of pancreatic extracts would be listed on publications in alphabetical order. This placed Banting first and Best second ( 17 ). While all this was going on, Collip, under pressure to come up with a better extract, was at work trying to produce a purified extract.\nThe Big Fight\nIn the winter of 1922, Banting considered every friend of Macleod’s as his own sworn enemy and a biased partisan in the great Macleod conspiracy. One day in the latter part of January, after the less than satisfactory first clinical test and annoyed by Banting’s attitude, Collip threatened to withdraw from all further cooperative experiments and start producing insulin independently. Collip told them he had solved the problem, was leaving the group, and intended to take out a patent in his own name on the purification of their pancreatic extract. He refused to tell them what the process was and added that Macleod had agreed that he should not tell them. This was a breach of an agreement between Collip, Banting, and Best to exchange all results. Banting, never short of righteous anger or noted for meekness or restraint when he felt wronged, exploded with clenched fists, and in a moment Collip was lying dazed on the floor of the laboratory ( 43 ). Fortunately, he was not seriously hurt. There are no contemporary reports of this encounter, no reference by Collip, and only two accounts ( 39 ), neither of which, according to Bliss, should be considered entirely reliable. One was by Banting in his unpublished 1940 memoir, the other by Best in a letter to Sir Henry Dale, dated February 22, 1954. They differ in details. There was another reference to what Collip said, written by Banting in 1922 and published in 1982 ( 36 ), without any mention of a fight or confrontation. Paranoia, distrust, suspicion, and rivalry were out in the open. For years the story of the fight made the rounds of the insulin gossip mill, becoming distorted with every retelling. A twisted version that had Banting attack Collip in the university halls appeared in Banting’s obituary in Time magazine of March 17, 1941.\nApparently the verbal exchange provoking the confrontation reached the people with an interest in the insulin project. They acted quickly to forestall any precipitous action detrimental to the cooperation of the Connaught Laboratories, established during the war to produce vaccines and antitoxins, to manufacture insulin on a large scale. In a memorandum dated January 25, 1922, Banting, Best, and Collip agreed not to exploit the process of preparing an extract of pancreas by seeking a patent or commercial collaboration. Macleod also signed. No modification in research policy was to be taken without preliminary consultation between Banting, Best, Collip, Macleod, and J.G. Fitzgerald, director of the Connaught Laboratories ( 39 ).\nClinical Trial Success\nTreatment of the 14-year-old diabetic youth resumed on January 23, 1922, this time with a purified extract made by Collip. Daily injections produced immediate improvement. His blood sugar dropped from 0.520% to 0.120% the next day, and his glucose excretion decreased from 71.1 g to 8.7 g. Acetone bodies disappeared from his urine, and he looked brighter, felt better, and became more active ( 27 ). This was the first clearly successful clinical test of the internal secretion of the pancreas on a human diabetic.\nIn February, six more patients were treated, all with favorable results. A series of clinical studies followed that defined the biological effects of insulin and established guidelines for its clinical use. W.R. Campbell and A.A. Fletcher were the clinicians assigned to work out the many problems in utilizing this new therapy. A preliminary report was published in March under the title “Pancreatic Extracts in the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus”. The results of the clinical tests were described, with special emphasis on the first patient ( 27 ).\nThe key sentence was clear: “These results taken together have been such as to leave no doubt that in these extracts we have a therapeutic measure of unquestionable value in the treatment of certain phases of the disease in man”. The paper was sent to the Canadian Medical Association Journal, a publication with little circulation outside Canada, to assure quick publication. A more important presentation was scheduled in 7 weeks for a conference in Washington, DC.\nBanting had little to do with the writing of this paper or the clinical work it reported and had no role in the ongoing experimental or clinical research. He and Best provided extract and depancreatized dogs and did other surgical work required for the experiments by the clinicians. They had to learn all they could, and quickly, about the substance they had and its clinical impact on diabetes, and they had to develop the production of much larger quantities of the extract. Macleod organized this ongoing research. Results were not discussed with them, nor were plans for future experiments. “Best and I became technicians under Macleod like the others”, Banting wrote bitterly in 1940 ( 9 )( 39 ).\nBanting had been living and working under intense emotional stress. During March 1922, his attendance at the laboratory fell off. The only way he could overcome his despair at night was to drink himself to sleep, sometimes stealing the 95% alcohol from the laboratory. “I do not think there was one night during the month of March 1922, when I went to bed sober” ( 9 )( 16 )( 39 ).\nDespite the triumph of the research, his work and future were still uncertain. He sulked and raged and schemed for credit. Having started the work, he saw it taken over by others just when the good results started coming in. Banting’s friends knew his state of mind. One of them, a physician and former teacher of Banting, alerted a Star reporter who was one of his patients to the work on the pancreatic extract. Through him the reporter met Banting and Best and prepared a long article to coincide with the publication of the Canadian Medical Association Journal on March 22. There were extensive quotes from the journal article and pictures of the four principals. However, Banting was interviewed at length, and the story was told very much as the work of Banting and Best. It was the first article to report the story from Banting’s point of view.\nMaking It Official\nIn April 1922, the Toronto team prepared a paper summarizing all the work to date. The authors were Banting, Best, Collip, Campbell, Fletcher, Macleod, and E.C. Noble. For the first time they gave a name to the extract—insulin. They did not know that “insuline” had been proposed earlier. All the authors agreed that Macleod, who was a member of the host society, would present the paper at the Washington, DC meeting of the Association of American Physicians on May 3, 1922. The paper was titled “The Effect Produced on Diabetes by Extracts of Pancreas”. Its presentation was greeted by an unprecedented standing show of thanks by the society, the first time in 20 years it expressed its appreciation in this way ( 44 ). The discussion was printed as a supplement to the Transactions of the Association of American Physicians ( 45 )\nThus, 2 weeks short of a year since Banting and Best began their work, the Toronto group, speaking through Macleod, announced to the medical world that they had discovered insulin and described its therapeutic success. Banting and Best did not go to Washington, the excuse being the expense of the trip. Macleod regretted not insisting on their attendance. Bliss believes that Banting, motivated by his continuing resentment of Macleod, decided to stay home and persuaded Best to do the same ( 17 ).\nSomething Goes Wrong\nConfident of its therapeutic value, the Toronto team made plans to manufacture insulin on a large scale, financed and administered by the Connaught Laboratories. Collip was to direct insulin production. Special equipment was installed in the basement of the medical building. Then disaster struck. To everyone’s dismay and surprise, Collip, working with more variables than he was aware of, lost the knack of making insulin. As is frequently the case on passing from small- to large-scale production, great difficulties were encountered, so much so that for >2 months it was impossible to obtain extracts with anything like the potency of those used on the diabetic patients. The yield became unsatisfactory, at first, not in large batches, then not by any method. It was a gradual breakdown beginning sometime in March. A frantic struggle ensued during April and May as everyone pitched in to regain the key to making insulin. Although later accounts disagree on who did what, it turned out to be more than ever a team effort.\nThe problem and the solution lay in the heating of the extract during evaporation of the alcohol. Variations in the pressure of the water being supplied to the crude vacuum pumps were causing significant variations in temperature and, hence, in evaporation time. Somehow the heat neutralized the active principle. They replaced the vacuum stills with the earlier warm air current method of evaporation used by Banting and Best at Macleod’s urging. By mid-May they had recovered the ability to make insulin. The modification involved using acetone with slight acidification. (Best several times claimed he was first to use acetone.) The pancreas–acetone mixture was filtered and then set in enamel-lined trays. An old exhaust fan supplied the wind. Heating coils above the trays heated the air as it passed over. After a 10-fold concentration, the temperature always below 35 °C, the rest of the process was Collip’s method with alcohol ( 17 )( 46 )( 47 )( 48 ). They later discovered that the pH was much more important for the solubility of the components than the temperature of the evaporation.\nEnter Eli Lilly and Company\nBy mid-May enough insulin was being produced to permit resumption of limited clinical testing. However, attempts to produce the hormone in large quantities continued to fail. The team realized that they needed help. Toronto accepted an offer of collaboration from Eli Lilly and Co., and an agreement was worked out. Best and Collip traveled to Indianapolis to tell the Lilly chemists all they knew about making insulin and helped with the first attempt. The process worked. His appointment in Toronto ended, Collip returned to his position as professor of biochemistry at the University of Alberta.\nProblems still remained. Every attempt to increase the yield of extract produced in Toronto failed, and the quality was not good. Protein impurities caused abscesses in many patients, and salts in the solution made many injections very painful.\nEli Lilly began work on insulin early in June. Their preparations from pork pancreases were potent from the beginning, but they too found it very difficult to increase the yield or achieve full strength in every lot. By August 19, 1922, Eli Lilly started shipments to the newly opened diabetes clinic at Toronto General Hospital. The Connaught facility had its special new vacuum apparatus and was about to start production. However, insulin still remained in short supply to the end of the year. Neither product, from Lilly or Toronto, had been purified or standardized. Lilly’s lot-to-lot potency varied by 25%. Clinicians had to be on constant guard for the symptoms of hypoglycemia from too much insulin.\nCanadian production remained difficult, erratic, and expensive throughout 1922. Even with the new vacuum equipment, Connaught Laboratories still could not make enough insulin to supply Banting and other clinicians in the city. The Americans also had problems, and there were complaints in the autumn of 1922 about the lack of potency and rapid deterioration. Part of the difficulty was that Toronto and Lilly were using different-size rabbits in their tests for potency.\nPrecipitation at the Isoelectric Point\nAttempts to prevent deterioration led Lilly’s chief chemist, George Walden, to the company’s great advance in insulin production and purification. He discovered that marked deterioration took place in the pH range 4.0–6.5. Whereas other sites producing insulin had, by luck or design, managed to avoid deterioration, Walden studied the process. He realized that the insulin solution was weakened by the gradual formation of a precipitate containing the active principle, thereby reducing the activity of the remaining solution. Insulin was being precipitated at the wrong pH. Walden also discovered that this precipitate was much purer and more potent than anything produced previously. Instead of avoiding the isoelectric point at which insulin precipitated, Walden now adjusted the solution to this pH to produce maximum precipitation. This yielded the best insulin yet, with a stability and purity from 10 to 100 times greater than any obtained before. The isoelectric precipitation method was developed between October and December 1922. The production problem solved, by February 1923 the company was building up large reserves of insulin. The one remaining problem was standardization. Consistency from batch to batch still varied by 10%.\nA Patent for Protection\nOn January 23, 1923, an American patent on both insulin and Toronto’s method of making it was awarded to Banting, Collip, and Best. For $1.00 to each, the three discoverers assigned their patent rights to the Board of Governors of the University of Toronto. The application had stressed that none of the other researchers in the past had been able to produce a nontoxic antidiabetic extract. A patent was necessary to restrict manufacture of insulin to reputable pharmaceutical houses who could guarantee the purity and potency of their products. It would also prevent unscrupulous drug manufacturers from making or patenting an impotent or weakened version of this potentially dangerous drug and calling it insulin.\nProblems and disagreements about patents and licenses were eventually straightened out. Toronto needed a licensing arrangement that would make use of Lilly’s resources for production without surrendering control of the extract. For a time there was concern about a possible challenge to a Lilly patent application for the isoelectric precipitation method from a team at Washington University in St. Louis that had made a similar discovery simultaneously and independently of Lilly. Phillip Shaffer and his associates Edward A. Doisy (1893–1986) and Michael Somogyi discovered the isoelectric precipitation method in the fall of 1922 and reported it in December 1922 ( 49 ). After meeting with representatives from Toronto, Shaffer agreed to oppose the Lilly patent application if this would help Toronto. Armed with this agreement, Toronto was able to get Lilly to accept a new nonexclusive licensing contract. In return, Toronto dropped its objection to “Iletin”, Lilly’s trade name modified from Banting and Best’s original term “Isletin”, so long as “Insulin, Lilly” was given equal prominence on the company label.\n“Get Used To It”\nWho deserved the fame and tributes for the discovery of insulin? The press would have something to say about that by the way it covered the story. After the May 3 announcement, Banting, the country surgeon, and Best, the student, dissolved into the background and were replaced by Macleod and the clinicians. During the summer of 1922, the circumstances changed. Collip was gone, Best was working as director of Connaught’s insulin production to help pay for medical school, and Macleod was doing research at the Marine Biological Station in St. Andrew’s, New Brunswick, preparing extracts from islet tissue of a species of bony fishes (teleosts). These islet tissues are anatomically separate from the rest of the pancreatic tissue. It was a simple matter for Macleod to prepare extracts from the different tissue sources. Whereas the islet tissue was a potent source of insulin, none could be obtained from the pancreatic tissue proper. Thus, Macleod provided the first strong direct experimental evidence for the hypothesis that insulin is derived from the insular and not the acinar tissue of the pancreas ( 50 ).\nWith Best, Collip, and Macleod away, Banting became the go-to man on the scene in the struggle to produce good insulin. He got to know Clowes and others in the scientific world outside of Toronto during this period when the clinical phase overshadowed the experimental physiology handled by Macleod.\nBanting regained his self-confidence, but something new soon set him off again. There were more headlines, confrontations, and clashes in his ongoing war with Macleod. On September 6, the Toronto Star ran a story on the impact insulin was having overseas. It quoted a letter to The Times of London by Professor Sir William Bayliss of University College. Bayliss, codiscoverer with Starling of secretin, was one of Britain’s leading physiologists and a friend of Macleod. He complained that Macleod was not getting proper credit for the duct-ligation method of producing pancreatic extracts, and he dismissed Banting as one of the collaborators who had possibly helped in the clinical application. Best showed the article to Macleod, who denied having anything to do with the letter and told Best he did not want to get involved in a newspaper controversy by refuting it. Probably meaning to explain that every scientist had to learn to adapt to the attention and distortions in the press, Macleod said, “Banting will have to get used to it”. Hearing this second hand, it sounded like Macleod was saying that Banting had better get used to all the credit going to Macleod. It was not long before Banting was in Macleod’s office with the reporter who wrote the story, asking for a correction of Bayliss’s statements. Macleod’s response did not satisfy Banting or Best, nor did the follow-up story satisfy Macleod ( 17 )( 36 )( 51 ).\nMacleod’s letters to Bayliss, Collip, and others during this period made passing references to “this fresh outbreak of Banting’s”, “an extremely uncomfortable position here”, and “unbelievable trouble” and show how unpleasant the situation had become ( 51 ). Macleod also complained that Banting wanted “full credit for all the work which has been done subsequent to this [duct-ligation] experiment. This I will of course not do since he has participated very little in the work, and not at all during the past six months” ( 52 ). The modus vivendi worked out that spring had completely broken down. The old suspicions, misunderstandings, and distrust had reappeared. The controversy between Banting and Macleod was well underway. The discovery of insulin was up for grabs.\nOne Event—Three Versions\nAt this point entered Colonel Albert Gooderham, prominent member of the Board of Governors, patron of the Connaught Laboratories, and chairman of the Insulin Committee. Anxious to end the growing dispute, he decided to intervene. In September 1922, he asked Banting, Best, and Macleod to prepare their own understandings of the discovery of insulin. Each was asked to outline Collip’s contribution. Gooderham did not write to Collip. He planned to compare the statements and then meet with them to clear up all misunderstandings and prepare one agreed-on history.\nMacleod wrote the longest account and was quite certain that at every step he had given Banting and Best appropriate assistance, support, encouragement, and advice. He had criticized Banting’s early proposals because Banting had come to him with such superficial knowledge. He had criticized the early results and demanded better to strengthen the credibility of the work. At first, he resisted premature clinical testing. To emphasize his belief that the young men should get full credit for their experiments, he had explicitly declined their offer to add his name to their first paper in the February 1922 Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine. He had bent over backward not to claim as much as other research directors might have. “In many, if not most, laboratories it is the custom for the ‘chief’ to have his name on the papers when the investigation is in a subject related to that in which he is engaged and if he stands responsible for the conclusions and has participated to the extent that I did in the planning of the research. By this step I made it perfectly evident that I considered the full credit for this investigation to be Banting and Best’s. This is surely what counts in questions of priority” ( 17 ).\nIn his private and public accounts of the discovery of insulin, Macleod was very careful to credit Banting with having initiated the work and having confirmed the hypothesis that the pancreas contained an internal secretion. Macleod wanted Collip to get full credit for the purification of the extract and therefore played an important part in the success with the first diabetic human. The work was ultimately a team effort “working under my direction, of which Dr. Banting was one”.\nBanting, on the other hand, insisted that he alone had the idea that led to the discovery of insulin and that Macleod had been critical and discouraging of his work at every turn. Banting had no memory of any of Macleod’s specific suggestions; what he did remember was that Macleod had not done a single experiment. According to Banting, Collip had joined the project only after the important advances had been made. He was willing to credit Macleod only with the investigation of insulin’s physiologic action, but he and Best had discovered insulin well before that study was begun. In an appendix to his 1922 account, Banting listed several more examples of Macleod showing “a lack of trust and co-operation” ( 36 ). This ungenerous, self-centered report reveals Banting’s insecure personality and his fear of becoming sidelined.\nOf the three accounts, Best’s was the shortest, only ∼1000 words, but perhaps the most objective. He gave much more credit to Macleod than Banting did, confirming that Macleod suggested the use of alcohol as an extraction agent. He also gave more credit to Collip than Banting did, although not on the important point of methods of purification. There was no review of injustices or any sense of grievance similar to those that permeated Banting’s and Macleod’s documents. “The work during the fall months reported in our two papers was performed entirely by Banting and myself. We had the benefit of Dr. Macleod’s advice, but as he states, we were given the opportunity to conclusively prove the efficiency of our extract upon diabetic animals, and … diabetic patients, before the other members of the Physiological Staff participated in this work” ( 36 ).\nThere was no reconciliation of the conflicting accounts, then or later. The same events were being described from different perspectives, with different emphasis, and different memories of events. There was no meeting with Gooderham, and no comprehensive account of the discovery of insulin was ever prepared at Toronto. The documents were not made public, and no more statements were made to the press.\nHad Gooderham sought comments from Collip, he might have received something like the feelings he expressed in a letter to a friend. Probably written in 1923, Collip said: “There are some people in Toronto who felt that I had no business to do physiological work…. The result was that when I made a definite discovery my confreres instead of being pleased were quite frankly provoked that I had had the good fortune to conceive the experiment and to carry it out. My own feelings now in the matter are that the whole research with its aftermath has been a disgusting business” ( 53 ).\nThe Man From Copenhagen\nLate in November, the University of Toronto had an important visitor. Professor August Krogh (1874–1949) of the University of Copenhagen, the most recent winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1920 “for his discovery of the capillary motor regulatory mechanism” during exercise, had come to the US to deliver the Silliman Lecture at Yale. Everywhere he went he found American medical men talking about the insulin work at Toronto, so he decided to see for himself. He had a special interest in insulin because his wife suffered from diabetes mellitus. Macleod was delighted to welcome him and invited Krogh to be his house guest. Krogh was in the city November 23 and 24, observed the work, spent much of his time with Banting and Macleod, and gave a guest lecture on the capillaries. When he left, he had authorization from the University of Toronto to introduce insulin into Scandinavia. A nonprofit Nordisk Insulin Laboratory was in production by the end of 1923 ( 54 ).\nAbout Face\nApparently Macleod privately changed his appraisal of the discovery when it appeared that a Nobel Prize was a possibility. Two months after his response to Gooderham, he told the visiting August Krogh that Banting and Best would have gone off on the wrong track without his advice and guidance ( 51 ). A copy of Macleod’s original assessment was found among his papers 13 years after his death, and a copy was sent to the president of the University of Western Ontario in 1949. For the next 30 years, the Macleod manuscript was circulated among a small group of scholars. It was long impossible to gain access to the responses to Gooderham locked away in storage at the University of Toronto where they lay buried for >50 years ( 55 ). Best had challenged the accuracy of Macleod’s 1922 account and advised the president of the University of Toronto to forbid publication of any of the documents with the invalid claim that they were the property of the university ( 56 ). Publication was suppressed by the university president to avoid reopening a controversy that he believed would do no one any good. However, the feeling by several eminent Canadian academic scientists was that Macleod had been roughly handled by history and the University of Toronto and deserved a chance to speak for himself. Although threatened with legal action if he searched for or quoted from Macleod’s report, Lloyd Stevenson, a biographer of Banting (1947), published the document in the Bulletin of the History of Medicine in 1978 after Best died that year ( 17 )( 55 ). Although there are no startling revelations, the details, nevertheless, differ markedly from the generally available versions. The 1922 account of the discovery of insulin by Banting, Best, and a list of contributions by Collip was published in the same journal in 1982 ( 36 ).\nPublic Relations and Image\nRelations among the principals at Toronto continued to be tense. Banting had always talked freely to his friends; they in turn talked to reporters, leaking details of Banting’s hardships, difficulties, and other injustices done to him. Banting now hated Macleod with a passion, an attitude he never abandoned. There was a grudging persistence to Banting’s dislikes. The depth and duration of his animosity long survived the general recognition of his own highly deserved rewards. Refusing for years to speak to Macleod, Banting was a lasting hater ( 20 ). The most violent expression of his feelings was written in the 1940 memoir. Using terms like “grasping, selfish, deceptive, self-seeking and empty of truth … unscrupulous … a coward and a skulking weakling…. ”, the memoir was laced with invective ( 51 ).\nAccording to people who knew Macleod personally, he was a gentle, honest, dedicated scientist, perhaps a little shy and reserved, perhaps a little vain, urbane, and cultivated. He was by temperament conservative, a cautious scientist, not brilliant or imaginative, but sound and plodding. He was respected for his organizational abilities, high standards of research, and skill in conveying ideas and information in a way that stimulated his students. They flatly denied that he was authoritarian on the German model. On the basis of these conversations and on Macleod’s correspondence, Bliss believes that Macleod was contemptuous of Banting for his crude manners, dress, and language and his ignorance as a researcher ( 51 ).\nWrong, Wrong, Wrong\nScathing criticism of Banting and Best’s work as reported in their first two publications in the Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine came in a letter to the British Medical Journal in December 1922 from Dr. Ff. Roberts, a physiology researcher in Cambridge, England. The writer declared that because the proteolytic enzyme exists in the pancreas in an inactive form—trypsinogen—that is activated by enterokinase secreted by the small intestine, there was no physiologic basis for the duct-ligation experiment. Although trypsinogen is also activated when a pancreas is cut out and begins to deteriorate, this happens only slowly and can easily be prevented by chilling. “The production of insulin originated in a wrongly conceived, wrongly conducted, and wrongly interpreted series of experiments. Through gross misreading of these experiments … apparently beneficial results have been obtained in certain cases of human diabetes…. The experiments of Banting and Best show conclusively that trypsin qua ferment has nothing whatever to do with it” ( 57 ).\nRoberts was immediately rebuked for the harsh tone of his letter by Henry Hallett Dale (1875–1968), a leading figure in British research, who shared the Nobel Prize with Otto Loewi (1873–1961) in 1936 for discoveries relating to the chemical transmission of nerve impulses. Dale had visited Toronto in September 1922 and been favorably impressed by Best’s work on insulin production and by his potential as a scientist. Dale called the review “armchair criticism” that leads only to verbal controversy. Perhaps “the enthusiasm, which carried them further, was fired by an imperfect interpretation of their earlier results…. Nobody can deny that a discovery of first-rate importance has been made, and, if it proves to have resulted from a stumble into the right road, where it crossed the course laid down by a faulty conception, surely the case is not unique in the history of science…. it is a poor thing to attempt belittlement of a great achievement by scornful exposure of errors in its inception” ( 58 ).\nBanting and Best were not experienced and knowledgeable enough to have achieved success without input and other help from an experienced investigator like Macleod. The immediate chilling of the pancreatic material, as suggested by Macleod, stopped self-digestion of the fresh pancreas by the activated enzymes. According to Michael Bliss, “Banting and Best’s research was so badly done that, without the help of Macleod and Collip, … the two young Canadians would be fated to disappear from medical history” ( 56 ). Although duct ligation played no essential part in the discovery and was not the way to go, it set the stage for making extracts directly from the whole pancreas. So many of these were potent that it convinced Macleod that there really was an internal secretion, and he added new resources and additional staff to the project. In addition, the newly developed micromethods of sugar analysis made it possible to track the effectiveness of the extract in test animals by rapid and frequent blood analysis, a more reliable indicator than urine analysis. Unfortunately, smooth interaction between the players was difficult because of the insecurity and volatility of Banting’s personality.\nFame, Celebrity, Recognition, Reward\nBanting achieved a sudden and spectacular fame. The entire scientific world joined to hail him with lavish praise. He was made an honorary member of most of the major scientific and medical societies of the world. Other honors, prizes, medals, and awards pursued him in rapid succession. To the public he was the laboratory wizard from whom new miracles were expected hourly. Newspapers and magazines trumpeted his fame. Banting appeared on the cover of Time magazine for August 27, 1923, in the expectation by the editors that he was the logical choice for a Nobel Prize later that year. Tributes came from the prime minister and the opposition leader. On a trip to England he was received by King George V.\nBanting was shy, unsophisticated, an ordinary country boy who hated speeches, banquets, and formal dress, and he hated being interviewed, to the point of being rude and insulting to reporters. He was at first an indifferent speaker with a stumbling delivery whose ineptitude seemed all the more noticeable when he was preceded or followed by the excellent delivery of Macleod. With practice, his public speaking improved and he became more business-like than eloquent.\nEver more suspicious of a Macleod conspiracy to deprive him of his well-deserved credit and recognition, Banting stayed in close touch with friends and well-wishers who were trying to advance his interests. Many of his friends thought that recognition should entail something more tangible than applause, luncheons, and memberships in exclusive clubs. There were discussions in the House of Commons in Ottawa and the provincial legislature of Ontario in Toronto about financial support to Banting and Best for their research. As the prospect of national honors for Banting developed, there was a rush of activity by his politically connected friends to provide a government grant. Letters were written to the leading American clinicians and others, including Charles Evans Hughes (1862–1948), US Secretary of State at the time and later reappointed to the US Supreme Court as Chief Justice, whose daughter Elizabeth had been treated by Banting, soliciting testimonials on behalf of an honor for Banting and insulin. Best was all but completely ignored. The university people did not consider him a codiscoverer. To them he was a student assistant. Banting often gave Best a great deal of credit and told the Premier of Ontario that he and Best had worked together from the beginning and that his and Best’s names should be linked. However, at no time did he credit Best with specific ideas or proposals that advanced the research. The testimonials had their effect. Early in May 1923, the Ontario government announced the Banting and Best Chair of Medical Research, a nonteaching professorship for Banting. An annual grant of $10000 would pay his salary, support his research, and fund Best in his research. A special appropriation of $10000 would reimburse the discoverers for the discovery period. Banting gave Best $2500. On June 27, 1923, the Canadian House of Commons granted Banting a lifetime annuity of $7500. They had no way of knowing that of the four principals of the insulin team, only Banting would fail to make new discoveries.\nThe Big Prize, a Challenge, and Protests\nWhen archives of the Nobel Committee in Stockholm were opened to historians for study of the 1923 awards, the documents revealed the process and roadblocks in the pathway leading to the prize in physiology or medicine ( 53 )( 59 ). Early in 1922, the Caroline Institute’s Nobel Committee sent out its annual requests for nominations of individuals worthy of receiving a prize for the discovery in physiology or medicine that, in that year, had, according to the will of Alfred Nobel (1833–1896), “conferred the greatest benefit on mankind” ( 53 )( 59 ). After discarding the self-nominations, publicity seekers, the frivolous, and the irrelevant, there remained a total of 57 nominations with merit. The prize could be awarded to more than one, but no more than three. Banting was nominated, so was Macleod. There was also a joint nomination of Banting and Macleod. It came from August Krogh, who had visited Toronto in November 1922 and heard the inside story from Macleod about the guidance he had provided to Banting and Best. Krogh nominated the pair for the discovery of insulin and their exploration of its clinical and physiologic characteristics. “According to the information I personally obtained in Toronto, … credit for the idea for the work that led to the discovery unquestionably goes to Dr. Banting. He is a young and apparently very talented man. But he would surely never have been able to carry out the experiments on his own, which from the beginning and at all stages were directed by Professor Macleod. The other authors should be considered as Macleod’s and Banting’s collaborators, but there is reason for specially mentioning the chemist J.B. Collip. He has made a very important contribution in the method of producing insulin…. But I do not think that is sufficient ground for the award of a prize”. Krogh concluded that Macleod’s part in the work merited the award. The Nobel Committee got the message.\nIn April 1923, the list was reduced to nine, counting Macleod and Banting as one. Nobel nominations are subjected to reviews. These appraisals are detailed, expert studies of the work of the nominees. Those assigned to the committees read the publications, observed the results of clinical tests, and met with specialists who were using insulin. On the basis of past experience, 1 year was almost always too soon to evaluate the true importance of a fundamental medical discovery. In their lengthy report the examiners concluded that the discovery of insulin was of fundamental importance, worthy of a Nobel Prize, and, although one of the reviewers found it difficult to judge Macleod’s contribution, they agreed that Banting and Macleod should share the Nobel Prize. The recommendations had to go to the Nobel Assembly, which consisted of the faculty members of the Caroline Institute, for final approval. At its October 11 meeting, there was a challenge to the joint recommendation and it was sent back to the committee for reconsideration. The objection was to making an award on hearsay evidence from unknown persons or on statements in the two appraisals, like “it is beyond doubt”, or on things that are thought of as “very possible”. The Assembly should adhere only to verifiable facts.\nThe committee reconsidered and reaffirmed its recommendation. In a formal letter to the Assembly, it identified August Krogh as the source of the “hearsay” evidence and emphasized that he had made the joint recommendation based on his visit to Toronto. The committee concluded that it was Banting’s idea alone, but “it was Macleod’s guiding hand that helped Banting’s idea reach such a happy culmination ….” On October 25, the 19 professors of the Caroline Institute voted by secret ballot to award the 1923 prize to Banting and Macleod “for the discovery of insulin”. For once, as stipulated in Nobel’s will, the award was given for a benefit rendered “during the preceding year”. The citation made no mention of insulin’s clinical or physiologic characteristics as noted in Krogh’s nomination.\nBanting was furious when he learned that Macleod was to share the Nobel Prize and said he would not accept the award. Gooderham, who knew the whole story, told Banting he must think of his obligations to Canada and science. How would it look if the first Canadian to receive this honor turned it down because of a difference of opinion about the Prize? Banting changed his mind. He decided to share the money award and the credit with Best. Macleod was on a ship returning from England when he heard the news. A few days after landing in Montreal, he telegraphed Collip and asked him to share his half of the prize money. Collip accepted. Macleod told the press “it is teamwork that did it”. Banting and Macleod were each awarded an honorary Doctor of Science degree by the University of Toronto on November 26. Macleod was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1923. Banting had to wait until 1935 for this honor.\nThe Nobel Committee received furious letters of protest from Georg Zuelzer in Berlin, pleading for some recognition of his priority. Nicolas Paulesco in Bucharest was outraged. He claimed his work was stolen by Toronto, and he demanded justice from the Nobel Committee. Scott ( 60 ) called attention to his prior successful experiments. The protests were ignored. Israel S. Kleiner (1885–1966), an American biochemist whose work in 1919, almost completely forgotten, was closer to success than any of them, made no claims ( 61 )( 62 ).\nKleiner had made solutions of ground fresh dog pancreas in slightly salted distilled water. In all 16 of his experiments, using the new methods for blood sugar analysis ( 24 )( 25 ), the extract caused a temporary but marked decrease in the blood sugar of depancreatized dogs, sometimes by >50%. There were also marked decreases in the excretion of sugar. There were, however, mild toxic symptoms, usually an elevated temperature, associated with the extract. This work “indicates a possible therapeutic application to human beings” ( 13 ).\nMaking it to the Screen—Big and Small\nFrom the very beginning, controversy over the discovery and the 1923 prize led to distortions in the popular perceptions, especially of Macleod’s image. Banting, Best, and Collip had their ardent advocates. Macleod, however, remained a shadowy figure in the background of the story. He has been seen as intruding on the glory of Banting and Best and stealing some of their credit.\nA 1973 British film, “Comets Among the Stars”, later released as a three-part TV series, starred Sir Ralph Richardson in the role of Professor Macleod. His portrayal, as described by Stevenson ( 55 ), was dark, unappealing, and repellent. All the villainous elements of conflict and drama were exploited. In 1988, a Canadian TV miniseries from Gemstone Productions, based on The Discovery of Insulin, made it to the small screen as “Glory Enough for All”. It was seen in the US on “Masterpiece Theater” of the Public Broadcasting System in 1989 and 1990.\nAfter Insulin\nMacleod left the University of Toronto in 1928 to become Regius Professor of Physiology at his alma mater, the University of Aberdeen, where he later became dean of the medical school. When a farewell dinner was held for Macleod at Toronto, Banting refused to attend. Most of Macleod’s Aberdeen days were spent in nagging pain from crippling arthritis. Macleod’s textbook, Physiology and Biochemistry in Modern Medicine (1918), with collaborators reached a 7th edition in 1934. He died in 1935 at age 59. Macleod’s replacement as professor of physiology at Toronto was 29-year-old Charles Best, who had graduated from the medical school in 1925.\nDuring the years after insulin, Banting was coauthor on publications dealing with a wide variety of subjects, but he did no work with insulin ( 63 ). It was indicative of his limitations as an original researcher that all the other members of the team except Banting went on to do other significant work. He tried to duplicate the insulin experience—a great idea, an ingenious approach, and then the solution. In his many talks on medical research, he always stressed the ideas, not the training. Throughout his life, the press and public expected him to repeat the triumph of insulin and were always asking what he would do next.\nDuring the 1930s, he became close friends with Collip. When a Conservative government resumed accepting titles for Canadians in 1934, after suspension in 1919, Banting was made a Knight Commander of the British Empire by King George V. He was now Sir Frederick Banting, K.B.E.\nA Fatal Plane Crash\nWhen war broke out in 1939, Banting served as coordinating chairman of Canada’s wartime medical research focusing on aviation medicine, especially the physiologic effects of the high speeds, high altitudes, and rapid descents expected to be encountered in combat aerial maneuvers. While in London in the winter of 1939–1940, consulting with his British counterparts, he spent his free time writing a long account of the discovery of insulin, which was deposited among the unpublished Banting Papers in the archives of the University of Toronto. Bliss describes the account as rambling and unpolished, never verified for accuracy—more a documentary source than a history. The 1940 manuscript was frequently cited in his history of the discovery of insulin. Bliss rejects the conventional history that minimizes Macleod’s role in the discovery of insulin and reveals the importance of his contributions leading to the successful first use of insulin on human diabetics.\nBanting returned to Canada in the spring of 1940. Early in 1941, he decided on another transatlantic trip, by air to save time. On the night of February 20, he was a passenger in a new Hudson bomber being ferried from Gander Bay, Newfoundland, to England. Shortly after takeoff one engine failed, and while returning to base, the other engine faltered and the radio failed. It was dark and snowing. Unable to see the ground, the pilot came within a few feet of a safe landing, but a wing struck a large tree at the edge of a frozen lake and the plane crashed. Only the pilot survived the crash. Banting sustained severe injuries and died ∼20 h later. The remote crash site was spotted by a search plane on the 24th, and the victims were removed by sled ( 64 )( 65 ).\nTo his colleagues of the insulin era, Banting was determined, willful, and frequently difficult. To others, he was “a disappointed and disillusioned man, … an unsociable creature…. Not a great scientist, as scientifically trained people appreciate the word, he was primarily … a symbol of medical research”. Understood by too few, Banting was a man of many talents, moods, and interests. Immortalized long before his death, he was “a man possessed of the finest degree of humility….” ( 66 ).\nIn an obituary tribute, Collip wrote: “Banting was a most unselfish individual. He was always mindful of helping others and it was almost a religion with him to encourage, stimulate and assist young research workers” ( 67 ).\nA Mistake Has Been Made\nBest and Collip went on to productive careers in research. Best, his associates, and students conducted basic studies on the lipotropic effects of the dietary factor choline and pioneered in the isolation and development of heparin. In 1941 he succeeded Banting as head of the Banting and Best Department of Medical Research. Banting’s friends were extremely upset when Banting’s chair and control of the department were given to Best. They knew that in the last years of his life, Banting had developed an intense dislike of Best, a feeling shared by E.C. Noble, who was deeply embittered by Banting’s and then Best’s neglect of his contributions to the insulin work ( 56 ).\nWith Norman B. Taylor, Best coauthored a widely used textbook, The Physiological Basis of Medical Practice (1937), (10th edition, 1979). The 11th (1985) and 12th (1991) editions were edited by John B. West. Best wrote and often reminisced about his role in the discovery of insulin. However, his memory was too selective to make the accounts entirely reliable ( 68 ).\nAfter Banting’s death, Best became the chief spokesman for the view that he and Banting had discovered insulin on their own in 1921 and had been denied their full share of the glory because of the scheming of Macleod and Collip and their friends. During the next 30 years, Best and his friends promoted a version of the discovery of insulin with a greatly enlarged and enhanced part for Best while minimizing or omitting the contributions of Macleod and Collip. He justified revisions of the written record on the grounds that memory took precedence. Bliss believes that Best was insecure and had a deep psychologic need for recognition and a place in history ( 56 ).\nBest’s version began to lose credibility with the surfacing of new documentary evidence of the vital contributions of Collip and Macleod. As already noted, Best challenged the accuracy of Macleod’s 1922 account and urged the university president to forbid its publication. Collip refused to offer his own written comments or to get involved in the web of misleading claims, distortions, manipulation of the historical record, omissions, and inaccuracies being put out by Best. He was satisfied to let history have the final say. Best’s rewrite of history was challenged in 1954 by a major critical evaluation of the insulin work. Joseph H. Pratt, a Boston physician, credited Collip with providing the first insulin to be used successfully in the treatment of diabetes. He concluded that all four members of the team deserved recognition ( 69 ).\nBest was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1938 and, in the later years of his life, was awarded many honors by grateful diabetes associations, medical societies, and universities. He received the DSc in 1928 for postgraduate work in London with H.H. Dale. In 1950, Dale nominated Best for a Nobel Prize for his later research on choline and for his general achievements, including the work with insulin. Despite repeated nominations by Dale and others ( 56 ), Best was not awarded a Nobel Prize. However, he did have the satisfaction of knowing that the 1972 official history of the Nobel Prize acknowledged that a mistake had been made in 1923. “Although it would have been right to include Best among the prize-winners, this was not formally possible, since no one had nominated him—a circumstance which probably gave the Committee a wrong impression of the importance of Best’s share in the discovery” ( 70 ). The history noted that “The work was also facilitated by the previous introduction of convenient methods for determining the sugar content of the blood”. Years earlier, on the occasion of the 25th anniversary of the discovery of insulin, Best said: “We had many advantages over our predecessors, but I think the greatest single advantage undoubtedly was the method of doing blood-sugars quickly and accurately … on very small amounts of blood” ( 71 ).\nIn 1981, Rolf Luft, a former chairman of the Nobel selection committee for the physiology or medicine award, told the NIH that in his view, the 1923 award to Banting and Macleod was the worst error of commission ( 72 ). It was a message Luft had delivered before. At a 1972 anniversary symposium on insulin, he dismissed Macleod as a manager and promoter who “put Collip and the Lilly Company into business” ( 61 ).\nMore Hormones, More Isolation\nCollip did intensive pioneering work on isolation of the parathyroid hormone and added a DSc degree in 1924 and a MD degree in 1926. During 5 years in Edmonton, he related the hormonal control of calcium and phosphorus metabolism to an active principle in the parathyroid gland. In connection with this work, he needed a method for serum calcium that would be as simple as possible and at the same time give consistent results. The method of Kramer and Tisdall ( 73 ), modified slightly by Tisdall ( 74 ), was modified again, slightly, by Clark and Collip ( 75 ) in 1925. Their version for serum calcium was widely adopted in clinical chemistry laboratories for the next 40 years.\nIn 1927, Collip became chairman of biochemistry at McGill University. There his group of students and collaborators engaged in the forefront of wide-ranging endocrinologic research in the isolation and study of the ovarian, gonadotropic, and adrenocorticotropic hormones. Collip had the remarkable skill to handle large concentrations of glands, purify them to a manageable scale, and separate out different hormone fractions. He received many honors for his pioneering investigations in endocrinology and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1933. In 1947, Collip became dean of medicine at the University of Western Ontario.\nIn his obituary tribute to Banting, Collip wrote: “The part which I was able to contribute subsequently to the work of the team was only that which any well-trained biochemist could be expected to contribute, and was indeed very trivial by comparison with Banting’s contribution” ( 67 ). Collip was very reluctant to talk about the discovery of insulin. Very little of his unpublished material, including his laboratory notebooks, has been found. He did write a short history of the discovery of insulin, which he read at a medical meeting ( 76 ). He always maintained that the truth about the discovery of insulin was in the publications of those years and might emerge after they were all dead ( 56 ).\nFootnotes\nInsulin kept type I diabetic patients alive so that complications that occur later in life (cardiovascular, renal, blindness) were then better understood and appreciated. There was an unexpected by-product to the discovery of insulin. Diabetic individuals lived longer and passed the hereditary component of this disease to their children, which has brought about a steady increase in the number of diabetic sufferers.\nIn 1926, John Jacob Abel (1857–1938) of Johns Hopkins University prepared the first crystalline insulin. In the mid-1950s the molecular structure of insulin was determined by Frederick Sanger (1918–1982), for which he received a Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1958. He received a second Nobel Prize in 1980 for determining base sequences of nucleic acids. With genetic engineering it is now possible not only to make insulin in unlimited quantities, but to make human insulin rather than use the slightly different insulin of other species.\nSummary\nIn retrospect, Banting, Best, Macleod, and Collip all made significant contributions, and Macleod’s role was greater than what he has been credited with by the conventional history. Despite professional rivalry and personality conflicts, they showed that the missing factor in diabetic patients is in the islets of Langerhans and that a material can be extracted and purified from the islets that greatly extends the life of type I diabetic patients. A key player in their success was the new methodology of sugar analysis using small volumes of blood, which made frequent determinations possible in small animals and patients.\n© 2002 The American Association for Clinical Chemistry\nReferences\n↵\nBarron M. The relation of the islets of Langerhans to diabetes with special reference to cases of pancreatic lithiasis. Surg Gynec Obstet 1920;31:437-448." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "La_Dolce_Vita.txt" ], "title": [ "La Dolce Vita" ], "wiki_context": [ "La Dolce Vita (; Italian for \"the sweet life\" or \"the good life\") is a 1960 Italian comedy-drama film directed and co-written by Federico Fellini. The film follows Marcello Rubini, a journalist writing for gossip magazines, over seven days and nights on his journey through the \"sweet life\" of Rome in a fruitless search for love and happiness. La Dolce Vita won the Palme d'Or (Golden Palm) at the 1960 Cannes Film Festival and the Oscar for Best Costumes, and remains one of the most critically acclaimed films of all time.\n\nPlot\n\nBased on the most common interpretation of the storyline, the film can be divided into a prologue, seven major episodes interrupted by an intermezzo, and an epilogue (see also Structure, below). If the evenings of each episode were joined with the morning of the respective preceding episode together as a day, they would form seven consecutive days, which may not necessarily be the case.\n\nPrologue\n\n1st Day Sequence:\nA helicopter transports a statue of Christ over an ancient Roman aqueduct outside Rome while a second, Marcello Rubini's news helicopter, follows it into the city. The news helicopter is momentarily sidetracked by a group of bikini-clad women sunbathing on the rooftop of a high-rise apartment building. Hovering above, Marcello uses gestures to elicit phone numbers from them but fails in his attempt then shrugs and continues on following the statue into Saint Peter's Square.\n\nEpisode 1\n\n1st Night Sequence: Marcello meets Maddalena by chance in an exclusive nightclub. A beautiful and wealthy heiress, Maddalena is tired of Rome and constantly in search of new sensations while Marcello finds Rome suits him as a jungle he can hide in. They make love in the bedroom of a prostitute to whom they had given a ride home in Maddalena’s Cadillac.\n\n1st Dawn Sequence: Marcello returns to his apartment at dawn to find that his fiancée, Emma, has overdosed. On the way to the hospital, he declares his everlasting love to her and again as she lies in a semiconscious state in the emergency room. While waiting frantically for her recovery, however, he tries to make a phone call to Maddalena.\n\nEpisode 2\n\n2nd Day Sequence: That day, he goes on assignment for the arrival of Sylvia, a famous Swedish-American actress, at Ciampino airport where she is met by a horde of news reporters.\n\nDuring Sylvia's press conference, Marcello calls home to ensure Emma has taken her medication while reassuring her that he is not alone with Sylvia. After the film star confidently replies to the barrage of journalists' questions, her boyfriend Robert (Lex Barker) enters the room late and drunk. To Sylvia's producer, Marcello casually recommends that Sylvia be taken on a tour of St Peter's.\n\nInside St Peter's dome, a news reporter complains that Sylvia is \"an elevator\" because none of them can match her energetic climb up the numerous flights of stairs. Inspired, Marcello maneuvers forward to be alone with her when they finally reach the balcony overlooking the Vatican.\n\n2nd Night Sequence: That evening, the infatuated Marcello dances with Sylvia in the Baths of Caracalla. Sylvia's natural sensuality triggers raucous partying while Robert, her bored fiancé, draws caricatures and reads a newspaper. His humiliating remark to her causes Sylvia to leave the group, eagerly followed by Marcello and his paparazzi colleagues. Finding themselves alone, Marcello and Sylvia spend the rest of the evening in the alleys of Rome where they wade into the Trevi Fountain.\n\n2nd Dawn Sequence: Like a magic spell that has suddenly been broken, dawn arrives at the very moment Sylvia playfully \"anoints\" Marcello's head with fountain water. They drive back to Sylvia's hotel to find an enraged Robert waiting for her in his car. Robert slaps Sylvia, orders her to go to bed, and then assaults Marcello who takes it in stride.\n\nEpisode 3a\n\n3rd Day Sequence: Marcello meets Steiner, his distinguished intellectual friend, inside a church playing Bach on the organ. Steiner shows off his book of Sanskrit grammar.\n\nEpisode 4\n\n4th Day Sequence: Late afternoon, Marcello, his photographer friend Paparazzo, and Emma drive to the outskirts of Rome to cover the story of the purported sighting of the Madonna by two children. Although the Catholic Church is officially skeptical, a huge crowd of devotees and reporters gathers at the site.\n\n3rd Night Sequence: That night, the event is broadcast over Italian radio and television. Blindly following the two children from corner to corner in a downpour, the crowd tears a small tree apart for its branches and leaves said to have sheltered the Madonna. Meanwhile, Emma prays to the Virgin Mary to be given sole possession of Marcello's heart.\n\n3rd Dawn Sequence: The gathering ends at dawn with the crowd mourning a sick child, a pilgrim brought by his mother to be healed, but trampled to death in the melee.\n\nEpisode 3b\n\n4th Night Sequence: One evening, Marcello and Emma attend a gathering at Steiner’s luxurious home where they are introduced to a group of intellectuals who recite poetry, strum the guitar, offer philosophical ideas, and listen to sounds of nature recorded on tape. While one of the women declares it better not to get married so that one does not need to choose, Marcello responds that it is better to be chosen than to choose. Emma appears enchanted with Steiner's home and children, telling Marcello that one day he will have a home like Steiner's.\n\nOutside on the terrace, Marcello confesses to Steiner his admiration for all he stands for, but Steiner admits he is torn between the security that a materialistic life affords and his longing for a more spiritual albeit insecure way of life. Steiner philosophizes about the need for love in the world and fears what his children may grow up to face one day.\n\nIntermezzo\n\n5th Day Sequence: Marcello spends the afternoon working on his novel at a seaside restaurant where he meets Paola, a young waitress from Perugia playing Perez Prado's cha-cha Patricia on the jukebox and then humming its tune. He asks her if she has a boyfriend, then describes her as an angel in Umbrian paintings.\n\nEpisode 5\n\n5th Night Sequence: Marcello meets his father (Annibale Ninchi) visiting Rome on the Via Veneto. With Paparazzo, they go to the Cha-Cha-Cha Club where Marcello introduces his father to Fanny, a beautiful dancer and one of his past one-night stands (he had promised to get her picture in the paper, but failed to do it). Fanny takes a liking to his father. Marcello tells Paparazzo that as a child he had never seen much of his father, who would spend weeks away from home. Fanny invites Marcello’s father back to her flat, and two other dancers invite the two younger men to go with them. Marcello leaves the others when they get to the dancers' neighborhood. Fanny comes out of her house, upset that Marcello's father has become ill.\n\n4th Dawn Sequence: Marcello's father has suffered what seems to be a mild heart attack. Marcello wants him to stay with him in Rome so they can get to know each other, but his father, weakened, wants to go home and gets in a taxi to catch the first train home. He leaves Marcello forlorn, on the street, watching the taxi leave.\n\nEpisode 6\n\n6th Night Sequence: Marcello, Nico, and other friends met on the Via Veneto are driven to a castle owned by aristocrats at Bassano di Sutri outside Rome. There is already a party long in progress, and the party-goers are bleary-eyed and intoxicated. By chance, Marcello meets Maddalena again. The two of them explore a suite of ruins annexed to the castle. Maddalena seats Marcello in a vast room and then closets herself in another room connected by an echo chamber. As a disembodied voice, Maddalena asks him to marry her; Marcello professes his love for her, avoiding answering her proposal. Another man kisses and embraces Maddalena, who loses interest in Marcello. He rejoins the group, and eventually spends the night with Jane, an American artist and heiress.\n\n5th Dawn Sequence: Burnt out and bleary-eyed, the group returns at dawn to the main section of the castle, to be met by the matriarch of the castle, who is on her way to mass, accompanied by priests in a procession.\n\nEpisode 3c\n\n7th Night Sequence: Marcello and Emma are alone in his sports car on an isolated road. Emma starts an argument by professing her love, and tries to get out of the car; Marcello pleads with her not to get out. Emma says that Marcello will never find another woman who loves him the way she does. Marcello becomes enraged at her, telling her that he cannot live with her maternal and smothering love. He now wants her to get out of the car, and she refuses. With some violence (a bite from her and a slap from him), he throws her out of the car and drives off. She is left alone on a dark, lonely road, in the dark. After some hours (it is now dawn), Emma is still alone on the road, holding flowers, when she hears his car approaching. She gets into the car without saying a word.\n\n6th Dawn Sequence: Marcello and Emma are asleep in bed, tenderly intertwined; Marcello receives a phone call. He rushes to the Steiners' apartment and learns that Steiner has killed himself and his two children.\n\n6th Day Sequence: After waiting with the police for Steiner’s wife to return home, he meets her outside to break the terrible news while paparazzi swarm around her snapping pictures.\n\nEpisode 7\n\n6th Night Sequence: An unspecified amount of time later, an older Marcello—now with gray in his hair—and a group of partygoers break into a Fregene beach house owned by Riccardo, a friend of Marcello's. To celebrate her recent divorce from Riccardo, Nadia performs a striptease to Perez Prado's cha-cha Patricia. The drunken Marcello attempts to provoke the other partygoers into an orgy. Due to their inebriated states, however, the party descends into mayhem with Marcello throwing pillow feathers around the room as he rides a young woman crawling on her hands and knees. Riccardo shows up at the house and angrily tells the partiers to leave.\n\nEpilogue\n\n7th Dawn Sequence: The party proceeds to the beach at dawn where they find a modern-day leviathan, a bloated, stingray-like creature, caught in the fishermen's nets. In his stupor, Marcello comments on how its eyes stare even in death.\n\n7th Day Sequence: Paola, the adolescent waitress from the seaside restaurant in Fregene, calls to Marcello from across an estuary but the words they exchange are lost on the wind, drowned out by the crash of the waves. He signals his inability to understand what she is saying or interpret her gestures. He shrugs and returns to the partygoers; one of the women joins him and they hold hands as they walk away from the beach. In a long final close-up, Paola waves to Marcello then stands watching him with an enigmatic smile.\n\nCast\n\n* Marcello Mastroianni as Marcello Rubini\n* Anita Ekberg as Sylvia\n* Anouk Aimée as Maddalena\n* Yvonne Furneaux as Emma\n* Lex Barker as Robert, Sylvia's fiancé.\n* Magali Noël as Fanny\n\n* Alain Cuny as Steiner\n* Nadia Gray as Nadia\n* Annibale Ninchi as Marcello's father\n* Walter Santesso as Paparazzo\n* Valeria Ciangottini as Paola\n* Riccardo Garrone as Riccardo\n\n* Ida Galli as Debutante of the Year\n* Audrey McDonald as Jane\n* Gloria Jones as Gloria\n* Alain Dijon as Frankie Stout\n* Enzo Cerusico as Newspaper photographer\n* Nico as Nico\n\nProduction\n\nCostumes\n\nCritics have often commented on the extravagant costumes used throughout Fellini's films. In various interviews, Fellini claimed that the film's initial inspiration was the fashionable ladies' sack dress because of what the dress could hide beneath it. Brunello Rondi, Fellini's co-screenwriter and long-time collaborator, confirmed this view explaining that \"the fashion of women's sack dresses which possessed that sense of luxurious butterflying out around a body that might be physically beautiful but not morally so; these sack dresses struck Fellini because they rendered a woman very gorgeous who could, instead, be a skeleton of squalor and solitude inside.\" \n\nWriting\n\nCredit for the creation of Steiner, the intellectual who commits suicide after shooting his two children, goes to co-screenwriter Tullio Pinelli. Having gone to school with Italian novelist Cesare Pavese, Pinelli had closely followed the writer's career and felt that his over-intellectualism had become emotionally sterile, leading to his suicide in a Turin hotel in 1950. This idea of a \"burnt-out existence\" is carried over to Steiner in the party episode where the sounds of nature are not to be experienced first-hand by himself and his guests but in the virtual world of tape recordings.\n\nFilming\n\nMost of the film was shot at the Cinecittà Studios in Rome. Set designer Piero Gherardi created over eighty locations, including the Via Veneto, the dome of Saint Peter's with the staircase leading up to it, and various nightclubs. However, other sequences were shot on location such as the party at the aristocrats' castle filmed in the real Bassano di Sutri palace north of Rome. (Some of the servants, waiters, and guests were played by real aristocrats.) Fellini combined constructed sets with location shots, depending on script requirements—a real location often \"gave birth to the modified scene and, consequently, the newly constructed set.\" The film's famous last scenes where the monster fish is pulled out of the sea and Marcello waves goodbye to Paola (the teenage \"Umbrian angel\") were shot on location at Passo Oscuro, a small resort town situated on the Italian coast 30 kilometers from Rome.\n\nFellini scrapped a major sequence that would have involved the relationship of Marcello with Dolores, an older writer living in a tower, to be played by 1930s Academy Award-winning actress Luise Rainer. If the director’s dealings with Rainer \"who used to involve Fellini in futile discussion\" were problematic, biographer Kezich argues that while rewriting the screenplay, the Dolores character grew \"hyperbolic\" and Fellini decided to jettison \"the entire story line.\" \n\nThe famous scene in the Trevi Fountain was shot over a week in winter: in March according to the BBC, in late January according to Anita Ekberg. Fellini claimed that Ekberg stood in the cold water in her dress for hours without any trouble while Mastroianni had to wear a wetsuit beneath his clothes - to no avail. It was only after the actor \"polished off a bottle of vodka\" and \"was completely pissed\" that Fellini could shoot the scene. \n\nPaparazzo\n\nThe character of Paparazzo, the news photographer (Walter Santesso), was inspired by photojournalist Tazio Secchiaroli and is the origin of the word paparazzi used in many languages to describe intrusive photographers. As to the origin of the character's name itself, Fellini scholar Peter Bondanella argues that although \"it is indeed an Italian family name, the word is probably a corruption of the word papataceo, a large and bothersome mosquito. Ennio Flaiano, the film's co-screenwriter and creator of Paparazzo, reports that he took the name from a character in a novel by George Gissing.\" Gissing's character, Signor Paparazzo, is found in his travel book, By the Ionian Sea (1901).\n\nThemes, motifs and structure\n\nMarcello is a journalist in Rome during the late 1950s who covers tabloid news of movie stars, religious visions and the self-indulgent aristocracy while searching for a more meaningful way of life. Precisely, Marcello faces the existential struggle of having to choose between two lifestyles, namely depicted by journalism and literature. Indeed, Marcello on the one hand leads a lifestyle of excess, of fame and pleasure amongst Rome's thriving popular culture. Thereby, depicting the confusion and frequency with which Marcello gets distracted by women and power. On the other, a more sensitive Marcello aspires of becoming a writer, of leading an intellectual's life amongst the elites, the poets, writers and philosophers of the time. In the end, Marcello chooses neither journalism, nor literature. Thematically however, he's opted for the life of excess and popularity by officially becoming a publicity agent.\n\nThe film's theme \"is predominantly café society, the diverse and glittery world rebuilt upon the ruins and poverty\" of the Italian postwar period. In the opening sequence, a plaster statue of Christ the Labourer suspended by cables from a helicopter, flies past the ruins of an ancient Roman aqueduct. The statue is being taken to the Pope at the Vatican. Journalist Marcello and a photographer named Paparazzo follow in a second helicopter. The symbolism of Christ, arms outstretched as if blessing all of Rome as it flies overhead, is soon replaced by the profane lifestyle and neo-modern architecture of the \"new\" Rome, founded on the economic miracle of the late 1950s. (Much of this was filmed in Cinecittà or in EUR, the Mussolini-style area south of Rome.) The delivery of the statue is the first of many recurring scenes, placing religious icons in the midst of characters demonstrating their \"modern\" morality, influenced by the booming economy and the emerging mass-consumer lifestyle.\n\nSeven principal episodes\n\nThe most common interpretation of the film is a mosaic, its parts linked by the protagonist, Marcello Rubini, a journalist. The seven principal episodes are as follows:\n\n1. Marcello's evening with the heiress Maddalena (Anouk Aimée)\n\n2. His long, frustrating night with the American actress Sylvia (Anita Ekberg) that ends in the Trevi fountain at dawn\n\n3. His reunion with the intellectual Steiner (Alain Cuny); their relationship is divided into three sequences spread over the entire film: a) the encounter, b) Steiner's party, and c) Steiner's tragedy\n\n4. The fake miracle\n\n5. His father's visit/Steiner's Party\n\n6. The aristocrat's party/Steiner's tragedy\n \n7. The \"orgy\" at the beach house\n\nInterrupting these seven episodes is the restaurant sequence with the angelic Paola; they are framed by a prologue (Christ statue over Rome) and epilogue (the monster fish), giving the film its innovative and symmetrically symbolic structure. The evocations are: seven deadly sins, seven sacraments, seven virtues, seven days of creation.\n\nOther critics claim that this widespread view of the film's structure is inaccurate. Peter Bondanella, for example, argues that \"any critic of La dolce vita not mesmerized by the magic number seven will find it almost impossible to organize the numerous sequences on a strictly numerological basis.\" \n\nAn aesthetic of disparity\n\nCritic Robert Richardson suggests that the originality of La dolce vita lies in a new form of film narrative that mines \"an aesthetic of disparity.\" Abandoning traditional plot and conventional \"character development,\" Fellini and co-screenwriters Ennio Flaiano and Tullio Pinelli, forged a cinematic narrative that rejected continuity, unnecessary explanations, and narrative logic in favour of seven non-linear encounters between Marcello, a kind of Dantesque Pilgrim, and an underworld of 120 different characters. These encounters build up a cumulative impression on the viewer that finds resolution in an \"overpowering sense of the disparity between what life has been or could be, and what it actually is.\" \n\nIn a device used earlier in his films, Fellini orders the disparate succession of sequences as movements from evening to dawn. Also employed as an ordering device is the image of a downward spiral that Marcello sets in motion when descending the first of several staircases (including ladders) that open and close each major episode. The upshot is that the film's aesthetic form, rather than its content, embodies the overall theme of Rome as a moral wasteland.\n\nCritical reception\n\nWriting for L'Espresso, Italian novelist Alberto Moravia highlighted the film's variations in tone: \"Highly expressive throughout, Fellini seems to change the tone according to the subject matter of each episode, ranging from expressionist caricature to pure neo-realism. In general, the tendency to caricature is greater the more severe the film's moral judgement although this is never totally contemptuous, there being always a touch of complacence and participation, as in the final orgy scene or the episode at the aristocrats' castle outside Rome, the latter being particularly effective for its descriptive acuteness and narrative rhythm.\" \n\nIn Filmcritica XI, Italian poet and film director Pier Paolo Pasolini argued that \"La dolce vita was too important to be discussed as one would normally discuss a film. Though not as great as Chaplin, Eisenstein or Mizoguchi, Fellini is unquestionably an author rather than a director. The film is therefore his and his alone... The camera moves and fixes the image in such a way as to create a sort of diaphragm around each object, thus making the object’s relationship to the world appear as irrational and magical. As each new episode begins, the camera is already in motion using complicated movements. Frequently, however, these sinuous movements are brutally punctuated by a very simple documentary shot, like a quotation written in everyday language\". \n\nIn France, Jacques Doniol-Valcroze, film critic and co-founder of Cahiers du cinéma, felt that \"what La dolce vita lacks is the structure of a masterpiece. In fact, the film has no proper structure: it is a succession of cinematic moments, some more convincing than others… In the face of criticism, La Dolce Vita disintegrates, leaving behind little more than a sequence of events with no common denominator linking them into a meaningful whole\". \n\nThe New York Times film critic Bosley Crowther praised Fellini’s “brilliantly graphic estimation of a whole swath of society in sad decay and, eventually, a withering commentary on the tragedy of the over-civilized… Fellini is nothing if not fertile, fierce and urbane in calculating the social scene around him and packing it onto the screen. He has an uncanny eye for finding the offbeat and grotesque incident, the gross and bizarre occurrence that exposes a glaring irony. He has, too, a splendid sense of balance and a deliciously sardonic wit that not only guided his cameras but also affected the writing of the script. In sum, it is an awesome picture, licentious in content but moral and vastly sophisticated in its attitude and what it says\". \n\nFilm critic Roger Ebert considered La Dolce Vita as Fellini’s best film, as well as his favorite film of all time besides Citizen Kane (1941), and listed it consistently in his top ten films for the Sight & Sound Greatest Films poll every ten years. Ebert's first review for the film, written on October 4, 1961, was the first film review he wrote, before he started his career as a film critic in 1967. The film was also a personal touchstone for Ebert, in how his perspective of the movie and his life changes as time passes by, giving this summation in his 1997 Great Movie review:\n\n\"Movies do not change, but their viewers do. When I saw 'La Dolce Vita' in 1960, I was an adolescent for whom 'the sweet life' represented everything I dreamed of: sin, exotic European glamour, the weary romance of the cynical newspaperman. When I saw it again, around 1970, I was living in a version of Marcello's world; Chicago's North Avenue was not the Via Veneto, but at 3 a.m. the denizens were just as colorful, and I was about Marcello's age. When I saw the movie around 1980, Marcello was the same age, but I was 10 years older, had stopped drinking, and saw him not as a role model but as a victim, condemned to an endless search for happiness that could never be found, not that way. By 1991, when I analyzed the film a frame at a time at the University of Colorado, Marcello seemed younger still, and while I had once admired and then criticized him, now I pitied and loved him. And when I saw the movie right after Mastroianni died, I thought that Fellini and Marcello had taken a moment of discovery and made it immortal.\" \n\nReview aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports that from 57 reviews, 96% were positive; the consensus states: \"An epic, breathtakingly stylish cinematic landmark, La Dolce Vita remains riveting in spite of -- or perhaps because of -- its sprawling length.\" On Metacritic, the film has a 93/100 rating based on 12 critics, indicating \"universal acclaim\". \n\nThe film earned $6 million in North American rentals on original release. The film was re-released in North America in 1966 and earned $1.5 million in rentals. \n\nCensorship\n\nPerceived by the Catholic Church as a parody of the second coming of Jesus, the opening scene and the film as a whole were condemned by the Vatican newspaper L'Osservatore Romano in 1960. Subject to widespread censorship, the film was banned in Spain, until the death of Franco in 1975. Umberto Tupini, the Minister of Culture of the Tambroni government censored it and other \"shameful films\".\n\nAwards and recognition\n\nThe New York Times hailed La dolce vita as \"one of the most widely seen and acclaimed European movies of the 1960s\". It was nominated for four Academy Awards, and won one for Best Costume Design: Black-and-White. La dolce vita also earned the Palme d'Or (Golden Palm) at the 1960 Cannes Film Festival. Entertainment Weekly voted it the 6th Greatest film of all time. \n\nIn 2010, the film was ranked #11 in Empire magazine's \"The 100 Best Films Of World Cinema\". \n\nIn popular culture\n\nAs mentioned above, one of the characters (Paparazzo) is the inspiration for the popular term \"paparazzi,\" a word for an intrusive photojournalist.\n\nTributes to Fellini in the \"Director's Cut\" of Cinema Paradiso (1988) include a helicopter suspending a statue of Christ over the city and scenes in which the Trevi Fountain is used as a backdrop while Toto, the main character, grows up to be a famous film director.\n\nWoody Allen's Celebrity (1998) is a New York-set re-working of La dolce vita with Kenneth Branagh taking up Mastroianni's role, and Winona Ryder and Charlize Theron taking on the roles held by Anouk Aimée and Anita Ekberg, respectively.\n\nIn Sofia Coppola's film Lost in Translation (2003), Kelly's interview for LIT resembles Sylvia's interview scenes in La dolce vita. Charlotte and Bob later meet in the middle of the night and watch the famous Trevi Fountain sequence while drinking sake. Coppola said, \"I saw that movie on TV when I was in Japan. It's not plot-driven, it's about them wandering around. And there was something with the Japanese subtitles and them speaking Italian - it had a truly enchanting quality\".\n\nThe 2013 Italian film The Great Beauty features a former writer who wanders through the parties of the Roman high society trying to decide what to do with his life.\n \n\nNotes" ] }

{ "description": [ "Directed by Federico Fellini. With Marcello Mastroianni, ... Nicolas Winding Refn Reveals Seven Surprising Film Inspirations: ‘La Dolce Vita,’ ‘Cloverfield ...", "La Dolce Vita. 1960 Directed by Federico Fellini. ... The world's most talked about movie today! Episodic journey of an Italian journalist scouring Rome in search of ...", "... breathtakingly stylish cinematic landmark, La Dolce Vita remains ... Directed By : Federico Fellini ... Essential surrealist film, La Dolce Vita is an early ...", "Rewind Film: 'La Dolce Vita, directed by Federico Fellini . Hong Kong. Politics; Economy; Health & Environment; ... La Dolce Vita. The film has a ...", "... because that would reduce the movie to a ... I have heard theories that Federico Fellini's \"La Dolce Vita\" catalogs the ... Directed by Federico ...", "Directed by Federico Fellini. ... 9:44 AM, PDT) Nicolas Winding Refn Reveals Seven Surprising Film Inspirations: ‘La Dolce Vita,’ ‘Cloverfield’ & More", "FEDERICO FELLINI'S \"La Dolce Vita\" ... weird observations and intimations that abound in this titanic film. ... and Brunello Rondi; directed by Signor ...", "Los Angeles ; Browse all cities . Tickets ... La Dolce Vita. Film, Drama. 5 out of 5 stars ... This is a young man's film ...", "La Dolce Vita. Directed by Frederico Fellini with Marcello ... Fellini was not inured to the poor and indeed his great 1954 film, \"La Strada,\" was about poor circus ..." ], "filename": [ "66/66_1377.txt", "180/180_1378.txt", "127/127_1380.txt", "135/135_1381.txt", "176/176_1382.txt", "99/99_1383.txt", "142/142_1384.txt", "8/8_1385.txt", "37/37_1386.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 ], "title": [ "La Dolce Vita (1960) - IMDb", "‎La Dolce Vita (1960) directed by Federico Fellini ...", "La Dolce Vita (1960) - Rotten Tomatoes", "Rewind Film: 'La Dolce Vita, directed by Federico Fellini ...", "La Dolce Vita Movie Review & Film Summary (1960 ...", "Federico Fellini's 1960 film \"La Dolce Vita.\" - IMDb", "Movie Review - - Fellini Film Lives Up to Foreign Hurrahs ...", "La Dolce Vita, directed by Federico Fellini | Film review", "Film/Classic: La Dolce Vita by Federico Fellini" ], "url": [ "http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0053779/", "https://letterboxd.com/film/la-dolce-vita/", "https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/dolce_vita/", "http://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/arts-culture/article/1250579/rewind-film-la-dolce-vita-directed-federico-fellini", "http://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/great-movie-la-dolce-vita-1960", "http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0053779/combined", "http://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9D04EFD9153BE13ABC4851DFB266838A679EDE", "http://www.timeout.com/london/film/la-dolce-vita", "http://www.thecityreview.com/dolce.html" ], "search_context": [ "La Dolce Vita (1960) - IMDb\nIMDb\n17 January 2017 4:34 PM, UTC\nNEWS\nThere was an error trying to load your rating for this title.\nSome parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later.\nX Beta I'm Watching This!\nKeep track of everything you watch; tell your friends.\nError\nLa dolce vita (original title)\nNot Rated |\nA series of stories following a week in the life of a philandering paparazzo journalist living in Rome.\nDirector:\na list of 32 titles\ncreated 12 Jun 2013\na list of 49 titles\ncreated 02 Jul 2013\na list of 46 titles\ncreated 06 Jun 2014\na list of 38 titles\ncreated 22 Jul 2014\na list of 28 titles\ncreated 11 months ago\nTitle: La Dolce Vita (1960)\n8.1/10\nWant to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below.\nYou must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin.\nWon 1 Oscar. Another 10 wins & 12 nominations. See more awards  »\nVideos\nA harried movie director retreats into his memories and fantasies.\nDirector: Federico Fellini\nA care-free girl is sold to a traveling entertainer, consequently enduring physical and emotional pain along the way.\nDirector: Federico Fellini\nA series of comedic and nostalgic vignettes set in a 1930s Italian coastal town.\nDirector: Federico Fellini\nA waifish prostitute wanders the streets of Rome looking for true love but finds only heartbreak.\nDirector: Federico Fellini\nA character study of five young men at crucial turning points in their lives in a small town in Italy.\nDirector: Federico Fellini\nA small-time thief steals a car and impulsively murders a motorcycle policeman. Wanted by the authorities, he reunites with a hip American journalism student and attempts to persuade her to run away with him to Italy.\nDirector: Jean-Luc Godard\nAfter living a life marked by coldness, an aging professor is forced to confront the emptiness of his existence.\nDirector: Ingmar Bergman\nA woman disappears during a Mediterranean boating trip. During the search, her lover and her best friend become attracted to each other.\nDirector: Michelangelo Antonioni\nA series of disjointed mythical tales set in first century Rome.\nDirector: Federico Fellini\nA day in the life of an unfaithful married couple and their steadily deteriorating relationship.\nDirector: Michelangelo Antonioni\nA fluid, unconnected and sometimes chaotic procession of scenes detailing the various people and events of life in Italy's capital.\nDirector: Federico Fellini\nA mod London photographer finds something very suspicious in the shots he has taken of a mysterious beauty in a desolate park.\nDirector: Michelangelo Antonioni\nEdit\nStoryline\nJournalist and man-about-town Marcello struggles to find his place in the world, torn between the allure of Rome's elite social scene and the stifling domesticity offered by his girlfriend, all the while searching for a way to become a serious writer. Written by Jeff Lewis\nThe Sweet Life See more  »\nGenres:\n19 April 1961 (USA) See more  »\nAlso Known As:\nLa Dolce Vita See more  »\nFilming Locations:\nFederico Fellini considered Burt Lancaster for the role of Marcello Rubini. See more »\nGoofs\nDuring the \"Madonna\" scene at about 1:04, the amount of tape on the reels of the recorder changes between the wide shots and the close-ups. See more »\nQuotes\nReferenced in Live!  (2007) See more »\nSoundtracks\nToccata and Fugue in D Minor: Toccata and Fugue in D Minor, BWV 565\n(uncredited)\nWritten by Johann Sebastian Bach (as J.S. Bach)\nPerformed by Alain Cuny\n(Biloxi, Mississippi) – See all my reviews\nLA DOLCE VITA presents a series of incidents in the life of Roman tabloid reporter Marcello Rubini (Marcello Mastroianni)--and although each incident is very different in content they create a portrait of an intelligent but superficial man who is gradually consumed by \"the sweet life\" of wealth, celebrity, and self-indulgence he reports on and which he has come to crave.\nAlthough the film seems to be making a negative statement about self-indulgence that leads to self-loathing, Fellini also gives the viewer plenty of room to act as interpreter, and he cleverly plays one theme against its antithesis throughout the film. (The suffocation of monogamy vs. the meaninglessness of promiscuity and sincere religious belief vs. manipulative hypocrisy are but two of the most obvious juxtapositions.) But Fellini's most remarkable effect here is his ability to keep us interested in the largely unsympathetic characters LA DOLCE VITA presents: a few are naive to the point of stupidity; most are vapid; the majority (including the leads) are unspeakably shallow--and yet they still hold our interest over the course of this three hour film.\nThe cast is superior, with Marcello Mastroianni's personal charm particularly powerful. As usual with Fellini, there is a lot to look at on the screen: although he hasn't dropped into the wild surrealism for which he was sometimes known, there are quite a few surrealistic flourishes and visual ironies aplenty--the latter most often supplied by the hordes of photographers that scuttle after the leading characters much like cockroaches in search of crumbs. For many years available to the home market in pan-and-scan only, the film is now in a letterbox release that makes it all the more effective. Strongly recommended.\nGary F. Taylor, aka GFT, Amazon Reviewer\n69 of 87 people found this review helpful.  Was this review helpful to you?\nYes", "‎La Dolce Vita (1960) directed by Federico Fellini • Reviews, film + cast • Letterboxd\n6\nSlight spoilers in the last paragraph.\nOur modern malaise is all-encompassing self-pity. I went through it last year: what was the point of wanting things if you were never going to get them anyway? In the throes of my self-absorbed sorrow, I didn’t notice that I had no ambition to begin with. Finding something to care about got me out of that horrible dark place, but every day, I come across more people my age – kids who haven’t even hit twenty yet, for fuck’s sake – diagnosed with depression, although nothing monumental has happened to them, to us. Why are you so unhappy? I don’t know.\nWatching La Dolce Vita was like coming across yet another one of those…\n9\n\"Don't be like me. Salvation doesn't lie within four walls. I'm too serious to be a dilettante and too much a dabbler to be a professional. Even the most miserable life is better than a sheltered existence in an organized society where everything is calculated and perfected.\"\nIt's always intimidating to try and write about something considered to be one of the best films ever made. Regardless of how great it might be, it can be hard to have fun without a personal access point. It's like staring at the Mona Lisa: sure it's an amazing painting and it's easy to appreciate on that level, but what does it have to say about my own subjective reality?\nSo it was…\n8\nTruthful, audacious, bold, boring in stretches, and passionately sweeping: Federico Fellini's La Dolce Vita is a film that I admire greatly, but I never truly found a direct connection to it in relation to my own personal experiences. I was very indifferent to much of the film in the second half, only to have spurts of majestic beauty and honesty awake me from my slowly-fading attention. The ending is absolutely perfect however, and just like Don't Look Now, It's a conclusion that raised my thoughts of the film as a whole. I don't think it comes close to the masterful beauty of 8 1/2, but I can clearly understand why it is as revered as it is. Marcello Mastroianni stuns…\n17\nAfter adoring Nights of Cabiria, and loving 8 ½ , it seemed like the appropriate time to take another dip into Fellini’s pool with a film that many consider their favourite.\nI had no foreknowledge going in that this is what influenced The Great Beauty, a film I detested so much that I walked out after about 15 minutes ( actually walked out twice, first after 10 minutes, and then, after deciding to give it another try and continued, walked out again after another 5 ).\nI was positively giddy watching the opening scene of ‘Flying Jesus’, there was a big smirk across my face. It wasn’t just the symbolic imagery, but also the wonderfully creative cinematography. Of course seeing…\n7\nHelicopters carry a giant jesus statue with his arms outstretched over the skies of rome, the children follow and scream and cry with glee at the mere spectacle of it all, much like the paps that ride along inside one of the copters. The beautiful girls sunbathing atop an apartment building wave their hats at them enthusiastically and they quickly swivel around for a chance at their phone numbers. Marcello oozes cool, a distinguished \"naughty boy\" whose duty is to inform the public, so he maintains. Seven days but mostly nights are presented tumultuously through the lens of Marcello, the lost and happy and damned and unhappy paparazzi constantly on the move towards something, in search of something. \"Every night…\nReview by MajorMajor22 ★★★★★\nAll of the things and more. Watch it once. Watch it twice. You'll either feel it or you won't. If you don't, wait a few years. Life will happen. You'll watch it again and you'll understand. True art is always there waiting for you when you're ready for it.\nThis hit me instantly. It was one of those films that 'changed everything'. Doors opened to worlds I didn't even know existed and once I walked through them I couldn't ever go back. I think everyone has a few experiences with art like that in their life if they're lucky. I thought I knew what a movie was but after watching this I realized that I knew nothing. I had to…\nReview by Dinelka Balasuriya ★★½\n50/100\nI must now attempt to make sense of the events that have transpired during my viewing of La Dolce Vita.\nHere’s something of a statistic that conveys the great challenge I faced watching this movie in its entirety:\nFirst hour watched in one sitting\nNext two hours watched over a period of 7 hours\nI cannot for the life of me remember the last time I had an experience like La Dolce Vita. The first hour was glamorous, exuberant, chaotic and alluring. The subsequent two hours were a great bore.\nOne example that highlights the issue I have with the second half is the scene at Steiner’s place with his highly intellectual friends. For a long scene dominated entirely…\nReview by Carter Moon ★★★★\nI've never seen a more challenging, provocative, mind-bending film. To me, this is so much more important than 8 1/2, so much more perplexing and enriching. A film I will want revisit again and again throughout my lifetime, and which I will no doubt draw something different from with each viewing.\nItalian people, an unfaithful journalist, a fake miracle, a tragedy, a messed up and yet unconcluded orgy, a weird dead-like stingray and totally unconnected stories.\nAlso gave meaning to the word paparazzo.\nReview by Martin White ★★★½\nSet in late 1950s Roma, a beautifully shot film that much like Roman Holiday makes you want to visit Rome in that era. It is in an episodic form, which makes picking out the common threads a little harder. What I took from it was seeing the elite juxtoposed with the poor (particularly the scenes involving the alleged religious miracle seen by some children on the outskirts of Rome). I think I would need to spend some time on it and know more about Italy then to really get it, but others will enjoy this a lot more than me I'm sure.\nReview by Chris Purdie ★★★★★\nSeen this a few times now. I used to struggle with it but I'm starting to get into the flow of Fellini's style. It's frustrating because while I love individual parts his films, as a collective whole I just struggle with length of them. When I put this on last night I actually forgot that it was nearly 3 hours long but it was mostly a pleasure to sit through this time. While the length was still an issue, the indivual episode's all entertained and Marcello's arc resonated stronger than it ever did before. Put simply, I have been this character far too many times and it's likely I'll resemble him again.......\nAt times enthralling, at others depressing; there is a stinging, confessional truthfullness to the way Fellini captures Marcello's aimless ambition and that's what makes La Dolce Vita such a masterpiece.", "Super Reviewer\n½\nEssential surrealist film, La Dolce Vita is an early critique to press photography, bourgeois society, special attention to stars and social decadence.\nLucas Martins\nSuper Reviewer\n½\nThis doesn't happen very often, but I must say, I'm rather baffled. I'm not sure how I truly feel about this movie. I don't know if I truly get it. I'm a smart guy, and I'd like to think I can 'get' artsy European cinema, but I am simultaneously aware of why this is called a classic but also baffled as to why it is so adored. The film tells the story of a tabloid photographer in Rome in the 50s who discovers that the high society world isn't all that it seems, that trying to find a balance betwween the relics of the past and the ever-growing ways of the modern world is complicated, and that it can be quite a challenge to discover who one really is amidst all of this. That's pretty much it. That's the plot in it's most simplified way. It doesn't take long to really get all of this, but the film is just under three hours. I really don't think it needed to be. However,the film is wall to wall with style and cinematic craft. The film has a neat structure (it takes place over the course of about a weeks worth of days and nights, though not consecutively), and there's all kinds of religious imagery and symbolism-allowing the viewer to either just read into it like there's no tomorrow, or just take it at face value. Normally I'm cool with this sort of thing, but again, the movie is just about 3 hours...and kinda slow at times. The film could have had far more substance, especially given the theme and premise, but the slice of life stuff it quite nice too. It just all happens to ramble far too often. Maybe I'm being too hard on this though. Maybe I should have been really exhauted and had my mind on other things when I sat down to watch it. Or maybe (and I'm probably in the minority here) Fellini was more full of crap than people might like to admit. I loved 8 1/2 , but I was in a different mood and mindset when I saw that. I do love the music and cinematography though. There's some really gorgeous (and sometiems surreal) images, and some sequences are just fantastic, but it's all just kinda hard to endure in one setting. Ther performances aren't bad, but it seems like Fellini was more interested in just letting everything just run wild instead of having a far tighter hold on things. Maybe the issues Im haivng with this can be attributed to the fact that, as a bunch of critics and scholars have said, this was a transitional film for Fellini between his neo-realistic stuff, and his whimsical art film. It has elements of both, and they are done well, but maybe they just don't blend all that wonderfully. I'm rambling, much lke the movie. I didn't hate it, but I found it very hard to endure. Is it a really good movie? Yeah. Is it really all that influential? Sure. Does it deserve all the accolades and respect it gets? To an extent. You should see this, just to say you finally saw it, because it is worth it. As a cohesive masterpiece though, I didn't find it to be that exactly. 4 stars for the film overall, and an extra half star just for the style and technique.\nChris Weber", "Rewind Film: 'La Dolce Vita, directed by Federico Fellini | South China Morning Post\nSouth China Morning Post\nRewind Film: 'La Dolce Vita, directed by Federico Fellini\n \nRewind Film: 'La Dolce Vita, directed by Federico Fellini\nPUBLISHED : Sunday, 02 June, 2013, 12:00am\nUPDATED : Sunday, 02 June, 2013, 5:33pm\nMarcello Mastroianni, Anita Ekberg, Anouk Aimee\nDirector: Federico Fellini\nAmericans might harp on about freedom and the French have their je ne sais quoi, but few people take greater pride in their insatiable lust for life than the Italians. The Roman Empire came and went and the Renaissance died out, but Italy saw a smaller resurgence during the heady days of the swinging sixties.\nConflict often leads to great art, and after the end of the second world war, Italian filmmakers became obsessed with depicting poverty and depression in what they deemed \"neo-realism\". Federico Fellini was one, but all that changed when the director offered up his three-hour epic on pure hedonistic pleasure: La Dolce Vita.\nThe film has a simplistic, almost haphazard structure, set roughly over seven days in the life of gossip columnist Marcello. He's a handsome but tired man, longing for literary greatness, but often stuck in a series of decadent nights and regretful dawns, covering what the public deems as \"the sweet life\": movie stars, playboys and people famous for being famous.\nThrough haughty intellectuals, wild Hollywood starlets and sex-obsessed aristocrats, Fellini is saying something about this \"sweet\" way of life, but what exactly? More than 50 years after it put Italy on the international film map, La Dolce Vita is still being debated.\nIs it a depiction of Fellini's own self-indulgent lifestyle? A balanced look at sin and salvation? A Christian nightmare of what's wrong with society? Or a parody of celebrity culture and post-war excess?\nThat brilliant opening aerial shot of the Eternal City, contrasted by speedy rides through the streets on the back of a Vespa. A late-night splash in the Trevi Fountain (above), and the early morning fishermen surprised by their morning catch.\nThe next time you're in Rome, wondering why the shops close for hours in the middle of the day, waiting for a bus that never meets its schedule or dodging fake gladiators desperate for five euros, do like Marcello. Stop worrying about meaning, order a caffe and take in the sweet life the way the Italians do.", "La Dolce Vita Movie Review & Film Summary (1960) | Roger Ebert\nTweet\nI have heard theories that Federico Fellini's \"La Dolce Vita\" catalogs the seven deadly sins, takes place on the seven hills of Rome, and involves seven nights and seven dawns, but I have never looked into them, because that would reduce the movie to a crossword puzzle. I prefer it as an allegory, a cautionary tale of a man without a center.\nAdvertisement\nFellini shot the movie in 1959 on the Via Veneto, the Roman street of nightclubs, sidewalk cafes and the parade of the night. His hero is a gossip columnist, Marcello, who chronicles \"the sweet life\" of fading aristocrats, second-rate movie stars, aging playboys and women of commerce. The role was played by Marcello Mastroianni , and now that his life has ended we can see that it was his most representative. The two Marcellos -- character and actor -- flowed together into a handsome, weary, desperate man, who dreams of someday doing something good, but is trapped in a life of empty nights and lonely dawns.\nThe movie leaps from one visual extravaganza to another, following Marcello as he chases down stories and women. He has a suicidal fiancee ( Magali Noel ) at home. In a nightclub, he picks up a promiscuous society beauty ( Anouk Aimee ), and together they visit the basement lair of a prostitute. The episode ends not in decadence but in sleep; we can never be sure that Marcello has had sex with anyone.\nAnother dawn. And we begin to understand the film's structure: A series of nights and dawns, descents and ascents. Marcello goes down into subterranean nightclubs, hospital parking lots, the hooker's hovel and an ancient crypt. And he ascends St. Peter's dome, climbs to a choir loft, and to the high-rise apartment of Steiner ( Alain Cuny ), the intellectual who is his hero. He will even fly over Rome.\nAdvertisement\nThe famous opening scene, as a statue of Christ is carried above Rome by a helicopter, is matched with the close, in which fisherman on the beach find a sea monster in their nets. Two Christ symbols: the statue \"beautiful\" but false, the fish \"ugly\" but real. During both scenes there are failures of communication. The helicopter circles as Marcello tries to get the phone numbers of three sunbathing beauties. At the end, across a beach, he sees the shy girl he met one day when he went to the country in search of peace to write his novel. She makes typing motions to remind him, but he does not remember, shrugs, and turns away.\nIf the opening and closing scenes are symmetrical, so are many others, matching the sacred and profane and casting doubts on both. An early sequence finds Marcello covering the arrival in Rome of an improbably buxom movie star ( Anita Ekberg ), and consumed with desire. He follows her to the top of St. Peters, into the bowels of a nightclub, and into the Roman night, where wild dogs howl and she howls back. His pursuit ends at dawn when she wades into the Trevi Fountain and he wades after her, idealizing her into all women, into The Woman; she remains forever just out of reach.\nThis sequence can be paired with a later one where children report a vision of the Virgin. Marcello races to the site, which is surrounded by TV cameras and a crowd of the devout. Again, we have an idealized woman and the hope that she can solve every problem. But the children lead the faithful on a chase, just as the Ekberg led Marcello around Rome. They see the Virgin here, and then there, as the lame and the blind hobble after them and their grandfather cadges for tips. Once again everything collapses in an exhausted dawn.\nAdvertisement\nThe central episodes in \"La Dolce Vita\" involve Steiner, who represents all that Marcello envies. Steiner lives in an apartment filled with art. He presides over a salon of poets, folk singers, intellectuals. He has a beautiful wife and two perfect children. When Marcello sees him entering a church, they ascend to the organ loft and Steiner plays Bach while urging Marcello to have more faith in himself, and finish that book. Then follows the night of Steiner's party, and the moment (more or less the exact center of the film) where Marcello takes his typewriter to a country trattoria and tries to write. Then comes the terrible second Steiner scene, when Marcello discovers that Steiner's serenity was made from a tissue of lies.\nTo mention these scenes is to be reminded of how many other great moments this rich film contains. The echo chamber. The Mass at dawn. The final desperate orgy. And of course the touching sequence with Marcello's father ( Annibale Ninchi ), a traveling salesman who joins Marcello on a tour of the night. In a club they see a sad-faced clown (Poidor) lead a lonely balloon out of the room with his trumpet. And Marcello's father, filled with the courage of champagne, grows bold with a young woman who owes Marcello a favor -- only to fall ill and leave, gray and ashen, again at dawn.\nThe movie is made with boundless energy. Fellini stood here at the dividing point between the neorealism of his earlier films (like \" La Strada \") and the carnival visuals of his extravagant later ones (\" Juliet of the Spirits ,\" \" Amarcord \"). His autobiographical \" 8 1/2 ,\" made three years after \"La Dolce Vita,\" is a companion-piece, but more knowing: There the hero is already a filmmaker, but here he is a young newspaperman on the make.\nAdvertisement\nThe music by Nino Rota is of a perfect piece with the material. It is sometimes quasi-liturgical, sometimes jazz, sometimes rock; lurking beneath is the irreverence of tuba and accordions, and snatches of pop songs (\"Stormy Weather\" and even \"Jingle Bells\"). The characters are forever in motion, and Rota gives them music for their processions and parades.\nThe casting is all typecasting. Anita Ekberg might not have been much of an actress, but she was the only person who could play herself. Lex Barker , a onetime movie Tarzan, was droll as her alcoholic boyfriend. Alain Cuny's severe self-confidence as Steiner is convincing, which is why his end is a shock. And remember Anouk Aimee, her dark glasses concealing a black eye; the practical, commonsensical Adriana Moneta as the streetwalker; Alan Dijon as the satanic ringleader at the nightclub; and always Mastroianni, his eyes squinting against a headache or a deeper ache of the soul. He was always a passive actor, and here that quality is needed: Seeking happiness but unable to take the steps to find it, he spends his nights in endless aimless searching, trying to please everyone, the juggler with more balls than skills.\nMovies do not change, but their viewers do. When I saw \"La Dolce Vita\" in 1960, I was an adolescent for whom \"the sweet life\" represented everything I dreamed of: sin, exotic European glamour, the weary romance of the cynical newspaperman. When I saw it again, around 1970, I was living in a version of Marcello's world; Chicago's North Avenue was not the Via Veneto, but at 3 a.m. the denizens were just as colorful, and I was about Marcello's age.\nAdvertisement\nWhen I saw the movie around 1980, Marcello was the same age, but I was 10 years older, had stopped drinking, and saw him not as a role model but as a victim, condemned to an endless search for happiness that could never be found, not that way. By 1991, when I analyzed the film a frame at a time at the University of Colorado, Marcello seemed younger still, and while I had once admired and then criticized him, now I pitied and loved him. And when I saw the movie right after Mastroianni died, I thought that Fellini and Marcello had taken a moment of discovery and made it immortal. There may be no such thing as the sweet life. But it is necessary to find that out for yourself.\nPopular Blog Posts", "La Dolce Vita (1960)\nFederico Fellini considered Enrico Maria Salerno for the role of Steiner. See more  »\nGoofs:\nContinuity: When Marcello is typewriting in a restaurant on the beach and talking to the blonde young girl, the bar of the typewriter is centered on the machine. In the next take, it is displaced to the left of the typewriter. See more  »\nQuotes:\nSteiner :Don't be like me. Salvation doesn't lie within four walls. I'm too serious to be a dilettante and too much a dabbler to be a professional. Even the most miserable life is better than a sheltered existence in an organized society where everything is calculated and perfected. See more  »\nMovie Connections:\nAuthor: shoolaroon\nfrom usa\nI first saw this movie probably over 25 years ago when I was quite a bit younger. At that point I enjoyed it for its party scenes, sense of joy and life and vitality and....Marcello Mastroianni. Now that I'm older myself and have just recently seen the movie again, I find that I have a much deeper understanding of it. Maybe it takes some age to find some meaning. In a nutshell, Marcello is at a crossroads in his life, he's unable to settle down or move foreward into any direction - he's a diletante with aspirations but no real goals. He's wrapped up in himself and in projecting rather dreamy ideals onto other people. But as he keeps projecting on to others he comes to find in each situation that he doesn't really know the person and they are a mystery and probably a disappointment to him. certainly steiner is the biggest disappointment and disillusions him to a degree that he is apparently lost to a life of corruption and decadence as a result. but it's not that these people are difficult to understand to someone other than marcello - i think we can see that anita ekberg's character really is just a big good-natured blond and not the mysterious goddess marcello makes her out to be; his father is again - the typical traveling salesman and perhaps not the paternal figure that marcello would like him to be. his amour maddelena lives up to her name even as marcello starts believing himself in love with her - he's literally seduced by nothing more than an image he creates in his own mind. his friend steiner seems to have it all to marcello and to be the renaissance man that he would like to be - but, of course, he is dissatisfied and disturbed and we see what the end is. the only one whom marcello forms a somewhat realistic connection with is his girlfriend whom he treats badly and neglects despite her obvious love for him. he refuses to actually work on the one relationship that he could actually succeed at - he would rather dream about possibilities than actualize something.\nmarcello cannot communicate with others because he cannot see them as the people they really are - he just sees them as projections of his own needs, aspirations, desires and goals. when he finds out what they're really like, he either turns away or falls apart. this is an outstanding movie - 10 out of 10 and beautifully photographed. if you don't get it now, try again in 10 years - it will wait for you to catch up.\nWas the above review useful to you?", "Movie Review - - Fellini Film Lives Up to Foreign Hurrahs - NYTimes.com\nFellini Film Lives Up to Foreign Hurrahs\nBy BOSLEY CROWTHER\nPublished: April 20, 1961\nFEDERICO FELLINI'S \"La Dolce Vita\" (\"The Sweet Life\"), which has been a tremendous hit abroad since its initial presentation in Rome early last year, finally got to its American premiŌre at Henry Miller's Theatre last night and proved to deserve all the hurrahs and the impressive honors it has received.\nFor this sensational representation of certain aspects of life in contemporary Rome, as revealed in the clamorous experience of a free-wheeling newspaper man, is a brilliantly graphic estimation of a whole swath of society in sad decay and, eventually, a withering commentary upon the tragedy of the over-civilized.\nThe critic is faced with a dilemma in attempting to assess and convey all the weird observations and intimations that abound in this titanic film. For Signor Fellini is nothing if not fertile, fierce and urbane in calculating the social scene around him and packing it onto the screen.\nHe has an uncanny eye for finding the offbeat and grotesque incident, the gross and bizarre occurrence that exposes a glaring irony. He has, too, a splendid sense of balance and a deliciously sardonic wit that not only guided his cameras but also affected the writing of his script. As a consequence there are scores of piercing ideas that pop out in the picture's nigh three hours and leave one shocked, amused, revolted and possibly stunned and bewildered at the end.\nPerhaps the best way to give the reader a hint as to the flavor of this work is to describe its amazing beginning. A helicopter is seen flying toward Rome with an uncertain object dangling beneath it by a rope. As the machine comes closer, we see the object is a statue of Jesus, arms outstretched as if in blessing, a sweet, sad expression on its face.\nCasually, the whirring \"chopper\" flies past an ancient aqueduct, the modern machine and its strange burden looking incongruous against the ruin. On it goes past piles of buildings, the ugly post-war apartment houses on the fringe of Rome and over the heads of a bevy of voluptuous females sunbathing in Bikinis on a penthouse roof. Then alongside it comes a second helicopter bearing our young newspaper man and his persistent photographer recording the bizarre scene.\nHere is the flavor of the picture and, in a fast glimpse, its theme. Dignity is transmuted into the sensational. Old values, old disciplines are discarded for the modern, the synthetic, the quick by a society that is past sophistication and is sated with pleasure and itself. All of its straining for sensations is exploited for the picture magazines and the scandal sheets that merchandise excitement and vicarious thrills for the mob.\nThis is Signor Fellini's comment, not put into words, of course, but fully illuminated in his accumulation of startling episodes. It is clear in the crazy experience of his questing newspaper man (played brilliantly by Marcello Mastroianni) with a visiting Hollywood movie star (enacted by Anita Ekberg with surprising personality and punch.)\nIt comes through with devastating impact in an episode wherein two frightened kids are used to whip up a religious rally for the benefit of television. It is implicit in the contact of the hero with a strange and motley mob of jaded aristocrats and worldlings at an all-night party in a palace outside Rome.\nIt finally comes home to the hero (at least we think it does) when he sees his own pack of voracious photographers trying to make a sensation of the suicide of his most respected friend (Alain Cuny) for whom the \"sweet life\" becomes too grim. And it is evident in unmistakable symbols at a mammoth orgy the hero attends with a gang of depraved sensation seekers who face their loneliness and emptiness in the dawn.\nPossibly Signor Fellini has rambled a bit in his film. Possibly he has strained logic and exaggerated somewhat here and there. (He has a character say \"The public demands exaggeration,\" which does support the theme.)\nIn sum, it is an awesome picture, licentious in content but moral and vastly sophisticated in its attitude and what it says. An excellent cast performs it. In addition to those named above, Yvonne Furneaux as the hero's mistress, Anouk Aimee as a nymphomaniac, Annibale Ninchi as the hero's father and Magali Noel as a night-club chorus girl make most vivid impressions in a stupendous cast.\nAn all-purpose musical melody, as persistent and haunting as the memorable \"Third Man\" theme, is aptly played in the right places. The use of multilingual dialogue (the French and Italian translated with English subtitles) makes the yakkity-yak really sound like Rome. If the subtitles are insufficient, the picture itself speaks louder than any words.\nThe Cast\nLA DOLCE VITA, scenario by Federico Fellini, Tullio Pinelli. Ennio Flaiano and Brunello Rondi; directed by Signor Fellini; produced by Giuseppe Amato; presented here by Astor Films. At Henry Miller's Theatre, Forty-third Street east of Broadway. Running time: 175 minutes.\nMarcello Rubino . . . . . Marcello Mastroianni", "usman khawaja\nFeatured\nOctober 27th, 2009 1:52 amRating: AN WISTFUL AND WISE ITALIAN CAPRICE IN CANDOUR Fellini chooses sixties Rome to deliver an incisively hedonistic satire on modern contemporary european culture where degeneracy is fashionable and egomania out rules morality ,it becomes even more powerful as art and A SOCIAL statement when applied to the capital city of a religion that has itself become mostly a caprice , as the opening shot demonstrates in a mockery with two helicopters conveying a plaster statue of christ, being transported over the eclectic mix of ancient and ugly modern architectural design of Rome itself while semi -naked women sunbath on top of skyscrapers . The main prodigal protagonist involved in this exorcism to retrieve some sense is marcello ,a journalist who leads a vacuous superficial life covering the modern day news coverage as a gossip columnist and converging the freak circus that news media has become itself . He is belligerently intelligent and realises his redundant role in this lunatic milieu but as the rest of humanity he goes with the flow and the movie encompasses seven days in his frantic but uneventful life which is packed with events and disasters that will be ignored by him for the trivia that he exaggerates to sell his news media and that also echoes the indifference of humanity in general to anything of crucial importance while superficial instant trivia are celebrated in a gala cause . The women in his life are almost marionettes to him as they serve the purpose of a convenience as sexual objects ,ranging from his frustrated mistress who attempts suicide in a desperate gesture to his indifference and the rather sybaritic socialite heiress he attaches himself to played by Anouk aimee ,who takes him on his wild adventures in her posh sports car . The main event is his coverage of the arrival of a celebrity american actress visiting Roma played by Anita Ekberg who is the object of his desire and fascination like a sex toy while he interviews her and they mutually abuse and lusciously exploit each other in a degenerate manner , ultimately ending tragically in an icon of frustrated romance in the lush Trevi fountain . The epic satire is set in spectacular nightclubs ,with gala revues and musical cabarets and aristocratic italian castles where the superficial rich parade in their extravaganza in degenerate profligacy indulging every selfish whim. But it balances the act with showing the realistic squalor in inner Rome and the exploitation of the vulnerable who survive in despair on the fringes of this extroverted existence . Marcello is chasing a quest for happiness and love which is impossible to achieve even in an impossible dream like the symbolic sequence portrayed between him and Ekberg in the Trevi fountain which is the epitome of romantic travesty . Yet the final orgy in a beach house following the sensually intricate yet intellectually provoking ARISTOCRATIC party in a suburban Roman castle shows the reality of a degenerate culture in the most profound cynicism to be ever witnessed in cinema . The recurrent enchanting musical encores and the Balenciaga wardrobe just goes to provide the metaphorical sallow glamour and beauty which the pallid human spirit has lost in the centre of the great european civilisation and the absolute doom is demonstrated in a horrific sub-plot which covers the tragic, yet perfect life of a rich intellectual played by alan cluny ,who serves fellini as a metaphor for the ultimate fate of a festering and decaying civilisation . The events are abjure and alternately definitive which are open to vicarious interpretations with mastrioanni delivering an inexhaustibly fascinating act where he is virtually the centre piece in every sequence, though both anouk aimee and anita ekberg lack neither dazzling beauty or emotionally charged exchanges which leave the beholder stunned by their tantalising talent . This is livid ,angry ,elegiac wistful art which is intensely provoking and yet historically relevant laden with icons like the religious images mingled with sexual orgies and it is a testament to the travesty of modern existence that history will judge in its own time .\nusman khawaja\nFeatured\nOctober 27th, 2009 1:52 amRating: AN WISTFUL AND WISE ITALIAN CAPRICE IN CANDOUR Fellini chooses sixties Rome to deliver an incisively hedonistic satire on modern contemporary european culture where degeneracy is fashionable and egomania out rules morality ,it becomes even more powerful as art and A SOCIAL statement when applied to the capital city of a religion that has itself become mostly a caprice , as the opening shot demonstrates in a mockery with two helicopters conveying a plaster statue of christ, being transported over the eclectic mix of ancient and ugly modern architectural design of Rome itself while semi -naked women sunbath on top of skyscrapers . The main prodigal protagonist involved in this exorcism to retrieve some sense is marcello ,a journalist who leads a vacuous superficial life covering the modern day news coverage as a gossip columnist and converging the freak circus that news media has become itself . He is belligerently intelligent and realises his redundant role in this lunatic milieu but as the rest of humanity he goes with the flow and the movie encompasses seven days in his frantic but uneventful life which is packed with events and disasters that will be ignored by him for the trivia that he exaggerates to sell his news media and that also echoes the indifference of humanity in general to anything of crucial importance while superficial instant trivia are celebrated in a gala cause . The women in his life are almost marionettes to him as they serve the purpose of a convenience as sexual objects ,ranging from his frustrated mistress who attempts suicide in a desperate gesture to his indifference and the rather sybaritic socialite heiress he attaches himself to played by Anouk aimee ,who takes him on his wild adventures in her posh sports car . The main event is his coverage of the arrival of a celebrity american actress visiting Roma played by Anita Ekberg who is the object of his desire and fascination like a sex toy while he interviews her and they mutually abuse and lusciously exploit each other in a degenerate manner , ultimately ending tragically in an icon of frustrated romance in the lush Trevi fountain . The epic satire is set in spectacular nightclubs ,with gala revues and musical cabarets and aristocratic italian castles where the superficial rich parade in their extravaganza in degenerate profligacy indulging every selfish whim. But it balances the act with showing the realistic squalor in inner Rome and the exploitation of the vulnerable who survive in despair on the fringes of this extroverted existence . Marcello is chasing a quest for happiness and love which is impossible to achieve even in an impossible dream like the symbolic sequence portrayed between him and Ekberg in the Trevi fountain which is the epitome of romantic travesty . Yet the final orgy in a beach house following the sensually intricate yet intellectually provoking ARISTOCRATIC party in a suburban Roman castle shows the reality of a degenerate culture in the most profound cynicism to be ever witnessed in cinema . The recurrent enchanting musical encores and the Balenciaga wardrobe just goes to provide the metaphorical sallow glamour and beauty which the pallid human spirit has lost in the centre of the great european civilisation and the absolute doom is demonstrated in a horrific sub-plot which covers the tragic, yet perfect life of a rich intellectual played by alan cluny ,who serves fellini as a metaphor for the ultimate fate of a festering and decaying civilisation . The events are abjure and alternately definitive which are open to vicarious interpretations with mastrioanni delivering an inexhaustibly fascinating act where he is virtually the centre piece in every sequence, though both anouk aimee and anita ekberg lack neither dazzling beauty or emotionally charged exchanges which leave the beholder stunned by their tantalising talent . This is livid ,angry ,elegiac wistful art which is intensely provoking and yet historically relevant laden with icons like the religious images mingled with sexual orgies and it is a testament to the travesty of modern existence that history will judge in its own time .\nTechnoguy\nFeatured\nThis is a young man's film(Fellini) and centred on a remarkable young actor,Mastroianni,the cynical young reporter at the heart of the movie.I saw this 30 years a go and was saturated with it's 60s stereotypes in an age of transition from the sacred to the profane.The passing away of religion is symbolized by the carriage of Christ through the sky,parodying the 2nd Coming;also by the large dead fish washed up at the end on the shore.The 'sweet life' of the title does not exist.Drunkenness,despair and decadence stalk the Via Veneto,brothels,car parks ,night clubs and palaces for the diletante Marcello,who is searching for love and for a deeper life.He thinks his intellectual friend Steiner,married with 2 kids has the key.He holds musical and poetic soirees in his home.He also wants to write a novel.The fecundity of a young maestro's imagination is revealed in a ballet of movement and sound,the choreography of the camera,the motion of the actors.Cinema has since shed all such approaches to narrative like a snakeskin perhaps for the better as the focus has evolved and narrowed.The film remarkably lasts for 3 hours,which is hard to believe and could have done with some editing.Night and dawn alternate.The ending is poignant:a young girl wants to remind him of the novel he wanted to write someday,but he is hung over and cannot hear her shouting over the waves and her message is lost.\nTechnoguy\nFeatured\nThis is a young man's film(Fellini) and centred on a remarkable young actor,Mastroianni,the cynical young reporter at the heart of the movie.I saw this 30 years a go and was saturated with it's 60s stereotypes in an age of transition from the sacred to the profane.The passing away of religion is symbolized by the carriage of Christ through the sky,parodying the 2nd Coming;also by the large dead fish washed up at the end on the shore.The 'sweet life' of the title does not exist.Drunkenness,despair and decadence stalk the Via Veneto,brothels,car parks ,night clubs and palaces for the diletante Marcello,who is searching for love and for a deeper life.He thinks his intellectual friend Steiner,married with 2 kids has the key.He holds musical and poetic soirees in his home.He also wants to write a novel.The fecundity of a young maestro's imagination is revealed in a ballet of movement and sound,the choreography of the camera,the motion of the actors.Cinema has since shed all such approaches to narrative like a snakeskin perhaps for the better as the focus has evolved and narrowed.The film remarkably lasts for 3 hours,which is hard to believe and could have done with some editing.Night and dawn alternate.The ending is poignant:a young girl wants to remind him of the novel he wanted to write someday,but he is hung over and cannot hear her shouting over the waves and her message is lost.", "Film/Classic: La Dolce Vita by Federico Fellini\nLa Dolce Vita\nDirected by Frederico Fellini with Marcello Mastroianni, Anita Ekberg, Nadia Gray, Yvonne Furneaux, Anouk Aim�e, Magali Noe, Alain Cluny and Lex Barker, black-and-white, 167 minutes, 1960\nCover of VHS tape edition of \"La DolceVita\" shows Marcello Mastroianni and Yvonne Furneaux\nBy Carter B. Horsley\nAlthough the Cold War was raging, the 1950s were a decade of relative peace and comfortability. It was a time of \"the good life.\" In America, the suburbs were burgeoning and television was transforming the culture. In Europe, the recovery from the ravages of World War II was well advanced. Mankind was entering the Space Age and technology promised a bright future.\n\"La Dolce Vita\" was filmed in 1959 in and around Rome and much of it was shot in post-war, redeveloped neighborhoods. Its lead character, Marcello Rubini, played by Marcello Mastroianni, is a writer for gossip tabloids and hangs around the Via Veneto with the paparazzi, the photographers who sell their pictures of celebrities to the scandal sheets. The paparazzi had already been around for a while, and have survived decades later and their \"culture\" has become much more pervasive than when the film was made, one of the many reasons why this masterpiece has remained a classic.\nThe film's title means \"The Sweet Life,\" and refers to the decadence of the upper classes. In America, Jackie Gleason, the comic, had a popular television program in which one of his famous lines was \"How sweet it is.\" Although one of his characters, Reginald Van Gleason, was a black-tie rapscallion with a toy train set always at the ready to transport to him his supply of booze, Gleason's \"sweet\" was joyful and not sardonic as Fellini's.\n\"La Dolce Vita\" is a devastatingly bleak portrait of a troubled soul who cannot resist the good things of life and whose amusement at the vapidness of rich wastrels on which he makes his living eventually engulfs him and makes him no different.\nThe film was banned for many years in Italy because of its depiction of many Italians, at least the rich ones, as degenerate, selfish, spoiled souls, its blatant sexuality, and also because of its substantial, irreverent religious content that offended many Catholics.\nItalian film after World War II was noted for its realism. Movies such as \"Open City,\" \"Shoeshine\" and \"Bicycle Thief\" were immensely powerful narratives of the plight of the poor. Fellini was not inured to the poor and indeed his great 1954 film, \"La Strada,\" was about poor circus folk.\n\"La Dolce Vita\" is a landmark film that does not turn its back on the poor while focusing on the care-free well-to-do, and, more importantly, brutally raises difficult questions about the goodness of man and the meaning of life. Marcello disintegrates and is corrupted and by the end of the film has become a wretched and weary, miserable and mean person, although the final scene suggests he still has some respect for innocence.\nThis is a long, episodic film of great scenes. It opens with a memorable aerial shot of a statue of Jesus being borne by a helicopter over Rome followed by another helicopter with a journalist and a photographer. It passes over the Coliseum, construction sites, sunbathing women on a rooftop and St. Peter's Square.\nThe journalist is Marcello and he drives a Triumph sports car and has a beautiful fianc�, Emma, played by Yvonne Fureaux, who has conventional values and wants to get married and have children. He is, however, besotted with the lives of the rich and famous and has a roving eye. Early in the film he encounters Sylvia, an extremely voluptuous and beautiful movie star, played by Anita Ekberg, and is madly infatuated.\nDetail of still from film, showing Marcello Mastroianni and Anita Ekberg in Trevi Fountain in Rome, used as frontispiece for Jerry Vermilye's \"Great Italian Films\" published by Carol Publishing Company, 1994\nAt one point, she wades into the Trevi fountain and he joins her as shown in the above photograph that is the frontispiece for Jerry Vermilye's very excellent book, \"Great Italian Films,\" (published by Citadel Press, Carol Publishing Company, 1994, $17.95). With her very long tresses and fabulous, low-cut, evening gown, Sylvia is Aphrodite incarnate and the scene is one of the most famous in film history.\nIn his fine book, \"Conversations with Fellini,\" (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1995), Costanzo Costantini, relates the following comments from his interviews with the director about this scene:\n\"For me the film is identified more with Anita Ekberg than with the Via Veneto. She possessed incredible beauty. I have never seen anyone like her; she made a great impression on me. Later the same day I met Marcello Mastroianni, who later told me that Ekberg reminded him of a storm trooper in the Wehrmacht, but really he didn't want to admit that even he had never before seen such marvelous and unbelievable beauty. She remained immersed in the basin for ages, motionless, impassive, as if the water didn't cover her nor the cold affect her, even though it was March and the nights made one shiver. For Mastroianni, it was a rather different story. To combat the cold he polished off a bottle of vodka, and when we shot the scene he was completely pissed.\"\nCostantini goes on to quote Fellini to the effect that Dino De Laurentis had wanted Paul Newman for the role of the journalist: \"How could Paul Newman be believable as a journalist in the Via Veneto, when he himself would have been the object of the chasing pack of paparazzi? What was required was an actor who wasn't a household name. I remember De Laurentis saying to me, `He's too soft and goody-goody; a family man rather than the type who flings women onto the bed.' As an alternative to Paul Newman he suggested G�rard Philipe, but that came to nothing and he ended up giving up the film.\"\nMastroianni, of course, would go to become one of the greatest stars in film history and his performance in this movie is sensational, ranging from child-like amusement to adoration to arrogance, rage to respect, all with great charm and elegance. His character is extremely complex - cynical but insecure, observant but obsessed. He is dissatisfied with life and not content to settle down with his adoring fianc� and is easily distracted by beautiful women.\nOne of the film's highlights is a party thrown by Steiner, a musician and intellectual, played with great panache by Alain Cluny, who suggests he can get Marcello a publisher so he can give up writing gossip and concentrate on something more important. Marcello appears grateful and implies he will give it serious consideration. He clearly is impressed by Steiner who admits the following:\n\"Sometimes at night the darkness and silence weighs upon me. Peace frightens me; perhaps I fear it most of all. I feel it is only a fa�ade hiding the face of hell. I think, `What is in store for my children tomorrow?' `The world will be wonderful,' they say. But from whose viewpoint? If one phone call could announce the end of everything? We need to live in a state of suspended animation like a work of art, in a state of enchantment. We have to succeed in loving so greatly that we live outside of time, detached.\"\nThis enchantment is a distraction, of course, from reality and the \"face of hell.\" Is not gossip a distraction? Is Steiner suggesting that even art is a distraction? He admits that he is \"too serious to be an amateur and not serious enough to be a professional.\" His coterie of friends are a cultured lot, one ranting about Oriental women, another about poetry. It is refined bonhomie, an alert salon, a rarefied gathering. Marcello clearly sees Steiner's invitation to see one another more often as attractive and positive.\nIt is, therefore, with great shock that later in the film Steiner commits suicide and kills his two children, whom he obviously loved a great deal. Marcello offers to go with a detective and point out his wife who is returning home only to have to fend off the paparazzi, whom we have seen earlier in the film posing the parents of two children who have seen the Madonna in a \"miracle.\"\nMarcello has a touching encounter with his father who he takes to a nightclub. When the father later gets ill, Marcello implores him to stay with him but the father leaves to go catch a train. Marcello is extremely affectionate, realizing that he has not seen much of his father and perhaps eager to understand him and therefore part of himself better.\nHe runs off to a party in a villa where he encounters Maddalena, played with inviting promiscuity by Anouk Aim�e, who at one point has him sit in a room while she whispers to him mysteriously from another suggesting that they get married. Marcello impetuously agrees, but she has already succumbed to the advances of another man at the party. The party scene of aristocrats and playboys includes a s�ance.\nMarcello breaks off with his fianc� in an astonishingly angry scene in which he leaves her stranded on a road. He returns hours later to pick her up but only continues his tirades at her \"selfishness\": \"it's not love, it's animalism.\"\nAt another point in the film, he is typing a story while on the terrace of a country restaurant where he asks the young waitress, Paola, played by Valeria Ciangottini, to turn off the bouncy music. They engage in a conversation and he remarks that she reminds him of an \"Umbrian angel.\" At the end of the film, she reappears and yells to him across a tidal basin but he cannot understand her because of the noise of the sea. He smiles and waves goodbye to her.\nHe had gone to the beach because a crowd of people were clustered around a \"sea monster\" that had been caught up in a net and washed ashore. He had been up all night a party for Nadia, played with stylish sophistication by Nadia Gray, who was celebrating her divorce. At the party, Nadia does a striptease, but the jaded partygoers, some of whom are openly homosexual, are not satisfied and Marcello, who has become a publicity agent, proceeds to insult various guests and stick feathers on one woman and ride her like a horse. He has become beastly.\nHad Fellini ended the film without the final striptease party, and even without the reappearance and rejection of the Umbrian angel, we might have despaired for Marcello as Modern Man, not satisfied by traditional religion, not content with the trappings of the elite, the trappings of marriage, the trappings of affairs, still searching for answers.\nWe are aghast, however, at how Marcello has taken a turn for the worse, to put it mildly. Despite his great looks and charm, he has become not merely shallow, but evil. His evil, however, is not premeditated. He is lashing out in protest at his own unhappiness and while his smile and wave at the Umbrian angel indicates that he still has a spark of humanity he is in a drunken stupor and no longer conscious enough to care much about her. He has crossed over into an oblivion and whatever message Fellini might have wanted to convey is pessimistic.\nThis is a work about fervor. It is about the intensity and weight of life.\nMarcello is magnificently attractive and has a pretty good life. His fianc� is a great beauty. Sylvia succumbs to his charms as does Madallena and Fanny, a nightclub dancer who takes his father to her apartment and who is obviously one of Marcello's past lovers.\nSylvia is a remarkable force of nature and when she answers a cat's howling even Marcello is amazed and astonished. She contrasts greatly with Madallena, a much more complex woman. They and Nadia are extremely strong, independent women in contrast with the innocence of Emma and the waitress, but they all are merely objects for Marcello.\nThe film is visually wonderful, full of great tracking shots and compositions, and it has a marvelous and delightful score by Nina Rota.\nThe evolution of Marcello's dark side is, of course, accentuated by Steiner's suicide. If as sensitive and erudite a man as Steiner not only kills himself but his two children, what hope can there be for Marcello, and for us?\nWhile this film goes beyond cynicism, existentialism and hedonism, it is thoroughly engrossing, intellectual and psychologically riveting but it is also coy and earthy.\nIt takes us beyond the vicarious and ruthless sensationalism of the paparazzi to the inner torments of the soul. There, life is neither sweet nor bittersweet, but pulses with an energy of its own that drives our curiosities and makes us mere mortals so curious.\nThis film ranks 7th in Carter B. Horsley's Top 500 Sound Films list." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Airline.txt", "Avianca_Costa_Rica.txt" ], "title": [ "Airline", "Avianca Costa Rica" ], "wiki_context": [ "An airline is a company that provides air transport services for traveling passengers and freight. Airlines utilize aircraft to supply these services and may form partnerships or alliances with other airlines for codeshare agreements. Generally, airline companies are recognized with an air operating certificate or license issued by a governmental aviation body.\n\nAirlines vary in size, from small domestic airlines to full-service international airlines. Airline services can be categorized as being intercontinental, domestic, regional, or international, and may be operated as scheduled services or charters. The largest airline currently is American Airlines Group.\n\nHistory\n\nThe first airlines\n\nDELAG, Deutsche Luftschiffahrts-Aktiengesellschaft was the world's first airline. It was founded on November 16, 1909 with government assistance, and operated airships manufactured by The Zeppelin Corporation. Its headquarters were in Frankfurt. The first fixed wing scheduled air service was started on January 1, 1914 from St. Petersburg, Florida to Tampa, Florida. The four oldest non-dirigible airlines that still exist are Netherlands' KLM (1919), Colombia's Avianca (1919), Australia's Qantas (1921), and the Czech Republic's Czech Airlines (1923).\n\nEuropean airline industry\n\nBeginnings\n\nThe earliest fixed wing airline in Europe was the Aircraft Transport and Travel, formed by George Holt Thomas in 1916. Using a fleet of former military Airco DH.4A biplanes that had been modified to carry two passengers in the fuselage, it operated relief flights between Folkestone and Ghent. On 15 July 1919, the company flew a proving flight across the English Channel, despite a lack of support from the British government. Flown by Lt. H Shaw in an Airco DH.9 between RAF Hendon and Paris - Le Bourget Airport, the flight took 2 hours and 30 minutes at £21 per passenger.\n\nOn 25 August 1919, the company used DH.16s to pioneer a regular service from Hounslow Heath Aerodrome to Le Bourget, the first regular international service in the world. The airline soon gained a reputation for reliability, despite problems with bad weather and began to attract European competition. In November 1919, it won the first British civil airmail contract. Six Royal Air Force Airco DH.9A aircraft were lent to the company, to operate the airmail service between Hawkinge and Cologne. In 1920, they were returned to the Royal Air Force. \n\nOther British competitors were quick to follow - Handley Page Transport was established in 1919 and used the company's converted wartime Type O/400 bombers with a capacity for 19 passengers, to run a London-Paris passenger service.\n\nThe first French airline was Société des lignes Latécoère, later known as Aéropostale, which started its first service in late 1918 to Spain. The Société Générale des Transports Aériens was created in late 1919, by the Farman brothers and the Farman F.60 Goliath plane flew scheduled services from Toussus-le-Noble to Kenley, near Croydon, England. Another early French airline was the Compagnie des Messageries Aériennes, established in 1919 by Louis-Charles Breguet, offering a mail and freight service between Le Bourget Airport, Paris and Lesquin Airport, Lille. \n\nThe first German airline to use heavier than air aircraft was Deutsche Luft-Reederei established in 1917 which started operating in February 1919. In its first year, the D.L.R. operated regularly scheduled flights on routes with a combined length of nearly 1000 miles. By 1921 the D.L.R. network was more than 3000 km (1865 miles) long, and included destinations in the Netherlands, Scandinavia and the Baltic Republics. Another important German airline was Junkers Luftverkehr, which began operations in 1921. It was a division of the aircraft manufacturer Junkers, which became a separate company in 1924. It operated joint-venture airlines in Austria, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Latvia, Norway, Poland, Sweden and Switzerland.\n\nThe Dutch airline KLM made its first flight in 1920, and is the oldest continuously operating airline in the world. Established by aviator Albert Plesman, it was immediately awarded a \"Royal\" predicate from Queen Wilhelmina Its first flight was from Croydon Airport, London to Amsterdam, using a leased Aircraft Transport and Travel DH-16, and carrying two British journalists and a number of newspapers. In 1921, KLM started scheduled services.\n\nIn Finland, the charter establishing Aero O/Y (now Finnair) was signed in the city of Helsinki on September 12, 1923. Junkers F.13 D-335 became the first aircraft of the company, when Aero took delivery of it on March 14, 1924. The first flight was between Helsinki and Tallinn, capital of Estonia, and it took place on March 20, 1924, one week later.\n\nIn the Soviet Union, the Chief Administration of the Civil Air Fleet was established in 1921. One of its first acts was to help found Deutsch-Russische Luftverkehrs A.G. (Deruluft), a German-Russian joint venture to provide air transport from Russia to the West. Domestic air service began around the same time, when Dobrolyot started operations on 15 July 1923 between Moscow and Nizhni Novgorod. Since 1932 all operations had been carried under the name Aeroflot.\n\nEarly European airlines tend to favour comfort - the passenger cabins were often spacious with luxurious interiors - over speed and efficiency. The relatively basic navigational capabilities of pilots at the time also meant that delays due to the weather were commonplace.\n\nRationalization\n\nBy the early 1920s, small airlines were struggling to compete, and there was a movement towards increased rationalization and consolidation. In 1924, Imperial Airways was formed from the merger of Instone Air Line Company, British Marine Air Navigation, Daimler Airway and Handley Page Transport Co Ltd., to allow British airlines to compete with stiff competition from French and German airlines that were enjoying heavy government subsidies. The airline was a pioneer in surveying and opening up air routes across the world to serve far-flung parts of the British Empire and to enhance trade and integration. \n\nThe first new airliner ordered by Imperial Airways, was the Handley Page W8f City of Washington, delivered on 3 November 1924. In the first year of operation the company carried 11,395 passengers and 212,380 letters. In April 1925, the film The Lost World became the first film to be screened for passengers on a scheduled airliner flight when it was shown on the London-Paris route.\n\nTwo French airlines also merged to form Air Union on 1 January 1923. This later merged with four other French airlines to become Air France, the country's flagship carrier to this day, on 7 October 1933.\n\nGermany's Deutsche Luft Hansa was created in 1926 by merger of two airlines, one of them Junkers Luftverkehr. Luft Hansa, due to the Junkers heritage and unlike most other airlines at the time, became a major investor in airlines outside of Europe, providing capital to Varig and Avianca. German airliners built by Junkers, Dornier, and Fokker were among the most advanced in the world at the time.\n\nGlobal expansion\n\nIn 1926, Alan Cobham surveyed a flight route from the UK to Cape Town, South Africa, following this up with another proving flight to Melbourne, Australia. Other routes to British India and the Far East were also charted and demonstrated at this time. Regular services to Cairo and Basra began in 1927 and was extended to Karachi in 1929. The London-Australia service was inaugurated in 1932 with the Handley Page HP 42 airliners. Further services were opened up to Calcutta, Rangoon, Singapore, Brisbane and Hong Kong passengers departed London on 14 March 1936 following the establishment of a branch from Penang to Hong Kong.\n\nImperial's aircraft were small, most seating fewer than twenty passengers, and catered for the rich - only about 50,000 passengers used Imperial Airways in the 1930s. Most passengers on intercontinental routes or on services within and between British colonies were men doing colonial administration, business or research. \n\nLike Imperial Airways, Air France and KLM's early growth depended heavily on the needs to service links with far-flung colonial possessions (North Africa and Indochina for the French and the East Indies for the Dutch). France began an air mail service to Morocco in 1919 that was bought out in 1927, renamed Aéropostale, and injected with capital to become a major international carrier. In 1933, Aéropostale went bankrupt, was nationalized and merged into Air France.\n\nAlthough Germany lacked colonies, it also began expanding its services globally. In 1931, the airship Graf Zeppelin began offering regular scheduled passenger service between Germany and South America, usually every two weeks, which continued until 1937. In 1936, the airship Hindenburg entered passenger service and successfully crossed the Atlantic 36 times before crashing at Lakehurst, New Jersey on May 6, 1937.\n\nFrom February 1934 until World War II began in 1939 Deutsche Lufthansa operated an airmail service from Stuttgart, Germany via Spain, the Canary Islands and West Africa to Natal in Brazil. This was the first time an airline flew across an ocean. \n\nBy the end of the 1930s Aeroflot had become the world's largest airline, employing more than 4,000 pilots and 60,000 other service personnel and operating around 3,000 aircraft (of which 75% were considered obsolete by its own standards). During the Soviet era Aeroflot was synonymous with Russian civil aviation, as it was the only air carrier. It became the first airline in the world to operate sustained regular jet services on 15 September 1956 with the Tupolev Tu-104.\n\nEU airline deregulation\n\nDeregulation of the European Union airspace in the early 1990s has had substantial effect on the structure of the industry there. The shift towards 'budget' airlines on shorter routes has been significant. Airlines such as EasyJet and Ryanair have often grown at the expense of the traditional national airlines.\n\nThere has also been a trend for these national airlines themselves to be privatized such as has occurred for Aer Lingus and British Airways. Other national airlines, including Italy's Alitalia, have suffered - particularly with the rapid increase of oil prices in early 2008.\n\nU.S. airline industry\n\nEarly development\n\nTony Jannus conducted the United States' first scheduled commercial airline flight on 1 January 1914 for the St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line. The 23-minute flight traveled between St. Petersburg, Florida and Tampa, Florida, passing some 50 ft above Tampa Bay in Jannus' Benoist XIV wood and muslin biplane flying boat. His passenger was a former mayor of St. Petersburg, who paid $400 for the privilege of sitting on a wooden bench in the open cockpit. The Airboat line operated for about four months, carrying more than 1,200 passengers who paid $5 each. Chalk's International Airlines began service between Miami and Bimini in the Bahamas in February 1919. Based in Ft. Lauderdale, Chalk's claimed to be the oldest continuously operating airline in the United States until its closure in 2008. \n\nFollowing World War I, the United States found itself swamped with aviators. Many decided to take their war-surplus aircraft on barnstorming campaigns, performing aerobatic maneuvers to woo crowds. In 1918, the United States Postal Service won the financial backing of Congress to begin experimenting with air mail service, initially using Curtiss Jenny aircraft that had been procured by the United States Army Air Service. Private operators were the first to fly the mail but due to numerous accidents the US Army was tasked with mail delivery. During the Army's involvement they proved to be too unreliable and lost their air mail duties. By the mid-1920s, the Postal Service had developed its own air mail network, based on a transcontinental backbone between New York City and San Francisco. To supplant this service, they offered twelve contracts for spur routes to independent bidders. Some of the carriers that won these routes would, through time and mergers, evolve into Pan Am, Delta Air Lines, Braniff Airways, American Airlines, United Airlines (originally a division of Boeing), Trans World Airlines, Northwest Airlines, and Eastern Air Lines.\n\nService during the early 1920s was sporadic: most airlines at the time were focused on carrying bags of mail. In 1925, however, the Ford Motor Company bought out the Stout Aircraft Company and began construction of the all-metal Ford Trimotor, which became the first successful American airliner. With a 12-passenger capacity, the Trimotor made passenger service potentially profitable. Air service was seen as a supplement to rail service in the American transportation network.\n\nAt the same time, Juan Trippe began a crusade to create an air network that would link America to the world, and he achieved this goal through his airline, Pan American World Airways, with a fleet of flying boats that linked Los Angeles to Shanghai and Boston to London. Pan Am and Northwest Airways (which began flights to Canada in the 1920s) were the only U.S. airlines to go international before the 1940s.\n\nWith the introduction of the Boeing 247 and Douglas DC-3 in the 1930s, the U.S. airline industry was generally profitable, even during the Great Depression. This trend continued until the beginning of World War II.\n\nDevelopment since 1945\n\nAs governments met to set the standards and scope for an emergent civil air industry toward the end of the war, the U.S. took a position of maximum operating freedom; U.S. airline companies were not as hard-hit as European and the few Asian ones had been. This preference for \"open skies\" operating regimes continues, with limitations, to this day.\n\nWorld War II, like World War I, brought new life to the airline industry. Many airlines in the Allied countries were flush from lease contracts to the military, and foresaw a future explosive demand for civil air transport, for both passengers and cargo. They were eager to invest in the newly emerging flagships of air travel such as the Boeing Stratocruiser, Lockheed Constellation, and Douglas DC-6. Most of these new aircraft were based on American bombers such as the B-29, which had spearheaded research into new technologies such as pressurization. Most offered increased efficiency from both added speed and greater payload.\n\nIn the 1950s, the De Havilland Comet, Boeing 707, Douglas DC-8, and Sud Aviation Caravelle became the first flagships of the Jet Age in the West, while the Eastern bloc had Tupolev Tu-104 and Tupolev Tu-124 in the fleets of state-owned carriers such as Czechoslovak ČSA, Soviet Aeroflot and East-German Interflug. The Vickers Viscount and Lockheed L-188 Electra inaugurated turboprop transport.\n\nThe next big boost for the airlines would come in the 1970s, when the Boeing 747, McDonnell Douglas DC-10, and Lockheed L-1011 inaugurated widebody (\"jumbo jet\") service, which is still the standard in international travel. The Tupolev Tu-144 and its Western counterpart, Concorde, made supersonic travel a reality. Concorde first flew in 1969 and operated through 2003. In 1972, Airbus began producing Europe's most commercially successful line of airliners to date. The added efficiencies for these aircraft were often not in speed, but in passenger capacity, payload, and range. Airbus also features modern electronic cockpits that were common across their aircraft to enable pilots to fly multiple models with minimal cross-training.\n\nUS airline deregulation\n\nThe 1978 U.S. airline industry deregulation lowered federally controlled barriers for new airlines just as a downturn in the nation's economy occurred. New start-ups entered during the downturn, during which time they found aircraft and funding, contracted hangar and maintenance services, trained new employees, and recruited laid off staff from other airlines.\n\nMajor airlines dominated their routes through aggressive pricing and additional capacity offerings, often swamping new start-ups. In the place of high barriers to entry imposed by regulation, the major airlines implemented an equally high barrier called loss leader pricing. In this strategy an already established and dominant airline stomps out its competition by lowering airfares on specific routes, below the cost of operating on it, choking out any chance a start-up airline may have. The industry side effect is an overall drop in revenue and service quality. Since deregulation in 1978 the average domestic ticket price has dropped by 40%. So has airline employee pay. By incurring massive losses, the airlines of the USA now rely upon a scourge of cyclical Chapter 11 bankruptcy proceedings to continue doing business. America West Airlines (which has since merged with US Airways) remained a significant survivor from this new entrant era, as dozens, even hundreds, have gone under.\n\nIn many ways, the biggest winner in the deregulated environment was the air passenger. Although not exclusively attributable to deregulation, indeed the U.S. witnessed an explosive growth in demand for air travel. Many millions who had never or rarely flown before became regular fliers, even joining frequent flyer loyalty programs and receiving free flights and other benefits from their flying. New services and higher frequencies meant that business fliers could fly to another city, do business, and return the same day, from almost any point in the country. Air travel's advantages put long distance intercity railroad travel and bus lines under pressure, with most of the latter having withered away, whilst the former is still protected under nationalization through the continuing existence of Amtrak.\n\nBy the 1980s, almost half of the total flying in the world took place in the U.S., and today the domestic industry operates over 10,000 daily departures nationwide.\n\nToward the end of the century, a new style of low cost airline emerged, offering a no-frills product at a lower price. Southwest Airlines, JetBlue, AirTran Airways, Skybus Airlines and other low-cost carriers began to represent a serious challenge to the so-called \"legacy airlines\", as did their low-cost counterparts in many other countries. Their commercial viability represented a serious competitive threat to the legacy carriers. However, of these, ATA and Skybus have since ceased operations.\n\nIncreasingly since 1978, US airlines have been reincorporated and spun off by newly created and internally led management companies, and thus becoming nothing more than operating units and subsidiaries with limited financially decisive control. Among some of these holding companies and parent companies which are relatively well known, are the UAL Corporation, along with the AMR Corporation, among a long list of airline holding companies sometime recognized worldwide. Less recognized are the private equity firms which often seize managerial, financial, and board of directors control of distressed airline companies by temporarily investing large sums of capital in air carriers, to rescheme an airlines assets into a profitable organization or liquidating an air carrier of their profitable and worthwhile routes and business operations.\n\nThus the last 50 years of the airline industry have varied from reasonably profitable, to devastatingly depressed. As the first major market to deregulate the industry in 1978, U.S. airlines have experienced more turbulence than almost any other country or region. In fact, no U.S. legacy carrier survived bankruptcy-free. Amongst the outspoken critics of deregulation, former CEO of American Airlines, Robert Crandall has publicly stated:\n\n\"Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection filing shows airline industry deregulation was a mistake. \"\n\nThe airline industry bailout\n\nCongress passed the [http://ostpxweb.ost.dot.gov/aviation/Data/stabilizationact.pdf Air Transportation Safety and System Stabilization Act] (P.L. 107-42) in response to a severe liquidity crisis facing the already-troubled airline industry in the aftermath of the September 11th terrorist attacks. Through the ATSB Congress sought to provide cash infusions to carriers for both the cost of the four-day federal shutdown of the airlines and the incremental losses incurred through December 31, 2001 as a result of the terrorist attacks. This resulted in the first government bailout of the 21st century. Between 2000 and 2005 US airlines lost $30 billion with wage cuts of over $15 billion and 100,000 employees laid off. \n\nIn recognition of the essential national economic role of a healthy aviation system, Congress authorized partial compensation of up to $5 billion in cash subject to review by the Department of Transportation and up to $10 billion in loan guarantees subject to review by a newly created Air Transportation Stabilization Board (ATSB). The applications to DOT for reimbursements were subjected to rigorous multi-year reviews not only by DOT program personnel but also by the Government Accountability Office and the DOT Inspector General. \n\nUltimately, the federal government provided $4.6 billion in one-time, subject-to-income-tax cash payments to 427 U.S. air carriers, with no provision for repayment, essentially a gift from the taxpayers. (Passenger carriers operating scheduled service received approximately $4 billion, subject to tax.) In addition, the ATSB approved loan guarantees to six airlines totaling approximately $1.6 billion. Data from the US Treasury Department show that the government recouped the $1.6 billion and a profit of $339 million from the fees, interest and purchase of discounted airline stock associated with loan guarantees. \n\nAsian airline industry\n\nAlthough Philippine Airlines (PAL) was officially founded on February 26, 1941, its license to operate as an airliner was derived from merged Philippine Aerial Taxi Company (PATCO) established by mining magnate Emmanuel N. Bachrach on December 3, 1930, making it Asia's oldest scheduled carrier still in operation. Commercial air service commenced three weeks later from Manila to Baguio, making it Asia's first airline route. Bachrach's death in 1937 paved the way for its eventual merger with Philippine Airlines in March 1941 and made it Asia's oldest airline. It is also the oldest airline in Asia still operating under its current name. Bachrach's majority share in PATCO was bought by beer magnate Andres R. Soriano in 1939 upon the advice of General Douglas MacArthur and later merged with newly formed Philippine Airlines with PAL as the surviving entity. Soriano has controlling interest in both airlines before the merger. PAL restarted service on March 15, 1941 with a single Beech Model 18 NPC-54 aircraft, which started its daily services between Manila (from Nielson Field) and Baguio, later to expand with larger aircraft such as the DC-3 and Vickers Viscount.\n\nIndia was also one of the first countries to embrace civil aviation. One of the first West Asian airline companies was Air India, which had its beginning as Tata Airlines in 1932, a division of Tata Sons Ltd. (now Tata Group). The airline was founded by India's leading industrialist, JRD Tata. On October 15, 1932, J. R. D. Tata himself flew a single engined De Havilland Puss Moth carrying air mail (postal mail of Imperial Airways) from Karachi to Bombay via Ahmedabad. The aircraft continued to Madras via Bellary piloted by Royal Air Force pilot Nevill Vintcent. Tata Airlines was also one of the world's first major airlines which began its operations without any support from the Government. \n\nWith the outbreak of World War II, the airline presence in Asia came to a relative halt, with many new flag carriers donating their aircraft for military aid and other uses. Following the end of the war in 1945, regular commercial service was restored in India and Tata Airlines became a public limited company on July 29, 1946 under the name Air India. After the independence of India, 49% of the airline was acquired by the Government of India. In return, the airline was granted status to operate international services from India as the designated flag carrier under the name Air India International.\n\nOn July 31, 1946, a chartered Philippine Airlines (PAL) DC-4 ferried 40 American servicemen to Oakland, California, from Nielson Airport in Makati City with stops in Guam, Wake Island, Johnston Atoll and Honolulu, Hawaii, making PAL the first Asian airline to cross the Pacific Ocean. A regular service between Manila and San Francisco was started in December. It was during this year that the airline was designated as the flag carrier of Philippines.\n\nDuring the era of decolonization, newly born Asian countries started to embrace air transport. Among the first Asian carriers during the era were Cathay Pacific of Hong Kong (founded in September 1946), Orient Airways (later Pakistan International Airlines; founded in October 1946), Air Ceylon (later SriLankan Airlines; founded in 1947), Malayan Airways Limited in 1947 (later Singapore and Malaysia Airlines), El Al in Israel in 1948, Garuda Indonesia in 1948, Japan Airlines in 1951, Thai Airways International in 1960, and Korean National Airlines in 1947.\n\nLatin American airline industry\n\nAmong the first countries to have regular airlines in Latin America were Bolivia with Lloyd Aéreo Boliviano, Cuba with Cubana de Aviación, Colombia with Avianca, Argentina with Aerolineas Argentinas, Chile with LAN Chile (today LAN Airlines), Brazil with Varig, Dominican Republic with Dominicana de Aviación, Mexico with Mexicana de Aviación, Trinidad and Tobago with BWIA West Indies Airways (today Caribbean Airlines), Venezuela with Aeropostal, and TACA based in El Salvador and representing several airlines of Central America (Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua). All the previous airlines started regular operations well before World War II.\n\nThe air travel market has evolved rapidly over recent years in Latin America. Some industry estimates indicate that over 2,000 new aircraft will begin service over the next five years in this region.\n\nThese airlines serve domestic flights within their countries, as well as connections within Latin America and also overseas flights to North America, Europe, Australia, and Asia.\n\nOnly three airlines: Avianca, LAN, and TAM Airlines have international subsidiaries and cover many destinations within the Americas as well as major hubs in other continents. LAN with Chile as the central operation along with Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and Argentina and some operations in the Dominican Republic. The recently formed AviancaTACA group has control of Avianca Brazil, VIP Ecuador and a strategic alliance with AeroGal. And TAM with its Mercosur base in Asuncion, Paraguay. As of 2010, talks of uniting LAN and TAM have strongly developed to create a joint airline named LATAM.\n\nRegulatory considerations\n\nNational\n\nMany countries have national airlines that the government owns and operates. Fully private airlines are subject to a great deal of government regulation for economic, political, and safety concerns. For instance, governments often intervene to halt airline labor actions to protect the free flow of people, communications, and goods between different regions without compromising safety.\n\nThe United States, Australia, and to a lesser extent Brazil, Mexico, India, the United Kingdom, and Japan have \"deregulated\" their airlines. In the past, these governments dictated airfares, route networks, and other operational requirements for each airline. Since deregulation, airlines have been largely free to negotiate their own operating arrangements with different airports, enter and exit routes easily, and to levy airfares and supply flights according to market demand.\n\nThe entry barriers for new airlines are lower in a deregulated market, and so the U.S. has seen hundreds of airlines start up (sometimes for only a brief operating period). This has produced far greater competition than before deregulation in most markets. The added competition, together with pricing freedom, means that new entrants often take market share with highly reduced rates that, to a limited degree, full service airlines must match. This is a major constraint on profitability for established carriers, which tend to have a higher cost base.\n\nAs a result, profitability in a deregulated market is uneven for most airlines. These forces have caused some major airlines to go out of business, in addition to most of the poorly established new entrants.\n\nIn the United States, the airline industry is dominated by four large firms. Because of industry consolidation, after fuel prices dropped considerably in 2015, very little of the savings were passed on to consumers. \n\nInternational\n\nGroups such as the International Civil Aviation Organization establish worldwide standards for safety and other vital concerns. Most international air traffic is regulated by bilateral agreements between countries, which designate specific carriers to operate on specific routes. The model of such an agreement was the Bermuda Agreement between the US and UK following World War II, which designated airports to be used for transatlantic flights and gave each government the authority to nominate carriers to operate routes.\n\nBilateral agreements are based on the \"freedoms of the air\", a group of generalized traffic rights ranging from the freedom to overfly a country to the freedom to provide domestic flights within a country (a very rarely granted right known as cabotage). Most agreements permit airlines to fly from their home country to designated airports in the other country: some also extend the freedom to provide continuing service to a third country, or to another destination in the other country while carrying passengers from overseas.\n\nIn the 1990s, \"open skies\" agreements became more common. These agreements take many of these regulatory powers from state governments and open up international routes to further competition. Open skies agreements have met some criticism, particularly within the European Union, whose airlines would be at a comparative disadvantage with the United States' because of cabotage restrictions.\n\nEconomic considerations\n\nHistorically, air travel has survived largely through state support, whether in the form of equity or subsidies. The airline industry as a whole has made a cumulative loss during its 100-year history, once the costs include subsidies for aircraft development and airport construction. \n\nOne argument is that positive externalities, such as higher growth due to global mobility, outweigh the microeconomic losses and justify continuing government intervention. A historically high level of government intervention in the airline industry can be seen as part of a wider political consensus on strategic forms of transport, such as highways and railways, both of which receive public funding in most parts of the world.\n\nAlthough many countries continue to operate state-owned or parastatal airlines, many large airlines today are privately owned and are therefore governed by microeconomic principles to maximize shareholder profit.\n\nTop airline groups by revenue \n\nfor 2010, source : Airline Business August 2011, Flightglobal Data Research\n\nTicket revenue\n\nAirlines assign prices to their services in an attempt to maximize profitability. The pricing of airline tickets has become increasingly complicated over the years and is now largely determined by computerized yield management systems.\n\nBecause of the complications in scheduling flights and maintaining profitability, airlines have many loopholes that can be used by the knowledgeable traveler. Many of these airfare secrets are becoming more and more known to the general public, so airlines are forced to make constant adjustments.\n\nMost airlines use differentiated pricing, a form of price discrimination, to sell air services at varying prices simultaneously to different segments. Factors influencing the price include the days remaining until departure, the booked load factor, the forecast of total demand by price point, competitive pricing in force, and variations by day of week of departure and by time of day. Carriers often accomplish this by dividing each cabin of the aircraft (first, business and economy) into a number of travel classes for pricing purposes.\n\nA complicating factor is that of origin-destination control (\"O&D control\"). Someone purchasing a ticket from Melbourne to Sydney (as an example) for A$200 is competing with someone else who wants to fly Melbourne to Los Angeles through Sydney on the same flight, and who is willing to pay A$1400. Should the airline prefer the $1400 passenger, or the $200 passenger plus a possible Sydney-Los Angeles passenger willing to pay $1300? Airlines have to make hundreds of thousands of similar pricing decisions daily.\n\nThe advent of advanced computerized reservations systems in the late 1970s, most notably Sabre, allowed airlines to easily perform cost-benefit analyses on different pricing structures, leading to almost perfect price discrimination in some cases (that is, filling each seat on an aircraft at the highest price that can be charged without driving the consumer elsewhere).\n\nThe intense nature of airfare pricing has led to the term \"fare war\" to describe efforts by airlines to undercut other airlines on competitive routes. Through computers, new airfares can be published quickly and efficiently to the airlines' sales channels. For this purpose the airlines use the Airline Tariff Publishing Company (ATPCO), who distribute latest fares for more than 500 airlines to Computer Reservation Systems across the world.\n\nThe extent of these pricing phenomena is strongest in \"legacy\" carriers. In contrast, low fare carriers usually offer pre-announced and simplified price structure, and sometimes quote prices for each leg of a trip separately.\n\nComputers also allow airlines to predict, with some accuracy, how many passengers will actually fly after making a reservation to fly. This allows airlines to overbook their flights enough to fill the aircraft while accounting for \"no-shows,\" but not enough (in most cases) to force paying passengers off the aircraft for lack of seats, stimulative pricing for low demand flights coupled with overbooking on high demand flights can help reduce this figure. This is especially crucial during tough economic times as airlines undertake massive cuts to ticket prices to retain demand. \n\nOperating costs\n\nFull-service airlines have a high level of fixed and operating costs to establish and maintain air services: labor, fuel, airplanes, engines, spares and parts, IT services and networks, airport equipment, airport handling services, sales distribution, catering, training, aviation insurance and other costs. Thus all but a small percentage of the income from ticket sales is paid out to a wide variety of external providers or internal cost centers.\n\nMoreover, the industry is structured so that airlines often act as tax collectors. Airline fuel is untaxed because of a series of treaties existing between countries. Ticket prices include a number of fees, taxes and surcharges beyond the control of airlines. Airlines are also responsible for enforcing government regulations. If airlines carry passengers without proper documentation on an international flight, they are responsible for returning them back to the original country.\n\nAnalysis of the 1992–1996 period shows that every player in the air transport chain is far more profitable than the airlines, who collect and pass through fees and revenues to them from ticket sales. While airlines as a whole earned 6% return on capital employed (2-3.5% less than the cost of capital), airports earned 10%, catering companies 10-13%, handling companies 11-14%, aircraft lessors 15%, aircraft manufacturers 16%, and global distribution companies more than 30%. (Source: Spinetta, 2000, quoted in Doganis, 2002)\n\nThe widespread entrance of a new breed of low cost airlines beginning at the turn of the century has accelerated the demand that full service carriers control costs. Many of these low cost companies emulate Southwest Airlines in various respects, and like Southwest, they can eke out a consistent profit throughout all phases of the business cycle.\n\nAs a result, a shakeout of airlines is occurring in the U.S. and elsewhere. American Airlines, United Airlines, Continental Airlines (twice), US Airways (twice), Delta Air Lines, and Northwest Airlines have all declared Chapter 11 bankruptcy. Some argue that it would be far better for the industry as a whole if a wave of actual closures were to reduce the number of \"undead\" airlines competing with healthy airlines while being artificially protected from creditors via bankruptcy law. On the other hand, some have pointed out that the reduction in capacity would be short lived given that there would be large quantities of relatively new aircraft that bankruptcies would want to get rid of and would re-enter the market either as increased fleets for the survivors or the basis of cheap planes for new startups.\n\nWhere an airline has established an engineering base at an airport, then there may be considerable economic advantages in using that same airport as a preferred focus (or \"hub\") for its scheduled flights.\n\nAssets and financing\n\nAirline financing is quite complex, since airlines are highly leveraged operations. Not only must they purchase (or lease) new airliner bodies and engines regularly, they must make major long-term fleet decisions with the goal of meeting the demands of their markets while producing a fleet that is relatively economical to operate and maintain. Compare Southwest Airlines and their reliance on a single airplane type (the Boeing 737 and derivatives), with the now defunct Eastern Air Lines which operated 17 different aircraft types, each with varying pilot, engine, maintenance, and support needs.\n\nA second financial issue is that of hedging oil and fuel purchases, which are usually second only to labor in its relative cost to the company. However, with the current high fuel prices it has become the largest cost to an airline. Legacy airlines, compared with new entrants, have been hit harder by rising fuel prices partly due to the running of older, less fuel efficient aircraft. While hedging instruments can be expensive, they can easily pay for themselves many times over in periods of increasing fuel costs, such as in the 2000–2005 period.\n\nIn view of the congestion apparent at many international airports, the ownership of slots at certain airports (the right to take-off or land an aircraft at a particular time of day or night) has become a significant tradable asset for many airlines. Clearly take-off slots at popular times of the day can be critical in attracting the more profitable business traveler to a given airline's flight and in establishing a competitive advantage against a competing airline.\n\nIf a particular city has two or more airports, market forces will tend to attract the less profitable routes, or those on which competition is weakest, to the less congested airport, where slots are likely to be more available and therefore cheaper. For example, Reagan National Airport attracts profitable routes due partly to its congestion, leaving less-profitable routes to Baltimore-Washington International Airport and Dulles International Airport.\n\nOther factors, such as surface transport facilities and onward connections, will also affect the relative appeal of different airports and some long distance flights may need to operate from the one with the longest runway. For example, LaGuardia Airport is the preferred airport for most of Manhattan due to its proximity, while long-distance routes must use John F. Kennedy International Airport's longer runways.\n\nAirline partnerships\n\nCodesharing is the most common type of airline partnership; it involves one airline selling tickets for another airline's flights under its own airline code. An early example of this was Japan Airlines' (JAL) codesharing partnership with Aeroflot in the 1960s on Tokyo–Moscow flights; Aeroflot operated the flights using Aeroflot aircraft, but JAL sold tickets for the flights as if they were JAL flights. This practice allows airlines to expand their operations, at least on paper, into parts of the world where they cannot afford to establish bases or purchase aircraft. Another example was the Austrian–Sabena partnership on the Vienna–Brussels–New York/JFK route during the late '60s, using a Sabena Boeing 707 with Austrian livery.\n\nSince airline reservation requests are often made by city-pair (such as \"show me flights from Chicago to Düsseldorf\"), an airline that can codeshare with another airline for a variety of routes might be able to be listed as indeed offering a Chicago–Düsseldorf flight. The passenger is advised however, that airline no. 1 operates the flight from say Chicago to Amsterdam, and airline no. 2 operates the continuing flight (on a different airplane, sometimes from another terminal) to Düsseldorf. Thus the primary rationale for code sharing is to expand one's service offerings in city-pair terms to increase sales.\n\nA more recent development is the airline alliance, which became prevalent in the late 1990s. These alliances can act as virtual mergers to get around government restrictions. Alliances of airlines such as Star Alliance, Oneworld, and SkyTeam coordinate their passenger service programs (such as lounges and frequent-flyer programs), offer special interline tickets, and often engage in extensive codesharing (sometimes systemwide). These are increasingly integrated business combinations—sometimes including cross-equity arrangements—in which products, service standards, schedules, and airport facilities are standardized and combined for higher efficiency. One of the first airlines to start an alliance with another airline was KLM, who partnered with Northwest Airlines. Both airlines later entered the SkyTeam alliance after the fusion of KLM and Air France in 2004.\n\nOften the companies combine IT operations, or purchase fuel and aircraft as a bloc to achieve higher bargaining power. However, the alliances have been most successful at purchasing invisible supplies and services, such as fuel. Airlines usually prefer to purchase items visible to their passengers to differentiate themselves from local competitors. If an airline's main domestic competitor flies Boeing airliners, then the airline may prefer to use Airbus aircraft regardless of what the rest of the alliance chooses.\n\nFuel hedging\n\nFuel hedging is a contractual tool used by transportation companies like airlines to reduce their exposure to volatile and potentially rising fuel costs. Several low cost carriers such as Southwest Airlines adopt this practice. \n\nSouthwest is credited with maintaining strong business profits between 1999 and the early 2000s due to its fuel hedging policy. Many other airlines are replicating Southwest's hedging policy to control their fuel costs.\n\nEnvironmental impacts\n\nAircraft engines emit noise pollution, gases and particulate emissions, and contribute to global dimming.\n\nGrowth of the industry in recent years raised a number of ecological questions.\n\nDomestic air transport grew in China at 15.5 percent annually from 2001 to 2006. The rate of air travel globally increased at 3.7 percent per year over the same time. In the EU greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87% between 1990 and 2006. However it must be compared with the flights increase, only in UK, between 1990 and 2006 terminal passengers increased from 100 000 thousands to 250 000 thousands., according to AEA reports every year, 750 million passengers travel by European airlines, which also share 40% of merchandise value in and out of Europe. Without even pressure from \"green activists\", targeting lower ticket prices, generally, airlines do what is possible to cut the fuel consumption (and gas emissions connected therewith). Further, according to some reports, it can be concluded that the last piston-powered aircraft were as fuel-efficient as the average jet in 2005. \n\nDespite continuing efficiency improvements from the major aircraft manufacturers, the expanding demand for global air travel has resulted in growing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Currently, the aviation sector, including US domestic and global international travel, make approximately 1.6 percent of global anthropogenic GHG emissions per annum. North America accounts for nearly 40 percent of the world's GHG emissions from aviation fuel use. \n\nCO2 emissions from the jet fuel burned per passenger on an average 3200 km airline flight is about 353 kilograms (776 pounds). Loss of natural habitat potential associated with the jet fuel burned per passenger on a 3200 km airline flight is estimated to be 250 square meters (2700 square feet). \n\nIn the context of climate change and peak oil, there is a debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme, with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account. \n\nThe airline industry is responsible for about 11 percent of greenhouse gases emitted by the U.S. transportation sector. Boeing estimates that biofuels could reduce flight-related greenhouse-gas emissions by 60 to 80 percent. The solution would be blending algae fuels with existing jet fuel: \n\n* Boeing and Air New Zealand are collaborating with leading Brazilian biofuel maker Tecbio, New Zealand's Aquaflow Bionomic and other jet biofuel developers around the world.\n* Virgin Atlantic and Virgin Green Fund are looking into the technology as part of a biofuel initiative. \n* KLM has made the first commercial flight with biofuel in 2009.\n\nThere are projects on electric aircraft, and some of them are fully operational as of 2013.\n\nCall signs\n\nEach operator of a scheduled or charter flight uses an airline call sign when communicating with airports or air traffic control centres. Most of these call-signs are derived from the airline's trade name, but for reasons of history, marketing, or the need to reduce ambiguity in spoken English (so that pilots do not mistakenly make navigational decisions based on instructions issued to a different aircraft), some airlines and air forces use call-signs less obviously connected with their trading name. For example, British Airways uses a Speedbird call-sign, named after the logo of its predecessor, BOAC, while SkyEurope used Relax.\n\nAirline personnel\n\nThe various types of airline personnel include:\nFlight operations personnel including flight safety personnel.\n* Flight crew, responsible for the operation of the aircraft. Flight crew members include:\n** Pilots (Captain and First Officer: some older aircraft also required a Flight Engineer and/or a Navigator)\n** Flight attendants, (led by a purser on larger aircraft)\n** In-flight security personnel on some airlines (most notably El Al)\n* Groundcrew, responsible for operations at airports. Ground crew members include:\n** Aerospace and avionics engineers responsible for certifying the aircraft for flight and management of aircraft maintenance\n*** Aerospace engineers, responsible for airframe, powerplant and electrical systems maintenance\n***Avionics engineers responsible for avionics and instruments maintenance\n** Airframe and powerplant technicians\n** Electric System technicians, responsible for maintenance of electrical systems\n**Avionics technicians, responsible for maintenance of avionics\n** Flight dispatchers\n** Baggage handlers\n** Ramp Agents\n** Remote centralised weight and balancing \n** Gate agents\n** Ticket agents\n** Passenger service agents (such as airline lounge employees)\n** Reservation agents, usually (but not always) at facilities outside the airport.\n** Crew schedulers\nAirlines follow a corporate structure where each broad area of operations (such as maintenance, flight operations(including flight safety),\nand passenger service) is supervised by a vice president. Larger airlines often appoint vice presidents to oversee each of the\nairline's hubs as well. Airlines employ lawyers to deal with regulatory procedures and other administrative tasks.\n\nIndustry trends\n\nThe pattern of ownership has been privatized in the recent years, that is, the ownership has gradually changed from governments to private and individual sectors or organizations. This occurs as regulators permit greater freedom and non-government ownership, in steps that are usually decades apart. This pattern is not seen for all airlines in all regions. \n\nThe overall trend of demand has been consistently increasing. In the 1950s and 1960s, annual growth rates of 15% or more were common. Annual growth of 5-6% persisted through the 1980s and 1990s. Growth rates are not consistent in all regions, but countries with a de-regulated airline industry have more competition and greater pricing freedom. This results in lower fares and sometimes dramatic spurts in traffic growth. The U.S., Australia, Canada, Japan, Brazil, India and other markets exhibit this trend. The industry has been observed to be cyclical in its financial performance. Four or five years of poor earnings precede five or six years of improvement. But profitability even in the good years is generally low, in the range of 2-3% net profit after interest and tax. In times of profit, airlines lease new generations of airplanes and upgrade services in response to higher demand. Since 1980, the industry has not earned back the cost of capital during the best of times. Conversely, in bad times losses can be dramatically worse. Warren Buffett once said that despite all the money that has been invested in all airlines, the net profit is less than zero. He believes it is one of the hardest businesses to manage. \n\nAs in many mature industries, consolidation is a trend. Airline groupings may consist of limited bilateral partnerships, long-term, multi-faceted alliances between carriers, equity arrangements, mergers, or takeovers. Since governments often restrict ownership and merger between companies in different countries, most consolidation takes place within a country. In the U.S., over 200 airlines have merged, been taken over, or gone out of business since deregulation in 1978. Many international airline managers are lobbying their governments to permit greater consolidation to achieve higher economy and efficiency.", "Avianca Costa Rica, formerly known as Lacsa (Spanish: Lineas Aéreas Costarricenses S.A.), minority owned by the Synergy Group, is the national airline of Costa Rica and is based in San José. It operates international scheduled services to over 35 destinations in Central, North and South America. When it was a subsidiary of Grupo TACA, the airline was also known as TACA/LACSA. Since May 2013, when Grupo TACA was bought, Avianca Costa Rica is one of the seven nationally branded airlines (Avianca Ecuador, Avianca Honduras, etc.) in the Avianca Holdings group of Latin American airlines.\n\nHistory \n\nLacsa was established on 17 October 1945 by Pan American World Airways, the Costa Rican government and Costa Rican private interests. It started operations on 1 June 1946 and was designated the national carrier in 1949. Its domestic network was transferred to its wholly owned subsidiary Sansa in September 1959. \n\n \n\nLacsa operated the Douglas DC-6B four-engined piston airliner from 1960 until 1976 on their regular passenger, and eventually freight, scheduled flights to Miami International Airport. The airline introduced the first of their British Aircraft Corporation BAC One-Eleven twin-engined jet airliners onto their Caribbean passenger route network in April 1967. \n\nThe airline also operated a subsidiary in the Cayman Islands, Cayman Brac Airways (CBA) Ltd., which it sold a 51% controlling interest in the late 1960s to the Cayman Islands government which in turn used the air carrier to form Cayman Airways. Lacsa served Grand Cayman for many years as an intermediate stop on its services between San Jose, Costa Rica and Miami. \n\nSince 1999, the five airlines in the alliance began flying under the TACA brand. In 2008 a new TACA logo was introduced, followed by a new fleet of Embraer 190 airplanes registered in Costa Rica and operated under the Lacsa code. \n\nDestinations \n\nLacsa international destinations in 1973\n\nAccording to the May 31, 1973 Lacsa system timetable, the airline was serving the following international destinations: \n\n* Barranquilla, Colombia\n* Caracas, Venezuela\n* Grand Cayman, Cayman Islands\n* Maracaibo, Venezuela\n* Mexico City, Mexico\n* Miami, Florida\n* Panama City, Panama\n* San Andres Island, Colombia\n* San Jose, Costa Rica - Hub and airline headquarters\n* San Salvador, El Salvador\n\nThis same timetable states that all international flights were being operated with British Aircraft Corporation BAC One-Eleven twin jets at this time with the exception of the San Jose-San Andres Island route which was being flown with a Convair 440 propliner.\n\nFleet \n\nLacsa services were previously flown exclusively by Airbus A320 family jetliners drawn from the pooled fleet of the former Grupo TACA. In 2008, a new fleet of Embraer 190 jets was introduced. \n\nCurrent\n\nLacsa passenger retired\n\n*Beechcraft 18 (C-45 model)\n* Boeing 727-100\n*Boeing 727-200\n*Boeing 737-200\n*British Aircraft Corporation BAC One-Eleven (includes standard version as well as the stretched series 500 model)\n*Convair 340\n*Convair 440\n*Curtiss C-46\n*Douglas DC-3\n*Douglas DC-6B\n\nLacsa cargo retired \n\n*Lockheed L-188 Electra\n*Douglas DC-8\n\nIncidents\n\nOn May 23, 1988, a leased Boeing 727-100, registered TI-LRC and operating the route San Jose-Managua-Miami, collided with a fence at the end of the runway in the Juan Santamaría International Airport, crashed at a nearby field next to a highway, and caught fire. The excess of weight in the front part of the airplane was the cause of the accident. There were no fatalities out of the 23 occupants.\n\nOn 11 January 1998, Lacsa flight 691, an Airbus A320, veered off a runway at San Francisco International Airport during the takeoff roll. The aircraft left the runway at full speed, coming to rest in a field of mud. The runway was closed after the incident, reducing take-off capacity by 50 percent, leading to massive delays at the airport. None of the 122 passengers on board the aircraft sustained injuries, and stayed at a hotel until another aircraft could transport them to their destination, San José, Costa Rica. The cause of the incident was not determined." ] }

{ "description": [ "... and have come across some competitive airfares from LACSA airlines. ... American countries. ... LACSA is only a paper airline...they do not ..." ], "filename": [ "189/189_1428.txt" ], "rank": [ 2 ], "title": [ "LACSA Airlines - San Jose Forum - TripAdvisor" ], "url": [ "https://www.tripadvisor.com/ShowTopic-g309293-i1208-k252109-LACSA_Airlines-San_Jose_San_Jose_Metro_Province_of_San_Jose.html" ], "search_context": [ "LACSA Airlines - San Jose Forum - TripAdvisor\nLACSA Airlines - San Jose Forum\nReview a place you’ve visited\nJOIN\nWhich San Jose hotels are on sale?\nmm/dd/yyyy mm/dd/yyyy\nLACSA Airlines\nAug 23, 2005, 4:30 PM\nI am looking into a trip to San Jose, and have come across some competitive airfares from LACSA airlines. They also appear to offer more non stops from JFK New York than other carriers.\nI am curious if anyone has ever flown with them, and if so what are they like. Is it similiar to flying to France on Air France? or is it more like flying on a \"budget\" carrier like AirTran or ATA?\nAny input would be most appreciated...:-)\nReport inappropriate content\nTravelers interested in this topic also viewed...\nShow Prices\n1. Re: LACSA Airlines\nOct 17, 2005, 1:08 AM\nI have travelled on Lacsa and the service was pretty good. To be honest with you, I have flown to CR on American Airlines and I would rather travel with Lacsa.\nI will go next month to CR and I already bought tickets from Lacsa,\nEnjoy your trip, Costa Rica is worth visiting,\nThe traveller, from Miami\n2. Re: LACSA Airlines\nOct 17, 2005, 7:47 AM\nWe have always had good luck with LACSA (or TACA, as it is also known). They have always been on time and the service is about what any airline gives. Recently they started selling meals on their flights so if you want anything to eat other than snacks and drinks bring a couple of five dollar bills (that was the price and you have to pay when you order). They do not have \"wide body\" aircraft, however, so the seats are pretty cramped. Try to get a row at an emergency exit, where there is a lot more leg room.\nReport inappropriate content\n3. Re: LACSA Airlines\nOct 17, 2005, 4:00 PM\nTACA (Central American Air Transportation) is an airline founded in the 1930s as a cargo company. In the 1990s TACA became Grupo TACA incorporating the airlines of Costa Rica (LACSA), Guatamala (AVIATECA) and Nicaragua (NICA) into the corporation.\nThey fly Airbus A-320 and A-319 aircraft and claim to have the \"newest fleet\" in the Americas.\nThey currently have an alliance with American Airlines but I heard a rumor that they were switching to the Star Alliance with United. I haven't seen the announcement yet on that one.\nTheir website claims 92% ontime arrivals serving 10 major US cities, Toronto , Mexico City and all Central American countries.\nI think your experience will be similar to one with American or United. Just don't plan on getting any free food on any airline these days. Buy food in the airport and carry it on.\n3 destinations mentioned in this post\n10. Re: LACSA Airlines\nOct 06, 2007, 4:17 PM\nMy family (5 adult) are going to CR in Feb 08. We wre trying to find airfare to Liberia but I found this post and we're thinking of going to SJO instead. From LAx I found a rate of $360 each RT.\nDid you find your fare on the TACA website or another website such as Expedia? Would you suggest booking your car rental with Expedia or going directly to the car rental agency.\nI was thinking if we book with Expedia and if we have to back out of the trip we would just have to pay a $33 fee with Expedia I don't know about the airlines.\nany suggestions?" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "2001:_A_Space_Odyssey_(film).txt" ], "title": [ "2001: A Space Odyssey (film)" ], "wiki_context": [ "2001: A Space Odyssey is a 1968 epic science fiction film produced and directed by Stanley Kubrick. The screenplay, written by Kubrick and Arthur C. Clarke, was partially inspired by Clarke's short story \"The Sentinel\". Clarke concurrently wrote the novel 2001: A Space Odyssey, published soon after the film was released. The film follows a voyage to Jupiter with the sentient computer Hal after the discovery of a mysterious black monolith affecting human evolution. The film deals with the themes of existentialism, human evolution, technology, artificial intelligence, and extraterrestrial life. It is noted for its scientifically accurate depiction of space flight, pioneering special effects, and ambiguous imagery. It uses sound and minimal dialogue in place of traditional narrative techniques; the soundtrack consists of classical music such as The Blue Danube and Also sprach Zarathustra.\n\nFinanced and distributed by American studio Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, 2001: A Space Odyssey was filmed and edited almost entirely in England, using the studio facilities of the MGM-British Studios and those of Shepperton Studios, mostly because of the availability of much larger sound stages than in the United States. Production was subcontracted to Kubrick's production company and care was taken that the film would be sufficiently British to qualify for subsidy from the Eady Levy. Having already shot his previous two films in England, Kubrick decided to settle there permanently during filming.\n\nDespite initially receiving mixed reactions from critics and audiences, 2001: A Space Odyssey garnered a cult following and slowly became the highest-grossing North American film of 1968. It was nominated for four Academy Awards, and received one for its visual effects. A sequel directed by Peter Hyams was released in 1984.\n\nToday, 2001: A Space Odyssey is widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential films ever made. In 1991, it was deemed \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\" by the United States Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry. The critics' polls in the 2002 and 2012 editions of Sight & Sound magazine ranked 2001: A Space Odyssey sixth in the top ten films of all time; it also tied for second place in the directors' poll of the same magazine. In 2010, it was named the greatest film of all time by The Moving Arts Film Journal. \n\nPlot\n\nIn an African desert millions of years ago, a tribe of man-apes faces starvation and competition for a water hole by a rival tribe. They awaken to find a featureless black monolith has appeared before them. Guided in some fashion by the Black Monolith, one man-ape realizes how to use a bone as a tool and weapon; the tribe learns to hunt for food, and kills the leader of their rivals, reclaiming the water hole.\n\nMillions of years later, a Pan Am space plane carries Dr. Heywood Floyd to a space station orbiting Earth for a layover on his trip to Clavius Base, a United States outpost on the moon. After a videophone call with his daughter, Floyd's Soviet scientist friend and her colleague ask about rumors of a mysterious epidemic at Clavius. Floyd declines to answer. At Clavius, Floyd heads a meeting of base personnel, apologizing for the epidemic cover story but stressing secrecy. His mission is to investigate a recently found artifact buried four million years ago. Floyd and others ride in a Moonbus to the artifact, which is a monolith identical to the one encountered by the man-apes. Sunlight strikes the monolith and a loud high-pitched radio signal is heard.\n\nEighteen months later, the United States spacecraft Discovery One is bound for Jupiter. On board are mission pilots and scientists Dr. David Bowman and Dr. Frank Poole along with three other scientists in cryogenic hibernation. Most of Discovery's operations are controlled by the ship's computer, HAL 9000, referred to by the crew as \"Hal\". Bowman and Poole watch Hal and themselves being interviewed on a BBC show about the mission, in which the computer states that he is \"foolproof and incapable of error.\" When asked by the host if Hal has genuine emotions, Bowman replies that he appears to, but that the truth is unknown. Later, Hal questions Bowman on the purpose of the mission, then reports the imminent failure of an antenna control device. The astronauts retrieve the component making use of an EVA pod but find nothing wrong with it. Hal suggests reinstalling the part and letting it fail so the problem can be found. Mission Control advises the astronauts that results from their twin HAL 9000 indicate that Hal is in error. Hal insists that the problem, like previous issues ascribed to HAL series units, is due to human error. Concerned about Hal's behavior, Bowman and Poole enter an EVA pod to talk without Hal overhearing, and agree to disconnect Hal if he is proven wrong. Hal secretly follows their conversation by lip reading.\n\nWhile Poole attempts to replace the unit during a space walk, his EVA pod, controlled by Hal, rams him, severing his oxygen hose and setting him adrift. Bowman takes another pod to attempt rescue. Meanwhile, Hal turns off the life support functions of the crewmen in suspended animation. When Bowman returns to the ship with Poole's body, Hal refuses to let him in, stating that the astronauts' plan to deactivate him jeopardizes the mission. Bowman opens the ship's emergency airlock manually, enters the ship, and proceeds to Hal's processor core. Hal tries to reassure Bowman, then pleads with him to stop, and finally expresses fear. As Bowman deactivates the circuits controlling HAL's higher intellectual functions, HAL regresses to his earliest programmed memory, the song \"Daisy Bell\", which he sings for Bowman.\n\nWhen Hal is finally disconnected, a prerecorded video message from Floyd reveals the existence of the monolith on the moon, its purpose and origin unknown. With the exception of one short but extremely powerful radio emission aimed at Jupiter, the object has been inert. At Jupiter, Bowman leaves Discovery One in an EVA pod to investigate another monolith discovered in orbit around the planet. The pod is pulled into a vortex of colored light, and Bowman races across vast distances of space, viewing bizarre cosmological phenomena and strange landscapes of unusual colors.\n\nBowman later finds himself, still in the pod, in a bedroom appointed in the neoclassical style. He sees older versions of himself, his point of view switching each time, first standing in the bedroom, middle-aged and still in his spacesuit, then dressed in leisure attire and eating dinner, and finally as an old man lying in the bed. A black monolith appears at the foot of the bed, and as Bowman reaches for it, he is transformed into a fetus enclosed in a transparent orb of light. The film ends as the new being floats in space beside the Earth, gazing at it.\n\nCast\n\n* Keir Dullea as Dr. David Bowman\n* Gary Lockwood as Dr. Frank Poole\n* William Sylvester as Dr. Heywood Floyd\n* Douglas Rain as the voice of the HAL 9000\n* Daniel Richter as the chief man-ape\n* Leonard Rossiter as Dr. Andrei Smyslov\n* Margaret Tyzack as Elena\n* Robert Beatty as Dr. Ralph Halvorsen\n* Sean Sullivan as Dr. Roy Michaels \n* Frank Miller as mission controller\n* Edward Bishop as Lunar shuttle captain\n* Edwina Carroll as Aries stewardess\n* Penny Brahms as stewardess\n* Heather Downham as stewardess\n* Maggie d'Abo as stewardess (Space station elevator) (uncredited)\n* Chela Matthison as stewardess (Mrs. Turner, Space station reception) (uncredited)\n* Judy Keirn as Voiceprint identification girl (Space station) (uncredited)\n* Alan Gifford as Poole's father\n* Ann Gillis as Poole's mother\n* Vivian Kubrick as Floyd's daughter (uncredited)\n* Kenneth Kendall as the BBC announcer (uncredited)\n\nDevelopment\n\nWriting\n\nMeeting of Kubrick and Clarke\n\nAfter completing Dr. Strangelove (1964), director Stanley Kubrick became fascinated by the possibility of extraterrestrial life, and resolved to make \"the proverbial good science fiction movie\". Searching for a collaborator in the science fiction community, Kubrick was advised by a mutual acquaintance, Columbia Pictures staffer Roger Caras, to talk to writer Arthur C. Clarke. Although convinced that Clarke was \"a recluse, a nut who lives in a tree\", Kubrick allowed Caras to cable the film proposal to Clarke, who lived in Ceylon. Clarke's cabled response stated that he was \"frightfully interested in working with enfant terrible\", and added \"what makes Kubrick think I'm a recluse?\" Meeting for the first time at Trader Vic's in New York on April 22, 1964, the two began discussing the project that would take up the next four years of their lives. Clarke kept a diary throughout his involvement with 2001, excerpts of which were published in 1972 as The Lost Worlds of 2001. \n\nSearch for source material\n\nKubrick told Clarke he wanted to make a film about \"Man's relationship to the universe\", and was, in Clarke's words, \"determined to create a work of art which would arouse the emotions of wonder, awe ... even, if appropriate, terror\". Clarke offered Kubrick six of his short stories, and by May 1964, Kubrick had chosen \"The Sentinel\" as the source material for the film. In search of more material to expand the film's plot, the two spent the rest of 1964 reading books on science and anthropology, screening science fiction films, and brainstorming ideas. They spent two years transforming \"The Sentinel\" into a novel, and then into a script for 2001. Clarke said that his short story \"Encounter in the Dawn\" inspired the film's \"Dawn Of Man\" sequence. \n\nKubrick and Clarke privately referred to the project as How the Solar System Was Won as a reference to MGM's 1962 Cinerama epic, How the West Was Won. On February 23, 1965, Kubrick issued a press release announcing the title Journey Beyond The Stars. Other titles considered include Universe, Tunnel to the Stars, and Planetfall. In April 1965, eleven months after they began working on the project, Kubrick selected 2001: A Space Odyssey; Clarke said the title was \"entirely\" Kubrick's idea. Intending to set the film apart from the \"monsters and sex\" type of science fiction films of the time, Kubrick used Homer's The Odyssey as inspiration for the title. Kubrick said, \"[i]t occurred to us that for the Greeks the vast stretches of the sea must have had the same sort of mystery and remoteness that space has for our generation.\" \n\nParallel development of film and novel\n\nKubrick and Clarke planned to develop the 2001 novel first, free of the constraints of film, and then write the screenplay. They planned the writing credits to be \"Screenplay by Stanley Kubrick and Arthur C. Clarke, based on a novel by Arthur C. Clarke and Stanley Kubrick\" to reflect their preeminence in their respective fields. In practice, the screenplay developed in parallel to the novel, and elements were shared between both. In a 1970 interview, Kubrick said:\n\nThe screenplay credits were shared whereas the 2001 novel, released shortly after the film, was attributed to Clarke alone. Clarke wrote later that \"the nearest approximation to the complicated truth\" is that the screenplay should be credited to \"Kubrick and Clarke\" and the novel to \"Clarke and Kubrick\". \n\nClarke and Kubrick wrote the novel and screenplay simultaneously. Clarke opted for clearer explanations of the mysterious monolith and Star Gate in the novel; Kubrick made the film more cryptic by minimising dialogue and explanation. Kubrick said the film is \"basically a visual, nonverbal experience\" that \"hits the viewer at an inner level of consciousness, just as music does, or painting\". \n\nDepiction of alien life\n\nAstronomer Carl Sagan wrote in his book The Cosmic Connection that Clarke and Kubrick asked his opinion on how to best depict extraterrestrial intelligence. Sagan, while acknowledging Kubrick's desire to use actors to portray humanoid aliens for convenience's sake, argued that alien life forms were unlikely to bear any resemblance to terrestrial life, and that to do so would introduce \"at least an element of falseness\" to the film. Sagan proposed that the film suggest, rather than depict, extraterrestrial superintelligence. He attended the premiere and was \"pleased to see that I had been of some help.\" Kubrick hinted at the nature of the mysterious unseen alien race in 2001 by suggesting, in a 1968 interview, that given millions of years of evolution, they progressed from biological beings to \"immortal machine entities\", and then into \"beings of pure energy and spirit\"; beings with \"limitless capabilities and ungraspable intelligence\". \n\nStages of script and novel development\n\nThe script went through many stages. In early 1965, when backing was secured for the film, Clarke and Kubrick still had no firm idea of what would happen to Bowman after the Star Gate sequence. Initially all of Discoverys astronauts were to survive the journey; by October 3, Clarke and Kubrick had decided to leave Bowman the sole survivor and have him regress to infancy. By October 17, Kubrick had come up with what Clarke called a \"wild idea of slightly fag robots who create a Victorian environment to put our heroes at their ease.\" HAL 9000 was originally named Athena after the Greek goddess of wisdom and had a feminine voice and persona.\n\nEarly drafts included a prologue containing interviews with scientists about extraterrestrial life, voice-over narration (a feature in all of Kubrick's previous films), a stronger emphasis on the prevailing Cold War balance of terror, and a different and more explicitly explained breakdown for HAL. Other changes include a different monolith for the \"Dawn of Man\" sequence, discarded when early prototypes did not photograph well; the use of Saturn as the final destination of the Discovery mission rather than Jupiter, discarded when the special effects team could not develop a convincing rendition of Saturn's rings; and the finale of the Star Child exploding nuclear weapons carried by Earth-orbiting satellites, which Kubrick discarded for its similarity to his previous film, Dr. Strangelove. The finale and many of the other discarded screenplay ideas survived into Clarke's novel.\n\nKubrick made further changes due to his desire to make the film more non-verbal, communicating at a visual and visceral level rather than through conventional narrative. Vincent LeBrutto writes that Clarke's novel has \"strong narrative structure\", while the film is a mainly visual experience where much remains symbolic. \n\nRemnants of early drafts in final film\n\nWhile many ideas were discarded in totality, at least two remnants of previous plot ideas remain in the final film.\n\nHAL's breakdown\n\nAlthough the film leaves it mysterious, early script drafts made clear that HAL's breakdown is triggered by authorities on Earth who order him to withhold information from the astronauts about the purpose of the mission (this is also explained in the film's sequel 2010). Frederick Ordway, Kubrick's science advisor and technical consultant, stated that in an earlier script Poole tells HAL there is \"... something about this mission that we weren't told. Something the rest of the crew knows and that you know. We would like to know whether this is true\", to which HAL responds: \"I'm sorry, Frank, but I don't think I can answer that question without knowing everything that all of you know.\" HAL then falsely predicts a failure of the hardware maintaining radio contact with Earth (the source of HAL's difficult orders) during the broadcast of Frank Poole's birthday greetings from his parents.\n\nThe final script removed this explanation, but it is hinted at when HAL asks David Bowman if Bowman is bothered by the \"oddities\" and \"tight security\" surrounding the mission. After Bowman concludes that HAL is dutifully drawing up the \"crew psychology report\", the computer makes his false prediction of hardware failure. Another hint occurs at the moment of HAL's deactivation when a video reveals the purpose of the mission.\n\nIn an interview with Joseph Gelmis in 1969, Kubrick stated that HAL \"had an acute emotional crisis because he could not accept evidence of his own fallibility\". \n\nMilitary nature of orbiting satellites\n\nKubrick originally planned a voice-over to reveal that the satellites following a match cut from a bone-weapon are nuclear weapons, and that the Star Child would detonate the weapons at the end of the film. However, he decided this would create associations with his previous film Dr. Strangelove, and decided not to make it so obvious that they were \"war machines\". A few weeks before the release of the film, the U.S. and Soviet governments had agreed not to put any nuclear weapons into outer space.\n\nIn a book he wrote with Kubrick's assistance, Alexander Walker states that Kubrick eventually decided that as nuclear weapons the bombs had \"no place at all in the film's thematic development\", now being an \"orbiting red herring\" which would \"merely have raised irrelevant questions to suggest this as a reality of the twenty-first century\". \n\nKubrick scholar Michel Ciment, discussing Kubrick's attitude toward human aggression and instinct, observes: \"The bone cast into the air by the ape (now become a man) is transformed at the other extreme of civilization, by one of those abrupt ellipses characteristic of the director, into a spacecraft on its way to the moon.\" In contrast to Ciment's reading of a cut to a serene \"other extreme of civilization\", science fiction novelist Robert Sawyer, speaking in the Canadian documentary 2001 and Beyond, saw it as a cut from a bone to a nuclear weapons platform, explaining that \"what we see is not how far we've leaped ahead, what we see is that today, '2001', and four million years ago on the African veldt, it's exactly the same—the power of mankind is the power of its weapons. It's a continuation, not a discontinuity in that jump.\" \n\nDialogue\n\nThe film contains no dialogue for the first and last 20 minutes or so. By the time shooting began, Kubrick had removed much of the dialogue and narration; what remains is notable for its banality (making the computer Hal seem to have more emotion than the humans) juxtaposed with epic space scenes. \n\nThe first scenes of dialogue are Floyd's encounters on the space station: chit-chat with the colleague who greets him, his telephone call to his daughter, and the friendly but strained encounter with Soviet scientists. Later, en route to the monolith, Floyd engages in trite exchanges with his staff while a spectacular journey by Earth-light across the Lunar surface is shown. Hal is the only character who expresses anxiety, as well as feelings of pride and bewilderment.\n\nInfluence of Universe\n\nAccording to biographer Vincent Lobrutto, one of Kubrick's visual—and aural—inspirations was the 1960 National Film Board of Canada animated short documentary Universe. The 29 minute film, which had also proved popular at NASA for its realistic portrayal of outer space, achieved \"the standard of dynamic visionary realism that he was looking for.\" Wally Gentleman, one of the special effects artists on Universe, worked briefly on 2001. The short film's most notable influence may have been Kubrick's decision to cast the narrator of Universe, actor Douglas Rain, relatively unknown outside Canada, as the voice of HAL. \n\nProduction\n\nFilming\n\nPrincipal photography began December 29, 1965, in Stage H at Shepperton Studios, Shepperton, England. The studio was chosen because it could house the 60 x pit for the Tycho crater excavation scene, the first to be shot. The production moved in January 1966 to the smaller MGM-British Studios in Borehamwood, where the live action and special effects filming was done, starting with the scenes involving Floyd on the Orion spaceplane; it was described as a \"huge throbbing nerve center ... with much the same frenetic atmosphere as a Cape Kennedy blockhouse during the final stages of Countdown.\"Lightman, Herb A. Filming 2001: A Space Odyssey. American Cinematographer, June 1968. Excerpted in: Castle, Alison (Editor). The Stanley Kubrick Archives, Taschen, 2005. ISBN 3-8228-2284-1 The only scene not filmed in a studio—and the last live-action scene shot for the film—was the skull-smashing sequence, in which Moonwatcher (Richter) wields his new-found bone \"weapon-tool\" against a pile of nearby animal bones. A small elevated platform was built in a field near the studio so that the camera could shoot upward with the sky as background, avoiding cars and trucks passing by in the distance. \n\nFilming of actors was completed in September 1967, and from June 1966 until March 1968 Kubrick spent most of his time working on the 205 special effects shots in the film. The director ordered the special effects technicians on 2001 to use the painstaking process of creating all visual effects seen in the film \"in camera\", avoiding degraded picture quality from the use of blue screen and traveling matte techniques. Although this technique, known as \"held takes\", resulted in a much better image, it meant exposed film would be stored for long periods of time between shots, sometimes as long as a year. In March 1968, Kubrick finished the 'pre-premiere' editing of the film, making his final cuts just days before the film's general release in April 1968.\n\nThe film was initially planned to be photographed in 3-film-strip Cinerama (like How the West Was Won), because it was a part of a production/distribution deal between MGM and Cinerama Releasing Corporation, but that was changed to Super Panavision 70 (which uses a single-strip 65 mm negative) on the advice of special photographic effects supervisor Douglas Trumbull, due to distortion problems with the 3-strip system. Color processing and 35 mm release prints were done using Technicolor's dye transfer process. The 70 mm prints were made by MGM Laboratories, Inc. on Metrocolor. The production was $4.5 million over the initial $6.0 million budget, and sixteen months behind schedule.\n\nRussian documentarian Pavel Klushantsev's 1957 film Road to the Stars is believed to have significantly influenced Kubrick's technique in 2001: A Space Odyssey, particularly in its accurate depiction of weightlessness and a rotating space station. Encyclopedia Astronautica describes some scenes from 2001 as a \"shot-for-shot duplication of Road to the Stars\". Specific comparisons of shots from the two films have been analyzed by the filmmaker Alessandro Cima. A 1994 article in American Cinematographer says, \"When Stanley Kubrick made 2001: a Space Odyssey in 1968, he claimed to have been first to fly actor/astronauts on wires with the camera on the ground, shooting vertically while the actor's body covered the wires\" but observes that Klushantsev had preceded him in this. \n\nFor the opening sequence involving tribes of apes, professional mime Daniel Richter in addition to playing the lead ape was also responsible for choreographing the movements of the other man-apes, who were mostly portrayed by his standing mime troupe. \n\nSet design and furnishings\n\nKubrick involved himself in every aspect of production, even choosing the fabric for his actors' costumes, and selecting notable pieces of contemporary furniture for use in the film. When Floyd exits the Space Station V elevator, he is greeted by an attendant seated behind a slightly modified George Nelson Action Office desk from Herman Miller's 1964 \"Action Office\" series. First introduced in 1968, the Action Office-style \"cubicle\" would eventually occupy 70 percent of office space by the mid-2000s. Danish designer Arne Jacobsen designed the cutlery used by the Discovery astronauts in the film. \n\nOther examples of modern furniture in the film are the bright red Djinn chairs seen prominently throughout the space station and Eero Saarinen's 1956 pedestal tables. Olivier Mourgue, designer of the Djinn chair, has used the connection to 2001 in his advertising; a frame from the film's space station sequence and three production stills appear on the homepage of Mourgue's website. Shortly before Kubrick's death, film critic Alexander Walker informed Kubrick of Mourgue's use of the film, joking to him \"You're keeping the price up\". Commenting on their use in the film, Walker writes: \n\nDetailed instructions in relatively small print for various technological devices appear at several points in the film, the most visible of which are the lengthy instructions for the zero-gravity toilet on the Aries Moon shuttle. Similar detailed instructions for replacing the explosive bolts also appear on the hatches of the E.V.A. pods, most visibly in closeup just before Bowman's pod leaves the ship to rescue Frank Poole. \n\nThe film features an extensive use of Eurostile Bold Extended, Futura and other sans serif typefaces as design elements of the 2001 world. Computer displays show high resolution fonts, color and graphics—far in advance of computers in the 1960s when the film was made.\n\nSpecial effects\n\nFront projection \n\n2001 pioneered the use of front projection with retroreflective matting. Kubrick used the technique to produce the backdrops in the Africa scenes and the scene when astronauts walk on the moon. \n\nThe technique consisted of a separate scenery projector set at a right-angle to the camera, and a half-silvered mirror placed at an angle in front that reflected the projected image forward in line with the camera lens onto a backdrop made of retroreflective material. The reflective directional screen behind the actors could reflect light from the projected image a hundred times more efficiently than the foreground subject did. The lighting of the foreground subject had to be balanced with the image from the screen, making the image from the scenery projector on the subject too faint to record. The exception was the eyes of the leopard in the \"Dawn of Man\" sequence, which glowed orange from the projector illumination. Kubrick described this as \"a happy accident\". \n\nFront projection had been used in smaller settings before 2001, mostly for still photography or television production, using small still images and projectors. The expansive backdrops for the African scenes required a screen 40 ft tall and 110 ft wide, far larger than had been used before. When the reflective material was applied to the backdrop in 100 ft strips, variations at the seams of the strips led to visual artifacts; to solve this, the crew tore the material into smaller chunks and applied them in a random \"camouflage\" pattern on the backdrop. The existing projectors using 4 xx transparencies resulted in grainy images when projected that large, so the crew worked with MGM's special effects supervisor Tom Howard to build a custom projector using 8 xx transparencies, which required the largest water-cooled arc lamp available. The technique was used widely in the film industry afterwards until it was replaced by blue/green screen systems in the 1990s.\n\nModels \n\nTo heighten the reality of the film very intricate models of the various spacecraft and locations were built. Their sizes ranged from about two-foot long models of satellites and the Aries translunar shuttle up to a 55-foot long Discovery One spacecraft. \"In-camera\" techniques were again used as much as possible to combine models and background shots together to prevent degradation of the image through continual duplicating. \n\nIn shots where there was no perspective change, still shots of the models were photographed and positive paper prints were made. The image of the model was cut out of the photographic print and mounted on glass and filmed on an animation stand. The undeveloped film was re-wound to film the star background with the silhouette of the model photograph acting as a matte to block out where the spaceship image was.\n\nShots where the spacecraft had parts in motion or the perspective changed were shot by directly filming the model. For most shots the model was stationary and camera was driven along a track on a special mount, the motor of which was mechanically linked to the camera motor—making it possible to repeat camera moves and match speeds exactly. Elements of the scene were recorded on same piece of film in separate passes to combine the lit model, stars, planets, or other spacecraft in the same shot. In moving shots of the long Discovery One spacecraft, in order to keep the entire model in focus, multiple passes had to be made with the lighting on it blocked out section by section. In each pass the camera would be focused on the one lit section. Many matting techniques were tried to block out the stars behind the models, with film makers sometimes resorting to hand tracing frame by frame around the image of the spacecraft (rotoscoping) to create the matte. \n\nSome shots required exposing the film again to record previously filmed live action shots of the people appearing in the windows the spacecraft or structures, achieved by mounting projection devices inside the model or, when two dimensional photographs were used, projecting from the backside through a hole cut in the photograph.\n\nAll of the shots required multiple takes so that some film could be developed and printed to check exposure, density, alignment of elements, and to supply footage used in further elements such as matting.\n\nRotating sets \n\nFor spacecraft interior shots, ostensibly containing a giant centrifuge that produces artificial gravity, Kubrick had a 30 ST rotating \"ferris wheel\" built by Vickers-Armstrong Engineering Group at a cost of $750,000. The set was 38 ft in diameter and 10 ft wide. Various scenes in the Discovery centrifuge were shot by securing set pieces within the wheel, then rotating it while the actor walked or ran in sync with its motion, keeping him at the bottom of the wheel as it turned. The camera could be fixed to the inside of the rotating wheel to show the actor walking completely \"around\" the set, or mounted in such a way that the wheel rotated independently of the stationary camera, as in the jogging scene where the camera appears to alternately precede and follow the running actor. The shots where the actors appear on opposite sides of the wheel required one of the actors to be strapped securely into place at the \"top\" of the wheel as it moved to allow the other actor to walk to the \"bottom\" of the wheel to join him. The most notable case is when Bowman enters the centrifuge from the central hub on a ladder, and joins Poole, who is eating on the other side of the centrifuge. This required Gary Lockwood to be strapped into a seat while Keir Dullea walked toward him from the opposite side of the wheel as it turned with him. \nAnother rotating set appeared in an earlier sequence on board the Aries translunar shuttle. A stewardess is shown preparing in-flight meals, then carrying them into a circular walkway. Attached to the set as it rotates 180 degrees, the camera's point of view remains constant, and she appears to walk up the \"side\" of the circular walkway, and steps, now in an \"upside-down\" orientation, into a connecting hallway. \n\nZero gravity effects \n\nThe realistic-looking effects of the astronauts floating weightless in space and inside the spacecraft were accomplished by suspending the actors from wires attached to the top of the set, and placing the camera underneath them. The actors' bodies blocked the camera's view of the suspension wires, creating a very believable appearance of floating. For the shot of Poole floating into the pod's arms during Bowman's rescue attempt, a stuntman replaced a dummy on the wire to realistically portray the movements of an unconscious human, and was shot in slow motion to enhance the illusion of drifting through space. The scene showing Bowman entering the emergency airlock from the E.V.A. pod was done in a similar way: an off-camera stagehand, standing on a platform, held the wire suspending Dullea above the camera positioned at the bottom of the vertically configured airlock. At the proper moment, the stagehand first loosened his grip on the wire, causing Dullea to fall toward the camera, then, while holding the wire firmly, he jumped off the platform, causing Dullea to ascend back up toward the hatch. \n\nStar Gate sequence \n\nThe colored lights in the Star Gate sequence were accomplished by slit-scan photography of thousands of high-contrast images on film, including Op art paintings, architectural drawings, Moiré patterns, printed circuits, and crystal structures. Known to staff as \"Manhattan Project\", the shots of various nebula-like phenomena, including the expanding star field, were colored paints and chemicals swirling in a pool-like device known as a cloud tank, shot in slow-motion in a dark room. The live-action landscape shots in the 'Star Gate' sequence were filmed in the Hebridean islands, the mountains of northern Scotland, and Monument Valley. The coloring and negative-image effects were achieved by the use of different color filters in the process of making duplicate negatives. \n\nMusic\n\nMain article: 2001: A Space Odyssey (soundtrack). See also: 2001: A Space Odyssey (score).\n\nMusic plays a crucial part in 2001, and not only because of the relatively sparse dialogue. From very early on in production, Kubrick decided that he wanted the film to be a primarily nonverbal experience, one that did not rely on the traditional techniques of narrative cinema, and in which music would play a vital role in evoking particular moods. About half the music in the film appears either before the first line of dialogue or after the final line. Almost no music is heard during any scenes with dialogue.\n\nThe film is notable for its innovative use of classical music taken from existing commercial recordings. Most feature films then and now are typically accompanied by elaborate film scores or songs written specially for them by professional composers. In the early stages of production, Kubrick had actually commissioned a score for 2001 from Hollywood composer Alex North, who had written the score for Spartacus and also worked on Dr. Strangelove. However, during postproduction, Kubrick chose to abandon North's music in favor of the now-familiar classical pieces he had earlier chosen as \"guide pieces\" for the soundtrack. North did not know of the abandonment of the score until after he saw the film's premiere screening. \n\nAlso engaged to score the film was composer Frank Cordell. Cordell stated in interviews that the score would primarily consist of arrangements of Gustav Mahler works. This score remains unreleased. Like North's score, Cordell's work was recorded at the now demolished Anvil, Denham studios. \n\n2001 is particularly remembered for using pieces of Johann Strauss II's best-known waltz, The Blue Danube, during the extended space-station docking and Lunar landing sequences. This is the result of the association that Kubrick made between the spinning motion of the satellites and the dancers of waltzes. It also makes use of the opening from the Richard Strauss tone poem Also sprach Zarathustra performed by the Vienna Philharmonic conducted by Herbert von Karajan. The use of Strauss's Zarathustra may be a reference to the theme of mankind's eventual replacement by supermen (Übermensch) in Nietzsche's work Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Gayane's Adagio from Aram Khachaturian's Gayane ballet suite is heard during the sections that introduce Bowman and Poole aboard the Discovery, conveying a somewhat lonely and mournful quality.\n\nIn addition to the majestic yet fairly traditional compositions by the two Strausses and Khachaturian, Kubrick used four highly modernistic compositions by György Ligeti that employ micropolyphony, the use of sustained dissonant chords that shift slowly. This technique was pioneered in Atmosphères, the only Ligeti piece heard in its entirety in the film. Ligeti admired Kubrick's film but, in addition to being irritated by Kubrick's failure to obtain permission directly from him, he was offended that his music was used in a film soundtrack shared by composers Johann and Richard Strauss. Other music used is Ligeti's Lux Aeterna, the second movement of his Requiem and an electronically altered form of his Aventures, the last of which was also used without Ligeti's permission and is not listed in the film's credits. \n\nHal's version of the popular song \"Daisy Bell\" (referred to by Hal as \"Daisy\" in the film) was inspired by a computer-synthesized arrangement by Max Mathews, which Arthur C. Clarke had heard in 1962 at the Bell Laboratories Murray Hill facility when he was, coincidentally, visiting friend and colleague John R. Pierce. At that time, a speech synthesis demonstration was being performed by physicist John Larry Kelly, Jr., by using an IBM 704 computer to synthesize speech. Kelly's voice recorder synthesizer vocoder recreated the song \"Daisy Bell\" (\"Bicycle Built For Two\"); Max Mathews provided the musical accompaniment. Arthur C. Clarke was so impressed that he later used it in the screenplay and novel. \n\nMany non-English language versions of the film do not use the song \"Daisy\". In the French soundtrack, Hal sings the French folk song \"Au Clair de la Lune\" while being disconnected. In the German version, Hal sings the children's song \"Hänschen klein\" (\"Little Johnny\"), and in the Italian version Hal sings \"Giro giro tondo\" (Ring a Ring o' Roses). \n\nA recording of British light music composer Sidney Torch's \"Off Beat Moods Part 1\" was chosen by Kubrick as the theme for the fictitious BBC news programme \"The World Tonight\" seen aboard the Discovery. \n\nOn June 25, 2010, a version of the film specially remastered by Warner Bros, without the music soundtrack, opened the three hundred and fiftieth anniversary celebrations of the Royal Society at Southbank Centre in cooperation with the British Film Institute. The score was played live by the Philharmonia Orchestra and Choir. \n\nOn June 14, 2013, a repeat presentation of the film accompanied by live orchestra and choir was performed at Symphony Hall in Birmingham, again accompanied by the Philharmonia Orchestra conducted by Benjamin Wallfisch together with the choir Ex Cathedra. \n\nA presentation of the film accompanied by live orchestra and choir premiered in the United States on August 18, 2015 at The Hollywood Bowl in Hollywood, California, accompanied by the Los Angeles Philharmonic conducted by Brad Lubman together with the choir Los Angeles Master Chorale. \n\nEditing\n\nKubrick filmed several scenes that were deleted from the final film. These fall into two categories: scenes cut before any public screenings of the film, and scenes cut a few days after the world premiere on April 2, 1968. \n\nThe first ('pre-premiere') set of cuts included a school-room on the Lunar base—a painting class around a decorative fountain that included Kubrick's daughters, additional scenes of life on the base, and Floyd buying a bush baby from a department store via videophone for his daughter. Additionally, a ten-minute black-and-white opening sequence featuring interviews with actual scientists, including Freeman Dyson discussing off-Earth life, were removed after an early screening for MGM executives. The actual text survives in the book The Making of Kubrick's 2001 by Jerome Agel. \n\nThe second ('post-premiere') set of cuts included details about the daily life on Discovery: additional space-walks, astronaut Bowman retrieving a spare part from an octagonal corridor, elements from the Poole murder sequence including the entire space-walk preparation and shots of Hal turning off radio contact with Poole, and a close-up of Bowman picking up a slipper during his walk in the alien room. Agel describes the 19 minutes of post-premiere cuts, made on April 5–6, as coming from \"Dawn of Man, Orion, Poole exercising in the centrifuge, and Poole's pod exiting from Discovery.\" \n\nKubrick's rationale for editing the film was to tighten the narrative. Reviews suggested the film suffered too much by the radical departure from traditional cinematic story-telling conventions. Regarding the cuts, Kubrick stated, \"I didn't believe that the trims made a critical difference. ... The people who like it, like it no matter what its length, and the same holds true for the people who hate it\". As was typical of most films of that era released both as a \"road-show\" (in Cinerama format in the case of Space Odyssey) and subsequently put into general release (in seventy-millimetre in the case of Odyssey), the entrance music, intermission music (and intermission altogether), and postcredit exit music were cut from most prints of the latter version, although these have been restored to most DVD releases. \n\nAccording to Kubrick's brother-in-law Jan Harlan, the director was adamant the trims were never to be seen, and that he \"even burned the negatives\"—which he had kept in his garage—shortly before his death. This is confirmed by former Kubrick assistant Leon Vitali: \"I'll tell you right now, okay, on Clockwork Orange, The Shining, Barry Lyndon, some little parts of 2001, we had thousands of cans of negative outtakes and print, which we had stored in an area at his house where we worked out of, which he personally supervised the loading of it to a truck and then I went down to a big industrial waste lot and burned it. That's what he wanted.\"\n\nMissing cuts rediscovered\n\nIn December 2010, Douglas Trumbull announced that Warner Bros. had located seventeen minutes of lost footage, \"perfectly preserved\", in a Kansas salt mine vault that originated from the post-premiere cuts. No immediate plans have been announced for the footage. \n\nSoundtrack\n\nThe initial MGM soundtrack album release contained none of the material from the altered and uncredited rendition of Ligeti's \"Aventures\", used a different recording of \"Also sprach Zarathustra\" from that heard in the film, this time performed by the Berlin Philharmonic conducted by Herbert von Karajan, and a longer excerpt of \"Lux aeterna\" than that in the film.\n\nIn 1996, Turner Entertainment/Rhino Records released a new soundtrack on CD which included the material from \"Aventures\" and restored the version of \"Zarathustra\" used in the film, and used the shorter version of \"Lux aeterna\" from the film. As additional \"bonus tracks\" at the end, this CD includes the versions of \"Zarathustra\" and \"Lux aeterna\" on the old MGM soundtrack, an unaltered performance of \"Aventures\", and a nine-minute compilation of all of Hal's dialogue from the film.\n\nNorth's unused music had its first public appearance in Telarc's issue of the main theme on Hollywood's Greatest Hits, Vol. 2, a compilation album by Erich Kunzel and the Cincinnati Pops Orchestra. All the music North originally wrote was recorded commercially by North's friend and colleague Jerry Goldsmith with the National Philharmonic Orchestra and was released on Varèse Sarabande CDs shortly after Telarc's first theme release but before North's death. Eventually, a mono mix-down of North's original recordings, which had survived in the interim, would be released as a limited-edition CD by Intrada Records. \n\nRelease\n\nTheatrical run\n\nThe film's world premiere was on April 2, 1968, at the Uptown Theater in Washington, D.C. It opened two days later at the Warner Cinerama Theatre in Hollywood and the Loew's Capitol in New York. Kubrick then deleted nineteen minutes of footage from the film before its general release in five other U.S. cities on April 10, 1968, and internationally in five cities the following day, where it was shown in 70mm format, used a six-track stereo magnetic soundtrack, and projected in the 2.21:1 aspect ratio. The general release of the film in its 35mm anamorphic format took place in autumn 1968 and used either a four-track magnetic stereo soundtrack or an optical monaural soundtrack. \n\nThe original seventy-millimetre release, like many Super Panavision 70 films of the era such as Grand Prix, was advertised as being in \"Cinerama\" in cinemas equipped with special projection optics and a deeply curved screen. In standard cinemas, the film was identified as a seventy-millimetre production. The original release of 2001: A Space Odyssey in seventy-millimetre Cinerama with six-track sound played continually for more than a year in several venues, and for one hundred and three weeks in Los Angeles. \n\nThe following year, 2001 was appointed by a United States Department of State committee to be the American entry at the 6th Moscow International Film Festival. The film was re-released in 1974, 1977, and again in 1980. Once 2001, the film's timeset, arrived, a restoration of the seventy-millimetre version was screened at the Ebert's Overlooked Film Festival, and the production was also reissued to selected film houses in North America, Europe and Asia. \n\nHome video\n\nThe film has been released in several forms:\n* In 1980, MGM/CBS Home Video released the film on VHS and Betamax home video. \n* In 1983, it was released on LaserDisc by MGM in full screen.\n* In 1987, it was released on VHS by MGM/UA Home Video.\n* In 1989, The Criterion Collection released a 3-disc special LaserDisc edition with a transfer monitored by Kubrick himself.\n* In 1997, MGM released the film on DVD.\n* In 1999, it was re-released on VHS, and as part of the \"Stanley Kubrick Collection\" in both VHS format (1999) and DVD (2000) with remastered sound and picture. In some video releases, three title cards were added to the three \"blank screen\" moments; \"OVERTURE\" at the beginning, \"ENTR'ACTE\" during the intermission, and \"EXIT MUSIC\" after the closing credits. \n\nAdditionally, the film has been released in high definition on both HD DVD and Blu-ray Disc. \n\nThe film's distribution rights were transferred to Warner Bros. in 1999.\n\nReception\n\nBox-office\n\nThe film earned $8.5 million in theatrical gross rental from roadshow engagements throughout 1968, contributing to North American rentals of $16.4 million and worldwide rentals of $21.9 million during its original release. Reissues have brought its cumulative exhibition gross to $56.9 million in North America, and over $190 million worldwide.\n\nCritical reaction\n\nUpon release, 2001 polarized critical opinion, receiving both ecstatic praise and vehement derision. Some critics viewed the original 161-minute cut shown at premieres in Washington D.C., New York, and Los Angeles, while others saw the nineteen-minute-shorter general release version that was in theatres from April 10, 1968 onwards.\n\nIn The New Yorker, Penelope Gilliatt said it was \"some kind of great film, and an unforgettable endeavor ... The film is hypnotically entertaining, and it is funny without once being gaggy, but it is also rather harrowing.\" Charles Champlin of the Los Angeles Times opined that it was \"the picture that science fiction fans of every age and in every corner of the world have prayed (sometimes forlornly) that the industry might some day give them. It is an ultimate statement of the science fiction film, an awesome realization of the spatial future ... it is a milestone, a landmark for a spacemark, in the art of film.\" Louise Sweeney of The Christian Science Monitor felt that 2001 was \"a brilliant intergalactic satire on modern technology. It's also a dazzling 160-minute tour on the Kubrick filmship through the universe out there beyond our earth.\" Philip French wrote that the film was \"perhaps the first multi-million-dollar supercolossal movie since D.W. Griffith's Intolerance fifty years ago which can be regarded as the work of one man ...Space Odyssey is important as the high-water mark of science-fiction movie making, or at least of the genre's futuristic branch.\" The Boston Globe's review indicated that it was \"the world's most extraordinary film. Nothing like it has ever been shown in Boston before or, for that matter, anywhere ... The film is as exciting as the discovery of a new dimension in life.\" Roger Ebert gave the film four stars in his original review, believing the film \"succeeds magnificently on a cosmic scale.\" He later put it on his Top 10 list for Sight & Sound. Time provided at least seven different mini-reviews of the film in various issues in 1968, each one slightly more positive than the preceding one; in the final review dated December 27, 1968, the magazine called 2001 \"an epic film about the history and future of mankind, brilliantly directed by Stanley Kubrick. The special effects are mindblowing.\" Director Martin Scorsese has also listed it as one of his favourite films of all time. Critic David Denby later compared Kubrick to the monolith from 2001: A Space Odyssey, calling him \"a force of supernatural intelligence, appearing at great intervals amid high-pitched shrieks, who gives the world a violent kick up the next rung of the evolutionary ladder\". \n\nPauline Kael said it was \"a monumentally unimaginative movie\", and Stanley Kauffmann of The New Republic called it \"a film that is so dull, it even dulls our interest in the technical ingenuity for the sake of which Kubrick has allowed it to become dull.\" Renata Adler of The New York Times wrote that it was \"somewhere between hypnotic and immensely boring.\" Variety's 'Robe' believed the film was a \"[b]ig, beautiful, but plodding sci-fi epic ... A major achievement in cinematography and special effects, 2001 lacks dramatic appeal to a large degree and only conveys suspense after the halfway mark.\" Andrew Sarris called it \"one of the grimmest films I have ever seen in my life ...2001 is a disaster because it is much too abstract to make its abstract points.\" (Sarris reversed his opinion upon a second viewing of the film, and declared, \"2001 is indeed a major work by a major artist.\" ) John Simon felt it was \"a regrettable failure, although not a total one. This film is fascinating when it concentrates on apes or machines ... and dreadful when it deals with the in-betweens: humans ...2001, for all its lively visual and mechanical spectacle, is a kind of space-Spartacus and, more pretentious still, a shaggy God story.\" Eminent historian Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. deemed the film \"morally pretentious, intellectually obscure and inordinately long ... a film out of control\". The BBC said that its slow pacing often alienates modern audiences more than it did upon its initial release. \n\nScience fiction writers\n\nScience fiction writers had a range of reactions to the film. Ray Bradbury praised the film's photography, but disliked the banality of most of the dialogue, and believed that the audience does not care when Poole dies. Both he and Lester del Rey were put off by the film's feeling of sterility and blandness in all the human encounters amidst all the technological wonders, while both praised the pictorial element of the film. Del Rey was especially harsh, describing the film as dull, confusing, and boring, predicting \"[i]t will probably be a box-office disaster, too, and thus set major science-fiction movie making back another ten years.\" However, the film was praised by science-fiction novelist Samuel R. Delany who was impressed by how the film undercuts the audience's normal sense of space and orientation in several ways. Like Bradbury, Delany picked up on the banality of the dialogue (in Delany's phrasing the characters are saying nothing meaningful), but Delany regards this as a dramatic strength, a prelude to the rebirth at the conclusion of the film. Without analyzing the film in detail, Isaac Asimov spoke well of Space Odyssey in his autobiography, and other essays. The film won the Hugo Award for best dramatic presentation, an award heavily voted on by science fiction fans and published science-fiction writers. James P. Hogan liked the film but complained about the ending that didn't make any sense to him, leading to a bet about whether he could write something better or not; \"I stole Arthur's plot idea shamelessly and produced Inherit the Stars.\" \n\nInfluence\n\nInfluence on film\n\nThe influence of 2001 on subsequent filmmakers is considerable. Steven Spielberg, George Lucas and others, including many special effects technicians, discuss the impact the film has had on them in a featurette titled Standing on the Shoulders of Kubrick: The Legacy of 2001, included in the 2007 DVD release of the film. Spielberg calls it his film generation's \"big bang\", while Lucas says it was \"hugely inspirational\", labeling Kubrick as \"the filmmaker's filmmaker\". Sydney Pollack refers to it as \"groundbreaking\", and William Friedkin states 2001 is \"the grandfather of all such films\". At the 2007 Venice film festival, director Ridley Scott stated he believed 2001 was the unbeatable film that in a sense killed the science fiction genre. Similarly, film critic Michel Ciment in his essay \"Odyssey of Stanley Kubrick\" stated, \"Kubrick has conceived a film which in one stroke has made the whole science fiction cinema obsolete.\" However, others credit 2001 with opening up a market for films such as Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Alien, Blade Runner and Contact; proving that big-budget \"serious\" science-fiction films can be commercially successful, and establishing the \"sci-fi blockbuster\" as a Hollywood staple. Science magazine Discovers blogger Stephen Cass, discussing the considerable impact of the film on subsequent science-fiction, writes that \"the balletic spacecraft scenes set to sweeping classical music, the tarantula-soft tones of HAL 9000, and the ultimate alien artifact, the Monolith, have all become enduring cultural icons in their own right.\" \n\nInfluence on media\n\nOne commentator has suggested that the image of the Star Child and Earth has contributed to the rise of the \"whole earth\" icon as a symbol of the unity of humanity. Writing in The Asia Pacific Journal Robert Jacobs traces the history of this icon from early cartoons and drawings of Earth to photographs of Earth from early space missions, to its historic appearance on the cover of The Whole Earth Catalog. Noting that images of the entire planet recur several times in A Space Odyssey, Jacobs writes \n\nInfluence on technology\n\nIn August 2011, in response to Apple Inc.'s patent infringement lawsuit against Samsung, the latter argued that Apple's iPad was effectively modeled on the visual tablets that appear aboard spaceship Discovery in the Space Odyssey film, which constitute prior art. \n\n\"Siri\", Apple's natural language voice control system for the iPhone 4S, features a reference to the film: it responds \"I'm sorry I can't do that\" when asked to \"open the pod bay doors\". When asked repeatedly, it may say, \"Without your space helmet, you're going to find this rather... breathtaking.\"\n\nInspired by Clarke's visual tablet device, in 1994 a European Commission-funded R&D project code named \"NewsPAD\" developed and pilot tested a portable 'multimedia viewer' aiming for the realisation of an electronic multimedia 'newspaper' pointing the way to a future fully interactive and highly personalised information source. Involved partners were Acorn RISC Technologies UK, Archimedes GR, Carat FR, Ediciones Primera Plana ES, Institut Català de Tecnologia ES, and TechMAPP UK. \n\nAccolades and honors\n\nAwards\n\n2001 earned Stanley Kubrick an Academy Award for Best Visual Effects, as well as nominations for Best Director and Original Screenplay (shared with Arthur C. Clarke). Anthony Masters was also nominated for Best Art Direction. An honorary award was made to John Chambers in that year for his make-up work on Planet of the Apes, and Clarke reports that he \"wondered, as loudly as possible, whether the judges had passed over 2001 because they thought we had used real ape-men\". The film won four Baftas, for Art Direction, Cinematography, Sound Track and as Best Road Show, and was a nominee in the Best Film category. \n\nThe National Board of Review listed 2001 among the Top Ten Films of 1968, and Kansas City Film Critics gave it both the Best Film and Best Director awards. Kubrick earned the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, and was nominated for both the Directors Guild of America Award, and the Laurel Award (on which 2001 was named the Best Road Show of 1968). Both the Cinema Writers Circle of Spain and the David di Donatello Awards in Italy named 2001 the best foreign production of 1968. \n\nTop film lists\n\n2001 was No. 15 on AFI's 2007 100 Years ... 100 Movies, was named No. 40 on its 100 Years, 100 Thrills, was included on its 100 Years, 100 Quotes (\"Open the pod bay doors, Hal.\"), and Hal 9000 is the No. 13 villain in the AFI's 100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains. 2001 is the only science fiction film to make the Sight & Sound poll for ten best films, and tops the Online Film Critics Society list of \"greatest science fiction films of all time.\" In 1991, this film was deemed \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\" by the United States Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry. Other lists that include the film are 50 Films to See Before You Die (#6), The Village Voice 100 Best Films of the 20th century (#11), the Sight & Sound Top Ten poll (#6), and Roger Ebert's Top Ten (1968) (#2). In 1995, the Vatican named it as one of the 45 best films ever made (and included it in a sub-list of the \"Top Ten Art Movies\" of all time.) \n\nIn 2011, the film was the third most screened film in secondary schools in the United Kingdom. \n\n;American Film Institute recognition\n* 1998: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies – #22 \n* 2001: AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills – #40 \n* 2003: AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains:\n** HAL 9000 – #13 Villain \n* 2005: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes:\n** \"Open the pod bay doors, HAL.\" – #78 \n** \"Dave, stop. Stop, will you? Stop, Dave. Will you stop, Dave? Stop, Dave. I'm afraid.\" – Nominated \n* 2006: AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers – #47 \n* 2007: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – #15 \n* 2008: AFI's 10 Top 10 – #1 Science Fiction Film \n\nInterpretation\n\nSince its premiere, 2001: A Space Odyssey has been analyzed and interpreted by professional film critics, amateur writers and science fiction fans, virtually all of whom have mentioned its deliberate ambiguity. Questions about 2001 range from uncertainty about its deeper philosophical implications about humanity's origins and final destiny in the universe, to interpreting elements of the film's more enigmatic scenes such as the meaning of the monolith, or the final fate of astronaut David Bowman. There are also simpler and more mundane questions about what drives the plot, in particular the causes of Hal's breakdown (explained in earlier drafts but kept mysterious in the film). \n\nStanley Kubrick encouraged people to explore their own interpretations of the film and refused to offer an explanation of \"what really happened\" in the film, preferring instead to let audiences embrace their own ideas and theories. In a 1968 interview with Playboy magazine, Kubrick stated:\n\nIn a subsequent discussion of the film with Joseph Gelmis, Kubrick said his main aim was to avoid \"intellectual verbalization\" and reach \"the viewer's subconscious.\" However, he said he did not deliberately strive for ambiguity—it was simply an inevitable outcome of making the film nonverbal, though he acknowledged this ambiguity was an invaluable asset to the film. He was willing then to give a fairly straightforward explanation of the plot on what he called the \"simplest level,\" but unwilling to discuss the metaphysical interpretation of the film which he felt should be left up to the individual viewer. \n\nFor some readers, Arthur C. Clarke's more straightforward novelization of the script is key to interpreting the film. Clarke's novel explicitly identifies the monolith as a tool created by an alien race that has been through many stages of evolution, moving from organic form to biomechanical, and finally achieving a state of pure energy. These aliens travel the cosmos assisting lesser species to take evolutionary steps. Conversely, film critic Penelope Houston wrote in 1971 that because the novel differs in many key respects from the film, it perhaps should not be regarded as the skeleton key to unlock it. \n\nMultiple allegorical interpretations of 2001 have been proposed, including seeing it as a commentary on Friedrich Nietzsche's philosophical tract Thus Spoke Zarathustra, or as an allegory of human conception, birth and death. The latter can be seen through the final moments of the film, which are defined by the image of the \"star child,\" an in utero fetus that draws on the work of Lennart Nilsson. The star child signifies a \"great new beginning,\" and is depicted naked and ungirded, but with its eyes wide open. Leonard F. Wheat sees Space Odyssey as a multi-layered allegory, commenting simultaneously on Nietzsche, Homer, and the relationship of man to machine.\n\nThe reasons for Hal's malfunction and subsequent malignant behavior have also elicited much discussion. He has been compared to Frankenstein's monster. In Clarke's novel, Hal malfunctions because of being ordered to lie to the crew of Discovery and withhold confidential information from them, despite being constructed for \"the accurate processing of information without distortion or concealment\". Film critic Roger Ebert wrote that Hal, as the supposedly perfect computer, actually behaves in the most human fashion of all of the characters.\n\nRolling Stone reviewer Bob McClay sees the film as like a four-movement symphony, its story told with \"deliberate realism.\" Carolyn Geduld believes that what \"structurally unites all four episodes of the film\" is the monolith, the film's largest and most unresolvable enigma. Vincent LoBrutto's biography of Kubrick says that for many, Clarke's novel is the key to understanding the monolith. Similarly, Geduld observes that \"the monolith ... has a very simple explanation in Clarke's novel,\" though she later asserts that even the novel doesn't fully explain the ending.\n\nMcClay's Rolling Stone review describes a parallelism between the monolith's first appearance in which tool usage is imparted to the apes (thus 'beginning' mankind) and the completion of \"another evolution\" in the fourth and final encounter with the monolith. In a similar vein, Tim Dirks ends his synopsis saying \"[t]he cyclical evolution from ape to man to spaceman to angel-starchild-superman is complete.\" \n\nThe first and second encounters of humanity with the monolith have visual elements in common; both apes, and later astronauts, touch the monolith gingerly with their hands, and both sequences conclude with near-identical images of the Sun appearing directly over the monolith (the first with a crescent moon adjacent to it in the sky, the second with a near-identical crescent Earth in the same position), both echoing the Sun–Earth–Moon alignment seen at the very beginning of the film. The second encounter also suggests the triggering of the monolith's radio signal to Jupiter by the presence of humans, echoing the premise of Clarke's source story \"The Sentinel\".\n\nThe monolith is the subject of the film's final line of dialogue (spoken at the end of the \"Jupiter Mission\" segment): \"Its origin and purpose still a total mystery.\" Reviewers McClay and Roger Ebert wrote that the monolith is the main element of mystery in the film; Ebert described \"the shock of the monolith's straight edges and square corners among the weathered rocks,\" and the apes warily circling it as prefiguring man reaching \"for the stars.\" Patrick Webster suggests the final line relates to how the film should be approached as a whole, noting \"The line appends not merely to the discovery of the monolith on the Moon, but to our understanding of the film in the light of the ultimate questions it raises about the mystery of the universe.\" \n\nThe film conveys what some viewers have described as a sense of the sublime and numinous. Roger Ebert writes in his essay on 2001 in The Great Movies: In a book on architecture, Gregory Caicco writes that Space Odyssey illustrates how our quest for space is motivated by two contradictory desires, a \"desire for the sublime\" characterized by a need to encounter something totally other than ourselves—\"something numinous\"—and the conflicting desire for a beauty that makes us feel no longer \"lost in space,\" but at home. Similarly, an article in The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy, titled \"Sense of Wonder,\" describes how 2001 creates a \"numinous sense of wonder\" by portraying a universe that inspires a sense of awe, which at the same time we feel we can understand. Christopher Palmer wrote that there exists in the film a coexistence of \"the sublime and the banal,\" as the film implies that to get into space, mankind had to suspend the \"sense of wonder\" that motivated him to explore space to begin with. \n\nSequels and adaptations\n\nKubrick did not envision a sequel to 2001. Fearing the later exploitation and recycling of his material in other productions (as was done with the props from MGM's Forbidden Planet), he ordered all sets, props, miniatures, production blueprints, and prints of unused scenes destroyed. Most of these materials were lost, with some exceptions: a 2001 spacesuit backpack appeared in the \"Close Up\" episode of the Gerry Anderson series UFO, and one of Hal's eyepieces is in the possession of the author of Hal's Legacy, David G. Stork. In 2012 Lockheed engineer Adam Johnson, working with Frederick I. Ordway III, science adviser to Kubrick, wrote the book 2001: The Lost Science, which for the first time featured many of the blueprints of the spacecraft and film sets that previously had been thought destroyed.\n\nClarke wrote three sequel novels: 2010: Odyssey Two (1982), 2061: Odyssey Three (1987), and 3001: The Final Odyssey (1997). The only filmed sequel, 2010, was based on Clarke's 1982 novel and was released in 1984. Kubrick was not involved in the production of this film, which was directed by Peter Hyams in a more conventional style with more dialogue. Clarke saw it as a fitting adaptation of his novel, and had a brief cameo appearance in the film. As Kubrick had ordered all models and blueprints from 2001 destroyed, Hyams was forced to recreate these models from scratch for 2010. Hyams also claimed that he would not have made the film had he not received both Kubrick's and Clarke's blessings:\n\nThe other two novels have not been adapted for the screen, although actor Tom Hanks has expressed interest in possible adaptations. \n\nIn 2012, two screenplay adaptations of both 2061 and 3001 were posted on the 2001:Exhibit website, in the hopes of generating interest in both MGM and Warner Bros. to adapt the last two novels into films. \n\nBeginning in 1976, Marvel Comics published a comic adaptation of the film written and drawn by Jack Kirby, and a 10-issue monthly series expanding on the ideas of the film and novel, also created by Kirby.\n\nParodies and homages\n\n2001 has been the frequent subject of both parody and homage, sometimes extensively and other times briefly, employing both its distinctive music and iconic imagery.\n\nIn advertising and print\n\n* Mad magazine #125 (March 1969) featured a spoof called 201 Minutes of a Space Idiocy written by Dick DeBartolo and illustrated by Mort Drucker. In the final panels it is revealed that the monolith is a film script titled \"'How to Make an Incomprehensible Science Fiction Movie' by Stanley Kubrick\". It was reprinted in various special issues, in the MAD About the Sixties book, and partially in the book \"The Making of Kubrick's 2001\". \n* The August 1971 album Who's Next by The Who featured as its cover artwork a photograph of a concrete slab at Easington Colliery with the band apparently doing up their trouser zips. The decision to photograph this \"monolith\" image while on their way to a concert followed discussion between John Entwistle and Keith Moon about Kubrick's film. \n* Thought to be the first time Kubrick gave permission for his work to be re-used, Apple Inc.'s 1999 website advertisement \"It was a bug, Dave\" was made using footage from the film. Launched during the era of concerns over Y2K bugs, the ad implied that Hal's weird behavior was caused by a Y2K bug, before driving home the point that \"only Macintosh was designed to function perfectly\". \n\nIn film and television\n\n* Mel Brooks' satirical film History of the World, Part I opens with a parody of Kubrick's \"Dawn of Man\" sequence, followed by the parody of One Million Years BC, narrated by Orson Welles. DVDVerdict describes this parody as \"spot on\". A similar spoof of the \"Dawn of Man\" sequence also opened Ken Shapiro's 1974 comedy The Groove Tube in which the monolith was replaced by a television set. (The film is mostly a parody of television. Film and Filming held that after this wonderful opening, the film slid downhill.)\n* Woody Allen cast actor Douglas Rain (Hal in Kubrick's film) in an uncredited part as the voice of the controlling computer in the closing sequences of his science-fiction comedy Sleeper. \n* Matt Groening's animated series The Simpsons, of which Kubrick was a fan, and Futurama frequently reference 2001, along with other Kubrick films. The Simpsons had in the episode \"Deep Space Homer\" Bart throwing a felt-tip marker into the air; in slow motion it rotates, before a match cut replaces it with a cylindrical satellite. In 2004 Empire magazine listed this as the third best film parody of the entire run of the show. In the Futurama episode \"Love and Rocket\" a sentient spaceship revolts in a manner similar to Hal. Games Radar listed this as number 17 in its list of 20 Funniest Futurama parodies, while noting that Futurama has referenced Space Odyssey on several other occasions. \n* In the 2000 South Park episode \"Trapper Keeper\", an interaction between Eric Cartman and Kyle Broflovski parodies the conversation between Hal and Bowman within the inner core. \n* Peter Sellers starred in Hal Ashby's comedy-drama Being There about a simple-minded middle-aged gardener who has lived his entire life in the townhouse of his wealthy employer. In the scene where he first leaves the house and ventures into the wide world for the first time, the soundtrack plays a jazzy version of Strauss' Also Sprach Zarathustra arranged by Eumir Deodato. Film critic James A. Davidson writing for the film journal Images suggests \"When Chance emerges from his home into the world, Ashby suggests his childlike nature by using Richard Strauss' Thus Spake Zarathustra as ironic background music, linking his hero with Kubrick's star baby in his masterpiece 2001: A Space Odyssey.\" \n* Tim Burton's Charlie and the Chocolate Factory has a scene (using actual footage from A Space Odyssey) in which the monolith morphs into a chocolate bar. Catholic News wrote that the film \"had subtle and obvious riffs on everything from the saccharine Disney \"Small World\" exhibit to Munchkinland to, most brilliantly, a hilarious takeoff on Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey.\" \n* Andrew Stanton, the director of WALL-E, revealed in an interview with Wired magazine that his film was in many ways his homage to Space Odyssey, Alien, Blade Runner, Close Encounters and several other science-fiction films. The reviewer for USA Today described the resemblance of the spaceship's computer, Auto, to Hal. The same year saw the release of the much less successful film Eagle Eye, about which The Charlotte Observer said that, like 2001, it featured a \"red-eyed, calm-voiced supercomputer that took human life to protect what it felt were higher objectives\" \n* Commenting on the broader use of Ligeti's music beyond that by Kubrick, London Magazine in 2006 mentioned Monty Python's use of Ligeti in a 60-second spoof of Space Odyssey in the Flying Circus episode commonly labeled \"A Book at Bedtime\". \n* The poorly reviewed Canadian spoof 2001: A Space Travesty has been occasionally alluded to as a full parody of Kubrick's film, both because of its title and star Leslie Nielsen's many previous films which were full parodies of other films. However, Space Travesty only makes occasional references to Kubrick's material, its \"celebrities are really aliens\" jokes resembling those in Men in Black. Canadian reviewer Jim Slotek said, \"It's not really a spoof of 2001, or anything in particular. There's a brief homage at the start, and one scene in a shuttle en route to the Moon that uses The Blue Danube... The rest is a patched together plot.\" Among many complaints about the film, reviewer Berge Garabedian derided the lack of much substantive connection to the Kubrick film (the latter of which he said was \"funnier\"). \n* Among spoof references to several science-fiction films and shows, Airplane II features a computer called ROK 9000 in control of a Moon shuttle which malfunctions and kills crew members, which several reviewers found reminiscent of Hal. \n* Mystery Science Theater 3000 had the design of its main setting, the starship Satellite of Love, based on the bone-shaped satellite featured in the match cut from prehistoria to the future. The one-eyed design of the robot Gypsy led the show to do various scenes comparing it to HAL 9000, including a scene the 1996 feature film, where the opening featuring Mike Nelson jogging along the walls of the Satellite of Love parodies the scene where Frank Poole does the same in the Discovery. \n\nIn software and video games\n\n* 2001: A Space Odyssey has also been referenced in multiple video games (especially Metal Gear), usually with reference to either the monolith or Hal.\n* Several black monoliths can be found in EVE Online, marked by a beacon with name \"Black monolith\". Their purpose in game is unknown. The objects are described in-game as \"It's full of stars\", which is reference to the film's sequel, 2010: The Year We Make Contact. \n* Video game director Hideo Kojima has also cited 2001: A Space Odyssey as his favorite movie of all time and is frequently referenced in the Metal Gear series; Otacon is named after Hal and Solid Snake's real name is Dave." ] }

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Please reload or try later.\nX Beta I'm Watching This!\nKeep track of everything you watch; tell your friends.\nError\n2001: A Space Odyssey ( 1968 )\nG |\nFrom $2.99 (SD) on Amazon Video\nON DISC\nHumanity finds a mysterious, obviously artificial object buried beneath the Lunar surface and, with the intelligent computer H.A.L. 9000, sets off on a quest.\nDirector:\na list of 28 titles\ncreated 24 Apr 2011\na list of 30 titles\ncreated 06 Feb 2012\na list of 25 titles\ncreated 02 Apr 2013\na list of 23 titles\ncreated 28 Nov 2014\na list of 24 titles\ncreated 10 months ago\nTitle: 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968)\n8.3/10\nWant to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below.\nYou must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin.\nWon 1 Oscar. Another 13 wins & 7 nominations. See more awards  »\nVideos\n    1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8.3/10 X  \nIn future Britain, Alex DeLarge, a charismatic and psycopath delinquent, who likes to practice crimes and ultra-violence with his gang, is jailed and volunteers for an experimental aversion therapy developed by the government in an effort to solve society's crime problem - but not all goes according to plan.\nDirector: Stanley Kubrick\nA family heads to an isolated hotel for the winter where an evil and spiritual presence influences the father into violence, while his psychic son sees horrific forebodings from the past and of the future.\nDirector: Stanley Kubrick\nA pragmatic U.S. Marine observes the dehumanizing effects the Vietnam War has on his fellow recruits from their brutal boot camp training to the bloody street fighting in Hue.\nDirector: Stanley Kubrick\nDuring the Vietnam War, Captain Willard is sent on a dangerous mission into Cambodia to assassinate a renegade colonel who has set himself up as a god among a local tribe.\nDirector: Francis Ford Coppola\nAn insane general triggers a path to nuclear holocaust that a war room full of politicians and generals frantically try to stop.\nDirector: Stanley Kubrick\n    1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8.5/10 X  \nAfter a space merchant vessel perceives an unknown transmission as distress call, their landing on the source moon finds one of the crew attacked by a mysterious lifeform. Continuing their journey back to Earth with the attacked crew having recovered and the critter deceased, they soon realize that its life cycle has merely begun.\nDirector: Ridley Scott\nMarty McFly, a 17-year-old high school student, is accidentally sent 30 years into the past in a time-traveling DeLorean invented by his close friend, the maverick scientist Doc Brown.\nDirector: Robert Zemeckis\nA mentally unstable Vietnam War veteran works as a night-time taxi driver in New York City where the perceived decadence and sleaze feeds his urge for violent action, attempting to save a preadolescent prostitute in the process.\nDirector: Martin Scorsese\nA criminal pleads insanity after getting into trouble again and once in the mental institution rebels against the oppressive nurse and rallies up the scared patients.\nDirector: Milos Forman\nAfter a simple jewelry heist goes terribly wrong, the surviving criminals begin to suspect that one of them is a police informant.\nDirector: Quentin Tarantino\nArchaeologist and adventurer Indiana Jones is hired by the U.S. government to find the Ark of the Covenant before the Nazis.\nDirector: Steven Spielberg\nThe lives of two mob hit men, a boxer, a gangster's wife, and a pair of diner bandits intertwine in four tales of violence and redemption.\nDirector: Quentin Tarantino\nEdit\nStoryline\n\"2001\" is a story of evolution. Sometime in the distant past, someone or something nudged evolution by placing a monolith on Earth (presumably elsewhere throughout the universe as well). Evolution then enabled humankind to reach the moon's surface, where yet another monolith is found, one that signals the monolith placers that humankind has evolved that far. Now a race begins between computers (HAL) and human (Bowman) to reach the monolith placers. The winner will achieve the next step in evolution, whatever that may be. Written by Larry Cousins\nLet the Awe and Mystery of a Journey Unlike Any Other Begin See more  »\nGenres:\n12 May 1968 (UK) See more  »\nAlso Known As:\nHow the Solar System Was Won See more  »\nFilming Locations:\n(initial release)\nSound Mix:\n4-Track Stereo (35 mm magnetic prints)| 70 mm 6-Track (70 mm prints)| DTS 70 mm (2001 re-release)\nColor:\nDid You Know?\nTrivia\nThis was the first film to make extensive use of front projection to provide backgrounds against which the actors worked. Using large transparencies, the crew projected the African landscape on the set for the \"Dawn of Man\" sequence. The same technique was used for the scenes of the moon landing. See more »\nGoofs\nThe famous centrifuge area of Discovery provides simulated gravity for the crew. However, the pod bay does not rotate, and is gravity-less. Poole and Bowman appear to walk normally there because they are wearing the same \"grip shoes\" as in other scenes in gravity-less parts of the ship. See more »\nQuotes\nSee more »\nCrazy Credits\nThe traditional \"roaring lion\" logo for MGM was not used in this film. Instead, the newly designed corporate logo for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer was used, along with the letters \"MGM\", all in white against a blue background. See more »\nConnections\n(Philadelphia, PA) – See all my reviews\nI write this review just after hearing of Stanley Kubrick's death. It's a great loss, and I write about 2001: A SPACE ODYSSEY, because I feel it is the consummate Kubrick film, the one he will be most remembered for. It is a picture like no other, not only revolutionizing science fiction, but changing the way films are conceptualized. It was probably America's first 'art' film and has inspired the likes of George Lucas and countless other writers and directors.\nAside from its visual greatness, the reason the film spawns so much discussion and analysis is because so many people have so many different interpretations of it. Kubrick and Arthur C. Clarke, his co-writer, had a vision, but we have never really found out what was going through their minds. Of course, the skinny on its 'message' is how technology of the future will take over humanity and decide the course of our lives unless we are careful. 2001's ending is one of hope, a version of our rebirth through the star-child's flight back to earth. It is meaningless to many, but discerning filmgoers will understand.\nAlthough 2001 does not have the wicked, dark humor of DR. STRANGELOVE or CLOCKWORK ORANGE, or contain strong, eccentric characters that filled his earlier works like PATHS OF GLORY or SPARTACUS, I still feel he would've liked to be remembered most for this. If anything, HAL will be his most memorable character, dangerous, murderous, and artificial. It was a half-decade in the making at a time when Hollywood was still churning out dull musicals and just waking up to the New Wave of French and Italian cinema. Kubrick was a maverick director who made great films on his own terms, his own time, and for everyone else to marvel at. He will be missed.\n298 of 460 people found this review helpful.  Was this review helpful to you?\nYes", "‎2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) directed by Stanley Kubrick • Reviews, film + cast • Letterboxd\n8 A.M. Sunday, 12th of January, 2014. HAL'S birthday . I'm tired as fuck.\nHAL.\nHAL/IBM. HAL=IBM. IBM=HAL.\nH+1 = I\nA+1 = B\nL+1 = M\nSo HAL is indisputably IBM. Just go one letter on in the alphabet from H, A and L and you get I, B and M. \nBut what is IBM? A computer company Kubrick had a grudge against? Or are we just missing a \"T\" in the greatest riddle known to mankind? Confused? Allow me to demonstrate.\nIBM\nI= 9th letter of the alphabet.\nB= 2nd letter of the alphabet.\nM= 13th letter of the alphabet.\n9+2+13= 24.\nX= 24th letter of the alphabet.\nX= 10 in Roman numerals, so IBM= 10.\nHAL\n40\nEver since I joined Letterboxd, nothing has scared me more than the idea of trying to write about 2001: A Space Odyssey. The fact that everything has \"already been said\" about this masterpiece has itself already been said so many times that there's not even an original means of expressing my lack of originality left at my disposal. So with the knowledge that I will probably never be able to fully encapsulate what makes this my favorite movie of all time—let alone say something truly unique about it—here is a small list of a few things I love about it.\nI love that the monolith has remained an enigmatic symbol capable of being read in any number of different ways…\n“I am putting myself to the fullest possible use, which is all I think that any conscious entity can ever hope to do.”\nIn the beginning was the Monolith, and the Monolith was with God, and the Monolith was God.\nFrom where had the Monolith derived? It scarcely mattered. If it had always been there, then it had come from nowhere. It simply was. The nothing from which everything sprang. The animating stimulus that drove the amoeba to split in two. The force of nature that extinguished the great lizards not inclined toward avian salvation. The spark of ingenuity that made the ape stand upright and realize its potential for violent innovation.\nThe Monolith was not “natural” in any traditional…\nPart of Dastardly Difficult December: film nr.13\nThis is not a ‘film’. It is cinema in its purest form. Every aspect of this particular artform is used to its fullest extent. It exposes themes without narrative, offers no explanations but leaves room for interpretation and it provides a visual and aural sensation to accompany the unravelling of its internal philosophical debate. No other director than Kubrick could have made this.\nThe first time I saw this film I didn’t care much for it. I was far too young to fully grasp what it was trying to do. I remember finding it very dull and confusing, not something that sits well with your average teenager. It has therefore never been a…\n25\nAn unprecedented, unique & unparalleled achievement in motion picture history, 2001: A Space Odyssey is a path-breaking cinema & a splendid work of art that's responsible for putting science in science-fiction. Far ahead of its time & one of the first films to take its genre seriously, this film redefines science-fiction filmmaking unlike anything before or after it, features some of the most iconic moments ever captured on film, and is an elegant mix of remarkable cinematography, pioneering visual n sound effects, scientific accuracy, epic score & a distinct style of narration.\n2001: A Space Odyssey deals with the elements of human evolution, technology, artificial intelligence & extra-terrestrial life. It is divided into 3 segments & an epilogue, each connected with an extra-terrestrial reference. Kubrick's first…", "2001: A Space Odyssey. 1968. Directed by Stanley Kubrick | MoMA\n2001: A Space Odyssey. 1968. Directed by Stanley Kubrick\nSaturday, September 5, 2015, 4:30 p.m.\nThe Museum of Modern Art\nFilm\n2001: A Space Odyssey. 1968. USA/Great Britain. Directed by Stanley Kubrick. 160 min.\nScreenplay by Kubrick, Arthur C. Clarke, based on Clarke’s novel. With Keir Dullea, Gary Lockwood, William Sylvester, Douglas Rain. Stanley Kubrick’s oblique art-film-in-outer-space left many critics and initial road-show audiences bored and confused, but in that summer of 1968 younger viewers took to the film, hypnotized by its prophetic tone and psychedelic finale. Campaign director Mike Kaplan took note of the new demographic and had new posters designed, emphasizing the ending and rebranding the film as “the ultimate trip.” Digital restoration courtesy Warner Bros.", "5 out of 5 stars\nTime Out says\n5 out of 5 stars\nHazarding a wildly speculative guess, I think Stanley Kubrick would have loved Gravity. He would have been knocked out by Alfonso Cuarón’s zero-G realism and long-take panache. Secretly, he would have envied the movie’s grosses (Kubrick knew about the power that money could buy). He would have called someone in the middle of the night to talk about it.\nAnd finally, Kubrick would have leaned back with a sly smile (his only smile), knowing his classic’s reputation was safe. It’s not that 2001: A Space Odyssey doesn’t look dated—it does, a touch—but rather, it feels as intelligent and provocative as ever, bearing years of conceptual dreaming. Until today’s equivalent of novelist Arthur C. Clarke commits a hefty chunk of time to envisioning the beginning of human civilization, as well as the far ends of the future, there will be no new film that supplants it. Though it was showered with technical praise, 2001 lingers on the mind like a tall, black riddle: Where are the new bones, the new tools, that will take us higher? Do we even deserve them?\nAnd if The Shining can grow as a black comedy, so can this one. Douglas Rain’s clammy voice work as HAL 9000, the murderous machine, remains one of Kubrick’s snazziest pieces of direction. Of course, he’d tell us, Gravity is great. But I prefer Her.\nFollow Joshua Rothkopf on Twitter: @joshrothkopf\nBy: Joshua Rothkopf", "2001: a Space Odyssey: Arthur C. Clarke: 9780451457998: Amazon.com: Books\nArthur C. Clarke\nPage 1 of 1 Start over\nSponsored Products are advertisements for products sold by merchants on Amazon.com. When you click on a Sponsored Product ad, you will be taken to an Amazon detail page where you can learn more about the product and purchase it.\nTo learn more about Amazon Sponsored Products, click here .\nMeritropolis\nJoel Ohman\nIn this YA dystopian fiction series, everyone is assigned a numerical Score that decides their worth to society and whether they live or die...\nCyberStorm\nMatthew Mather\nAward-winning story of one family's struggle to survive massive cyber-attack destruction of America. 20th Century Fox developing for film.\nDarknet\nMatthew Mather\nCan one man overcome a malignant artificial intelligence infecting Wall Street and save his family? A prophetic, frighteningly realistic thriller.\nFuture Destiny (The Torn Timeline Book 1)\nRay LeCara Jr.\nTrapped in a future timeline, a group of teens must band together if they are to survive, find their teacher, save the universe, and find a way home.\nAd feedback\nSpecial Offers and Product Promotions\nEditorial Reviews\nAmazon.com Review\nWhen an enigmatic monolith is found buried on the moon, scientists are amazed to discover that it's at least 3 million years old. Even more amazing, after it's unearthed the artifact releases a powerful signal aimed at Saturn. What sort of alarm has been triggered? To find out, a manned spacecraft, the Discovery, is sent to investigate. Its crew is highly trained--the best--and they are assisted by a self-aware computer, the ultra-capable HAL 9000. But HAL's programming has been patterned after the human mind a little too well. He is capable of guilt, neurosis, even murder, and he controls every single one of Discovery's components. The crew must overthrow this digital psychotic if they hope to make their rendezvous with the entities that are responsible not just for the monolith, but maybe even for human civilization.\nClarke wrote this novel while Stanley Kubrick created the film, the two collaborating on both projects. The novel is much more detailed and intimate, and definitely easier to comprehend. Even though history has disproved its \"predictions,\" it's still loaded with exciting and awe-inspiring science fiction. --Brooks Peck --This text refers to the School & Library Binding edition.\nRead more\nFrom Library Journal\nOdyssey is an oddity: it is a novel based on a screenplay by Clarke and Kubrick that itself was based on a Clarke short story. And though it has thrilled fans for 31 years, still no one is really sure what it means. This nice hardcover sports a new introduction by Clarke.\nCopyright 1999 Reed Business Information, Inc. --This text refers to the School & Library Binding edition.\nDon't have a Kindle? Get your Kindle here , or download a FREE Kindle Reading App .\nNew York Times best sellers\nBrowse the New York Times best sellers in popular categories like Fiction, Nonfiction, Picture Books and more. See more\nProduct Details\nMass Market Paperback: 296 pages\nPublisher: Roc; Reissue edition (September 1, 2000)\nLanguage: English\nShipping Weight: 3.2 ounces ( View shipping rates and policies )\nAverage Customer Review:\nBy A Customer on November 2, 1997\nFormat: Hardcover\nConsider that this book was written almost 30 years ago. Consider what has happened in space exploration since then. One can only wonder at how Clarke and Kubrick were able to achieve this. A movie like this had never been attempted on this scale before.\nI read this book for the first time, shortly after I saw the movie. This was when it first came out. While Stanley Kubrick's film is a masterpiece on it's own, the book does a great deal to fill in the inevitable blanks in the movie. The movie is unlike anything you have ever seen, very short on dialog, extremely visual. Hence my recommendation that you read the book, then see the movie. It will make more sense. By the way, the movie was among the first real attempts at visual realism with the subject of sci-fi (sorry fellow Star Wars fans, these guys did it first). So well did it succeed, so powerful and detailed were the production values, that it set the standard for sci-fi movies that came after. But, that's a different review.\nThe book seeks to offer an answer to a few of the most intriguing and fundamental questions of all time; \"Who are we, how did we get to be what we are, what will become of us?\". It begins with the establishment of a connection between our ape-ancestors and an elemental survival dilemma. How do we survive? The means must exist, yet, we are hopelessly weaker and outnumbered by our ecological competitors. An outside force supplies the seed of an idea and in so doing, launches us toward a chain of events in the unforeseeable future. It is up to us to accept the idea, process it, integrate it into our thinking, and apply it to our problem. Read more ›", "» 2001: A Space Odyssey\n2001: A Space Odyssey\nDirected by: Stanley Kubrick | 1968 | 2h 13m | Rated R\nPurchase a ticket\nGeneral Admission tickets are available online AND at the door.\nStudent / Senior & Members tickets are ONLY available at the door.\nALL TICKET SALES ARE FINAL. NO REFUNDS. NO EXCHANGES. NO EXCEPTIONS.\n*ALL FILMS START EXACTLY AT THE LISTED TIME*\nPLEASE NOTE: This event has passed.\nA mind-bending sci-fi symphony, Stanley Kubrick’s landmark 1968 epic pushed the limits of narrative and special effects toward a meditation on technology and humanity.\nTo begin his voyage into the future, Kubrick visits our prehistoric ape-ancestry past, then leaps millenia (via one of the most mind-blowing jump cuts ever conceived) into colonized space, and ultimately whisks astronaut Bowman (Keir Dullea) into uncharted realms of space, perhaps even into immortality. With assistance from special-effects expert Douglas Trumbull, Kubrick spent over two years meticulously creating the most “realistic” depictions of outer space ever seen, greatly advancing cinematic technology for a story expressing grave doubts about technology itself. Despite some initial critical reservations that it was too long and too dull, 2001: A SPACE ODYSSEY became one of the most popular films of 1968, underlining the generation gap between young moviegoers who wanted to see something new and challenging and oldsters who “didn’t get it.” Let the awe and mystery of a journey unlike any other begin…\n• General Admission - $11.00", "Stanley Kubrick - IMDb\nIMDb\nDirector | Writer | Producer\nStanley Kubrick was born in Manhattan, New York City, to Sadie Gertrude (Perveler) and Jacob Leonard Kubrick, a physician. His family were Jewish immigrants (from Austria, Romania, and Russia). Stanley was considered intelligent, despite poor grades at school. Hoping that a change of scenery would produce better academic performance, Kubrick's ... See full bio »\nBorn:\na list of 30 people\ncreated 08 Dec 2010\na list of 28 people\ncreated 14 Jan 2014\na list of 40 people\ncreated 22 Dec 2014\na list of 25 people\ncreated 9 months ago\na list of 25 people\ncreated 4 weeks ago\nDo you have a demo reel?\nAdd it to your IMDbPage\nHow much of Stanley Kubrick's work have you seen?\nUser Polls\nWon 1 Oscar. Another 37 wins & 56 nominations. See more awards  »\nKnown For\n |  Edit\nFilmography\n 1951 Flying Padre (Documentary short)\nHide \n 1951 Flying Padre (Documentary short) (uncredited)\nHide \n 1951 Day of the Fight (Documentary short) (producer)\nHide \n 1951 Flying Padre (Documentary short)\nHide \n 1957 Paths of Glory (additional cinematographer - uncredited)\nHide \n 1951 Day of the Fight (Documentary short) (uncredited)\nHide \n 1951 Day of the Fight (Documentary short) (sound editor - uncredited)\nHide \n 1999 Stanley and Us (Documentary) (subject)\nHide \nMan in Mansion Interior (uncredited)\nHide \n 1968 2001: A Space Odyssey (special photographic effects designer) / (special photographic effects director)\nHide \n- Mr. Lincoln: Part 1 (1952) ... (second unit director)\nHide \n 2016 Stanley Kubrick's Napoleon (Documentary short) (special thanks)\n 2015 Double Barrel (thanks for good advice)\n 2012 All Things Shining (inspirational thanks)\n 2011 13 Steps (Short) (in memory of)\n 2011 Godhood (Short) (special thanks)\n 2011 Return to Grace (Short) (special thanks)\n 2010 Petals (inspiration from the works of)\n 2009 Ad Hominem (Short) (grateful acknowledgment)\n 2009 Evocator (Short) (special thanks)\n 2008 Artists of the Roundtable (Video documentary) (special thanks)\n 2008 Kubrick (Short) (special thanks)\n 2000 A Clockwork Maury (Short) (special thanks)\n 2000 Nude Not (Short) (in memory of)\n 1996 The Invisible Man (TV Movie documentary)\nHimself\n 1980 Making 'The Shining' (TV Short documentary)\nHimself\n 1972 Film Night (TV Series)\nHimself\nHimself, man at ringside with camera (uncredited)\nHide \n 2011 Prophets of Science Fiction (TV Series documentary)\nHimself\n 2011 Il était une fois... (TV Series documentary)\nHimself\n 2008 Stanley Kubrick's Boxes (TV Movie documentary)\nHimself\n 2007 What Is Out There? (Video documentary short)\nHimself\n 2005 Movies That Shook the World (TV Series documentary)\nHimself\n 2005 Horror Business (Video documentary)\nHimself\n 2002 Sendung ohne Namen (TV Series documentary)\nHimself\n 2002 Creating A.I. (Video documentary short)\nHimself\n 1995 Empire of the Censors (TV Movie documentary)\nHimself\nFormer staff photographer for Look Magazine.\nPublicity Listings:\n4 Biographical Movies | 38 Print Biographies | 4 Portrayals | 6 Interviews | 57 Articles | 2 Pictorials | 2 Magazine Cover Photos | See more »\nOfficial Sites:\nDid You Know?\nPersonal Quote:\nA director can't get anything out of an actor that he doesn't already have. You can't start an acting school in the middle of making a film. See more »\nTrivia:\nHe was a big fan of American sitcoms Seinfeld (1989), Roseanne (1988) and The Simpsons (1989). He was also a fan of American football and would have his friends in America tape games and send them to him. In addition to being a sports fan, he was fascinated by the craft of television commercials. He was particularly impressed by how they could effectively tell a story in 30 seconds. See more »\nTrademark:\nHis films often tackle controversial social themes See more »\nNickname:" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Empire_of_Japan.txt", "Volcano_Islands.txt" ], "title": [ "Empire of Japan", "Volcano Islands" ], "wiki_context": [ "The was the historical Japanese nation-state that existed from the Meiji Restoration in 1868 to the enactment of the 1947 constitution of modern Japan.\n\nImperial Japan's rapid industrialization and militarization under the slogan led to its emergence as a world power and the establishment of a colonial empire. Economic and political turmoil in the 1920s led to the rise of militarism, eventually culminating in Japan's membership in the Axis alliance and the conquest of a large part of the Asia-Pacific region. At the height of its power in 1942, the Empire ruled over a land area spanning , making it one of the largest maritime empires in history. \n\nAfter several large-scale military successes during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) and the Pacific War, the Empire also gained notoriety for its war crimes against the peoples it conquered. After suffering many defeats and following the Soviet Union's declaration of war against Japan and invasion of Manchuria, and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, however, the Empire surrendered to the Allies on August 15, 1945. A period of occupation by the Allies followed the surrender, and a new constitution was created with American involvement in 1947, officially dissolving the Empire. Occupation and reconstruction continued well into the 1950s, eventually forming the current nation-state whose full title is the \"State of Japan\" or simply rendered \"Japan\" in English.\n\nThe Emperors during this time, which spanned the entire Meiji and Taishō, and the lesser part of the Shōwa eras, are now known in Japan by their posthumous names, which coincide with those era names: Emperor Meiji (Mutsuhito), Emperor Taishō (Yoshihito), and Emperor Shōwa (Hirohito).\n\nTerminology\n\nThe historical state is frequently referred to as \"the Empire of Japan\" or \"the Japanese Empire\" or \"Imperial Japan\" in English. In Japanese it is referred to as , which translates to \"Greater Japanese Empire\" (Dai \"Great\", Nippon \"Japanese\", Teikoku \"Empire\").\n\nThis meaning is significant in terms of geography, encompassing Japan and its surrounding areas. The nomenclature Empire of Japan had existed since the anti-Tokugawa domains, Satsuma and Chōshū, which founded their new government during the Meiji Restoration, with the intention of forming a modern state to resist western domination.\n\nDue to its name in kanji characters and its flag, it was also given the exonym Empire of the Sun.\n\nMeiji Restoration\n\nAfter two centuries, the seclusion policy, or Sakoku, under the shoguns of the Edo period came to an end when the country was forced open to trade by the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854.\n\nThe following years saw increased foreign trade and interaction; commercial treaties between the Tokugawa shogunate and Western countries were signed. In large part due to the humiliating terms of these Unequal Treaties, the Shogunate soon faced internal hostility, which materialized into a radical, xenophobic movement, the sonnō jōi (literally \"Revere the Emperor, expel the barbarians\"). \n\nIn March 1863, the \"order to expel barbarians\" was issued. Although the Shogunate had no intention of enforcing the order, it nevertheless inspired attacks against the Shogunate itself and against foreigners in Japan. The Namamugi Incident during 1862 led to the murder of an Englishman, Charles Lennox Richardson, by a party of samurai from Satsuma. The British demanded reparations but were denied. While attempting to exact payment, The Royal Navy was fired on from coastal batteries near the town of Kagoshima. They responded by bombarding the port of Kagoshima in 1863. For Richardson's death, the Tokugawa government agreed to pay an indemnity. Shelling of foreign shipping in Shimonoseki and attacks against foreign property led to the Bombardment of Shimonoseki by a multinational force in 1864. The Chōshū clan also carried out the failed coup known as the Kinmon incident. The Satsuma-Chōshū alliance was established in 1866 to combine their efforts to overthrow the Tokugawa bakufu. In early 1867, Emperor Kōmei died of smallpox and was replaced by his son, Crown Prince Mutsuhito (Meiji).\n\nOn November 9, 1867, Tokugawa Yoshinobu resigned from his post and authorities to the Emperor, agreeing to \"be the instrument for carrying out\" imperial orders. The Tokugawa Shogunate had ended. However, while Yoshinobu's resignation had created a nominal void at the highest level of government, his apparatus of state continued to exist. Moreover, the shogunal government, the Tokugawa family in particular, remained a prominent force in the evolving political order and retained many executive powers, a prospect hard-liners from Satsuma and Chōshū found intolerable. \n\nOn January 3, 1868, Satsuma-Chōshū forces seized the imperial palace in Kyoto, and the following day had the fifteen-year-old Emperor Meiji declare his own restoration to full power. Although the majority of the imperial consultative assembly was happy with the formal declaration of direct rule by the court and tended to support a continued collaboration with the Tokugawa, Saigō Takamori threatened the assembly into abolishing the title \"shogun\" and ordered the confiscation of Yoshinobu's lands. \n\nOn January 17, 1868, Yoshinobu declared \"that he would not be bound by the proclamation of the Restoration and called on the court to rescind it\". On January 24, Yoshinobu decided to prepare an attack on Kyoto, occupied by Satsuma and Chōshū forces. This decision was prompted by his learning of a series of arson attacks in Edo, starting with the burning of the outworks of Edo Castle, the main Tokugawa residence.\n\nBoshin War\n\nThe was fought between January 1868 and May 1869. The alliance of samurai from southern and western domains and court officials had now secured the cooperation of the young Emperor Meiji, who ordered the dissolution of the two-hundred-year-old Tokugawa Shogunate. Tokugawa Yoshinobu launched a military campaign to seize the emperor's court at Kyoto. However, the tide rapidly turned in favor of the smaller but relatively modernized imperial faction and resulted in defections of many daimyo to the Imperial side. The Battle of Toba–Fushimi was a decisive victory in which a combined army from Chōshū, Tosa, and Satsuma domains defeated the Tokugawa army. A series of battles were then fought in pursuit of supporters of the Shogunate; Edo surrendered to the Imperial forces and afterwards Yoshinobu personally surrendered. Yoshinobu was stripped of all his power by Emperor Meiji and most of Japan accepted the emperor's rule.\n\nPro-Tokugawa remnants, however, then retreated to northern Honshū (Ōuetsu Reppan Dōmei) and later to Ezo (present-day Hokkaidō), where they established the breakaway Republic of Ezo. An expeditionary force was dispatched by the new government and the Ezo Republic forces were overwhelmed. The siege of Hakodate came to an end in May 1869 and the remaining forces surrendered.\n\nFive Charter Oath\n\nThe Charter Oath was made public at the enthronement of Emperor Meiji of Japan on April 7, 1868. The Oath outlined the main aims and the course of action to be followed during Emperor Meiji's reign, setting the legal stage for Japan's modernization. \n\nThe Meiji leaders also aimed to boost morale and win financial support for the new government. Its five provisions consisted of:\n*Establishment of deliberative assemblies.\n*Involvement of all classes in carrying out state affairs.\n*The revocation of sumptuary laws and class restrictions on employment.\n*Replacement of \"evil customs\" with the \"just laws of nature\".\n*An international search for knowledge to strengthen the foundations of imperial rule.\n\nMeiji era (1868–1912)\n\nJapan dispatched the Iwakura Mission in 1871. The mission traveled the world in order to renegotiate the unequal treaties with the United States and European countries that Japan had been forced into during the Tokugawa shogunate, and to gather information on western social and economic systems, in order to effect the modernization of Japan. Renegotiation of the unequal treaties was universally unsuccessful, but close observation of the American and European systems inspired members on their return to bring about modernization initiatives in Japan. Japan made territorial delimitation treaty with Russia in 1875, gaining all the Kuril islands in exchange for Sakhalin island. \n\nSeveral prominent writers, under the constant threat of assassination from their political foes, were influential in winning Japanese support for westernization. One such writer was Fukuzawa Yukichi, whose works included \"Conditions in the West,\" \"Leaving Asia\", and \"An Outline of a Theory of Civilization,\" which detailed Western society and his own philosophies. In the Meiji Restoration period, military and economic power was well emphasized. Military strength became the means for national development and stability. Imperial Japan became the only non-Western world power and a major force in east and southeast Asia in about 40 years as a result of industrialization and economic development.\n\nAs writer Albrecht Fürst von Urach comments in his booklet \"The Secret of Japan's Strength,\" which was written during the Axis powers period:\nThe rise of Japan to a world power during the past 80 years is the greatest miracle in world history. The mighty empires of antiquity, the major political institutions of the Middle Ages and the early modern era, the Spanish Empire, the British Empire, all needed centuries to achieve their full strength. Japan's rise has been meteoric. After only 80 years, it is one of the few great powers that determine the fate of the world. \n\nThe sudden westernization, once it was adopted, changed almost all areas of Japanese society, ranging from armaments, arts, clothes, etiquette, judicial and political systems, language, etc. The Japanese government sent students to Western countries to observe and learn their practices, and also paid \"foreign advisors\" in a variety of fields to come to Japan to educate the populace. For instance, the judicial system and constitution were largely modeled on those of Germany. The government also outlawed customs linked to Japan's feudal past, such as publicly displaying and wearing katana and the top knot, both of which were characteristic of the samurai class, which was abolished together with the caste system. This would later bring the Meiji government into conflict with the Samurai.\n\nFile:Takamori Saigo.png|Saigō Takamori, one of the most influential samurai in Japanese history\nFile:Meiji tenno1.jpg|Emperor Meiji, the 122nd emperor of Japan\nFile:Iwakura mission.jpg|The mission major member. Left to right : Kido Takayoshi, Yamaguchi Masuka, Iwakura Tomomi, Itō Hirobumi, Ōkubo Toshimichi\nFile:Thomas Blake Glover.jpg|Merchant Thomas Blake Glover was a British merchant in Bakumatsu and received Japan's second highest order from Emperor Meiji in recognition of his contributions to Japan's industrialization.\nFile:HIH Princess Higashifushimi Kaneko.jpg|HIH Princess Kaneko Higashi-fushimi in western clothing\n\nConstitution\n\nThe constitution recognized the need for change and modernization after removal of the shogunate:\nWe, the Successor to the prosperous Throne of Our Predecessors, do humbly and solemnly swear to the Imperial Founder of Our House and to Our other Imperial Ancestors that, in pursuance of a great policy co-extensive with the Heavens and with the Earth, We shall maintain and secure from decline the ancient form of government. ... In consideration of the progressive tendency of the course of human affairs and in parallel with the advance of civilization, We deem it expedient, in order to give clearness and distinctness to the instructions bequeathed by the Imperial Founder of Our House and by Our other Imperial Ancestors, to establish fundamental laws. ...\n\nImperial Japan was founded, de jure, after the 1889 signing of Constitution of the Empire of Japan. The constitution formalized much of the Empire's political structure and gave many responsibilities and powers to the Emperor.\n\nArticle 4. The Emperor is the head of the Empire, combining in Himself the rights of sovereignty, and exercises them, according to the provisions of the present Constitution.\n\nArticle 6. The Emperor gives sanction to laws, and orders them to be promulgated and executed.\n\nArticle 11. The Emperor has the supreme command of the Army and Navy. \n\nImperial Diet\n\nIn 1890, the Imperial Diet was established in response to the Meiji Constitution. The Diet consisted of the House of Representatives of Japan and the House of Peers. Both houses opened seats for colonial people as well as Japanese. The Imperial Diet continued until 1947.\n\nEconomic development\n\nThe process of modernization was closely monitored and heavily subsidized by the Meiji government, enhancing the power of the great zaibatsu firms such as Mitsui and Mitsubishi. Hand in hand, the zaibatsu and government guided the nation, borrowing technology from the West. Japan gradually took control of much of Asia's market for manufactured goods, beginning with textiles. The economic structure became very mercantilistic, importing raw materials and exporting finished products — a reflection of Japan's relative scarcity of raw materials.\n\nEconomic reforms included a unified modern currency based on the yen, banking, commercial and tax laws, stock exchanges, and a communications network. Establishment of a modern institutional framework conducive to an advanced capitalist economy took time but was completed by the 1890s. By this time, the government had largely relinquished direct control of the modernization process, primarily for budgetary reasons. Many of the former daimyo, whose pensions had been paid in a lump sum, benefited greatly through investments they made in emerging industries.\n\nThe government was initially involved in economic modernization, providing a number of \"model factories\" to facilitate the transition to the modern period. After the first twenty years of the Meiji period, the industrial economy expanded rapidly until about 1920 with inputs of advanced Western technology and large private investments.\n\nJapan emerged from the Tokugawa-Meiji transition as the first Asian industrialized nation. From the onset, the Meiji rulers embraced the concept of a market economy and adopted British and North American forms of free enterprise capitalism. Rapid growth and structural change characterized Japan's two periods of economic development after 1868. Initially, the economy grew only moderately and relied heavily on traditional Japanese agriculture to finance modern industrial infrastructure. By the time the Russo-Japanese War began in 1904, 65% of employment and 38% of the gross domestic product (GDP) were still based on agriculture, but modern industry had begun to expand substantially. By the late 1920s, manufacturing and mining amounted to 34% of GDP, compared with 20% for all of agriculture. Transportation and communications developed to sustain heavy industrial development.\n\nFrom 1894, Japan built an extensive empire that included Taiwan, Korea, Manchuria, and parts of northern China. The Japanese regarded this sphere of influence as a political and economic necessity, which prevented foreign states from strangling Japan by blocking its access to raw materials and crucial sea-lanes. Japan's large military force was regarded as essential to the empire's defense and prosperity by obtaining natural resources that the Japanese islands lacked.\n\nFirst Sino-Japanese War\n\nPrior to its engagement in World War I, the Empire of Japan fought in two significant wars after its establishment following the Meiji Revolution. The first was the First Sino-Japanese War, fought in 1894 and 1895. The war revolved around the issue of control and influence over Korea under the rule of the Joseon Dynasty. A peasant rebellion led to a request by the Korean government for the Qing Dynasty to send in troops to stabilize the country. The Empire of Japan responded by sending their own force to Korea and installing a puppet government in Seoul. China objected and war ensued. In a brief affair with Japanese ground troops routing Chinese forces on the Liaodong Peninsula, and the near destruction of the Chinese navy in the Battle of the Yalu River. The Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed between Japan and China, which ceded the Liaodong Peninsula and the island of Taiwan to Japan. After the peace treaty, Russia, Germany, and France forced Japan to withdraw from Liaodong Peninsula. Soon afterwards Russia occupied the Liaodong Peninsula, built the Port Arthur fortress, and based the Russian Pacific Fleet in the port. Germany occupied Jiaozhou Bay, built Tsingtao fortress and based the German East Asia Squadron in this port.\n\nBoxer rebellion\n\nIn 1900, Japan and many western countries dispatched forces to China to protect their citizens and Chinese Christians from the Boxer Uprising. After the uprising, Japan and the western countries signed the Boxer Protocol with China, which permitted them to station troops on Chinese soil to protect their citizens. After the treaty, Russia continued to occupy all of Manchuria.\n\nRusso-Japanese War\n\nThe Russo-Japanese War was a conflict for control of Korea and parts of Manchuria between the Russian Empire and Empire of Japan that took place from 1904 to 1905. The war is significant as it was the first modern war in which an Asian country defeated a European power. The victory greatly raised Japan's stature in the world of global politics. The war is marked by the Japanese opposition of Russian interests in Korea, Manchuria, and China, notably, the Liaodong Peninsula, controlled by the city of Port Arthur.\n\nOriginally, in the Treaty of Shimonoseki, Port Arthur had been given to Japan. This part of the treaty was overruled by Western powers, which gave the port to the Russian Empire, furthering Russian interests in the region. These interests came into conflict with Japanese interests. The war began with a surprise attack on the Russian Eastern fleet stationed at Port Arthur, which was followed by the Battle of Port Arthur. Those elements that attempted escape were defeated by the Japanese navy under Admiral Togo Heihachiro at the Battle of the Yellow Sea. Following a late start, the Russian Baltic fleet was denied passage through the British-controlled Suez Canal. The fleet arrived on the scene a year later, only to be annihilated in the Battle of Tsushima. While the ground war did not fare as poorly for the Russians, the Japanese forces were significantly more aggressive than their Russian counterparts and gained a political advantage that culminated with the Treaty of Portsmouth, negotiated in the United States by the American president Theodore Roosevelt. As a result, Russia lost the part of Sakhalin Island south of 50 degrees North latitude (which became the Karafuto Prefecture), as well as many mineral rights in Manchuria. In addition, Russia's defeat cleared the way for Japan to annex Korea outright in 1910.\n\nAnnexation of Korea\n\nIn the late 19th and early 20th centuries, various Western countries actively competed for influence, trade, and territory in East Asia, and Japan sought to join these modern colonial powers. The newly modernised Meiji government of Japan turned to Korea, then in the sphere of influence of China's Qing Dynasty. The Japanese government initially sought to separate Korea from Qing and make Korea a Japanese satellite in order to further their security and national interests. \n\nIn January 1876, following the Meiji Restoration, Japan employed gunboat diplomacy to pressure Korea, under the Joseon Dynasty, to sign the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876, which granted extraterritorial rights to Japanese citizens and opened three Korean ports to Japanese trade. The rights granted to Japan under this unequal treaty,[http://www.asahi.com/english/Herald-asahi/TKY200707220222.html A reckless adventure in Taiwan amid Meiji Restoration turmoil], THE ASAHI SHIMBUN, Retrieved on July 22, 2007. were similar to those granted western powers in Japan following the visit of Commodore Perry. Japanese involvement in Korea increased during the 1890s, a period of political upheaval.\n\nKorea was occupied and declared a Japanese protectorate following the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905, and officially annexed in 1910 through the annexation treaty.\n\nIn Korea, the period is usually described as a time of Japanese \"forced occupation\" (Hangul: ; Ilje gangjeomgi, Hanja: 日帝强占期). Other terms used for it include \"Japanese Imperial Period\" (Hangul: , Ilje sidae, Hanja: 日帝時代) or \"Japanese administration\" (Hangul: , Wae jeong, ). In Japan, a more common description is . Korea was officially part of the Empire of Japan for 35 years, from August 22, 1910, until the formal Japanese rule ended on September 2, 1945, upon the surrender of Japan. The 1905 and 1910 treaties were eventually declared \"null and void\" by both Japan and South Korea in 1965.\n\nTaishō era (1912–1926)\n\nWorld War I\n\nJapan entered World War I in 1914, seizing the opportunity of Germany's distraction with the European War to expand its sphere of influence in China and the Pacific. Japan declared war on Germany on August 23, 1914. Japanese and allied British Empire forces soon moved to occupy Tsingtao fortress, the German East Asia Squadron base, German-leased territories in China's Shandong Province as well as the Marianas, Caroline, and Marshall Islands in the Pacific, which were part of German New Guinea. The swift invasion in the German territory of the Kiautschou Bay concession, and the Siege of Tsingtao proved successful. The German colonial troops surrendered on November 7, 1915. Japan then gained the German holdings.\n\nWith its Western allies, notably the United Kingdom, heavily involved in the war in Europe, Japan dispatched a Naval fleet to the Mediterranean Sea to aid allied shipping against German U-boat attacks. Japan sought further to consolidate its position in China by presenting the Twenty-One Demands to China in January 1915. In the face of slow negotiations with the Chinese government, widespread anti-Japanese sentiment in China, and international condemnation, Japan withdrew the final group of demands, and treaties were signed in May 1915.\n\nIn 1919, Japan proposed a clause on racial equality to be included in the League of Nations covenant at the Paris Peace Conference. The clause was rejected by several Western countries and was not forwarded for larger discussion at the full meeting of the conference. The rejection was an important factor in the coming years in turning Japan away from cooperation with West and towards nationalistic policies. The Anglo-Japanese Alliance was ended in 1923.\n\nSiberian Intervention\n\nAfter the fall of the Tsarist regime and the later provisional regime in 1917, the new Bolshevik government signed a separate peace treaty with Germany. After this the Russians fought amongst themselves in a multi-sided civil war.\n\nIn July 1918, President Wilson asked the Japanese government to supply 7,000 troops as part of an international coalition of 25,000 troops planned to support the American Expeditionary Force Siberia. Prime Minister Terauchi Masatake agreed to send 12,000 troops but under the Japanese command rather than as part of an international coalition. The Japanese had several hidden motives for the venture, which included an intense hostility and fear of communism; a determination to recoup historical losses to Russia; and the desire to settle the \"northern problem\" in Japan's security, either through the creation of a buffer state or through outright territorial acquisition.\n\nBy November 1918, more than 70,000 Japanese troops under Chief of Staff Yui Mitsue had occupied all ports and major towns in the Russian Maritime Provinces and eastern Siberia. Japan received 765 Polish orphans from Siberia. \n\nIn June 1920, around 450 Japanese civilians and 350 Japanese soldiers, along with Russian White Army supporters, were massacred by partisan forces associated with the Red Army at Nikolayevsk on the Amur River; the United States and its allied coalition partners consequently withdrew from Vladivostok after the capture and execution of White Army leader Admiral Aleksandr Kolchak by the Red Army. However, the Japanese decided to stay, primarily due to fears of the spread of Communism so close to Japan and Japanese-controlled Korea and Manchuria. The Japanese army provided military support to the Japanese-backed Provisional Priamurye Government based in Vladivostok against the Moscow-backed Far Eastern Republic.\n\nThe continued Japanese presence concerned the United States, which suspected that Japan had territorial designs on Siberia and the Russian Far East. Subjected to intense diplomatic pressure by the United States and Great Britain, and facing increasing domestic opposition due to the economic and human cost, the administration of Prime Minister Katō Tomosaburō withdrew the Japanese forces in October 1922. Japanese casualties from the expedition were 5,000 dead from combat or illness, with the expedition costing over 900 million yen.\n\n\"Taishō Democracy\"\n\nThe election of Katō Komei as Prime Minister of Japan continued democratic reforms that had been advocated by influential individuals on the left. This culminated in the passage of universal male suffrage in March 1925. This bill gave all male subjects over the age of 25 the right to vote, provided they had lived in their electoral districts for at least one year and were not homeless. The electorate thereby increased from 3.3 million to 12.5 million. \n\nEarly Shōwa (1926–1937)\n\nExpansion of democracy\n\nIn 1932, Park Chun-kum was elected to the House of Representatives in the Japanese general election as a first colonial people. In 1935, democracy was introduced in Taiwan and in response to Taiwanese public opinion, local assemblies were established. In 1942, 38 colonial people were elected to local assemblies of the Japanese homeland.\n\nMilitary and social organizations\n\nImportant institutional links existed between the party in government (Kōdōha) and military and political organizations, such as the Imperial Young Federation and the \"Political Department\" of the Kempeitai. Amongst the himitsu kessha (secret societies), the Kokuryu-kai (Black Dragon Society) and Kokka Shakai Shugi Gakumei (National Socialist League) also had close ties to the government. The Tonarigumi (residents committee) groups, the Nation Service Society (national government trade union), and Imperial Farmers Association were all allied as well. Other organizations and groups related with the government in wartime were: Double Leaf Society, Kokuhonsha, Taisei Yokusankai, Imperial Youth Corps, Keishichō (to 1945), Shintoist Rites Research Council, Treaty Faction, Fleet Faction, and Volunteer Fighting Corps.\n\nNationalist factors\n\nSadao Araki was an important figurehead and founder of the Army party and the most important right-wing thinker in his time. His first ideological works date from his leadership of the Kōdōha (Imperial Benevolent Rule or Action Group), opposed by the Tōseiha (Control Group) led by General Kazushige Ugaki. He linked the ancient (bushido code) and contemporary local and European fascist ideals (see Japanese fascism), to form the ideological basis of the movement (Shōwa nationalism).\n\nFrom September 1932, the Japanese were becoming more locked into the course that would lead them into the Second World War, with Araki leading the way. Totalitarianism, militarism, and expansionism were to become the rule, with fewer voices able to speak against it. In a September 23 news conference, Araki first mentioned the philosophy of \"Kōdōha\" (The Imperial Way Faction). The concept of Kodo linked the Emperor, the people, land, and morality as indivisible. This led to the creation of a \"new\" Shinto and increased Emperor worship.\n\nOn February 26, 1936, a coup d'état was attempted (the February 26 Incident). Launched by the ultranationalist Kōdōha faction with the military, it ultimately failed due to the intervention of the Emperor. Kōdōha members were purged from the top military positions and the Tōseiha faction gained dominance. However, both factions believed in expansionism, a strong military, and a coming war. Furthermore, Kōdōha members, while removed from the military, still had political influence within the government.\n\nThe state was being transformed to serve the Army and the Emperor. Symbolic katana swords came back into fashion as the martial embodiment of these beliefs, and the Nambu pistol became its contemporary equivalent, with the implicit message that the Army doctrine of close combat would prevail. The final objective, as envisioned by Army thinkers such as Sadao Araki and right-wing line followers, was a return to the old Shogunate system, but in the form of a contemporary Military Shogunate. In such a government the Emperor would once more be a figurehead (as in the Edo period). Real power would fall to a leader very similar to a führer or duce, though with the power less nakedly held. On the other hand, the traditionalist Navy militarists defended the Emperor and a constitutional monarchy with a significant religious aspect.\n\nA third point of view was supported by Prince Chichibu, a brother of Emperor Shōwa, who repeatedly counseled him to implement a direct imperial rule, even if that meant suspending the constitution. \n\nWith the launching of the Imperial Rule Assistance Association in 1940 by Prime minister Fumimaro Konoe, Japan would turn to a form of government that resembled totalitarianism. This unique style of government, very similar to fascism, was known as Japanese nationalism.\n\nEconomic factors\n\nAt same time, the zaibatsu trading groups (principally Mitsubishi, Mitsui, Sumitomo, and Yasuda) looked towards great future expansion. Their main concern was a shortage of raw materials. Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoye combined social concerns with the needs of capital, and planned for expansion.\n\nThe main goals of Japan's expansionism were acquisition and protection of spheres of influence, maintenance of territorial integrity, acquisition of raw materials, and access to Asian markets. Western nations, notably Great Britain, France, and the United States, had for long exhibited great interest in the commercial opportunities in China and other parts of Asia. These opportunities had attracted Western investment because of the availability of raw materials for both domestic production and re-export to Asia. Japan desired these opportunities in planning the development of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.\n\nThe Great Depression, just as in many other countries, hindered Japan's economic growth. The Japanese Empire's main problem lay in that rapid industrial expansion had turned the country into a major manufacturing and industrial power that required raw materials; however, these had to be obtained from overseas, as there was a critical lack of natural resources on the home islands.\n\nIn the 1920s and 1930s, Japan needed to import raw materials such as iron, rubber, and oil to maintain strong economic growth. Most of these resources came from the United States. The Japanese felt that acquiring resource-rich territories would establish economic self-sufficiency and independence, and they also hoped to jump-start the nation's economy in the midst of the depression. As a result, Japan set its sights on East Asia, specifically Manchuria with its many resources; Japan needed these resources to continue its economic development and maintain national integrity.\n\nLate Shōwa (1931–1947) – expansionism and war\n\nPrewar expansionism\n\nManchuria\n\nWith little resistance, Japan invaded and conquered Manchuria in 1931. Japan claimed that this invasion was a liberation of the Manchus from the Chinese, although the majority of the population were Han Chinese as a result of the large scale settlement of Chinese in Manchuria in the 19th century. Japan then established a puppet regime called Manchukuo, and installed the former Emperor of China, Puyi, as the official head of state. Jehol, a Chinese territory bordering Manchuria, was also taken in 1933. This puppet regime had to carry on a protracted pacification campaign against the Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies in Manchuria. In 1936, Japan created a similar Mongolian puppet state in Inner Mongolia named Mengjiang (Chinese: 蒙疆), which was also predominantly Chinese as a result of recent Han immigration to the area. Japanese, Koreans, and Taiwanese were banned from immigration to North America and Australia. Manchukuo opened the immigration of Asians, and the Japanese population subsequently grew to 850,000.\n\nSecond Sino-Japanese War\n\nJapan invaded China in 1937, creating what was essentially a three-way war between Japan, Mao Zedong's communists, and Chiang Kai-shek's nationalists. On December 13 of that same year, the Nationalist capital of Nanking surrendered to Japanese troops. In the event known as the Nanking Massacre, Japanese troops massacred a large number of the defending garrison. It is estimated that as many as 300,000 people, including civilians, may have been killed, although the actual numbers are uncertain and the government of the People's Republic of China has never undertaken a full accounting of the massacres. In total, an estimated 20 million Chinese, mostly civilians, were killed during World War II. A puppet state was also set up in China quickly afterwards, headed by Wang Jingwei. The second Sino-Japanese war continued into World War II with the Communists and Nationalists in a temporary and uneasy nominal alliance against the Japanese.\n\nClashes with the Soviet Union\n\nIn 1938, the Japanese 19th Division entered territory claimed by the Soviet Union, leading to the Battle of Lake Khasan. This incursion was founded in the Japanese belief that the Soviet Union misinterpreted the demarcation of the boundary, as stipulated in the Treaty of Peking, between Imperial Russia and Manchu China (and subsequent supplementary agreements on demarcation), and furthermore, that the demarcation markers were tampered with.\n\nOn May 11, 1939, in the Nomonhan Incident (Battle of Khalkhin Gol), a Mongolian cavalry unit of some 70 to 90 men entered the disputed area in search of grazing for their horses, and encountered Manchukuoan cavalry, who drove them out. Two days later the Mongolian force returned and the Manchukoans were unable to evict them.\n\nThe Japanese IJA 23rd Division and other units of the Kwantung Army then became involved. Joseph Stalin ordered Stavka, the Red Army's high command, to develop a plan for a counterstrike against the Japanese. In late August, Georgy Zhukov employed encircling tactics that made skillful use of superior artillery, armor, and air forces; this offensive nearly annihilated the 23rd Division and decimated the IJA 7th Division. On September 15 an armistice was arranged. Nearly two years later, on April 13, 1941, the parties signed a Neutrality Pact, in which the Soviet Union pledged to respect the territorial integrity and inviolability of Manchukuo, while Japan agreed similarly for the Mongolian People's Republic.\n\nTripartite Pact\n\nIn 1938, Japan prohibited the expulsion of the Jews in Japan, Manchuria, and China in accordance with the spirit of racial equality on which Japan had insisted for many years.\n\nThe Second Sino-Japanese War had seen tensions rise between Imperial Japan and the United States; events such as the Panay incident and the Nanking Massacre turned American public opinion against Japan. With the occupation of French Indochina in the years of 1940–41, and with the continuing war in China, the United States placed embargoes on Japan of strategic materials such as scrap metal and oil, which were vitally needed for the war effort. The Japanese were faced with the option of either withdrawing from China and losing face or seizing and securing new sources of raw materials in the resource-rich, European-controlled colonies of South East Asia—specifically British Malaya and the Dutch East Indies (modern-day Indonesia).\n\nOn September 27, 1940, Imperial Japan signed the Tripartite Pact with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Their objectives were to \"establish and maintain a new order of things\" in their respective world regions and spheres of influence, with Nazi Germany in Europe, Imperial Japan in Asia, and Fascist Italy in North Africa. The signatories of this alliance become known as the Axis Powers. The pact also called for mutual protection—if any one of the member powers was attacked by a country not already at war, excluding the Soviet Union—and for technological and economic cooperation between the signatories.\n\nFor the sake of their own people and nation, Prime Minister Konoe formed the Taisei Yokusankai (Imperial Rule Assistance Association) on October 12, 1940 as their own ruling party in Japan, avoiding the influences of German Nazism and Italian Fascism.\n\nPacific War\n\nIn the Pacific War, many of the islands became dominions of the Empire.\n\nAttack on Pearl Harbor\n\nThe decision by Japan to attack the United States remains controversial. Study groups in Japan had predicted ultimate disaster in a war between Japan and the U.S., and the Japanese economy was already straining to keep up with the demands from the war with China. However, the U.S. had placed an oil embargo on Japan and Japan felt that the United States' demands were unacceptable. Facing an oil embargo by the United States as well as dwindling domestic reserves, the Japanese government decided to execute a plan developed by the military branch largely led by Osami Nagano and Isoroku Yamamoto to bomb the United States naval base in Hawaii, thereby bringing the United States to World War II on the side of the Allies. On September 4, 1941, the Japanese Cabinet met to consider the war plans prepared by Imperial General Headquarters, and decided:\nOur Empire, for the purpose of self-defense and self-preservation, will complete preparations for war ... [and is] ... resolved to go to war with the United States, Great Britain and the Netherlands if necessary. Our Empire will concurrently take all possible diplomatic measures vis-a-vis the United States and Great Britain, and thereby endeavor to obtain our objectives ... In the event that there is no prospect of our demands being met by the first ten days of October through the diplomatic negotiations mentioned above, we will immediately decide to commence hostilities against the United States, Britain and the Netherlands.\n\nThe Imperial Japanese Navy made its surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, Oahu, Hawaii, on Sunday morning, December 7, 1941. The Pacific Fleet of the United States Navy and its defending Army Air Forces and Marine air forces sustained significant losses. The primary objective of the attack was to incapacitate the United States long enough for Japan to establish its long-planned Southeast Asian empire and defensible buffer zones. However, as Admiral Yamamoto feared, the attack produced little lasting damage to the US Navy with priority targets like the Pacific Fleet's aircraft carriers out at sea and vital shore facilities, whose destruction could have crippled the fleet on their own, were ignored. Of more serious consequences, the U.S. public saw the attack as a treacherous act and rallied against the Empire of Japan. The United States entered the European Theatre and Pacific Theater in full force. Four days later, Adolf Hitler of Nazi Germany and Benito Mussolini of Italy declared war on the United States, merging the separate conflicts.\n\nJapanese offensives (1941–42)\n\nFollowing the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Japanese launched offensives against Allied forces in South East Asia, with simultaneous attacks on Hong Kong, British Malaya and the Philippines.\n\nThe South-East Asian Campaign was preceded by years of propaganda and espionage activities carried out in the region by the Japanese Empire. The Japanese espoused their vision of a Greater Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere, and an Asia for Asians to the people of South East Asia, who had lived under European rule for generations. As a result, many inhabitants in some of the colonies (particularly Indonesia) actually sided with the Japanese invaders for anti-colonial reasons. In particular the ethnic Chinese, who had witnessed the effects of a Japanese occupation in their homeland, did not side with the Japanese. The brutality of the Japanese in the newly conquered colonies would soon turn most people against them.\n\nHong Kong surrendered to the Japanese on December 25. In Malaya the Japanese overwhelmed an Allied army composed of British, Indian, Australian and Malay forces. The Japanese were quickly able to advance down the Malayan Peninsula, forcing the Allied forces to retreat towards Singapore. The Allies lacked aircover and tanks; the Japanese had total air superiority. The sinking of HMS Prince of Wales and HMS Repulse on December 10, 1941 led to the east coast of Malaya being exposed to Japanese landings and the elimination of British naval power in the area. By the end of January 1942, the last Allied forces crossed the strait of Johore and into Singapore.\n\nIn the Philippines, the Japanese pushed the combined Filipino-American force towards the Bataan peninsula and later the island of Corregidor. By January 1942, General Douglas MacArthur and President Manuel L. Quezon were forced to flee in the face of Japanese advance. This marked among one of the worst defeats suffered by the Americans, leaving over 70,000 American and Filipino prisoners of war in the custody of the Japanese.\n\nOn February 15, 1942, Singapore, due to the overwhelming superiority of Japanese forces and encirclement tactics, fell to the Japanese, causing the largest surrender of British-led military personnel in history. An estimated 80,000 Indian, Australian and British troops were taken as prisoners of war, joining 50,000 taken in the Japanese invasion of Malaya (modern day Malaysia). Many were later used as forced labour constructing the Burma Railway, the site of the infamous Bridge on the River Kwai.\n\nImmediately following their invasion of British Malaya, the Japanese military carried out a purge of the Chinese population in Malaya and Singapore. Over the course of a month following their victory at Singapore, the Japanese are believed to have killed tens of thousands of ethnic Chinese perceived to be hostile to the new regime.\n\nThe Japanese then seized the key oil production zones of Borneo, Central Java, Malang, Cepu, Sumatra, and Dutch New Guinea of the late Dutch East Indies, defeating the Dutch forces. The Japanese then consolidated their lines of supply through capturing key islands of the Pacific, including Guadalcanal.\n\nPath to defeat (1942–45)\n\nJapanese military strategists were keenly aware of the unfavorable discrepancy between the industrial potential of the Japanese Empire and that of the United States. Because of this they reasoned that Japanese success hinged on their ability to extend the strategic advantage gained at Pearl Harbor with additional rapid strategic victories.\n\nThe Japanese Command reasoned that only decisive destruction of the United States' Pacific Fleet and conquest of its remote outposts would ensure that the Japanese Empire would not be overwhelmed by America's industrial might. In May 1942, failure to decisively defeat the Allies at the Battle of the Coral Sea, in spite of Japanese numerical superiority, equated to a strategic defeat for Imperial Japan.\n\nThis setback was followed in June 1942 by the catastrophic loss of a four carrier task force at the Battle of Midway. Midway was a decisive defeat for the Imperial Japanese Navy, and proved to be the turning point of the war. Australian land forces defeated Japanese Marines in New Guinea at the Battle of Milne Bay in September 1942, which was the first land defeat suffered by the Japanese in the Pacific. Further defeats by the Allies at Guadalcanal in September 1942, and New Guinea in 1943 put the Empire of Japan on the defensive for the remainder of the war.\n\nDuring 1943 and 1944, Allied forces, backed by the industrial might and vast raw material resources of the United States, advanced steadily towards Japan. The Sixth United States Army, led by General MacArthur, landed on Leyte on October 20, 1944. In the subsequent months, during the Philippines Campaign (1944–45), the combined United States forces, together with the native guerrilla units, liberated the Philippines.\n\nBy 1944, the Allies had seized or bypassed and neutralized many of Japan's strategic bases through amphibious landings and bombardment. This, coupled with the losses inflicted by Allied submarines on Japanese shipping routes began to strangle Japan's economy and undermine its ability to supply its army. By early 1945, the U.S. Marines had wrested control of the Ogasawara Islands in several hard-fought battles such as the Battle of Iwo Jima, marking the beginning of the fall of the islands of Japan.\n\nAir raids on Japan\n\nAfter securing airfields in Saipan and Guam in the summer of 1944, the United States Army Air Forces undertook an intense strategic bombing campaign, using incendiary bombs, burning Japanese cities in an effort to pulverize Japan's industry and shatter its morale. The Operation Meetinghouse raid on Tokyo on the night of March 9–10, 1945, led to the deaths of approximately 100,000 civilians. Approximately 350,000–500,000 civilians died in 66 other Japanese cities as a result of the incendiary bombing campaign on Japan. Concurrent to these attacks, Japan's vital coastal shipping operations were severely hampered with extensive aerial mining by the U.S.'s Operation Starvation. Regardless, these efforts did not succeed in persuading the Japanese military to surrender. In mid-August 1945, the United States dropped nuclear weapons on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. These atomic bombings were the first and only used against the enemy in warfare. These two bombs killed approximately 120,000 to 140,000 combatants and non-combatants in a matter of minutes, and as many again died as a result of nuclear radiation in the following weeks, months and years. The bombs killed as many as 140,000 in Hiroshima and 80,000 in Nagasaki by the end of 1945.\n\nRe-entry of the Soviet Union\n\nAt the Yalta agreement, the USA, the UK, and the USSR had agreed that the USSR would enter the war on Japan within three months of the defeat of Nazi Germany in Europe. This Soviet-Japanese War (1945) led to the rapid fall of Japan's Manchurian occupation, Soviet occupation of south Sakhalin Island, and a real, imminent threat of Soviet invasion of the home islands of Japan. This was a significant factor for some internal parties in the Japanese decision to surrender to the USA and gain some protection, rather than face simultaneous Soviet invasion as well as defeat by the USA. Likewise, the superior numbers of the armies of the Soviet Union in Europe was a factor in the US decision to demonstrate the use of atomic weapons to the USSR, just as the allied victory in Europe was evolving into division of Germany and Berlin, the division of Europe with the Iron Curtain and the subsequent Cold War.\n\nDefeat and surrender\n\nHaving ignored (mokusatsu) the Potsdam Declaration, the Empire of Japan surrendered and ended World War II, after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and a declaration of war by the Soviet Union. In a national radio address on August 15, Emperor Hirohito announced the surrender to the Japanese people by Gyokuon-hōsō.\n\nAfter World War II\n\nOccupation of Japan\n\nA period known as Occupied Japan followed after the war, largely spearheaded by United States General of the Army Douglas MacArthur to revise the Japanese constitution and de-militarize Japan. The American occupation, with economic and political assistance, continued well into the 1950s. Allied forces ordered Japan to abolish the Meiji Constitution and enforce the Constitution of Japan, then rename the Empire of Japan as Japan on May 3, 1947. Japan adopted a parliamentary-based political system, while the Emperor changed to symbolic status.\n\nAmerican General of the Army Douglas MacArthur later commended the new Japanese government that he helped establish and the new Japanese period when he was about to send the American forces to the Korean War:\nThe Japanese people, since the war, have undergone the greatest reformation recorded in modern history. With a commendable will, eagerness to learn, and marked capacity to understand, they have, from the ashes left in war's wake, erected in Japan an edifice dedicated to the supremacy of individual liberty and personal dignity; and in the ensuing process there has been created a truly representative government committed to the advance of political morality, freedom of economic enterprise, and social justice. Politically, economically, and socially Japan is now abreast of many free nations of the earth and will not again fail the universal trust. ... I sent all four of our occupation divisions to the Korean battlefront without the slightest qualms as to the effect of the resulting power vacuum upon Japan. The results fully justified my faith. I know of no nation more serene, orderly, and industrious, nor in which higher hopes can be entertained for future constructive service in the advance of the human race.\n\nFor historian John W. Dower, however, In retrospect, apart from the military officer corps, the purge of alleged militarists and ultranationalists that was conducted under the Occupation had relatively small impact on the long-term composition of men of influence in the public and private sectors. The purge initially brought new blood into the political parties, but this was offset by the return of huge numbers of formerly purged conservative politicians to national as well as local politics in the early 1950s. In the bureaucracy, the purge was negligible from the outset. ... In the economic sector, the purge similarly was only mildly disruptive, affecting less than sixteen hundred individuals spread among some four hundred companies. Everywhere one looks, the corridors of power in postwar Japan are crowded with men whose talents had already been recognized during the war years, and who found the same talents highly prized in the 'new' Japan. \n\nRepatriation\n\nThere was a significant level of emigration to the overseas territories of the Japanese Empire during the Japanese colonial period, including Korea, Taiwan, Manchuria, and Karafuto. Unlike emigrants to the Americas, Japanese going to the colonies occupied a higher rather than lower social niche upon their arrival. \n\nIn 1938, there were 309,000 Japanese in Taiwan. By the end of World War II, there were over 850,000 Japanese in Korea and more than 2 million in China, most of whom were farmers in Manchukuo (the Japanese had a plan to bring in 5 million Japanese settlers into\nManchukuo). \n\nIn the census of December 1939, the total population of the South Pacific Mandate was 129,104, of which 77,257 were Japanese. By December 1941, Saipan had a population of more than 30,000 people, including 25,000 Japanese. There were over 400,000 people living on Karafuto (southern Sakhalin) when the Soviet offensive began in early August 1945. Most were of Japanese or Korean extraction. When Japan lost the Kuril Islands, 17,000 Japanese were expelled, most from the southern islands. \n\nAfter World War II, most of these overseas Japanese repatriated to Japan. The Allied powers repatriated over 6 million Japanese nationals from colonies and battlefields throughout Asia. Only a few remained overseas, often involuntarily, as in the case of orphans in China or prisoners of war captured by the Red Army and forced to work in Siberia. \n\nWar crimes\n\nMany political and military Japanese leaders were convicted for war crimes before the Tokyo tribunal and other Allied tribunals in Asia. However, all members of the imperial family implicated in the war, such as Emperor Shōwa and his brothers, cousins and uncles such as Prince Chichibu, Prince Fushimi Hiroyasu and Prince Asaka Yasuhiko, were exonerated from criminal prosecutions by Douglas MacArthur.\n\nThe Japanese military before and during World War II committed numerous atrocities against combatants and non-combatants. Its surprise attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, prior to a declaration of war and without warning killed 2,403 neutral military personnel and civilians and wounded 1,247 others. Large scale massacres, rapes, and looting against civilians were committed, most notably the Sook Ching and the Nanking Massacre, and the use of around 200,000 \"comfort women\", who were forced to serve as prostitutes for the Japanese military. \n\nThe Imperial Japanese Army also engaged in the execution and harsh treatment of Allied prisoners of war. Biological experiments were conducted by Unit 731 on prisoners of war as well as civilians; this included the use of biological and chemical weapons authorized by Emperor Shōwa himself. According to the 2002 International Symposium on the Crimes of Bacteriological Warfare, the number of people killed in Far East Asia by Japanese germ warfare and human experiments was estimated to be around 580,000. The members of Unit 731, including Lieutenant General Shirō Ishii, received immunity from General MacArthur in exchange for germ warfare data based on human experimentation. The deal was concluded in 1948. \n\nInfluential personnel\n\nPolitical\n\nIn the administration of Japan dominated by the military political movement during World War II, the civil central government was under the management of military men and their right-wing civilian allies, along with members of the nobility and Imperial Family. The Emperor was in the center of this power structure as supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Imperial Armed Forces and head of state.\n\nMilitary\n\nThe military of Imperial Japan was divided into two main branches: the Imperial Japanese Navy and the Imperial Japanese Army. To coordinate operations, the Imperial General Headquarters, headed by the Emperor, was established in 1893. Prominent generals and leaders:\n*Imperial Japanese Navy: Navy of Japan\n**Admiral Count Itō Sukeyuki (1843–1914)\n**Admiral Viscount Inoue Yoshika (1845–1929)\n**Admiral Marquis Tōgō Heihachirō (1847–1934) Battle of Tsushima\n**Admiral Prince Arisugawa Takahito (1862–1913)\n**Admiral Baron Ijuin Gorō (1852–1921)\n**Admiral Prince Higashifushimi Yorihito (1867–1922)\n**Admiral Baron Shimamura Hayao (1858–1923)\n**Admiral Baron Katō Tomosaburō (1861–1923)\n**Admiral Prince Fushimi Hiroyasu (1876–1946)\n**Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto (1884–1943) Attack on Pearl Harbor, Battle of Midway\n**Admiral Osami Nagano (1880–1947)\n**Admiral Mineichi Koga (1885–1944)\n**Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo (1887–1944) Attack on Pearl Harbor, Battle of Midway \n*Imperial Japanese Army: Army of Japan\n**Marshal Prince Yamagata Aritomo: Chief of staff of the Army, Prime Minister of Japan\n**Marshal Prince Ōyama Iwao: Chief of staff of the Army\n**General Viscount Kodama Gentarō: Chief of staff of the Army\n**Marshal Viscount Uehara Yūsaku: Chief of staff of the Army\n**Marshal Prince Kotohito Kan'in: Chief of staff of the Army\n**Marshal Hajime Sugiyama: Chief of staff of the Army\n**General Kuniaki Koiso: Prime Minister of Japan\n**General Hideki Tōjō: Prime Minister of Japan\n**General Yoshijirō Umezu: Chief of staff of the Army\n\nTimeline\n\n*1926: Emperor Taishō dies (December 25).\n*1927: Tanaka Giichi becomes prime minister (April 20).\n*1928: Emperor Shōwa is formally installed as emperor (November 10).\n*1929: Osachi Hamaguchi becomes prime minister (July 2).\n*1930: Hamaguchi is wounded in an assassination attempt (November 14).\n*1931: Hamaguchi dies and Wakatsuki Reijirō becomes prime minister (April 14). Japan occupies Manchuria after the Mukden Incident (September 18). Inukai Tsuyoshi becomes prime minister (December 13) and increases funding for the military in China.\n*1932: After an attack on Japanese monks in Shanghai (January 18), Japanese forces shell the city (January 29). Manchukuo is established with Henry Pu Yi as emperor (February 29). Inukai is assassinated during a coup attempt and Saitō Makoto becomes prime minister (May 15). Japan is censured by the League of Nations (December 7).\n*1933: Japan leaves the League of Nations (March 27).\n*1934: Keisuke Okada becomes prime minister (July 8). Japan withdraws from the Washington Naval Treaty (December 29).\n*1936: Coup attempt (February 26 Incident). Kōki Hirota becomes prime minister (March 9). Japan signs its first pact with Germany (November 25) and occupies Tsingtao (December 3). Mengjiang established in Inner Mongolia.\n*1937: Senjūrō Hayashi becomes prime minister (February 2). Prince Fumimaro Konoe becomes prime minister (June 4). Battle of Lugou Bridge (July 7). Japan captures Beijing (July 31). Japanese troops occupy Nanjing (December 13), beginning the Nanjing Massacre.\n*1938: Battle of Taierzhuang (March 24). Canton falls to Japanese forces (October 21).\n*1939: Hiranuma Kiichirō becomes prime minister (January 5). Abe Nobuyuki becomes prime minister (August 30).\n*1940: Mitsumasa Yonai becomes prime minister (January 16). Konoe becomes prime minister for a second term (July 22). Hundred Regiments Offensive (August–September). Japan occupies Indochina in the wake of the fall of Paris, and signs the Tripartite Pact (September 27).\n*1941: General Hideki Tōjō becomes prime minister (October 18). Japanese naval forces attack Pearl Harbor, Hawaii (December 7), prompting the United States to declare war on Japan (December 8). Japan conquers Hong Kong (December 25).\n*1942: Battle of Ambon (January 30 – February 3). Battle of Palembang (February 13–15). Singapore surrenders to Japan (February 15). Japan bombs Australia (February 19). Indian Ocean raid (March 31 – April 10). Doolittle Raid on Tokyo (April 18). Battle of the Coral Sea (May 4–8). U.S. and Filipino forces in the Battle of the Philippines (1942) surrender (May 8). Japan defeated at the Battle of Midway (June 6). Allied victory in the Battle of Milne Bay (September 5). Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands (October 25–27). \n*1943: Allied victory in Battle of Guadalcanal (February 9). Japan defeated at Battle of Tarawa (November 23).\n*1944: Tojo resigns and Kuniaki Koiso becomes prime minister (July 22). Battle of Leyte Gulf (October 23–26).\n*1945: U.S. bombers begin firebombing of major Japanese cities. Japan defeated at Battle of Iwo Jima (March 26). Admiral Kantarō Suzuki becomes prime minister (April 7). Japan defeated at Battle of Okinawa (June 21). U.S. drops atomic bombs on Hiroshima (August 6) and Nagasaki (August 9), The Soviet Union and Mongolia invade Japanese colonies of Manchukuo, Mengjiang (Inner Mongolia), Korea, Sakhalin and Kuril Islands (August 9–September 2). Japan surrenders (September 2): Allied occupation begins.\n*1947: Constitution of Japan comes into force.\n\nEmperors", "Not to be confused with volcanic island.\n\nThe is a group of three Japanese islands south of the Bonin Islands that belong to the municipality of Ogasawara. The islands are all active volcanoes lying atop an island arc that stretches south to the Marianas. They have an area of and a population of 380.\n\nGeography \n\nThe Volcano Islands are:\n*Kita Iwo Jima (北硫黄島 Kita-Iō-jima or Kita-Iō-tō, literally North Sulphur Island), , (Sakaki-ga-mine)\n*Iwo Jima (硫黄島 Iō-jima or Iō-tō, literally Sulphur Island) , (Suribachi-yama)\n*Minami Iwo Jima (南硫黄島 Minami-Iō-jima or Minami-Iō-tō, literally South Sulphur Island) , \nFarther north but in the same volcanic arc is:\n*Nishino-shima (西之島, literally Western Island), \n\nThere is a Japan Self-Defense Forces air base on Iwo Jima with a staff of 380. It is located in the village of Minami (Iwo Jima village). Other than that, the islands are uninhabited.\n\nHistory \n\nThe first recorded sighting by Europeans was in October 1543 by Spanish navigator Bernardo de la Torre on board of carrack San Juan de Letrán when trying to return from Sarangani to New Spain. Iwo Jima was charted as Sufre, the old Spanish term for sulphur.\n\nThe islands were uninhabited until 1889, when the two northern islands were settled by Japanese settlers from the Izu Islands. They were annexed by Japan in 1891.\n\nThe population was about 1,100 in 1939, distributed among five settlements: Higashi, Minami, Nishi, Kita and Motoyama (meaning \"East\", \"South\", \"West\", \"North\" and \"Mountain of Origin\", or central mountain) on Iwo Jima; and two settlements on Kita Iwo Jima: Ishino-mura (\"Ishino village\"; Ishino is a surname) and Nishi-mura (\"West village\"). The municipal administration office was located in Higashi until 1940, when the municipality was integrated into the administration of Ogasawara, Tokyo.\n\nIwo Jima was the site of the Battle of Iwo Jima in World War II, and the island group came under United States administration. The Volcano Islands were reverted to Japanese administration in 1968." ] }

{ "description": [ "Japan's Volcano Island is a string of small islands and seamounts stretching more ... Fukujin volcano is one of the largest seamounts of the Marianas arc in Japan's ...", "... the islands were claimed formally by Japan in 1891. Iwo Jima is the largest island, ... A group of three small islands, the Volcano Islands (in Japanese, ...", "Define Volcano Islands. Volcano Islands synonyms, ... south of Japan: the largest is Iwo Jima, ... volcano; Volcano Islands; Volcanoes; volcanogenic;" ], "filename": [ "67/67_1521.txt", "30/30_1522.txt", "115/115_1527.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 1, 6 ], "title": [ "Volcanoes of the Volcano Islands, Japan - information ...", "Volcano Islands | archipelago, Japan | Britannica.com", "Volcano Islands - definition of Volcano Islands by The ..." ], "url": [ "https://www.volcanodiscovery.com/japan-volcano-islands.html", "https://www.britannica.com/place/Volcano-Islands", "http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Volcano+Islands" ], "search_context": [ "Volcanoes of the Volcano Islands, Japan - information / VolcanoDiscovery\nDaikoku\n(submarine volcano)\nDaikoku is a sumbarine volcano with a conical summit in the Japanese Volcano Islands chain. It sits on an elongated E-W-trending ridge SE of Eifuku submarine volcano and rises to within 323 m of the sea surface. It has a crater with a black pool of liquid sulfur discovered in 200... [ more ]\nFukujin\n(submarine volcano)\nFukujin volcano is one of the largest seamounts of the Marianas arc in Japan's Volcano Island chain. It sometimes has risen to above surface during eruptions creating temporary new islands. Water discoloration and floating pumice above the submarine volcano have been observed fre... [ more ]\nFukutoku-Okanoba\n(submarine volcano)\nFukutoku-Okanoba is a submarine volcano 5 km NE of the small pyramidal island Minami-iwo-jima in the Japanese Volcano Island chain. Eruptions and submarine hydrothermal activity often cause water discoloration in the area, and during eruptions, the volcano has built several tempo... [ more ]\nIwo-jima\n(caldera)\nIoto (硫黄島, also known as Iwo-jima) volcano is a triangular-shaped, flat, 8 km long and up to 4.5 wide volcanic island stretching NE-SW. It is surrounded by steep cliffs under the sea, which belong to a 9-km-wide submarine caldera. The volcano is located 1250 km south of Tokyo in ... [ more ]\nKaikata\n(submarine volcano)\nKaikata Seamount is a basaltic-to-dacitic submarine volcano north of Kaitoku Seamount in the Japanese Volcano Islands. Kaitaka mountain rises 2350 m from the sea floor to within 162 m of the sea surface. It has 2 major summit peaks oriented NE-SW, with the SW peak being the highe... [ more ]\nKaitoku\n(submarine volcano)\nKaitoku volcano (Kaitoku Kaizan) is a massive active seamount composed of 3 overlapping submarine volcanoes in the Japanese Volcano Islands chain, 130 km NW of Iwo-jima Island.\nIts 3 peaks are 13-18 km apart and reach depths of 103 m (SW peak, also known as Nishi-Kaitokub... [ more ]\nKasuga\n(submarine volcano)\nKasuga volcano is a conical submarine volcano rising 3000 m from the ocean floor to a depth of 598 m, located SE of Fukujin submarine volcano in the Volcano Islands of Japan 1550 km SSE of Tokyo. It is the northernmost of 3 seamounts forming the Kasuga seamounts complex. The Kas... [ more ]\nKita-Fukutokutai\n(submarine volcano)\nKita-Fukutokutai is a newly recognized active submarine volcano halfway between Iwo-jima and Minami-Iwo-jima islands, ca. 1300 km south of Tokyo. [ more ]\nKita-Iwo-jima\n(stratovolcano)\nKita-Iwo-jima (北硫黄島 officially Kita-iōtō, also frequently Kita-iōjima, meaning \"north sulfur island\") is a steep-sided basaltic stratovolcano and forms a small island. It is the northernmost of the Kazan Retto (Volcano Islands) chain, in the center of the Izu-Maranas volcanic arc... [ more ]\nMinami Kasuga\n(submarine volcano)\nMinami Kasuga (South Kasuga, or Kasuga 2) is the central of 3 NNE-SSW trending volcanoes forming the Kasuga seamount chain, which trends SSE from the volcanic front of the Izu-Marianas arc.\nThe volcano rises from about 3000 m depth to within 170 m of the sea surface and is... [ more ]\nMinami-Hiyoshi\n(submarine volcano)\nMinami-Hiyoshi is a submarine volcano in Japan's chain of Volcano Islands, 1300 km south of Tokyo. Periodic water discolouration and water-spouting have been observed from the volcano since 1975, when detonations and an explosion were reported as well. [ more ]\nNikko\n(submarine volcano)\nNikko volcano is a large submarine volcano in the Volcano Islands chain of Japan. Discoloured water above the volcano has been observed almost every year between 1979 and 1990. [ more ]\nNishino-shima\n(caldera, submarine volcano)\nNishimo-shima volcano (西之島, literally: Western Island, also: Rosario Island) is the tiny submerged part of a caldera in the northern Volcano Islands of Japan. The small 700 m wide island was significantly enlarged during the last eruption in 1974, which joined several new islands... [ more ]\nNW Eifuku\n(submarine volcano)\nNW Eifuku is a small submarine volcano in Japan's Volcano Island chain. It has vigorous thermal activity and white smokers at ca. 1500 m depth which were photographed during a NOOA expedition. [ more ]", "Volcano Islands | archipelago, Japan | Britannica.com\nVolcano Islands\nMariana Islands\nVolcano Islands, Japanese Kazan-rettō, archipelago, Tokyo to (metropolis), far southern Japan . The islands lie in the western Pacific between the Bonin Islands (north) and the Mariana Islands (south). The three small volcanic islands are, in north–south sequence, Kita-Iō (San Alexander) Island, Iō Island (Iō-tō; conventionally, Iwo Jima), and Minami-Iō (San Augustino) Island. Unclaimed until the arrival of Japanese fishermen and sulfur miners in 1887, the islands were claimed formally by Japan in 1891.\nIwo Jima is the largest island, with a large stretch of level land that was converted into a military airfield during World War II . It lies about 760 miles (1,220 km) south of Tokyo . The island was the scene of a bloody battle between Japanese and U.S. forces in 1945. Under the peace treaty with Japan, that nation retained residual sovereignty over the archipelago, but the United States administered the islands from 1951 to 1968, when they were returned to Japan. Its name was officially changed to Iō-tō in 2007.\nLearn More in these related articles:\nTokyo-Yokohama Metropolitan Area\nmetropolitan complex—commonly called Greater Tokyo—along the northern and western shores of Tokyo Bay, on the Pacific coast of the island of Honshu, central Japan. At its centre is the metropolitan prefecture, or metropolis (to), of Tokyo, Japan’s capital and largest city....\nIwo Jima\nisland that is part of the Volcano Islands archipelago, far southern Japan. The island has been widely known as Iwo Jima, its conventional name, since World War II (1939–45). However, Japan officially changed the name to its Japanese form, Iō-tō (Iō Island), in 2007.\nVolcano Islands - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)\nA group of three small islands, the Volcano Islands (in Japanese, Kazan-retto) lie in the western Pacific Ocean between the Bonin Islands to the north and the Mariana Islands to the south. The Volcano Islands belong to Japan. The three volcanic islands are, from north to south, Kita-Io (San Alexander) Island, Io Island (now Io-to; conventionally, Iwo Jima), and Minami-Io (San Augustino) Island. Unclaimed until the arrival of Japanese fishermen and sulfur miners in 1887, the islands were claimed formally by Japan in 1891.\nArticle History\nCorrections? Updates? Help us improve this article! Contact our editors with your feedback.\nMEDIA FOR:\nYou have successfully emailed this.\nError when sending the email. Try again later.\nEdit Mode\nSubmit\nTips For Editing\nWe welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles. You can make it easier for us to review and, hopefully, publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind.\nEncyclopædia Britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience.\nYou may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered.\nAny text you add should be original, not copied from other sources.\nAt the bottom of the article, feel free to list any sources that support your changes, so that we can fully understand their context. (Internet URLs are the best.)\nYour contribution may be further edited by our staff, and its publication is subject to our final approval. Unfortunately, our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions.\nSubmit\nThank You for Your Contribution!\nOur editors will review what you've submitted, and if it meets our criteria, we'll add it to the article.\nPlease note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors, and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed.\nUh Oh\nThere was a problem with your submission. Please try again later.\nClose\nDate Published: February 05, 2009\nURL: https://www.britannica.com/place/Volcano-Islands\nAccess Date: January 19, 2017\nShare", "Volcano Islands - definition of Volcano Islands by The Free Dictionary\nVolcano Islands - definition of Volcano Islands by The Free Dictionary\nhttp://www.thefreedictionary.com/Volcano+Islands\nRelated to Volcano Islands: Bonin Islands\nVol·ca·no Islands\n (vŏl-kā′nō)\nA group of Japanese islands in the northwest Pacific Ocean north of the Mariana Islands. Annexed by Japan in the late 1800s, the islands were administered by the United States from 1945 until 1968.\nVolcano Islands\npl n\n(Placename) a group of three volcanic islands in the W Pacific, about 1100 km (700 miles) south of Japan: the largest is Iwo Jima, taken by US forces in 1945 and returned to Japan in 1968. Area: about 28 sq km (11 sq miles). Japanese name: Kazan Retto\nVolca′no Is′lands\nn.pl.\nthree islands in the W Pacific, including Iwo Jima, belonging to Japan: under U.S. administration 1945–68.\nThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend:" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Ezzard_Charles.txt", "Olympic_sports.txt" ], "title": [ "Ezzard Charles", "Olympic sports" ], "wiki_context": [ "Ezzard Mack Charles (July 7, 1921 – May 28, 1975) was an American professional boxer and former World Heavyweight Champion.\n\nCharles defeated numerous Hall of Fame fighters in three different weight classes. He retired with a record of 93 wins, 25 losses and 1 draw.\n\nCareer \n\nHe was born in Lawrenceville, Georgia, but is commonly thought of as a Cincinnatian. Charles graduated from Woodward High School in Cincinnati where he was already becoming a well-known fighter. Known as \"The Cincinnati Cobra\", Charles fought many notable opponents in both the light heavyweight and heavyweight divisions, eventually winning the World Championship in the latter. Although he never won the Light Heavyweight title, The Ring has rated him as the greatest light heavyweight of all time.\n\nCareer beginnings and military service \n\nCharles started his career as a featherweight in the amateurs, where he had a record of 42–0. In 1938, he won the Diamond Belt Middleweight Championship. He followed this up in 1939 by winning the Chicago Golden Gloves tournament of champions. He won the national AAU Middleweight Championship in 1939. He turned pro in 1940, knocking out Melody Johnson in the 4th round. Charles won all of his first 15 fights before being defeated by veteran Ken Overlin. Victories over future Hall of Famers Teddy Yarosz and the much avoided Charley Burley had started to solidify Charles as a top contender in the middleweight division. However, he served in the U.S. military during World War II and was unable to fight professionally in 1945.\n\nWorld heavyweight champion \n\nHe returned to boxing after the war as a light heavyweight, picking up many notable wins over leading light heavyweights, as well as heavyweight contenders Archie Moore, Jimmy Bivins, Lloyd Marshall and Elmer Ray. Shortly after his knock-out of Moore in their third and final meeting, tragedy struck. Charles fought a young contender named Sam Baroudi, knocking him out in Round 10. Baroudi died of the injuries he sustained in this bout. Charles was so devastated he almost gave up fighting. Charles was unable to secure a title shot at light heavyweight and moved up to heavyweight. After knocking out Joe Baksi and Johnny Haynes, Charles won the vacant National Boxing Association World Heavyweight title when he outpointed Jersey Joe Walcott over 15 rounds on June 22, 1949. The following year, he outpointed his idol and former World Heavyweight Champion Joe Louis to become the recognized Lineal Champion. Successful defenses against Walcott, Lee Oma and Joey Maxim would follow.\n\nCharles vs. Marciano \n\nIn 1951, Charles fought Walcott a third time and lost the title by knockout in the seventh round. Charles lost a controversial decision in their fourth and final bout. If Charles had won this fight, he would have become the first man in history to regain the heavyweight championship. Remaining a top contender with wins over Rex Layne, Tommy Harrison and Coley Wallace, Charles knocked out Bob Satterfield in an eliminator bout for the right to challenge Heavyweight Champion Rocky Marciano. His two stirring battles with Marciano are regarded as ring classics. In the first bout, held in June 1954, he valiantly took Rocky the distance, going down on points in a vintage heavyweight bout. Charles is the only man ever to last the full 15-round distance against Marciano. A number of fans and boxing writers felt that Charles deserved the decision. In their September rematch, Charles landed a severe blow that literally split Marciano's nose in half. Marciano's cornermen were unable to stop the bleeding and the referee almost halted the contest until Marciano rallied with an 8th round knockout.\n\nLater career \n\nFinancial problems forced Charles to continue fighting, losing 13 of his final 23 fights (He held a record of 83 wins, 12 losses and 1 draws before financial problems became a factor in his career). He retired with a record of 93-25-1 (52 KOs).\n\nCharles was also a respected double bass player who played with some of the jazz greats in the 1940s and 1950s at such notable places as Birdland (jazz composer George Russell wrote the famous tune \"Ezz-Thetic\" in his honor). He was very close with Rocky Marciano and a neighbor and friend of Muhammad Ali when they both lived on 85th Street in Chicago. Charles also starred in one motion picture: Mau Mau Drums, an independent (and unreleased) jungle-adventure film shot in and around Cincinnati in 1960 by filmmaker Earl Schwieterman.\n\nDeath \n\nIn 1968, Charles was diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis which was called \"Lou Gehrig's disease\". The disease affected Charles legs and eventually left him completely disabled. A fund raiser was held to assist Charles and many of his former opponents spoke on his behalf. Rocky Marciano in particular called Charles the bravest man he ever fought. The former boxer spent his last days in a nursing home. A chilling 1973 commercial showed Charles in his wheelchair horribly disabled by the disease. Charles died on May 28, 1975 in Chicago\n\nLegacy \n\nIn 1976, Cincinnati honored Charles by changing the name of Lincoln Park Drive to Ezzard Charles Drive. This was the street of his residence during the height of his career. \n\nHe was elected to the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 1990.\n\nIn 2002, Charles was ranked #13 on The Ring magazine's list of the 80 Best Fighters of the Last 80 Years.\n\nIn 2006, Ezzard Charles was named the 11th greatest fighter of all time by the IBRO (International Boxing Research Organisation). \n\nThe \"Cincinnati Cobra\" was a master boxer of extraordinary skill and ability. He had speed, agility, fast hands and excellent footwork. Charles possessed a masterful jab and was a superb combination puncher. He was at his peak as a light-heavyweight. His record is quite impressive. Against top rate opposition like Archie Moore, Charley Burley, Lloyd Marshall, Jimmy Bivins, and Joey Maxim he was an impressive 16-2 combined. Despite being a natural light-heavy he won the heavyweight title and made 9 successful title defenses. Nearly 25% of voters had Charles in the top 10. Half of the voters had him in the top 15. Two thirds of voters had him inside the top 20.\n\nIn 2007, ESPN online ranks Ezzard Charles as the 27th greatest boxer of all time, ahead of such notable fighters as Mike Tyson, Larry Holmes and Jake LaMotta. \n\nIn 2009, Boxing magazine listed Ezzard Charles as the greatest Light Heavyweight fighter ever, ahead of the likes of Archie Moore, Bob Foster, Michael Spinks and Gene Tunney. \n\nProminent boxing historian Bert Sugar listed Charles as the 7th greatest Heavyweight of all time.\n\nProfessional boxing record \n\n|-\n| style\"text-align:center;\" colspan\n\"8\"|93 Wins (52 knockouts, 41 decisions), 25 Losses \n|- style=\"text-align:center; background:#e3e3e3;\"\n| style=\"border-style:none none solid solid; \"|Res.\n| style=\"border-style:none none solid solid; \"|Record\n| style=\"border-style:none none solid solid; \"|Opponent\n| style=\"border-style:none none solid solid; \"|Type\n| style=\"border-style:none none solid solid; \"|Round\n| style=\"border-style:none none solid solid; \"|Date\n| style=\"border-style:none none solid solid; \"|Location\n| style=\"border-style:none none solid solid; \"|Notes\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|93–16\n|align=left| Toxie Hall\n|\n|10\n|1955-12-06\n|align=left| Rochester, New York, United States\n|align=left| \n|- align=center\n|Loss\n|92–16\n|align=left| Toxie Hall\n|\n|10\n|1955-11-14\n|align=left| Providence, Rhode Island, United States\n|align=left| \n|- align=center\n|Loss\n|92–15\n|align=left| Tommy Hurricane Jackson\n|\n|\n|1955-08-31\n|align=left| Cleveland, Ohio, United States\n|align=left| \n|- align=center\n|Loss\n|92–14\n|align=left| Tommy Hurricane Jackson \n|\n|10 \n|1955-08-03\n|align=left| Syracuse, New York, United States\n|align=left| \n|- align=center\n|Win\n|92–13\n|align=left| Paul Andrews \n|\n|10 \n|1955-07-13\n|align=left| Chicago, Illinois, United States\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|91–13\n|align=left| Johnny Holman\n|\n|10 \n|1955-06-08\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left| \n|- align=center\n|Loss\n|90–13\n|align=left| Johnny Holman \n|\n|9\n|1955-04-27 \n|align=left| Miami Beach, Florida, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|90-12\n|align=left| Vern Escoe \n|\n|10\n|1955-04-11\n|align=left| Edmonton, Alberta, Canada \n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|89–12\n|align=left| Charley Norkus \n|\n|10 \n|1955-02-18\n|align=left| New York, New York, United States\n|align=left| \n|- align=center\n|Loss\n|88–12\n|align=left| Rocky Marciano \n|\n|8 \n|1954-09-17\n|align=left| New York, New York, United States\n|align=left| \n|- align=center\n|Loss\n|88–11\n|align=left| Rocky Marciano \n|\n|\n|1954-06-17\n|align=left| New York, New York, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|88–10\n|align=left| Bob Satterfield \n|\n|2 \n|1954-01-13\n|align=left| Chicago, Illinois, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|87–10\n|align=left| Coley Wallace\n|\n|10\n|1953-12-16\n|align=left| San Francisco, California, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Loss\n|86–10\n|align=left| Harold Johnson\n|\n|10\n|1953-09-08\n|align=left| Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States\n|align=left| \n|- align=center\n|Win\n|86–9\n|align=left| Nino Valdez\n|\n|12\n|1953-08-11\n|align=left| Miami Beach, Florida, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|86–8\n|align=left| Larry Watson\n|\n|5 \n|1953-05-26\n|align=left| Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|85–8\n|align=left| Billy Gilliam\n|\n|10 \n|1953-05-12\n|align=left| Toledo, Ohio, United States\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|84–8\n|align=left| Rex Layne\n|\n|10 \n|1953-04-01\n|align=left| San Francisco, California, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|83–8\n|align=left| Tommy Harrison\n|\n|12\n|1953-02-04\n|align=left| MGM Grand, Las Vegas, Nevada, United States\n|align=left| \n|- align=center\n|Win\n|82–8\n|align=left| Wesbury Bascom \n|\n|9 \n|1953-01-14\n|align=left| St.Louis, Missouri, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|81–8\n|align=left| Frank Buford \n|\n|7 \n|1952-12-15\n|align=left| Boston, Massachusetts, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|80–8\n|align=left| Jimmy Bivins \n|\n|10\n|1952-11-26\n|align=left| Chicago, Illinois, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|79–8\n|align=left| Cesar Brion \n|\n|10 \n|1952-10-24 \n|align=left| New York, New York, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|78–8\n|align=left| Bernie Reynolds \n|\n|2 \n|1952-10-08 \n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left| \n|- align=center\n|Loss\n|77–8\n|align=left| Rex Layne \n|\n|10\n|1952-08-08\n|align=left| Ogden, Utah, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Loss\n|77–7\n|align=left| Jersey Joe Walcott \n|\n|15 \n|1952-06-05\n|align=left| Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|77–6\n|align=left| Joe Kahut \n|\n|8 \n|1951-12-21\n|align=left| Portland, Pennsylvania, United States\n|align=left| \n|- align=center\n|Win\n|76–6\n|align=left| Joey Maxim\n|\n|15\n|1951-12-12\n|align=left| San Francisco, California, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|75–6\n|align=left| Rex Layne\n|\n|11 \n|1951-10-10\n|align=left| Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Loss\n|74–6\n|align=left| Jersey Joe Walcott\n|\n|7 \n|1951-07-18\n|align=left| Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|74–5\n|align=left| Joey Maxim\n|\n|15 \n|1951-05-30\n|align=left| Chicago, Illinois, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|73–5\n|align=left| Jersey Joe Walcott\n|\n|15 \n|1951-03-07\n|align=left| Detroit, Michigan, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|72–5\n|align=left| Lee Oma\n|\n|10 \n|1951-01-12 \n|align=left| New York, New York, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|71–5\n|align=left| Nick Barone\n|\n|11\n|1950-12-05\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|70–5\n|align=left| Joe Louis\n|\n|15 \n|1950-09-27\n|align=left| New York, New York, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|69–5\n|align=left| Freddie Beshore\n|\n|14 \n|1950-08-15\n|align=left| Buffalo, New York, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|68–5\n|align=left| Pat Valentino\n|\n|8 \n|1949-10-14\n|align=left| San Francisco, California, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|67–5\n|align=left| Gus Lesnevich\n|\n|7 \n|1949-08-10 \n|align=left| New York, New York, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|66–5\n|align=left| Jersey Joe Walcott\n|\n|15 \n|1949-06-22\n|align=left| Chicago, Illinois, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|65–5\n|align=left| Joey Maxim\n|\n|15 \n|1949-02-28\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|64–5\n|align=left| Johnny Haynes\n|\n|8 \n|1949-02-07 \n|align=left| Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|63–5\n|align=left| Joe Baksi\n|\n|11 \n|1948-12-10\n|align=left| New York, New York, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|62–5\n|align=left| Walter Hafer\n|\n|7 \n|1948-11-14\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|61–5\n|align=left| Jimmy Bivins\n|\n|10 \n|1948-10-13\n|align=left| Washington, D.C., United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|60–5\n|align=left| Erv Sarvin\n|\n|10 \n|1948-05-20\n|align=left| Buffalo, New York, United States\n|align=left| \n|- align=center\n|Win\n|59–5\n|align=left| Elmer Ray \n|\n|9 \n|1948-05-07\n|align=left| Chicago, Illinois, United States\n|align=left| \n|- align=center\n|Win\n|58–5\n|align=left| Sam Baroudi \n| \n|10 \n|1948-02-20\n|align=left| Chicago, Illinois, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|57–5\n|align=left| Archie Moore \n|\n|8 \n|1948-01-13\n|align=left| Cleveland, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|56–5\n|align=left| Hilton \"Fitzie\" Fitzpatrick\n|\n|4 \n|1947-12-02\n|align=left| Cleveland, Ohio, United States\n|align=left| \n|- align=center\n|Win\n|55-5\n|align=left| Teddy Randolph \n|\n|10 \n|1947-11-03 \n|align=left| Buffalo, New York, United States\n|align=left| \n|- align=center\n|Win\n|54–5\n|align=left| Clarence Jones\n|\n|1 \n|1947-10-27\n|align=left| Huntington, West Virginia, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|53–5\n|align=left| Al Smith\n|\n|4 \n|1947-10-16\n|align=left| Akron, Ohio, United States\n|align=left| \n|- align=center\n|Win\n|52–5\n|align=left| Lloyd Marshall \n|\n|2 \n|1947-09-29\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|51–5\n|align=left| Joe Matisi \n|\n|10\n|1947-09-16\n|align=left| Buffalo, New York, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Loss\n|50–5\n|align=left| Elmer Ray\n|\n|10 \n|1947-07-25 \n|align=left| New York, New York, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|50–4\n|align=left| Hilton \"Fitzie\" Fitzpatrick\n|\n|5 \n|1947-07-14\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|49-4\n|align=left| Archie Moore\n|\n|10\n|1947-07-14\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|48–4\n|align=left| Erv Sarlin\n|\n|10 \n|1947-05-05\n|align=left| Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|47-4\n|align=left| Jimmy Bivins\n|\n|4 \n|1947-03-10 \n|align=left| Cleveland, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|46–4\n|align=left| \"Oakland\" Billy Smith \n|\n|5 \n|1947-02-17\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|45–4\n|align=left| Jimmy Bivins\n|\n|10 \n|1946-11-12\n|align=left| Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States\n|align=left| \n|- align=center\n|Win\n|44–4\n|align=left| \"Oakland\" Billy Smith\n|\n|10\n|1946-09-23 \n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|43–4\n|align=left| Lloyd Marshall\n|\n|6 \n|1946-07-29\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|42–4\n|align=left| Shelton Bell\n|\n|5 \n|1946-06-13\n|align=left| Youngstown, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|41–4\n|align=left| Archie Moore\n|\n|10\n|1946-05-20\n|align=left| Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States\n|align=left| \n|- align=center\n|Win\n|40–4\n|align=left| Tommy \"Lee\" Hubert \n|\n|4 \n|1946-05-13\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|39–4\n|align=left| George Parks\n|\n|6 \n|1946-04-15\n|align=left| Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States\n|align=left| \n|- align=center\n|Win\n|38–4\n|align=left| Billy Duncan\n|\n|4 \n|1946-04-01\n|align=left| Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|37–4\n|align=left| Tommy \"Lee\" Hubert\n|\n|10 \n|1946-03-25\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|36–4\n|align=left| Al Sheridan\n| \n|2 \n|1946-02-18\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Loss\n|35–4\n|align=left| Lloyd Marshall \n|\n|8 \n|1943-03-31\n|align=left| Cleveland, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|loss\n|35–3\n|align=left| Jimmy Bivins\n|\n|10 \n|1943-01-07\n|align=left| Cleveland, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|35–2\n|align=left| Joey Maxim\n|\n|10 \n|1942-12-01\n|align=left| Cleveland, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|34–2\n|align=left| Joey Maxim\n|\n|10\n|1942-10-27\n|align=left| Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|33–2\n|align=left| Mose Brown\n|\n|6 \n|1942-09-15\n|align=left| Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States\n\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|32–2\n|align=left| Jose Basora\n|\n|5 \n|1942-08-17\n|align=left| Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|31–2\n|align=left| Booker Beckwith\n|\n|9 \n|1942-06-27\n|align=left| Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|30–2\n|align=left| Steve Mamakos\n|\n|1 \n|1942-06-14\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|29–2\n|align=left| Charley Burley\n|\n|10 \n|1942-06-29\n|align=left| Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|28–2\n|align=left| Charley Burley\n|\n|10\n|1942-05-25\n|align=left| Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Loss\n|27–2\n|align=left| Evelio \"Kid\" Tunero\n|\n|10\n|1942-05-13\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|27–1\n|align=left| Billy Pryor\n|\n|10\n|1942-04-08\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|26–1\n|align=left| Ken Overlin\n|\n|10 \n|1942-03-02 \n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|25–1\n|align=left| Anton Christoforidis\n|\n|3 \n|1942-01-13\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|24–1\n|align=left| Teddy Yarosz\n|\n|10 \n| 1941-11-07\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|23–1\n|align=left| Pat Mangini\n|\n|1 \n|1941-09-13\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|22–1\n|align=left| Al Gilbert\n|\n|6 \n|1941-07-21\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Loss\n|21–1\n|align=left| Ken Overlin\n|\n|10 \n|1941-06-09\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|21–0\n|align=left| Rudy Kazole\n|\n|10\n|1941-05-12\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|20–0\n|align=left| Joe Sutka\n|\n|10 \n|1941-03-31\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|19–0\n|align=left| Floyd Howard\n|\n|7 \n|1941-03-10\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|18–0\n|align=left| Slaka Cavrich\n|\n|2 \n|1941-02-22\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|17–0\n|align=left| Billy Bengal \n|\n|10 \n|1941-02-10\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|16–0\n|align=left| Charlie Jerome\n|\n|2 \n|1940-12-02\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|15–0\n|align=left| Fidel Navarro\n|\n|1 \n|1940-11-31\n|align=left| Columbus, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|14–0\n|align=left| Bill Hood\n|\n|2 \n|1940-10-03\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|13–0\n|align=left| Martin Simmons\n|\n|10 \n|1940-09-23\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|12–0\n|align=left| Bradley Lewis\n|\n|3 \n|1940-06-24\n|align=left| San Francisco, California, United States\n\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|11–0\n|align=left| John Reeves\n|\n|4 \n|1940-06-12\n|align=left| Columbus, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|10–0\n|align=left| Frankie Williams\n|\n|7 \n|1940-06-05 \n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|9–0\n|align=left| Pat Wright\n|\n|4 \n|1940-05-17 \n|align=left| Middletown, Pennsylvania, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|8–0\n|align=left| Eddie Fowler\n|\n|3 \n|1940-05-10\n|align=left| Portsmouth, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|7–0\n|align=left| Remo Fernandez\n|\n|6\n|1940-04-24\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|6–0\n|align=left| Charley Banks\n|\n|2\n|1940-04-16\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|5–0\n|align=left| Kid Ash\n|\n|3 \n|1940-04-10\n|align=left| Portsmouth, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|4–0\n|align=left| Charley Banks\n|\n|6 \n|1940-04-02\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|3–0\n|align=left| John Reeves\n|\n|6 \n|1940-03-27\n|align=left| Cincinnati, Ohio, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|2–0\n|align=left| Jimmy Brown \n|\n|2\n|1940-03-20 \n|align=left| Reading, Pennsylvania, United States\n|align=left|\n|- align=center\n|Win\n|1–0\n|align=left| Medley Johnson\n|\n|3 \n|1940-03-15 \n|align=left| Middletown, Pennsylvania, United States\n|align=left| \n|}", "Olympic sports are sports contested in the Summer and Winter Olympic Games. The 2012 Summer Olympics included 26 sports, with two additional sports due to be added to the 2016 Summer Olympics. The 2014 Winter Olympics included seven sports. The number and kinds of events may change slightly from one Olympiad to another. Each Olympic sport is represented by an international governing body, namely an International Federation (IF). The International Olympic Committee (IOC) establishes a hierarchy of sports, disciplines, and events. According to this hierarchy, the Olympic sports can be subdivided into multiple disciplines, which are often assumed to be distinct sports. Examples include swimming and water polo (disciplines of Aquatics, represented by the International Swimming Federation), or figure skating and speed skating (disciplines of Skating, represented by the International Skating Union). In their turn, disciplines can be subdivided into events, for which medals are actually awarded. A sport or discipline is included in the Olympic program if the IOC determines it is widely practiced around the world, that is, the number of countries that compete in a given sport is the indicator of the sport's prevalence. The IOC's requirements reflect participation in the Olympic Games as well—more stringent toward men (as they are represented in higher numbers) and Summer sports (as more nations compete in the Summer Olympics).\n\nPrevious Olympic Games included sports which are no longer present on the current program, like polo and tug of war. These sports, known as \"discontinued sports\", were later removed either because of lack of interest or absence of an appropriate governing body. Archery and tennis are examples of sports that were competed at the early Games and were later dropped by the IOC, but managed to return to the Olympic program (in 1972 and 1988, respectively). Demonstration sports have often been included in the Olympic Games, usually to promote a local sport from the host country or to gauge interest and support for the sport. Some such sports, like baseball and curling, were added to the official Olympic program (in 1992 and 1998, respectively). Baseball, however, was discontinued after the 2008 Summer Olympics.\n\nOlympic sports definitions\n\nThe term \"sport\" in Olympic terminology refers to all the events that are sanctioned by one international sport federation, a definition that may be different from the common meaning of the word sport. One sport, by Olympic definition, may be divided into several disciplines, which are often regarded as separate sports in common language.\n\nFor example: Aquatics is a summer Olympic sport that includes six disciplines: Swimming, synchronized swimming, diving, water polo, open water swimming, and high diving (the last of which is a non-Olympic discipline), since all these disciplines are governed at international level by the International Swimming Federation. Skating is a winter Olympic sport represented by the International Skating Union, and includes four disciplines: figure skating, speed skating (on a traditional long track), short track speed skating and synchronized skating (the latter is a non-Olympic discipline). The sport with the largest number of Olympic disciplines is skiing, with six: alpine skiing, cross-country skiing, ski jumping, nordic combined, snowboarding and freestyle skiing.\n\nOther notable multi-discipline sports are gymnastics (artistic, rhythmic and trampoline), cycling (road, track, mountain and BMX), volleyball (indoors and beach), wrestling (freestyle and Greco-Roman), canoeing (flatwater and slalom) and bobsleigh (includes skeleton). The disciplines listed here are only those contested in the Olympics—gymnastics has two non-Olympic disciplines, while cycling and wrestling have three each.\n\nIt should also be noted that the IOC definition of a \"discipline\" may differ from that used by an international federation. For example, the IOC considers artistic gymnastics a single discipline, but the International Federation of Gymnastics (FIG) classifies men's and women's artistic gymnastics as separate disciplines. Similarly, the IOC considers freestyle wrestling to be a single discipline, but United World Wrestling uses \"freestyle wrestling\" strictly for the men's version, classifying women's freestyle wrestling as the separate discipline of \"female wrestling\". \n\nOn some occasions, notably in the case of snowboarding, the IOC agreed to add sports which previously had a separate international federation to the Olympics on condition that they dissolve their governing body and instead affiliate with an existing Olympic sport federation, therefore not increasing the number of Olympic sports.\n\nAn event, by IOC definition, is a competition that leads to the award of medals. Therefore, the sport of aquatics includes a total of 46 Olympic events, of which 32 are in the discipline of swimming, eight in diving, and two each in synchronized swimming, water polo, and open water swimming. The number of events per sport ranges from a minimum of two (until 2008 there were sports with only one event) to a maximum of 47 in athletics, which despite its large number of events and its diversity is not divided into disciplines.\n\nChanges in Olympic sports\n\nThe list of Olympic sports has changed considerably during the course of Olympic history, and has gradually increased until the early 2000s, when the IOC decided to cap the number of sports in the Summer Olympics at 28.\n\nThe only summer sports that have never been absent from the Olympic program are athletics, aquatics (the discipline of swimming has been in every Olympics), cycling, fencing, and gymnastics (the discipline of artistic gymnastics has been in every Olympics).\n\nThe only winter sports that were included in all Winter Olympic Games are skiing (only nordic skiing), skating (figure skating and speed skating) and ice hockey. Figure skating and ice hockey were also included in the Summer Olympics before the Winter Olympics were introduced in 1924.\n\nFor most of the 20th century, demonstration sports were included in many Olympic Games, usually to promote a non-Olympic sport popular in the host country, or to gauge interest and support for the sport.\nThe competitions and ceremonies in these sports were identical to official Olympic sports, except that the medals were not counted in the official record.\nSome demonstration sports, like baseball and curling, were later added to the official Olympic program.\nThis changed when the International Olympic Committee decided in 1989 to eliminate demonstration sports from Olympics Games after 1992. An exception was made in 2008, when the Beijing Organizing Committee received permission to organize a wushu tournament. \n\nA sport or discipline may be included in the Olympic program if the IOC determines that it is widely practiced around the world, that is, the number of countries and continents that regularly compete in a given sport is the indicator of the sport's prevalence. The requirements for winter sports are considerably lower than for summer sports since many fewer nations compete in winter sports. The IOC also has lower requirements for inclusion of sports and disciplines for women for the same reason. \nWomen are still barred from several disciplines; but on the other hand, there are women-only disciplines, such as rhythmic gymnastics and synchronized swimming.\n\nSports that depend primarily on mechanical propulsion, such as motor sports, may not be considered for recognition as Olympic sports, though there were power-boating events in the early days of the Olympics before this rule was enacted by the IOC. Part of the story of the founding of aviation sports' international governing body, the FAI, originated from an IOC meeting in Brussels, Belgium on June 10, 1905. \n\nThese criteria are only a threshold for consideration as Olympic sport. In order to be admitted to the Olympic program, the IOC Session has to approve its inclusion. There are many sports that easily make the required numbers but are not recognized as Olympic sports, mainly because the IOC has decided to put a limit on the number of sports, as well as events and athletes, in the Summer Olympics in order not to increase them from the 28 sports, 300 events and 10,000 athletes of the 2000 Summer Olympics.\n\nNo such limits exist in the Winter Olympics and the number of events and athletes continue to increase, but no sport has been added since 1998. The latest winter sport added to the Winter Olympics was curling in 1998.\n\nPrevious Olympic Games included sports which are no longer present on the current program, like polo and tug of war. In the early days of the modern Olympics, the organizers were able to decide which sports or disciplines were included on the program, until the IOC took control of the program in 1924. As a result, a number of sports were on the Olympic program for relatively brief periods before 1924. These sports, known as discontinued sports, were removed because of lack of interest or absence of an appropriate governing body, or because they became fully professional at the time that the Olympic Games were strictly for amateurs, as in the case of tennis.\nSeveral discontinued sports, such as archery and tennis, were later readmitted to the Olympic program (in 1972 and 1984, respectively). Curling, which was an official sport in 1924 and then discontinued, was reinstated as Olympic sport in 1998.\n\nThe Olympic Charter decrees that Olympic sports for each edition of the Olympic Games should be decided at an IOC Session no later than seven years prior to the Games.\n\nChanges since 2000\n\nThe only sports that have been dropped from the Olympics since 1936 are baseball and softball, which were both voted out by the IOC Session in Singapore on July 11, 2005, a decision that was reaffirmed on February 9, 2006. These sports were last included in 2008, although officially they remain recognized as Olympic sports in the Olympic Charter. Therefore, the number of sports in the 2012 Summer Olympics was dropped from 28 to 26.\n\nFollowing the addition of women's boxing in 2012, and women's ski jumping in 2014, there are no Olympic sports that are only for men in those Games.\n\nTwo discontinued sports, golf and rugby, are due to return for the 2016 Summer Olympics. On August 13, 2009, the IOC Executive Board proposed that golf and rugby sevens be added to the Olympic program for the 2016 Games. On 9 October 2009, during the 121st IOC Session in Copenhagen, the IOC voted to admit both sports as official Olympic sports and to include them in the 2016 Summer Olympics. The IOC voted 81–8 in favor of including rugby sevens and 63–27 in favor of reinstating golf, thus bringing the number of sports back to 28. \n\nIn February 2013, the IOC considered dropping a sport from the 2020 Summer Olympics to make way for a new sport. Modern pentathlon and taekwondo were thought to be vulnerable, but instead the IOC recommended dismissing wrestling. On September 8, 2013, the IOC added wrestling to the 2020 and 2024 Summer Games. \n\nSummer Olympics\n\nAt the first Olympic Games, nine sports were contested. Since then, the number of sports contested at the Summer Olympic Games has gradually risen to twenty-eight on the program for 2000-2008. At the 2012 Summer Olympics, however, the number of sports fell back to twenty-six following an IOC decision in 2005 to remove baseball and softball from the Olympic program. These sports retain their status as Olympic sports with the possibility of a return to the Olympic program in future games. At the 121st IOC Session in Copenhagen on 9 October 2009, the IOC voted to reinstate both golf and rugby to the Olympic program, meaning that the number of sports to be contested in 2016 will once again be 28. \n\nIn order for a sport or discipline to be considered for inclusion in the list of Summer Olympics sports, it must be widely practiced in at least 75 countries, spread over four continents.\n\nCurrent and discontinued summer program\n\nThe following sports (or disciplines of a sport) make up the current and discontinued Summer Olympic Games official program and are listed alphabetically according to the name used by the IOC. The discontinued sports were previously part of the Summer Olympic Games program as official sports, but are no longer on the current program. The figures in each cell indicate the number of events for each sport contested at the respective Games; a bullet () denotes that the sport was contested as a demonstration sport.\n\nSeven of the 28 sports consist of multiple disciplines. Disciplines from the same sport are grouped under the same color:\n\n Aquatics –\n Canoeing/Kayak –\n Cycling –\n Gymnastics –\n Volleyball –\n Equestrian –\n Wrestling\n\nDemonstration summer sports\n\nThe following sports or disciplines have been demonstrated at the Summer Olympic Games for the years shown, but have never been included on the official Olympic program:\n\n* American football (1932)\n* Australian football (1956)\n* Ballooning (1900)\n* Bowling (1988)\n* Boules (1900)\n* Budō (1964)\n* Finnish baseball (1952)\n* Glima (1912)\n* Gliding (1936)\n* Kaatsen (1928)\n* Korfball (1920 and 1928)\n* La canne (1924)\n* Surf lifesaving (1900)\n* Longue paume (1900)\n* Motorsport (1900)\n* Roller hockey (1992)\n* Savate (1924)\n* Swedish (Ling) gymnastics (1948)\n* Weight training with dumbbells (1904)\n* Water skiing (1972)\n\nGliding was promoted from demonstration sport to an official Olympic sport in 1936 in time for the 1940 Summer Olympics, but the Games were cancelled due to the outbreak of World War II. \n\nClassification of Olympic sports for revenue share\n\nSummer Olympic sports are divided into categories based on popularity, gauged by: television viewing figures (40%), internet popularity (20%), public surveys (15%), ticket requests (10%), press coverage (10%), and number of national federations (5%). The category determines the share the sport's International Federation receives of Olympic revenue. \n\nThe current categories are listed below. Category A represents the most popular sports; category E lists either the sports that are the least popular or that are new to the Olympics (golf and rugby).\n\nWinter Olympics\n\nBefore 1924, when the first Winter Olympic Games were celebrated, sports held on ice, like figure skating and ice hockey, were held at the Summer Olympics. These two sports made their debuts at the 1908 and the 1920 Summer Olympics, respectively, but were permanently integrated in the Winter Olympics program as of the first edition. The International Winter Sports Week, later dubbed the I Olympic Winter Games and retroactively recognized as such by the IOC, consisted of nine sports. The number of sports contested at the Winter Olympics has since been decreased to seven, comprising a total of fifteen disciplines. \n\nA sport or discipline must be widely practiced in at least 25 countries on three continents in order to be included on the Winter Olympics program.\n\nCurrent winter program\n\nThe following sports (or disciplines of a sport) make up the current Winter Olympic Games official program and are listed alphabetically, according to the name used by the IOC. The figures in each cell indicate the number of events for each sport that were contested at the respective Games (the red cells indicate that those sports were held at the Summer Games); a bullet denotes that the sport was contested as a demonstration sport. On some occasions, both official medal events and demonstration events were contested in the same sport at the same Games.\n\nThree out of the seven sports consist of multiple disciplines. Disciplines from the same sport are grouped under the same color:\n\n Skating –\n Skiing –\n Bobsleigh\n\n1 As military patrol, see below.\n\nDemonstration winter sports\n\nThe following sports have been demonstrated at the Winter Olympic Games for the years shown, but have never been included on the official Olympic program:\n\n* Bandy (1952)\n* Disabled skiing (1984 and 1988)\n* Ice stock sport (1936, 1964)\n* Military patrol (1928, 1936 and 1948)\n* Ski ballet (acroski) (1988 and 1992)\n* Skijoring (1928)\n* Sled-dog racing (1932)\n* Speed skiing (1992)\n* Winter Pentathlon (1948)\n\nMilitary patrol was an official skiing event in 1924 but the IOC currently considers it an event of biathlon in those games, and not as a separate sport. Ski ballet, similarly, was simply a demonstration event falling under the scope of freestyle skiing. Disabled sports are now part of the Winter Paralympic Games.\n\nRecognized international federations\n\nMany sports are not recognized as Olympic sports although their governing bodies are recognized by the IOC. Such sports, if eligible under the terms of the Olympic Charter, may apply for inclusion in the program of future Games, through a recommendation by the IOC Olympic Programme Commission, followed by a decision of the IOC Executive Board and a vote of the IOC Session. When Olympic demonstration sports were allowed, a sport usually appeared as such before being officially admitted. An International Sport Federation (IF) is responsible for ensuring that the sport's activities follow the Olympic Charter. When a sport is recognized the IF become an official Olympic sport federation and can assemble with other Olympic IFs in the Association of Summer Olympic International Federations (ASOIF, for summer sports contested in the Olympic Games), Association of International Olympic Winter Sports Federations (AIOWS, for winter sports contested in the Olympic Games) or Association of IOC Recognised International Sports Federations (ARISF, for sports not contested in the Olympic Games). A number of recognized sports are included in the program of the World Games, a multi-sport event run by the International World Games Association, an organization that operates under the patronage of the IOC. Since the start of the World Games in 1981, a number of sports, including badminton, taekwondo and triathlon have all subsequently been incorporated into the Olympic program.\n\nThe governing bodies of the following sports, though not contested in the Olympic Games, are recognized by the IOC: \n\n* Air sports1,3\n* American football \n* Auto racing3\n* Bandy\n* Baseball and Softball1,2,4\n* Billiard sports1\n* Boules1\n* Bowling1\n* Bridge\n* Chess\n* Cricket2\n* Dance sport1\n* Floorball\n* Karate1\n* Korfball1\n* Lifesaving1\n* Motorcycle racing3\n* Mountaineering and Climbing1\n* Netball\n* Orienteering1\n* Pelota Vasca\n* Polo2\n* Powerboating3\n* Racquetball1\n* Roller sports1\n* Ski Mountaineering\n* Sport climbing\n* Squash1\n* Sumo1\n* Surfing\n* Tug of war1,2\n* Underwater sports1 \n* Ultimate (Flying disc)1 \n* Water ski3\n* Wushu\n\n1 Official sport at the World Games\n2 Discontinued Olympic sport\n3 Ineligible to be included because the Olympic Charter bans sports with motorization elements\n4 The governing bodies for baseball and softball merged into a single international federation in 2013." ] }

{ "description": [ "Explore David Stoppa's board \"Ezzard Charles\" on Pinterest, the world's ... and former World Heavyweight Champion. Ezzard Charles died in ... Charles Sports, Ezzard ...", "A beautiful promotional photo signed by world heavyweight champion Ezzard Charles and some of those ... popular names in all of sports. This was ...", "... historical events and Ezzard Charles's married life. ... Sport; OnThisDay.com. Events; Birthdays; ... Boxer and World Heavyweight Champion Why Famous: ...", "... former world heavyweight boxing champion Ezzard Charles met ... 50-plus years ago, boxer Ezzard Charles was ... world heavyweight boxing champion Ezzard Charles ...", "A Name From History: Ezzard Charles, ... Charles reigned as world heavyweight champion for 16 ... Cincinnati Post Sports Editor Pat Harmon on the day Charles ...", "American world heavyweight boxing champion from September 27, ... Ezzard Charles, ... Sports: Fact or Fiction? ..." ], "filename": [ "183/183_1614.txt", "145/145_1616.txt", "125/125_1617.txt", "163/163_1620.txt", "70/70_1621.txt", "168/168_1622.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8 ], "title": [ "Ezzard Charles on Pinterest | Heavyweight Boxing, Boxing ...", "Ezzard Charles & associates - fighttoys", "Ezzard Charles | OnThisDay.com", "50-plus years ago, boxer Ezzard Charles was robbed in Ogden", "A Name From History: Ezzard Charles, one of the greatest ...", "Ezzard Charles | American boxer | Britannica.com" ], "url": [ "https://www.pinterest.com/caesar56/ezzard-charles/", "http://fighttoys.com/Charles%20multi%20signed.htm", "http://www.onthisday.com/people/ezzard-charles", "http://www.standard.net/Books/2016/01/02/50-plus-years-ago-boxer-Ezzard-Charles-was-robbed-in-Ogden", "http://www.wcpo.com/news/insider/a-name-from-history-ezzard-charles-one-of-the-greatest-boxers-ever-to-become-part-of-cityscape", "https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ezzard-Charles" ], "search_context": [ "1000+ images about Ezzard Charles on Pinterest | Jersey, Days in and James toney\nLearn more at Uploaded by user\nThis Day in Boxing History - December 12, 1951 - Charles KOs Oma at the Garden. Heavyweight Champion Ezzard Charles stops Lee Oma at Madison Square Garden. Referee Ruby Goldstein calls a halt to the action in the 10th round. facebook - boxing hall of fame las vegas www.boxinghalloffame.com http://youtu.be/sUIp7HUmXco\nMore", "Ezzard Charles & associates\nEzzard Charles & associates\nNBA Heavyweight Champion 1949-1950\nWorld Heavyweight Champion 1950-1951\nA beautiful promotional photo signed by world heavyweight champion Ezzard Charles and some of those associated with him... Signatures include, among others, trainers Jimmie Brown and Ray Arcel... All signatures are bold in fountain pen ink... One of the nicest signed photos I've had of him!!\nmeasures: 8 x 10\"\n \nFROM THE BOOKS\n   For that rare boxing fan with an eye for fistic delicacies, the name Ezzard Charles suggests one of the greatest boxers in the history of the sport. But for the general boxing public, especially those weaned on the exploits of Joe Louis, the name of Ezzard Charles initiates a banquet of the malicious. To traditionalists, of whom there are many, daring to succeed to the mantle of the great Joe Louis was irreverent. But, even worse, to actually beat the great Joe Louis in combat bordered on blasphemy. It was almost as if the boxing crowd suddenly realized that what they had in front of them was not the dish they had ordered. And so, Charles, instead of being hailed as the heavyweight champion of the world, became known merely as the man who beat Joe Louis, destined forever to become an antihero to one of the most popular names in all of sports.\n   This was patently unfair to Charles, one of the great boxers of all time, heavyweight or otherwise-and one of its most underrated as well. Not because, following in Louis' rather large footsteps, it was inevitable that he had to suffer in comparison to the man who had served as an idol to all for the previous twelve years. But because boxing fans, confused by the entrance of a new player-as they always are-failed to recognize the genius in this warm, sensitive man.\n   For even before Ezzard Charles entered the heavyweight ranks, he had carried a flame of achievement, first as a middleweight and then as a light heavyweight. Some, including that venerable boxing voice, Ray Arcel, hold that Charles was one of the greatest light heavyweights of all time.\nBert Randolph Sugar-The 100 Greatest Boxers Of All Time", "Ezzard Charles - On This Day\nOn This Day\nNationality: American\nProfession: Boxer and World Heavyweight Champion\nWhy Famous: Defeated numerous Hall of Fame fighters in three different weight classes. He retired with a record of 93 wins, 25 losses and 1 draw.\nDied: May 27 , 1975 (aged 53)\nCause of Death: ALS\nHistorical Events in the Life of Ezzard Charles\n1949-06-22 Ezzard Charles beats Jersey Joe Walcott in 15 for National Boxing Association world heavyweight title\n1949-08-10 Ezzard Charles TKOs Gus Lesnevich in 8 for heavyweight boxing title\n1949-10-14 Ezzard Charles TKOs Pat Valentino in 8 for heavyweight boxing title\n1949-12-05 Ezzard Charles defeats Jersey Joe Walcott for heavyweight boxing title\n1950-08-05 Ezzard Charles KOs Freddie Beshore to retain heavyweight boxing title\n1950-08-15 Ezzard Charles TKOs Freddie Beshore in 14 for heavyweight boxing title\n1950-09-27 Ezzard Charles beats Joe Louis in 15 for heavyweight boxing title\n1950-09-27 Heavyweight champ Ezzard Charles defeats Joe Louis in 15 in Yankee Stadium, Bronx NY.\n1950-12-05 Ezzard Charles KOs Nick Barone in 11 for heavyweight boxing title\n1951-01-12 Ezzard Charles TKOs Lee Oma in 10 for heavyweight boxing title\n1951-03-07 Ezzard Charles beats Jersey Joe Walcott in 15 for 2nd time to win National Boxing Association world heavyweight title\n1951-05-30 Ezzard Charles beats Joey Maxim in 15 for heavyweight boxing title\n1952-06-05 Jersey Joe Walcott beats Ezzard Charles in 15 for heavyweight boxing title\n1954-06-17 Rocky Marciano beats Ezzard Charles in 15 for heavyweight boxing title\n1954-09-17 Rocky Marciano KOs Ezzard Charles in 8 for heavyweight boxing title", "50-plus years ago, boxer Ezzard Charles was robbed in Ogden\n50-plus years ago, boxer Ezzard Charles was robbed in Ogden\nFriday , January 01, 2016 - 5:03 PM\n \nSixty-three summers ago, former world heavyweight boxing champion Ezzard Charles met Utah contender Rex Layne in Ogden. Twenty-five thousand fans packed Ogden Stadium, producing the largest sports gate at that time for Utah.\nThe fight's a footnote, and I'll get to the \"winner.\" But the backstory, as related by William Dettloff in the biography, \" A Boxing Life: Ezzard Charles \" (McFarland), is more interesting. ( www.mcfarlandpub.com , 800-253-2187)\nRay Arcel, Charles trainer, had received assurances from Ogden's mayor at the time, a fellow named George T. Frost, that the \"main hotel\" would accommodate Charles and his crew. But when Arcel met the \"main hotel\" owner, \"who wore a gun on his hip,\" he was told the hotel would not accommodate (insert \"N\" word here).\nArcel managed to find other Ogden lodgings for Charles and others. And using the pragmatism needed in an era of racism, he managed to have the gun-toting hotel owner agree to feed Charles and his group, albeit in private rooms.\n• RELATED: Ezzard Charles’ professional record\nOnce in Ogden, Charles discovered that an adequate gym, for final training, had not been provided. Thanks to the efforts of a black sergeant, Charles was able to train at Hill Air Force Base.\nThe final indignity of Charles' Ogden visit occurred on fight night, Aug. 8, 1952. The former champ easily outboxed the aggressive Layne, winning most of the 10 rounds. However, when it was over, referee Jack Dempsey , a boxing legend who himself had fought in Ogden 36 years earlier, raised Layne's hand in victory .\nIn a less-regulated era, Dempsey was the sole decider of the bout. Asked by an incredulous press contingent how he came to the decision, the former champ said he scored it 2 rounds Layne, one round Charles, and seven rounds even. He refused to offer details on the ridiculous tally.\nCharles, as was his persona, took the \"loss\" with stoicism. He eventually got two more cracks at the heavyweight title, losing both to Rocky Marciano but giving the unbeaten champ his toughest bout the first time.\nThe most significant lesson of the Layne bout was that Charles, a superb boxer, a Floyd Mayweather Jr. of the 1950s who frustrated fans by jabbing instead of slugging, would fall prey to spurious decisions as an ex-champ.\nAs Dettloff notes in his excellent biography, Ezzard Mack Charles was the finest light heavyweight boxer who ever lived. It's kind of ironic that the 175-pounder won the heavyweight title, while never receiving a light heavyweight title shot. Charles, who started boxing in Pittsburgh as a skinny teen, was an amateur star who, despite a short break for World War II moved up the ranks of middleweight and light heavyweight in the 1940s.\nIn a different world, Charles might have won the light heavyweight world title, defended it 20 times and maybe became the first light heavyweight to win a heavyweight championship. But he lived in the era of Jim Crow. Joe Louis may have controlled the heavyweight championship, but no accommodations were made to have the best fighters be light heavyweight champion. Charles, along with a host of talented black fighters, including Jimmy Bivins, Lloyd Marshall, Archie Moore, Charlie Burley, had to fight each other for low purses while lesser white fighters, such as Gus Lesnevich, were called \"champ.\" It must have been satisfying to Charles, once he succeeded Joe Louis as heavyweight champ, to easily dispose of Lesnevich via TKO in a title defense.\nCharles was frustrating boxer. He did enough to win, often choosing not to KO opponents. This made him unpopular to fans, who often stayed away from his bouts. It was unfortunate that he followed a legend, Louis, as heavyweight champ. He beat an above-average, older fighter named Jersey Joe Walcott to succeed Louis, whipped Louis when he came back, and defended his title often before Walcott got lucky and finally stopped Charles on an off night. They had a rematch, in which Charles dominated Walcott but didn't get the decision.\nHe lost, as Dettloff notes, because he didn't seem to really want to dominate his opponent, just do enough to win. A champion can do that, a challenger needs to take the title. As one Charles trainer said, Ezzard was like a well-trained race horse who would not race.\nCharles' record, 93-25-1, looks spotty, but most of the losses were in the late 1950s, when he was over the hill, being battered by home-town favorites he could have once swatted aside easily. In what's not uncommon for many champions, Charles had little money left at retirement. He made ends meet in his later years, but was essentially broke. His wife Gladys seems a remarkable woman. She endured his many trysts while a boxer, yet diligently took care of him as his health declined in his 40s and early 50s due to Lou Gehrig's disease. He died in 1975 at age 53. He fought for 19 years as a pro, from 1940 to 1959.\nWhy did he go broke? Dettloff portrays a man who trusted his advisers, was an easy target for pity loans from friends and acquaintances, and simply didn't save money. There were several ill-advised business ventures as well. Another reason was that Charles, like many boxers of that era, was sliced too thin by trainers and managers. His promoter and managers took 45 percent of his winnings, trainers were paid, New York contacts were paid, and hanger-ons had their share. After taxes I wonder if Charles even saw a third of the money he earned.\nA strength of Dettloff's book is that it captures the rogue years of boxing, the 40s and 50s, with its mob-influenced players and the eccentric managers, hangers on, even boxers. Walcott, a fighter surrounded by mobsters, was a deeply pious man who often read his Bible in the dressing room prior to fights. Charles' promoter, a boxing character named Jake Mintz, was known for his malapropisms.\nThrough all the 19 years, Charles stayed the same, quiet, unassuming, supremely confident, seemingly devoid of emotion. He had little rapport with the fight fans or reporters; he was simply the best heavyweight boxer around for several years. When his time was over, few were unhappy. Charles kept going to the gym, kept training, kept fighting until losses exceeded wins and Gladys finally convinced him to quit.\nWhen his health began to fail, Dettloff recounts a benefit held for Charles in his adopted city of Chicago. It was a success with many of his former opponents, Walcott, Marciano, Louis, Moore, all paying him tribute. Plaudits and cheers, so rare for Charles after he won a world title, must have been appreciated.\n\"A Boxing Life: Ezzard Charles\" offers a boxing history lesson. It helps explain why many black fighters of yesteryear, even if as talented as a Mayweather of today, rarely experienced wealth and ultimately retained little of the fortunes they earned for others.\[email protected]", "A Name From History: Ezzard Charles, one of the greatest boxers ever, to become part of cityscape - Insider - Story\nA Name From History: Ezzard Charles, one of the greatest boxers ever, to become part of cityscape\nThree story mural being painted by ArtWorks\nBrent Coleman, WCPO Contributor\n4:02 AM, Jun 24, 2015\n5:35 AM, Jun 24, 2015\nEzzard Charles learned to box in Cincinnati and made it his home during his 19-year professional boxing career. Photo courtesy of boxingnewsonline.net\nCopyright 2015 Scripps Media, Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed.\nShow Caption\nNext\nCINCINNATI -- Cincinnati’s first world boxing champion is making a comeback this summer.\nArtWorks public art program participants will paint a mural of the legendary Ezzard Charles (1921-1975) on the side of a three-story brick building at 1537 Republic St. in Over-the-Rhine.\nCharles reigned as world heavyweight champion for 16 months after he defeated Jersey Joe Wolcott on June 22, 1949. A precise practitioner of punching, Charles fought for more heavyweight titles than any fighter except Muhammad Ali, Evander Holyfield and Joe Louis.\nThere’s no counting the number of punches that hit the head and midsection of Ezzard Mack Charles in his 42 amateur and 122 professional fights. Known as “The Cincinnati Cobra,” Charles endured shots from great boxers such as Louis, Rocky Marciano, Archie Moore and Jersey Joe Walcott because he wanted to be the heavyweight champion.\nAnd from June 22, 1949 to July 18, 1951 he was on top of the boxing world. Life after that, however, wasn’t the same. When he died at age 53, Lou Gehrig’s disease (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis or ALS) had robbed him of almost everything.\nBecome a WCPO Insider to read more about Ezzard Charles, the first heavyweight boxing champion of the world from Cincinnati.\nA\nWhy are you charging for WCPO Insider? View all offers →\nThere's more to the story when you become an Insider. WCPO Insider brings you in-depth local coverage and access to national news with a subscription to the Washington Post. Your money supports an exceptional team of journalists committed to shining a light on important issues in our region. We’re building a community of people who care about quality journalism. On top of premium coverage you get exclusive access to handpicked events, and savings on things you love to do. Find out more here .\nA Name From History: Ezzard Charles, one of the greatest boxers ever, to become part of cityscape\nThree story mural being painted by ArtWorks\nBrent Coleman, WCPO Contributor\n4:02 AM, Jun 24, 2015\n5:35 AM, Jun 24, 2015\nShare Article\nEzzard Charles learned to box in Cincinnati and made it his home during his 19-year professional boxing career. Photo courtesy of boxingnewsonline.net\nCopyright 2015 Scripps Media, Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed.\nShow Caption\nNext\nCINCINNATI -- Cincinnati’s first world boxing champion is making a comeback this summer.\nArtWorks public art program participants will paint a mural of the legendary Ezzard Charles (1921-1975) on the side of a three-story brick building at 1537 Republic St. in Over-the-Rhine.\nCharles reigned as world heavyweight champion for 16 months after he defeated Jersey Joe Wolcott on June 22, 1949. A precise practitioner of punching, Charles fought for more heavyweight titles than any fighter except Muhammad Ali, Evander Holyfield and Joe Louis.\n'Cincinnati Cobra' Fought 164 Times\nThere’s no counting the number of punches that hit the head and midsection of Ezzard Mack Charles in his 42 amateur and 122 professional fights. Known as \"The Cincinnati Cobra,\" Charles endured shots from great boxers such as Louis, Rocky Marciano, Archie Moore and Jersey Joe Walcott because he wanted to be the heavyweight champion.\nAnd from June 22, 1949 to July 18, 1951, he was on top of the boxing world. Life after that, however, wasn’t the same. When he died at age 53, Lou Gehrig’s disease (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis or ALS)  had robbed him of almost everything.\n\"At the end he could not move his hands and he lived in a wheelchair,\" wrote Cincinnati Post Sports Editor Pat Harmon on the day Charles died. \"But, friends said, he could move some of his facial muscles, and he always had a smile on his face when visitors called.\"\nCharles was beloved by Cincinnatians, who had 32 chances to watch the smooth, tactical fighter work his magic in local arenas such as Music Hall and Crosley Field. He was active in the community, an accomplished jazz musician and could speak Spanish and Italian fluently.\nThe city so loved Charles that, upon his death, its leaders changed the name of Lincoln Park Drive in the West End to Ezzard Charles Drive. Hamilton County inducted him into its Sports Hall of Fame in 1967.\nGeorgia Native Known As 'Snooks'\nCharles was born in Lawrenceville, Ga., on July 7, 1921. Census records show he lived with his grandmother, Belle Russell, and two cousins in Gwinnett County when he was eight. Ten years later, the 1940 Census recorded him living with another grandmother, Maude Foster, and his cousin, Louis Foster.\nCharles, whose childhood nickname was \"Snooks,\" attended school in Cincinnati and learned to box in the Diamond Gloves program and later the Golden Gloves and AAU tournaments, according to Harmon. He won various welterweight and middleweight championships as an amateur.\nCharles turned professional in 1940, the year he turned 19. He fought 42 times, posting a 37-4-1 record, before serving 16 months in the Army during World War II. Charles resumed boxing in February 1946 and won his next 15 fights.\nA fight-by-fight record on the website boxrec.com shows that Music Hall, which stands just blocks from where Charles grew up, was where he fought most often early in his career. He had a 23-1-1 record there. Those wins included an impressive victory over Archie Moore, who went on to be the longest reigning light heavyweight champion in boxing history.\nAccording to an Associated Press account of the May 5, 1947 fight posted on boxrec.com, \"Charles floored Moore for nine (count) in the seventh (from a left hook to the body) and slowed him to a walk for the rest of the way.” Charles went on to beat Moore two more times.\nThe year 1948 was a rough one for Charles. He fought 20-year-old Sam Baroudi on Feb. 20 in Chicago Stadium, and the younger but experienced man put up a good fight.\nThe United Press reported that \"The bout ended when Charles connected with three savage blows to the head that straightened Baroudi out of his crouch. A hard left to the midsection sent him to the canvas.\"\nBaroudi fell to the floor in a coma and died of a brain hemorrhage in a Chicago hospital five hours later. A brain surgeon who examined Baroudi said the knockout blows which felled him 47 seconds into the final round caused the hemorrhage.\nBaroudi’s death did not slow Charles’ career, but it \"stayed with him as though his own shadow,\" wrote boxing.com reporter Clarence George.\nTop Contenders Fights For Louis' Title\nWhen reigning heavyweight champion Joe Louis retired in 1949, Charles, even though he fought as light heavyweight for almost all of his career, had earned the right to fight for the vacated title against Jersey Joe Walcott in Chicago's Comiskey Park. The 180-pound Charles won in a close fight and defended his title six times, including beating Louis in his comeback attempt.\nCharles’ 1951 rematch with Walcott was closer than the first fight, Harmon wrote, but he won. After that, \"Charles went about his business, making seven successful defenses of his crown, before the managers, Tom Tannas and Jake Mintz from Pittsburgh, made their mistake. They matched Charles with Walcott again.”\nThis time, Walcott knocked Charles out in the eighth round, and although he got a rematch with Walcott and two more shots at the title against Marciano, Charles never wore a championship belt again.\n\"After he lost the title,\" Harmon wrote, \"he said 'What I miss most of all is walking around the neighborhood in Cincinnati and not having the little kids run up and call me Champ.'\"\nCharles fought 32 times in Cincinnati as a professional. His last local fight took place at a school in Lincoln Heights. Charles was 38 years old and weighed the most he had ever weighed for a fight, 261 pounds, according to boxrec.com.He, nevertheless, defeated policeman David Ashley in a technical knockout.\nA story in the Spokane Daily chronicle said the “blubbery” ex-champ was paid \"a few hundred bucks.\"\nThe Cincinnati Cobra lost his two last bouts and retired after 19 years as a professional boxer. His only son, Ezzard Charles II told the Gwinnett Daily News in 2010 that his father rarely spoke of his boxing career, preferring instead to focus on the future.\nQuiet But Constructive Life After Retirement\nCharles, who had three children, worked several jobs after the end of his boxing days, according to the Cincinnati Historical Library and Archives' website, library.cincymuseum.org.\nHe was a safety inspector for the State of Ohio and then a bouncer at a Northern Kentucky nightclub. He tried professional wrestling using the name \"Cincinnati Cobra.\" He moved to Chicago and in 1967 was working for Youth Welfare.\nAccording to the Post, the Ezzard Charles School, which uses the Montessori Method, opened in Chicago’s south side. Today, it serves as a daycare center and school for young children of low-income families.\nCharles died on morning of May 28, 1975 and was buried at Burr Oak Cemetery in Alsip, Ill. That very day, the Post’s Harmon wrote this about Charles:\n\"Charles was a sharp boxer who cut and slashed his opponents. … He was kept in action long past his prime in an effort to get back in the limelight. … He had the finest attitude of any man I ever met in sport.\"\nCharles was inducted posthumously into the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 1990. He was ranked No. 27 on ESPN's list of the all-time greatest boxers of all weights, ahead of the likes of Roberto Duran, Larry Holmes, Marvin Hagler, Thomas Hearns, Oscar de la Hoya, Mike Tyson and Floyd Mayweather Jr.\nRob Pilger, a boxing historian, former fighter and boxing trainer in Columbus ranked Charles No. 5 on his list of the all-time pound-for-pound best boxers.\nWrote Pilger in 2010: \"Ezzard Charles could display the sweet science at its finest. He would feint, slip, roll, counter, do it all. To some, he may have been dull. But those who understood boxing see him as a true artist. Many believe Ezzard to be the best light heavyweight ever, although he never won a title there.\"\nCopyright 2015 Scripps Media, Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed.", "Ezzard Charles | American boxer | Britannica.com\nEzzard Charles\nAlternative Title: Ezzard Mack Charles\nEzzard Charles\nEvander Holyfield\nEzzard Charles, in full Ezzard Mack Charles (born July 7, 1921, Lawrenceville, Georgia , U.S.—died May 28, 1975, Chicago , Illinois ), American world heavyweight boxing champion from September 27, 1950, when he outpointed Joe Louis in 15 rounds in New York City , to July 18, 1951, when he was knocked out by Jersey Joe Walcott in 7 rounds in Pittsburgh .\nEzzard Charles (right) boxing Joe Louis during their heavyweight title bout, 1950.\nKeystone/Hulton Archive/Getty Images\nEzzard won several amateur championships, including two Golden Gloves crowns—welterweight (1938) and middleweight (1939)—before turning professional in 1940. Before winning the heavyweight championship, he had won the National Boxing Association title by defeating Walcott on June 22, 1949. In attempts to regain the world championship, he lost to Walcott in 1952 and twice to Rocky Marciano in 1954. From 1940 to 1959 Charles fought 122 bouts, winning 96, of which 58 were by knockout. Ezzard was inducted into Ring magazine’s Boxing Hall of Fame in 1970.\nLearn More in these related articles:\nJoe Louis\nMay 13, 1914 Lafayette, Alabama, U.S. April 12, 1981 Las Vegas, Nevada American boxer who was world heavyweight champion from June 22, 1937, when he knocked out James J. Braddock in eight rounds in Chicago, until March 1, 1949, when he briefly retired. During his reign, the longest in the history...\nJersey Joe Walcott\nJan. 31, 1914 Merchantville, N.J., U.S. Feb. 25, 1994 Camden, N.J. American world heavyweight boxing champion from July 18, 1951, when he knocked out Ezzard Charles in seven rounds in Pittsburgh, Pa., until Sept. 23, 1952, when he was knocked out by Rocky Marciano in 13 rounds in Philadelphia.\nGolden Gloves\namateur boxing competition initiated by Arch Ward, sports editor of the Chicago Tribune. First sponsored by the Tribune in 1926, annual tournaments were held between Chicago and New York teams from 1927. The New York organizer was Paul Gallico of the New York Daily News. In later years the idea was...\n2 References found in Britannica Articles\nassociation with\nCorrections? Updates? Help us improve this article! Contact our editors with your feedback.\nMEDIA FOR:\nYou have successfully emailed this.\nError when sending the email. Try again later.\nEdit Mode\nSubmit\nTips For Editing\nWe welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles. You can make it easier for us to review and, hopefully, publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind.\nEncyclopædia Britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience.\nYou may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered.\nAny text you add should be original, not copied from other sources.\nAt the bottom of the article, feel free to list any sources that support your changes, so that we can fully understand their context. (Internet URLs are the best.)\nYour contribution may be further edited by our staff, and its publication is subject to our final approval. Unfortunately, our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions.\nSubmit\nThank You for Your Contribution!\nOur editors will review what you've submitted, and if it meets our criteria, we'll add it to the article.\nPlease note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors, and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed.\nUh Oh\nThere was a problem with your submission. Please try again later.\nClose\nDate Published: January 11, 2002\nURL: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ezzard-Charles\nAccess Date: January 19, 2017\nShare" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "Charles_Lindbergh.txt" ], "title": [ "Charles Lindbergh" ], "wiki_context": [ "Charles Augustus Lindbergh (February 4, 1902 – August 26, 1974), nicknamed Slim, Lucky Lindy, and The Lone Eagle, was an American aviator, author, inventor, military officer, explorer, and social activist. In 1927, at the age of 25, Lindbergh emerged from the virtual obscurity of a U.S. Air Mail pilot to instantaneous world fame as the result of his Orteig Prize-winning solo nonstop flight from Roosevelt Field on Long Island, New York, to Le Bourget Field in Paris, France. He flew the distance of nearly in a single-seat, single-engine, purpose-built Ryan monoplane, Spirit of St. Louis. Lindbergh was the 19th person to make a Transatlantic flight, the first being the Transatlantic flight of Alcock and Brown from Newfoundland in 1919, but Lindbergh's flight was almost twice the distance. The record-setting flight took hours. Lindbergh, a U.S. Army Air Corps Reserve officer, was also awarded the nation's highest military decoration, the Medal of Honor, for his historic exploit.\n\nIn the late 1920s and early 1930s, Lindbergh used his fame to promote the development of both commercial aviation and Air Mail services in the United States and the Americas. In March 1932, his infant son, Charles Jr., was kidnapped and murdered in what was soon dubbed the \"Crime of the Century\". It was described by journalist H. L. Mencken as \"the biggest story since the resurrection\" and prompted Congress to make kidnapping a federal crime and give the Federal Bureau of Investigation jurisdiction over such cases. The kidnapping eventually led to the Lindbergh family being \"driven into voluntary exile\" in Europe, to which they sailed in secrecy from New York under assumed names in late December 1935 to \"seek a safe, secluded residence away from the tremendous public hysteria\" in America. The Lindberghs returned to the United States in April 1939.\n\nBefore the United States formally entered World War II, some accused Lindbergh of being a fascist sympathizer. He supported the isolationist America First movement, which advocated that America remain neutral during the war, as had his father, Congressman Charles August Lindbergh, during World War I. This conflicted with the Franklin Roosevelt administration's official policy, which sought to protect Britain from a German takeover. Lindbergh subsequently resigned his commission as a colonel in the United States Army Air Forces in April 1941 after being publicly rebuked by President Roosevelt for his isolationist views. Nevertheless, Lindbergh publicly supported the war effort after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and flew 50 combat missions in the Pacific Theater of World War II as a civilian consultant, though President Roosevelt had refused to reinstate his Army Air Corps colonel's commission. In his later years, Lindbergh became a prolific prize-winning author, international explorer, inventor, and environmentalist.\n\nEarly years\n\nAlthough born in Detroit, Michigan, on February 4, 1902, Lindbergh spent most of his childhood in Little Falls, Minnesota, and Washington, D.C. He was the third child of Charles August Lindbergh (birth name Carl Månsson; 1859–1924) who had emigrated from Sweden to Melrose, Minnesota as an infant, and his only child with his second wife, Evangeline Lodge Land Lindbergh (1876–1954), of Detroit. Charles' parents separated in 1909 when he was seven. Lindbergh's father, a U.S. Congressman (R-MN-6) from 1907 to 1917, was one of the relatively few Congressmen to oppose the entry of the U.S. into World War I (although his congressional term ended a month prior to the House of Representatives voting to declare war on Germany). Mrs. Lindbergh was a chemistry teacher at Cass Technical High School in Detroit and later at Little Falls High School from which her son graduated on June 5, 1918. Lindbergh also attended over a dozen other schools from Washington, D.C., to California, during his childhood and teenage years (none for more than a year or two), including the Force School and Sidwell Friends School while living in Washington with his father, and Redondo Union High School in Redondo Beach, California, while living there with his mother. Although he enrolled in the College of Engineering at the University of Wisconsin–Madison in late 1920, Lindbergh dropped out in the middle of his sophomore year and then headed for Lincoln, Nebraska, in March 1922 to begin flight training. \n\nEarly aviation career\n\nFrom an early age, Lindbergh had exhibited an interest in the mechanics of motorized transportation, including his family's Saxon Six automobile, and later his Excelsior motorbike. By the time he started college as a mechanical engineering student, he had also become fascinated with flying, though he \"had never been close enough to a plane to touch it.\" After quitting college in February 1922, Lindbergh enrolled as a student at the Nebraska Aircraft Corporation's flying school in Lincoln two months later and flew for the first time in his life on April 9, 1922, when he took to the air as a passenger in a two-seat Lincoln Standard \"Tourabout\" biplane trainer piloted by Otto Timm. \n\nA few days later, Lindbergh took his first formal flying lesson in that same machine with instructor-pilot Ira O. Biffle, although the then 20-year-old student pilot was never permitted to \"solo\" during his time at the school because he could not afford to post a bond that the company President Ray Page insisted upon in the event the novice flyer were to damage the school's only trainer in the process. To both gain some needed flight experience and earn money for additional instruction, Lindbergh left Lincoln in June to spend the next few months barnstorming across Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana as a wing walker and parachutist with E.G. Bahl and later H.L. Lynch. During this time, he also briefly held a job as an airplane mechanic in Billings, Montana, working at the Billings Municipal Airport (later renamed Billings Logan International Airport). \n\nWith the onset of winter, however, Lindbergh left flying and returned to his father's home in Minnesota. His return to the air and first solo flight would, therefore, not come until half a year later in May 1923 at Souther Field in Americus, Georgia, a former Army flight training field, where he had come to buy a World War I surplus Curtiss JN-4 \"Jenny\" biplane. Though Lindbergh had not touched an airplane in more than six months, he had already secretly decided he was ready to take to the air by himself. After a half-hour of dual time with a pilot who was visiting the field to pick up another surplus JN-4, Lindbergh flew solo for the first time in the Jenny he had just purchased for $500. After spending another week or so at the field to \"practice\" (thereby acquiring five hours of \"pilot in command\" time), Lindbergh took off from Americus for Montgomery, Alabama, on his first solo cross-country flight, and went on to spend much of the rest of 1923 engaged in almost nonstop barnstorming under the name of \"Daredevil Lindbergh\". Unlike the previous year, however, this time Lindbergh did so in his \"own ship\"—and as a pilot. A few weeks after leaving Americus, the young airman also achieved another key aviation milestone when he made his first flight at night near Lake Village, Arkansas. \n\nWhile barnstorming in Lone Rock, WI Lindbergh helped local physician Dr. Bertha Reynolds make two emergency calls by transporting her across the Wisconsin River to patients in Clyde and Plain, which she otherwise could not have reached due to Spring flooding. Lindbergh damaged his Jenny on several occasions over the summer by breaking the propeller on landing, including such as on May 18, 1923, just outside Maben, Mississippi. His most serious accident came when he ran into a ditch in a farm field in Glencoe, Minnesota, on June 3, 1923, while flying his father (who was then running for the U.S. Senate) to a campaign stop. The accident grounded him for a week until he could repair his plane. Lindbergh flew his Jenny to Iowa in October, where he sold it to a flying student. (Found stored in a barn in Iowa almost half a century later, Lindbergh's dismantled Jenny was carefully restored in the early 1970s and is now on display at the Cradle of Aviation Museum in Garden City, New York, adjacent to the site once occupied by Roosevelt Field, from which Lindbergh took off on his flight to Paris in 1927.) After selling the Jenny, Lindbergh returned to Lincoln by train. There, he joined Leon Klink and continued to barnstorm through the South for the next few months in Klink's Curtiss JN-4C \"Canuck\" (the Canadian version of the Jenny). Lindbergh also \"cracked up\" this aircraft once when his engine failed shortly after take-off in Pensacola, Florida, but again he managed to repair the damage himself. \n\nFollowing a few months of barnstorming through the South, the two pilots parted company in San Antonio, Texas, where Lindbergh had been ordered to report to Brooks Field on March 19, 1924, to begin a year of military flight training with the United States Army Air Service both there and later at nearby Kelly Field. Late in his training, Lindbergh experienced his most serious flying accident on March 5, 1925, eight days before graduation. He was involved in a midair collision with another Army S.E.5 while practicing aerial combat maneuvers and was forced to bail out. Only 18 of the 104 cadets who started flight training a year earlier remained when Lindbergh graduated first overall in his class in March 1925, thereby earning his Army pilot's wings and a commission as a 2nd Lieutenant in the Air Service Reserve Corps. \n\nLindbergh later said that this year of Army flight training was critically important in his development as both a focused, goal-oriented individual, and as a skillful and resourceful aviator. With the Army not then in need of additional active-duty pilots, however, immediately following graduation, Lindbergh returned to civilian aviation as a barnstormer and flight instructor, although as a reserve officer, he also continued to do some part-time military flying by joining the 110th Observation Squadron, 35th Division, Missouri National Guard, in St. Louis in November 1925. He was soon promoted to 1st Lieutenant. \n\nAir Mail pilot, pioneer, and promoter\n\nIn October 1925, Lindbergh was hired by the Robertson Aircraft Corporation (RAC) in St. Louis (where he had been working as a flight instructor) to first lay out, and then serve as chief pilot for the newly designated 278 mi Contract Air Mail Route #2 (CAM-2) to provide service between St. Louis and Chicago (Maywood Field) with two intermediate stops in Springfield and Peoria, Illinois. Operating from RAC's home base at the Lambert-St. Louis Flying Field in Anglum, Missouri, Lindbergh and three other RAC pilots, Philip R. Love, Thomas P. Nelson, and Harlan A. \"Bud\" Gurney, flew the mail over CAM-2 in a fleet of four modified war-surplus de Havilland DH-4 biplanes.\n\nCoincidentally, in 1925, just before he signed on to fly with CAM, Lindbergh had applied to serve as a pilot on CDR (later RADM) Richard E. Byrd's famed North Pole expedition, but apparently his bid came too late.Berg [http://www.us.penguingroup.com/nf/Book/BookDisplay/0,,9781101494288,00.html?Lindbergh_A._Scott_Berg 1995, p. 95.]\n\nTwo days before he opened service on the route on April 15, 1926, with its first early-morning southbound flight from Chicago to St. Louis, Lindbergh officially became authorized to be entrusted with the \"care, custody, and conveyance\" of U.S. Mails by formally subscribing and swearing to the Post Office Department's 1874 Oath of Mail Messengers. Twice during the 10 months he flew CAM-2, Lindbergh would be called upon to exhibit his faithfulness to that oath after temporarily losing custody and control of mails he was transporting when he was forced to bail out of his mail plane owing to bad weather, equipment problems, and/or fuel exhaustion. In the two incidents, which both occurred while he was approaching Chicago at night, Lindbergh came down by parachute near small farming communities in northeastern Illinois. On September 16, 1926, he came down about 60 mi southwest of Chicago near the town of Wedron, while six weeks later, on November 3, 1926, Lindbergh bailed out again about 70 mi further south, hitting the ground in another farm field west of the city of Bloomington near the town of Covell. After landing without serious injury on both occasions, Lindbergh's first concern was to immediately locate the wreckage of his crashed mail planes, make sure the bags of mail were promptly secured and salvaged, and then see that they were entrained or trucked on to Chicago with as little delay as possible. Lindbergh continued on as chief pilot of CAM-2 until mid-February 1927, when he left for San Diego, California, to oversee the design and construction of the Spirit of St. Louis. \n\nAlthough Lindbergh never returned to service as a regular U.S. Air Mail pilot, he used the immense fame his New York to Paris flight brought him to help promote the use of the U.S. Air Mail Service. While he carried no official mail in the Spirit to Paris or during the subsequent three-month, 48-state Guggenheim tour, at the request of Capt. Basil L. Rowe, the owner and chief pilot of West Indian Aerial Express (later Pan Am's chief pilot, as well) and a fellow Air Mail pioneer and advocate, in February 1928, Lindbergh carried a small amount (about 3,000 pieces) of special souvenir mail between Santo Domingo, R.D., Port-au-Prince, Haiti, and Havana, Cuba, in the Spirit of St. Louis. These rare Lindbergh-flown \"Good Will Tour\" covers remain very highly prized by collectors of Air Mail postal history, especially as many of the Port-au-Prince to Havana covers were later destroyed during a hurricane that struck Havana in 1931. Those cities were the last three stops he and the Spirit made during their 7800 mi \"Good Will Tour\" of Latin America and the Caribbean between December 13, 1927, and February 8, 1928. The final two legs of the 48-day tour were also the only flights on which officially sanctioned, postally franked mail was ever carried in the Spirit of St. Louis. \n\nExactly two weeks after completing his Latin American tour, Lindbergh \"returned\" to flying CAM-2 for two days so he could pilot a series of special flights over his old route on February 20 (northbound) and February 21 (southbound). Known as \"Horseshoe Mail\" because each piece received a rubber stamp cachet of a large horseshoe with the legend \"LINDBERGH AGAIN FLIES THE AIR MAIL\" and \"CHICAGO ST. LOUIS C.A.M. 2\", there was such huge demand for covers carried on these flights that three mailplanes were used to fly it between St. Louis to Chicago that were flown by Lindbergh and fellow CAM-2 pilots Thomas Nelson, Philip Love, Bud Gurney, E.L. Sloniger, and L.H. Smith. At each stop on the route, Lindbergh switched planes so it could be said that he flew each one of the tens of thousands of self-addressed souvenir covers sent in from all over the nation and the world. After being flown, the covers were backstamped and returned to their senders as a further means to promote awareness and the use of the Air Mail Service. \n\nIn 1929–31, Lindbergh carried much smaller numbers of souvenir covers on the first flights over routes in Latin America and the Caribbean, which he had earlier laid out as a consultant to Pan American Airways to be then flown under contract to the Post Office Department as Foreign Air Mail (FAM) routes 5 and 6. Collectors still seek Lindberghiana—these covers and other artifacts associated with or carried on flights piloted by Lindbergh. \n\nThe Orteig Prize, Spirit of St. Louis, and New York–Paris flight\n\nDesignated as an award to the pilot of the first successful nonstop flight made in either direction between New York City and Paris within five years after its establishment, the $25,000 Orteig Prize was first offered by the French-born New York hotelier (Lafayette Hotel) Raymond Orteig on May 19, 1919. Although that initial time limit lapsed without a serious challenger, the state of aviation technology had advanced sufficiently by 1924 to prompt Orteig to extend his offer for another five years, and this time it began to attract an impressive grouping of well-known, highly experienced, and well-financed contenders. The one exception among these competitors, however, was the still boyish-looking Lindbergh. A 25-year-old relative latecomer to the race, in relation to the others, Lindbergh was also virtually anonymous as an aviation figure. He not only had considerably less overall flying experience (and none over water) than the others, but also Lindbergh's efforts were being financed only by a single $15,000 bank loan, a $1,000 donation from his employer as an Air Mail pilot, and his own modest savings. \n\nThe first of the well-known challengers to attempt a flight was famed World War I French flying ace René Fonck. On September 21, 1926, he attempted to fly eastbound from Roosevelt Field in New York in a three-engine Sikorsky S-35, but never got off the ground as his grossly overloaded (by 10,000 lb) transport biplane crashed and burned on takeoff when its landing gear collapsed. Unlike the later weight-conscious Lindbergh, Fonck wanted to arrive in Paris in sumptuous style and carried a sofa and refrigerator in his Sikorsky. While Fonck escaped the flames, his two crew members, Charles N. Clavier and Jacob Islamoff, died in the fire. U.S. Naval aviators LCDR Noel Davis and LT Stanton H. Wooster were also killed in a takeoff accident at Langley Field, Virginia, on April 26, 1927, while testing the three-engine Keystone Pathfinder biplane, American Legion, that they intended to use for the flight. Less than two weeks later, the first contenders to actually get airborne were French war heroes Captain Charles Nungesser and his navigator, François Coli, who departed from Paris – Le Bourget Airport on May 8, 1927, on a westbound flight in the Levasseur PL 8 seaplane The White Bird (L'Oiseau Blanc). Contact was lost with them over the coast of Ireland, however, and they were never seen or heard from again. \n\nAmerican air racer Clarence D. Chamberlin and Arctic explorer Richard E. Byrd were also in the race. Although he did not win, Chamberlin and his passenger, Charles A. Levine, made the far less-well-remembered second successful nonstop, single-pilot flight of a heavier-than-air aircraft across the Atlantic Ocean in the single-engine Wright-Bellanca WB-2 Miss Columbia (N-X-237), leaving Roosevelt Field on June 4, 1927, two weeks after Lindbergh's flight and landing in Eisleben, Germany 43 hours and 31 minutes later on June 6, 1927. Ironically, the Chamberlin monoplane was the same one the Lindbergh group had originally intended to purchase for his attempt, but passed on when the manufacturer insisted on selecting the pilot. Byrd followed suit in the Fokker F.VII trimotor, America, flying with three others from Roosevelt Field on June 29, 1927. Although they reached Paris on July 1, 1927, Byrd was unable to land because of poor weather and was forced to return to the Normandy coast where he ditched the trimotor high-wing monoplane in the surf near the French village of Ver-sur-Mer. \n\nAcquiring the Spirit of St. Louis\n\nAs an otherwise unknown young Contract Air Mail pilot, acquiring financing to buy a plane and meet the other expenses related to the overall New York to Paris effort had been a major challenge for Lindbergh, who began with only $2,000 of his own money from his savings and his $175 biweekly salary earned flying the U.S. Air Mail for RAC. Eventually, he was able to secure local funding for the purchase of the Spirit, however, by way of a $15,000 State National Bank of St. Louis loan made on February 18, 1927, to St. Louis businessmen Harry H. Knight and Harold M. Bixby, the project's two principal backers and trustees. Another $1,000 was donated by Frank Robertson of RAC on the same day, giving Lindbergh and his backers a relatively modest $18,000 with which to compete against his much more highly funded rivals for the $25,000 Orteig Prize. \n\nThe group tried to buy an \"off-the-peg\" single or multiengine monoplane from Wright Aeronautical (Wright-Bellanca) of Paterson, New Jersey; then Travel Air of Wichita, Kansas; and finally Charles Levine's and Giuseppi Bellanca's newly formed Columbia Aircraft Corporation of Hempstead, New York. However, the manufacturers would not agree to a sale unless they were allowed to select the pilot. The group thus turned to B.F. Mahoney's much smaller Ryan Aircraft Company in San Diego, which agreed to design and build such a monoplane \"from the ground up\" for $10,580, and on February 25, a deal was formally struck. Dubbed the Spirit of St. Louis, the fabric-covered, single-seat, single-engine \"Ryan NYP\" high-wing monoplane (CAB registration: N-X-211) was designed jointly by Lindbergh and the Ryan Company's chief engineer, Donald A. Hall. The Spirit flew for the first time just two months later, on April 28, 1927, and after completing a series of test flights, Lindbergh took off from San Diego on May 10 for St. Louis and on to Roosevelt Field on New York's Long Island from which he would take off for Paris just 10 days later. \n\nMay 20–21, 1927: Lindbergh's New York to Paris flight\n\nSix well-known aviators had already lost their lives in pursuit of the Orteig Prize when Lindbergh took off from Roosevelt Field on his successful attempt in the early morning of Friday, May 20, 1927. Prior to fueling The Spirit, Lindbergh's crew had strained and restrained the Shell Aviation fuel to eliminate as much sediment as possible. This was to prevent any fuel line blockages during the flight. Burdened by its heavy load of 450 U.S. gallons (1,704 liters) of gasoline weighing about 2,710 lb (1,230 kg), and hampered by a muddy, rain-soaked runway, Lindbergh's Wright Whirlwind-powered monoplane gained speed very slowly as it made its 7:52 am (07:52) takeoff run, but its J-5C radial engine still proved powerful enough to allow the Spirit to clear the telephone lines at the far end of the field \"by about twenty feet [six meters] with a fair reserve of flying speed\". Over the next 33.5 hours, he and the Spirit—which Lindbergh always jointly referred to as \"WE\"—faced many challenges, including skimming over both storm clouds at 10000 ft and wave tops at as low at 10 ft, fighting icing, flying blind through fog for several hours, and navigating only by the stars (whenever visible), and dead reckoning before landing at Le Bourget Airport at 10:22 pm (22:22) on Saturday, May 21. The airfield was not marked on his map and Lindbergh knew only that it was some seven miles northeast of the city. He initially mistook the airfield for some large industrial complex with bright lights spreading out in all directions. The lights were, in fact, the headlights of tens of thousands of cars all driven by eager spectators now caught in \"the largest traffic jam in Parisian history.\" \n\nA crowd estimated at 150,000 spectators stormed the field, dragged Lindbergh out of the cockpit, and literally carried him around above their heads for \"nearly half an hour\". While some damage was done to the Spirit (especially to the fine linen, silver-painted fabric covering on the fuselage) by souvenir hunters, both Lindbergh and the Spirit were eventually \"rescued\" from the mob by a group of French military fliers, soldiers, and police, who took them both to safety in a nearby hangar. From that moment on, the previously little-known former U.S. Air Mail pilot had, by his successful flight, achieved virtually instantaneous—and lifelong—world fame. \n\nThe records set by Lindbergh's flight were officially certified by Carl Schory, Secretary of the National Aeronautic Association based on the readings from a sealed barograph Schory had placed in Lindbergh's plane and subsequently verified by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) (the World Air Sports Federation). On August 31, 1927, the flight was \"certified as the Class-C World Record for nonstop flight\" for the distance of 5809 km. \nWhile Lindbergh was the first to fly nonstop from New York to Paris, he was not the first aviator to complete a transatlantic flight in a heavier-than-air aircraft. That had been done first in stages between May 8 and 30, 1919, by the crew of the Navy-Curtiss NC-4 flying boat, which took 24 days to complete its journey from Jamaica Bay at Far Rockaway, Queens, New York, to Plymouth, England, via Halifax, Nova Scotia, Trepassey Bay (Newfoundland), Horta (Azores), and Lisbon, Portugal. \n\nThe world's first nonstop transatlantic flight (albeit over a route far shorter than Lindbergh's, 1890 mi vs. 3600 smi) was achieved on June 14–15, 1919, by two British aviators, John Alcock and Arthur Whitten Brown, in a modified Vickers Vimy IV bomber from Lester's Field near St. John's, Newfoundland on June 14 and arrived at Clifden, Ireland, the following day. Both men were knighted at Buckingham Palace by King George V, in recognition of their pioneering achievement. \n\nThe lighter-than-air U.S. Navy airship made a nonstop delivery flight crossing from the Zeppelin Company works in Friedrichshafen, Germany, to the U.S. Naval Air Station at Lakehurst, New Jersey, from October 12 to 15, 1924. \n\nImmediate aftermath of the flight\n\nThe adulation and celebration of Lindbergh that emerged after the solo Atlantic flight were unprecedented. People were \"behaving as though Lindbergh had walked on water, not flown over it.\"A. Scott Berg, as cited in Belfiore 2007, p. 17. Every major newspaper, magazine, and radio show in the U.S. wanted to interview him, and he was flooded with job offers from numerous companies, think tanks, and universities.\n\nThe French Foreign Office flew the American flag, the first time it had saluted someone not a head of state. Lindbergh also made a series of brief flights in Europe to Belgium and Great Britain in the quickly recovered Spirit (portions of its linen skin had been torn from it by souvenir hunters at Le Bourget) before returning to the United States. Gaston Doumergue, the President of France, bestowed the French Légion d'honneur on the young Capt. Lindbergh, and on his arrival back in the United States aboard the United States Navy cruiser on June 11, 1927, a fleet of warships and multiple flights of military aircraft including pursuit planes, bombers, and the rigid airship , escorted him up the Potomac River to the Washington Navy Yard on the Anacostia River in southeast Washington, D.C., where President Calvin Coolidge awarded him the Distinguished Flying Cross. On the same day Lindbergh and the Spirit arrived in Washington, the U.S. Post Office Department issued a 10-cent Air Mail stamp (Scott C-10) depicting the Spirit of St. Louis and a map of the flight. The day after he landed in Paris, his mother's house in Detroit was surrounded by a crowd estimated at about 1,000 persons in celebration of the flight to Paris. \n\nLindbergh flew from Washington to New York City on June 13, 1927 arriving at the Battery in lower Manhattan and traveling up Broadway to City Hall where he was received at a ceremony hosted by Mayor Jimmy Walker. A massive ticker-tape parade followed running up Park Row, Centre St., and Lafayette St. to Astor Place, west on Ninth St. to Fifth Ave., up Fifth to 60th St., and then through Central Park on East Drive to Central Park Mall where he was honored at another ceremony hosted by New York Governor Al Smith attended by a crowd of 200,000. It was estimated by city officials that upwards of 4,000,000 persons saw Lindbergh that day. That evening, Lindbergh, accompanied by his mother and Mayor Walker, was the guest of honor at a banquet and dance, with 500 guests, held at Clarence MacKay's Long Island estate, Harbor Hill. Lindbergh and his mother slipped away early, telling no one, causing a panicked MacKay to have the estate searched for the missing pilot. \n\nThe following night, Lindbergh was honored with a grand banquet at the Hotel Commodore given by the Mayor's Committee on Receptions of the City of New York and attended by some 3,700 people. He was officially awarded the check for the prize on June 16. The massive publicity surrounding him and his flight boosted the aviation industry and made a skeptical public take air travel seriously, as Lindbergh became an important voice on behalf of aviation activities, including the central committee of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, an appointment made by President Herbert Hoover. Within a year of his flight, a quarter of Americans (an estimated 30 million) personally saw Lindbergh and the Spirit of St. Louis. Over the remainder of 1927, applications for pilot's licenses in the U.S. tripled, the number of licensed aircraft quadrupled, and U.S. airline passengers grew between 1926 and 1929 from 5,782 to 173,405. Lindbergh later charted both polar and South American air routes, developed techniques for high-altitude flying, and during World War II, demonstrated how to increase flying range by developing techniques of refining flight attitudes and leaning fuel mixture to decrease the rate of gasoline consumption and improving efficiency.\n\nOn December 14, 1927, a Special Act of Congress awarded Lindbergh the Medal of Honor despite the fact that it was almost always awarded for heroism in combat. It was presented to Lindbergh by President Coolidge at the White House on March 21, 1928. Other noncombat awards of the Medal of Honor were made to aviators Richard E. Byrd and Floyd Bennett, as well as arctic explorer Adolphus W. Greely.\n\nAfter his transatlantic flight, Lindbergh wrote a letter to the director of Longines, describing in detail a watch that would make navigation easier for pilots. The watch was manufactured to his design and is still produced today. \n\nLindbergh was selected as the first Time magazine \"Man of the Year\" (for 1927), appearing in its cover on January 2, 1928, and remains the youngest individual (age 25) to receive the designation. He also appeared on Times cover on June 13, 1938 (with Dr. Alexis Carrel) and June 19, 1939, and his kidnapped infant son, Charles Jr, was on the cover on May 2, 1932. \n\nThe winner of the 1930 Best Woman Aviator of the Year Award, Elinor Smith Sullivan, said that before Lindbergh's flight, \"people seemed to think we [aviators] were from outer space or something. But after Charles Lindbergh's flight, we could do no wrong. It's hard to describe the impact Lindbergh had on people. Even the first walk on the moon doesn't come close. The twenties was such an innocent time, and people were still so religious—I think they felt like this man was sent by God to do this. And it changed aviation forever because all of a sudden the Wall Streeters were banging on doors looking for airplanes to invest in. We'd been standing on our heads trying to get them to notice us but after Lindbergh, suddenly everyone wanted to fly, and there weren't enough planes to carry them.\" \n\n\"WE\", the U.S. and Latin American \"Tours\", and the Spirit retires\n\nBarely two months after Lindbergh had completed the flight to Paris,\"WE\", the first of what would be 15 books he would eventually author or significantly contribute to over his lifetime, was released on July 27, 1927 by G.P. Putnam's Sons (The Knickerbocker Press), the New York publishing house run by prominent promoter and aviation enthusiast George P. Putnam (1887-1950) who later promoted the career (and eventually married) another almost equally famous flyer of the era, the ill-fated American aviatrix Amelia Earhart. An \"instant\" autobiography of the suddenly world famous young aviator, the 318-page book was an immediate best seller.\n\nThe first edition dustjacket notes that Lindbergh wrote the book to provide the public with his \"own story of his life and his transatlantic flight together with his views on the future of aviation\". It also says that the book's simple, one-word \"flying pronoun\" title \"WE\" referred to Lindbergh's view of a deep \"spiritual partnership\" that had developed \"between himself and his airplane during the dark hours of his flight\". Putnam's had selected the title without its author's knowledge or approval, however, and Lindbergh would forever complain about that interpretation of its meaning was wrong. Instead he said that \"we\" referred to himself and his financial backers in St. Louis, not his airplane, as the press had people believing, although his frequent unconscious use of the phrase seemed to suggest otherwise. \n\nBy mid September \"WE\" had sold close to 190,000 copies at $2.50 apiece, and limited edition of 1,000 autographed copies also sold out quickly at $25 each. The book was also soon translated into most major languages and remained at the top of best-seller lists well into 1928. With dozens of printings made and more than 650,000 copies sold in the first year, \"WE\" earned Lindbergh more than $250,000. The book's great commercial success was considerably aided by its publication coinciding with the start of his three-month tour of the United States in the Spirit on behalf of the Daniel Guggenheim Fund for the Promotion of Aeronautics. No other author before or since ever had such an extensive, highly publicized tour that helped promote a book than did Lindbergh's \"We\" of himself and the Spirit during their 22,350-mile, July 20 to October 23, 1927 tour of the U.S., visiting 82 cities in all 48 states during which the nation's nascent aviation superhero delivered 147 speeches and rode 1290 mi in parades. The nation became obsessed with Lindbergh during the tour in which he was seen in person by more than 30 million Americans, a quarter of the nation's then population.\n\nPrior to retiring the Spirit, Lindbergh made a second tour to 16 Latin America countries from December 13, 1927, to February 8, 1928. Dubbed the \"Good Will Tour\", it included stops in México (where he also met his future wife, Anne, the daughter of U.S. Ambassador Dwight Morrow), Guatemala, British Honduras, Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, the Canal Zone, Colombia, Venezuela, St. Thomas, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, and Cuba, covering 9,390 miles in 116:30 of flight time. A year and two days after it had made its first flight, Lindbergh flew the Spirit from St. Louis to Bolling Field in Washington, D.C., and donated it to the Smithsonian Institution, where it has remained on static public display ever since. Over the previous 367 days, Lindbergh and the Spirit had logged 489:28 of flight time together while making 174 flights to all 48 states and 19 foreign countries. \n\n\"1927 marked the breakout year of commercial aviation in the United States [and] the beginning of what came to be called the Lindbergh boom. In April, the month before Lindbergh's flight, 97000 lb of mail flew on airplanes. In September, that figure was up 50 percent, to 146000 lb. The number of applicants for pilots' licenses tripled that year,\" and the number of airplanes quadrupled.\n\nFollowing his flight to Paris, Lindbergh, together with Pan American World Airways head Juan Trippe, had interest in developing a great circle air route across Alaska and Siberia to China and Japan. In the summer of 1931, with Trippe's support, Lindbergh and his wife Anne Morrow Lindbergh flew from Long Island to Nome, Alaska and from there to Siberia, Japan and China. The route was not available for commercial service until after World War II, as prewar aircraft could not fly from Alaska to Japan nonstop, and the U.S. government had not officially recognized the Soviet government. While in China, the Lindberghs volunteered themselves to help in disaster investigation and relief effort for the infamous Central China flood of 1931. This was later documented in Anne Morrow Lindbergh's book North to the Orient.\n\nPersonal life\n\nAnne Morrow Lindbergh (1906–2001) was the daughter of Dwight Morrow who, as partner at J.P. Morgan & Co., had acted as financial adviser to Lindbergh and who had been appointed U.S. Ambassador to Mexico in 1927. Lindbergh was invited by Morrow on a goodwill tour to Mexico, and he met Anne in Mexico City in December 1927.\n\nThe couple were married on May 27, 1929 in Engelwood and managed to keep the location of their honeymoon a secret despite the best efforts of paparazzi to find them. They went on to have six children: Charles Augustus Lindbergh Jr. (1930–1932); Jon Morrow Lindbergh (b. August 16, 1932); Land Morrow Lindbergh (b. 1937), who studied anthropology at Stanford University and married Susan Miller in San Diego; Anne Lindbergh (1940–1993); Scott Lindbergh (b. 1942); and Reeve Lindbergh (b. 1945), a writer. Lindbergh also taught his wife how to fly and did much of his exploring and charting of air routes with her.\n\nLindbergh saw his children for only a few months a year. He kept track of each child's infractions, which included such activities as gum-chewing. He insisted that Anne track all her household expenditures, including even 15 cents spent for rubber bands, in account books. \n\nAccording to a Biography Channel profile on Lindbergh, she was the only woman whom he had ever asked out on a date. In Lindbergh's autobiography, he derides womanizing pilots he met as \"barnstormers,\" and Army cadets for their \"facile\" approach to relationships. Lindbergh wrote that the ideal romance was stable and long term, with a woman with keen intellect, good health, and strong genes. Lindbergh said his \"experience in breeding animals on our farm had taught me the importance of good heredity.\" \n\nAlmost three decades after Lindbergh's death in 1974 and years after his widow's passing in 2001, their children and the public learned that from the late 1950s until his death, Lindbergh had maintained three secret families in Europe that included seven out-of-wedlock children borne by three different mothers. In late July 2003, one of the largest national daily newspapers in Germany, Munich's Süddeutsche Zeitung, reported that Lindbergh had fathered three children by German hat maker Brigitte Hesshaimer (1926–2003), who had lived in the small Bavarian town of Geretsried just south of Munich. By the time of the publication of German biographer Rudolf Schröck's book Das Doppelleben des Charles A. Lindbergh (The Double Life of Charles A. Lindbergh) two years later, however, it had been further revealed that Lindbergh had also fathered four other such children in Germany and Switzerland with two more mistresses. Beginning in March 1957, Lindbergh had established romantic relationships with Brigitte Hesshaimer; her sister, Mariette, a painter living in Grimisuat in the Swiss canton Valais with whom he had two children; and with Valeska, an East Prussian aristocrat who was his private secretary in Europe and lived in Baden-Baden with whom he had two more children, a son born in 1959 and a daughter in 1961. All seven children had been born between 1958 and 1967. \n\nTen days before he died on August 26, 1974, Lindbergh wrote letters from his New York hospital bed to each of his three European mistresses, imploring them to maintain the \"utmost secrecy\" about their relationships after his death. The three women (none of whom ever married) all managed to keep their affairs secret even from their children, who during his lifetime (and for almost a decade after), did not know the true identity of their father whom they had only known by the alias \"Careu Kent\" and seen only when he visited for a few days once or twice per year. However, after finding and reading a magazine article about Lindbergh in the mid-1980s, Brigitte's daughter Astrid learned her father's true identity and later discovered snapshots and more than 150 love letters written to her mother by Lindbergh between 1957 and 1974. After both Brigitte and Anne Morrow Lindbergh had died, Astrid finally publicly disclosed the identity of her and her brothers' father. On November 23, 2003, DNA tests confirmed that Lindbergh had fathered Dyrk, Astrid, and David, Brigitte's three children. \n\nIn April 2008, Reeve Lindbergh, his youngest child with his wife Anne Morrow Lindbergh, published Forward From Here: Leaving Middle Age and Other Unexpected Adventures, a book of essays that includes her learning in late July 2003 the truth about her father's secret European families and writing in her personal journal on August 8, 2003, \"This story reflects absolutely Byzantine layers of deception on the part of our shared father. These children did not even know who he was! He used a pseudonym with them (To protect them, perhaps? To protect himself, absolutely!)\" A year later, she traveled to Europe to meet all seven of her half siblings and understand an expanded meaning of family. \n\n\"The Crime of the Century\"\n\nOn the evening of March 1, 1932, in what the press of the time came to sensationally refer to as \"The Crime of the Century\" an intruder abducted 20-month-old Charles Augustus Lindbergh Jr. from his crib in the second-story nursery of his family's rural home, Highfields, in East Amwell, New Jersey, near the town of Hopewell. While a 10-week nationwide search for the child was being undertaken, ransom negotiations were also conducted simultaneously with a self-identified kidnapper by a volunteer intermediary, Dr. John F. Condon (\"Jafsie\"). These resulted in the payment on April 2 of $50,000 in cash, part of which was made in soon-to-be withdrawn (and thus more easily traceable) Gold certificates, the serial numbers of which had been recorded, in exchange for information about the child's whereabouts that proved to be false. The child's remains were found by chance by a passing truckdriver six weeks later on May 12 in roadside woodlands near Mount Rose, New Jersey. \n\nIn response to the highly publicized crime, Congress passed the so-called \"Lindbergh Law\" on June 13, which made kidnapping a federal offense under certain circumstances. Known formally as the \"Federal Kidnapping Act of 1932\" ((a)(1)), the new statute provided for federal jurisdiction over all future kidnappings in which any victim(s) were taken across state lines and/or (as had occurred in the Lindbergh case) the kidnapper(s) used \"the mail or any means, facility, or instrumentality of interstate or foreign commerce in committing or in furtherance of the commission of the offense\", including as a means to demand a ransom. \n\nThe assiduous tracing of the serial numbers of $10 and $20 gold certificates passed in the New York City area over the next year and a half eventually led police to Richard Hauptmann, a 34-year-old German immigrant carpenter, who was arrested near his home in the Bronx, New York, on September 19, 1934. (Hauptmann was identified by the license plate number of his automobile, which a gas station attendant had written on the bill after receiving it from him in payment for services.) A stash containing $13,760 of the ransom money was subsequently found hidden in his garage. Charged with kidnapping, extortion, and first-degree murder, Hauptmann went on trial in a circus-like atmosphere in Flemington, New Jersey, on January 2, 1935. Six weeks later, he was convicted on all counts when, following 11 hours of deliberation, the jury delivered its verdict late on the night of February 13, after which Judge Thomas Trenchard immediately sentenced Hauptmann to death. Although he continued to adamantly maintain his innocence, all of Hauptmann's appeals and petitions for clemency were rejected by early December 1935. Despite a last-minute attempt by New Jersey Governor Harold G. Hoffman (who believed Hauptmann was guilty, but expressed doubts that he could have acted alone) to convince him to confess to the crimes in exchange for getting his sentence commuted to life imprisonment, the by then 36-year-old Hauptmann refused and was electrocuted at Trenton State Prison on April 3, 1936. \n\nSelf exile in Europe (1936–1939)\n\nAn intensely private man when it came to his family life, Lindbergh became exasperated by the unrelenting press and public attention focused on them in the wake of the kidnapping and Hauptmann trial. Particularly concerned for the physical safety of their then three-year-old second son, Jon, by late 1935, the Lindberghs came secretly to the decision to go into voluntary exile in Europe. Consequently, in the predawn hours of Sunday, December 22, 1935, the family \"sailed furtively\" from Pier 60 (West 20th St, Manhattan) for Liverpool, England, as the only three passengers on board the United States Lines freighter SS American Importer. To help maintain the strict secrecy Lindbergh insisted upon for their departure, the family traveled under assumed names and using diplomatic passports that had been issued a week earlier through the personal intervention of Treasury Secretary Ogden Mills. \n\nNews of the Lindberghs' \"flight to Europe\" did not become public until a full day later by way of an exclusive front-page story by The New York Times aviation editor Lauren \"Deac\" Lyman, a longtime family friend, supporter, and confidant, published in the paper's final Monday morning edition. At Lindbergh's request, however, Lyman intentionally withheld the identity of the ship, as well as its time and port of departure, from that initial account. While Lyman finally revealed the information in his follow-up story published the next day when the ship was already two days out to sea, radiograms sent to Lindbergh on the American Importer were nevertheless all returned with the notation \"Addressee not aboard\".\n\nAlthough Lindbergh had \"offered no public explanation\" for the family's unannounced departure, shortly before they sailed, he had told Lyman in a private interview: \"We Americans are a primitive people. We do not have discipline. Our moral standards are low. It shows up in the private lives of people we know — their drinking and 'behavior with women'. It shows in the newspapers, the morbid curiosity over crimes and murder trials. Americans seem to have little respect for law, or the rights of others.\"Butterfield, Roger. \"Lindbergh: A Stubborn Young Man of Strange Ideas Becomes the Leader of the Wartime Opposition.\" Life, August 11, 1941. For those reasons, Lindbergh told Lyman, he had decided to take his family to England to \"seek a safe, secluded residence away from the tremendous public hysteria\" that surrounded him in America. The Lindberghs arrived in Liverpool on December 31, 1935, where they secluded themselves before later departing for South Wales to stay with relatives. \n\nThe family eventually rented \"Long Barn\" in Sevenoaks Weald, Kent, England. One newspaper wrote that Lindbergh \"won immediate popularity by announcing he intended to purchase his supplies 'right in the village, from local tradesmen.' The reserve of the villagers, most of whom had decided in advance he would be a blustering, boastful young American, is melting.\" At the time of Hauptmann's execution, local police almost sealed off the area surrounding Long Barn with \"orders to regard as suspects anyone except residents who approached within a mile of the home.\" Lindbergh later described his three years in the Kent village as \"among the happiest days of my life.\" In 1938, the family moved to Île Illiec, a small four-acre island Lindbergh purchased off the Breton coast of France. \n\nAlthough Charles and Anne Lindbergh had made a brief unannounced holiday visit to the U.S. in December 1937, the family (including a third son, Land, born in London in May 1937) continued to live and travel extensively in Europe for more than three years before finally returning to reside again in the United States in April 1939, settling in a rented seaside estate at Lloyd Neck, Long Island, New York. The timing of the family's return came primarily as the result of a personal request by General H. H. (\"Hap\") Arnold, the chief of the United States Army Air Corps in which Lindbergh was a colonel in the reserves, for him to accept a temporary call-up to active duty to help evaluate that service's readiness for a potential war. His duties included evaluating new aircraft types in development, recruitment procedures, and finding a site for a new air force research institute and other potential air bases. Assigned a Curtiss P-36 fighter, he toured various facilities, reporting back to Wright Field. Lindbergh's brief four-month tour was also his first period of active military service since his graduation from the Army's Flight School 14 years earlier in 1925.\n\nPre-war activities\n\nIn 1929, Lindbergh became interested in the work of rocket pioneer Robert H. Goddard. By helping Goddard secure an endowment from Daniel Guggenheim in 1930, Lindbergh allowed Goddard to expand his research and development. Throughout his life, Lindbergh remained a key advocate of Goddard's work. \n\nIn 1930, Lindbergh's sister-in-law developed a fatal heart condition. Lindbergh began to wonder why hearts could not be repaired with surgery. Starting in early 1931 at the Rockefeller Institute and continuing during his time living in France, Lindbergh studied the perfusion of organs outside the body with Nobel Prize-winning French surgeon Dr. Alexis Carrel. Although perfused organs were said to have survived surprisingly well, all showed progressive degenerative changes within a few days. Lindbergh's invention, a glass perfusion pump, named the \"Model T\" pump, is credited with making future heart surgeries possible. In this early stage, the pump was far from perfected. In 1938, Lindbergh and Carrel described an artificial heart in the book in which they summarized their work, The Culture of Organs, but it was decades before one was built. In later years, Lindbergh's pump was further developed by others, eventually leading to the construction of the first heart-lung machine. \n\nAt the behest of the U.S. military, Lindbergh traveled several times to Germany to report on German aviation and the German Air Force (Luftwaffe) from 1936 to 1938. Hanna Reitsch demonstrated the Focke-Wulf Fw 61 helicopter to Lindbergh in 1937.Reitsch, H., 1955, The Sky My Kingdom, London: Biddles Limited, Guildford and King's Lynn, ISBN 1853672629\n\nLindbergh toured German aviation facilities, where the commander of the Luftwaffe, SA-Gruppenführer Hermann Göring convinced Lindbergh the Luftwaffe was far more powerful than it was. With the approval of Göring and Ernst Udet, Lindbergh was the first American permitted to examine the Luftwaffe's newest bomber, the Junkers Ju 88, and Germany's front-line fighter aircraft, the Messerschmitt Bf 109. Lindbergh received the unprecedented opportunity to pilot the Bf 109. Lindbergh said of the fighter that he knew \"of no other pursuit plane which combines simplicity of construction with such excellent performance characteristics.\" Colonel Lindbergh inspected all the types of military aircraft Germany was to use in 1939 and 1940. \n\nLindbergh reported to the U.S. military that Germany was leading in metal construction, low-wing designs, dirigibles, and diesel engines. Lindbergh also undertook a survey of aviation in the Soviet Union in 1938, and his findings were included in air intelligence reports long before the outbreak of World War II. The American ambassador to Germany, Hugh Wilson, invited Lindbergh to dinner with Göring at the American embassy in Berlin in 1938. The dinner included diplomats and three of the greatest minds of German aviation, Ernst Heinkel, Adolf Baeumker, and Dr. Willy Messerschmitt. For Lindbergh's 1927 flight and services to aviation, on behalf of Adolf Hitler, Göring presented him with the Commander Cross of the Order of the German Eagle. (Henry Ford received the same award earlier in July.) Lindbergh's acceptance of the medal caused controversy after Kristallnacht, an anti-Jewish pogrom that broke out in Germany a few weeks later. Lindbergh declined to return the medal, later writing (according to A. Scott Berg): \"It seems to me that the returning of decorations, which were given in times of peace and as a gesture of friendship, can have no constructive effect. If I were to return the German medal, it seems to me that it would be an unnecessary insult. Even if war develops between us, I can see no gain in indulging in a spitting contest before that war begins.\" \n\nMunich crisis\n\nAt the urging of U.S. Ambassador Joseph Kennedy, Lindbergh wrote a secret memo to the British warning that if Britain and France responded militarily to German dictator Adolf Hitler's violation of the Munich Agreement in 1938, it would be suicide. Lindbergh stated that France's military strength was inadequate and that Britain had an outdated military overly reliant upon naval power. He recommended they urgently strengthen their air arsenal to force Hitler to turn his ambitions eastward to a war against \"Asiatic Communism.\" \n\nIn a controversial 1939 Reader's Digest article, Lindbergh said, \"Our civilization depends on peace among Western nations ... and therefore on united strength, for Peace is a virgin who dare not show her face without Strength, her father, for protection.\" Lindbergh deplored the rivalry between Germany and Britain, but favored a war between Germany and Russia. Some controversy exists as to how accurate his reports concerning the Luftwaffe were, but Cole reports the consensus among British and American officials was that they were slightly exaggerated but badly needed.\n\nFollowing the invasion of Czechoslovakia and Poland, many favored military aid, a suggestion Lindbergh rejected. \"I do not believe that repealing the arms embargo would assist democracy in Europe.\". Lindbergh specifically opposed military aid to assist England in 1939. \"If we repeal the arms embargo with the idea of assisting one of the warring sides to overcome the other, then why mislead ourselves by talk of neutrality? He suggested any military assistance to England might be done for improper financial reasons- \"To those who argue that we could make a profit and build up our own industry by selling munitions abroad, I reply that we in America have not yet reached a point where we wish to capitalize on the destruction and death of war.\"\n\nAmerica First involvement\n\nIn late 1940, he became spokesman of the antiwar America First Committee. He soon became its most prominent public spokesman, speaking to overflowing crowds in Madison Square Garden in New York City and Soldier Field in Chicago. His speeches were heard by millions. During this time, Lindbergh lived in Lloyd Neck, on Long Island, New York.\n\nLindbergh argued that America did not have any business attacking Germany and believed in upholding the Monroe Doctrine, which his interventionist rivals felt was outdated. In his autobiography, he wrote:\n\nIn his January 23, 1941, testimony in opposition to the Lend-Lease bill before the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Lindbergh proposed that the United States negotiate a neutrality pact with Germany. President Roosevelt publicly criticized Lindbergh's views on neutrality three months later during a White House press conference on April 25, 1941, as being those of a \"defeatist and appeaser\" and compared him to U.S. Rep. Clement L. Vallandigham (D-OH), the leader of the \"Copperhead\" movement that had opposed the American Civil War. Three days later, Lindbergh resigned his commission as a colonel in the U.S. Army Air Corps in an April 28 letter to the President in which he said he could find \"no honorable alternative\" to his taking such an action after Roosevelt had publicly questioned his loyalty. \n\nIn a speech at an America First rally at the Des Moines Coliseum on September 11, 1941, \"Who Are the War Agitators?\", Lindbergh claimed the three groups, \"pressing this country toward war [are] the British, the Jewish, and the Roosevelt Administration\", and said of Jewish groups,\n\nIn the speech, he warned of the Jewish people's \"large ownership and influence in our motion pictures, our press, our radio, and our government\". He used the term \"Jewish race\" in the speech, the same terminology that had been used by Nazis. He went on to condemn Nazi Germany's antisemitism: \"No person with a sense of the dignity of mankind can condone the persecution of the Jewish race in Germany.\" Lindbergh declared,\n\nThe speech was heavily criticized as being anti-Semitic. In response, Lindbergh stated again he was not anti-Semitic, but he did not back away from his statements.\n\nLindbergh's wife, Anne Morrow Lindbergh, had concerns about the reaction to the speech and how it would affect his reputation, wrongfully in her view. From her diary:\n\nInterventionists created pamphlets pointing out his efforts were praised in Nazi Germany and included quotations such as \"Racial strength is vital; politics, a luxury\". They included pictures of him and other America Firsters using the stiff-armed Bellamy salute (a hand gesture described by Francis Bellamy to accompany his Pledge of Allegiance to the American flag); the photos were taken from an angle not showing the flag, so to observers it was indistinguishable from the Hitler salute. \n\nPresident Franklin D. Roosevelt disliked Lindbergh's outspoken opposition to intervention and his administration's policies, such as the Lend-Lease Act, and said to Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau in May 1940, \"if I should die tomorrow, I want you to know this, I am absolutely convinced Lindbergh is a Nazi.\" On April 26, 1941, Roosevelt wrote to Secretary of War Henry Stimson: \"When I read Lindbergh's speech I felt that it could not have been better put if it had been written by Goebbels himself. What a pity that this youngster has completely abandoned his belief in our form of government and has accepted Nazi methods because apparently they are efficient.\" \n\nIn his book written after the war, Lindbergh said that no one he met in pre-wartime Nazi Germany did not believe the country would be better off without the Jews, though some condemned the means used to achieve that goal. \n\nThoughts on race and racism\n\nLindbergh elucidated his beliefs about the white race in an article he published in Reader's Digest in 1939:\n\nLindbergh's speeches and writings reflected his adoption of Nazi views on race and religion. He wrote in his memoirs that all of the Germans he met thought the country would be better off without its Jews. \n\nBecause of his trips to Nazi Germany, combined with a belief in eugenics, Lindbergh was suspected of being a Nazi sympathizer.\n\nLindbergh's reaction to Kristallnacht was entrusted to his diary: \"I do not understand these riots on the part of the Germans,\" he wrote. \"It seems so contrary to their sense of order and intelligence. They have undoubtedly had a difficult 'Jewish problem', but why is it necessary to handle it so unreasonably?\" Lindbergh had planned to move to Berlin for the winter of 1938–39, after Kristallnacht, a time when many Americans reacted with revulsion at Nazi barbarism. He had provisionally found a house in Wannsee, but after Nazi friends discouraged him from leasing it because it had been formerly owned by Jews, it was recommended that he contact Albert Speer, who said he would build the Lindberghs a house anywhere they wanted. On the advice of his close friend, the eugenicist Alexis Carrel, he cancelled the trip.\n\nIn his diaries, he wrote: \"We must limit to a reasonable amount the Jewish influence ... Whenever the Jewish percentage of total population becomes too high, a reaction seems to invariably occur. It is too bad because a few Jews of the right type are, I believe, an asset to any country.\"\n\nNazi classification and racial definition\n\nLindbergh's anticommunism resonated deeply with many Americans, while eugenics and Nordicism enjoyed social acceptance.\n\nAlthough Lindbergh considered Hitler a fanatic and avowed a belief in American democracy, he clearly stated elsewhere that he believed the survival of the white race was more important than the survival of democracy in Europe: \"Our bond with Europe is one of race and not of political ideology,\" he declared. Critics have noticed an apparent influence of German philosopher Oswald Spengler on Lindbergh. Spengler was a conservative authoritarian and during the interwar era, was widely read throughout the Western World, though by this point he had fallen out of favor with the Nazis because he had not wholly subscribed to their theories of racial purity.\n\nLindbergh developed a long-term friendship with the automobile pioneer Henry Ford, who was well known for his anti-Semitic newspaper The Dearborn Independent. In a famous comment about Lindbergh to Detroit's former FBI field office special agent in charge in July 1940, Ford said: \"When Charles comes out here, we only talk about the Jews.\" \n\nLindbergh considered Russia a \"semi-Asiatic\" country compared to Germany, and he believed Communism was an ideology that would destroy the West's \"racial strength\" and replace everyone of European descent with \"a pressing sea of Yellow, Black, and Brown.\" He stated that if he had to choose, he would rather see America allied with Nazi Germany than Soviet Russia. He preferred Nordics, but he believed, after Soviet Communism was defeated, Russia would be a valuable ally against potential aggression from East Asia. \n\nLindbergh said certain races have \"demonstrated superior ability in the design, manufacture, and operation of machines.\" He further said, \"The growth of our western civilization has been closely related to this superiority.\" Lindbergh admired \"the German genius for science and organization, the English genius for government and commerce, the French genius for living and the understanding of life.\" He believed that \"in America they can be blended to form the greatest genius of all.\" His message was popular throughout many Northern communities and especially well received in the Midwest, while the American South was anglophilic and supported a pro-British foreign policy. The South was the most pro-British and interventionist part of the country. \n\nHolocaust researcher and investigative journalist Max Wallace, in his book The American Axis, agreed with Franklin Roosevelt's assessment that Lindbergh was \"pro-Nazi.\" Wallace finds the Roosevelt Administration's accusations of dual loyalty or treason as unsubstantiated. Wallace considers Lindbergh a well-intentioned, but bigoted and misguided, Nazi sympathizer whose career as the leader of the isolationist movement had a destructive impact on Jewish people. \n\nLindbergh's Pulitzer Prize-winning biographer, A. Scott Berg, contends Lindbergh was not so much a supporter of the Nazi regime as someone so stubborn in his convictions and relatively inexperienced in political maneuvering that he easily allowed rivals to portray him as one. Lindbergh's receipt of the German medal was approved without objection by the American embassy; the war had not yet begun in Europe. The award did not cause controversy until the war began and Lindbergh returned to the United States in 1939 to spread his message of nonintervention. Berg contends Lindbergh's views were commonplace in the United States in the pre–World War II era. Lindbergh's support for the America First Committee was representative of the sentiments of a number of American people. \n\nYet Berg also notes that \"As late as April 1939 – after Germany overtook Czechoslovakia – Lindbergh was willing to make excuses for Hitler. 'Much as I disapprove of many things Hitler had done,' he wrote in his diary on April 2, 1939, 'I believe she [Germany] has pursued the only consistent policy in Europe in recent years. I cannot support her broken promises, but she has only moved a little faster than other nations ... in breaking promises. The question of right and wrong is one thing by law and another thing by history.'\" Berg also explains that leading up to the war, in Lindbergh's mind, the great battle would be between the Soviet Union and Germany, not fascism and democracy.\n\nWallace noted that it was difficult to find social scientists among Lindbergh's contemporaries in the 1930s who found validity in racial explanations for human behavior. Wallace went on to observe that \"throughout his life, eugenics would remain one of Lindbergh's enduring passions.\" In Pat Buchanan's book A Republic, Not an Empire: Reclaiming America's Destiny, he portrays Lindbergh and other pre-war isolationists as American patriots who were smeared by interventionists during the months leading up to the attack on Pearl Harbor. Buchanan suggests the backlash against Lindbergh highlights \"the explosiveness of mixing ethnic politics with foreign policy.\" \n\nLindbergh always preached military strength and alertness. He believed that a strong defensive war machine would make America an impenetrable fortress and defend the Western Hemisphere from an attack by foreign powers, and that this was the U.S. military's sole purpose. \n\nBerg reveals that while the attack on Pearl Harbor came as a shock to Lindbergh, he did predict that America's \"wavering policy in the Philippines\" would invite a bloody war there, and, in one speech, he warned that \"we should either fortify these islands adequately, or get out of them entirely.\" \n\nWorld War II\n\nAfter the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Lindbergh sought to be recommissioned in the USAAF. The Secretary of War, Henry L. Stimson, declined the request on instructions from the White House. \n\nUnable to take on an active military role, Lindbergh approached a number of aviation companies, offering his services as a consultant. As a technical adviser with Ford in 1942, he was heavily involved in troubleshooting early problems encountered at the Willow Run Consolidated B-24 Liberator bomber production line. As B-24 production smoothed out, he joined United Aircraft in 1943 as an engineering consultant, devoting most of his time to its Chance-Vought Division. \n\nThe following year, Lindbergh persuaded United Aircraft to designate him a technical representative in the Pacific Theater to study aircraft performances under combat conditions. Among other things, he showed Marine pilots how to take off safely with a bomb load double the Vought F4U Corsair fighter-bomber's rated capacity. At the time, several Marine squadrons were flying bomber escorts to destroy the Japanese stronghold of Rabaul, New Britain, in the Australian Territory of New Guinea. On May 21, 1944, Lindbergh flew his first combat mission: a strafing run with VMF-222 near the Japanese garrison of Rabaul. He also flew with VMF-216, from the Marine Air Base at Torokina, Bougainville. Lindbergh was escorted on one of these missions by Lt. Robert E. (Lefty) McDonough, who refused to fly with Lindbergh again, as he did not want to be known as \"the guy who killed Lindbergh.\"\n\nIn his six months in the Pacific in 1944, Lindbergh took part in fighter bomber raids on Japanese positions, flying 50 combat missions (again as a civilian). His innovations in the use of Lockheed P-38 Lightning fighters impressed a supportive Gen. Douglas MacArthur. Lindbergh introduced engine-leaning techniques to P-38 pilots, greatly improving fuel consumption at cruise speeds, enabling the long-range fighter aircraft to fly longer range missions. The U.S. Marine and Army Air Force pilots who served with Lindbergh praised his courage and defended his patriotism. \n\nOn July 28, 1944, during a P-38 bomber escort mission with the 433rd Fighter Squadron, in the Ceram area, Lindbergh shot down a Sonia observation plane piloted by Captain Saburo Shimada, Commanding Officer of the 73rd Independent Chutai. \n\nAfter the war, while touring the Nazi concentration camps, Lindbergh wrote in his autobiography that he was disgusted and angered.\n\nLater life\n\nAfter World War II, Lindbergh lived in Darien, Connecticut and served as a consultant to the Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force and to Pan American World Airways. With most of Eastern Europe having fallen under Communist control, Lindbergh believed most of his prewar assessments were correct all along. But Berg reports after witnessing the defeat of Germany and the Holocaust firsthand shortly after his service in the Pacific, \"he knew the American public no longer gave a hoot about his opinions.\" In 1954, President Dwight D. Eisenhower restored Lindbergh's assignment with the U.S. Air Force and made him a Brigadier General. In that year, he served on the Congressional advisory panel set up to establish the site of the United States Air Force Academy.\n\nIn 1957, actor James Stewart portrayed Lindbergh in the movie The Spirit of St. Louis. Stewart lobbied hard for the role as he had been a lifelong admirer of Lindbergh and described his trans-Atlantic flight as \"one of the defining moments of my youth\". He encountered derision for trying to play a 26-year-old man in his late 40s and The Spirit of St. Louis was a commercial failure.\n\nIn December 1968, he visited the crew of Apollo 8 (the first manned spaceflight to travel to the Moon) the day before their launch. On July 16, 1969, Lindbergh and T. Claude Ryan (previous owner of the Ryan Flying Company that built the Spirit of St. Louis aircraft) were present at Cape Canaveral to watch the launch of Apollo 11. Lindbergh later wrote the foreword for Apollo 11 astronaut Michael Collins's autobiography, Carrying the Fire.\n\nEnvironmental causes\n\nLindbergh spent the final decade of his life campaigning to protect endangered species like humpback and blue whales, was instrumental in establishing protections for the controversial Filipino group, the Tasaday, and African tribes, and supporting the establishment of a national park. While studying the native flora and fauna of the Philippines, he became involved in efforts to protect the Philippine eagle and the tamaraw, a rare dwarf buffalo on Mindoro Island.\n\nLindbergh's speeches and writings later in life emphasized his love of both technology and nature, and a lifelong belief that \"all the achievements of mankind have value only to the extent that they preserve and improve the quality of life.\"\n\nLindbergh's final book, Autobiography of Values, based on an unfinished manuscript was published posthumously. While on his deathbed, he had contacted his friend, William Jovanovich, head of Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, to edit the lengthy memoirs. \n\nDeath\n\nLindbergh spent his last years on the Hawaiian island of Maui, where he died of lymphoma on August 26, 1974, at age 72. He was buried on the grounds of the Palapala Ho'omau Church in Kipahulu, Maui. His epitaph, on a simple stone following the words \"Charles A. Lindbergh Born Michigan 1902 Died Maui 1974\", quotes Psalms 139:9: \"... If I take the wings of the morning, and dwell in the uttermost parts of the sea ... C.A.L.\" \n\nHonors and tributes\n\nOn May 8, 1928 a statue was dedicated at the entrance to Le Bourget Airport in Paris honoring Lindbergh and his New York to Paris flight as well as Charles Nungesser and Francois Coli who attempted the same feat two weeks earlier in the other direction aboard L'Oiseau Blanc (The White Bird), disappearing without a trace.\n\nIn the United States, at Minneapolis–Saint Paul International Airport was named after him, and a replica of the Spirit of St. Louis hangs there. Another such replica hangs in the great hall of the Missouri History Museum in St. Louis. The definitive oil painting of Lindbergh by St. Louisan Richard Krause entitled \"The Spirit Soars\" has been displayed there. San Diego's Lindbergh Field, which is also known as San Diego International Airport, was named after him and also displays a replica of the San Diego-built Ryan NYP Spirit of St. Louis. The airport in Winslow, Arizona has also been renamed Winslow-Lindbergh Regional. Lindbergh himself designed the airport in 1929 when it was built as a refueling point for the first coast-to-coast air service. Among the many airports and air facilities that bear his name, the airport in Little Falls, Minnesota, where he grew up, has been named Little Falls/Morrison County-Lindbergh Field. \n\nLindbergh donated the original Spirit of St. Louis to the Smithsonian Institution in April 1928 where it has been on display continuously ever since. It currently hangs over the main lobby of the National Air and Space Museum located on the Mall in Washington, D.C. a few blocks from the Capitol. \n\nIn 1952, Grandview High School in St. Louis County was renamed Lindbergh High School. The school newspaper is the Pilot, the yearbook is the Spirit, the students are known as the Flyers, and the school's marching band holds the title of the Spirit of St. Louis Marching Band. The school district was also later named after Lindbergh. The stretch of U.S. 67 that runs through most of the St. Louis metro area is called Lindbergh Boulevard. Lindbergh also has a star on the St. Louis Walk of Fame. He was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1967.\n\nLindbergh Senior High School is located in the southeastern section Renton, Washington, in Renton School District 403. It was founded in 1972. The class of 1974 was the first to graduate. In the 1970s, Charles A. Lindbergh Senior High School, in the Hopkins School District 270, located in a southwestern suburb of Minneapolis, was named for the Minnesota native and famed aviator. In 1980, Hopkins closed an older high school and renamed Lindbergh High as Hopkins Senior High School. The Lindbergh Center is located on the Hopkins High School campus.\n\nIn Lindbergh's hometown of Little Falls, Minnesota, one of the district's elementary schools is named Charles Lindbergh Elementary. The district's sports teams are named the Flyers and Lindbergh Drive is a major road on the west side of town, leading to Charles A. Lindbergh State Park. The junior hockey team in Little Falls also bears an aviation-inspired name, the Minnesota Flying Aces. The Lindberghs donated their farmstead to the state to use as a park in memory of Lindbergh's father. The original Lindbergh residence is maintained as a museum, the Charles A. Lindbergh Historic Site, and is listed as a National Historic Landmark. Lindbergh is a recipient of the Silver Buffalo Award, the highest adult award given by the Boy Scouts of America.\n\nOne of the elementary schools in the El Paso Independent School District in El Paso, Texas, where Lindbergh persuaded the city's leaders to establish an airport in the 1920s, was named Lindbergh Elementary in his honor when it opened in 1974; it was later renamed Mitzi Bond Elementary after a principal of the school who died suddenly and tragically in a traffic accident. The street where the school is located is still called Lindbergh Avenue.\n\nIn February 2002, the Medical University of South Carolina at Charleston, within the celebrations for the Lindbergh 100th birthday established the Lindbergh-Carrel Prize, given to major contributors to \"development of perfusion and bioreactor technologies for organ preservation and growth\". M. E. DeBakey and nine other scientists received the prize, a bronze statuette expressly created for the event by the Italian artist C. Zoli and named \"Elisabeth\", after Elisabeth Morrow, sister of Lindbergh's wife Anne Morrow, who died as a result of heart disease. Lindbergh was disappointed that contemporary medical technology could not provide an artificial heart pump that would allow for heart surgery on Elisabeth and that led to the first contact between Carrel and Lindbergh.\n\nOn May 2, 2002, Lindbergh's grandson, Erik Lindbergh, celebrated the 75th anniversary of the pioneering 1927 flight of the Spirit of St. Louis by duplicating the journey in a single-engine, two-seat Lancair Columbia 200. The younger Lindbergh's solo flight from Republic Airport on Long Island, to Le Bourget Airport in Paris was completed in 17 hours and 7 minutes, or a little more than half the time of his grandfather's 33.5 hour original flight. \n\nAwards and decorations\n\nLindbergh received many awards, medals and decorations, most of which were later donated to the Missouri Historical Society and are on display at the Jefferson Memorial, now part of the Missouri History Museum in Forest Park in St. Louis, Missouri.\n\nUnited States awards\n\n* Medal of Honor (1927)\n* Distinguished Flying Cross (1927)\n* Congressional Gold Medal (1928)\n* Langley Gold Medal from the Smithsonian Institution (1927)\n* Hubbard Medal (1927)\n* Honorary Scout (Boy Scouts of America, 1927) \n* Silver Buffalo Award (Boy Scouts of America)\n* Wright Brothers Memorial Trophy (1949)\n* Daniel Guggenheim Medal (1953)\n* Pulitzer Prize (1954)\n\nNon-U.S. awards\n\n* Commander of the Legion of Honor (France, 1931) \n* Knight of the Order of Leopold (Belgium, 1927)\n* Air Force Cross (UK) (1927)\n* Order of the German Eagle with Star (Germany Deutsches Reich, 19 October 1938) \n* Official Royal Air Force Museum Medal (UK)\n* Fédération Aéronautique Internationale FAI Gold Medal (1927)\n* ICAO Edward Warner Award \n\nMedal of Honor\n\nRank and organization: Captain, U.S. Army Air Corps Reserve. Place and date: From New York City to Paris, France, May 20–21, 1927. Entered service at: Little Falls, Minn. Born: February 4, 1902, Detroit, Mich. G.O. No.: 5, W.D., 1928; Act of Congress December 14, 1927.\n\nCitation:\n\nOther recognition\n\n*1991 Scandinavian-American Hall of Fame Inductee \n*Ranked No. 3 on Flying magazine's 2013 list of the 51 Heroes of Aviation \n* Member of the Independent Order of Odd Fellows. \n\nIn popular culture\n\nBooks\n\nIn addition to \"WE\" and The Spirit of St. Louis, Lindbergh also wrote prolifically over the years on other topics of interest to him, including science, technology, nationalism, war, materialism, and values. Included among those writings were five other books: The Culture of Organs (with Dr. Alexis Carrel) (1938), Of Flight and Life (1948), The Wartime Journals of Charles A. Lindbergh (1970), Boyhood on the Upper Mississippi (1972), and his final book, Autobiography of Values, which was published posthumously in 1978. \n\nIn addition to many biographies such as A. Scott Berg's massive \"Lindbergh\" published in 1999 and others, Lindbergh also influenced or was the model for characters in a variety of works of fiction. Shortly after he made his famous flight, the Stratemeyer Syndicate began publishing a series of books for juvenile readers called the Ted Scott Flying Stories (1927–1943), which were written by a number of authors all using the nom de plume of Franklin W. Dixon, in which the pilot hero was closely modeled after Lindbergh. Ted Scott duplicated the solo flight to Paris in the series' first volume, entitled Over the Ocean to Paris published in 1927. Another fictional literary reference to Lindbergh appears in the Agatha Christie book (1934) and movie Murder on the Orient Express (1974) which begins with a fictionalized depiction of the Lindbergh baby kidnapping. \n\nThe Philip Roth novel, The Plot Against America (2004), a speculative fiction novel, explores an alternate history where Franklin Delano Roosevelt is defeated in the 1940 presidential election by Lindbergh, who allies the United States with Nazi Germany. \n\nFilm and television\n\nVerdensberømtheder i København (1939) was a Danish short subject produced by the Dansk Film Co. in which Lindbergh as well as Hollywood actors Robert Taylor, Myrna Loy, and Edward G. Robinson all appeared as themselves. The 1938 Paramount film Men with Wings (Fred MacMurray, Ray Milland) featured a replica of the Spirit of St. Louis fashioned from a Ryan B-1 \"Brougham\" similar to one presented to Lindbergh by the manufacturer, the Mahoney Aircraft Corporation, shortly after the Spirit was retired in April 1928. The 1942 MGM picture Keeper of the Flame (Katharine Hepburn, Spencer Tracy) features Hepburn as the widow of Robert V. Forrest, a \"Lindbergh-like\" national hero, who was exposed after his death as a secret fascist intending to use his influence—especially over America's youth—to turn the country into a fascist state and eliminate those he deemed as inferior races.\n\nFour years after its 1953 publication, Lindbergh's second book about his flying \"partner\" served as the basis for the namesake major Hollywood Cinemascope motion picture The Spirit of St. Louis, directed by Billy Wilder and released on April 20, 1957, one month short of the 30th anniversary of the flight to Paris. The Spirit was \"portrayed\" in the film by three flyable replicas of the Ryan NYP, while Lindbergh was played by veteran American actor and fellow Army aviator James Stewart. To accurately depict the transatlantic flight, the film production built three replicas of the Spirit of St. Louis (at a cost of $1.3 million—equal to more than $11 million in 2013) for various location and studio film units. A similar Ryan Brougham was bought by Stewart and modified with Lindbergh's supervision.\n\nLindbergh has also been the subject of numerous screen, television, and other documentary films over the years, including Charles A. Lindbergh (1927), a UK documentary by De Forest Phonofilm based on Lindbergh's milestone flight, 40,000 Miles with Lindbergh (1928) featuring Charles A. Lindbergh, and The American Experience—Lindbergh: The Shocking, Turbulent Life of America's Lone Eagle (1988) PBS documentary directed by Stephen Ives. \n\nThe story of Lindbergh and his association with the former German Nazi Party was featured on the Science Channel TV show, Dark Matters: Twisted But True. \n\nActor Josh Lucas portrayed Lindbergh in the 2011 film, J. Edgar, directed by Clint Eastwood.\n\nMusic\n\nWithin days of the flight, dozens of Tin Pan Alley publishers rushed a variety of popular songs into print celebrating Lindbergh and the Spirit of St. Louis including \"Lindbergh (The Eagle of the U.S.A.)\" by Howard Johnson and Al Sherman, and \"Lucky Lindy\" by L. Wolfe Gilbert and Abel Baer. In the two-year period following Lindbergh's flight, the U.S. Copyright Office recorded three hundred applications for Lindbergh songs. Tony Randall revived \"Lucky Lindy\" in an album of Jazz Age and Depression-era songs that he recorded entitled Vo Vo De Oh Doe (1967). \n\nIn 1929, Bertolt Brecht wrote a musical called Der Lindberghflug (The Lindbergh Flight) with music by Kurt Weill and Paul Hindemith. Because of Lindbergh's apparent Nazi sympathies, in 1950 Brecht removed all direct references to Lindbergh and renamed the piece Der Ozeanflug (The Ocean Flight). \n\nIn 1964, Woody Guthrie wrote \"Mister Charlie Lindbergh\", which was critical of Lindbergh's isolationist stance and involvement in America First prior to World War II.\n\nThe 1991 album Defcon by industrial artist :wumpscut: contains a track titled \"Lindbergh\", which uses spoken quotes that reference Lindbergh's trans-Atlantic flight.\n\nIn 1992, the Italian singer Ivano Fossati released an album titled Lindbergh - Lettere da sopra la pioggia. The cover features a picture of the Spirit of St. Louis. \"Lindbergh\" is also the title of the last track of the album.\n\nIn 2016, as part of his series of scores based around historical events, Adam Young released a score based around The Spirit of St. Louis's flight. \n\nPostage stamps\n\nLindbergh and the Spirit have been honored by a variety of world postage stamps over the last eight decades, including three issued by the United States. Less than three weeks after the flight the U.S. Post Office Department issued a 10-cent \"Lindbergh Air Mail\" stamp (Scott C-10) on June 11, 1927, with engraved illustrations of both the Spirit of St. Louis and a map of its route from New York to Paris. This was also the first U.S. stamp to bear the name of a living person. A half-century later, a 13-Cent commemorative stamp (Scott #1710) depicting the Spirit flying low over the Atlantic Ocean was issued on May 20, 1977, the 50th anniversary of the flight from Roosevelt Field. On May 28, 1998, a 32¢ stamp with the legend \"Lindbergh Flies Atlantic\" (Scott #3184m) depicting Lindbergh and the \"Spirit\" was issued as part of the Celebrate the Century stamp sheet series." ] }

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(circa 1932).  (Photo by Hulton Archive/Getty Images)\nBy Dani Alexis Ryskamp, Contributing Writer\nUpdated November 02, 2015.\nWho Was Amelia Earhart?\nAs a pilot, Amelia Earhart set many world flying records. She became the first woman to fly across the Atlantic Ocean and the first person to make a solo flight across both the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. Earhart also set several height and speed records in an airplane.\nDespite all these records, Amelia Earhart is perhaps best remembered for her mysterious disappearance, which has become one of the enduring mysteries of the 20th century. While attempting to become the first woman to fly around the world, she disappeared on July 2, 1937 while heading toward Howland's Island.\nDates: July 24, 1897 -- July 2, 1937(?)\nAlso Known As: Amelia Mary Earhart, Lady Lindy\nAmelia Earhart’s Childhood\nAmelia Mary Earhart was born in her maternal grandparents’ home in Atchison, Kansas, on July 24, 1897 to Amy and Edwin Earhart. Although Edwin was a lawyer, he never earned the approval of Amy’s parents, Judge Alfred Otis and his wife, Amelia.\ncontinue reading below our video\nWhat are the Seven Wonders of the World\nIn 1899, two-and-a-half years after Amelia’s birth, Edwin and Amy welcomed another daughter, Grace Muriel, into the world.\nAmelia Earhart spent much of her early childhood living with her Otis grandparents in Atchison during the school months and then spending her summers with her parents. Earhart’s early life was filled with outdoor adventures combined with the etiquette lessons expected of upper-middle-class girls of her day.\nAmelia (known as “Millie” in her youth) and her sister Grace Muriel (known as “Pidge”) loved to play together, especially outdoors. After visiting the World’s Fair in St. Louis in 1904 , Amelia decided she wanted to build her own mini roller coaster in her backyard. Enlisting Pidge to help, the two built a homemade roller coaster on the roof of the tool shed, using planks, a wooden box, and lard for grease. Amelia took the first ride, which ended with a crash and some bruises – but she loved it.\nBy 1908, Edwin Earhart had closed his private law firm and was working as a lawyer for a railroad in Des Moines, Iowa; thus, it was time for Amelia to move back in with her parents. That same year, her parents took her to the Iowa State Fair where 10-year-old Amelia saw an airplane for the very first time. Surprisingly, the airplane didn’t interest her.\nProblems at Home\nAt first, life in Des Moines seemed to be going well for the Earhart family; however, it soon became obvious that Edwin had started to heavily drink alcohol. When his alcoholism got worse, Edwin eventually lost his job in Iowa and had trouble finding another.\nIn 1915, with the promise of a job with the Great Northern Railway in St. Paul, Minnesota, the Earhart family packed up their belongings and moved. However, the job fell through once they got there. Tired of her husband’s alcoholism and the family’s increasing money troubles, Amy Earhart moved herself and her daughters to Chicago, leaving their father behind in Minnesota. Edwin and Amy eventually divorced in 1924.\nDue to her family’s frequent moves, Amelia Earhart switched high schools six times, making it hard for her to make or keep friends during her teen years. She did well in her classes, but preferred sports. She graduated from Chicago’s Hyde Park High School in 1916 and is listed in the school’s yearbook as “the girl in brown who walks alone.” Later in life, however, she was known for her friendly and outgoing nature.\nAfter high school, Earhart went to the Ogontz School in Philadelphia, but she soon dropped out to become a nurse for returning World War I soldiers and for victims of the influenza epidemic of 1918 .\nFirst Flights\nIt wasn’t until 1920, when Earhart was 23 years old, that she developed an interest in airplanes. While visiting her father in California, she attended an air show and the stunt-flying feats she watched convinced her that she had to try flying for herself.\nEarhart took her first flying lesson on January 3, 1921. According to her instructors, Earhart wasn’t a “natural” at piloting an airplane; instead, she made up for a lack of talent with plenty of hard work and a passion for flying. Earhart received her “Aviator Pilot” certification from the Federation Aeronautique Internationale on May 16, 1921 -- a major step for any pilot at the time.\nSince her parents could not afford to pay for her lessons, Earhart worked several jobs to raise the money herself. She also saved up the money to buy her own airplane, a small Kinner Airster she called the Canary. In the Canary, she broke the women’s altitude record on October 22, 1922 by becoming the first woman to reach 14,000 feet in an airplane.\nEarhart Becomes the First Woman to Fly Over the Atlantic\nIn 1927, aviator Charles Lindbergh made history by becoming the first person to fly non-stop across the Atlantic, from the U.S. to England. A year later, Amelia Earhart was asked to make a non-stop flight across the same ocean. She had been discovered by publisher George Putnam, who had been asked to look for a suitable female pilot to complete this feat. Since this was not to be a solo flight, Earhart joined a crew of two other aviators, both men.\nOn June 17, 1928, the journey began when the Friendship, a Fokker F7 specially outfitted for the trip, took off from Newfoundland bound for England. Ice and fog made the trip difficult and Earhart spent much of the flight scribbling notes in a journal while her co-pilots, Bill Stultz and Louis Gordon, handled the plane.\nOn June 18, 1928, after 20 hours and 40 minutes in the air, the Friendship landed in South Wales. Although Earhart said she did not contribute any more to the flight than “a sack of potatoes” would have, the press saw her accomplishment differently. They started calling Earhart “Lady Lindy,” after Charles Lindbergh. Shortly after this trip, Earhart published a book about her experiences, titled 20 Hours 40 Minutes.\nBefore long, Amelia Earhart was looking for new records to break in her own airplane. A few months after publishing 20 Hours 40 Minutes, she flew solo across the United States and back -- the first time a female pilot had made the journey alone. In 1929, she founded and participated in the Woman’s Air Derby, an airplane race from Santa Monica, California to Cleveland, Ohio with a substantial cash prize. Flying a more powerful Lockheed Vega, Earhart finished third, behind noted pilots Louise Thaden and Gladys O’Donnell.\nOn February 7, 1931, Earhart married publisher George Putnam, the man who had discovered her. Also in 1931, Earhart and several other female aviators banded together to start a professional international organization for female pilots, of which Earhart became the first president. The Ninety-Niners, named because it originally had 99 members, still represents and supports female pilots today. Earhart published a second book about her accomplishments, The Fun of It, in 1932.\nSolo Across the Ocean\nHaving won multiple competitions, flown in air shows, and set new altitude records, Amelia Earhart began looking for a bigger challenge. In 1932, she decided to become the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic. On May 20, 1932, she took off again from Newfoundland, piloting a small Lockheed Vega.\nIt was a dangerous trip: clouds and fog made it difficult to navigate, her plane’s wings became covered with ice, and the plane developed a fuel leak about two-thirds of the way across the ocean. Worse, the altimeter stopped working, so Earhart had no idea how far above the ocean’s surface her plane was -- a situation that nearly resulted in her crashing into the Atlantic Ocean.\nIn serious danger, Earhart abandoned her plans to land at Southampton, England, and made for the first bit of land she saw. She touched down in a sheep pasture in Ireland on May 21, 1932, becoming the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic and the first-ever person to fly across the Atlantic twice.\nThe solo Atlantic crossing was followed by more book deals, meetings with heads of state, and a lecture tour, as well as more flying competitions. In 1935, Earhart also made a solo flight from Hawaii to Oakland, California, becoming the first person to fly solo from Hawaii to the U.S. mainland. This trip also made Earhart the first person to fly solo across both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.\nAmelia Earhart’s Last Flight\nNot long after making her Pacific flight in 1935, Amelia Earhart decided she wanted to try flying around the entire world. A U.S. Army Air Force crew had made the trip in 1924 and male aviator Wiley Post flew around the world by himself in 1931 and 1933.\nBut Earhart had two new goals. First, she wanted to be the first woman to fly solo around the world. Second, she wanted to fly around the world at or near the equator, the planet’s widest point. The previous flights had both circled the world much closer to the North Pole , where the distance was shortest. Earhart wanted to make the longest possible flight around the globe.\nPlanning and preparation for the trip was difficult, time-consuming, and expensive. Her plane, a Lockheed Electra, had to be completely re-fitted with additional fuel tanks, survival gear, scientific instruments, and a state-of-the-art radio. A 1936 test flight ended in a crash that destroyed the plane’s landing gear. Several months passed while the plane was fixed.\nMeanwhile, Earhart and her navigator, Frank Noonan, plotted their course around the world. The most difficult point in the trip would be the flight from Papua New Guinea to Hawaii because it required a fuel stop at Howland’s Island, a small coral island about 1,700 miles west of Hawaii. Aviation maps were poor at the time and the island would be difficult to find from the air.\nHowever, the stop at Howland’s Island was unavoidable because the plane could only carry about half the fuel needed to fly from Papua New Guinea to Hawaii, making a fuel stop essential if Earhart and Noonan were to make it across the South Pacific. As difficult as it might be to find, Howland’s Island seemed like the best choice for a stop since it is positioned approximately half way between Papua New Guinea and Hawaii.\nOnce their course had been plotted and their plane readied, it was time for the final details. It was during this last minute preparation that Earhart decided not to take the full-sized radio antenna that Lockheed recommended, instead opting for a smaller antenna. The new antenna was lighter, but it also could not transmit or receive signals as well, especially in bad weather.\nOn May 21, 1937, Amelia Earhart and Frank Noonan took off from Oakland, California, on the first leg of their trip. The plane landed first in Puerto Rico and then in several other locations in the Caribbean before heading to Senegal. They crossed Africa, stopping several times for fuel and supplies, then went on to Eritrea, India, Burma, Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea. There, Earhart and Noonan prepared for the toughest stretch of the trip -- the landing at Howland’s Island.\nSince every pound in the plane meant more fuel used, Earhart removed every non-essential item -- even the parachutes. The plane was checked and re-checked by mechanics to ensure it was in top condition. However, Earhart and Noonan had been flying for over a month straight by this time and both were tired.\nOn July 2, 1937, Earhart’s plane left Papua New Guinea heading toward Howland’s Island. For the first seven hours, Earhart and Noonan stayed in radio contact with the airstrip in Papua New Guinea. After that, they made intermittent radio contact with the U.S.S. Itsaca, a Coast Guard ship patrolling the waters below. However, reception was poor and messages between the plane and the Itsaca were frequently lost or garbled.\nTwo hours after Earhart’s scheduled arrival at Howland’s Island, at about 10:30 a.m. local time on July 2, 1937, the Itsaca received a last static-filled message that indicated Earhart and Noonan could not see the ship or the island and they were almost out of fuel. The crew of the Itsaca tried to signal the ship’s location by sending up black smoke, but the plane did not appear. Neither the plane, Earhart, nor Noonan were ever seen or heard from again.\nThe Mystery Continues\nThe mystery of what happened to Earhart, Noonan, and the plane has not yet been solved. In 1999, British archaeologists claimed to have found artifacts on a small island in the South Pacific that contained Earhart’s DNA, but the evidence is not conclusive.\nNear the plane’s last known location, the ocean reaches depths of 16,000 feet, well below the range of today’s deep-sea diving equipment. If the plane sank into those depths, it may never be recovered.", "Amelia Earhart Becomes First Woman to Fly Solo across the Atlantic | World History Project\nAmelia Earhart Becomes First Woman to Fly Solo across the Atlantic\nOn May 20-21, 1932, Earhart accomplished her goal of flying solo across the Atlantic Ocean.\nShe took off from Newfoundland, Canada, at 7:12 p.m. on May 20, in her Lockheed Vega. Her flight was filled with dangers, from rapidly changing weather to a broken altimeter so she could not tell how high she was flying, to gasoline leaking into the cockpit. At one point her plane dropped almost 3,000 feet (914 meters) and went into a spin (which she managed to pull out of) and flames were shooting out of the exhaust manifold. She brought her plane down on the coast of Ireland after a harrowing trip lasting 15 hours and 18 minutes The flight was the second solo flight across the Atlantic and the longest nonstop flight by a woman--2,026 miles (3,261 kilometers)--as well as the first flight across the Atlantic by a woman. President Herbert Hoover awarded her the National Geographic Society Medal on June 21, 1932, for her achievement, and the U.S. Congress awarded her the Distinguished Flying Cross, the first woman to receive such an honor. Earhart's accomplishment meant a great deal to the entire world, but especially to women, for it demonstrated that women could set their own course in aviation and other fields.\nSource: US Centennial of Flight Commission Added by: Kevin Rogers\nAt the age of 34, on the morning of May 20, 1932 Earhart set off from Harbour Grace, Newfoundland with the latest copy of a local newspaper (the dated copy was intended to confirm the date of the flight). She intended to fly to Paris in her single engine Lockheed Vega 5b to emulate Charles Lindbergh's solo flight. Her technical advisor for the flight was famed Norwegian American aviator Bernt Balchen who helped prepare her aircraft. He also played the role of \"decoy\" for the press as he was ostensibly preparing Earhart's Vega for his own Arctic flight. After a flight lasting 14 hours, 56 minutes during which she contended with strong northerly winds, icy conditions and mechanical problems, Earhart landed in a pasture at Culmore, north of Derry, Northern Ireland. The landing was witnessed by Cecil King and T. Sawyer. When a farm hand asked, \"Have you flown far?\" Amelia replied, \"From America.\"The site now is the home of a small museum, the Amelia Earhart Centre.\nAs the first woman to fly solo non-stop across the Atlantic, Earhart received the Distinguished Flying Cross from Congress, the Cross of Knight of the Legion of Honor from the French Government and the Gold Medal of the National Geographic Society from President Herbert Hoover. As her fame grew, she developed friendships with many people in high offices, most notably, Eleanor Roosevelt, the First Lady from 1933–1945. Roosevelt shared many of Earhart's interests and passions, especially women's causes. After flying with Earhart, Roosevelt actually obtained a student permit but did not pursue her plans to learn to fly. The two friends communicated frequently throughout their lives.[85] Another famous flyer, Jacqueline Cochran, who the public considered Amelia's greatest rival, also became a confidante and friend during this period.\nSource: Wikipedia Added by: Kevin Rogers\nBy early 1932 no other person had successfully flown solo across the Atlantic since Lindbergh. Amelia would not duplicate Lindbergh's course but would fly from Harbour Grace, Newfoundland with the British Isles as her destination.\nOn May 20, 1932, exactly 5 years after the Lindbergh flight, Amelia's modified Lockheed Vega began the journey. Since she did not drink coffee or tea, she would keep awake by using smelling salts on long trips. Amelia prided herself on traveling light...a thermos of soup and a can of tomato juice would sustain her.\nSomewhat off-course, she landed in an open field near Londonderry in northern Ireland. On climbing from her plane a man approached. She asked:\n\"Where am I?\"...the man replied \"in Gallegher's pasture...have you come far?\"...\"from America\", she replied.\nShe had broken several records on this flight...the first woman to fly the Atlantic solo and only person to fly it twice...the longest non-stop distance flown by a woman...and a record for crossing in the shortest time.\nGeorge joined Amelia in London, and after spending several weeks touring Europe they returned to New York to a tickertape parade. President Hoover presented Amelia with the Special Gold Medal from the National Geographic Society. Honors of all kinds continued to be heaped on Amelia and keys of various cities bestowed. Amelia was voted Outstanding Woman of the Year which she accepted on behalf of \"all women\". The French press ended an article about Amelia's accomplishment with...\"can she bake a cake?\" ...Amelia replied...\n\"So I accept these awards on behalf of the cake bakers and all of those other women who can do some things quite as important, if not more important, than flying, as well as in the name of women flying today.\"\nSource: ellensplace.net Added by: Kevin Rogers\n“\n\"So I accept these awards on behalf of the cake bakers and all of those other women who can do some things quite as important, if not more important, than flying, as well as in the name of women flying today.\"”\n— Amelia Earhart", "Amelia Earhart: The First Woman to Fly Solo Across the Atlantic\nThe First Woman to Fly Solo Across the Atlantic\ncopyrighted by Patricia Chadwick. All rights reserved worldwide.\nReprinted with permission\nAmelia Earhart was born July 24, 1898 in Atchison, Kansas. She was a lively tomboy throughout her childhood and unlike most American women in her generation and generations before, she never outgrew this trait. She volunteered in a Red Cross Hospital during World War I, taught English to immigrant factory workers, and studied pre-med for a short time. But airplanes were her first love.\nAmelia loved excitement. Impressed with stunt fliers and air shows, Amelia learned to fly and became a licensed pilot, making her first solo flight in 1921. Soon she saved enough money to buy her own plane.\nIn 1928, Amelia was asked to be a part of a team of pilots that were to make a transatlantic flight. She accepted and became the first woman to fly across the Atlantic Ocean. She was hallowed by the press and dubbed �Lady Lindy�, winning public affection. But Amelia was not satisfied with this. Because of her adventurous spirit and love for the spotlight, Amelia became determined to perfect her flying skills, making plans to fly the ocean on her own. This she did on May 20, 1932. Amelia achieved a number of flight �firsts�. She was the first woman pilot to fly the Pacific Ocean and the first woman to make a transcontinental flight in an autogyro, the predecessor of the helicopter, which was still in it's developmental stage. But while attempting to fly around the world in 1937, Amelia�s plane vanished and she was presumed lost at sea. She was 39 years old.\nAmelia Earhart was a woman of great courage. She chose to loose herself from the conventional roles of women in her generation and follow her heart, doing what she loved best - flying.\n~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~", "Earhart, Amelia\nEncyclopedia  >  People  >  Science and Technology  >  Aviation: Biographies\nAmelia Earhart\nEarhart, Amelia (ârˈhärt) [ key ], 1897–1937, American aviator, b. Atchison, Kans. She was the first woman to cross the Atlantic by airplane (1928) and the first woman to make a solo flight across the Atlantic (1932). She was also the first person to fly alone from Honolulu to California and to solo nonstop from California to Mexico (both: 1935). In 1937, she attempted with a copilot, Frederick J. Noonan, to fly around the world at the equator, but her plane was lost on the flight between New Guinea and Howland Island. In 1992, a search party reported finding remnants of Earhart's plane on Nikumaroro (formerly Gardner Island), Kiribati, but their claims were disputed by people who had worked on Earhart's plane. Other artifacts that could be from Earhart's flight (but no clear evidence) have been found on Nikumaroro, and her fate remains a mystery. Geraldine Mock later became (1964) the first woman to complete Earhart's round-the-world route. Earhart was married (1931) to George Palmer Putnam , who wrote (1939) a laudatory biography of her.\nSee biographies by M. S. Lovell (1989), D. L. Rich (1996), and S. Butler (1997, repr. 2009); T. E. Devine and R. Daley, Eyewitness: The Amelia Earhart Incident (1987); S. Ware, Still Missing (1993); C. Szabo, Sky Pioneer (1997); T. C. Brennan and R. Rosenbaum, Witness to the Execution: The Odyssey of Amelia Earhart (1999); K. Lubben and E. Barnett, ed., Amelia Earhart: Image and Icon (2007).\nThe Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.\nSee more Encyclopedia articles on: Aviation: Biographies\nAdvertisement\nAdvertisement", "Amelia Earhart Flies Atlantic, First Woman To Do It; Tells Her Own Story of Perilous 21-Hour Trip to Wales; Radio Quit and They Flew Blind Over Invisible Ocean\nRead the full text of The Times article or other headlines from the day.\n \nAmelia Earhart Flies Atlantic, First Woman To Do It; Tells Her Own Story of Perilous 21-Hour Trip to Wales; Radio Quit and They Flew Blind Over Invisible Ocean\nEager Crowds Imperil Miss Earhart As They Welcome Fliers at Burry Port\nPolice Aid Weary Trio to Battle Way to Refuge in Zinc Works--Friends Fly From Southampton to Greet Them and Hear Story of Their Adventures\nBy ALLEN RAYMOND\nSpecial Cable to The New York Times\nRELATED HEADLINES\nFought Rain, Fog and Snow All the Way: Miss Earhart Says Motors Spat and Gas Ran Low, But She Had Neither Fear Nor Doubt of Success: Passed Over Ireland Without Even Seeing It: Wind Aided Plane--Girl Credits Feat to Stultz and Gordon--She Flew Because It Would Have Been 'Too Inartistic to Refuse'\nOTHER HEADLINES\nRitchie Withdraws in Favor of Smith, Urging Party Unity: New Yorker's Nomination Will Assure Democratic Victory, He Asserts: Directs Appeal to South: Smith as President Would Restore Popular Government, Maryland Executive Says: Turns Over His Delegates: Sees Struggle of 1924 Avoided at Houston--Reed Still in Race, Backer Declares\nNobile Vainly Hails Fliers Circling Over But Not Seeing Him: General Radios Base Ship That Rescue Planes Were Over Stranded Men an Hour: Second Flight Also Fails: This Time Italia Castaways Sight One of Planes Piloted by Riiser-Larsen and Holm: Savoia Reaches Kings Bay: Big Italian Seaplane Ready for Dash North--French and Swedish Craft on Way\nPresident of Porto Rican Senate Stabbed and Badly Hurt by a Maniac Anarchist\nSmith Supporters See a Quick Victory: Hope Ritchie's Withdrawal in Favor of Governor Will Be Followed by Others: Aides Start for Houston: Van Namee, Sure of Success, Says \"Steam-Roller\" Methods Will Not Be Used\n12 Injured by Bomb 'Planted' in Detroit: County Building Shaken, Windows Shattered and Hundreds Panic-Stricken: 'Purple' Gang Suspected: Darrow Attending Court Case Is Jarred--Jokes With Judge About Blast\nKeel Laid for Biggest Ship, 1,000 Feet Long; 60,000-Ton 'Oceanic' to Cost $30,000,000\nBurry Port, Carmarthenshire, South Wales, June 18.--The first woman to cross the Atlantic successfully by air, Miss Amelia Earhart, Boston settlement worker, alighted in the seaplane Friendship here this morning on the broad expanse of Loughor estuary, after a flight of 20 hours and 40 minutes elapsed time from Trepassey.\nFew persons saw the gilt-winged Fokker monoplane descend on the Welsh coast, but this evening, when friends rushing from Southampton brought Miss Earhart ashore, she was the recipient of so enthusiastic a reception by the 2,000 inhabitants of this town that it seemed for a few minutes as if she would not outlive her triumph.\nEager Crowds Imperil Aviatrix\nThe arrival of the Friendship was the greatest event this remote district has had since the end of the World War when the town's boys came home. Miss Earhart was nearly crushed by the anxiety of the crowd of men, women and children to touch the hem of her flying suit, get her autograph on a slip of paper, wring her hand and congratulate her upon her triumphant passage over the Atlantic.\nThe High Sheriff of Carmarthenshire, who had rowed out to greet her; the town's three policemen and a couple of friends had to form a ring with locked arms about the latest popular heroine and literally to fight their way a hundred yards from the shore to the office of the local zinc works, where they found shelter back of locked doors.\n\"You must remember,\" the local Police Chief said apologetically, \"that our people never saw anything to compare with this. I advise you to remain here until we get extra police.\"\nThe Friendship's crew were marooned within the walls of the Frickers Metal Company an hour and a half before police reinforcements arrived and cleared a way to the two motor cars to take them to a distant hotel where rest, food and sleep could be obtained after their arduous journey.\nPoor Visibility Forced Landing\nPoor visibility forced the plane to come down on the Welsh coast after the first tentative objective--Valentia, Ireland--had been left far behind, but the possible goal of Southampton not yet reached.\nExcept for the first hour over the Atlantic after leaving the rugged shores of Newfoundland, the fliers never saw sea or land until they had winged their way to the Eastern Irish coast. They flew through fog, rain and snow most of the time, fighting for altitude and clearer weather, but they came fast with the wind behind of twenty to thirty miles per hour speeding them on.\nThey probably had plenty of gasoline left, when they descended, to reach Southampton-- seventy-five gallons--but were struggling in the midst of dense fog and knew they were somewhere off the southern coast of Britain. With their object attained--that of making Miss Earhart the first woman to complete a transatlantic crossing--they decided to take no further risks.\nThey will go on to Southampton tomorrow.\nStultz and Gordon Elated\nThe full story of the flight has yet to be told. The two airmen, Stultz and Gordon, who had the major responsibility and labor of getting the Friendship safely across the ocean, were soon fast asleep after battling their way to the hotel. Both ejaculated their joy at their success and chuckled together over the moments in mid-ocean when they seemed dubious of the outcome.\nMiss Earhart, who came through her experience in fine condition and spirits, struggled against weariness to narrate her experience before she, too, sought sleep.\nThe adventurers, after five false starts in the Harbor of Trepassey, succeeded in lifting the plane only after dropping fifty gallons of gasoline and cutting down the supply to 700 gallons as against 1,000 they had meant originally to carry. Even with the lightened load they barely lifted the plane skyward with two motors cut out because dashed with spray, but soon they were lifting its weight gradually along the Newfoundland coast till Stultz felt sure the engines were running smoothly.\nWeather Good Only at Start\nThey headed for the open sea in excellent weather only to run into continuous fog after an hour's flight.\nAs gasoline was used, lightening the plane, they were enabled to soar 5,000 to 11,000 feet; where most of the way above the clouds they traveled amid a sea of blazing stars, heading, it seemed, into a series of rainbow rings. They received bearings twice from a ship before the radio was out of commission, and encountered bad weather until over Queenstown, Ireland.\nThere they saw ships and tried to drop notes to find their exact location, but failed to obtain an answer.\nStultz turned correctly southward, however, and headed toward Southampton.\nMeanwhile, headed by the Hon. Mrs. Frederick E. Guest, backer of the flight, with her husband, Captain Guest, a member of Parliament and international polo player, and Raymond Guest, former captain of the Yale polo team, there was a large gathering at Southampton awaiting the fliers' arrival. A plane bearing Captain Guest cruised intermittently from noon till 3 P.M. on the lookout. A fast motor launch owned by Hubert Scott Pain, Director of the Imperial Airways, and a noted British sportsman, scudded at a 40-mile an hour gait over the lower harbor awaiting to escort the crew of the Friendship to land.\nAfter hours of anxiety, during which the plane was believed overdue, the watcher at Southampton received the welcome word at 2:45 P.M. that the Friendship was down on the Welsh coast.\nRace to Coast by Plane and Auto\nA race to reach her by plane and high-powered automobile began instantly. A seaplane carrying Captain H.H. Railey, European director of the flight, and The New York Times correspondent, was the first to drop alongside the ocean fliers in Loughor estuary after a three-hour jaunt cutting across Southern England. There were still traces of fog which cut the ocean journey short, but flying low the occupants of the seaplane descried the gilt wings of the Friendship bobbing at a buoy offshore here.\nA final run by motor boat brought the fliers in sight. As Miss Earhart looked from the open doorway of the fuselage and recognized one of her visitors as Captain Railey, he, ending a two weeks' vigil to welcome her, cast his hat skyward with a shout of jubilation and let it float off down the tide.\nThere was an exultant reunion. After a consultation it was decided by Stultz to taxi the plane into the shelter of the Burry Port quays and there the hospitable attack of the Welsh throng began.\nBefore it was ended Miss Earhart had appeared thrice, in the manner of royalty, at a window of the zinc factory to acknowledge the cheers of the dense crowd below; had been served with tea by the wife of the factory foreman and finally battled and tricked her way to a roadside inn near the village as darkness was nearing and the clock struck 9.\nShe had been thirty hours en route to her first comfortable resting place.\n\"Tired and hungry, but cheerful,\" she commented, lounging in her wooly coat and breeches and stout leather boots. \"And we got here all right. There wasn't any race with Miss Boll, but, of course, I'm glad to be the first woman across.\"\nStultz Tells of Difficulties\nCaptain Wilmer Stultz was the first to come ashore after the Friendship had alighted at Burry Port. He declared he was dead tired and explained that he had only enough gasoline left to enable the Friendship to taxi another ten miles.\n\"No one was more thankful than I was,\" he admitted, \"to see the Welsh coast. We had a very bad trip right through and most of the way I was flying blind. I was at the joystick throughout the whole trip and had considerable difficulty in keeping on my course because of the fog and rain. After realizing that we were getting short of gasoline I resolved to come down as soon as a favorable opportunity offered.\n\"Then I saw the estuary, which I now know to be Burry Port, and after circling to make sure everything was clear I landed on the strip of water and fastened up to a buoy.\n\"We are all well, but very, very tired. Miss Earhart is resting on the seaplane, but I came ashore to see about gasoline. At the moment I have not enough to allow us to rise again.\n\"The trip? Well, I don't want to discuss it at the moment. It wasn't a pleasant experience, although everything went perfectly. I had to steer solely by the instruments, and luckily none of them went wrong. We flew at a fair height, but flew blind. When we approached the Welsh coast I had to come down to the ground to see where we were.\"\n\"Tremendous Triumph,\" Says the Hon. Mrs. Guest\nCaptain Guest, who was formerly Minister of Air, and the Hon. Mrs. Guest, who partially financed the Friendship's flight and originally intended to participate in it, were at Southampton when the news arrived that the plane was down at Burry Point.\n\"I regard the flight as a tremendous triumph.\" Mrs. Guest said, \"and ----", "Earhart completes transatlantic flight - May 21, 1932 - HISTORY.com\nEarhart completes transatlantic flight\nPublisher\nA+E Networks\nFive years to the day that American aviator Charles Lindbergh became the first pilot to accomplish a solo, nonstop flight across the Atlantic Ocean, female aviator Amelia Earhart becomes the first pilot to repeat the feat, landing her plane in Ireland after flying across the North Atlantic. Earhart traveled over 2,000 miles from Newfoundland in just under 15 hours.\nUnlike Charles Lindbergh, Earhart was well known to the public before her solo transatlantic flight. In 1928, as a member of a three-person crew, she had become the first woman to cross the Atlantic in an aircraft. Although her only function during the crossing was to keep the plane’s log, the event won her national fame, and Americans were enamored with the daring and modest young pilot. For her solo transatlantic crossing in 1932, she was awarded a Distinguished Flying Cross by the U.S. Congress.\nIn 1935, in the first flight of its kind, she flew solo from Wheeler Field in Honolulu, Hawaii, to Oakland, California, winning a $10,000 award posted by Hawaiian commercial interests. Two years later, she attempted, along with copilot Frederick J. Noonan, to fly around the world, but her plane disappeared near Howland Island in the South Pacific on July 2, 1937. The U.S. Coast Guard cutter Itasca picked up radio messages that she was lost and low in fuel–the last the world ever heard from Amelia Earhart.\nRelated Videos", "Amelia Earhart becomes first woman to fly across the Atlantic | World History Project\nJun 17 1928\nAmelia Earhart becomes first woman to fly across the Atlantic\nAfter Charles Lindbergh's solo flight across the Atlantic in 1927, Amy Phipps Guest, (1873–1959), expressed interest in being the first woman to fly (or be flown) across the Atlantic Ocean.\nAfter deciding the trip was too perilous for her to undertake, she offered to sponsor the project, suggesting they find \"another girl with the right image.\" While at work one afternoon in April 1928, Earhart got a phone call from Capt. Hilton H. Railey, who asked her, \"Would you like to fly the Atlantic?\"\nThe project coordinators (including book publisher and publicist George P. Putnam) interviewed Amelia and asked her to accompany pilot Wilmer Stultz and co-pilot/mechanic Louis Gordon on the flight, nominally as a passenger, but with the added duty of keeping the flight log. The team departed Trepassey Harbor, Newfoundland in a Fokker F.VIIb/3m on June 17, 1928, landing at Burry Port (near Llanelli), Wales, United Kingdom, exactly 20 hours and 40 minutes later.[50] Since most of the flight was on \"instruments\" and Amelia had no training for this type of flying, she did not pilot the aircraft. When interviewed after landing, she said, \"Stultz did all the flying—had to. I was just baggage, like a sack of potatoes.\" She added, \"...maybe someday I'll try it alone.\"\nWhile in England, Earhart is reported as receiving a rousing welcome on June 19, 1928, when landing at Woolston in Southampton, England. She flew the Avro Avian 594 Avian III, SN: R3/AV/101 owned by Lady Mary Heath and later purchased the aircraft and had it shipped back to the United States (where it was assigned “unlicensed aircraft identification mark” 7083).\nWhen the Stultz, Gordon and Earhart flight crew returned to the United States they were greeted with a ticker-tape parade in New York followed by a reception with President Calvin Coolidge at the White House." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Puget_Sound.txt", "Lake_Washington.txt" ], "title": [ "Puget Sound", "Lake Washington" ], "wiki_context": [ "Puget Sound is a sound along the northwestern coast of the U.S. state of Washington, an inlet of the Pacific Ocean, and part of the Salish Sea. It is a complex estuarine system of interconnected marine waterways and basins, with one major and two minor connections to the open Pacific Ocean via the Strait of Juan de Fuca—Admiralty Inlet being the major connection and Deception Pass and Swinomish Channel being the minor. Flow through Deception Pass is approximately equal to 2% of the total tidal exchange between Puget Sound and the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Puget Sound extends approximately 100 mi from Deception Pass in the north to Olympia, Washington in the south. Its average depth is 450 ft and its maximum depth, off Point Jefferson between Indianola and Kingston, is 930 ft. The depth of the main basin, between the southern tip of Whidbey Island and Tacoma, Washington, is approximately 600 ft.\n\nSince 2009, the term Salish Sea has been established by the United States Board on Geographic Names as the collective waters of Puget Sound, the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and the Strait of Georgia. Sometimes the terms \"Puget Sound\" and \"Puget Sound and adjacent waters\" are used for not only Puget Sound proper but also for waters to the north, such as Bellingham Bay and the San Juan Islands region. \n\nThe term \"Puget Sound\" is used not just for the body of water but also the Puget Sound region centered on the sound. Major cities on the sound include Seattle, Tacoma, Olympia, and Everett, Washington. The Seattle metropolitan area also includes Bellevue, Washington, just east of the Sound.\n\nPuget Sound is also the second largest estuary in the United States, behind Chesapeake Bay. \n\nNames\n\nIn 1792 George Vancouver gave the name \"Puget's Sound\" to the waters south of the Tacoma Narrows, in honor of Peter Puget, a Huguenot lieutenant accompanying him on the Vancouver Expedition. This name later came to be used for the waters north of Tacoma Narrows as well. \n\nAn alternative term for Puget Sound, still used by some Native Americans and environmental groups, is Whulge (or Whulj), an anglicization of the Lushootseed name x̌ʷə́lč, which means \"sea, salt water, ocean, or sound.\" \n\nDefinitions\n\nThe USGS defines Puget Sound as all the waters south of three entrances from the Strait of Juan de Fuca The main entrance at Admiralty Inlet is defined as a line between Point Wilson on the Olympic Peninsula, and Point Partridge on Whidbey Island. The second entrance is at Deception Pass along a line from West Point on Whidbey Island, to Deception Island, then to Rosario Head on Fidalgo Island. The third entrance is at the south end of the Swinomish Channel, which connects Skagit Bay and Padilla Bay. Under this definition, Puget Sound includes the waters of Hood Canal, Admiralty Inlet, Possession Sound, Saratoga Passage, and others. It does not include Bellingham Bay, Padilla Bay, the waters of the San Juan Islands or anything farther north.\n\nAnother definition, given by NOAA, subdivides Puget Sound into five basins or regions. Four of these correspond to areas within the USGS definition, but the fifth one, called \"Northern Puget Sound\" includes a large additional region. It is defined as bounded to the north by the international boundary with Canada, and to the west by a line running north from the mouth of the Sekiu River on the Olympic Peninsula. Under this definition significant parts of the Strait of Juan de Fuca and the Strait of Georgia are included in Puget Sound, with the international boundary marking an abrupt and hydrologically arbitrary limit.\n\nAccording to Arthur Kruckeberg, the term \"Puget Sound\" is sometimes used for waters north of Admiralty Inlet and Deception Pass, especially for areas along the north coast of Washington and the San Juan Islands, essentially equivalent to NOAA's \"Northern Puget Sound\" subdivision described above. Kruckeberg uses the term \"Puget Sound and adjacent waters\".\n\nGeology \n\nContinental ice sheets have repeatedly advanced and retreated from the Puget Sound region. The most recent glacial period, called the Fraser Glaciation, had three phases, or stades. During the third, or Vashon Glaciation, a lobe of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet, called the Puget Lobe, spread south about 15,000 years ago, covering the Puget Sound region with an ice sheet about 3000 ft thick near Seattle, and nearly 6000 ft at the present Canada-U.S. border. Since each new advance and retreat of ice erodes away much of the evidence of previous ice ages, the most recent Vashon phase has left the clearest imprint on the land. At its maximum extent the Vashon ice sheet extended south of Olympia to near Tenino, and covered the lowlands between the Olympic and Cascade mountain ranges. About 14,000 years ago the ice began to retreat. By 11,000 years ago it survived only north of the Canadian border.Kruckeberg (1991), pp. 18–23.\n\nThe melting retreat of the Vashon Glaciation eroded the land, creating a drumlin field of hundreds of aligned drumlin hills. Lake Washington and Lake Sammamish (which are ribbon lakes), Hood Canal, and the main Puget Sound basin were altered by glacial forces. These glacial forces are not specifically \"carving\", as in cutting into the landscape via the mechanics of ice/glaciers, but rather eroding the landscape from melt water of the Vashon Glacier creating the drumlin field. As the ice retreated, vast amounts of glacial till were deposited throughout the Puget Sound region. The soils of the region, less than ten thousand years old, are still characterized as immature.\n\nAs the Vashon glacier receded a series of proglacial lakes formed, filling the main trough of Puget Sound and inundating the southern lowlands. Glacial Lake Russell was the first such large recessional lake. From the vicinity of Seattle in the north the lake extended south to the Black Hills, where it drained south into the Chehalis River. Sediments from Lake Russell form the blue-gray clay identified as the Lawton Clay. The second major recessional lake was Glacial Lake Bretz. It also drained to the Chehalis River until the Chimacum Valley, in the northeast Olympic Peninsula, melted, allowing the lake's water to rapidly drain north into the marine waters of the Strait of Juan de Fuca, which was rising as the ice sheet retreated.\n\nAs icebergs calved off the toe of the glacier, their embedded gravels and boulders were deposited in the chaotic mix of unsorted till geologists call glaciomarine drift. Many beaches about the Sound display glacial erratics, rendered more prominent than those in coastal woodland solely by their exposed position; submerged glacial erratics sometimes cause hazards to navigation. The sheer weight of glacial-age ice depressed the landforms, which experienced post-glacial rebound after the ice sheets had retreated. Because the rate of rebound was not synchronous with the post-ice age rise in sea levels, the bed of what is Puget Sound, filled alternately with fresh and with sea water. The upper level of the lake-sediment Lawton Clay now lies about 120 ft above sea level.\n\nThe Puget Sound system consists of four deep basins connected by shallower sills. The four basins are Hood Canal, west of the Kitsap Peninsula, Whidbey Basin, east of Whidbey Island, South Sound, south of the Tacoma Narrows, and the Main Basin, which is further subdivided into Admiralty Inlet and the Central Basin. Puget Sound's sills, a kind of submarine terminal moraine, separate the basins from one another, and Puget Sound from the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Three sills are particularly significant—the one at Admiralty Inlet which checks the flow of water between the Strait of Juan de Fuca and Puget sound, the one at the entrance to Hood Canal (about 175 ft below the surface), and the one at the Tacoma Narrows (about 145 ft). Other sills that present less of a barrier include the ones at Blake Island, Agate Pass, Rich Passage, and Hammersley Inlet.\n\nThe depth of the basins is a result of the Sound being part of the Cascadia subduction zone, where the terranes accreted at the edge of the Juan de Fuca Plate are being subducted under the North American Plate. There has not been a major subduction zone earthquake here since the magnitude nine Cascadia earthquake; according to Japanese records, it occurred 26 January 1700. Lesser Puget Sound earthquakes with shallow epicenters, caused by the fracturing of stressed oceanic rocks as they are subducted, still cause great damage. The Seattle Fault cuts across Puget Sound, crossing the southern tip of Bainbridge Island and under Elliott Bay. To the south, the existence of a second fault, the Tacoma Fault, has buckled the intervening strata in the Seattle Uplift.\n\nTypical Puget Sound profiles of dense glacial till overlying permeable glacial outwash of gravels above an impermeable bed of silty clay may become unstable after periods of unusually wet weather and slump in landslides. \n\nHydrology\n\nThe United States Geological Survey (USGS) defines Puget Sound as a bay with numerous channels and branches; more specifically, it is a fjord system of flooded glacial valleys. Puget Sound is part of a larger physiographic structure termed the Puget Trough, which is a physiographic section of the larger Pacific Border province, which in turn is part of the larger Pacific Mountain System. \n\nPuget Sound is a large salt water estuary, or system of many estuaries, fed by highly seasonal freshwater from the Olympic and Cascade Mountain watersheds. The mean annual river discharge into Puget Sound is 41000 cuft/s, with a monthly average maximum of about 367000 cuft/s and minimum of about 14000 cuft/s. Puget Sound's shoreline is 1332 mi long, encompassing a water area of 1020 sqmi and a total volume of at mean high water. The average volume of water flowing in and out of Puget Sound during each tide is . The maximum tidal currents, in the range of 9 to 10 knots, occurs at Deception Pass.\n\nThe size of Puget Sound's watershed is 12138 sqmi. \"Northern Puget Sound\" is frequently considered part of the Puget Sound watershed, which enlarges its size to 13700 sqmi. The USGS uses the name \"Puget Sound\" for its hydrologic unit subregion 1711, which includes areas draining to Puget Sound proper as well as the Strait of Juan de Fuca, the Strait of Georgia, and the Fraser River. Significant rivers that drain to \"Northern Puget Sound\" include the Nooksack, Dungeness, and Elwha Rivers. The Nooksack empties into Bellingham Bay, the Dungeness and Elwha into the Strait of Juan de Fuca. The Chilliwack River flows north to the Fraser River in Canada.\n\nTides in Puget Sound are of the mixed type with two high and two low tides each tidal day. These are called Higher High Water (HHW), Lower Low Water (LLW), Lower High Water (LHW), and Higher Low Water (HLW). The configuration of basins, sills, and interconnections cause the tidal range to increase within Puget Sound. The difference in height between the Higher High Water and the Lower Low Water averages about at Port Townsend on Admiralty Inlet, but increases to about at Olympia, the southern end of Puget Sound.\n\nPuget Sound is generally accepted as the start of the Inside Passage. \n\nFlora and fauna\n\nImportant marine flora of Puget Sound include eelgrass (Zostera marina) and kelp, especially bull kelp (Nereocystis luetkeana). \n\nAmong the marine mammals species found in Puget Sound are harbor seals (Phoca vitulina). Orca (Orcinus orca) are famous throughout the Sound, and are a large tourist attraction. Although orca are sometimes seen in Puget Sound proper they are far more prevalent around the San Juan Islands north of Puget Sound. \n\nMany fish species occur in Puget Sound. The various salmonid species, including salmon, trout, and char are particularly well-known and studied. Salmonid species of Puget Sound include chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), chum salmon (O. keta), coho salmon (O. kisutch), pink salmon (O. gorbuscha), sockeye salmon (O. nerka), sea-run coastal cutthroat trout (O. clarki clarki), steelhead (O. mykiss irideus), sea-run bull trout (Salvelinus confluentus), and Dolly Varden trout (Salvelinus malma malma). \n\nCommon forage fishes found in Puget Sound include Pacific herring (Clupea pallasii), surf smelt (Hypomesus pretiosus), and Pacific sand lance (Ammodytes hexapterus). Important benthopelagic fish of Puget Sound include North Pacific hake (Merluccius productus), Pacific cod (Gadus macrocelhalus), walleye pollock (Theragra chalcogramma), and the spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias). There are about 28 species of Sebastidae (rockfish), of many types, found in Puget Sound. Among those of special interest are copper rockfish (Sebastes caurinus), quillback rockfish (S. maliger), black rockfish (S. melanops), yelloweye rockfish (S. ruberrimus), bocaccio rockfish (S. paucispinis), canary rockfish (S. pinniger), and Puget Sound rockfish (S. emphaeus). \n\nMany other fish species occur in Puget Sound, such as sturgeons, lampreys, various sharks, rays, and skates. \n\nPuget Sound is home to numerous species of marine invertebrates, including sponges, sea anemones, chitons, clams, sea snails, limpets crabs, barnacles starfish, sea urchins, and sand dollars. Dungeness crabs (Metacarcinus magister) occur throughout Washington waters, including Puget Sound. Many bivalves occur in Puget Sound, such as Pacific oysters (Crassostrea gigas) and geoduck clams (Panopea generosa). The Olympia oyster (Ostreola conchaphila), once common in Puget Sound, was depleted by human activities during the 20th century. There are ongoing efforts to restore Olympia oysters in Puget Sound. \n\nThere are many seabird species of Puget Sound. Among these are grebes such as the western grebe (Aechmophorus occidentalis); loons such as the common loon (Gavia immer); auks such as the pigeon guillemot (Cepphus columba), rhinoceros auklet (Cerorhinca monocerata), common murre (Uria aalge), and marbled murrelet (Brachyramphus marmoratus); the brant goose (Branta bernicla); seaducks such as the long-tailed duck (Clangula hyemalis), harlequin duck (Histrionicus histrionicus), and surf scoter (Melanitta perspicillata); and cormorants such as the double-crested cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus). Puget Sound is home to a non-migratory and marine-oriented subspecies of great blue herons (Ardea herodias fannini). Bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) occur in relative high densities in the Puget Sound region. \n\nIt is estimated that more than 100 million geoducks (pronounced \"gooey ducks\") are packed into Puget Sound's sediments. Also known as \"king clam\", geoducks are considered to be a delicacy in Asian countries.\n\nHistory\n\nGeorge Vancouver explored Puget Sound in 1792. Vancouver claimed it for Great Britain on 4 June 1792, naming it for one of his officers, Lieutenant Peter Puget. \n\nAfter 1818 Britain and the United States, which both claimed the Oregon Country, agreed to \"joint occupancy\", deferring resolution of the Oregon boundary dispute until the 1846 Oregon Treaty. Puget Sound was part of the disputed region until 1846, after which it became US territory.\n\nAmerican maritime fur traders visited Puget Sound in the early 19th century. \n\nThe first European settlement in the Puget Sound area was Fort Nisqually, a fur trade post of the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) built in 1833. Fort Nisqually was part of the HBC's Columbia District, headquartered at Fort Vancouver. The Puget Sound Agricultural Company, a subsidiary of the HBC, established farms and ranches near Fort Nisqually. British ships such as the Beaver, exported foodstuffs and provisions from Fort Nisqually. \n\nThe first American settlement on Puget Sound was Tumwater. It was founded in 1845 by Americans who had come via the Oregon Trail. The decision to settle north of the Columbia River was made in part because one of the settlers, George Washington Bush, was considered black and the Provisional Government of Oregon banned the residency of mulattoes but did not actively enforce the restriction north of the river. \n\nIn 1853 Washington Territory was formed from part of Oregon Territory. In 1888 the Northern Pacific railroad line reached Puget Sound, linking the region to eastern states. \n\nTransportation\n\nA unique state-run ferry system, the Washington State Ferries, connects the larger islands to the Washington mainland, as well as both sides of the sound, allowing people and cars to move about the greater Puget Sound region.\n\nEnvironmental issues\n\nIn the past 30 years there has been a large recession in the populations of the species which inhabit Puget Sound. The decrease has been seen in the populations of: forage fish, salmonids, bottom fish, marine birds, harbor porpoise and orcas. This decline is attributed to the various environmental issues in Puget Sound. Because of this population decline, there have been changes to the fishery practices, and an increase in petitioning to add species to the Endangered Species Act. There has also been an increase in recovery and management plans for many different area species.\n\nThe causes of these environmental issues are toxic contamination, eutrophication (low oxygen due to excess nutrients), and near shore habitat changes.\n\nProminent islands\n\n* Anderson Island\n* Bainbridge Island\n* Blake Island\n* Camano Island\n* Fidalgo Island\n\n* Fox Island\n* Guemes Island\n* Harstine Island\n* Herron Island\n* Indian Island\n* Marrowstone Island\n\n* Maury Island\n* McNeil Island\n* Squaxin Island\n* Vashon Island\n* Whidbey Island", "Lake Washington is a large freshwater lake adjacent to the city of Seattle. It is the largest lake in King County and the second largest natural lake in the state of Washington, after Lake Chelan. It is bordered by the cities of Seattle on the west, Bellevue and Kirkland on the east, Renton on the south and Kenmore on the north, and surrounds Mercer Island. The lake is fed by the Sammamish River at its north end and the Cedar River at its south.\n\nLake Washington received its present name in 1854 after Thomas Mercer suggested it be named after George Washington, as the new Washington Territory had been named the year before. Prior names for Lake Washington have included the Duwamish name Xacuabš (Lushootseed: literally great-amount-of-water), as well as Lake Geneva, Lake Duwamish, and the Chinook jargon name, \"Hyas Chuck,\" meaning, \"Big Lake.\" \n\nThe lake provides great sport fishing opportunities. Some species found in this lake are Coastal Cutthroat Trout, Rainbow Trout, Largemouth Bass, Smallmouth Bass, Yellow Perch, and Black Crappie. \n\nGeography\n\nA ribbon lake, Lake Washington is long, narrow and finger-like. Ribbon lakes are excavated by glaciers. As the Puget lobe of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet flowed south near the end of the Late Pleistocene, it met bands of harder and softer rock. Erosion of the softer rock was faster and a linear depression was created in the flow direction. When the glacier melted, the lake filled with the meltwater, which was retained by moraine deposits. A dam can also be created by the bands of harder rock either side of the softer rock. There is usually a river at both ends of a ribbon lake, one being the inlet, and the other, the outlet—though in the case of present-day Lake Washington, inlet rivers are located at both ends, with a man-made outlet in the middle.\n\nCreeks and rivers\n\nThe main inflowing rivers are the Sammamish and Cedar Rivers. Prior to the construction of the Lake Washington Ship Canal in 1916, the Sammamish was the primary source of water for Lake Washington. The creation of the ship canal lowered the water level of Lake Washington by 8 feet (8.5 m), which slightly increased the flow of the Sammamish River (seasonal changes in river flow were moderated by a weir at the Lake Sammamish outlet in 1964). As part of the ship canal project, the Cedar River was diverted into Lake Washington, and it is now the primary source of water for Lake Washington.\n\nIn addition, there are numerous small creeks and rivers which feed the lake, including:[http://www.cedarriver.org/the-watershed \"The Watershed\"]. Friends of the Cedar River Watershed. Accessed 10 December 2014.\n\n* Coal Creek\n* Fairweather Creek\n* Forbes Creek\n* Juanita Creek\n* Kelsey Creek\n* Lyon Creek\n* May Creek\n* McAleer Creek\n* Mercer Slough\n* Ravenna Creek\n* Taylor Creek\n* Thornton Creek\n* Yarrow Creek\n* Yesler Creek\n\nCanals and bridges\n\nBefore construction of the Lake Washington Ship Canal in 1916, Lake Washington's outlet was the Black River, which joined the Duwamish River and emptied into Elliott Bay. When the canal was opened the level of the lake dropped nearly nine feet (3 m). The canal to the Puget Sound became the lake's sole outlet, causing the Black River to dry up and disappear.\n\nConcrete floating bridges are employed to span the lake because Lake Washington's depth and muddy bottom prevented the emplacement of the pilings or towers necessary for the construction of a causeway or suspension bridge. The bridges consist of hollow concrete pontoons that float atop the lake, anchored with cables to each other and to weights on the lake bottom. The roadway is constructed atop these concrete pontoons. Three floating bridges cross Lake Washington: the Evergreen Point Floating Bridge (officially the SR 520 Albert D. Rosellini Evergreen Point Floating Bridge) carries State Route 520 from Seattle's Montlake neighborhood to Medina while the Lacey V. Murrow Memorial Bridge and the Third Lake Washington Bridge (officially the Homer M. Hadley Memorial Bridge) carry Interstate 90 from Seattle's Mount Baker neighborhood to Mercer Island. The East Channel Bridge carries Interstate 90 from Mercer Island to Bellevue. The Evergreen Point, Lacey V. Murrow, and Third Lake Washington bridges are the longest, second longest, and fifth longest floating bridges in the world, respectively.\n\nMany questioned the wisdom of concrete floating bridge technology after the sinking of a portion of the Lacey V. Murrow bridge on November 25, 1990. However, a Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) investigation revealed that that incident resulted from the improper handling of hydrodemolition water being used during bridge renovations, rather than in any basic flaw in the bridge's concept or design. Concrete floating bridges continue to remain a viable means for the conveyance of vehicle traffic over Lake Washington. \n\nIn 1950, approximately one year after the tolls were removed from the Murrow bridge, the inland ferry system on the lake came to an end, having operated since the 1880s. \n\nShoreline cities and towns\n\nThe cities and towns bordering the lake, going clockwise from the west, are Seattle, Lake Forest Park, Kenmore, Kirkland, Yarrow Point, Hunts Point, Medina, Bellevue, Beaux Arts Village, Newcastle, and Renton. The city of Mercer Island occupies the island of the same name, in the southern half of the lake.\n\nBusinesses\n\nKenmore Air operates passenger seaplane service at Kenmore Air Harbor at the northern end of the lake.\n\nWater purity\n\nAround 1900, Seattle began discharging sewage into Lake Washington. During the 1940s and 1950s, eleven sewage treatment plants were sending state-of-the-art treated water into the lake at a rate of 20 million gallons per day. At the same time, phosphate-based detergents came into wide-use. The lake responded to the massive input of nutrients by developing unpleasant blooms of noxious blue-green algae. The water lost its clarity, the desirable fish populations declined, and masses of dead algae accumulated on the shores of the lake. After significant pollution, the October 5, 1963 issue of the Post Intelligencer referred to the lake as \"Lake Stinko\". Citizen concern led to the creation of a system that diverted the treatment-plant effluents into nearby Puget Sound, where tidal flushing would mix them with open-ocean water. The diversion was complete by 1968, and the lake responded quickly. The algal blooms diminished, the water regained its clarity, and by 1975, recovery was complete. Careful studies by a group of limnologists from the University of Washington showed that phosphate was the culprit. Since then, Lake Washington has undergone major improvements, drastically improving the ecology and water quality, making the water twice as clear as it was in 1950." ] }

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A Travel Guide", "The Puget Sound Region - Seattle Colleges", "Puget Sound – Travel guide at Wikivoyage", "Bremerton, WA - Bremerton, Washington Map & Directions ...", "Lake Washington Ship Canal - HistoryLink", "Puget Sound Seattle, Washington State - VirtualTourist", "Brief History of Seattle - CityArchives | seattle.gov" ], "url": [ "http://www.gonorthwest.com/washington/puget/Puget_Sound.htm", "http://www.seattlecolleges.edu/hr/pugetSound.aspx", "https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Puget_Sound", "https://www.mapquest.com/us/wa/bremerton-282039842", "http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=1444", "https://www.virtualtourist.com/travel/North_America/United_States_of_America/Washington_State/Seattle-894670/Things_To_Do-Seattle-Puget_Sound-BR-1.html", "http://www.seattle.gov/cityarchives/seattle-facts/brief-history-of-seattle" ], "search_context": [ "Puget Sound Washington - Go Northwest! A Travel Guide\nNovels set in the Puget Sound\n\"Superspill\" by Mary Kay Becker, 1974.\nAn hour-by-hour account of the havoc wrought by spreading oil after a tanker goes aground.\n\"Mighty Mountain\" by Archie Binns, 1940.\nHistorical novel about the Puget Sound country in the mid-1800s, highlighting relations between the Indians and the White settlers.\n\"The Timber Beast\" by Archie Binns, 1944.\nCharlie Dow typifies the old style logging operator in this story of the Sound's lumber industry.\n\"Mom Counted Six\" by Mac Gardner, 1944.\nWarm and humorous chronicle of a family who live in a Puget Sound mill town. (Gardner was born and grew up in the Puget Sound area.)\nMore Washington\nList with Go Northwest!\nThe Puget Sound region is home to the majority of Washington State citizens who live in the bustling cities and suburbs that extend north to south from Stanwood to Olympia. Most Puget Sound communities lie on either side of the north-south Interstate 5 corridor that serves as the major traffic thoroughfare of the state.\nPuget Sound itself is a body of water lying east of Admiralty Inlet, through which ocean waters reach inland some 50 miles from the Pacific Coast to provide all-weather ports for ocean-going ships at Seattle, Tacoma and Olympia. The waterway is a complex and intricate system of channels, inlets, estuaries, embayments and islands.\nCommon usage has broadened the Sound's description to include the surrounding lowlands extending east to the Cascade Mountains and the various cities and towns lying therein. Such usage also includes Whidbey , Camano, and Fidalgo islands as well as the Kitsap Peninsula .\nOutside Admiralty Inlet and beyond Whidbey Island to the north, lie the popular San Juan Islands between the Strait of Juan de Fuca and the Strait of Georgia. This small group of islands is a favorite playground and weekend get-away destination for residents of the region and their northern neighbors in British Columbia , Canada.\nPuget Sound Cities\nSeattle , the state's largest city, lies in the center of the Puget Sound region and sits between Elliot Bay and Lake Washington. Across the Sound is Bainbridge Island , the Kitsap Peninsula and Olympic Peninsula . To the east, and across Lake Washington, is Seattle's near neighbor Bellevue .\nOther major cities situated on the Sound include Everett , Olympia and Tacoma . On the west side of the Sound are the cities of Bremerton , Port Orchard and Shelton .\nVacationing in Puget Sound\nThe Puget Sound area offers a rich variety of vacation, recreational and holiday pursuits including big-city life, island retreats, cozy bed and breakfasts, romantic country inns and first-class resorts. There is plenty of sightseeing, hiking, kayaking, and boating activities to keep in shape and make one wish for a longer Puget Sound holiday.\nSee individual cities and towns for additional visitor information as well as information on accommodations, activities and attractions in specific cities. When looking for a city or town, you can choose from either an alphabetical list, or, a list by region .", "Human Resources at Seattle Colleges\nContact Us\nLiving in the Puget Sound Region\nThe majority of Washington State citizens have chosen the Puget Sound region as their home in cities and suburbs that extend north to Stanwood and south to Olympia. Most communities lay either side of the north-south Interstate Highway 5 corridor that serves as the state’s the major traffic thoroughfare.\nPuget Sound itself is a body of water lying east of Admiralty Inlet, through which ocean waters reach inland some 50 miles from the Pacific Coast to provide all-weather ports for ocean-going ships at Seattle, Tacoma and Olympia. The waterway is a complex and intricate system of channels, inlets, estuaries, embayments and islands.\nTo the north, passing through Admiralty Inlet, beyond Whidbey Island lie the San Juan Islands between the Strait of Juan de Fuca and the Strait of Georgia. This small group of islands serves as a favorite weekend get-away destination for not only residents of the region but their northern neighbors in British Columbia, Canada.\nSeattle, which is the state's largest city, lies in the center of the Puget Sound region and sits between Elliot Bay and Lake Washington. Across the Sound are Bainbridge Island, the Kitsap Peninsula and Olympic Peninsula. To the east, and across Lake Washington, is the neighboring city of Bellevue.\nThe Puget Sound includes the surrounding lowlands extending east to the Cascade Mountains, and the various cities and towns lying therein, including Whidbey, Camano, the Fidalgo islands, and the Kitsap Peninsula.\nSeattle is a city offering many amenities in town and many adventures in the nearby mountains, lakes, rivers, and Puget Sound. It is a place where you will encounter friendly faces while wandering through Pike Place Market or while enjoying a hot cup of coffee at one of the inviting local coffeehouses. The Seattle area offers many activities for both the outdoor enthusiast and the urban connoisseur.\nThe nearby mountain ranges of the Olympics and the Cascades mean opportunities for camping, hiking, backpacking, bicycling, and rock climbing in the summer, and snowshoeing, skiing, and snowboarding in the winter. The many waterways allow for adventurous canoeing, kayaking, and boating.\nSeattle is filled with unique neighborhoods, parks, museums and shops. The city offers a wide variety of restaurants ranging from a casual meal at a cafe to formal dining at a luxurious restaurant overlooking the skyline and Puget Sound. After a delicious meal, you can see a show at the 5th Avenue, Intiman, and numerous other theatres, drop by a local clubs like the Triple Door, Jazz Alley, and Tractor Tavern to hear some incredible music, or attend one of the Mariners or Seahawks sporting events.\nTake a virtual tour (Source: City of Seattle’s Office of Economic Development)\nSeattle Colleges\nThis page maintained by the Seattle Colleges Employee Services department. Contact [email protected] with any questions\n© 2016 Seattle Colleges\n1500 Harvard Avenue, Seattle, WA 98122\n206.934.4100", "Puget Sound – Travel guide at Wikivoyage\nRegions[ edit ]\nIt is difficult to break down Puget Sound into smaller regions because there are so many different geographic, cultural and political ideas that it entails. Locals generally refer to Puget Sound as both the body of water and the geographic area surrounding it, but even different bodies of government define Puget Sound as having different physical boundaries. For the sake of clarity we will use the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)official breakdown into five main regions.\nNorth Puget Sound , region lies north of the Admiralty Inlet and Port Townsend and west of Whidbey Island. Includes the city of Bellingham and the picturesque San Juan Islands .\nKing County , where Seattle is located, also has some unique suburbs, such as Bellevue , Redmond , Woodinville , Kent and much more that extend north, east and south from the core. Bordered to the west by the Kitsap Peninsula this region also includes Vashon Island and Blake Island .\nCities[ edit ]\nmap of Puget Sound with major cities\nThe Puget Sound Region has many cities, check in the subregion articles for more of them. Some areas might be mentioned here but be covered more broadly in other subregion articles. For example Port Townsend is located on the shores of Puget Sound but it actually falls under the Olympic Peninsula subregion.\nBellevue lies across Lake Washington to the east of Seattle. It is the fifth largest city in the state.\nBremerton is the main city within the Kitsap Peninsula . This harbor town is fun place to explore.\nEverett is the main city on the North Sound.\nGig Harbor small historical harbor town near the Tacoma Narrows Bridge.\nOlympia lies at the southernmost bit of Puget Sound. It is the beautiful state capital.\nPort Orchard classic harbor town with downtown shopping area on the Kitsap Peninsula.\nPort Townsend historic port with its turn of the century buildings is popular with tourists.\nRedmond , home of Microsoft, is on the Eastside of Seattle and offers parks, shopping, and more.\nSeattle is by far the largest city in the region. It is the heart of a vibrant metropolitan area and a major tourist destination.\nSilverdale is a popular town on the Kitsap Peninsula with amazing views of Puget Sound.\nTacoma is another major city in the South Sound. Formerly mostly industrial, the city center has been beautified, and the city now offers attractions such as the famous Museum of Glass, Point Defiance Park, and the Washington State History Museum.\nOther destinations[ edit ]\nPuget Sound area offers a vast variety of areas from thick rain forests and rocky wild rivers to sophisticated urban areas with an international cultural influence.\nHistory[ edit ]\nPuget Sounds complex series of waterways were formed from receding glaciers that left the area about 14,000 years ago cutting deep into the land forming valleys that eventually flooded creating the intricate landscape that we know today.\nAccording to scientific data the first people arrived in Puget Sound about 12,000 years ago, but according to native Suquamish people, legend says that all of the earth was water, then the Old One dried the land and created everything from mud, he used the last mud balls from the earth to create the people. Then he sent Coyote to teach the people how to live with the earth, Coyote traveled the earth teaching the people and making life better for them.\nBy 1792 when Captain George Vancouver named the area after one of his officers and declared the area for Great Briton, the Suquamish and Salish people had already developed a multi facetted and complex society of their own. The Suquamish people called Puget Sound the Lushootseed name 'WulcH, which simply means \"Salt Water\". For thousands of years the Suquamish traveled the waters of Puget Sound in well designed cedar canoes and before settlers developed roadways a complex series of ferries known as the ‘Mosquito Fleet’ was also the main way people and goods were transported around the area and waters of Puget Sound became the first regional highway.\nOnce the Washington Territory was established in 1853, the U.S. government began signing treaties with area tribes to acquire their lands. The Suquamish people ceded most of their land to the United States and logging came into the area in full force. The areas once impassible thick forests gave way to farms, towns and industry as lumber was shipped off to areas such as San Francisco or burned as fuel for the growing fleet of boats.\nToday the area has grown in international influence with economic powerhouses such as Boeing, Starbucks and Microsoft whose global reach is far beyond Washington State borders. Seattle is the largest cosmopolitan city with millions of people and the regions cultural influence is profound with many artistic and cultural endeavors reaching an international audience. Yet through all of this growth and change the people of the region are still tied to Puget Sound not only for transportation and source of food but as the symbolic center of area culture.\nBoundaries[ edit ]\nDespite common belief and contrary to widespread usage there is some debate on the exact boundaries of the area we call Puget Sound. For the sake of clarity we are using the boundaries established by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) which draws the northern border along the Canadian border and Straight of Georgia. There has been a recent popular movement to officially name the area that contains the Strait of Juan De Fuca, all of Puget Sound and the Strait of Georgia as the Salish Sea, in honor of the native people of the region (referred to as 'First Nations' people by Canadians).\nTalk[ edit ]\nThe Pacific Northwest accent spoken in the Puget Sound region is considered very similar to the General American standard accent (native to the Midwest), popularized in the 20th century by radio, TV and movies. People in the area generally have little to no problem understanding different accents of the English language. The Pacific Northwest attracts tourists from around the world, and it is common to hear many foreign languages being spoken in public in major tourist areas.\nThere are ethnically diverse neighborhoods in the Seattle area where many languages are spoken, including a large International District where many Asian languages are spoken. Washington is the thirteenth most populated state for example, but by comparison has the fourth highest Asian population. Seattle's 98118 zip code centered around the Columbia City neighborhood in South Seattle is considered the most ethnically diverse zip code in the country by the US Census bureau with 59 different languages regularly being spoken.\nChinook Jargon was a pidgin or trade language established among indigenous inhabitants of the region. After contact with Europeans, French, English, and Cree words entered the language, and \"eventually Chinook became the lingua franca for as many as 250,000 people along the Pacific Slope from Alaska to Oregon.\" Chinook Jargon reached its height of usage in the 19th century though remained common in resource and wilderness areas, particularly but not exclusively by Native Americans and Canadian First Nations people, well into the 20th century. Chinook Jargon was still in use in Seattle until roughly the eve of World War II, making Seattle the last city where the language was widely used. Today its influence is felt mostly in place names and a handful of localized slang terms. Pronunciation of some of these terms is difficult and often separates the visitor from the local including Alki, Seattle, Kitsap, Yakima, Duwamish and Lummi.\nBy air[ edit ]\nsea plane leaving San Juan Islands\nSeattle-Tacoma International Airport ( IATA : SEA), universally nicknamed \"Sea-Tac\", is located in the city's southern suburbs. Domestically it's a major hub for Northwest and West Coast destinations, and internationally handles especially frequent trans-Pacific routes, as well as direct flights to the major European airports. The airport is about a 25-minute drive from downtown Seattle when there isn't heavy traffic, much longer during rush hour. All informations about the airport, including any means of ground transportation, is covered in a separate article.\nBy train[ edit ]\nAmtrak has three train services that serve the Puget Sound area. Cities served are Seattle , Tukwila , Tacoma , Olympia , Edmonds , and Everett : see the \"Get in\" sections of those cities for more details.\nThe Coast Starlight train starts in Seattle and heads south through Tukwilla, Tacoma, Olympia, Portland , and ultimately San Francisco and Los Angeles in California.\nThe Empire Builder starts in Seattle, goes to Everett then heads east across the mountains to Spokane and eventually Minneapolis and Chicago .\nAmtrak Cascades is a regional train service that goes north from Seattle to Vancouver and south to Portland and Eugene .\nBy car[ edit ]\nI-5 is the main freeway running north-south; going north to Vancouver and south to Portland and California . I-90 goes east from Seattle to Spokane , Chicago and ultimately Boston . Other east-west routes include US-2 over Stevens Pass from Everett and SR-410 from Tacoma (closed in winter).\nBy bus[ edit ]\nBellAir Airporter , (company office & bus garage) 1416 Whitehorn St, Ferndale, WA 98248,  ☎ +1 360 380-8880 , toll-free: +1-866-235-5247 . offers 11 Round-Trips Daily to Sea-Tac from Blaine, Birch Bay, Lynden, Ferndale, Bellingham, Burlington, Stanwood and Marysville along the I-5 corridor. They offer a second route from Burlington to the Anacortes/San Juan Ferry Terminal via La Conner and Anacortes. Passengers coming typically transfer in Burlington from the I-5 Corridor route to continue westward to the Anacortes/San Juan Ferry Terminal. \nBoltBus , toll-free: +1-877-BOLTBUS (2658287) . Direct service into the region from Portland to the south and from Vancouver , BC in north. $1 if lucky; up to $30. \nGreyhound , toll-free: +1-800-231-2222 . Runs along the I-5 corridor between Seattle and Vancouver, BC (via Everett, Mt Vernon & Bellingham) on one route and to Portland (via Tacoma, Olympia, Centralia & Kelso) on the other. They also run along I-90 across eastern Washington between Seattle, Spokane and Missoula, MT. Prices varies depending on travel from which departure point to which destination point.. \nQuick Shuttle . Runs between Seattle and Vancouver, BC. Stops in Downtown Seattle (outside the Best Western at 200 Taylor Ave N) and SeaTac Airport (at the main terminal near south end of baggage claim, outside door 00, bays 11-16). Fares from Vancouver to Downtown Seattle are $36 one-way, $65 round-trip; from Vancouver to SeaTac, fares are $49 one-way, $87 round-trip. Vancouver to Downtown Seattle: $36 one-way, $65 round-trip; Vancouver to SeaTac airport: $49 one-way, $87 round-trip.. \nBy ferry[ edit ]\nWashington State Ferry leaving Vashon Island\nWashington State Ferries +1 206 464-6400 [1] . Connects downtown Seattle to Bainbridge Island , Bremerton , and Vashon Island , and connects West Seattle to Vashon Island and Southworth ( Kitsap Peninsula ). All ferries are for both vehicles and passenger except the ferry between downtown Seattle and Vashon Island which is foot traffic only.\nThere is also a ferry connecting Port Townsend and Coupeville [4], on Whidbey Island . The small ferries required by Coupeville's narrow harbor mean that vehicle space is often limited, and drive-up motorists may have to wait several sailings for a space. Guaranteed reservations can be made in advance online [5] or by calling 511, and are all but essential on Friday afternoons, weekends and holidays\nVictoria Clipper . High speed catamaran passenger ferries which connect Seattle to Victoria , British Columbia and the San Juan Islands .\nThe Alaska Marine Highway System (also see [2] ) operates a ferry service from Bellingham , Washington up the Inside Passage to Haines Alaska. Plan your travel early as this service tends to fill up fast.\nBy cruise ship[ edit ]\nCruise ships to Seattle may be docked at one of two terminals in the Port of Seattle .\nBell Street Pier Cruise Terminal at Pier 66, 2225 Alaskan Way S, near the middle of Seattle downtown's waterfront, serves as home port for Norwegian Cruise Line and Celebrity Cruises. Has bus, taxi and shuttle connections for transfer of passengers and luggage. For travelers with connecting flights, Seattle-Tacoma International Airport is less than 15 mi (24 km) away.\nSmith Cove Cruise Terminal at Pier 91, 2001 W Garfield St, at the north end of Seattle's downtown waterfront, serves as home port to Holland America Line, Royal Caribbean and Princess Cruises.\nBy boat[ edit ]\nIt is not coincidence that so many cities in this region are located on the water. Early settlers found the thick regional forests too impenetrable to navigate by land so waterways became the Pacific Northwests early highway system.\nHowever when arriving from Canada there are only a handful of ports including Roche Harbor , Friday Harbor , Anacortes and Bellingham that are official U.S. ports-of-entry and can process boaters through customs. The Cardinal Rule is touch land at customs dock before any other stops, fines for not doing so can be up to $5000. Besides a passport for everyone on board, you will need your boat's license number and User Fee Decal number.\nCustoms enforces USDA guidelines for what foods are acceptable to bring into the country and these guidelines are constantly changing so it is best to check in with them before arriving. Boaters are responsible for knowing the prohibited foods and can be fined for not declaring them.\nThe Puget Sound region offers a wide variety of guest marinas throughout the area. Check city listings for specific marina information.\nThe Washington State Parks and Recreation Commission has the largest state-managed mooring system in the United States. The commission manages more than 40 marine parks in Puget Sound that together provide more than 8,500 feet of public moorage space.\nBy ferry[ edit ]\nCar alarm?\nnothing separates the tourist from the local on the ferry system more than car alarms. Please make sure yours is off if you leave your car to enjoy the view from the deck. Most car alarms detect movement and will be activated by the movement of the ferry and you will be asked to return to your car.\nWashington State Ferries is the largest system of ferries in the country and they are the key to successfully navigating Puget Sound. Many ferry destinations are not islands without a bridge, but peninsulas where going by land would involve a very long detour. The most extreme example of this is the Port Townsend -- Keystone route on State Hwy 20. Only five and a half miles via the ferry, becomes a whopping 217 miles (354 km) traveling by car!\nWashington State Ferry routes cross Puget Sound including several islands including Bainbridge, Vashon, Whidbey and the San Juan Islands. There are also some county-run ferries to smaller destinations such as to Anderson Island and Guemes Island.\nBy car[ edit ]\nOutside the main cities public transportation is scarce and is not of much use for extensive sightseeing, so renting or arriving by car is advisable. Although distances can be long, most roads are paved and well-maintained. Be aware of distances between gas stations and plan accordingly when traveling in rural areas. Most ferries accept vehicles and utilizing them is key to navigating the area.\nBy bus[ edit ]\nRegional transit systems tend to be organized by county however they are often interconnected to cover larger areas and some are coordinated with Washington State Ferries, with each other (for one to arrive within minutes of the next one leaving) and have many coordinated pickups at Seatac airport. Not the fastest way to travel but efficient and cheap for the budget traveler and are the only way available in the (more rural) areas west of the Puget Sound. See the below:\nAlong West Side of Puget Sound With the exception of the Dungeness Line, the county operated transit systems are the only way around the Olympic Peninsula without a car on the west side of the sound. Schedules are less frequent on rural routes then local services within the cities/towns.\nDungeness Line operated by Olympic Bus Lines ,  ☎ +1 360 417-0700 . The Dungeness Line, operated by Olympic Bus Lines provides two trips daily between Port Angeles, Sequim, Port Townsend, Discovery Bay, and Kingston, to and from Edmonds, downtown Seattle, and Seattle Tacoma International Airport. It is a privately operated bus between Seattle and the Olympic Peninsula $28 to $49 OW depending on how far you're going.. \nClallam Transit . ... operates buses in Port Angeles (Rt #20-24), Joyce (#10), Forks (Rt#14 - 17), Neah Bay (Rt#16), La Push (#15) and Sequim (Rt#30-52) in Clallam County. Connects to Jefferson Transit in Sequim and Forks. $1.00 or $0.50c reduced fare for Medicare card holders and qualified seniors, disabled, youth and low income riders.. \nJefferson Transit ,  ☎ +1 360 385-4777 , toll-free: +1-800-371-0497 . ... operates local buses in Port Townsend and to Sequim, Quilcene, Port Ludlow, Brinnon & Poulsbo, as well as the \"West End\" from Forks to Amanda Park along US Hwy 101 through Jefferson County. $1.50 or $1.00 reduced fare for Medicare card holders and qualified seniors, disabled, youth and low income riders.. \nKitsap Transit . ... operates buses in Bremerton, Bainbridge Island, Poulsbo, Kingston, Suquamish, Silverdale,and Port Orchard in Kitsap County. Limited service to Purdy just over the Kitsap/Pierce County line. $2.00 or $1.00 reduced fare for Medicare card holders and qualified seniors, disabled, youth and low income riders paying with an ORCA card.. \nMason Transit , 790 E Johns Prairie Rd, Shelton, WA 98584,  ☎ +1 360 532-2770 . ... operates local buses in Shelton and to Belfaire, Bremerton and Brinon Connects to Intercity Transit and Grays Harbor Transit in Olympia; to Kitsap Transit in Bermerton and to Jefferson Transit in Brinnon. $1.50 or $1.00 reduced fare for Medicare card holders and qualified seniors, disabled, youth and low income riders traveling across the county line otherwise it's a free ride for all within Mason County.. \nAlong East Side of Puget Sound The eastside is more populated and therefore, offer more frequent schedules on more routes. If you're trying to get from Olympia to Port Townsend, Bremerton or Widbey Island it would be quicker to get a series of buses up into Seattle and taking the ferry across than the buses along the west side of the Sound.\nBellAir Airporter , (company office & bus garage) 1416 Whitehorn St, Ferndale, WA 98248,  ☎ +1 360 380-8880 , toll-free: +1-866-235-5247 . offers 11 Round-Trips Daily to Sea-Tac from Blaine, Birch Bay, Lynden, Ferndale, Bellingham, Burlington, Stanwood and Marysville along the I-5 corridor. They offer a second route from Burlington to the Anacortes/San Juan Ferry Terminal via La Conner and Anacortes. Passengers coming typically transfer in Burlington from the I-5 Corridor route to continue westward to the Anacortes/San Juan Ferry Terminal. \nBoltBus , toll-free: +1-877-BOLTBUS (2658287) . In the area they only stop into Bellingham and Seattle. $1 if lucky; up to $30. \nGreyhound , toll-free: +1-800-231-2222 . Runs along the I-5 corridor between Vancouver BC, Bellingham, Mt Vernon, Everett Seattle , Tacoma and Olympia . Quicker to get across longer distances such as from Olympia up to Bellingham than a series of county operated buses. Prices varies depending on travel from which departure point to which destination point.. \nSound Transit ,  ☎ +1 206 553-3000 , toll-free: +1-800-542-7876 . The long distance public transit operator operates express bus services from and between cities in the four county Seattle metropolitan area such as Tacoma , Olympia , Bellevue , Everett , Bothell, and lots of other cities surrounding Seattle. $2.50 within King County, $3.50 cross-county.. \nCommunity Transit ,  ☎ +1 425 353-RIDE (7433) , toll-free: +1-800-562-1375 . Transit services around Everett and Snohomish County (Arlington, Brier, Bothell, Edmonds, Lynnwood, Lake Stevens, Marysville, Monroe, Snohomish, Stanwood, etc) and express services from various points in Snohomish County to downtown Seattle and the University of Washington in the mornings and up to Snohomish County in the afternoons. Local bus service within the city of Everett is provided by Everett Transit . $4 from Everett and south of Everett to Seattle, $5.25 from north of Everett to Seattle(one way); $2.00 within Snohomish County.. \nIntercity Transit . Operates local buses in/around Olympia , Lacey and Tumwater and express buses up to Tacoma and Lakewood along I-5. .. \nIsland Transit ,  ☎ +1 360 678-7771 , +1 360 387-7433 . Mon-Fri 3:45AM-7:45PM; No service weekends & holidays. Operates local services up and down Whidbey Island and on around Camano Island as well as the Coupeville and Clinton Ferry Terminals; local services within Oak Harbor and intercounty services to Mt Vernon in Skagit County from Whidbey Island and Camano Island and Everett from Camano Island. .. \nKing County Metro . Operates buses within Seattle and out to outlying suburbs & cities within King County such as Federal Way, Shoreline, North Bend, Renton, Kent, Bothell, Bellevue, Kirkland, Shorline, Issaquah, North Bend, Enumclaw etc. The rule of thumb is that three digit line numbers are for service to/from or within outside the Seattle city limits. There are other routes that operate locally within the suburbs and between the suburban cities that do not come into Seattle at all. $3.00 peak hours, $2.50 off peak. \nPierce Transit . Operates local buses in Tacoma , Federal Way , Lakewood, Puyallup , Steilacoom and University Place. Limited service to Buckley, Gig Harbor , Bonney Lake/Lake Tapps . $2.00 or $1.00 reduced fare for Medicare card holders and qualified seniors, disabled, youth and low income riders paying with an ORCA card.. \nSkagit Transit , Intermodal Station @ 105 E Kinkaid in Mt Vernon,  ☎ +1 360 757-4433 . Operates local buses in Mt Vernon , Burlington , Anacortes and other points in/around Skagit County. County Connector Service to Everett on Rt #90x and Bellingham on Rt #80x. $1 within the county or $2 day ticket; $2 for County Connector Service.. \nBy light rail[ edit ]\nLight rail is growing rapidly in the area, however is currently only available to deliver passengers between the airport in Seatac to downtown Seattle with various stops through South Seattle and Sodo.\nSee[ edit ]\nPuget Sound with Mount Rainier in the distance\nBlake Island State Park (located in Puget Sound in the waters between Seattle and the Kitsap Peninsula). a popular island state park accessible only by boat that was the birthplace of Chief Seattle and still offers guests Native American style dinners and dancing. \nDeception Pass Bridge, a National Historic Monument since 1982, is actually two spans that link Whidbey Island near Oak Harbor to Fidalgo Island over Canoe Pass and Deception Pass. The bridge, one of the scenic wonders and destinations of the Pacific Northwest, was a Public Works Administration project built by the Civilian Conservation Corps. Deception Pass State Park, has over 4,100 acres (17 km2) of forest, campsites, trails, and scenic vistas of the San Juan Islands, Victoria (British Columbia, Canada), Mount Baker, and Fidalgo Island.\nEbey's Landing National Historical Reserve preserves and protects an unbroken historical record of Puget Sound exploration and settlement from the 19th century to the present. Historic farms, still under cultivation in the prairies of Whidbey Island, reveal land use patterns unchanged since settlers claimed the land in the 1850s.\nHood Canal. despite its name is not a canal but it actually a inland fjord that stretches for over 70 miles inland separating the Kitsap Peninsula from the Olympic Peninsula. It is a prime destination in the area for outdoor recreation and nature viewing with sweeping views of the Olympic Mountains and lush forests. Near the southern end of the Kitsap Peninsula it hooks inward at an area known as the Great Bend. \nKitsap Peninsula[ edit ]\nThe Kitsap Peninsula is almost an island attached by a relatively small landmass near Belfair , its complex coastline dominates the Puget Sound area between Hood Canal and the Main Puget Sound Channel. It is home of several cities and towns and is accessible by the Tacoma Narrows Bridge near Tacoma and the floating Hood Canal Bridge giving access on the northern end to the Olympic Peninsula as well as several ferry terminals giving access from Seattle and Edmunds.\nBeach combing[ edit ]\npurple seastar found on Kitsap Peninsula beach\nWhat Puget Sound beaches lack in white sand and warm water is more than made up for in the amazing scenery as the clear waters play against wild coastlines and snow peaked mountains scatter on the horizons. The areas many State Parks are an excellent place to start a beach combing adventure offering miles of beaches from the rugged to the sandy smooth. Small crabs, moon snails, sea stars and sand dollars are common sites and tide pools can offer hours of exploration.\nBe warned that sea shells and driftwood are considered part of the natural environment and should not be removed, however the often rocky and wild shores are havens for creating and revealing beach glass and anything artificial found is fair game for removal. Be respectful of private property and gentle with sea creatures. Keep a wide distance away from nesting birds, seals and other shore animals and always put back anything removed from the shoreline.\nBoating[ edit ]\nPuget Sound offers some of the best recreational boating in the world. Breath taking views of the snow capped Olympic and Cascade mountain ranges along with glimpses of Mount Rainier mingle with thick forests and clear bays and streams to create a humbling cacophony of natural sights. Carved by ancient glaciers, Puget Sounds intricate and complex waterways provide endless opportunities for exploration while the many harbor towns built on protective bays cater to boaters and provide an wide array of services, restaurants and shops. Harbor Seals, Otters, Sea Lions, Bald Eagles and Blue Herons are common sights while the occasional viewing of an Orca or Grey Whale is not out of the question.\nSailing[ edit ]\nThe Puget Sound is a destination celebrated by sailors from around the world. The scenery around Puget Sound can be so amazing that it borders on the surreal and could only possibly be appreciated more from the deck of a boat under sail. From isolated moorages in such places as Blake Island State Park to historic harbor towns with fine restaurants, museums and shopping all accessible from convenient harbors.\nTacoma Yacht Club race\nVisitors to the area will often be treated to the sight of a flotilla of sailboats on Puget Sound as local yacht clubs organize events that sometimes attract hundreds of sailors. These ‘races’ such as the Gig Harbor Yacht Club Islands Race are often informal events that are more of an opportunity for fraternization and attract many types of sailboats and many different skill levels of sailors.\nSea kayaking[ edit ]\nSea kayaking can be a rewarding way to explore the Puget Sounds miles of coastline allowing the paddler a closer and slower look at their surroundings and making Puget Sound a popular area to sea kayak. Both urban and rural areas offer their own rewards and many organized tours are available in different areas.\nKayak trails[ edit ]\nOrganized trails offer overnight camping options and maps of appropriate travel lengths and scenic travel destinations. For thousands of years native Salish tribes navigated these waters in small, well designed wooden boats and many of these trails were developed along their same paths.\nCascadia Marine Trail . This inland sea trail is a National Recreation Trail and designated one of only 16 National Millennium Trails by the White House. Suitable for day or multi-day trips, the Cascadia Marine Trail has over 50 campsites to visit. People can boat to the campsites from many public and private launch sites or shoreline trailheads. \n[dead link]Kitsap Peninsula Water Trails . The National Parks Service Named the this 'Trail of the Month' in December 2012, PDF copies of the water trails map are available \nKey Peninsula Marine Trail . is a forty mile Peninsular Marine Trail with fourteen legs between fifteen points of interest during a paddling journey around the Key Peninsula \nScuba diving[ edit ]\nCalifornia Sea Lions\nDiving the cold waters of Puget Sound takes a bit more gear and training than other warm water locations, but the rewards are incredible. The area contains some of the best diving in the world and many areas are accessible from the Kitsap Peninsula. Many dive sites are completely covered with colorful sea creatures that defy description. Giant Pacific Octopus are common, along with friendly wolf eels. Colorful sponges, sea cucumbers, sea stars, soft corals, anemones and fish can be seen on nearly every dive. The state has offers a guide to parks with launch sites HERE\nSound Dive Center, 5000 Burwell Street, Bremerton, WA 98312,  ☎ +1 360-373-6141 . Established in 1972, this 6000 sq foot diving center offers a full range of diving gear and classes. \nEat[ edit ]\nThe Pacific Northwest is a foodie’s dream come true. Talented chefs and entrepreneurs have taken advantage the northwest’s incredible seafood, abundant locally sourced produce, award-winning wines, and a well developed beer brewing tradition to establish a regional cuisine that trumps just about any other area in America. The Puget Sound region offers top of the line restaurants squirreled away in almost every neighborhood Pacific north westerners have high expectations from their food.\nThe Pacific North West is perhaps best known for it's Salmon, but a large variety of other seafood is available in the area. Oftentimes seafood comes in short bursts with seasonal migrations such as the areas fall Salmon runs available for only short amounts of time so watch closely for seasonal specials in restaurants and markets.\nShellfish are the prized resources of the Puget Sound, the cool, clean waters provide some of the finest shellfish habitat in the world. Washington State is the nation’s leading producer of farmed bivalve shellfish (clams, mussels and oysters) but other specialties like Geoducks are sometimes available for the more adventurous.\nThe Dungeness Crab is a popular seafood prized for its sweet and tender flesh and high ratio of meat. Its common name comes from the port of Dungeness , Washington where the first commercial harvesting of the crab was done. The Dungeness Crab is a commercially important crab in the state of Washington's territorial waters and was the first shellfish harvested commercially in the area but other crab species are also common.\nThe areas mild climate, rich soil and abundant water resources have created a bountiful climate for the many varieties of fresh produce available across the region. Farmers markets are common in both urban and rural areas and a great way to experience local culture as well as experience local foods.\nDrink[ edit ]\nFew, if any, American regions can challenge the Pacific North West's love of coffee. According to a group of industry market researchers, there were an amazing 1,640 coffee shops in the Puget Sound region in 2011, ranking it the most popular coffee region. It is not surprising that such coffee giants such as Starbucks have exported the Pacific Northwest's coffee culture across the globe.\nMicrobreweries and beer in general are a Northwest specialty, and the area has many to offer for beer enthusiasts. The larger brewers, like Redhook and Pyramid, distribute their products regionally or nationally like their coffee cousins, while other brews can only be found in local stores or bars (some notable brewers don't even bottle their product). Ask your servers for local beer recommendations and search out regional microbrews in stores. Hops are the key ingredient in beer making and Washington State's neaby Yakima Valley is by far the biggest exporter of hops in the US giving area brewers another edge in making the best beers. Vineyard in Willamette Valley\nThere are many great wineries spread across the Puget Sound region such as The Chateau Ste. Michelle in Woodinville , which is not only the oldest winery in the state but is the largest single producer of Riesling wine in the United States.\nStay safe[ edit ]\nPuget Sound is such a broad and varying region it is difficult to give specific safety advice. From large cities where common sense should prevail when dealing with valuables to remote forests where you should keep a watchful eye out for wildlife. Check various subregion and city articles for more specific information.\nConsulates[ edit ]\n[dead link]Belgium , The World Trade Center Seattle, 2200 Alaskan Way Ste 470,  ☎ +1 206 728-5145 , fax: +1 206 770-7923, e-mail: [email protected] .  \nGermany (Honorary) , 7853 SE 27th St Ste 180, Mercer Island,  ☎ +1 206 230-5138 , fax: +1 206 236-5162, e-mail: [email protected] .", "Bremerton, WA - Bremerton, Washington Map & Directions - MapQuest\n{{::location.tagLine.value.text}}\nSponsored Topics\nBremerton is a city in Kitsap County, Washington, United States. The population was 38,790 at the 2011 State Estimate. Bremerton is home to Puget Sound Naval Shipyard and the Bremerton Annex of Naval Base Kitsap. Bremerton is connected to downtown Seattle by a 55-minute ferry route, which carries both vehicles and walk-on passengers.\nBremerton, the largest city in Kitsap County, is located on the Kitsap Peninsula and is bounded on the southeast and east by Sinclair Inlet and the strait of Port Orchard respectively. The city is divided by the Port Washington Narrows, a strait spanned by two bridges that connects Dyes Inlet, which lies northwest of the city, to Port Orchard. The part of the city northeast of the narrows is referred to as East Bremerton.\nAccording to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 26.0 square miles (67.5 km²), of which, 22.7 square miles (58.7 km²) of it is land and 3.4 square miles (8.8 km²) of it (12.98%) is water.", "Lake Washington Ship Canal - HistoryLink.org\nHistoryLink.org\nTweet\nAfter decades of often-rancorous debate, construction of a ship canal to link Lake Washington and Puget Sound finally began in 1911. Following the failure of several private canal schemes, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Gen. Hiram M. Chittenden (1858-1917), advanced the project, and his name was later given to the Government Locks linking the Sound and Salmon Bay at Ballard. The canal required digging cuts between Salmon Bay and Lake Union at Fremont and between Lake Union and Lake Washington at Montlake, and building four bascule bridges at Fremont, Ballard, the University District, and Montlake. The Locks officially opened on July 4, 1917, but the canal was not declared complete until 1934.\nFrom Lake to Shining Sea\nSeattle pioneer Thomas Mercer (1813-1898) was the first to point out the benefits of building a navigable passage between the fresh waters of Lake Washington and the saltwater of Puget Sound and the Pacific beyond. At a village celebration on July 4, 1854, Mercer proposed the name Union for the lake lying between Salmon Bay on the west and Lake Washington on the east, in the full confidence that a canal would eventually connect these waters. Eighty years passed before this vision was fully realized.\nIn 1860, Harvey L. Pike dug a shallow ditch at the present Montlake Cut to permit the passage of logs from Lake Washington to the lower waters of Portage Bay. The Lake Washington Improvement Company, directed by Judge Thomas Burke (1849-1925), widened and deepened this passage in 1883, but not enough to allow it to accommodate vessels.\nMeanwhile, in 1867, the U.S. Navy endorsed the idea of a canal linking Puget Sound and Lake Washington so that Navy ships could enjoy fresh water anchorage. At this time, only shallow-draft boats and barges could pass from Lake Washington to Elliott Bay via the Black River slough leading into the Duwamish River. Delays led the Navy to establish its Puget Sound Naval Shipyard near Bremerton instead of on Lake Washington, but it continued to urge development of a Seattle canal. In 1891, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers endorsed a canal via Lake Union.\nCanal Controversy\nDespite this, in 1895 former Territorial Governor Eugene Semple organized an effort to dig a \"South Canal\" through Beacon Hill. Work progressed enough to help fill in 1,400 acres of the Duwamish tide flats south of Pioneer Square. Great Northern Railway magnate James J. Hill (1838-1916) and his allies, particularly Judge Burke, preferred the northern route and ultimately succeeded in undermining Semple's finances and political support. The south canal was abandoned, although Semple pursued landfills and waterway improvements on the Duwamish until his funds were exhausted in 1904.\nThe Washington State Legislature endorsed the northern route in 1900 and the federal government began deepening the channel leading from Shilshole Bay to the Ballard wharves in 1906. The canal itself remained stymied, so developer James A. Moore won Congressional authority to organize a private company to do the work. Ballard mill owners began to protest the project, fearing that shipping would displace their access to Salmon Bay for log transport and storage.\nHiram M. Chittenden had taken command of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in Seattle in 1906 and although he did not think highly of Moore's efforts, he strongly urged completion of the canal. He continued his advocacy after his retirement in 1908, and helped to persuade Congress to appropriate $2,275,000 for the necessary locks on June 25, 1910.\nFederal aid was conditioned on King County taking responsibility for the rest of the canal. Construction finally began on November 10, 1911. Five years later, on October 21, 1916, a temporary dam at the Montlake Cut was breached to permit Lake Washington to empty into Lake Union, lowering Lake Washington by nine feet. The \"Government Locks\" and complete waterway opened to boat traffic on May 8, 1917. Admiral Peary's polar flagship, Roosevelt, led a ceremonial flotilla through the canal on July 4 of that year. The project had by then cost more than $3 million.\nOther improvements necessitated by the canal included removal of three fixed bridges at Fremont, Stoneway, and Latona and construction of four new bascule bridges: Fremont and Ballard, both completed in 1917, University, completed in 1919 (improved 1932), and Montlake, completed in 1925. The entire project was declared complete in 1934 -- 80 years after Thomas Mercer first dreamed of a canal.\nBy the time the Lake Washington Ship Canal's Government Locks opened in 1917, a stroke had confined Hiram Chittenden to a wheel chair. He died on October 9, 1917. In 1956, the Corps of Engineers renamed the Ballard locks to honor his memory. Twelve years later, the Corps dedicated the Lock's public gardens to Carl S. English Jr., who had created them. The Locks and canal now constitute a National Historic District.\nThis essay made possible by:\nRivers-in-Time Project", "Puget Sound, Seattle 16 Insider Tips, Photos and Reviews\n \nSeattle to Victoria Ferry: One-Way and Roundtrip Tickets\n\"Meet the cruise at Pier 69 in the heart of downtown Seattle and relax as you travel in comfort and style to Victoria. Enjoy a 2- to 3-hour cruise through Puget Sound and into the Strait of Juan de Fuca on your way to Victoria's Inner Harbor.Wide roomy and comfortable seats provide ample leg room making your trip easy and relaxing. Some seats have tables so you can enjoy onboard meal baskets or a refreshing beverage right at your seat (meals and beverages are not included). Pass the time by shopping at the onboard duty-free gift shop for luxuries and souvenirs. Or step out on deck and observe the beauty of the passing scenery. The friendly crew will answer all your questions and help you in any way they can. Your trip ends at Victoria's Inner Harbor - right in the heart of downto\"\"\"Hop aboard the high-speed ferry from Seattle in Washington State to Victoria in British Columbia. Enjoy a scenic 2- to 3-hour cruise through Puget Sound as you travel between the USA and Canada by ferry. Upgrade and add the round-trip option.If you booked the round-trip option you must immediately call Victori\n \nSeattle to Victoria Ferry: One-Way and Roundtrip Tickets\n\"Meet the cruise at Pier 69 in the heart of downtown Seattle and relax as you travel in comfort and style to Victoria. Enjoy a 2- to 3-hour cruise through Puget Sound and into the Strait of Juan de Fuca on your way to Victoria's Inner Harbor.Wide roomy and comfortable seats provide ample leg room making your trip easy and relaxing. Some seats have tables so you can enjoy onboard meal baskets or a refreshing beverage right at your seat (meals and beverages are not included). Pass the time by shopping at the onboard duty-free gift shop for luxuries and souvenirs. Or step out on deck and observe the beauty of the passing scenery. The friendly crew will answer all your questions and help you in any way they can. Your trip ends at Victoria's Inner Harbor - right in the heart of downto\"\"\"Hop aboard the high-speed ferry from Seattle in Washington State to Victoria in British Columbia. Enjoy a scenic 2- to 3-hour cruise through Puget Sound as you travel between the USA and Canada by ferry. Upgrade and add the round-trip option.If you booked the round-trip option you must immediately call Victori\n \nPacific Science Center General Exhibit Admission\n\"Explore hundreds of interactive exhibits including The Tropical Butterfly House where guests can explore hundreds of beautiful free-flying butterflies in a lush garden setting and experience the awe-inspiring transformation from pupae to butterfly.  Interact with live animals from Puget Sound waters while learning about their habitat feeling their unique textures and discovering how they co-exist in our vital ecosystem.  See Science On a Sphere an astonishing piece of technology that uses computers and video projectors to display dynamic animated images of the atmosphere oceans and land on an illuminated globe six feet in diameter.  Roam among several moving roaring", "Brief History of Seattle - CityArchives | seattle.gov\nBrief History of Seattle\nI want to search within the following:\nSeattle.Gov\nSevere weather warning in effect for the Puget Sound area.\nDetails\nclose\nA series of storm systems is set to move through the Puget Sound area that have the potential to cause impacts over the next couple of days. The second, and potentially more powerful storm system will push through sometime on Saturday evening and into Sunday. The latest information can be found on alert.seattle.gov .\n/ Home / Facts About Seattle / Brief History of Seattle\nItem No. 171336. Old Indian Cabin [packhorse with two men in front of log cabin], 1913. (Record Series 1204-02)\nBrief History of Seattle\nSeattle lies on a narrow strip of land between the salt waters of Puget Sound and the fresh waters of Lake Washington. Beyond the waters lie two rugged mountain ranges, the Olympics to the west and the Cascades to the east. It is a city built on hills and around water, in a mild marine climate that encourages prolific vegetation and abundant natural resources.\nWhite settlers came to the Seattle area in 1851, establishing a townsite they first called New York, and then, adding a word from the Chinook jargon meaning \"by-and-by,\" New York-Alki. They soon moved a short distance across Elliott Bay to what is now the historic Pioneer Square district, where a protected deep-water harbor was available. This village was soon named Seattle, honoring a Duwamish Indian leader named Sealth who had befriended the settlers.\nThe new town's principal economic support was Henry Yesler's lumber mill at the foot of Mill Street (now Yesler Way), built in 1853. Much of the mill's production went to the booming city of San Francisco, but the mill also supplied the fledgling towns throughout the Puget Sound region. A brief Indian \"war\" in the winter of 1856 interrupted the town's development, but when the Territorial legislature incorporated Seattle in 1869, there were more than 2,000 residents.\nThe 1870s were fairly quiet, despite the discovery of coal near Lake Washington, and the consequent growth of another extractive industry whose product also found its way to San Francisco. In the early 1870s the Northern Pacific Railway Company announced that its transcontinental railroad western terminus would be at Tacoma, some forty miles south of Seattle. Despite local leaders' disappointment, Seattle managed to force a connection with Northern Pacific shortly after its completion in 1883, and the town's population soared in the late 1880s. Lumber and coal were the primary industries, but the growth of fishing, wholesale trade, shipbuilding, and shipping also contributed to the town's economic expansion and population growth. One estimate is that in the first half of 1889, Seattle was gaining 1,000 new residents per month; in March alone, there were 500 buildings under construction, most of them built of wood. The explosive growth was slowed but not stopped by a devastating fire on June 6, 1889, which leveled the buildings on 116 acres in the heart of the city's business district. No one died in the fire, but the property damage ran into millions of dollars.\nEnthusiasm for Seattle was little dampened by the fire. In fact, it provided the opportunity for extensive municipal improvements, including widened and regraded streets, a professional fire department, reconstructed wharves, and municipal water works. New construction in the burned district was required to be of brick or steel, and it was by choice on a grander and more imposing scale.\nThe 1890s were not so prosperous, despite the arrival of another transcontinental railroad, the Great Northern, in 1893. A nationwide business depression did not spare Seattle, but the 1897 discovery of gold along and near the Klondike River in Canada's Yukon Territory and in Alaska once again made Seattle an instant boom town. The city exploited its nearness to the Klondike and its already established shipping lines to become the premier outfitting point for prospectors. The link became so strong that Alaska was long considered to be the personal property of Seattle and Seattleites.\nDuring the early 1900s, Seattle, now having discovered the rewards of advertising, continued to experience strong growth. Two more transcontinental railroads, the Union Pacific and Milwaukee Road systems, reached Seattle and reinforced the city's position as a trade and shipping center, particularly with Asia and the North Pacific.\nThe city's population became increasingly diversified. Scandinavians came to work in fishing and lumbering, African Americans to work as railroad porters and waiters, and Japanese to operate truck gardens and hotels. There were significant communities of Italians, Chinese, Jews, and Filipinos. The International District, home to several Asian ethnic groups, was largely developed during this period.\nWith its population now approaching 240,000, Seattle announced its achievements by sponsoring an international fair in 1909. The Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition celebrated the economic and cultural links Seattle had forged along what is now known as the North Pacific Rim. The forty-two story L.C. Smith building was completed in 1914. For more than four decades it was the tallest building in the American west and a symbol of Seattle's booster spirit and metropolitan aspirations.\nWorld War I transformed the city's shipbuilding industry, which turned out 20 percent of the nation's wartime ship tonnage. The war also brought Seattle national attention when, early in 1919, workers struck the shipyards to maintain their high wartime wages. This event soon led to the Seattle general strike of February 6-10, the longest such strike in American history. The strike lacked a cogent objective, but its success fueled postwar American fears about radicals and socialists. Along with the city's early ventures into municipal transit service and public electrical power, the general strike helped establish Seattle's reputation as a hotbed of political radicalism.\nSeattle also had a reputation for a boom-and-bust economy, and the twenties brought depressed conditions in shipbuilding and the lumber trade. The Depression of the 1930s hit Seattle particularly hard, and a \"Hooverville\" of shacks and lean-tos housing nearly 1,000 unemployed men grew up at an abandoned shipbuilding yard south of Pioneer Square. World War II sparked an economic rebound as shipyards flourished again. The Boeing Company, a modestly successful airplane manufacturer founded in 1916, increased its workforce more than 1,200 percent and its sales from $10 million to $600 million annually during the war years. The war's end, however, brought an economic slump to the area that persisted until the middle 1950s.\nWhen Boeing successfully introduced the 707 commercial jet airliner in the late 1950s, it heralded another burst of municipal optimism. In 1962 Seattle sponsored a full-fledged world's fair, the futuristic Century 21 Exposition. The fair left the city a permanent legacy in the Seattle Center and its complex of performance, sports, and entertainment halls, as well as the Pacific Science Center, the Monorail, and the Space Needle.\nSince Century 21, the city population has remained fairly stable around the half-million mark, while suburban areas have grown explosively. The Boeing Company suffered a slump in the early 1970s that severely depressed the local economy. The region's economy has subsequently been steadied and diversified. Weyerhaeuser and Boeing have been a part of that development, along with such high-technology firms as Microsoft. The political strength of Washington Senators Warren G. Magnuson and Henry Jackson in the postwar decades greatly contributed to growth at such research institutions as the University of Washington, and in defense related activities. Seattle has also enjoyed an expanded air and sea trade with Asia, Alaska, and the North Pacific.\nSeattle has always exhibited a spirit of optimism, enterprise, and self-promotion. At one time this was institutionalized as \"the Seattle Spirit,\" a movement that enabled the city literally to move mountains by washing down high hills to improve building sites, to connect Lake Washington and Puget Sound with locks and a canal, and to build the world's largest man-made island at the mouth of the Duwamish River. More recently, this spirit can be credited with accomplishments like the Forward Thrust program of the 1970s, which built the Kingdome arena and numerous parks throughout the city, including Freeway Park that spans the I-5 freeway with waterfalls and hanging gardens.\nSeattle is proud of its arts and cultural institutions, the many live theaters, and the downtown art museum. It is proud of its parks, of its professional and collegiate sports, of Pioneer Square and the Pike Place Market, and, above all, of the beauty of its surroundings. Seattle is also a city of parades, not always respectful of its own brief heritage, not as radical as its legend would have it; a city of homes that has many who are homeless, a city that wants great growth but demands that somehow the setting remain untouched." ] }

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{ "description": [ "History of Rotary. It was February 23 ... no Rotarian of 1905 ever dreamed that the idea set in motion in that ... Five years after Rotary’s birth, there were 16 ...", "Home › About Rotary › Rotary International › History of Rotary. History of Rotary. ... Rotary clubs were formed or ... Quinnipiac River Clean Up; Silver City ...", "* The Boys of 1905 - A History of Rotary International . ... California, and New York City, New York. Rotary became ... the movement spread as Rotary clubs were ...", "The ABCs of Rotary . ... and organizer of the first Rotary club in Chicago in 1905, ... there were 16 Rotary clubs, which linked up as an organization called the ...", "The Rotary Club of Newport ... visited 23 local businessmen in a three-week period to set up the requirement of ... (the first Rotary Club, founded in 1905) ...", "How Rotary set its wheel in motion. ... The initial design emerged from the desk of engraver and Rotary Club of ... if that were the case, the club's emblem ..." ], "filename": [ "51/51_1809.txt", "98/98_1810.txt", "38/38_1812.txt", "194/194_1813.txt", "107/107_1815.txt", "118/118_1816.txt" ], "rank": [ 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9 ], "title": [ "History of Rotary - springfieldrotary.org", "History of Rotary - Meriden Rotary Club", "The Boys of 1905 - Rotary Club of Santa Rosa Sunrise", "The ABCs of Rotary - ClubRunner - Home Page", "Club History - The Rotary Club of Newport - Balboa", "Rotary Wheel - Club Rotario Guatemala Nordeste" ], "url": [ "http://www.springfieldrotary.org/WordPress/about/history-of-rotary/", "https://www.meridenrotary.org/Content/History_of_Rotary.asp", "http://portal.clubrunner.ca/4124/Stories/the-boys-of-1905-a-history-of-rotary-international", "http://www.clubrunner.ca/Data/7470/HTML/61490/abc.htm", "http://newportbeachrotary.com/about-our-club/club-history/", "http://www.rotaryguatemala.org/rotary_wheel.htm" ], "search_context": [ "History of Rotary\nHistory of Rotary\nYou are here: Home / About STRC / History of Rotary\nHistory of Rotary\nIt was February 23, 1905. The automobile was still evoking cries of “Get a horse!”. The airplane had yet to stay aloft for more that a few minutes, though the Wright brothers had shown a little more that a year earlier that heavier than air flight was possible. The first motion picture theater was soon to open in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, with a film entitled “ The Great Train Robbery”. The ice cream cone had just appeared on the American scene, and the first concrete cantilever bridge was being built in Marion, Iowa. It was the year Einstein introduced his theory of relativity and James J. Jeffries retired as the world’s heavyweight boxing champion.\nIn Chicago, Illinois, on this particular February day, four men met in Room 711 of the Unity Building on Dearborn Street. They were Paul P. Harris, a lawyer, Silvester Schiele, a coal dealer, Gustavus E. Loehr, a mining engineer, and Hiram E. Shorey, a merchant tailor. The office of “Gus” Loehr was typical of its time – a small room, not too well lighted, with a desk and four uncomfortable chairs, a coat rack in the corner, one or two pictures and an engineering chart on the wall. They talked about the idea that Paul Harris had been pondering for five years. It was simply this: That business relations could, and should, foster friendly relations They need not, thought Paul Harris, be a barrier to friendship. What kind of men were these that Paul Harris had brought together? The founder of Rotary answered these questions in his book, This Rotarian Age, saying: “In the city by the lake, a drama was to be acted, the importance of which could not be foreseen. The dramatis personae were men of the ordinary walks of life: business and professional men.” “While lacking qualities which would have distinguished them from others of their kind, it may nevertheless be said that they were fairly representative of what in common parlance would have been termed ‘the better element’. They were all natural products of the times and subject to its usual frailties.”\n“All were friendly and congenial, and each represented a recognized and honorable vocation different from that of the others. They had been selected without regard to religious, racial or political differences.”\nAs these men talked that night in Room 711, they saw even more clearly that men in business could be personal friends – and should be. In their discussions of ways to foster such business/social relations, they decided, in agreement with Paul Harris, that the formation of the club might best serve their aims.\nThough they didn’t decide there and then to call it a Rotary Club, that meeting on the night of February 23, 1905 was the first meeting of the world’s first Rotary Club. The next day, a fifth member joined the group, having been invited to do so by Paul Harris. He was Harry Ruggles, a printer. He, in turn, interested a real estate dealer named Will Jenson. It was Ruggles who, at an early meeting one evening, jumped on a chair and shouted, “Let’s sing”! He liked to sing and it was his infectious enthusiasm for it that started the Rotary Clubs which today make singing part of their weekly program. Soon after Ruggles and Jenson came in, the organization of the new Club was completed at a meeting in Schiele’s office. The first president was Schiele, with Jenson as corresponding secretary, Shorey as recording secretary and Ruggles as treasurer.\nPaul Harris modestly declined to accept any office in the new Club at that time. In fact, it was not until 1907 that Harris was elected president of the Rotary Club of Chicago. The name “Rotary” was chosen at one of the early meetings, its proposer being Paul Harris, who pointed out that the word aptly conveyed the original plan of the members to meet “in rotation” at their various places of business.\nWith the name decided upon, Montague M. Bear, an engraver who had joined the Club, thought it was time to have an emblem. He came up with a sketch of a plain wagon wheel, a rotating symbol that won full approval. Today, “Monty” Bear’s wheel, though much changed in design, has hundreds of thousands of descendants in the form of the familiar cogwheel em- blem on the lapels of Rotarians across the world. The first printed roster of the Rotary Club of Chicago had 19 members, but at the end of 1905 there were 30 members. Paul Harris later wrote of these first members: “There were no drones in the 1905 group. Every one was interested and busy. Practically every member contributed some one or more serviceable ideas”. Several of these ideas are in operation today; for example the midday meeting, the practice of using photographs in rosters, the presentation of papers on vocational service subjects, and many others.\nSo began Rotary in the early 1900’s in the pioneer town of Chicago.Certainly, no Rotarian of 1905 ever dreamed that the idea set in motion in that Chicago office would some day be accepted by men and women around the world. Five years after Rotary’s birth, there were 16 Rotary Clubs and approximately 1,500 Rotarians. Within that same period, the organization became international with the formation of a Club in Winnipeg, Canada, in 1910. The first Rotary Convention was held in the Congress Hotel of Chicago in August, 1910. The National Association of Rotary Clubs was organized at that time with all 16 Clubs in membership. The following year, Clubs were organized in Ireland and England, and Rotary was on its global way. In 1912, the name was changed to International Association of Rotary Clubs. In 1916, the first Rotary Club in Ibero-America was functioning in Havana, Cuba; in 1919, the first in Asia in Manila, Philippines; in 1920, the first in continental Europe in Madrid, Spain; in 1921 the first in Africa in Johannesburg, Republic of South Af- rica; and in 1921, the first in Australia in Melbourne. The name Rotary International was adopted in 1922. Today, Rotary spans six continents with Clubs in more than eightscore countries. (as taken from the Rotary Club of Hanalei Bay )\nShare this:", "History of Rotary\nHistory of Rotary:\nHome  ›  About Rotary   ›   Rotary International   ›   History of Rotary\nHistory of Rotary\nThe world's first service club, the Rotary Club of Chicago, was formed on 23 February 1905 by Paul P. Harris, an attorney who wished to capture in a professional club the same friendly spirit he had felt in the small towns of his youth. The Rotary name derived from the early practice of rotating meetings among members' offices.\nRotary's popularity spread, and within a decade, clubs were chartered from San Francisco to New York to Winnipeg, Canada. By 1921, Rotary clubs had been formed on six continents. The organization adopted the Rotary International name a year later.\nAs Rotary grew, its mission expanded beyond serving club members� professional and social interests. Rotarians began pooling their resources and contributing their talents to help serve communities in need. The organization's dedication to this ideal is best expressed in its motto: Service Above Self.\nBy 1925, Rotary had grown to 200 clubs with more than 20,000 members. The organization's distinguished reputation attracted presidents, prime ministers, and a host of other luminaries to its ranks � among them author Thomas Mann, diplomat Carlos P. Romulo, humanitarian Albert Schweitzer, and composer Jean Sibelius.\nThe Four-Way Test\nIn 1932, Rotarian Herbert J. Taylor created The Four-Way Test, a code of ethics adopted by Rotary 11 years later. The test, which has been translated into more than 100 languages, asks the following questions:\nOf the things we think, say or do\nIs it the TRUTH?\nIs it FAIR to all concerned?\nWill it build GOODWILL and BETTER FRIENDSHIPS?\nWill it be BENEFICIAL to all concerned?\nRotary and World War II\nDuring World War II, many clubs were forced to disband, while others stepped up their service efforts to provide emergency relief to victims of the war. In 1942, looking ahead to the postwar era, Rotarians called for a conference to promote international educational and cultural exchanges. This event inspired the founding of UNESCO.\nIn 1945, 49 Rotary club members served in 29 delegations to the UN Charter Conference. Rotary still actively participates in UN conferences by sending observers to major meetings and covering the United Nations in its publications.\n\"Few there are who do not recognize the good work which is done by Rotary clubs throughout the free world,\" former Prime Minister Winston Churchill of Great Britain once declared.\nDawn of a new century\nAs it approached the 21st century, Rotary worked to meet society�s changing needs, expanding its service efforts to address such pressing issues as environmental degradation, illiteracy, world hunger, and children at risk.\nIn 1989, the organization voted to admit women into clubs worldwide and now claims more than 145,000 female members in its ranks.\nAfter the collapse of the Berlin Wall and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Rotary clubs were formed or re-established throughout Central and Eastern Europe. The first Russian Rotary club was chartered in 1990, and the organization underwent a growth spurt for the next several years.\nMore than a century after Paul Harris and his colleagues chartered the club that eventually led to Rotary International, Rotarians continue to take pride in their history. In honor of that first club, Rotarians have preserved its original meeting place, Room 711 in Chicago�s Unity Building, by re-creating the office as it existed in 1905. For several years, the Paul Harris 711 Club maintained the room as a shrine for visiting Rotarians. In 1989, when the building was scheduled to be demolished, the club carefully dismantled the office and salvaged the interior, including doors and radiators. In 1993, the RI Board of Directors set aside a permanent home for the restored Room 711 on the 16th floor of RI World Headquarters in nearby Evanston.\nToday, 1.2 million Rotarians belong to over 32,000 Rotary clubs in more than 200 countries and geographical areas.\n  |", "* The Boys of 1905 - A History of Rotary International | Rotary Club of Santa Rosa Sunrise\n* The Boys of 1905 - A History of Rotary International\n \nThe Boys of 1905 - A History of Rotary International\n \nOn February 23, 1905 a Chicago lawyer, Paul P. Harris, called three friends to a meeting. What he had in mind was a club that would kindle fellowship among members of the business community. It was an idea that grew from his desire to find within the large city the kind of friendly spirit that he knew in the villages where he had grown up.\nThe four businessmen didn’t decide then and there to call themselves a Rotary club, but their get-together was, in fact, the first meeting of the world’s first Rotary club. As they continued to meet, adding others to the group, they rotated their meetings among the members’ places of business, hence the name. Soon after the club name was agreed upon, one of the new members suggested a wagon wheel design as the club emblem. It was the precursor of the familiar cogwheel emblem now worn by Rotarians around the world. By the end of 1905, the club had 30 members. The second Rotary club was formed in 1908 half a continent away from Chicago in San Francisco, California. It was a much shorter leap across San Francisco Bay to Oakland, California, where the third club was formed. Others followed in Seattle, Washington, Los Angeles, California, and New York City, New York. Rotary became international in 1910 when a club was formed in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. By 1921 the organization was represented on every continent, and the name Rotary International was adopted in 1922.\nThe Founder of Rotary\nPaul Harris, the founder of Rotary, was born in Racine, Wisconsin, USA, on April 19, 1868, but moved at the age of 3 to Wallingford, Vermont, to be raised by his grandparents. In the forward to his autobiography My Road to Rotary, he credits the friendliness and tolerance he found in Vermont as his inspiration for the creation of Rotary.\nTrained as a lawyer, Paul gave himself five years after his graduation from law school in 1891 to see as much of the world as possible before settling down and hanging out his shingle. During that time, he traveled widely, supporting himself with a great variety of jobs. He worked as a reporter in San Francisco, a teacher at a business college in Los Angeles, a cowboy in Colorado, a desk clerk in Jacksonville, Florida, a tender of cattle on a freighter to England, and as a traveling salesman for a granite company, covering both the U.S. and Europe.\nRemaining true to his five-year plan, he settled in Chicago in 1896, and it was there on the evening of February 23, 1905, that he met with three friends to discuss his idea for a businessmen’s club. This is commonly regarded as the first Rotary club meeting. Over the next five years, the movement spread as Rotary clubs were formed in other U.S. cities. When the National Association of Rotary Clubs held its first convention in1910, Paul was elected president.\nAfter his term, and as the organization’s only president-emeritus, Paul continued to travel extensively, promoting the spread of Rotary both in the USA and abroad. A prolific writer, Paul wrote several books about the early days of the organization and the role he was privileged to play in it. These include The Founder of Rotary, This Rotarian Age and the autobiographical My Road to rotary. He also wrote several volumes of Perigrinations detailing his many travels. He died in Chicago on January 27, 1947.", "The ABCs of Rotary\nThe ABCs of Rotary\nPREFACE\n \nThese short articles about Rotary were first published in the weekly bulletin of the Rotary Club of North Stockton, California, U.S.A. That was well before their author, Cliff Dochterman, became president of Rotary International for the year 1992-93. Originally called \"Did Ya Know?\" the pieces were prepared to share interesting facts about Rotary International with members of the North Stockton club. Later, in response to requests from other Rotary clubs, the articles were reprinted in collected form. Now, President Cliff has brought the collection up to date in keeping with one of the emphases of his year in office as R.l. president--to help Rotarians learn more about the colorful history of their organization, its customs and traditions, and the current status of its global programs. The articles may be reprinted in Rotary club bulletins or presented as Rotary information at weekly club meetings. Email us if you would like the Microsoft Word file of this.\n \nDEFINITION OF ROTARY\n \nHow do you describe the organization called \"Rotary\"? There are so many characteristics of a Rotary club as well as the activities of a million Rotarians. There are the features of service, internationality, fellowship, classifications of each vocation, development of goodwill and world understanding, the emphasis of high ethical standards, concern for other people and many more descriptive qualities.\n \nIn 1976 the Rotary International Board of Directors was interested in creating a concise definition of the fundamental aspects of Rotary. They turned to the three men who were then serving on Rotary's Public Relations Commit- tee and requested that a one-sentence definition of Rotary be prepared. After numerous drafts, the committee presented this definition, which has been used ever since in various Rotary publications:\n \n\"Rotary is an organization of business and professional persons united worldwide who provide humanitarian service, encourage high ethical standards in all vocations and help build goodwill and peace in the world.\"\n \nThose 31 words are worth remembering when someone asks, \"What is a Rotary club?\"\n \nTHE OFFICIAL ROTARY FLAG\n \nAn official flag was formally adopted by Rotary International at the 1929 Convention in Dallas, Texas. The Rotary flag consists of a white field with the official wheel emblem emblazoned in gold in the center of the field. The four depressed spaces on the rim of the Rotary wheel are colored royal blue. The words \"Rotary\" and \"International\" printed at the top and bottom depressions on the wheel rim are also gold. The shaft in the hub and the keyway of the wheel are white.\n \nThe first official Rotary flag reportedly was flown in Kansas City, Missouri, in January 1915. In 1922 a small Rotary flag was carried over the South Pole by Admiral Richard Byrd, a member of the Winchester, Virginia, Rotary Club. Four years later, the admiral carried a Rotary flag in his expedition to the North Pole.\n \nSome Rotary clubs use the official Rotary flag as a banner at club meetings. In these instances it is appropriate to print the words \"Rotary Club\" above the wheel symbol, and the name of the city, state or nation below the emblem.\n \nThe Rotary flag is always prominently displayed at the World Headquarters as well as at all conventions and official events of Rotary International.\n \nROTARY'S WHEEL EMBLEM\n \nA wheel has been the symbol of Rotary since our earliest days. The first design was made by Chicago Rotarian Montague Bear, an engraver who drew a simple wagon wheel, with a few lines to show dust and motion. The wheel was said to illustrate \"Civilization and Movement.\" Most of the early clubs had some form of wagon wheel on their publications and letterheads. Finally, in 1922, it was decided that all Rotary clubs should adopt a single design as the exclusive emblem of Rotarians. Thus, in 1923, the present gear wheel, with 24 cogs and six spokes was adopted by the \"Rotary International Association.\" A group of engineers advised that the geared wheel was mechanically unsound and would not work without a \"keyway\" in the center of the gear to attach it to a power shaft. So, in 1923 the keyway was added and the design which we now know was formally adopted as the official Rotary International emblem.\n \nThe first Rotary club meeting was in Chicago, Illinois, on February 23,1905.\nThe first regular luncheon meetings were in Oakland, California, chartered in 1909.\nThe first Rotary convention was in Chicago in 1910.\nThe first Rotary club outside of the United States was chartered in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, in 1910.\nThe first Rotary club outside of North America was chartered in Dublin, Ireland, in 1911.\nThe first Rotary club in a non-English-speaking country was in Havana, Cuba, in 1916.\nThe first Rotary club in South America was chartered in Montevideo, Uruguay, in 1918.\nThe first Rotary club in Asia was chartered in Manila, Philippines, in 1919.\nThe first Rotary club in Africa was chartered in Johannesburg, South Africa, in 1921.\nThe first Rotary club in Australia was chartered in Melbourne in 1921. (original idea from \"Scandal Sheet\")\n \nOBJECT OF ROTARY\n \nIn some areas of the world weekly Rotary club meetings begin with all members standing and reciting the Object of Rotary. This statement, which comes from the Constitution of Rotary, is frequently seen on a wall plaque in Rotarians' offices or place of business. The Object of Rotary is \"to encourage and foster the ideal of service as a basis of worthy enterprise.\" The statement then lists four areas by which this \"ideal of service\" is fostered: through the development of acquaintance as the opportunity for service; the promotion of high ethical standards in business and professions; through\nservice in one's personal, business and community life; and the advancement of international understanding, goodwill and peace.\n \nThe Object of Rotary has not always been expressed in this manner. The original Constitution of 1906 had three objects: promotion of business interests, promotion of good fellowship and the advancement of the best interests of the community. By 1910 Rotary had five Objects as increased emphasis was given to expanding Rotary. By 1915 there were six Objects. In 1918 the Objects were rewritten again and reduced to four. Four years later they had again grown to six and were revised again in 1927.\n \nFinally, at the 1935 Mexico City Convention the six Objects were restated and reduced to four. The last major change came in 1951, when the \"Objects\" were streamlined and changed to a single \"Object\" which is manifested in four separate ways. The \"ideal of service\" is the key phrase in the Object of Rotary. This ideal is an attitude of being a thoughtful and helpful person in all of one's endeavors. That's what the Object truly means.\n \nROTARY MOTTOES\n \nThe first motto of Rotary International, \"He Profits Most Who Serves Best,\" was approved at the second Rotary Convention, held in Port- land, Oregon, in August 1911. The phrase was first stated by a Chicago Rotarian, Art Sheldon, who made a speech in 1910, which included the remark, \"He profits most who serves his fellows best.\" At about the same time, Ben Collins, president of the Rotary Club of Minneapolis, Minnesota, commented that the proper way to organize a Rotary club was through the principle his club had adopted--\"Service, Not Self.\" These two slogans, slightly modified, were formally approved to be the official mottoes of Rotary at the 1950 Convention in Detroit--\"He Profits Most Who Serves Best\" and \"Service Above Self.\" The 1989 Council on Legislation established \"Service Above Self\" as the principal motto of Rotary, since it best explains the philosophy of unselfish volunteer service.\n \n100 PERCENT ATTENDANCE\n \nRegular attendance is essential to a strong and active Rotary club. The emphasis on attendance is traced back to 1922 when Rotary International announced a worldwide attendance contest which motivated thousands of Rotarians to achieve a 100 percent attendance year after year. Many Rotarians take great pride in maintaining their 100 percent record in their own club or by making-up at other Rotary club meetings.\n \nAlthough the by-laws of Rotary require members to attend only 60 percent of all meetings, the custom has emerged that 100 percent is the desirable level. Rotary stresses regular attendance because each member represents his own business or profession and thus the absence of any member deprives the club of the values of its diversified membership and the personal fellowship of each member. From time to time, proposals have been made to give attendance credit to Rotarians who are on jury duty, serving in the community, attending a trade convention, on vacation in remote areas, on shipboard or unable to attend because of ill health or other special reasons. None of these exceptions has been adopted. The policy is very clear--a Rotarian is not given attendance credit if he does not attend a meeting.\n \nThere are a few circumstances where attendance credit is awarded when a Rotarian participates in an alternate type of Rotary event. If a Rotarian is requested to attend an Interact or Rotaract meeting, attendance credit may be allowed. When a member attends a Rotary district conference, district assembly, international convention, Council on Legislation, a meeting of an international committee, an inter-city meeting and a few other specially designated events, attendance my be credited. A Rotarian actively participating in a district-sponsored service project in a remote area where it is impossible to make-up may also receive attendance credit.\n \nTHE 4-WAY TEST\n \nOne of the most widely printed and quoted statements of business ethics in the world is the Rotary \"4-Way Test.\" It was created by Rotarian Herbert J. Taylor in 1932 when he was asked to take charge of the Chicago- based Club Aluminum Company, which was facing bankruptcy. Taylor looked for a way to save the struggling company mired in depression-caused financial difficulties. He drew up a 24-word code of ethics for all employees to follow in their business and professional lives. The 4-Way Test became the guide for sales, production, advertising and all relations with dealers and customers, and the survival of the company was credited to this simple philosophy. Herb Taylor became president of Rotary International during 1954-55. The 4-Way Test was adopted by Rotary in 1943 and has been translated into more than 100 languages and published in thousands of ways. The message should be known and followed by all Rotarians. \"Of the things we think, say or do: 1. Is it the TRUTH? 2. Is it FAIR to all concerned? 3. Will it build GOODWILL and BETTER FRIENDSHIPS? 4. Will it be BENEFICIAL to all concerned?\"\n \nPAUL HARRIS--FIRST BUT NOT FIRST\n \nWas Paul Harris the first president of a Rotary club? No. Was Paul Harris the first president of Rotary International? Yes.\n \nThere is an easy explanation to this apparent contradiction. Although Paul Harris was the founder and organizer of the first Rotary club in Chicago in 1905, the man selected to be the first president was one of the other founding members, Silvester Schiele. By the year 1910 there were 16 Rotary clubs, which linked up as an organization called the National Association of Rotary Clubs. A couple of years later the name was changed to International Association of Rotary Clubs as Rotary was organized in Winnipeg, Canada, and then in England, Ireland and Scotland. In 1922 the name was shortened to Rotary International. When the first organization of Rotary clubs was created in 1910, Paul Harris was selected as the first president. He served in this position for two years from 1910 until 1912. thus, the founder of the Rotary idea, who declined to be president of the first club, became the first president of the worldwide organization, Rotary International.\n \nFIRST NAMES OR NICKNAMES\n \nFrom the earliest days of Rotary , members have referred to each other on a first-name basis. Since personal acquaintanceship and friendship are cornerstones of Rotary, it was natural that many clubs adopted the practice of setting aside formal titles in conversations among members. Individuals who normally would be addressed as Doctor, Professor, Mister, the Honorable or Sir are regularly called Joe, Bill, Charley or Jerry by other Rotarians. The characteristic Rotary club name badge fosters the first-name custom. In a few areas, such as Europe, club members use a more formal style in addressing fellow members. In other parts of the world, mainly in Asian countries, the practice is to assign each new Rotarian a humorous nickname which relates to some personal characteristic or which is descriptive of the member's business or profession. A member nicknames \"Oxygen\" is the manufacturer of chemical gas products. \"Trees\" is the nickname for the Rotarian in the lumber business, \"Building\" is the contractor, \"Paper\" is the stationery or office supply retailer. Other members might carry nicknames like \"Muscles,\" \"Foghorn\" or \"Smiles\" as commentaries on their physical features. The nicknames are frequently a source of good-natured fun and fellowship. But whether a Rotarian is addressed by a given first name or a nickname, the spirit of personal friendship is the initial step, which opens doors to all other opportunities for service.\n \nFOUR AVENUES OF SERVICE\n \nThe term \"four Avenues of Service\" is frequently used in Rotary literature and information. The \"Avenues\" refer to the four elements of the Object of Rotary: Club Service, Vocational Service, Community Service and International Service. Although the Avenues of Service are not found in any formal part of the constitutional documents of Rotary, the concept has been accepted as a means to describe the primary areas of Rotary activity.�� \"Club Service\" involves all of the activities necessary for Rotarians to perform to make their club function successfully. \"Vocational Service\" is a description of the opportunity each Rotarian has to represent the dignity and utility of one's vocation to the other members of the club.\n \n\"Community Service\" pertains to those activities, which Rotarians undertake to improve the quality of life in their community. It frequently involves assistance to youth, the aged, handicapped and others who look to Rotary as a source of hope for a better life. The Fourth Avenue \"International Service\" describes the many programs and activities, which Rotarians undertake to advance international understanding, goodwill and peace. International Service projects are designed to meet humanitarian needs of people in many lands. When a Rotarian understands and travels down the \"Four Avenues of Service,\" the Object of Rotary takes on even greater meaning.\n \nTHE ROTARIAN AND REGIONAL MAGAZINES\n \nThe month of April is annually designated as \"Rotary's Magazine Month,\" an occasion to recognize and promote the reading and use of the official R.I. magazine, THE ROTARIAN, and the regional magazines. THE ROTARIAN has been around since 1911 as the medium to communicate with Rotarians and to advance the program and Object of Rotary. A primary goal of the magazine is to support the annual theme and philosophy of the R.I. president and to disseminate information about new and special programs, major meetings and the emphasis of the several official \"months\" of Rotary THE ROTARIAN provides a forum in which both Rotary-related and general interest topics may be explored. Frequently the magazine presents lively debates on topical questions. The magazine serves as an excellent source of information and ideas for programs at Rotary club meetings and district conferences. Many articles promote international fellowship, goodwill and understanding. Regular readers usually have superior knowledge of the activities of Rotary and how each Rotarian may be more fully involved in the Four Avenues of Service around the world. In addition to THE ROTARIAN there are 27 regional magazines printed in 21 languages. Although each regional publication has its own unique style and content, they all provide Rotarians with up-to-date information and good reading in April--and all through the year.\n \nINTERNATIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES OF A ROTARIAN\n \nAs an international organization, Rotary offers each member unique opportunities and responsibilities unlike those of other groups one might join. Although each Rotarian has first responsibility to uphold the obligations of citizenship of his or her own country, membership in Rotary enables Rotarians to take a somewhat different view of international affairs. In the early 1950s a Rotary philosophy was adopted to describe how a Rotarian may think on a global basis. Here is what it said: \"A world-minded Rotarian:\n \nLooks beyond national patriotism and considers himself as sharing responsibility for the advancement of international understanding, goodwill and peace;\nResists any tendency to act in terms of national or racial superiority;�\nSeeks and develops common grounds for agreement with peoples of other lands;�\nDefends the rule of law and order to preserve the liberty of the individual so that he may enjoy freedom of thought, speech and assembly, and freedom from persecution, aggression, want and fear;\nSupports action directed toward improving standards of living for all peoples, realizing that poverty anywhere endangers prosperity everywhere;�\nUpholds the principles of justice for mankind;�\nStrives always to promote peace between nations and prepares to make personal sacrifices for that ideal;�\nUrges and practices a spirit of understanding of every other man's beliefs as a step toward international goodwill, recognizing that there are certain basic moral and spiritual standards which will ensure a richer, fuller life.\n\" That is quite an assignment for any Rotarian to practice in thoughts and actions!\n \nSTANDARD CLUB CONSTITUTION\n \nRotary International is the most territorial organization in the world. It exists in 184 different countries and territories and cuts across dozens of languages, political and social structures, customs, religions and traditions. How is it that all of the more than 25,500 Rotary clubs of the world operate in almost identical style? The primary answer is the Standard Rotary Club Constitution. One of the conditions to receive a charter to become a Rotary club is to accept the Standard Club Constitution, originally adopted in 1922. The Standard Club Constitution outlines administrative techniques for clubs to follow in holding weekly meetings, procedures for membership and classifications, conditions of attendance and payment of dues and other policies relating to public issues and political positions. This constitutional document provides the framework for all Rotary clubs in the world. When the Standard Club Constitution was accepted, it was agreed that all existing clubs could continue to follow their current constitution. Although most of those early clubs have subsequently endorsed the Standard Constitution, a few pre-1922 clubs still conduct their club affairs according to their former constitutional provisions. The Standard Club Constitution has to be considered one of the great strengths of Rotary to enable the organization to operate in so many thousands of communities.\n \nTHE SPONSOR OF A NEW MEMBER\n \nThe bylaws of Rotary clearly outline the procedure for a prospective member to be proposed for Rotary club membership. The \"proposer\" is the key person in the growth and advancement of Rotary. Without a sponsor, an individual will never have the opportunity to become a Rotarian. The task of the proposer should not end merely by submitting a name to the club secretary or membership committee. Rotary has not established formal responsibilities for proposers or sponsors; however, by custom and tradition these procedures are recommended in many clubs. The sponsor should:\n \nInvite a prospective member to several meetings prior to proposing the individual for membership.\nAccompany the prospective new member to one or more orientation/informational meetings.\nIntroduce the new member to other club members each week for the first month.\nInvite the new member to accompany the sponsor to neighboring clubs for the first make-up meeting to learn the process and observe the spirit of fellowship.\nAsk the new member and spouse to accompany the sponsor to the club's social activities, dinners or other special occasions.\nUrge the new member and spouse to attend the district conference with the sponsor.\nServe as a special friend to assure that the new member becomes an active Rotarian. When the proposer follows these guidelines, Rotary becomes stronger with each new member\n \nWOMEN IN ROTARY\n \nUntil 1989, the Constitution and By-laws of Rotary International stated that Rotary club membership was for males only. In 1978 the Rotary Club of Duarte, California, invited three women to become members. The R.I. board withdrew the charter of that club for violation of the R.I. Constitution. The club brought suit against R.I. claiming a violation of a state civil rights law, which prevents discrimination of any form in business establishments or public accommodations. The appeals court and the California Supreme Court supported the Duarte position that Rotary could not remove the club's charter merely for inducting women into the club. The United States Supreme Court upheld the California court indicating that Rotary clubs do have a \"business purpose\" and are in some ways public-type organizations. This action there- fore allowed women to become Rotarians in any jurisdiction having similar \"public accommodation\" statutes. The R.l. constitutional change was made at the 1989 Council on Legislation, with a vote to eliminate the \"male only\" provision for all of Rotary.\n \nR.I. WORLD HEADQUARTERS\n \nThe headquarters of Rotary International always has been in the area of Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A. First it was in Chicago itself, but in 1954 an attractive new building opened in suburban Evanston. The Ridge Avenue building met the needs of the Rotary Secretariat until the 1980s when the addition of new programs, the growth of The Rotary Foundation, and the new PolioPlus activities made the headquarters building extremely crowded and required some staff members to be housed in supplementary office space nearby. When a modern 18-story office building became available in downtown Evanston in 1987, it appeared to meet all of Rotary's space and expansion needs for years to come. The glass and steel structure, built in 1977, provides 400,000 square feet of office and usable space. The building was purchased by Rotary International, which leases approximately two-thirds of the space to commercial tenants, until needed by future Rotary growth. The building provides a 190-seat auditorium, large parking garage and 300-seat cafeteria, as well as functional office space for the 400 employees of the world headquarters. The executive suite on the 18th floor includes conference rooms for the R.I. board and committee meetings, in addition to the offices for the R.I. president, president-elect and general secretary. One Rotary Center, as it is called, will enhance the efficient operations of Rotary International for many years to come.\n \nMORE ROTARY FIRSTS\n \nRotary became bilingual in 1916 when the first club was organized in a non-English- -speaking country--Havana, Cuba.\nRotary established the \"Endowment Fund\" in 1917, which became the forerunner of The Rotary Foundation.\nRotary first adopted the name \"Rotary International\" in 1922 when the name was changed from the International Association of Rotary Clubs.\nRotary first established the Paul Harris Fellows recognition in 1957 for contributors of $1,000 to The Rotary Foundation.\nThe Rotary club which first held meetings on a weekly basis was Oakland, California, the Number 3 club.\nThe Rotary emblem was printed on a commemorative stamp for the first time in 1931 at the time of the Vienna Convention.\nThe first Rotary club banner (from the Houston Space Center) to orbit the moon was carried by astronaut Frank Borman, a member of that club.\nThe first Rotary International convention held outside the United States was in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1921.\nThe first head of state to address a Rotary convention was U.S. President Warren G. Harding in 1923 at St. Louis.\n \nWORLD UNDERSTANDING MONTH\n \nThe month of February is very special in the Rotary calendar since it is designated World Understanding Month. The month also includes the anniversary of the first meeting of Rotary held on February 23, 1905, now designated World Understanding and Peace Day. In designating World Understanding Month, the Rotary International board asks all Rotary clubs to plan programs for their weekly meetings and undertake special activities to emphasize \"understanding and goodwill as essential for world peace.\" To observe this designated month, many clubs arrange international speakers, invite youth exchange students and international scholars from schools and universities to club meetings, plan programs featuring former Group Study Exchange team members, arrange discussions on international Issues, present entertainment with an international cultural or artistic theme and schedule other programs with an international emphasis. Many clubs take the opportunity to launch an international community service activity or make contact with a Rotary club in another country. It is a good month to initiate a Rotary Fellowship Exchange, a 3-H project or encourage support for PolioPlus and other Rotary Foundation programs. World Understanding Month is a chance for every club to pause, plan and promote the Fourth Avenue of Service--Rotary's continued quest for goodwill, peace and understanding among people of the world.\n \nROTARY AWARD FOR WORLD UNDERSTANDING\n \nSince 1981, the Rotary Award for World Understanding has been given each year, with one exception, to an individual or organization \"whose life or work demonstrates in some exemplary or worthy manner the Rotary ideal of service, especially in the promotion of international understanding, goodwill and peace.\" The award is presented at the Rotary International Convention. A special worldwide committee makes the selection, which must then be approved by the R.I. Board of Directors and the Trustees of The Rotary Foundation. In addition to a beautiful crystal sculpture, the award provides the opportunity for the recipient to select ten Rotary Foundation scholars who then receive their ambassadorial scholarships in the distinguished award winner's name. Past recipients of the World Understanding Awards have been: 1981, Dr. Noburo Iwamura, Japanese professor of medical research; 1982, Pope John Paul II; 1983, Dr. Lotta Hitschmanova, Canadian humanitarian; 1984, World Organization of the Scout Movement; 1985, Dr. Albert B. Sabin, developer of oral polio vaccine; 1986, International Committee of the Red Cross; 1987, Lady Hermione Ranfurly, for worldwide Ranfurly Library Services; 1988, The Salvation Army; 1989, no award; 1990, Vaclav Havel, president of Czechoslovakia; 1991, Javier Perez de Cuellar, secretary general of the United Nations; and 1992, Edward J. Piszek, U.S.A. businessman-philanthropist.\n \nTHE CLASSIFICATION PRINCIPLE\n \nVirtually all membership in Rotary is based upon a \"classification.\" Basically a classification describes the distinct and recognized business or professional service which the Rotarian renders to society. The principle of Rotary classification is somewhat more specific and precise. In determining the classification of a Rotarian it is necessary to look at the \"principal or recognized business or professional activity of the firm, company or institution\" with which an active member is connected or \"that which covers his principal and recognized business or professional activity.\" It should be clearly understood that classifications are determined by activities or services to society rather than by the position held by a particular individual. In other words, if a person is the president of a bank, he is not classified as \"bank president\" but under the classification \"banking.\" It is the principal and recognized activity of a business or professional establishment or the individual's principal and recognized business or professional activity that determines the classification to be established and loaned to a qualified person. For example, the permanently employed electrical engineer, insurance adjustor, or business manager of a railroad company, mining company, manufacturing concern, hospital, clinic, etc., may be considered for membership as a representative of the particular work he may be doing personally or as a representative of the firm, company, or institution to which he is devoting his professional services. The classification principle also permits business and industries to be separated into distinct functions such as manufacturing, distributing, retailing and servicing. Classifications may also be specified as distinct and independent divisions of a large corporation or university within the club's territory, such as a school of business or a school of engineering. The classification principle is a necessary concept in assuring that each Rotary club represents a cross section of the business and professional service of the community.\n \nEXCHANGE OF CLUB BANNERS\n \nOne of the colorful traditions of many Rotary clubs is the exchange of small banners, flags or pennants. Rotarians traveling to distant locations often take banners to exchange at \"make up\" meetings as a token of friendship. Many clubs use the decorative banners they have received for attractive displays at club meetings and district events. The Rotary International board recognized the growing popularity of the banner exchange back in 1959 and suggested that those clubs which participate in such exchanges give careful thought to the design of their banners in order that they be distinctive and expressive of the community and country of which the club is a part. It is recommended that banners include pictures, slogans or designs which portray the territorial area of the club. The board was also mindful of the financial burden such exchanges may impose upon some clubs, especially in popular areas where many visitors make up and request to exchange. In all instances, clubs are cautioned to exercise discretion and moderation in the exchange of banners in order that the financial obligations do not interfere with the basic service activities of the club. Exchanging club banners is a very pleasant custom, especially when a creative and artistic banner tells an interesting story of community pride. The exchange of banners is a significant tradition of Rotary and serves as a tangible symbol of our international fellowship.\n \nNON-ATTENDANCE RULES\n \nThe Rotary Club Constitution specifies three conditions under which a Rotarian's membership will automatically be terminated for non-attendance. These circumstances are: failure to attend or make up four consecutive club meetings, failure to attend or make up 60 percent of club meetings each six months and failure to attend at least 30 percent of the meetings of one's own club in each six-month period. Under any of these three cases, a member will lose his Rotary membership unless the club board of directors has previously consented to excuse such failure for good and sufficient reason. To some individuals, these rules may seem unusually rigid. How- ever, being present at club meetings is one of the basic obligations a member accepts upon joining a Rotary club. The constitutional rules merely emphasize that Rotary is a participatory organization which highly values regular attendance. When a member is absent the entire club loses the personal association with that member. Being present at a club meeting is considered a vital part of the operation and success of every Rotary club. For any Rotarian to miss four consecutive meetings, or disregard the other attendance requirements, should be considered tantamount to the submission of one's resignation from the club. When a club terminates a member for non-attendance, it is simply an acceptance of a resignation and not a punitive action by the club officers. All Rotarians know the consequences of non-attendance, so it clearly becomes a conscious decision by a Rotarian to withdraw from the club when he fails to fulfill the attendance requirements.\n \nSHARING ROTARY WITH NEW MEMBERS\n \nAre you aware of the responsibility or obligation most Rotarians fail to perform? Paying their dues? Attending meetings? Contributing to the club's service fund? Participating in club events and projects? No--none of these! Of all the obligations a person accepts when joining a Rotary club, the one in which most Rotarians fail is \"sharing Rotary.\" The policies of Rotary International clearly affirm that every individual Rotarian has an \"obligation to share Rotary with others and to help extend Rotary through proposing qualified persons for Rotary club membership.\" It is estimated that less than 30 percent of the members of most Rotary clubs have ever made the effort to propose a new member. Thus, in every club, there are many Rotarians who readily accept the pleasures of being a Rotarian without ever sharing that privilege with another qualified individual. The Rotary policy on club membership states: \"In order for a Rotary club to be fully relevant to its community and responsive to the needs of those in the community, it is important and necessary that the club include in its membership all fully qualified prospective members located within its territory. \" One merely has to glance through the yellow pages of the local telephone directory to realize that most clubs have not invited qualified members of all businesses and professions into Rotary. Only a Rotarian may propose a customer, neighbor, client, supplier, executive, relative, business associate, professional or other qualified person to join a Rotary club. Have you accepted your obligation to share Rotary? The procedures are very simple, and everyone must know at least one person who should belong to Rotary.\n \nTOLERANCE OF DIFFERENCES\n \nOccasionally there is a temptation to criticize the laws, customs and traditions of another country which may seem strange or contrary to our own. In some instances illegal practices or customs of one nation are completely lawful and acceptable in another. As members of an international organization dedicated to world understanding and peace, it behooves Rotarians to exercise restraint in judging our Rotary friends and citizens from other countries when their behavior seems unusual to us. A Rotary policy has existed for more than half a century relating to this dilemma of international relationships. The statement, adopted in 1933, says that because it is recognized that some activities and local customs may be legal and customary in some countries and not in others, Rotarians should be guided by this admonition of tolerance: \"Rotarians in all countries should recognize these facts and there should be a thoughtful avoidance of criticism of the laws and customs of one country by the Rotarians of another country.\" The policy also cautions against \"any effort on the part of Rotarians of one country to interfere with the laws or customs of another country.\" As we strive to strengthen the bonds of understanding, goodwill and friendship, these policies still provide good advice and guidance.\n \nVOCATIONAL SERVICE\n \nVocational Service is the \"Second Avenue of Service.\" No aspect of Rotary is more closely related to each member than a personal commitment to represent one's vocation or occupation to fellow Rotarians and to exemplify the characteristics of high ethical standards and the dignity of work. Programs of vocational service are those, which seek to improve business relations while improving the quality of trades, industry, commerce and the professions. Rotarians understand that each person makes a valuable contribution to a better society through daily activities in a business or profession. Vocational service is frequently demonstrated by offering young people career guidance, occupational information and assistance in making vocational choices. Some clubs sponsor high school career conferences. Many recognize the dignity of employment by honoring exemplary service of individuals working in their communities. The 4-Way Test and other ethical and laudable business philosophies are often promoted among young people entering the world of work. Vocational talks and discussion of business issues are also typical vocational service programs at most clubs. Regardless of the ways that vocational service is expressed, it is the banner by which Rotarians \"recognize the worthiness of all useful occupations\" and demonstrate a commitment to \"high ethical standards in all businesses and professions.\" That's why the Second Avenue of Service is fundamental to every Rotary club.\n \n� ROTARY ANNS\n \nIn many Rotary clubs throughout the world, wives of male members are affectionately called \"Rotary Anns.\" This designation was never one of disparagement, but rather grew out of an interesting historical occasion. The year was 1914 when San Francisco Rotarians boarded a special train to attend the Rotary convention being held in Houston. In those days few wives attended Rotary events, and until the train stopped in Los Angeles, the only woman aboard was the wife of Rotarian Bru Brunnier. As the train picked up additional convention-bound delegates, Mrs. Ann Brunnier was introduced as the Rotarian's Ann. This title soon became \"Rotary Ann.\" Since the clubs of the West were inviting the Rotarians to hold their next convention in San Francisco, a number of songs and stunts were organized which would be performed in Houston. One of the Rotarians wrote a \"Rotary Ann\" chant. On the train's arrival at the Houston depot, a delegation greeted the West Coast Rotarians. One of the greeters was Guy Gundaker of Philadelphia, whose wife was also named Ann. During the rousing demonstration, someone started the Rotary Ann chant. The two petite ladies, Ann Brunnier and Ann Gundaker, were hoisted to the men's shoulders and paraded about the hall. The group loved the title given to the two women named Ann. Immediately the same term of endearment was used for all of the wives in attendance, and the name \"Rotary Ann\" was here to stay. Guy Gundaker became president of Rotary International in 1923 and Bru Brunnier was elected president in 1952. Thus, each of the two original Rotary Anns became the \"first lady of Rotary International.\"\n \nLESSONS IN ROTARY GEOGRAPHY\n \nWere you aware that the Rotary Club of Reno, Nevada, is farther west than the Rotary Club of Los Angeles, California?\nWould you guess that the meetings of the Rotary Club of Portland, Maine, are farther south than those of the clubs in London, England?\nCan you imagine that the Pensacola, Florida, Rotary Club is west of the Detroit, Michigan, club?\nIt's a fact that the Cairo, Illinois, Rotary Club is south of Richmond, Virginia.\nThere are 69 Rotary clubs with the word \"Tokyo\" in their club names.\nThe Rotary Club of Nome, Alaska, lies west of the club in Honolulu, Hawaii, and the Santiago, Chile, club is located east of the Rotary Club of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.\nRotary geographers will know that virtually every Rotary club meeting in Australia is east of the Hong Kong Rotary Club.\nWhat do the Rotary clubs of Quito, Ecuador, Libreville, Gabon, Singapore, and Kampala, Uganda, have in common? You guessed right if you said they all meet approximately on the equator.\nThere are many interesting relationships and things to learn as you become acquainted with the 25,600 clubs in the wide world of Rotary.\n \nINVOCATIONS AT CLUB MEETINGS\n \nIn many Rotary clubs, particularly in Judeo-Christian nations, it is customary to open weekly meetings with an appropriate invocation or blessing. Usually such invocations are offered without reference to specific religious denominations or faiths. Rotary policy recognizes that throughout the world Rotarians represent many religious beliefs, ideas and creeds. The religious beliefs of each member are fully respected, and nothing in Rotary is intended to prevent each individual from being faithful to such convictions. At international assemblies and conventions, it is traditional for a silent invocation to be given. In respect for all religious beliefs and in the spirit of tolerance for a wide variety of personal faiths, all persons are invited to seek divine guidance and peace \"each in his own way.\" It is an inspiring experience to join with thousands of Rotarians in an international \"silent prayer\" or act of personal devotion. Usually all Rotary International board and committee meetings begin with a few moments of silent meditation. In this period of silence, Rotary demonstrates respect for the beliefs of all members, who represent the religions of the world. Since each Rotary club is autonomous, the practice of presenting a prayer or invocation at club meetings is left entirely to the traditions and customs of the individual club, with the understanding that these meeting rituals always be conducted in a manner, which will respect the religious convictions and faiths of all members.\n \nOPPORTUNITIES FOR FELLOWSHIP\n \nMost Rotarians are successful professional and business executives because they hear opportunities knock and take advantage of them. Once a week the opportunity for Rotary fellowship occurs at each club meeting, but not all members hear it knocking. The weekly club meeting is a special privilege of Rotary membership. It provides the occasion to visit with fellow members, to meet visitors you have not known before, and to share your personal friendship with other members. Rotary clubs, which have a reputation of being �friendly clubs� usually, follow a few simple steps: First, members are encouraged to sit in a different seat or at a different table each week. Second, Rotarians are urged to sit with a member they may not know as well as their long-time personal friends. Third, members invite new members or visitors to join their table just by saying: \"Come join us, we have an empty chair at this table.\" Fourth, members share the conversation around the table rather than merely eating in silence or talking privately to the person next to them. Fifth, Rotarians make a special point of trying to get acquainted with all members of the club by seeking out those they may not know. When Rotarians follow these five easy steps, an entirely new opportunity for fellowship knocks each week. Soon Rotarians realize that warm and personal friendship is the cornerstone of every great Rotary club.\n \nSENIOR ACTIVE MEMBERSHIP\n \nSenior active\" is a form of membership reserved for members who have provided substantial years of service to Rotary and is usually regarded as a mark of Rotary distinction. Being a senior active member signifies that a Rotarian has been involved in club activities over a long period. A Rotarian automatically becomes \"senior active\" upon completion of 15 years of service in one or more Rotary clubs. Senior active status is also conferred upon a Rotarian with ten or more years service who has reached the age of 60, or with five or more years service who has reached the age of 65. A Rotarian who serves as a district governor is also eligible for senior active membership. One of the benefits of being senior active is that the Rotarian no longer must reside or have his place of business within the territorial limits of the club. If a senior active member moves to another city, he may be invited to join Rotary without having an open classification. When a Rotarian becomes senior active, his/her classification is released to enable another individual to join Rotary. It is important to remember, senior active is not a classification it is a type of membership. A senior active member is always identified by \"former classification,\" which describes a business or profession.\n \nHONORARY MEMBERSHIP\n \nHonorary\" is one of the four types of membership a person may have in a Rotary club. This type of membership is the highest distinction a Rotary club can confer and is exercised only in exceptional cases to recognize an individual for unusual service and contributions to Rotary and society. An honorary member is elected for one year only, and continuing membership must be renewed annually. Honorary members cannot propose new members to the club, do not hold office and are exempt from attendance requirements and club dues. Many distinguished heads of state, explorers, authors, musicians, astronauts and other public personalities have been honorary members of Rotary clubs, including King Gustaf of Sweden, King George VI of England, King Badouin of Belgium, King Hassan III of Morocco, Sir Winston Churchill, humanitarian Albert Schweitzer, Charles Lindberg, composer Jean Sibelius, explorer Sir Edmund Hillary, Thor Heyerdahl, Thomas Edison, Walt Disney, Bob Hope, Dr. Albert Sabin, British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and many of the presidents of the United States. Truly, those selected for honorary membership are those who have done much to further the ideals of Rotary.\n \nMEMBERSHIP IN ROTARY INTERNATIONAL\n \nIf you asked a Rotarian if he or she belonged to Rotary International, the individual probably would look puzzled and answer, \"Of course I'm a member of Rotary International.\" But in this instance, the confident Rotarian would be technically wrong. No Rotarian can be a member of Rotary International! The explanation of this apparent contradiction is simple. The constitutional documents of R.I. state that membership in Rotary International is limited to Rotary clubs. Over 25,600 Rotary clubs belong to the organization we call Rotary International. A Rotary club is composed of persons with the appropriate qualifications of good character and reputation, a business or professional classification and who serve in an executive or managerial capacity. The Rotarian belongs to a club--the club belongs to Rotary International. This technical distinction is not obvious or even known to most Rotarians and seldom does it create any problems or complications. It does explain, however, why the Rotary International Board of Directors places expectations upon and extends privileges to Rotary clubs, rather than to individual Rotarians. If someone asks if you belong to Rotary International, your most accurate answer would be, \"No, I belong to a Rotary club.\" But I doubt if anyone would understand the difference, or, in fact, would really care.\n \nDISTRICT GOVERNOR\n \nThe Rotary district governor performs a very significant function in the world of Rotary. He or she is the single officer of Rotary International in their geographic area, called a Rotary district, which usually includes about 45 Rotary clubs. The 500 district governors, who have been extensively trained at the worldwide International Assembly, provide the \"quality control\" for the 25,600 Rotary clubs of the world. They are responsible for maintaining high performance within the clubs of their district. The district governor, who must make an official visit to each club in his district, is never regarded as an \"inspector general.\" Rather, he visits as a helpful and friendly adviser to the club officers, as a useful counselor to further the Object of Rotary among the clubs of his district, and as a catalyst to help strengthen the programs of Rotary. The district governor is a very experienced Rotarian who generously devotes a year of their life to the volunteer task of leadership. The governor has a wealth of knowledge about current Rotary pro- grams, purposes, policies and goals. He or she is a person of recognized high standing in his profession, community and Rotary club. They must supervise the organization of new clubs and strengthen existing ones. They perform a host of specific duties to assure that the quality of Rotary does not falter in his district. They are responsible to promote and implement all programs and activities of the Rotary International president and the R.I. Board of Directors. The governor plans and directs a district conference and other special events. Each district governor performs a very important role in the worldwide operations of Rotary. The district governor is truly a prime example of Service Above Self performing a labor of love.\n \n \nTHE DISTRICT ASSEMBLY\nIn view of the annual turnover of Rotary leadership each year, special effort is required to provide the 25,600 club leaders with appropriate instruction for the tasks they will assume. The annual district assembly is the major leadership-training event in each of the 500 Rotary districts of the world. The district assembly offers motivation, inspiration, Rotary information and new ideas for club officers, directors and key committee chairmen of each club. Some of the most experienced district leaders conduct informative discussions on all phases of Rotary administration and service projects. The assembly gives all participants valuable new ideas to make their club more effective and interesting. Usually eight to ten delegates from each club are invited to attend the training session. Another important feature of a district assembly is a review by the incoming district governor of the program theme and emphasis of the new R.l. president for the coming year. District goals and objects are also described and plans are developed for their implementation. The success of each Rotary club is frequently determined by the club's full representation and participation in the annual district assembly.\n \nTHE DISTRICT CONFERENCE\n \nMost Rotarians have never attended a Rotary district conference. They have not experienced one of the most enjoyable and rewarding privileges of Rotary membership. A district conference is for all club members and their spouses, not just for club officers and committee members. The purpose of a District Conference is for fellowship, good fun, inspirational speakers and discussion of matters which make one's Rotary membership more meaningful. Every person who attends a district conference finds that being a Rotarian becomes even more rewarding because of the new experiences, insights and acquaintances developed at the Conference. Those who attend a Conference enjoy going back, year after year. Every one of Rotary's 500 districts has a conference annually. These meetings are considered so important that the Rotary International president selects a knowledgeable Rotarian as his personal representative to attend and address each conference. The program always includes several outstanding entertainment features, interesting discussions and inspirational programs. One of the unexpected benefits of attending a district conference is the opportunity to become better acquainted with members of one's own club in an informal setting. Lasting friendships grow from the fellowship hours at the district conference.\n \nYOUTH EXCHANGE\n \nRotary Youth Exchange is one of Rotary's most popular programs to promote international understanding and develop lifelong friendships. It began in 1927 with the Rotary Club of Nice, France. In 1939 an extensive Youth Exchange was created between California and Latin America. Since then the program has expanded around the world. In recent years more than 7,000 young people have participated annually in Rotary-sponsored exchange programs. The values of Youth Exchange are experienced not only by the high school-age students involved but also by the host families, sponsoring clubs, receiving high schools and the entire community. Youth Exchange participants usually provide their fellow students in their host schools with excellent opportunities to learn about customs, languages, traditions and family life in another country Youth Exchange offers young people interesting opportunities and rich experiences to see another part of the world. Students usually spend a full academic year aboard, although some clubs and districts sponsor short-term exchanges of several weeks or months. Approximately 36 percent of Rotary Youth Exchange students are hosted or sent by the clubs in the United States and Canada. European countries account for about 40 percent, and 12 percent come from Australia and New Zealand. Asian clubs sponsor 5 percent, and 7 percent come from Latin American countries. Over 70 percent of all Rotary districts participate in Youth Exchange activities. Youth Exchange is a highly recommended program for all Rotary clubs as a practical activity for the enhancement of international understanding and goodwill.\n \nNO PERSONAL PRIVILEGES\n \nFrequently friends ask whether Rotarians receive special business benefits from their Rotary membership. Should Rotarians expect a special discount or some preferential service just because they are dealing with a fellow Rotarian? The answer is clearly \"no.\" The Rotary Manual of Procedure expressly states the Rotary position on this matter. The policy, originally approved by the R.I. Board of Directors in 1933, is that in business and professional relations \"a Rotarian should not expect, and far less should he ask for, more consideration or advantages from a fellow Rotarian than the latter would give to any other business or professional associate with whom he has business relations. \" Over 50 years ago the concept was expressed that \"true friends demand nothing of one another, and any abuse of the confidence of friendship for profit is foreign to the spirit of Rotary.\" On the other hand, if new or increased business comes as the natural result of friendship created in Rotary, it is the same normal development which takes place outside of Rotary as well as inside, so it is not an infringement on the ethics of Rotary membership. It is important to remember that the primary purpose of Rotary membership is to provide each member with a unique opportunity to serve others, and membership is not intended as a means for personal profit or special privileges.\n \nEVERY ROTARIAN AN EXAMPLE TO YOUTH\n \nIn much of the official literature of Rotary International relating to service to young people, a special slogan will be found--\"Every Rotarian an Example to Youth.\" These words were adopted in 1949 by the Rotary International Board of Directors as an expression of commitment to children and youth in each community in which Rotary clubs exist. Serving young people has long been an important part of the Rotary program. Youth service projects take many forms around the world. Rotarians sponsor Boy Scout and Girl Scout troops, athletic teams, handicapped children's centers, school safety patrols, summer camps, recreation areas, safe driving clinics, county fairs, child care centers and children's hospitals. Many clubs provide vocational counseling, establish youth employment programs and promote use of the 4-Way Test. Increasingly, drug and alcohol abuse prevention projects are being supported by Rotarians. In every instance, Rotarians have an opportunity to be role models for the young men and women of their community. One learns to serve by observing others. As our youth grow to become adult leaders, it is hoped each will achieve that same desire and spirit to serve future generations of children and youth. The slogan accepted over 40 years ago is just as vital today. It is a very thoughtful challenge--\"Every Rotarian an Example to Youth.\"\n \nWORLD COMMUNITY SERVICE\n \nWorld Community Service is the Rotary program by which a club or district in one country provides humanitarian assistance to a club in another country. Typically the aid goes to a developing community where the Rotary project will help raise the standard of living and the quality of life. The ultimate object of World Community Service is to build goodwill and understanding among peoples of the world. One important way to find a club in some other part of the world which needs help on a worthy project is to use the WCS Projects Exchange, a list of dozens of worthy activities in developing areas. The exchange list is maintained in the R.I. Secretariat in Evanston and is readily available upon request. It outlines projects, provides estimated costs and gives names of the appropriate contacts. Clubs, which need assistance, or are seeking another club to help with a humanitarian project, such as building a clinic, school, hospital, community water well, library or other beneficial activity, may register their needs. Clubs seeking a desirable World Community Service project may easily review the list of needs registered in the Projects Exchange. Thus, the exchange provides a practical way to link needs with resources. Every Rotary club is urged to undertake a new World Community Service project each year. The WCS Projects Exchange list is an excellent tool to find a real need, a project description and cooperating club in a developing area. The job then is to \"go to work\" to complete the project, and at the same time build bridges of friendship and world understanding.\n \nWOMEN'S GROUPS ASSOCIATED WITH ROTARY CLUBS\n \nSome very significant programs of Rotary service are not conducted by Rotarians. This is true because of the many projects sponsored by organizations of Rotarians' wives and other women relatives associated with Rotary clubs around the world. Women's groups--often called Women of Rotary, Rotary Ann Clubs, Las Damas de Rotary, Rotary Wives or, the more formalized organization, The Inner Wheel--annually conduct hundreds of notable projects of humanitarian service in their communities. The women's groups establish schools, baby clinics, food and clothing distribution centers, hospital facilities, orphanages, homes for the elderly and other service activities, and they frequently provide volunteer service on a day-to-day basis to operate child- care centers for working mothers and provide necessary resources for Youth Exchange students. Usually the women's groups complement and supplement the programs of service performed by the local Rotary clubs. Many of the women's groups actively conduct international service projects as well as local projects. The R.I. Board of Directors in 1984 recognized the excellent service and fellowship of the clubs and organization of women relatives of Rotarians and encouraged all Rotary clubs to sponsor such informal organizations.\n \nFUNCTIONAL LITERACY PROGRAM\n \nIt has been estimated than a billion people--one-fourth of the world's population--are unable to read. Illiteracy of adults and children is a global concern in both highly industrialized nations and in developing countries. The number of adult illiterates in the world is increasing by 25 million each year! In the United States, one quarter of the entire population is considered functionally illiterate. The tragedy of illiteracy is that those who cannot read lose personal independence and become victims of unscrupulous manipulation, poverty and the loss of human feelings which give meaning to life. Illiteracy is demeaning. It is a major obstacle for economic, political, social and personal development. Illiteracy is a barrier to international understanding, cooperation and peace in the world. Literacy education was considered a program priority by Rotary's original Health, Hunger and Humanity Committee in 1978. An early 3-H grant led to the preparation of an excellent source book on the issues of literacy in the world. The Rotary-sponsored publication, The Right to Read, was edited by Rotarian Eve Malmquist, a past district governor from Linkoping, Sweden, and a recognized authority on reading and educational research. The book was the forerunner of a major Rotary program emphasis on literacy promotion. In 1985 the R.I. Planning and Research Committee proposed, and the R.I. board approved, that the Rotary clubs of the world conduct a ten-year emphasis on literacy education. Many Rotary clubs are thoughtfully surveying the needs of their community for literacy training. Some clubs provide basic books for teaching reading. Others establish and support reading and language clinics, provide volunteer tutorial assistance and purchase reading materials. Rotarians can play a vitally important part in their community and in developing countries by promoting projects to open opportunities, which come from the ability to read.\n \nCONCERN FOR THE AGING\n \nOne current area of special emphasis for Rotary clubs focuses on providing \"new opportunities for the aging.\" In 1990, the R.I. Board of Directors urged Rotarians to identify new projects serving the elderly that emphasize intergenerational activities and the integration of seniors into society and the workplace. The following year, the board called for an approach that stressed service \"with\" the elderly as well as \"for\" them. With the substantial upswing in the worldwide population of older persons, their needs for special attention have greatly multiplied. As citizens grow older, it becomes increasingly important for them to retain their personal independence and to remain in control of their own lives to the extent this is possible. Many Rotary clubs are seeking ways to serve the older persons of their community who face problems of deteriorating health, loneliness, poor nutrition, transportation difficulties, inability to do customary chores, loss of family associations, reduced recreational opportunities, inadequate housing and limited information about available social agencies for emergency assistance. Some clubs have initiated a valuable community service to assist older persons in retirement planning and adjustment by organizing and sharing the wealth of information available within the club's membership. Other clubs have developed foster grandparent programs and other intergenerational activities that allow seniors to use their experience and knowledge to help young people. Rotarians often can provide services, which seniors can no longer do for themselves. The greatest need of aging individuals is frequently a mere expression of real caring and concern by thoughtful friends. All Rotarians should seriously consider how they and their clubs may actively participate in programs for the aging. It is one area of community service in which there is a growing possibility that each of us may some day be on the receiving end.\n \nINTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS\n \nEach May or June, Rotary International holds a worldwide convention \"to stimulate, inspire and inform all Rotarians at an international level.\" The convention, which may not be held in the same country for more than two consecutive years, is the annual meeting to conduct the business of the association. The planning process usually begins about four or five years in advance. Future R.I. conventions are scheduled for Melbourne, Australia in 1993, Taipei, Taiwan, in 1994, Nice, France, in 1995, and Calgary, Canada, in 1996. The R.I. Board determines a general location and invites cities to make proposals. The conventions are truly international events which 15,000 to 20,000 Rotarians and guests attend. All members should plan to participate in a Rotary International convention to discover the real internationality of Rotary. It is an experience you'll never forget.\n \nREGIONAL CONFERENCES\n \nFrom time to time Rotarians may read the promotional literature announcing a regional conference to be held some place in the world. Such a conference is quite similar to the annual Rotary International convention, but generally smaller in attendance and serving Rotarians and guests in a region, which is at a considerable distance from the site of the international convention. The purpose of a regional conference is to develop and promote acquaintance, friendship and understanding among the attendees, as well as to provide a forum to discuss and exchange ideas about Rotary and international affairs related to the geographic areas involved. Regional conferences usually attract two or three thousand individuals and because they are considered special events in the Rotary calendar, are not held on any regular schedule. The conferences are arranged periodically, according to the interest of the Rotary leaders in specific regions. Many of the operational tasks of the conferences are handled by the R.I. secretariat. Although there is no special effort to promote attendance by Rotarians outside of the region involved, members from all parts of the world are always welcome to attend. Attending a conference in another region is an enjoyable, rewarding and fascinating experience. They provide another facet to the international fellowship of Rotary.\n \nINTERCOUNTRY COMMITTEES\n \nIn 1931 Rotarians in France and Germany organized the \"petit comite,\" a small group with the goal of fostering better relations between the people of these two neighboring nations. Since that time, Rotarians through- out Europe have led the way in creating Intercountry Committees to encourage contacts between Rotarians and Rotary clubs across national boundaries. Intercountry Committees have now been established in many parts of the world to promote friendship as well as to cooperate in sponsoring World Community Service projects, student exchanges and other activities to im-prove understanding among nations. Frequently, the Intercountry Commit-tees sponsor visits of Rotarians and their families across national borders and arrange intercity meetings and conferences. In some instances, Intercountry Committees are created between countries separated by great distances in an effort to encourage goodwill and friendship with matched or partner areas of the world. The Intercountry Committees coordinate their efforts with the district governors of their countries and always serve in an advisory capacity to districts and clubs. Intercountry Committees provide an additional means for Rotary clubs and Rotarians to fulfill the responsibilities of the Fourth Avenue of Service--international understanding, goodwill and peace in the world.\n \nR.I.B.I.\n \nThe structure of Rotary International in Great Britain and Ireland (R.I.B.I.) forms an interesting chapter in our history. In 1914, after Rotary expanded across the Atlantic to Great Britain and Ireland, a British Association of Rotary Clubs was established as part of the International Association of Rotary Clubs. During World War I there was little contact between the international clubs, and the British association held the small number of Rotary clubs together in Great Britain, Ireland and a few other European communities. Following the war, a new Rotary International Constitution was adopted in 1922 which established the principle that whenever a country had 25 Rotary clubs it could become a \"territorial unit\" and thus have a representative on the R.l. board and receive other specific powers. The clubs in Great Britain and Ireland immediately petitioned for and received the status of a \"territorial unit. \" No other group in the world made such a request or received that status. In 1927 Rotary International terminated the territorial unit concept and organized Rotary clubs by \"areas\" of the world. However, all of \"the rights, privileges and powers of existing territorial units\" were forever protected and perpetuated. Thus, since R.I.B.I. was the only territorial unit, it has continued to function as an independent unit of Rotary International, subject to certain approvals by the R.I. Constitution. The R.I.B.I. form of administration is uniquely appropriate to Great Britain and Ireland because of geography, language, tradition and custom. Because of this historic relationship, R.I.B.I. maintains a slightly different administrative structure from all the other Rotary clubs and districts in the world, even though it is a full member of Rotary International.\n \nCOUNCIL ON LEGISLATION\n \nIn the early days of Rotary, any change in the R.I. Bylaws or Constitution was proposed and voted upon at the annual convention. As attendance at conventions increased and open discussion became more difficult, a Council on Legislation was created in 1934 as an advisory group to debate and analyze proposals before they were voted upon by the convention. Finally at the 1970 Atlanta Convention, it was decided that the Council on Legislation would actually become the legislative or parliamentary body of Rotary. The council is composed of one delegate from each Rotary district and well as several ex-officio members. It was agreed that the council would meet every three years at a time other than at the Rotary convention. The council, which next meets in 1995, has the responsibility of considering and acting upon all \"enactments,\" which are proposed changes in the Bylaws and Constitution, and \"resolutions,\" which are recommended changes in Rotary policies and procedures. Proposals may be submitted by any Rotary club, district or the R.I. board. The council's actions are subject to review by all the Rotary clubs of the world before they become final. If 10 percent of the voting strength of the clubs oppose a council action, such legislation is nullified and it is submitted for final consideration to the next convention. The Council on Legislation provides the membership of Rotary a democratic process for legislative change in the operations of Rotary International.\n \nWORLD FELLOWSHIP ACTIVITIES\n \nThroughout the wide world of Rotary, many members share similar hobbies, recreational activities and avocations. Rotarians with common interests are encouraged to establish groups, called World Fellowship Activities, or Inter- national Fellowships, to promote friendship and share their special leisure-time experiences. One of the pioneer fellowship groups, the International Golfing Fellow- ship, has held an annual gathering and golf tournament for the past 26 years in various cities of the world. Many of the fellowships promote their activity at colorful booths set up at Rotary's annual international convention. Some popular World Fellowship Activities are flying, amateur radio, stamp collecting, music, yachting, caravanning, skiing, tennis and travel. More unusual \"fellowships\" involve Rotarians interested in genealogy, recreational vehicles, curling, tree planting, home exchange, railroading, tape recording and roaming. The World Fellowship of Esperanto brings together friends interested in a common world language. Groups have also been organized for hunting and fishing, chess, running and fitness and numismatics. Most of the groups publish regular newsletters and bulletins for their members. All Rotarians are welcome to join any of the World Fellowship Activities. Membership offers a new dimension of friendship and enjoyable activity with Rotarians around the world.\n \nROTARY FRIENDSHIP EXCHANGE\n \nAn interesting Rotary program of fellowship is the Rotary Friend- ship Exchange. This activity, originally recommended by the New Horizons Committee in 1981, is intended to encourage Rotarians and spouses to visit with Rotarian families in other parts of the world. It may be conducted on a club-to-club or district-to-district basis. The idea is for several Rotarian couples to travel to another country on the Rotary Friendship Exchange. Later the hospitality is reversed when the visit is exchanged. After a successful pilot experiment, the Rotary Friendship Exchange has become a permanent program of Rotary. The Rotary Friendship Exchange is frequently compared to the Group Study Exchange program of The Rotary Foundation, except that it involves Rotarian couples who personally pay for all expenses of their intercountry experience. Doors of friendship are opened in a way, which could not be duplicated except in Rotary. Rotarians seeking an unusual vacation and fellowship experience should learn more about the Rotary Fellowship Exchange. Some unusual Rotary adventures are awaiting you!\n \nROTARY YOUTH LEADERSHIP AWARDS (RYLA)\n \nEach summer thousands of young people are selected to attend Rotary-sponsored leadership camps or seminars in the United States, Australia, Canada, India, France, Argentina, Korea and numerous other countries. In an informal out-of-doors atmosphere, 50 to 75 outstanding young men and/or women spend a week in a challenging program of discussions, inspirational addresses, leadership training and social activities designed to enhance personal development, leadership skills and good citizenship. The official name of this activity is the Rotary Youth Leadership Awards program (RYLA), although the event is occasionally referred to as Camp Royal, Camp Enterprise, Youth Leaders Seminars, Youth Conferences or other terms. The RYLA program began in Australia in 1959, when young people throughout the state of Queensland were selected to meet with Princess Alexandra, the young cousin of Queen Elizabeth II. The Rotarians of Brisbane, who hosted the participants, were impressed with the quality of the young leaders. It was decided to bring youth leaders together each year for a week of social, cultural and educational activities. The RYLA program gradually grew throughout all the Rotary districts of Australia and New Zealand. In 1971, the R.I. Board of Directors adopted RYLA as an official program of Rotary International.\n \nROTARY VILLAGE CORPS\n \nOne of the newer programs in Rotary's panoply of worldwide service activities and projects is the Rotary Village Corps. This new form of grassroots self-help service was initiated by R.I. President M.A.T. Caparas in 1986 as a means of improving the quality of life in villages, neighborhoods and communities. Frequently there is an abundance of available labor, but no process to mobilize men and women to conduct useful projects of community improvement. The Rotary Village Corps--or Rotary Community Corps as they are called in industrialized countries--is a Rotary club-sponsored group of non- Rotarians who desire to help their own community by conducting a specific improvement project. The Rotary members provide the guidance, encouragement, organizational structure and some of the material assistance for the Rotary Village Corps, which in turn contributes the manpower to help their own community. Thus, the Rotary Village Corps provides a totally new process for Rotarians to serve in communities of great need. Rotary Community Corps have been organized mainly in depressed ghetto areas of major cities where groups of individuals need the organizational and managerial skills of Rotarians to undertake valuable self-help community projects. The Rotary Village Corps program offers a totally new dimension to the concept of service to improve the quality of life.\n \nINTERACT\n \nInteract, the Rotary youth program, was launched by the R.I. Board of Directors in 1962. The first Interact club was established by the Rotary Club of Melbourne, Florida. Interact clubs provide opportunities for boys and girls of secondary school age to work together in a world fellowship of service and international understanding. The term, Interact, is derived from \"inter\" for international, and \"act\" for action. Every Interact club must be sponsored and supervised by a Rotary club and must plan annual projects of service to its school, community and in the world. Today there are over 7,000 Interact clubs with more than 154,000 members in 93 countries. \"Interactors\" develop skills in leadership and attain practical experience in conducting service projects, thereby learning the satisfaction that comes from serving others. A major goal of Interact is to provide opportunities for young people to create greater understanding and goodwill with youth throughout the world.\n \nROTARACT\n \nAfter the success of Interact clubs for high school-age youth in the early 1960s, the R.I. Board created Rotaract in 1968. The new organization was designed to promote responsible citizenship and leadership potential in clubs of young men and women, aged 18 to 30. The first Rotaract club was chartered by the Charlotte North Rotary Club in Charlotte, North Carolina. In 1991 there were nearly 122,000 members in more than 5,200 Rotaract clubs in 104 countries. Rotaract clubs emphasize the importance of individual responsibility as the basis of personal success and community involvement. Each club sponsors an annual project to promote high ethical standards in one's business and professional life. Rotaract also provides opportunities leading to greater international understanding and goodwill. Rotaractors enjoy many social activities as well as programs to improve their community. A Rotaract club can exist only when continuously sponsored, guided and counseled by a Rotary club. The programs of Rotaract are built around the motto \"Fellowship Through Service.\"\n \nROTARY FLOAT IN ROSE PARADE\n \nThe Rotary International float in the annual Tournament of Roses Parade is undoubtedly the largest public relations project of the Rotary clubs of the United States and Canada. Since 1924 a Rotary float has been entered 18 times including every year since 1981. The famous Pasadena, California, parade is seen by an estimated 125 million people via worldwide television. Funds for the construction of the Rotary parade entry are voluntarily given by Rotarians and clubs in the U.S. and Canada. The cost of designing, constructing and flower covering a Rose Parade float begins at about $120,000. A multi-district Rotary committee in Southern California coordinates planning of the Rotary float and provides hundreds of volunteer hours of service. The Rotary float must portray the annual parade theme, usually depicting one of the worldwide service programs of Rotary International. Each New Year's Day, Rotarians take pride in seeing their attractive float and realize they have shared in its construction by contributing a dollar or two to this beautiful public relations project.\n \nSTILL MORE ROTARY FIRSTS\n \nRotary first presented \"Significant Achievement Awards\" in 1969 to clubs with outstanding international or community services projects.\nRotary's first Interact club was organized in Melbourne, Florida, in 1962 to become the pioneer for about 7,000 Interact clubs in more than 90 countries.\nRotary's first convention held in the Southern Hemisphere was in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1948.\nRotary was assigned the copyright on the \"4-Way Test\" in 1954 when its author, Herbert Taylor, became president of Rotary International.\nRotary's first Community Service project took place in 1907 when Chicago Rotarians led a campaign to install a public \"comfort station\" in the city hall.\n1964-65 was the first year when The Rotary Foundation received total contributions of a million dollars in a single� year. Today more than $40 million is given annually. Contributions since 1917 total nearly $650 million.\nRotary's first appeal for aid to disaster victims was in 1913 when $25,000 was given for flood relief in Ohio and Indiana.\nRotary's motto, \"He Profits Most Who Serves Best,\" was first expressed at Rotary's very first Convention in Chicago in 1910.\n \nR.I.'s GENERAL SECRETARY\n \nThe day-to-day operations of Rotary International's secretariat are under the supervision of the general secretary, the top professional officer of Rotary. Although the general secretary is responsible to the R.I. Board of Directors and president, he provides the ongoing management for nearly 500 staff members who compose the secretariat of Rotary International. The general secretary serves as secretary to the R.I. board, and is also the chief executive and financial officer of The Rotary Foundation, under the supervision of the trustees of the Foundation. He is the secretary of all Rotary committees as well as the Council on Legislation, regional conferences and the annual Rotary convention. The General Secretary's Letter is a newsletter that provides up-to-date information to Rotary officers throughout the world. The general secretary is appointed by the R.I. board for a term of not more than five years and is usually reelected. Since 1910, seven men\n�Lovejoy (1942-52), George Means (1953-72), Harry Stewart (1972-78), Herb Pigman (1979-86) and Philip Lindsey (1986-90). The present general secretary, Spencer Robinson, Jr., came to the position in 1990. Throughout the history of Rotary, the personal influence and administrative skills of our general secretaries have significantly shaped the course of Rotary programs and activities.\n \nSELECTING THE PRESIDENT\n \nEach year a distinguished Rotarian is selected as the worldwide president of Rotary International. The process begins two years in advance when a 15-man nominating committee is elected from separate regions of the world. To qualify for the nominating committee, a Rotarian must have served on the R.I. Board of Directors and have extensive Rotary experience and substantial acquaintanceship with the world leaders of Rotary. The nominating committee may consider all former R.I. directors for the presidential candidate. Members of the nominating committee and cur-rent directors are not eligible. Any Rotary club may suggest the name of a former R.I. director to the committee for consideration. The committee convenes in September to select the Rotarian to be the presidential nominee. His name is announced to all clubs. Any Rotary club may make an additional nomination before December 1, which must then be endorsed by one percent of all the Rotary clubs of the world (about 250). If such an event occurs, an election is held by mail ballot. If no additional nomination is presented by the clubs, the man selected by the nominating committee is declared to be the president-nominee. From that point on, that special Rotarian and his wife will spend more than a year in preparation and then a year serving the Rotarians of the world as the international president.\n \nANNUAL ROTARY THEMES\n \nIn 1955, R.I. President A.Z. Baker announced a theme, \"Develop Our Resources,\" to serve as Rotary's program of emphasis. Since that time, each president has issued a theme for his Rotary year. The shortest theme was in 1961-62 when Joseph Abey selected \"Act.\" Other one-word themes were chosen in 1958-59 by Charles Tennent (\"Serve\") and 1968-69 by Kiyoshi Togasaki (\"Participate\"). Carl Miller, in 1963-64, had a theme for the times when he proposed \"Guidelines for Rotary in the Space Age.\" Other \"timely\" themes were in 1980- 81 when Rolf Klarich created \"Take Time to Serve\" and William Carter in 1973-74 used \"Time for Action.\" Two themes have a similarity to commercial advertising: \"A Better World Through Rotary\" (Richard Evans, 1966-67) and \"Reach Out\" (Clem Renouf, 1978-79). Bridges have been a striking metaphor. Harold Thomas, 1959-60, urged Rotarians to \"Build Bridges of Friendship\"; William Walk, 1970-71, created \"Bridge the Gap\"; and Hiroji Mukasa, 1982-83, declared \"Mankind is One--Build Bridges of Friendship Throughout the World.\" A worldwide focus was given by Stan McCaffrey in 1981-82 with the message, \"World Understanding and Peace Through Rotary,\" and again in 1984- 85 by Carlos Canseco who urged Rotarians to \"Discover a New World of Service.\" In other years, the individual was emphasized, as \"You Are Rotary\" (Edd McLaughlin, 1960-61), \"Goodwill Begins With You\" (Ernst Breitholtz, 1971-72) and \"You Are the Key\" (Ed Cadman, 1985-86). Frequently the theme urges Rotarians to become more involved in their club, such as \"Share Rotary�Serve People\" (Bill Skelton, 1983-84) or \"Make Your Rotary Membership Effective\" (Luther Hodges, 1967-68). But whether you \"Review and Renew,\" \"Take a New Look,\" \"Let Service Light the Way\" or \"Dignify the Human Being,\" it is clear that the R.I. president provides Rotarians with an important annual program of emphasis. In 1986-87, President M.A.T. Caparas selected the inspiring message that \"Rotary Brings Hope.\" Charles Keller in 1987- 88 saw \" Rotarians--United in Service, Dedicated to Peace,\" while Royce Abbey asked his fellow members in 1988-89 to \"Put Life into Rotary�Your Life.\" Hugh Archer (1989 -90) urged us to \"Enjoy Rotary! \" and Paulo Costa (1990-91 ) asked that we \"Honor Rotary with Faith and Enthusiasm. \" My predecessor Raja Saboo (1991-92) exhorted every Rotarian to \"Look Beyond Yourself.\" For 1992-93 I am reminding Rotarians, \"Real Happiness Is Helping Others.\"\n \nCAMPAIGNING PROHIBITED\n \nOne of the interesting bylaws of Rotary International provides that \"no Rotarian shall campaign, canvass or electioneer for elective position in Rotary International.\" This provision includes the office of district governor, Rotary International director, R.I. president and various elected committees. The Rotary policy prohibits the circulation of brochures, literature or letters by a candidate or by anyone on behalf of such a candidate. After a Rotarian has indicated his intention to be a candidate for one of the elective Rotary offices, he must refrain from speaking engagements, appearances or publicity which could reasonably be construed as furthering his candidacy. The only information, which may be sent to clubs relating to candidates for an elective position is that officially distributed by the general secretary of R.I. A Rotarian who becomes a candidate for an elective position, such as district governor or R.l. director, must avoid any action which would be interpreted as giving him an unfair advantage over other candidates. Failure to comply with these provisions prohibiting campaigning could result in the disqualification of the candidate. In Rotary it is believed that a Rotarian's record of service and qualifications for office stand on their own and do not require publicity or special promotion.\n \nTHE ROTARY FOUNDATION'S BEGINNING\n \nSome magnificent projects grow from very small seeds. The Rotary Foundation had that sort of modest beginning. In 1917 R.I. President Arch Klumph told the delegates to the Atlanta Convention that \"it seems eminently proper that we should accept endowments for the purpose of doing good in the world.\" The response was polite and favorable, but the fund was slow to materialize. A year later the \"Rotary Endowment Fund,\" as it was first labeled, received its first contribution of $26.50 from the Rotary Club of Kansas City, which was the balance of the Kansas City Convention account following the 1918 annual meeting. Additional small amounts were annually contributed, but after six years it is reported that the endowment fund had only reached $700. A decade later, The Rotary Foundation was formally established at the 1928 Minneapolis Convention. In the next four years the Foundation fund grew to $50,000. In 1937 a $2 million goal was announced for The Rotary Foundation, but these plans were cut short and abandoned with the outbreak of World War II. In 1947, upon the death of Paul Harris, a new era opened for The Rotary Foundation as memorial gifts poured in to honor the founder of Rotary. From that time, The Rotary Foundation has been achieving its noble objective of furthering \"understanding and friendly relations between peoples of different nations.\" By 1954 the Foundation received for the first time a half million dollars in contributions in a single year, and in 1965 a million dollars was received. It is staggering to imagine that from those humble beginnings, The Rotary Foundation is now receiving more than $40 million each year for educational and humanitarian work around the world.\n \nAMBASSADORIAL SCHOLARSHIPS\n \nIn 1947, the first Rotary Foundation graduate fellowships for a year 's study in another nation were awarded to 18 young men from 11 countries. These initial grants set the pattern for the most extensive international educational scholarship program in the world. From the beginning, the unique feature of Rotary Foundation educational awards was for the scholars to contribute to international understanding and goodwill and not necessarily to earn academic degrees, diplomas or certificates. The intent has been for Rotary scholars to promote friendly relations among people in different countries. Scholarship recipients, now both men and women, are expected to serve as \"ambassadors of goodwill\" in their host country and educational institution. Since the original 18 awards were made in 1947, The Rotary Foundation has granted scholarships to more than 21,000 young scholars from 127 countries. The recipients have been hosted by Rotarians in 105 different countries. There are now about 1,000 scholarships awarded each year which cover travel, living and educational expenses up to $18,000. As of June 1991 The Rotary Foundation had provided over $198 million for educational awards. Rotarians know that Rotary Foundation scholarships are very worth- while investments in the future and one important step in seeking greater understanding and goodwill in the world.\n \nGROUP STUDY EXCHANGE\n \nOne of the most popular and rewarding programs of The Rotary Foundation is the Group Study Exchange. Since the first exchange between districts in California and Japan in 1965, the program has provided educational experiences for more than 20,000 young business and professional men and women who have served on about 4,600 teams. The GSE program pairs Rotary districts to send and receive study teams. In the past 25 years, over $40 million has been allocated by The Rotary Foundation for Group Study Exchange grants. One of the attractive features of GSE is the opportunity for the six visiting team members to meet, talk and live with Rotarians and their families in a warm spirit of friendship and hospitality. Although the original Group Study Exchanges were male only, in recent years teams include both men and women. In addition to learning about another country as the team visits farms, schools, industrial plants, professional offices and governmental establishments, the GSE teams serve as ambassadors of goodwill. They interpret their home nation to host Rotarians and others in the communities in which they visit. Many of the personal contacts blossom into lasting friendships. Truly, the Group Study Exchange program has provided Rotarians with one of its most enjoyable, practical and meaningful ways to promote world understanding.\n \nWORLD-COMPETITIVE SCHOLARSHIPS\n \nThe Rotary Foundation Ambassadorial Scholarship Program is the largest privately funded such program in the world. Only the Fulbright Program, funded by the United States government, is larger in terms of participation and expenditures. While most Rotarians are generally aware of the program, many are not familiar with the world-competitive scholarships awarded to special groups. Twenty-five two-year Freedom from Hunger scholarships are awarded annually to scholars from low-income countries to earn master's degrees in agriculture or food production in another country. These scholars are committed to return to their home countries to develop agriculture -related programs to enhance national food supplies. Fifteen Japan Program scholarships are awarded annually for scholars to study in Japan for 21 months. Twelve months are spent doing intensive Japanese language studies at International Christian University in Tokyo; then an additional academic year is spent doing regular studies at another Japanese university. These awards were created to increase scholar assignments to Japan (where initial language ability is often a problem) and to address the growing demand for instruction in the Japanese language.\n \nHEALTH, HUNGER AND HUMANITY GRANTS\n \nIn the spring of 1979, Rotary launched its most comprehensive humanitarian service activity with the Health, Hunger and Humanity Pro-gram. The 3-H Program is designed to undertake large-scale service projects beyond the capacity of individual Rotary clubs or groups of clubs. By 1991, more than 60 different 3-H projects had been approved and undertaken in over 40 different countries, at a monetary value of over $13 million. The objective of these projects is to improve health, alleviate hunger and enhance human, cultural and social development among peoples of the world. The ultimate goal is to advance international understanding, goodwill and peace. The first 3-H project was the immunization of 6 million children in the Philippines against polio. As 3-H progressed, new programs were added to help people in developing areas o the world. Now, in addition to the mass polio immunization of over 100 million children in various countries, 3-H has promoted nutrition programs, vocational education, improved irrigation to increase food production, polio victim rehabilitation and other activities which benefit large numbers of people in developing countries. All 3-H projects are supported by the voluntary contributions of Rotarians through The Rotary Foundation. In years to come the3-H Program may well be considered Rotary's finest service activity, showing how Rotarians care and are concerned about people in need, wherever they may be.\n \nMATCHING GRANTS\n \nAmong the programs of The Rotary Foundation are the Matching Grants that assist Rotary clubs and districts in conducting international service projects. Since 1965, more than 1,900 grants have been awarded for projects in about 135 countries with expenditures of more than $16.4 million. A club or district must contribute an amount at least as large as that requested from The Rotary Foundation. Grants have been made to improve hospitals, develop school programs, drill water wells, assist the handicapped or persons requiring special medical attention, provide resources for orphan- ages, create sanitation facilities, distribute food and medical supplies and many other forms of international community service in needy areas of the world. Some grants are for projects in the magnitude of from $20,000 to $50,00(), but most are in the range of $5,000 to $10,000. Matching Grants are not approved to purchase land or build buildings, and they may not be used for programs already underway or completed. Personal participation by the Rotarians of the sponsoring club is required and the benefits should extend beyond the recipients. The Matching Grants program is a very significant part of The Rotary Foundation and provides an important incentive for clubs to undertake worthwhile international service projects in another part of the world. They certainly foster goodwill and understanding, which is in keeping with the objectives of The Rotary Foundation.\n \nPOLIOPLUS\n \nPolioPlus is Rotary's massive effort to immunize the children of the world against poliomyelitis. It is part of a global effort to protect the children from five other deadly diseases as well--the \"plus\" in PolioPlus. The program was launched in 1985 with fund raising as a primary focus. The original goal was to raise $120 million. By 1988, Rotarians of the world had raised more than $219 million in cash and pledges. By l992, the cash total exceeded $240 million! These gifts have enabled The Rotary Foundation to make grants to provide a five-year supply of vaccine for any developing country requesting it to protect its children. Grants have been made to nearly 100 countries--a commitment, thus far, of $177 million to buy vaccine and to improve vaccine quality. In 1988, the World Health Organization adopted a goal of eradicating polio throughout the world by the year 2000, and Rotary has endorsed that goal, hoping to celebrate a polio-free world in its own 100th anniversary year, 2005. Achieving eradication will be difficult (only one other disease, small pox, has ever been eradicated) and expensive (estimated cost to the international community is nearly $2 billion). It will require continuing immunization of children worldwide, and it also must include systematic reporting of all suspected cases, community wide vaccination to contain outbreaks of the disease, and establishment of laboratory networks. Rotary will not be alone in all these efforts but in partnership with national governments, the World and Pan American Health Organizations, UNICEF and others. Rotary's \"people power\" gives us a special \"hands on\" role. Rotarians in developing countries have given thousands of hours and countless in-kind gifts to help eradication happen in their countries. No other nongovernmental organization ever has made a commitment of the scale of PolioPlus. Truly it may be considered the greatest humanitarian service the world has ever seen. Every Rotarian can share the pride of that achievement!\n \nROTARY PEACE PROGRAMS\n \nA special program of The Rotary Foundation was originally labeled the \"Rotary Peace Forum.\" The concept of a center or educational program to promote greater understanding and peace in the world was originally dis-cussed in 1982 by the New Horizons Committee and the World Understanding and Peace Committee. In 1984 it was further explored by a New Programs Committee of The Rotary Foundation. The essence of the Rotary Peace Program is to utilize the non- governmental but worldwide resources of Rotary to develop educational programs around the issues that cause conflict among nations in the world as well as those influences and activities which promote peace, development and goodwill. The program includes seminars, publications, conferences and speakers services as a means to initiate a global dialogue to find new approaches to peace and world understanding. Specific Rotary Peace Programs are established annually by the Trustees of The Rotary Foundation. A committee of distinguished Rotary leaders create the programs and provide annual guidelines for responsible new pathways to peace.\n \nPAUL HARRIS FELLOWS\n \nUndoubtedly the most important step to promote voluntary giving to The Rotary Foundation occurred in 1957, when the idea of Paul Harris Fellow recognition was first proposed. Although the concept of making $1,000 gifts to the Foundation was slow in developing, by the early 1970s the program began to gain popularity. The distinctive Paul Harris Fellow medallion, lapel pin and attractive certificate have become highly respected symbols of a substantial financial commitment to The Rotary Foundation by Rotarians and friends around the world. The companion to the Paul Harris Fellow is the Paul Harris Sustaining Member, which is the recognition presented to an individual who has given, or in whose honor a gift is made, a contribution of $100, with the stated intention of making additional contributions until $1,000 is reached. At that time the Paul Harris Sustaining Member becomes a Paul Harris Fellow. By early 1992, more than 350,000 Paul Harris Fellows and 150,000 Sustaining Members have been added to the rolls of The Rotary Foundation. A special recognition pin is given to Paul Harris Fellows who make additional gifts of $1,000 to the Foundation. The distinctive gold pin includes a blue stone to represent each $1,000 contribution up to a total of $5,000 in additional gifts. Paul Harris recognition provides a very important incentive for the continuing support needed to underwrite the many programs of The Rotary Foundation which build goodwill and understanding in the world.\n \nCITATION FOR MERITORIOUS SERVICE and DISTINGUISHED SERVICE AWARD\n \nTwo very special awards of recognition occasionally are presented by the Trustees of The Rotary Foundation to Rotarians who render unusual service to The Rotary Foundation. The Rotary Foundation Citation for Meritorious Service recognizes significant and dedicated service by a Rotarian to promote the program of The Rotary Foundation and thus advance the Foundation's goal of better understanding and friendly relations among people of the world. The second award, called the Distinguished Service Award, is presented to a Rotarian whose outstanding record of service to The Rotary Foundation is on a much broader basis and spreads beyond the district level and continues over an extended period of time. The Distinguished Service Award acknowledges the sustained efforts of a Rotarian who normally would have already received the Citation of Meritorious Service, for continuing efforts to promote international understanding. Both of these select awards are presented for exemplary personal service and devotion to the Foundation rather than for financial contributions. Usually no more than 25 such awards are granted by the Trustees in any one year. A recipient of the Citation for Meritorious Service would not normally be eligible for nomination for a Distinguished Service Award until two or more years have elapsed. It is a very proud distinction for any Rotarian to be selected for one of these high levels of recognition by The Rotary Foundation Trustees.\n \nPUBLIC RELATIONS OF ROTARY\n \nHistorically Rotarians perpetuated a myth that Rotary should not seek publicity, but rather let our good works speak for themselves. A 1923 policy stating that \"publicity should not be the primary goal of a Rotary club in selecting an activity\" of community service, was frequently interpreted to mean that Rotary clubs should avoid publicity and public relations efforts. Actually, the 1923 statement further observed that \"as a means of extending Rotary's influence, proper publicity should be given to a worthwhile project well carried out.\" A more modern public relations philosophy was adopted in the mid-1970s which affirms that \"good publicity, favorable public relations and a positive image are desirable and essential goals for Rotary\" if it is to foster understanding, appreciation and support for its Object and programs and to broaden Rotary's service to humanity. Active public relations is vital to the success of Rotary. A service project well carried out is considered one of the finest public relations messages of Rotary. It is essential that Rotary clubs make every effort to inform the public about their service projects which have been well performed. As Rotary clubs and districts consider effective public relations, it is important to remember that when Rotarians think of Rotary, we think of our noble goals and motives. But when the world thinks of Rotary, it can only think of our actions and the service we have performed.\n \nUSE OF THE ROTARY EMBLEM\n \nThe Rotary International emblem is officially registered with the U.S. Patent Office as a trademark and \"service mark,\" which prevents it being used in improper ways or by unauthorized individuals. The Rotary emblem should not be altered or modified in any way. Rotarians are encouraged to wear the emblem as a lapel button. It is frequently used on jackets, pens, caps and other personal items manufactured by firms or individuals licensed by the R.I. Board of Directors. Rotary badges, banners, road signs and official Rotary club stationery naturally use the emblem as a mark of identification. The Rotary emblem cannot be used for any commercial purpose. It is not permissible to use it in a political campaign or in connection with any other name or emblem not recognized by Rotary International. Individual Rotarians should not use the Rotary emblem on business cards or stationery or for any other use intended to promote business. Nor is it considered proper for Rotarians to use the emblem on doors or windows of their business premises. It is the responsibility of all Rotarians to wear and use the emblem with pride. The restrictions are provided to assure that the Rotary emblem will not be misused and that it will always bring distinction to the organization.\n \nSPECIAL ROTARY OBSERVANCES\n \nIn the annual Rotary calendar several months are designated to emphasize major programs of Rotary International.\n \nJanuary is Rotary Awareness Month. This is a time to expand knowledge of Rotary and its activities among our membership and throughout the community.\nFebruary is designated as World Understanding Month. This month was chosen because it includes the birthday of Rotary International, February 23. During the month, Rotary clubs are urged to present programs, which promote international understanding and goodwill, as well as launch World Community Service projects in other parts of the world.\nWorld Rotaract Week is the week in which March 13 falls. It's a time when Rotary clubs and districts highlight Rotaract by joining in projects with their Rotaract clubs.\nApril is set aside as Rotary's Magazine Month. Throughout the month, clubs arrange programs and activities, which promote the reading and use of THE ROTARIAN magazine and the official regional magazines of Rotary.\nAugust is Membership and Extension Month, a time to focus on Rotary's continuing need for growth, to seek new members and form new clubs.\nSeptember is Youth Activities Month. Rotary clubs of the world give special emphasis to the many Rotary-sponsored programs, which serve children and young people. During this month many clubs give increased attention to youth exchange activities.\nOctober is Vocational Service Month. During this period, clubs highlight the importance of the business and professional life of each Rotarian. Special activities promote the vocational avenue of service.\nNovember is selected to be Rotary Foundation Month.\n \nClubs and districts call attention to the programs of The Rotary Foundation and frequently cultivate additional financial support for the Foundation by promoting contributions for Paul Harris Fellows and Sustaining Members.\n \nEach of these special months serves to elevate the awareness among Rotarians of some of the excellent programs of service, which occur within the world of Rotary.\n \nEXTENDING ROTARY\n \nEvery twelve hours of every day a new Rotary club is chartered in one of the more than 180 countries and geographic regions in which Rotary exists. This steady growth in new clubs is extremely important in extending the worldwide programs and influence of Rotary International. New Rotary clubs may be established anywhere in the world where the fundamental principles of Rotary may be freely observed and wherever it can reasonably be expected that a successful club can be maintained. A club must be organized to serve a specific \"locality,\" or clearly identified territory in which there are enough business or professional persons of good character engaged in proprietary or management positions. A mini-mum of 40 potential classifications is necessary for a proposed new club, and from that list a permanent membership of at least 25 members must be enrolled. Occasionally an existing club will cede a portion of its territory or will share the same territory with a new club. In the process of organizing a new club the first step is to conduct a survey of the locality to determine the potential for new club extension. The district governor's special representative guides the organization of the new club. Among the requirements for a new club is the adoption of the Standard Rotary Club Constitution, a minimum of 25 charter members with clearly established classifications, payment of a charter fee, weekly meetings of the provisional club and the adoption of a club name which will distinctly identify it with its locality. A provisional club becomes a Rotary club when its charter is approved by the board of Rotary International. It is a great opportunity and special duty of all Rotarians to assist and cooperate in organizing new clubs. Knowing that two new Rotary clubs will be chartered someplace in the world today, tomorrow and every day provides a strong endorsement of the vitality and extension of Rotary service throughout the world.", "Club History - The Rotary Club of Newport - Balboa\nMeeting Makeup Locations\nClub History\nThe Rotary Club of Newport-Balboa (RCNB) was founded in 1939. In those days, there were 200,000 Rotary members worldwide and less than 5,000 clubs in Rotary International. Today there are over 1.2 million members and over 31,000 clubs. Orange County’s polulation in 1939 was only about 150,000. Today we live in a thriving community of over three million.\nIn 1930, the population of Newport Beach, Corona del Mar and Irvine was about 7,000. Costa Mesa was bean fields and Irvine was cow pasture. Balboa Island was 75% vacant lots, Corona del Mar was 80% vacant lots, but the Balboa Peninsula was built up due to the Red Cars coming in with the Los Angeles and Pasadena families to their second (beach) homes. Balboa’s role as the center of Newport Beach life at that time is why our club is called Newport-Balboa, rather than simply Newport Beach.\nIn those days, the Rotary Club of Newport-Balboa territory was basically a resort atmosphere and most of the families who had homes here earned their living elsewhere. In the winter, the streets were put to bed by 9:00 PM, but from Easter vacation to the end of September the area was alive with a population increase of 300%. In our district, our early custom and culture was shaped by individual business ownership and closeness of friendships with one another.\nThis knowledge of the era sets the scene for the beginning of the Newport-Balboa Rotary Club. There was a Lions Club and an Exchange Club in the area. Bob Allen was a city councilman in 1939 and he knew everyone in the area, plus his father was a Rotarian in Pittsburgh, PA and he had visited his father’s Rotary club many times. Bob knew there was an interest in the community for another type of service club. Bob (the first President of RCNB) and Marion Dodd (the first Secretary) visited 23 local businessmen in a three-week period to set up the requirement of charter membership (no one they approached turned them down). All of the original charter members had small businesses, such as shops and stores.\nIn 1939 the Rotary District for this area was number 108, which consisted of four counties: Los Angeles, Orange, San Bernardino and part of San Diego. Earl Stanley, a charter member of the Club and a real estate broker, knew Mac Robbins of the Santa Ana Rotary Club (the first service club in Orange County, chartered in 1920) and Mac knew Karl Glasbreuner (Orange Rotary Club, chartered in 1921), both of whom held the classification of Insurance. Mac Robbins was certainly the right person to know and ask to help form the RCNB; he was a Past President of the Rotary Club of Chicago (the first Rotary Club, founded in 1905) and the first President of the Rotary Club of Santa Ana. The Santa Ana club granted the territory and the Orange club sponsored the Rotary Club of Newport-Balboa.\nThe first meeting was held in May of 1939 at Park Café on Balboa Island on a Tuesday night (it was later changed to Wednesday night). The café was known in those days as the White Café. Meetings were held there from 1939 to 1946. The meetings were held at night because members could not get away from their closely held family stores and shops during the day and the during the heavy summer vacation business cycle.\nIt is understood that the members enjoyed getting to the White Café for the 4:30 to 6:30 “early meeting” at the bar. Art White (charter member) owned the bar and café. It was the only eating place on the Island and the members were able to discuss business and other problems at this early social and fellowship hour. This weekly event also made for a great make-up for other Rotary Clubs.\nIn those early days, nothing was planned for the meetings other than the speaker. The club was known as a “good-time” club (drinks were 35 cents and dinner was $1.50).\nThe Charter Night was held on September 19, 1939 at the Newport Harbor Yacht Club. Over 300 attended the function from all over District 108. The toastmaster was Karl Glasbreuner from the sponsoring club of Orange, and the speaker was Mac Robbins from the Santa Ana club.\nThe Rotary Club of Newport-Balboa has spawned five other Rotary clubs, with three of them still active today: Newport-Irvine (1967), Newport Beach Sunrise (1981) and Costa Mesa (2005).\nUntil 1989 the Constitution and By-laws of Rotary International stated that Rotary club membership was for males only. Women were invited to join Rotary that year. No surprise, there were some members of RCNB who were enthusiastic and others who were not. In any event, the Club elected its first female president, Nan Raney of Balboa Island, less than 10 years later for Rotary year 1997-98.\nMembership hit a high of over 120 in the 1980s time period (before some of the daytime clubs were spun off). Today there are nearly 70 men and women members in the Club, with an average increase lately of about 10 percent per year. The club members gather weekly Wednesday evenings at the Bahia Corinthia Yacht Club in Corona del Mar.", "Rotary Wheel\n  How Rotary set its wheel in motion\nBy Joseph Derr\nThe emblem � known as the Rotary wheel or gearwheel has been around nearly as long as Rotary itself, yet it did  most of its evolving during Rotary's first 15 years.\nThe initial design emerged from the desk of engraver and Rotary Club of Chicago member Montague \"Monty\" Bear in 1905, shortly after the formation of the first Rotary club. Inspired to create an insignia that symbolized his club, Bear sketched a wagon wheel with 13 spokes, which was met with approval by Paul P. Harris and the rest of the founding members.\n \n \n \nBecause wheels rotate, the wagon wheel insignia seemed a natural choice for a group calling itself the Rotary Club. And with the automobile still in its infancy in 1905, the buggy wheel was a sign of the times.\nSoon, fellow club members began to complain that the design was static and lifeless, so Bear went to work again. This time, he found inspiration in the heavens. He added a graphic that appeared to make the wheel ride on a bed of clouds. But some club members didn't see the addition in the same way. To them, the clouds looked like dust. Furthermore, if that were the case, the club's emblem did not appear to abide by the basic laws of physics: there were dust clouds on both sides of the wheel. \"Not even Rotary could raise dust before and aft of a wheel,\" Rotarian \"Long\" Tom Phillips said of the ill-fated design. \"Which way are we going anyhow?\"\nSo, Rotary's first graphic artist went back to his drawing board and inked over the dust clouds and superimposed a banner ribbon with the words \"Rotary Club.\" Slightly altered later to clean up dark ink where the clouds had been, this design, drafted around 1910, would remain more or less the same for several years, even as automobiles were gradually replacing wagon buggies on the streets of Chicago.\n \n \n \nBy 1910, Rotary was no longer just in Chicago; there were sixteen clubs in the United States that made up the National Association of Clubs. And with the charter of each new club came a new design, based loosely on Bear's wagon wheel motif.\nThe creativity of the first Rotary clubs yielded great divergence in early emblem designs. Clubs would often incorporate local history or landmarks into their emblems. The Rotary Club of Lincoln, Nebraska, superimposed the wheel over a portrait of Abraham Lincoln in its emblem, while the Rotary Club of Oakland, California, used an oak tree for its design.\nBefore long, the Rotary wheel started to mutate. Several clubs transformed wheels into other spherical or circular shapes: ship helms, steering wheels, stars, globes, and other round objects.\nGearing up for a new emblem\n \n \n \nThe soon-to-be International Association of Clubs realized that it needed a standardized, official emblem that would be used by all clubs. In 1911, The National Rotarian magazine's editor and the association's general secretary, Chesley R. Perry, invited clubs to submit designs for consideration to the emblem committee at the Duluth, Minnesota, convention of 1912.\nLooking at early emblems of two Pennsylvania clubs, it is easy to trace the new Rotary wheel taking shape. The Rotary Club of Pittsburgh appears to be the first club to use the mechanical gear iconography in late 1910, highlighting its city's growing industry. But the direct forerunner of the official RI emblem came from the Rotary Club of Philadelphia, which was developing its first emblem, letterhead, and lapel pin designs around 1911. (The club also foresaw the future in its design when it shortened the name of the International Association of Rotary Clubs to \"Rotary International\" � a year before RI even starting using that phrase.)\n \n \n \nNow that the emblem committee had found its design, an official description of the wheel emerged from Duluth. \"The emblem consists of �a wheel with gears cut on the outer edge and the spokes separated sufficiently to allow�space to show the enamel [and define] the spokes.\" In the original design, the spokes \"indicate strength\" while the gears or cogs \"relieve the plainness of design\" and \"symbolize power\".\nDespite the official description of the association's emblem, in the years that followed, individual Rotary clubs continued to design their own versions, diverging from the standard established in Duluth, to the dismay of headquarters.\nTo address the problem, in December 1918, the Board of Directors resolved to adopt the gearwheel as the official corporate seal. Yet confusion still reigned, and the Rotary wheel still was taking more than one guise. Some sources count as many as 57 versions of Rotary wheels by 1920. Even The Rotarian couldn't seem to get it right: in three consecutive months in the spring of 1919, the magazine added to the confusion by publishing three different images of the wheel, each with an increasing number of gear cogs.\nReality checks\nFor Charles Mackintosh and Oscar Bjorge of the Rotary clubs of Chicago and Duluth, the Rotary wheel was not running well. In a co-authored January 1920 article for The Rotarian titled \"Redesigning the Rotary Wheel,\" they complained about the divergence of Rotary wheels with ever-changing numbers of spokes and gear cogs and pleaded for clubs to recognize the standard design. But there was also a probem with that design: it was not mechanically sound.\nMackintosh and Bjorge concluded that proportions of the wheel, including its small teeth with large spaces in between each tooth, would make it doubtful that the gear \"would get very far before every tooth in the entire outfit would be stript [sic].\" The emblem seemed to them to be \"the most impossible sprocket-wheel that only the brain of an artist could conceive.\"\nThe re-engineered emblem they drafted featured six spokes or arms and 24 teeth or cogs, not to mention a more sturdy appearance. (The numbers of teeth and spokes have no symbolic connection or significance to the history of Rotary; rather, they were meant to give the impression of a real, hardworking gear.)\nRotary had found its official emblem. After the publication of the article, headquarters began to take steps to adopt the redesigned wheel at the next convention.\nBut there would be one last criticism. As soon as the January 1920 issue of The Rotarian was published, another Rotarian, Will R. Forker of the Rotary Club of Los Angeles, California, pointed out an additional overlooked defect of the redesigned emblem. \"The hub design of the new wheel is that of an idler wheel or gear, [as] there is no provision for the reception of power to or from the shaft. My idea of Rotary is not that it is�an idler organization�but that it is a real living force.\"\nForker suggested inserting a \"key way\" into the design's hub to make the new wheel a \"real worker.\" The official specifications of the re-engineered, mechanically correct Rotary wheel were approved by the RI Board at their January 1924 meeting, and the new emblem, whose official colors were royal blue and gold, has remained unchanged � and working � ever since.\n\"Rotary is a vast machine\"\n \n \n \nTo Rotarians past and present, the Rotary wheel has evoked the image of a well-oiled, efficient machine, working for the service of mankind. \"The gearwheel is truly emblematic of Rotary,\" wrote William E. Fulton, of the Rotary Club of Waterbury, Connecticut, in the March 1920 issue of The Rotarian. \"The wheel must be symmetrical � well proportioned throughout and so well balanced that it shall run smooth and true. It is precisely that way with the Rotarian. We do not think of a gearwheel as standing by itself. It has a companion gear�and stands for comradeship.\"\nThe Rev. E.K. Means of the Rotary Club of Monroe, Louisiana, used the same imagery in an editorial published later that year. \"Rotary is a vast machine and every club a wheel. I firmly believe that all the great machinery of Rotary represents a providential movement,\" Means wrote. \"Our Rotary wheel means that our best gifts of service are rolling always in the right direction.\"\nThe emblem's omnipresence in Rotary from the earliest days of the first clubs also has left an indelible mark on Rotarian culture. For example, the name of the official magazine of Rotary International in Great Britain and Ireland for many years was The Rotary Wheel before it was renamed simply Rotary. The comics and jokes section of The Rotarian is still called \"Stripped Gears.\"\nUse of the Rotary wheel\nToday, Rotary's emblem not only distinguishes Rotary in the community, but also helps Rotarians identify each other and find clubs when traveling.\nThe Rotary emblem, like Rotary's name, is a registered trademark, protected throughout the world by Rotary International. These trademarks, among numerous others owned by RI, are commonly referred to as the \"Rotary Marks.\"* RI encourages Rotary clubs, Rotary districts, and other Rotary entities to use the Rotary emblem in conjunction with the name of their clubs and districts when they host or organize local projects or events.\n\"The Rotary emblem is recognizable as the symbol of Rotary around the world,\" said Jomarie Fredericks, intellectual property manager for legal services at RI. \"Following the RI Board's guidelines for use of the Rotary Marks will ensure that Rotarians will be able to use them for generations to come.\"\nJoseph Derr is Rotary International's Web writer.\nCopyright � 2003. Rotary International. All Rights Reserved." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Vice_President_of_the_United_States.txt", "Spiro_Agnew.txt", "Watergate_scandal.txt" ], "title": [ "Vice President of the United States", "Spiro Agnew", "Watergate scandal" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Vice President of the United States (VPOTUS) is the second-highest position in the executive branch of the United States, after the President. The executive power of both the vice president and the president is granted under Article Two, Section One of the Constitution. The vice president is indirectly elected, together with the president, to a four-year term of office by the people of the United States through the Electoral College. The vice president is the first person in the presidential line of succession, and would normally ascend to the presidency upon the death, resignation, or removal of the president. The Office of the Vice President of the United States assists and organizes the vice president's official functions.\n\nThe vice president is also president of the United States Senate and in that capacity only votes when it is necessary to break a tie. While Senate customs have created supermajority rules that have diminished this constitutional tie-breaking authority, the vice president still retains the ability to influence legislation; for example, the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005 was passed in the Senate by a tie-breaking vice presidential vote. Additionally, pursuant to the Twelfth Amendment, the vice president presides over the joint session of Congress when it convenes to count the vote of the Electoral College.\n\nWhile the vice president's only constitutionally prescribed functions aside from presidential succession relate to their role as President of the Senate, the office is commonly viewed as a component of the executive branch of the federal government. The United States Constitution does not expressly assign the office to any one branch, causing a dispute among scholars whether it belongs to the executive branch, the legislative branch, or both. The modern view of the vice president as a member of the executive branch is due in part to the assignment of executive duties to the vice president by either the president or Congress, though such activities are only recent historical developments.\n\nOrigin\n\nThe creation of the office of vice president was a direct consequence of the creation of the Electoral College. Delegates to the Philadelphia Convention gave each state a number of presidential electors equal to that state's combined share of House and Senate seats. Yet the delegates were worried that each elector would only favor his own state's favorite son candidate, resulting in deadlocked elections that would produce no winners. To counter this potential difficulty, the delegates gave each presidential elector two votes, requiring that at least one of their votes be for a candidate from outside the elector's state; they also mandated that the winner of an election must obtain an absolute majority of the total number of electors. The delegates expected that each elector's second vote would go to a statesman of national character.\n\nFearing that electors might throw away their second vote to bolster their favorite son's chance of winning, however, the Philadelphia delegates specified that the runner-up would become vice president. Creating this new office imposed a political cost on discarded votes and forced electors to cast their second ballot.\n\nRoles of the vice president\n\nThe Constitution limits the formal powers and role of vice president to becoming president, should the president become unable to serve, prompting the well-known expression \"only a heartbeat away from the presidency,\" and to acting as the presiding officer of the U.S. Senate.\nOther statutorily granted roles include membership of both the National Security Council and the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. \n\nPresident of the United States Senate\n\nAs President of the Senate, the vice president has two primary duties: to cast a vote in the event of a Senate deadlock and to preside over and certify the official vote count of the U.S. Electoral College. For example, in the first half of 2001, the Senators were divided 50-50 between Republicans and Democrats and Dick Cheney's tie-breaking vote gave the Republicans the Senate majority.\n\nRegular duties\n\nAs President of the Senate (Article I, Section 3, Clause 4), the vice president oversees procedural matters and may cast a tie-breaking vote. There is a strong convention within the U.S. Senate that the vice president should not use their position as President of the Senate to influence the passage of legislation or act in a partisan manner, except in the case of breaking tie votes. As President of the Senate, John Adams cast twenty-nine tie-breaking votes, a record no successor except John C. Calhoun ever threatened. Adams's votes protected the president's sole authority over the removal of appointees, influenced the location of the national capital, and prevented war with Great Britain. On at least one occasion Adams persuaded senators to vote against legislation he opposed, and he frequently addressed the Senate on procedural and policy matters. Adams's political views and his active role in the Senate made him a natural target for critics of George Washington's administration. Toward the end of his first term, a threatened resolution that would have silenced him except for procedural and policy matters caused him to exercise more restraint in hopes of seeing his election as President of the United States.\n\nFormerly, the vice president would preside regularly over Senate proceedings, but in modern times, the vice president rarely presides over day-to-day matters in the Senate; in their place, the Senate chooses a President pro tempore (or \"president for a time\") to preside in the vice president's absence; the Senate normally selects the longest-serving senator in the majority party. The President pro tempore has the power to appoint any other senator to preside, and in practice junior senators from the majority party are assigned the task of presiding over the Senate at most times.\n\nExcept for this tie-breaking role, the Standing Rules of the Senate vest no significant responsibilities in the vice president. Rule XIX, which governs debate, does not authorize the vice president to participate in debate, and grants only to members of the Senate (and, upon appropriate notice, former presidents of the United States) the privilege of addressing the Senate, without granting a similar privilege to the sitting vice president. Thus, as Time magazine wrote during the controversial tenure of Vice President Charles G. Dawes, \"once in four years the Vice President can make a little speech, and then he is done. For four years he then has to sit in the seat of the silent, attending to speeches ponderous or otherwise, of deliberation or humor.\" \n\nRecurring, infrequent duties\n\nThe President of the Senate also presides over counting and presentation of the votes of the Electoral College. This process occurs in the presence of both houses of Congress, generally on January 6 of the year following a U.S. presidential election. In this capacity, only four vice presidents have been able to announce their own election to the presidency: John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Martin Van Buren, and George H. W. Bush. At the beginning of 1961, it fell to Richard Nixon to preside over this process, which officially announced the election of his 1960 opponent, John F. Kennedy. In 2001, Al Gore announced the election of his opponent, George W. Bush. In 1969, Vice President Hubert Humphrey would have announced the election of his opponent, Richard Nixon; however, on the date of the Congressional joint session (January 6), Humphrey was in Norway attending the funeral of Trygve Lie, the first elected Secretary-General of the United Nations. \n\nIn 1933, incumbent Vice President Charles Curtis announced the election of House Speaker John Nance Garner as his successor, while Garner was seated next to him on the House dais.\n\nThe President of the Senate may also preside over most of the impeachment trials of federal officers. However, whenever the President of the United States is impeached, the US Constitution requires the Chief Justice of the United States to preside over the Senate for the trial. The Constitution is silent as to the presiding officer in the instance where the vice president is the officer impeached.\n\nSuccession and the Twenty-Fifth Amendment\n\nThe U.S. Constitution provides that should the president die, become disabled while in office or removed from office, the \"powers and duties\" of the office are transferred to the vice president. Initially, it was unclear whether the vice president actually became the new president or merely an acting president. This was first tested in 1841 with the death of President William Henry Harrison. Harrison's vice president, John Tyler, asserted that he had succeeded to the full presidential office, powers, and title, and declined to acknowledge documents referring to him as \"Acting President.\" Despite some strong calls against it, Tyler took the oath of office as the tenth President. Tyler's claim was not challenged legally, and so the Tyler precedent of full succession was established. This was made explicit by Section 1 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1967.\n\nSection 2 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment provides for vice presidential succession:\n Gerald Ford was the first vice president selected by this method, after the resignation of Vice President Spiro Agnew in 1973; after succeeding to the presidency, Ford nominated Nelson Rockefeller as vice president.\n\nAnother issue was who had the power to declare that an incapacitated president is unable to discharge his duties. This question had arisen most recently with the illnesses of President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Section 3 and Section 4 of the amendment provide means for the vice president to become acting president upon the temporary disability of the president. Section 3 deals with self-declared incapacity of the president. Section 4 deals with incapacity declared by the joint action of the vice president and of a majority of the Cabinet.\n\nWhile Section 4 has never been invoked, Section 3 has been invoked three times: on July 13, 1985 when Ronald Reagan underwent surgery to remove cancerous polyps from his colon, and twice more on June 29, 2002 and July 21, 2007 when George W. Bush underwent colonoscopy procedures requiring sedation. Prior to this amendment, Vice President Richard Nixon informally assumed some of President Dwight Eisenhower's duties for several weeks on each of three occasions when Eisenhower was ill.\n\nInformal roles\n\nThe extent of any informal roles and functions of the vice president depend on the specific relationship between the president and the vice president, but often include tasks such as drafter and spokesperson for the administration's policies, adviser to the president, and being a symbol of American concern or support. The influence of the vice president in this role depends almost entirely on the characteristics of the particular administration. Dick Cheney, for instance, was widely regarded as one of President George W. Bush's closest confidants. Al Gore was an important adviser to President Bill Clinton on matters of foreign policy and the environment. Often, vice presidents are chosen to act as a \"balance\" to the president, taking either more moderate or radical positions on issues.\n\nUnder the American system the president is both head of state and head of government, and the ceremonial duties of the former position are often delegated to the vice president. The vice president is often assigned the ceremonial duties of representing the president and the government at state funerals or other functions in the United States. This often is the most visible role of the vice president, and has occasionally been the subject of ridicule, such as during the vice presidency of George H. W. Bush. The vice president may meet with other heads of state or attend state funerals in other countries, at times when the administration wishes to demonstrate concern or support but cannot send the president themselves.\n\nOffice as stepping stone to the presidency\n\nIn recent decades, the vice presidency has frequently been used as a platform to launch bids for the presidency. The transition of the office to its modern stature occurred primarily as a result of Franklin Roosevelt's 1940 nomination, when he captured the ability to nominate his running mate instead of leaving the nomination to the convention. Prior to that, party bosses often used the vice presidential nomination as a consolation prize for the party's minority faction. A further factor potentially contributing to the rise in prestige of the office was the adoption of presidential preference primaries in the early 20th century. By adopting primary voting, the field of candidates for vice president was expanded by both the increased quantity and quality of presidential candidates successful in some primaries, yet who ultimately failed to capture the presidential nomination at the convention.\n\nOf the thirteen presidential elections from 1956 to 2004, nine featured the incumbent president; the other four (1960, 1968, 1988, 2000) all featured the incumbent vice president. Former vice presidents also ran, in 1984 (Walter Mondale), and in 1968 (Richard Nixon, against the incumbent vice president, Hubert Humphrey). The first presidential election to include neither the incumbent president nor the incumbent vice president on a major party ticket since 1952 came in 2008 when President George W. Bush had already served two terms and Vice President Cheney chose not to run. Richard Nixon is also the only non-sitting vice president to be elected president, as well as the only person to be elected president and vice president twice each.\n\nSelection process\n\nEligibility\n\nThe Twelfth Amendment states that \"no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice President of the United States.\" Thus, to serve as vice president, an individual must:\n* Be a natural-born U.S. citizen;\n* Be at least 35 years old\n* Have resided in the U.S. at least 14 years. \n\nDisqualifications\n\nAdditionally, Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment denies eligibility for any federal office to anyone who, having sworn an oath to support the United States Constitution, later has rebelled against the United States. This disqualification, originally aimed at former supporters of the Confederacy, may be removed by a two-thirds vote of each house of the Congress.\n\nUnder the Twenty-second Amendment, the President of the United States may not be elected to more than two terms. However, there is no similar such limitation as to how many times one can be elected vice president. Scholars disagree whether a former president barred from election to the presidency is also ineligible to be elected or appointed vice president, as suggested by the Twelfth Amendment. The issue has never been tested in practice.\n\nAlso, Article I, Section 3, Clause 7 allows the Senate, upon voting to remove an impeached federal official from office, to disqualify that official from holding any federal office.\n\nResidency limitation\n\nWhile it is commonly held that the president and vice president must be residents of different states, this is not actually the case. Nothing in the Constitution prohibits both candidates being from a single state. Instead, the limitation imposed is on the members of the Electoral College, who must cast a ballot for at least one candidate who is not from their own state.\n\nIn theory, the candidates elected could both be from one state, but the electors of that state would, in a close electoral contest, run the risk of denying their vice presidential candidate the absolute majority required to secure the election, even if the presidential candidate is elected. This would then place the vice presidential election in the hands of the Senate.\n\nIn practice, however, residency is rarely an issue. Parties have avoided nominating tickets containing two candidates from the same state. Further, the candidates may themselves take action to alleviate any residency conflict. For example, at the start of the 2000 election cycle Dick Cheney was a resident of Texas; Cheney quickly changed his residency back to Wyoming, where he had previously served as a U.S. Representative, when Texas governor and Republican presidential nominee George W. Bush asked Cheney to be his vice presidential candidate.\n\nNominating process\n\nThough the vice president does not need to have any political experience, most major-party vice presidential nominees are current or former United States Senators or Representatives, with the occasional nominee being a current or former Governor, a high-ranking military officer, or a holder of a major post within the Executive Department. The vice presidential candidates of the major national political parties are formally selected by each party's quadrennial nominating convention, following the selection of the party's presidential candidates. The official process is identical to the one by which the presidential candidates are chosen, with delegates placing the names of candidates into nomination, followed by a ballot in which candidates must receive a majority to secure the party's nomination.\n\nIn practice, the presidential nominee has considerable influence on the decision, and in the 20th century it became customary for that person to select a preferred running mate, who is then nominated and accepted by the convention. In recent years, with the presidential nomination usually being a foregone conclusion as the result of the primary process, the selection of a vice presidential candidate is often announced prior to the actual balloting for the presidential candidate, and sometimes before the beginning of the convention itself. The first presidential aspirant to announce his selection for vice president before the beginning of the convention was Ronald Reagan who, prior to the 1976 Republican National Convention announced that Richard Schweiker would be his running mate. Reagan's supporters then sought to amend the convention rules so that Gerald R. Ford would be required to name his vice presidential running mate in advance as well. The proposal was defeated, and Reagan did not receive the nomination in 1976. Often, the presidential nominee will name a vice presidential candidate who will bring geographic or ideological balance to the ticket or appeal to a particular constituency.\n\nThe vice presidential candidate might also be chosen on the basis of traits the presidential candidate is perceived to lack, or on the basis of name recognition. To foster party unity, popular runners-up in the presidential nomination process are commonly considered. While this selection process may enhance the chances of success for a national ticket, in the past it often insured that the vice presidential nominee represented regions, constituencies, or ideologies at odds with those of the presidential candidate. As a result, vice presidents were often excluded from the policy-making process of the new administration. Many times their relationships with the president and his staff were aloof, non-existent, or even adversarial.\n\nThe ultimate goal of vice presidential candidate selection is to help and not hurt the party's chances of getting elected. A selection whose positive traits make the presidential candidate look less favorable in comparison can backfire, such as in 1988 when Democratic candidate Michael Dukakis chose experienced Texas Senator Lloyd Bentsen, and in 2008 when Republican candidate John McCain picked dynamic Alaska Governor Sarah Palin. However, Palin also hurt McCain when her interviews with Katie Couric led to concerns about her fitness for the presidency. In 1984, Walter Mondale picked Geraldine Ferraro whose nomination became a drag on the ticket due to repeated questions about her husband's finances. Questions about Dan Quayle's experience and temperament were raised in the 1988 presidential campaign of George H.W. Bush, but he still won. James Stockdale, the choice of third-party candidate Ross Perot in 1992, was seen as unqualified by many, but the Perot-Stockdale ticket still won about 19% of the vote.\n\nHistorically, vice presidential candidates were chosen to provide geographic and ideological balance to a presidential ticket, widening a presidential candidate's appeal to voters from outside his regional base or wing of the party. Candidates from electoral-vote rich states were usually preferred. However, in 1992, moderate Democrat Bill Clinton (of Arkansas) chose moderate Democrat Al Gore (of Tennessee)\nas his running mate. Despite the two candidates' near-identical ideological and regional backgrounds, Gore's extensive experience in national affairs enhanced the appeal of a ticket headed by Clinton, whose political career had been spent entirely at the local and state levels of government. In 2000, George W. Bush chose Dick Cheney of Wyoming, a reliably Republican state with only three electoral votes, and in 2008, Barack Obama mirrored Bush's strategy when he chose Joe Biden of Delaware, a reliably Democratic state, likewise one with only three electoral votes. Both Cheney and Biden were chosen for their experience in national politics (experience lacked by both Bush and Obama) rather than the ideological balance or electoral vote advantage they would provide.\n\nThe first presidential candidate to choose his vice presidential candidate was Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1940. The last not to name a vice presidential choice, leaving the matter up to the convention, was Democrat Adlai Stevenson in 1956. The convention chose Tennessee Senator Estes Kefauver over Massachusetts Senator (and later president) John F. Kennedy. At the tumultuous 1972 Democratic convention, presidential nominee George McGovern selected Senator Thomas Eagleton as his running mate, but numerous other candidates were either nominated from the floor or received votes during the balloting. Eagleton nevertheless received a majority of the votes and the nomination, though he later resigned from the ticket, resulting in Sargent Shriver becoming McGovern's final running mate; both lost to the Nixon-Agnew ticket by a wide margin, carrying only Massachusetts and the District of Columbia.\n\nIn cases where the presidential nomination is still in doubt as the convention approaches, the campaigns for the two positions may become intertwined. In 1976, Ronald Reagan, who was trailing President Gerald R. Ford in the presidential delegate count, announced prior to the Republican National Convention that, if nominated, he would select Senator Richard Schweiker as his running mate. This move backfired to a degree, as Schweiker's relatively liberal voting record alienated many of the more conservative delegates who were considering a challenge to party delegate selection rules to improve Reagan's chances. In the end, Ford narrowly won the presidential nomination and Reagan's selection of Schweiker became moot.\n\nElection, oath, and tenure\n\nVice presidents are elected indirectly in the United States. A number of electors, collectively known as the Electoral College, officially select the president. On Election Day, voters in each of the states and the District of Columbia cast ballots for these electors. Each state is allocated a number of electors, equal to the size of its delegation in both Houses of Congress combined. Generally, the ticket that wins the most votes in a state wins all of that state's electoral votes and thus has its slate of electors chosen to vote in the Electoral College.\n\nThe winning slate of electors meet at its state's capital on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December, about six weeks after the election, to vote. They then send a record of that vote to Congress. The vote of the electors is opened by the sitting vice president, acting in his capacity as President of the Senate and read aloud to a joint session of the incoming Congress, which was elected at the same time as the president.\n\nPursuant to the Twentieth Amendment, the vice president's term of office begins at noon on January 20 of the year following the election. This date, known as Inauguration Day, marks the beginning of the four-year terms of both the president and vice president.\n\nAlthough Article VI requires that the vice president take an oath or affirmation of allegiance to the US Constitution, unlike the president, the United States Constitution does not specify the precise wording of the oath of office for the vice president. Several variants of the oath have been used since 1789; the current form, which is also recited by Senators, Representatives and other government officers, has been used since 1884:\n\nThe term of office for vice president is four years. While the Twenty-Second Amendment generally restricts the president to two terms, there is no similar limitation on the office of vice president, meaning an eligible person could hold the office as long as voters continued to vote for electors who in turn would renew the vice president's tenure. A vice president could even serve under different administrations, as George Clinton and John C. Calhoun have done.\n\nOriginal election process and reform\n\nUnder the original terms of the Constitution, the electors of the Electoral College voted only for office of president rather than for both president and vice president. Each elector was allowed to vote for two people for the top office. The person receiving the greatest number of votes (provided that such a number was a majority of electors) would be president, while the individual who received the next largest number of votes became vice president. If no one received a majority of votes, then the House of Representatives would choose among the five candidates with the largest numbers of votes, with each state's representatives together casting a single vote. In such a case, the person who received the highest number of votes but was not chosen president would become vice president. In the case of a tie for second, then the Senate would choose the vice president.Wikisource:Constitution of the United States of America#Section 1 2\n\nThe original plan, however, did not foresee the development of political parties and their adversarial role in the government. For example, in the election of 1796, Federalist John Adams came in first, but because the Federalist electors had divided their second vote amongst several vice presidential candidates, Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson came second. Thus, the president and vice president were from opposing parties. Predictably, Adams and Jefferson clashed over issues such as states' rights and foreign policy. \n\nA greater problem occurred in the election of 1800, in which the two participating parties each had a secondary candidate they intended to elect as vice president, but the more popular Democratic-Republican party failed to execute that plan with their electoral votes. Under the system in place at the time (Article II, Section 1, Clause 3), the electors could not differentiate between their two candidates, so the plan had been for one elector to vote for Thomas Jefferson but not for Aaron Burr, thus putting Burr in second place. This plan broke down for reasons that are disputed, and both candidates received the same number of votes. After 35 deadlocked ballots in the House of Representatives, Jefferson finally won on the 36th ballot and Burr became vice president. \n\nThis tumultuous affair led to the adoption of the Twelfth Amendment in 1804, which directed the electors to use separate ballots to vote for the president and vice president. While this solved the problem at hand, it ultimately had the effect of lowering the prestige of the vice presidency, as the office was no longer for the leading challenger for the presidency.\n\nThe separate ballots for president and vice president became something of a moot issue later in the 19th century when it became the norm for popular elections to determine a state's Electoral College delegation. Electors chosen this way are pledged to vote for a particular presidential and vice presidential candidate (offered by the same political party). So, while the Constitution says that the president and vice president are chosen separately, in practice they are chosen together.\n\nIf no vice presidential candidate receives an Electoral College majority, then the Senate selects the vice president, in accordance with the United States Constitution. The Twelfth Amendment states that a \"majority of the whole number\" of Senators (currently 51 of 100) is necessary for election. Further, the language requiring an absolute majority of Senate votes precludes the sitting vice president from breaking any tie which might occur. The election of 1836 is the only election so far where the office of the vice president has been decided by the Senate. During the campaign, Martin Van Buren's running mate Richard Mentor Johnson was accused of having lived with a black woman. Virginia's 23 electors, who were pledged to Van Buren and Johnson, refused to vote for Johnson (but still voted for Van Buren). The election went to the Senate, where Johnson was elected 33-17.\n\nSalary\n\nThe vice president's salary is $230,700. The salary was set by the 1989 Government Salary Reform Act, which also provides an automatic cost of living adjustment for federal employees.\n\nThe vice president does not automatically receive a pension based on that office, but instead receives the same pension as other members of Congress based on his position as President of the Senate. The vice president must serve a minimum of five years to qualify for a pension. \n\nSince 1974, the official residence of the vice president and their family has been Number One Observatory Circle, on the grounds of the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, D.C.\n\nVacancy\n\nArticle I, Section 2, Clause 5 and Article II, Section 4 of the Constitution both authorize the House of Representatives to serve as a \"grand jury\" with the power to impeach high federal officials, including the president, for \"treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.\" Similarly, Article I, Section 3, Clause 6 and Article II, Section 4 both authorize the Senate to serve as a court with the power to remove impeached officials from office, given a two-thirds vote to convict. No vice president has ever been impeached.\n\nPrior to ratification of the Twenty-fifth Amendment in 1967, no provision existed for filling a vacancy in the office of vice president. As a result, the vice presidency was left vacant 16 times—sometimes for nearly four years—until the next ensuing election and inauguration: eight times due to the death of the sitting president, resulting in the vice presidents becoming president; seven times due to the death of the sitting vice president; and once due to the resignation of Vice President John C. Calhoun to become a senator.\n\nCalhoun resigned because he had been dropped from the ticket by President Andrew Jackson in favor of Martin Van Buren, due primarily to conflicting with the President over the issue of nullification. Already a lame duck vice president, he was elected to the Senate by the South Carolina state legislature and resigned the vice presidency early to begin his Senate term because he believed he would have more power as a senator.\n\nSince the adoption of the Twenty-Fifth Amendment, the office has been vacant twice while awaiting confirmation of the new vice president by both houses of Congress. The first such instance occurred in 1973 following the resignation of Spiro Agnew as Richard Nixon's vice president. Gerald Ford was subsequently nominated by President Nixon and confirmed by Congress. The second occurred 10 months later when Nixon resigned following the Watergate scandal and Ford assumed the presidency. The resulting vice presidential vacancy was filled by Nelson Rockefeller. Ford and Rockefeller are the only two people to have served as vice president without having been elected to the office, and Ford remains the only person to have served as both vice president and president without being elected to either office.\n\nThe original Constitution had no provision for selecting such a replacement, so the office of vice president would remain vacant until the beginning of the next presidential and vice presidential terms. This issue had arisen most recently when the John F. Kennedy assassination caused a vacancy from November 22, 1963, until January 20, 1965, and was rectified by Section 2 of the Twenty-Fifth Amendment.\n\nGrowth of the office\n\nFor much of its existence, the office of vice president was seen as little more than a minor position. Adams, the first vice president, was the first of many who found the job frustrating and stupefying, writing to his wife Abigail that \"My country has in its wisdom contrived for me the most insignificant office that ever the invention of man contrived or his imagination conceived.\" Many vice presidents lamented the lack of meaningful work in their role. John Nance Garner, who served as vice president from 1933 to 1941 under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, claimed that the vice presidency \"isn't worth a pitcher of warm piss.\" Harry Truman, who also served as vice president under Roosevelt, said that the office was as \"useful as a cow's fifth teat.\" \n\nThomas R. Marshall, the 28th vice president, lamented: \"Once there were two brothers. One ran away to sea; the other was elected Vice President of the United States. And nothing was heard of either of them again.\" His successor, Calvin Coolidge, was so obscure that Major League Baseball sent him free passes that misspelled his name, and a fire marshal failed to recognize him when Coolidge's Washington residence was evacuated. \n\nWhen the Whig Party asked Daniel Webster to run for the vice presidency on Zachary Taylor's ticket, he replied \"I do not propose to be buried until I am really dead and in my coffin.\" This was the second time Webster declined the office, which William Henry Harrison had first offered to him. Ironically, both of the presidents making the offer to Webster died in office, meaning the three-time presidential candidate could have become president if he had accepted either. Since presidents rarely died in office, however, the better preparation for the presidency was considered to be the office of Secretary of State, in which Webster served under Harrison, Tyler, and later, Taylor's successor, Fillmore.\n\nFor many years, the vice president was given few responsibilities. Garret Hobart, the first vice president under William McKinley, was one of the very few vice presidents at this time who played an important role in the administration. A close confidant and adviser of the president, Hobart was called \"Assistant President.\" However, until 1919, vice presidents were not included in meetings of the President's Cabinet. This precedent was broken by President Woodrow Wilson when he asked Thomas R. Marshall to preside over Cabinet meetings while Wilson was in France negotiating the Treaty of Versailles. President Warren G. Harding also invited his vice president, Calvin Coolidge, to meetings. The next vice president, Charles G. Dawes, did not seek to attend Cabinet meetings under President Coolidge, declaring that \"the precedent might prove injurious to the country.\" Vice President Charles Curtis was also precluded from attending by President Herbert Hoover.\n\nIn 1933, Franklin D. Roosevelt raised the stature of the office by renewing the practice of inviting the vice president to cabinet meetings, which every president since has maintained. Roosevelt's first vice president, John Nance Garner, broke with him at the start of the second term on the Court-packing issue and became Roosevelt's leading political enemy. In 1937, Garner became the first vice president to be sworn in on the Capitol steps in the same ceremony with the president, a tradition that continues. Prior to that time, vice presidents were traditionally inaugurated at a separate ceremony in the Senate chamber. Gerald R. Ford and Nelson A. Rockefeller, who were both appointed to the office under the terms of the 25th amendment, were inaugurated in the House and Senate chambers, respectively.\n\nGarner's successor, Henry Wallace, was given major responsibilities during the war, but he moved further to the left than the Democratic Party and the rest of the Roosevelt administration and was relieved of actual power. Roosevelt kept his last vice president, Harry Truman, uninformed on all war and postwar issues, such as the atomic bomb, leading Truman to remark, wryly, that the job of the vice president was to \"go to weddings and funerals.\" Following Roosevelt's death and Truman's ascension to the presidency, the need to keep vice presidents informed on national security issues became clear, and Congress made the vice president one of four statutory members of the National Security Council in 1949.\n\nRichard Nixon reinvented the office of vice president. He had the attention of the media and the Republican party, when Dwight Eisenhower ordered him to preside at Cabinet meetings in his absence. Nixon was also the first vice president to formally assume temporary control of the executive branch, which he did after Eisenhower suffered a heart attack on September 24, 1955, ileitis in June 1956, and a stroke in November 1957.\n\nUntil 1961, vice presidents had their offices on Capitol Hill, a formal office in the Capitol itself and a working office in the Russell Senate Office Building. Lyndon B. Johnson was the first vice president to be given an office in the White House complex, in the Old Executive Office Building. The former Navy Secretary's office in the OEOB has since been designated the \"Ceremonial Office of the Vice President\" and is today used for formal events and press interviews. President Jimmy Carter was the first president to give his vice president, Walter Mondale, an office in the West Wing of the White House, which all vice presidents have since retained. Because of their function as Presidents of the Senate, vice presidents still maintain offices and staff members on Capitol Hill.\n\nThough Walter Mondale's tenure was the beginning of the modern day power of the vice presidency, the tenure of Dick Cheney saw a rapid growth in the office of the vice president. Vice President Cheney held a tremendous amount of power and frequently made policy decisions on his own, without the knowledge of the President. After his tenure, and during the 2008 presidential campaign, both vice presidential candidates, Sarah Palin and Joe Biden, stated that the office had expanded too much under Cheney's tenure and both had planned to reduce the role to simply being an adviser to the president. \n\nPost–vice presidency\n\nThe five former vice presidents now living are:\n\nFile:Walter Mondale 2014.jpg|Walter Mondale42nd (1977–1981)\nFile:President George H. W.tif|George H. W. Bush43rd (1981–1989)\nFile:Quayle2k11.tif|Dan Quayle44th (1989–1993)\nFile:Gore2k11.tif|Al Gore45th (1993–2001)\nFile:Cheney.tif|Dick Cheney46th (2001–2009)\n\nFour vice presidents have been elected to the presidency immediately after serving as vice president: John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Martin Van Buren and George H. W. Bush. Richard Nixon, John C. Breckinridge, Hubert Humphrey and Al Gore were all nominated by their respective parties, but failed to succeed the presidents with whom they were elected, though Nixon was elected president eight years later.\n\nTwo vice presidents served under different presidents. George Clinton served under both Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, while John C. Calhoun served under John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson. In the modern era, Adlai Stevenson I became the first former vice president to seek election with a different running mate, running in 1900 with William Jennings Bryan after serving under Bryan's rival, Grover Cleveland. (He was also narrowly defeated for Governor of Illinois in 1908.) Charles W. Fairbanks, vice president under Theodore Roosevelt, sought unsuccessfully to return to office as Charles Evans Hughes' running mate in 1916.\n\nSome former vice presidents have sought other offices after serving as vice president. Daniel D. Tompkins ran for Governor of New York in 1820 whilst serving as vice president under James Monroe. He lost to DeWitt Clinton, but was re-elected vice president. John C. Calhoun resigned as vice president to accept election as US Senator from South Carolina. Hannibal Hamlin, Andrew Johnson, Alben Barkley and Hubert H. Humphrey were all elected to the Senate after leaving office. Levi P. Morton, vice president under Benjamin Harrison, was elected Governor of New York after leaving office.\n\nRichard Nixon unsuccessfully sought the governorship of California in 1962, nearly two years after leaving office as vice president and just over six years before becoming president. Walter Mondale ran unsuccessfully for president in 1984, served as U.S. Ambassador to Japan from 1993 to 1996, and then sought unsuccessfully to return to the Senate in 2002. George H. W. Bush won the presidency, and his vice president, Dan Quayle, sought the Republican nomination in 2000. Al Gore also ran unsuccessfully for the presidency in 2000, turning to environmental advocacy afterward. Cheney had previously explored the possibility of running for president before serving as vice president, but chose not to run for president after his two terms as vice president.\n\nSince 1977, former presidents and vice presidents who are elected or re-elected to the Senate are entitled to the largely honorific position of Deputy President pro tempore. So far, the only former vice president to have held this title is Hubert Humphrey following his return to the Senate. Walter Mondale would have been entitled to the position had his 2002 Senate bid been successful.\n\nUnder the terms of an 1886 Senate resolution, all former vice presidents are entitled to a portrait bust in the Senate wing of the United States Capitol, commemorating their service as presidents of the Senate. Dick Cheney is the most recent former vice president to be so honored.\n\nUnlike former presidents, who receive a pension automatically regardless of their time in office, former vice presidents must reach pension eligibility by accumulating the appropriate time in federal service. Since 2008, former vice president are also entitled to Secret Service personal protection. Former vice presidents traditionally receive Secret Service protection for up to six months after leaving office, by order of the Secretary of Homeland Security, though this can be extended if the Secretary believes the level of threat is sufficient. In 2008, a bill titled the \"Former Vice President Protection Act\" was passed by Congress and signed into law by President Bush. It provides six-month Secret Service protection by law to a former vice president and family. According to the Department of Homeland Security, protection for former vice president Cheney has been extended numerous times because threats against him have not decreased since his leaving office. \n\nTimeline of vice presidents", "Spiro Theodore Agnew (; November 9, 1918 – September 17, 1996) was an American politician who served as the 39th Vice President of the United States from 1969 to 1973, under President Richard Nixon.\n\nAgnew was born in Baltimore, Maryland, and was a graduate of Johns Hopkins University and University of Baltimore School of Law. He was drafted into the United States Army in 1941, serving as an officer during the Second World War, and was recalled for service during the Korean War in 1950. Agnew worked as an aide for U.S. Representative James Devereux before he was appointed to the Baltimore County Board of Zoning Appeals in 1957. In 1960, he lost an election for the Baltimore City Circuit Court, but in 1962 was elected Baltimore County Executive. In 1966, Agnew was elected the 55th Governor of Maryland, defeating his Democratic opponent George P. Mahoney. He was the first Greek American to hold the position, serving between 1967 and 1969.\n\nAt the 1968 Republican National Convention, Agnew, who had earlier been asked to place Richard Nixon's name in nomination, was selected in private by Nixon and his campaign staff. He was then presented to the convention delegates for nomination for Vice President and ran alongside Nixon in the Presidential Election of 1968. Nixon and Agnew defeated the incumbent Vice President, Hubert Humphrey (formerly long-time Senator from Minnesota) and Senator Edmund Muskie of Maine. In 1972, Nixon and Agnew were reelected for a second term, defeating Senator George McGovern and Ambassador Sargent Shriver.\n\nIn 1973, Agnew was investigated by the United States Attorney for the District of Maryland on charges of extortion, tax fraud, bribery, and conspiracy. He was charged with having accepted bribes totaling more than $100,000 while holding office as Baltimore County Executive, Governor of Maryland, and Vice President. On October 10 that same year, Agnew was allowed to plead no contest to a single charge that he had failed to report $29,500 of income received in 1967, with the condition that he resign the office of Vice President. Nixon later replaced Agnew by appointing House Minority Leader Gerald Ford as Vice President. The following year, when Nixon resigned from the White House due to the Watergate scandal, Ford ascended to the presidency.\n\nAgnew was the second Vice President in United States history to resign, the other being John C. Calhoun, and the only one to do so because of criminal charges. Nearly ten years after leaving office, Agnew paid the state of Maryland nearly $270,000 as a result of a civil suit that stemmed from the bribery allegations. In describing Agnew, Garry Wills borrows the backhanded compliment once paid Coolidge by H.L. Mencken: \"No man ever came to market with less seductive goods, and no man ever got a better price for what he had to offer.\" Agnew is widely considered by historians to be among the worst Vice Presidents in the history of the United States. \n\nEarly life\n\nSpiro Agnew was born in Baltimore, Maryland. His parents were Theodore Spiros Agnew, a Greek immigrant who shortened his name from Anagnostopoulos (Αναγνωστόπουλος) (originally from Gargalianoi, Messenia) when he moved to the United States, and Margaret Marian (Akers) Pollard Agnew, a native of Virginia. Spiro had a half brother, Roy Pollard, from his mother's first marriage (she was widowed at the time she met Spiro's father). Agnew eschewed his father's Greek Orthodox Church. His Greek family has direct lineage from the island of Chios. \n\nAgnew attended Forest Park Senior High School in Baltimore, before enrolling at Johns Hopkins University in 1937. He studied chemistry at Hopkins for three years.\n\nAgnew was drafted into the United States Army in 1941 and was commissioned on May 25, 1942, upon graduation from Army Officer Candidate School. He served with the 10th Armored Division in Europe during World War II. He was awarded the Bronze Star for his service in France and Germany.\n\nBefore leaving for Europe, Agnew worked at the Maryland Casualty Company where he met Elinor Judefind, known as Judy. Agnew married her on May 27, 1942. They had four children: Pamela, James Rand, Susan and Kimberly.\n\nUpon his return from the war, Agnew transferred to the evening program at the University of Baltimore School of Law. He studied law at night while working as a grocer and as an insurance salesman during the day. In 1947, Agnew received his LL.B. (later amended to Juris Doctor) and moved to the suburbs to begin practicing law. He passed the Maryland bar exam in June 1949.\n\nAgnew was recalled to service with the Army in 1950 during the Korean War.\n\nEarly political career\n\nSpiro Agnew began his political career as the first president of the Loch Raven Community Council and the President of the Dumbarton Junior High School PTA. A Democrat from early youth, he switched parties and became a Republican. During the 1950s, he aided U.S. Congressman James Devereux in winning four successive elections. In 1957, he was appointed to the Baltimore County Board of Zoning Appeals by Democratic Baltimore County Executive Michael J. Birmingham. In 1960, he made his first run for office as a candidate for Judge of the Circuit Court, finishing last in a five-person contest. The following year, the new Democratic Baltimore County Executive, Christian H. Kahl, dropped him from the Zoning Board.\n\nAgnew ran for election as Baltimore County Executive in 1962, seeking office in a predominantly Democratic county that had seen no Republican elected to that position in the 20th century, with only one (Roger B. Hayden) earning victory after he left. Running as a reformer and Republican outsider, he took advantage of a bitter split in the Democratic Party and was elected. Agnew backed and signed an ordinance outlawing discrimination in some public accommodations, among the first laws of this kind in the United States.\n\nGovernor of Maryland\n\nAgnew ran for the position of Governor of Maryland in 1966. In this overwhelmingly Democratic state, he was elected after the Democratic nominee, George P. Mahoney, a Baltimore paving contractor and perennial candidate running on an anti-integration platform, narrowly won the Democratic gubernatorial primary out of a crowded slate of eight candidates, trumping early favorite Carlton R. Sickles. Coming on the heels of the recently passed federal Fair Housing Act of 1965, Mahoney's campaign embraced the slogan \"your home is your castle, protect it.\" Many Democrats opposed to segregation then crossed party lines to give Agnew the governorship by 82,000 votes.\n\nAs governor, Agnew worked with the Democratic legislature to pass tax and judicial reforms, as well as tough anti-pollution laws. Projecting an image of racial moderation, Agnew signed the state's first open-housing laws and succeeded in effecting the repeal of an anti-miscegenation law. However, during the riots that followed the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., in the spring of 1968, Agnew angered many African-American leaders when he stated in reference to their constituents, \"I call on you to publicly repudiate all black racists. This, so far, you have been unwilling to do.\" \n\nVice Presidency (1969–1973)\n\nAgnew's moderate image, immigrant background, and success in a traditionally Democratic state made him an attractive running mate for the 1968 Republican presidential nominee, former Vice President Richard Nixon. As late as early 1968, Agnew was a strong supporter of Nelson Rockefeller, one of Nixon's opponents, but by June had switched to supporting Nixon. At the 1968 Republican National Convention, Agnew's nomination was supported by many conservatives within the Republican Party and by Nixon himself; however, a small band of delegates started shouting \"Spiro Who?\" and tried to nominate George W. Romney. In the end, Nixon's wishes prevailed, with Agnew receiving 1,119 out of the 1,317 votes cast. \n\nDuring the ensuing general election campaign against Vice President Hubert Humphrey, which took place against a backdrop of urban riots and anti-Vietnam War demonstrations, culminating in the violent confrontations at the Democratic convention in Chicago, Agnew repeatedly hammered the Democrats on the issue of \"law and order.\" Agnew was considered something of a political joke at first. One Democratic television commercial featured the sounds of a man's hearty laughter as the camera panned to a TV with the words \"Agnew for Vice President?\" on the screen.\n\nAgnew went from his first election as County Executive to Vice President in six years—one of the fastest rises in US political history, comparable with that of Nixon, who became Vice President after four years in the House of Representatives and two years in the Senate. Agnew's vice presidency was also the highest-ranking US political office ever reached by either a Greek American or a Marylander. Nixon reportedly said \"No assassin in his right mind would kill me, They know if they did that they would wind up with Agnew! \n\nAgnew soon found his role as the voice of the so-called \"silent majority,\" and by late 1969 he was ranking high on national \"Most Admired Men\" polls. He also inspired a fashion craze when one entrepreneur introduced Spiro Agnew watches (a takeoff on the popular Mickey Mouse watch); conservatives wore them to show their support for Agnew, while many liberals wore them to signify their contempt.\n\nAgnew was known for his scathing criticisms of political opponents, especially journalists and anti-war activists. Agnew would attack his adversaries with relish, hurling unusual, often alliterative epithets, some of which were coined by White House speechwriters William Safire and Pat Buchanan, including \"pusillanimous pussyfooters,\" \"nattering nabobs of negativism\" (written by Safire) and \"hopeless, hysterical hypochondriacs of history.\" In a speech denouncing the Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam, he characterized the war's opponents as \"an effete corps of impudent snobs who characterize themselves as intellectuals.\" \n\nAgnew was often characterized as Nixon's \"hatchet man\" when defending the administration on the Vietnam War. Agnew was chosen to make several speeches in which he spoke out against anti-war protesters and the media portrayal of the Vietnam War, labeling them \"Un-American\". However, he also spoke publicly against the actions of the Ohio Army National Guard that led to the Kent State shootings in 1970, even describing their action as \"murder.\"\n\nDespite Agnew's continued loyalty to the Nixon administration, his relationship with Nixon deteriorated almost from the start of their political affiliation. Although Nixon initially liked and respected Agnew, as time progressed he felt his vice president lacked the intelligence and vision, particularly in foreign affairs, to sit in the Oval Office, and he began freezing Agnew out of the White House decision-making process. By some accounts, the President was also resentful that the self-confident Agnew was so popular with many Americans. By 1970, Agnew was limited to seeing the president only during cabinet meetings or in the occasional and brief one-on-one, with Agnew given no opportunity to discuss much of substance.\n\nOval Office tapes reveal that in 1971, Nixon and his chief of staff, H. R. Haldeman, discussed their desire to have Agnew resign from office before the following year's campaign season. One plan to achieve this was to try to persuade conservative investors to purchase one of the television networks, and then invite Agnew to run it. Another was to see if Bob Hope would be willing to take Agnew on as his partner in his cable television investments. These and other plans never went beyond the talking stages. \n\nNixon would have liked to replace Agnew on the Republican ticket in 1972 with John Connally, his chosen successor for 1976, but he realized that Agnew's large conservative base of supporters would be in an uproar, so he reluctantly kept him as his running mate. When John Ehrlichman, the President's counsel and assistant, asked Nixon why he kept Agnew on the ticket in the 1972 election, Nixon replied that \"No assassin in his right mind would kill me\" because they would get Agnew (as President). \n\nAgnew came to enjoy the privileges that being vice president brought to him, particularly access to the rich and famous. He became close friends with Frank Sinatra, Billy Graham, and Bob Hope, and consorted with leaders around the globe. He took in stride his newfound fame, as his utterances often made newspaper front pages and were major stories on the evening network news broadcasts. Invitations for Agnew to give speeches across the country flooded into his office, and he became a top fundraiser for the Republican Party.\n\nIn April 1973, when revelations about Watergate began to surface, Agnew was the choice of 35 percent of Republican voters to be the next Republican nominee for President, while then-California Governor Ronald Reagan was second on the Gallup poll. \n\nResignation\n\nOn October 10, 1973, Spiro Agnew became the second Vice President to resign the office. Unlike John C. Calhoun, who resigned to take a seat in the Senate, Agnew resigned and then pleaded no contest to criminal charges of tax evasion, part of a negotiated resolution to a scheme wherein he was accused of accepting more than $100,000 in bribes during his tenure as governor of Maryland. Agnew was fined $10,000 and received three years' probation. The $10,000 fine covered only the taxes and interest due on what was \"unreported income\" from 1967. The plea bargain was later mocked by former Maryland Attorney General Stephen H. Sachs as \"the greatest deal since the Lord spared Isaac on the mountaintop.\" Students of Professor John F. Banzhaf III from the George Washington University Law School, collectively known as Banzhaf's Bandits, found four residents of the state of Maryland willing to put their names on a case that sought to have Agnew repay the state $268,482, the amount it was said he had taken in bribes. After two appeals by Agnew, he finally wrote a check for $268,482 that was turned over to Maryland State Treasurer William S. James in 1983. \n\nAs a result of his no contest plea, the Maryland judiciary later disbarred Agnew, calling him \"morally obtuse\". As in most jurisdictions, Maryland lawyers are automatically disbarred after being convicted of a felony, and a no contest plea exposes the defendant to the same penalties as one would face with a guilty plea.\n\nAgnew's resignation triggered the first use of the 25th Amendment, specifically Section 2, as the vacancy prompted the appointment and confirmation of Gerald Ford, the House Minority Leader, as his successor. This remains one of only two instances in which the amendment has been employed to fill a vice-presidential vacancy. The second time was when Ford, after becoming President upon Nixon's resignation, chose Nelson Rockefeller (originally Agnew's mentor in the moderate wing of the Republican Party) to succeed him as Vice President. Had Agnew remained as Vice President when Nixon resigned just 10 months later, Agnew himself would have become the 38th President, instead of Ford.\n\nLater life and death\n\nAfter leaving politics, Agnew became an international trade executive with homes in Rancho Mirage, California; Arnold, Maryland; Bowie, Maryland; and near Ocean City, Maryland. In 1976, he briefly reentered the public spotlight and engendered controversy with what Gerald Ford publicly criticized as \"unsavory remarks about Jews\" and anti-Zionist statements that called for the United States to withdraw its support for the state of Israel, citing Israel's allegedly bad treatment of Christians. \n\nIn 1980, Agnew published a memoir in which he implied that Nixon and his Chief of Staff, Alexander Haig, had planned to assassinate him if he refused to resign the Vice Presidency, and that Haig told him to \"go quietly...or else,\" the memoir's title. Agnew also wrote a novel, The Canfield Decision, about a Vice President who was \"destroyed by his own ambition.\" \n\nAgnew always maintained that the tax evasion and bribery charges were an attempt by Nixon to divert attention from the growing Watergate scandal. After their resignations, Agnew and Nixon never spoke to each other again. As a gesture of reconciliation, Nixon's daughters invited Agnew to attend Nixon's funeral in 1994, and Agnew accepted. In 1996, when Agnew died, Nixon's daughters returned the favor by attending Agnew's funeral.\n\nAgnew died on September 17, 1996, at age 77 at Atlantic General Hospital, in Berlin, Maryland, in Worcester County (near his Ocean City home), after struggling with undiagnosed acute leukemia. Agnew is buried at Dulaney Valley Memorial Gardens, a cemetery in Timonium, Maryland, in Baltimore County in the Garden of the Last Supper section of the cemetery. \n\nTributes\n\nAgnew's official portrait was taken down from the Maryland State House Governor's Reception Room from 1979 until 1995. Governor Parris Glendening stated that in re-including Agnew's portrait, it was not up to anyone to alter history, whether for good or bad; he cited the 1949 novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. \n\nUnder the provisions of an 1886 Senate resolution, all former vice presidents are entitled to a portrait bust in the United States Capitol. Plans were set in motion for a bust of Agnew while he was still in office, but were shelved following his resignation. The idea was revived by the Senate Rules Committee in 1992 and a bust was commissioned from North Carolina artist William Behrends, for whom Agnew sat for four sessions. The bust was unveiled May 24, 1995, in the presence of Agnew, his family, friends, and onetime political supporters. Agnew made a short speech and was visibly moved by the occasion. \n\nElectoral history\n\nBaltimore County Executive, 1962 \n*Spiro Agnew (R)—elected unopposed\n\nGovernor of Maryland, 1966 \n*Spiro Agnew (R)—455,318 (49.50%)\n*George P. Mahoney (D)—373,543 (40.61%)\n*Hyman A. Pressman (I)—90,899 (9.88%)\n\n1968 Republican National Convention (Vice Presidential tally) \n*Spiro Agnew—1,119 (83.95%)\n*George Romney—186 (13.95%)\n* Abstaining—16 (1.20%)\n*John Lindsay—10 (0.75%)\n*Edward Brooke—1 (0.08%)\n*James A. Rhodes—1 (0.08%)\n\nUnited States presidential election, 1968\n*Richard Nixon/Spiro Agnew (R)—31,783,783 (43.4%) and 301 electoral votes (32 states carried)\n*Hubert Humphrey/Edmund Muskie (D)—31,271,839 (42.7%) and 191 electoral votes (13 states and D.C. carried)\n*George Wallace/Curtis LeMay (American Independent)—9,901,118 (13.5%) and 46 electoral votes (5 states carried)\n\n1972 Republican National Convention (Vice Presidential tally) \n*Spiro Agnew (inc.)—1,345 (99.78%)\n* Abstaining—2 (0.15%)\n*David Brinkley—1 (0.07%)\n\nUnited States presidential election, 1972\n*Richard Nixon/Spiro Agnew (R) (inc.)—47,168,710 (60.7%) and 520 electoral votes (49 states carried)\n*George McGovern/Sargent Shriver (D)—29,173,222 (37.5%) and 17 electoral votes (1 state and D.C. carried)\n*John Hospers/Theodora Nathalia Nathan (Libertarian)—3,171 (0.00%) and 1 electoral vote (Republican faithless elector)\n*John G. Schmitz/Thomas J. Anderson (AI)—1,100,868 (1.4%) and 0 electoral votes\n*Linda Jenness/Andrew Pulley (Socialist Workers)—83,380 (0.1%)\n*Benjamin Spock/Julius Hobson (People's)—78,759 (0.1%)", "Watergate was a major political scandal that occurred in the United States in the 1970s, following a break-in at the Democratic National Committee (DNC) headquarters at the Watergate office complex in Washington, D.C. and President Richard Nixon's administration's attempted cover-up of its involvement. When the conspiracy was discovered and investigated by the U.S. Congress, the Nixon administration's resistance to its probes led to a constitutional crisis. \n\nThe term Watergate has come to encompass an array of clandestine and often illegal activities undertaken by members of the Nixon administration. Those activities included such \"dirty tricks\" as bugging the offices of political opponents and people of whom Nixon or his officials were suspicious. Nixon and his close aides ordered harassment of activist groups and political figures, using the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and the Internal Revenue Service (IRS).\n\nThe scandal led to the discovery of multiple abuses of power by the Nixon administration, articles of impeachment, and the resignation of Nixon as President of the United States on August 9, 1974. The scandal also resulted in the indictment of 69 people, with trials or pleas resulting in 25 being found guilty and incarcerated, many of whom were Nixon's top administration officials.\n\nThe affair began with the arrest of five men for breaking and entering into the DNC headquarters at the Watergate complex on Saturday, June 17, 1972. The FBI investigated and discovered a connection between cash found on the burglars and a slush fund used by the Committee for the Re-Election of the President (CREEP), the official organization of Nixon's campaign. In July 1973, evidence mounted against the President's staff, including testimony provided by former staff members in an investigation conducted by the Senate Watergate Committee. The investigation revealed that President Nixon had a tape-recording system in his offices and that he had recorded many conversations. \n\nAfter a protracted series of bitter court battles, the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously ruled that the president was obligated to release the tapes to government investigators, and he eventually complied. These audio recordings implicated the president, revealing he had attempted to cover up activities that took place after the break-in and to use federal officials to deflect the investigation. \nFacing near-certain impeachment in the House of Representatives and equally certain conviction by the Senate, Nixon resigned the presidency on August 9, 1974. On September 8, 1974, his successor, Gerald Ford, pardoned him.\n\nThe name \"Watergate\" and the suffix \"-gate\" have since become synonymous with political scandals in the United States and elsewhere. \n\nWiretapping of the Democratic Party's headquarters \n\nIn January 1972, G. Gordon Liddy, general counsel to the Committee for the Re-Election of the President (CREEP), presented a campaign intelligence plan to CREEP's Acting Chairman Jeb Stuart Magruder, Attorney General John Mitchell, and Presidential Counsel John Dean, that involved extensive illegal activities against the Democratic Party. According to Dean, this marked \"the opening scene of the worst political scandal of the twentieth century and the beginning of the end of the Nixon presidency.\" \n\nMitchell viewed the plan as unrealistic. Two months later, he was alleged to have approved a reduced version of the plan, to include burgling the Democratic National Committee's (DNC) headquarters at the Watergate Complex in Washington, D.C.—ostensibly to photograph campaign documents and install listening devices in telephones. Liddy was nominally in charge of the operation, but has since insisted that he was duped by Dean and at least two of his subordinates. These included former CIA officers E. Howard Hunt and James McCord, then-CREEP Security Coordinator (John Mitchell had by then resigned as Attorney General to become chairman of the CREEP).[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/watergate/stories/mitchobit.htm Lawrence Meyer, \"John N. Mitchell, Principal in Watergate, Dies at 75\"], The Washington Post, November 10, 1988\n\nIn May, McCord assigned former FBI agent Alfred C. Baldwin III to carry out the wiretapping and monitor the telephone conversations afterward.[http://spartacus-educational.com/JFKbaldwinA.htm Alfred C. Baldwin] Spartacus Educational. Retrieved May 17, 2015 McCord testified that he selected Baldwin's name from a registry published by the Society of Former Special Agents of the FBI to work for the Committee to Re-elect the President. Baldwin first served as bodyguard to Martha Mitchell, the wife of John Mitchell, who was living in Washington. Baldwin accompanied Martha Mitchell to Chicago. Martha did not like Baldwin and described him as the \"gauchest character I've ever met.\" The Committee replaced Baldwin with another security man.\n\nOn May 11, McCord arranged for Baldwin, whom investigative reporter Jim Hougan described as \"somehow special and perhaps well known to McCord,\" to stay at the Howard Johnson's motel across the street from the Watergate complex. The room 419 was booked in the name of McCord’s company. At behest of G. Gordon Liddy and E. Howard Hunt, McCord and his team of burglars prepared for their first Watergate break-in, which began on May 28.\n\nTwo phones inside the offices of the DNC headquarters were said to have been wiretapped. One was the phone of Robert Spencer Oliver, who at the time was working as the executive director of the Association of State Democratic Chairmen, and the other was the phone of DNC secretary Larry O'Brien. The FBI found no evidence that O'Brien's phone was bugged. However, it was determined that an effective listening device had been installed in Oliver's phone.\n\nDespite the success in installing the listening devices, the Committee agents soon determined that they needed to be repaired. They planned a second \"burglary\" in order to take care of this.\n\nShortly after midnight on June 17, 1972, Frank Wills, a security guard at the Watergate Complex, noticed tape covering the latches on some of the doors in the complex leading from the underground parking garage to several offices (allowing the doors to close but remain unlocked). He removed the tape, and thought nothing of it. He returned an hour later and, having discovered that someone had retaped the locks, Wills called the police. Five men were discovered inside the DNC office and arrested. They were Virgilio González, Bernard Barker, James McCord, Eugenio Martínez, and Frank Sturgis, who were charged with attempted burglary and attempted interception of telephone and other communications. On September 15, a grand jury indicted them, as well as Hunt and Liddy, for conspiracy, burglary, and violation of federal wiretapping laws. The five burglars who broke into the office were tried by a jury, Judge John Sirica officiating, and were convicted on January 30, 1973. \n\nCover-up and its unraveling \n\nInitial cover-up \n\nWithin hours of the burglars' arrest, the FBI discovered the name of E. Howard Hunt in the address books of Barker and Martínez. Nixon administration officials were concerned because Hunt and Liddy were also involved in a separate secret activity known as the White House Plumbers, which was set up to stop security \"leaks\" and to investigate other sensitive security matters. Dean would later testify he was ordered by top Nixon aide John Ehrlichman to \"deep six\" the contents of Howard Hunt's White House safe. Ehrlichman subsequently denied that. In the end, the evidence from Hunt's safe was destroyed (in separate operations) by Dean and the FBI's Acting Director, L. Patrick Gray.\n\nNixon's own reaction to the break-in, at least initially, was one of skepticism. Watergate prosecutor James Neal was sure Nixon had not known in advance of the break-in. As evidence, he cited a June 23 taped conversation between the President and his Chief of Staff, H. R. Haldeman, in which Nixon asked, \"Who was the asshole who ordered it?\" But Nixon subsequently ordered Haldeman to have the CIA block the FBI's investigation into the source of the funding for the burglary.\n\nA few days later, Nixon's Press Secretary, Ron Ziegler, described the event as \"a third-rate burglary attempt.\" On August 29, at a news conference, President Nixon stated Dean had conducted a thorough investigation of the matter, when in fact Dean had not conducted any investigation at all. Nixon also said, \"I can say categorically that... no one in the White House staff, no one in this Administration, presently employed, was involved in this very bizarre incident.\" On September 15, Nixon congratulated Dean, saying, \"The way you've handled it, it seems to me, has been very skillful, because you—putting your fingers in the dikes every time that leaks have sprung here and sprung there.\"\n\nMoney trail \n\nOn June 19, 1972, the press reported that one of the Watergate burglars was a Republican Party security aide. Former Attorney General John Mitchell, who at the time was the head of the Nixon re-election campaign (CRP), denied any involvement with the Watergate break-in or knowledge of the five burglars. On August 1, a $25,000 cashier's check earmarked for the Nixon re-election campaign was found in the bank account of one of the Watergate burglars. Further investigation by the FBI would reveal the team had thousands of dollars more to support their travel and expenses in the months leading up to their arrests. Examination of their funds showed a link to the finance committee of CRP.\n\nSeveral donations (totaling $86,000) were made by individuals who thought they were making private donations by certified and cashier's checks for the President's re-election. Investigators' examination of the bank records of a Miami company run by Watergate burglar Barker revealed an account controlled by him personally had deposited a check and then transferred it (through the Federal Reserve Check Clearing System).\n\nThe banks that had originated the checks were keen to ensure the depository institution used by Barker had acted properly in ensuring the checks had been received and endorsed by the check's payee, before its acceptance for deposit in Bernard Barker's account. Only in this way would the issuing banks not be held liable for the unauthorized and improper release of funds from their customers' accounts.\n\nThe investigation by the FBI, which cleared Barker's bank of fiduciary malfeasance, led to the direct implication of members of the CRP, to whom the checks had been delivered. Those individuals were the Committee bookkeeper and its treasurer, Hugh Sloan.\n\nAs a private organization, the Committee followed normal business practice in allowing only duly authorized individual(s) to accept and endorse checks on behalf of the Committee. No financial institution could accept or process a check on behalf of the Committee unless a duly authorized individual endorsed it. The checks deposited into Barker's bank account were endorsed by Committee treasurer Hugh Sloan, who was authorized by the Finance Committee. However, once Sloan had endorsed a check made payable to the Committee, he had a legal and fiduciary responsibility to see that the check was deposited only into the accounts named on the check. Sloan failed to do that. When confronted with the potential charge of federal bank fraud, he revealed that Committee deputy director Jeb Magruder and finance director Maurice Stans had directed him to give the money to G. Gordon Liddy.\n\nLiddy, in turn, gave the money to Barker, and attempted to hide its origin. Barker tried to disguise the funds by depositing them into accounts in banks outside of the United States. What Barker, Liddy, and Sloan did not know was that the complete record of all such transactions were held for roughly six months. Barker's use of foreign banks in April and May 1972, to deposit checks and withdraw the funds via cashier's checks and money orders, resulted in the banks keeping the entire transaction records until October and November 1972.\n\nAll five Watergate burglars were directly or indirectly tied to the 1972 CRP, thus causing Judge Sirica to suspect a conspiracy involving higher-echelon government officials. \n\nOn September 29, 1972, the press reported that John Mitchell, while serving as Attorney General, controlled a secret Republican fund used to finance intelligence-gathering against the Democrats. On October 10, the FBI reported the Watergate break-in was part of a massive campaign of political spying and sabotage on behalf of the Nixon re-election committee. Despite these revelations, Nixon's campaign was never seriously jeopardized; on November 7, the President was re-elected in one of the biggest landslides in American political history.\n\nRole of the media \n\nThe connection between the break-in and the re-election committee was highlighted by media coverage—in particular, investigative coverage by The Washington Post, Time, and The New York Times. The coverage dramatically increased publicity and consequent political repercussions. Relying heavily upon anonymous sources, Post reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein uncovered information suggesting that knowledge of the break-in, and attempts to cover it up, led deeply into the upper reaches of the Justice Department, FBI, CIA, and the White House. Woodward and Bernstein interviewed Judy Hoback Miller, the bookkeeper for Nixon, who revealed to them information about the mishandling of funds and records being destroyed. \n\nChief among the Post's anonymous sources was an individual whom Woodward and Bernstein had nicknamed Deep Throat; 33 years later, in 2005, the informant was identified as William Mark Felt, Sr., deputy director of the FBI during that period of the 1970s, something Woodward later confirmed. Felt met secretly with Woodward several times, telling him of Howard Hunt's involvement with the Watergate break-in, and that the White House staff regarded the stakes in Watergate extremely high. Felt warned Woodward that the FBI wanted to know where he and other reporters were getting their information, as they were uncovering a wider web of crimes than the FBI first disclosed. All of the secret meetings between Woodward and \"Deep Throat\" (W. Mark Felt) took place at an underground parking garage somewhere in Rosslyn over a period from June 1972 to January 1973. Prior to resigning from the FBI on June 22, 1973, Felt also anonymously planted leaks about Watergate to Time magazine, the Washington Daily News and other publications.[http://www.miamiherald.com/2012/02/14/v-fullstory/2639954/the-profound-lies-of-deep-throat.html \"The profound lies of Deep Throat\"], The Miami Herald, February 14, 2012 \n\nDuring this early period, most of the media failed to grasp the full implications of the scandal, and concentrated reporting on other topics related to the 1972 presidential election. After the reporting that one of the convicted burglars wrote to Judge Sirica alleging a high-level cover-up, the media shifted its focus. Time magazine described Nixon as undergoing \"daily hell and very little trust.\" The distrust between the press and the Nixon administration was mutual and greater than usual due to lingering dissatisfaction with events from the Vietnam War. At the same time, public distrust of the media was polled at more than 40%.\n\nNixon and top administration officials discussed using government agencies to \"get\" (or retaliate against) those they perceived as hostile media organizations. The discussions had precedent. At the request of Nixon's White House in 1969, the FBI tapped the phones of five reporters. In 1971, the White House requested an audit of the tax return of the editor of Newsday, after he wrote a series of articles about the financial dealings of Charles Rebozo, a friend of Nixon. \n\nThe Administration and its supporters accused the media of making \"wild accusations,\" putting too much emphasis on the story, and of having a liberal bias against the Administration. Nixon said in a May 1974 interview with supporter Baruch Korff that if he had followed the liberal policies that he thought the media preferred, \"Watergate would have been a blip.\" The media noted that most of the reporting turned out to be accurate; the competitive nature of the media guaranteed widespread coverage of the far-reaching political scandal. Applications to journalism schools reached an all-time high in 1974.\n\nScandal Escalates \n\nRather than ending with the conviction and sentencing to prison of the five Watergate burglars on January 30, 1973, the investigation into the break-in and the Nixon Administration's involvement grew broader. Nixon's conversations in late March and all of April 1973 revealed that not only did he know he needed to remove Haldeman, Ehrlichman, and Dean to gain distance from them, but he had to do so in a way that was least likely to incriminate him and his presidency. Nixon created a new conspiracy—to effect a cover-up of the cover-up—which began in late March 1973 and became fully formed in May and June 1973, operating until his presidency ended on August 9, 1974. On March 23, 1973, Judge Sirica read the court a letter from Watergate burglar James McCord, who alleged that perjury had been committed in the Watergate trial, and defendants had been pressured to remain silent. Trying to make them talk, Sirica gave Hunt and two burglars provisional sentences of up to 40 years.\n\nOn March 28, on Nixon's orders, aide John Ehrlichman told Attorney General Richard Kleindienst that nobody in the White House had prior knowledge of the burglary. On April 13, Magruder told U.S. attorneys that he had perjured himself during the burglars' trial, and implicated John Dean and John Mitchell.\n\nJohn Dean believed that he, Mitchell, Ehrlichman and Haldeman could go to the prosecutors, tell the truth, and save the presidency. Dean wanted to protect the presidency and have his four closest men take the fall for telling the truth. During the critical meeting with Dean and Nixon on April 15, 1973, Dean was totally unaware of the president's depth of knowledge and involvement in the Watergate cover-up. It was during this meeting that Dean felt that he was being recorded. He wondered if this was due to the way Nixon was speaking, as if he were trying to prod attendees; recollections of earlier conversations about fundraising. Dean mentioned this observation while testifying to the Senate Committee on Watergate, exposing the thread of what were taped conversations that would unravel the fabric of Watergate. \n\nTwo days later, Dean told Nixon that he had been cooperating with the U.S. attorneys. On that same day, U.S. attorneys told Nixon that Haldeman, Ehrlichman, Dean and other White House officials were implicated in the cover-up. \n\nOn April 30, Nixon asked for the resignation of Haldeman and Ehrlichman, two of his most influential aides. They were later both indicted, convicted, and ultimately sentenced to prison. He asked for the resignation of Attorney General Kleindienst, to ensure no one could claim that his innocent friendship with Haldeman and Ehrlichman could be construed as a conflict. He fired White House Counsel John Dean, who went on to testify before the Senate Watergate Committee and said that he believed and suspected the conversations in the Oval Office were being taped. This information became the bombshell that helped force Richard Nixon to resign rather than be impeached. \n\nWriting from prison for New West and New York magazines in 1977, Ehrlichman claimed Nixon had offered him a large sum of money, which he declined. \n\nThe President announced the resignations in an address to the American people:\n\nOn the same day, Nixon appointed a new attorney general, Elliot Richardson, and gave him authority to designate a special counsel for the Watergate investigation who would be independent of the regular Justice Department hierarchy. In May 1973, Richardson named Archibald Cox to the position.\n\nSenate Watergate hearings and revelation of the Watergate tapes \n\nOn February 7, 1973, the United States Senate voted 77–0 to approve Senate Resolution and establish a select committee to investigate Watergate, with Sam Ervin named chairman the next day.[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,942983-1,00.html \"WATERGATE RETROSPECTIVE: THE DECLINE AND FALL\"], Time, August 19, 1974 The hearings held by the Senate committee, in which Dean and other former administration officials testified, were broadcast from May 17 to August 7, 1973. The three major networks of the time agreed to take turns covering the hearings live, each network thus maintaining coverage of the hearings every third day, starting with ABC on May 17 and ending with NBC on August 7. An estimated 85% of Americans with television sets tuned into at least one portion of the hearings. \n\nOn Friday, July 13, 1973, during a preliminary interview, deputy minority counsel Donald Sanders asked White House assistant Alexander Butterfield if there was any type of recording system in the White House. \nButterfield said he was reluctant to answer, but finally stated there was a new system in the White House that automatically recorded everything in the Oval Office, the Cabinet Room and others, as well as Nixon's private office in the Old Executive Office Building.\n\nOn Monday, July 16, 1973, in front of a live, televised audience, chief minority counsel Fred Thompson asked Butterfield whether he was \"aware of the installation of any listening devices in the Oval Office of the President.\" Butterfield's revelation of the taping system transformed the Watergate investigation. Cox immediately subpoenaed the tapes, as did the Senate, but Nixon refused to release them, citing his executive privilege as president, and ordered Cox to drop his subpoena. Cox refused. \n\n\"Saturday Night Massacre\" \n\nOn October 20, 1973, after Cox refused to drop the subpoena, Nixon commanded Attorney General Elliot Richardson, and then Richardson's deputy, William Ruckelshaus, to fire the special prosecutor. Richardson and Ruckelshaus both refused to fire Cox and resigned in protest. Nixon's search for someone in the Justice Department willing to fire Cox ended with the Solicitor General Robert Bork. Though Bork claims to believe Nixon's order was valid and appropriate, he considered resigning to avoid being \"perceived as a man who did the President's bidding to save my job.\" Bork carried out the presidential order and dismissed the special prosecutor.\n\nThese actions met considerable public criticism. Responding to the allegations of possible wrongdoing, in front of 400 Associated Press managing editors on November 17, 1973, Nixon stated emphatically, \"I'm not a crook.\" He needed to allow Bork to appoint a new special prosecutor; Bork chose Leon Jaworski to continue the investigation.\n\nLegal action against Nixon Administration members \n\nOn March 1, 1974, a grand jury in Washington, D.C., indicted several former aides of President Nixon, who became known as the \"Watergate Seven\": Haldeman, Ehrlichman, Mitchell, Charles Colson, Gordon C. Strachan, Robert Mardian and Kenneth Parkinson, for conspiring to hinder the Watergate investigation. The grand jury secretly named President Nixon as an unindicted co-conspirator. The special prosecutor dissuaded them from an indictment of Nixon, arguing that a President can only be indicted after he leaves office. John Dean, Jeb Stuart Magruder, and other figures had already pleaded guilty. On April 5, 1974, Dwight Chapin, the former Nixon appointments secretary, was convicted of lying to the grand jury. Two days later, the same grand jury indicted Ed Reinecke, the Republican lieutenant governor of California, on three charges of perjury before the Senate committee.\n\nRelease of the transcripts \n\nThe Nixon administration struggled to decide what materials to release. All parties involved agreed that all pertinent information should be released. Whether to release unedited profanity and vulgarity divided his advisers. His legal team favored releasing the tapes unedited, while Press Secretary Ron Ziegler preferred using an edited version where \"expletive deleted\" would replace the raw material. After several weeks of debate, they decided to release an edited version. Nixon announced the release of the transcripts in a speech to the nation on April 29, 1974. Nixon noted that any audio pertinent to national security information could be redacted from the released tapes. \n\nInitially, Nixon gained a positive reaction for his speech. As people read the transcripts over the next couple of weeks, however, former supporters among the public, media and political community called for Nixon's resignation or impeachment. Vice President Gerald Ford said, \"While it may be easy to delete characterization from the printed page, we cannot delete characterization from people's minds with a wave of the hand.\" The Senate Republican Leader Hugh Scott said the transcripts revealed a \"deplorable, disgusting, shabby, and immoral\" performance on the part of the President and his former aides. The House Republican Leader John Jacob Rhodes agreed with Scott, and Rhodes recommended that if Nixon's position continued to deteriorate, he \"ought to consider resigning as a possible option.\" \n\nThe editors of The Chicago Tribune, a newspaper that had supported Nixon, wrote, \"He is humorless to the point of being inhumane. He is devious. He is vacillating. He is profane. He is willing to be led. He displays dismaying gaps in knowledge. He is suspicious of his staff. His loyalty is minimal.\" The Providence Journal wrote, \"Reading the transcripts is an emetic experience; one comes away feeling unclean.\" This newspaper continued, that, while the transcripts may not have revealed an indictable offense, they showed Nixon contemptuous of the United States, its institutions, and its people. According to Time magazine, the Republican Party leaders in the Western United States felt that while there remained a significant number of Nixon loyalists in the party, the majority believed that Nixon should step down as quickly as possible. They were disturbed by the bad language and the coarse, vindictive tone of the conversations in the transcripts. \n\nSupreme Court \n\nThe issue of access to the tapes went to the US Supreme Court. On July 24, 1974, in United States v. Nixon, the Court, which did not include the recused Justice William Rehnquist (who had recently been appointed by Nixon and had served as Assistant Attorney General of the Office of Legal Counsel in the Nixon Justice Department), ruled unanimously that claims of executive privilege over the tapes were void. They ordered the president to release them to the special prosecutor. On July 30, 1974, President Nixon complied with the order and released the subpoenaed tapes for the public.\n\nRelease of the tapes \n\nThe tapes revealed several crucial conversations that took place between the President and his counsel, John Dean, on March 21, 1973. In this conversation, Dean summarized many aspects of the Watergate case, and focused on the subsequent cover-up, describing it as a \"cancer on the presidency.\" The burglary team was being paid hush money for their silence and Dean stated: \"That's the most troublesome post-thing, because Bob [Haldeman] is involved in that; John [Ehrlichman] is involved in that; I am involved in that; Mitchell is involved in that. And that's an obstruction of justice.\" Dean continued, stating that Howard Hunt was blackmailing the White House, demanding money immediately; President Nixon replied that the blackmail money should be paid: \"…just looking at the immediate problem, don't you have to have – handle Hunt's financial situation damn soon? […] you've got to keep the cap on the bottle that much, in order to have any options.\" \n\nAt the time of the initial congressional impeachment, it was not known if Nixon had known and approved of the payments to the Watergate defendants earlier than this conversation. Nixon's conversation with Haldeman on August 1, 1972, is one of several that establishes he did. Nixon states: \"Well…they have to be paid. That's all there is to that. They have to be paid.\" During the congressional debate on impeachment, some believed that impeachment required a criminally indictable offense. President Nixon's agreement to make the blackmail payments was regarded as an affirmative act to obstruct justice. \n\nOn December 7, 1973, investigators found that an 18½ minute portion of one recorded tape had been erased. Rose Mary Woods, Nixon's longtime personal secretary, said she had accidentally erased the tape by pushing the wrong pedal on her tape player when answering the phone. The press ran photos of the set-up, showing that it was unlikely for Woods to answer the phone while keeping her foot on the pedal. Later forensic analysis in 2003 determined that the tape had been erased in several segments – at least five, and perhaps as many as nine. \n\nFinal investigations and resignation \n\nNixon's position was becoming increasingly precarious. On February 6, 1974, the House of Representatives approved giving the Judiciary Committee authority to investigate impeachment of the President. On July 27, 1974, the House Judiciary Committee voted 27–11 to recommend the first article of impeachment against the president: obstruction of justice. The House recommended the second article, abuse of power, on July 29, 1974. The next day, on July 30, 1974, the House recommended the third article: contempt of Congress. On August 20, 1974, the House authorized the printing of the Committee report H. Rept. 93-1305, which included the text of the resolution impeaching President Nixon and set forth articles of impeachment against him. \n\n\"Smoking Gun\" tape \n\nOn August 5, 1974, the White House released a previously unknown audio tape from June 23, 1972. Recorded only a few days after the break-in, it documented the initial stages of the cover-up: it revealed Nixon, Swingle, and Haldeman meeting in the Oval Office and formulating a plan to block investigations by having the CIA falsely claim to the FBI that national security was involved.\n\nHaldeman introduced the topic as follows:\n…the Democratic break-in thing, we're back to the–in the, the problem area because the FBI is not under control, because Gray doesn't exactly know how to control them, and they have… their investigation is now leading into some productive areas […] and it goes in some directions we don't want it to go.\n\nAfter explaining how the money from CRP was traced to the burglars, Haldeman explained to Nixon the cover-up plan: \"the way to handle this now is for us to have Walters [CIA] call Pat Gray [FBI] and just say, 'Stay the hell out of this …this is ah, business here we don't want you to go any further on it.\n\nPresident Nixon approved the plan, and after he was given more information about the involvement of his campaign in the break-in, he told Haldeman: \"All right, fine, I understand it all. We won't second-guess Mitchell and the rest.\" Returning to the use of the CIA to obstruct the FBI, he instructed Haldeman: \"You call them in. Good. Good deal. Play it tough. That's the way they play it and that's the way we are going to play it.\" \n\nNixon denied that this constituted an obstruction of justice, as his instructions ultimately resulted in the CIA truthfully reporting to the FBI that there were no national security issues. Nixon urged the FBI to press forward with the investigation when they expressed concern about interference. \n\nBefore the release of this tape, President Nixon had denied any involvement in the scandal. He claimed that there were no political motivations in his instructions to the CIA, and claimed he had no knowledge before March 21, 1973, of involvement by senior campaign officials such as John Mitchell. The contents of this tape persuaded Nixon's own lawyers, Fred Buzhardt and James St. Clair, that, \"The tape proved that the President had lied to the nation, to his closest aides, and to his own lawyers - for more than two years.\" The tape, which was referred to as a \"smoking gun\" by Barber Conable, proved that Nixon had been involved in the cover-up from the beginning.\n\nIn the week before Nixon's resignation, Ehrlichman and Haldeman tried unsuccessfully to get Nixon to grant them pardons—which he had promised them before their April 1973 resignations. \n\nResignation \n\nThe release of the \"smoking gun\" tape destroyed Nixon politically. The ten congressmen who had voted against all three articles of impeachment in the House Judiciary Committee announced they would all support impeachment when the vote was taken in the full House.\n\nOn the night of August 7, 1974, Senators Barry Goldwater and Hugh Scott and Congressman John Jacob Rhodes met with Nixon in the Oval Office and told him that his support in Congress had all but disappeared. Rhodes told Nixon that he would face certain impeachment when the articles came up for vote in the full House. Goldwater and Scott told the president that there were enough votes in the Senate to convict him, and that no more than 15 Senators were willing to vote for acquittal.\n\nRealizing that he had no chance of staying in office, Nixon decided to resign. In a nationally televised address from the Oval Office on the evening of August 8, 1974, the president said, in part:\n\nThe morning that his resignation took effect, the President, with Mrs. Nixon and their family, said farewell to the White House staff in the East Room. A helicopter carried them from the White House to Andrews Air Force Base in Maryland. Nixon later wrote that he thought, \"As the helicopter moved on to Andrews, I found myself thinking not of the past, but of the future. What could I do now?\" At Andrews, he and his family boarded Air Force One to El Toro Marine Corps Air Station in California, and then were transported to his home in San Clemente.\n\nPresident Ford's pardon of Nixon \n\nWith President Nixon's resignation, Congress dropped its impeachment proceedings. Criminal prosecution was still a possibility both on the federal and state level. Nixon was succeeded by Vice President Gerald Ford as President, who on September 8, 1974, issued a full and unconditional pardon of Nixon, immunizing him from prosecution for any crimes he had \"committed or may have committed or taken part in\" as president. In a televised broadcast to the nation, Ford explained that he felt the pardon was in the best interest of the country. He said that the Nixon family's situation \"is an American tragedy in which we all have played a part. It could go on and on and on, or someone must write the end to it. I have concluded that only I can do that, and if I can, I must.\" \n\nNixon proclaimed his innocence until his death in 1994. In his official response to the pardon, he said that he \"...was wrong in not acting more decisively and more forthrightly in dealing with Watergate, particularly when it reached the stage of judicial proceedings and grew from a political scandal into a national tragedy.\" \n\nSome commentators have argued that pardoning Nixon contributed to President Ford's loss of the presidential election of 1976. Allegations of a secret deal made with Ford, promising a pardon in return for Nixon's resignation, led Ford to testify before the House Judiciary Committee on October 17, 1974. \n\nIn his autobiography A Time to Heal, Ford wrote about a meeting he had with Nixon's Chief of Staff, Alexander Haig. Haig was explaining what he and Nixon's staff thought were Nixon's only options. He could try to ride out the impeachment and fight against conviction in the Senate all the way, or he could resign. His options for resigning were to delay his resignation until further along in the impeachment process, to try and settle for a censure vote in Congress, or to pardon himself and then resign. Haig told Ford that some of Nixon's staff suggested that Nixon could agree to resign in return for an agreement that Ford would pardon him.\n\nAftermath \n\nFinal legal actions and effect on the law profession \n\nCharles Colson pleaded guilty to charges concerning the Daniel Ellsberg case; in exchange, the indictment against him for covering up the activities of the Committee to Re-elect the President was dropped, as it was against Strachan. The remaining five members of the Watergate Seven indicted in March went on trial in October 1974. On January 1, 1975, all but Parkinson were found guilty. In 1976, the U.S. Court of Appeals ordered a new trial for Mardian; subsequently, all charges against him were dropped.\n\nHaldeman, Ehrlichman, and Mitchell exhausted their appeals in 1977. Ehrlichman entered prison in 1976, followed by the other two in 1977. Since Nixon and many senior officials involved in Watergate were lawyers, the scandal severely tarnished the public image of the legal profession. \n\nThe Watergate scandal resulted in 69 government officials being charged and 48 being found guilty, including:\n#John N. Mitchell, Attorney General of the United States who resigned to become Director of Committee to Re-elect the President, convicted of perjury about his involvment in the Watergate break-in. Served 19 months of a one- to four-year sentence.\n#Richard Kleindienst, Attorney General, convicted of \"refusing to answer questions\" (contempt of court); given one month in jail. \n#Jeb Stuart Magruder, Deputy Director of Committee to Re-elect the President, pleaded guilty to one count of conspiracy to the burglary, and was sentenced to 10 months to four years in prison, of which he served 7 months before being paroled. \n#Frederick C. LaRue, Advisor to John Mitchell, convicted of obstruction of justice. He served four and a half months.\n#H. R. Haldeman, Chief of Staff for Nixon, convicted of conspiracy to the burglary, obstruction of justice, and perjury. Served 18 months in prison. \n#John Ehrlichman, Counsel to Nixon, convicted of conspiracy to the burglary, obstruction of justice, and perjury. Served 18 months in prison. \n#Egil Krogh, aide to John Ehrlichman, sentenced to six months.\n#John W. Dean III, counsel to Nixon, convicted of obstruction of justice, later reduced to felony offenses and sentenced to time already served, which totaled 4 months.\n#Dwight L. Chapin, deputy assistant to Nixon, convicted of perjury.\n#Herbert W. Kalmbach, personal attorney to Nixon, convicted of illegal campaigning.\n#Charles W. Colson, special counsel to Nixon, convicted of obstruction of justice. Served 7 months in Federal Maxwell Prison.\n#Herbert L. Porter, aide to the Committee to Re-elect the President. Convicted of perjury.\n... and the actual Watergate \"Burglary\" team:\n#G. Gordon Liddy, Special Investigations Group, convicted of masterminding the burglary, original sentence of up to 20 years in prison. Served 4½ years in federal prison.\n#E. Howard Hunt, Security consultant, convicted of masterminding and overseeing the burglary, original sentence of up to 35 years in prison. Served 33 months in prison. \n#James W. McCord Jr., convicted of six charges of burglary, conspiracy and wiretapping. Served 2 months in prison.\n#Virgilio Gonzalez, convicted of burglary, original sentence of up to 40 years in prison. Served 13 months in prison.\n#Bernard Barker, convicted of burglary, original sentence of up to 40 years in prison. Served 18 months in prison. \n#Eugenio Martinez, convicted of burglary, original sentence of up to 40 years in prison. Served 15 months in prison.\n#Frank Sturgis, convicted of burglary, original sentence of up to 40 years in prison. Served 10 months in prison.\n\nTo defuse public demand for direct federal regulation of lawyers (as opposed to leaving it in the hands of state bar associations or courts), the American Bar Association (ABA) launched two major reforms. First, the ABA decided that its existing Model Code of Professional Responsibility (promulgated 1969) was a failure. In 1983 it replaced it with the Model Rules of Professional Conduct. The MRPC have been adopted in part or in whole by 49 states (and is being considered by the last one, California). Its preamble contains an emphatic reminder that the legal profession can remain self-governing only if lawyers behave properly. Second, the ABA promulgated a requirement that law students at ABA-approved law schools take a course in professional responsibility (which means they must study the MRPC). The requirement remains in effect.\n\nOn June 24 and 25, 1975, Nixon gave secret testimony to a grand jury. According to news reports at the time, Nixon answered questions about the 18½-minute tape gap, altering White House tape transcripts turned over to the House Judiciary Committee, using the Internal Revenue Service to harass political enemies, and a $100,000 contribution from billionaire Howard Hughes. Aided by the Public Citizen Litigation Group, the historian Stanley Kutler, who has written several books about Nixon and Watergate and had successfully sued for the 1996 public release of the Nixon White House tapes, sued for release of the transcripts of the Nixon grand jury testimony.\n\nOn July 29, 2011, U.S. District Judge Royce Lamberth granted Kutler's request, saying historical interests trumped privacy, especially considering that Nixon and other key figures were deceased, and most of the surviving figures had testified under oath, have been written about, or were interviewed. The transcripts were not immediately released pending the government's decision on whether to appeal.[http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/07/29/us-nixon-watergate-idUSTRE76S4ZH20110729 \"Nixon's secret Watergate testimony ordered released\"], Reuters, July 29, 2011 They were released in their entirety on November 10, 2011, although the names of people still alive were redacted. \n\nTexas A&M University–Central Texas professor Luke Nichter wrote the chief judge of the federal court in Washington to release hundreds of pages of sealed records of the Watergate Seven. In June 2012 the U.S. Department of Justice wrote the court that it would not object to their release with some exceptions. On November 2, 2012, Watergate trial records for G. Gordon Liddy and James McCord were ordered unsealed by Federal Judge Royce Lamberth. \n\nPolitical and cultural reverberations \n\nAccording to Thomas J. Johnson, a professor of journalism at University of Texas at Austin, Secretary of State Henry Kissinger predicted during Nixon's final days that history would remember Nixon as a great president and that Watergate would be relegated to a \"minor footnote.\" \n\nWhen Congress investigated the scope of the president's legal powers, it belatedly found that consecutive presidential administrations had declared the United States to be in a continuous open-ended state of emergency since 1950. Congress enacted the National Emergencies Act in 1976 to regulate such declarations. The Watergate scandal left such an impression on the national and international consciousness that many scandals since then have been labeled with the suffix \"-gate\".\n\nDisgust with the revelations about Watergate, the Republican Party, and Nixon strongly affected results of the November 1974 Senate and House elections, which took place three months after Nixon's resignation. The Democrats gained five seats in the Senate and forty-nine in the House (the newcomers were nicknamed \"Watergate Babies\"). Congress passed legislation that changed campaign financing, to amend the Freedom of Information Act, as well as to require financial disclosures by key government officials (via the Ethics in Government Act). Other types of disclosures, such as releasing recent income tax forms, became expected albeit not legally required. Presidents since Franklin D. Roosevelt had recorded many of their conversations but the practice purportedly ended after Watergate.\n\nFord's pardon of Nixon played a major role in his defeat in the 1976 presidential election against Jimmy Carter.\n\nIn 1977, Nixon arranged an interview with British journalist David Frost in the hopes of improving his legacy. Based on a previous interview in 1968, he believed that Frost would be an easy interviewer and was taken aback by Frost's incisive questions. The interview displayed the entire scandal to the American people, and Nixon formally apologized, but his legacy remained tarnished. \n\nIn the aftermath of Watergate, \"follow the money\" became part of the American lexicon and is widely believed to have been uttered by Mark Felt to Woodward and Bernstein. The phrase was never used in the 1974 book All The President's Men and did not become associated with it until the movie of the same name was released in 1976. \n\nPurpose of the break-in \n\nDespite the enormous impact of the Watergate scandal, the purpose of the break-in of the DNC offices has never been conclusively established. Records from the United States v. Liddy trial, made public in 2013, showed that four of the five burglars testified that they were told the campaign operation hoped to find evidence that linked Cuban funding to Democratic campaigns. The longtime hypothesis suggests that the target of the break-in was the offices of Larry O'Brien, the DNC Chairman. However, O'Brien's name was not on Alfred C. Baldwin III's list of targets that was released in 2013. Among those listed were senior DNC official R. Spencer Oliver, Oliver's secretary Ida \"Maxine\" Wells, co-worker Robert Allen and secretary Barbara Kennedy.\n\nBased on these revelations, Texas A&M history professor Luke Nichter, who had successfully petitioned for the release of the information, argued that Woodward and Bernstein were incorrect in concluding, based largely on Watergate burglar James McCord's word, that the purpose of the break-in was to bug O'Brien's phone to gather political and financial intelligence on the Democrats. Instead, Nichter sided with late journalist J. Anthony Lukas of the New York Times, who had concluded that the committee was seeking to find evidence linking the Democrats to prostitution, as Oliver's office had frequently been used to arrange such meetings. However, Nichter acknowledged that Woodward and Bernstein's theory of O'Brien as the target could not be debunked unless information was released about what Baldwin heard in his bugging of conversations.\n\nIn 1968, O'Brien was appointed by Vice President Hubert Humphrey to serve as the national director of Humphrey's presidential campaign and, separately, by Howard Hughes to serve as Hughes' public-policy lobbyist in Washington. O'Brien was elected national chairman of the DNC in 1968 and 1970. In late 1971, the president's brother, Donald Nixon, was collecting intelligence for his brother at the time and asked John H. Meier, an adviser to Howard Hughes, about O'Brien. In 1956, Donald Nixon had borrowed $205,000 from Howard Hughes and had never repaid the loan. The loan's existence surfaced during the 1960 presidential election campaign, embarrassing Richard Nixon and becoming a political liability. According to author Donald M. Bartlett, Richard Nixon would do whatever was necessary to prevent another family embarrassment. From 1968 to 1970, Hughes withdrew nearly half a million dollars from the Texas National Bank of Commerce for contributions to both Democrats and Republicans, including presidential candidates Humphrey and Nixon. Hughes wanted Donald Nixon and Meier involved but Nixon opposed this. \n\nMeier told Donald that he was sure the Democrats would win the election because they had considerable information on Richard Nixon's illicit dealings with Hughes that had never been released, and that it resided with Larry O'Brien. O'Brien, who had received $25,000 from Hughes, did not have any documents but Meier claims to have wanted Richard Nixon to think that he did. It is conjecture that Donald told his brother that Meier had given the Democrats all the damaging Hughes information and that O'Brien had the proof. According to Fred Emery, O'Brien had been a lobbyist for Hughes in a Democrat-controlled Congress, and the possibility of his finding out about Hughes' illegal contributions to the Nixon campaign was too much of a danger for Nixon to ignore. \n\nJames F. Neal, who prosecuted the Watergate 7, did not believe Nixon had ordered the break-in because of Nixon's surprised reaction when he was told about it. He cited the June 23, 1972 conversation when Nixon asked Haldeman, \"Who was the asshole that did it?\" \n\nReactions\n\nNation-states \n\n – In July 1975, according to then-Prime Minister Kukrit Pramoj of Thailand, Chairman Mao Zedong called the Watergate scandal \"the result of 'too much freedom of political expression in the U.S.'\" Mao called it \"an indication of American isolationism, which he saw as 'disastrous' for Europe.\" He further said, \"Do Americans really want to go isolationist? ... In the two world wars, the Americans came [in] very late, but all the same, they did come in. They haven't been isolationist in practice.\" \n\n – Then-leader Fidel Castro said in his December 1974 interview that, of the crimes committed by the Cuban exiles, like killings, attacks on Cuban ports, and spying, the Watergate burglaries and wiretappings were \"probably the least of [them].\" \n\n – Then-Shah of Iran Mohammad Reza Pahlavi told the press, \"I want to say quite emphatically that everything that would weaken or jeopardize the President's power to make decisions in split seconds would represent grave danger for the whole world.\"\n\n – In August 1973, then-Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka said that the scandal had \"no cancelling influence on U.S. leadership in the world.\" Tanaka further said, \"The pivotal role of the United States has not changed, so this internal affair will not be permitted to have an effect.\" In March 1975, Tanaka's successor, Takeo Miki, said at a convention of the Liberal Democratic Party, \"At the time of the Watergate issue in America, I was deeply moved by the scene in the House Judiciary Committee, where each member of the committee expressed his own or her own heart based upon the spirit of the American Constitution. It was this attitude, I think, that rescued American democracy.\" \n\n – An unnamed senior official of Foreign Affairs Ministry accused President Nixon of lacking interest in Africa and its politics and then said, \"American President is so enmeshed in domestic problems created by Watergate that foreign policy seems suddenly to have taken a .\"\n\n – Then-Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew said in August 1973, \"As one surprising revelation follows another at the Senate hearings on Watergate, it becomes increasingly clear that Washington, [D.C.], today is in no position to offer the moral or strong political and economic leadership for which its friends and allies are yearning.\" Moreover, Lee said that the scandal may have led the United States to lessen its interests and commitments in world affairs, to weaken its ability to enforce the Paris Peace Accords on Vietnam, and to not react to violations of the Accords. Lee said further that the United States \"makes the future of this peace in Indonesia an extremely bleak one with grave consequence for the contiguous states.\" Lee then blamed the scandal for economic inflation in Singapore because the Singapore dollar was pegged to the United States dollar at the time, assuming the U.S. dollar was stronger than the British pound sterling. \n\n – In the press conference of May 1973, General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev told Secretary of State Henry Kissinger how the United States handled the scandal was different from how the Communist Party of the Soviet Union had operated. There, without any opposition party back then, members of the Party had been wiretapped for any possible wrongdoing. In June 1973, when Brezhnev arrived in the United States to have a one-week meeting with President Nixon, Brezhnev told the press, \"I do not intent to refer to that matter—[the Watergate]. It would be completely indecent for me to refer to it. [...] My attitude toward Mr. Nixon is of very great respect.\" When one reporter suggested that President Nixon and his position with Brezhnev were \"weakened\" by the scandal, Brezhnev replied, \"It does not enter my mind to think whether Mr. Nixon has lost or gained any influence because of the affair.\" Then he said further that he had respected Nixon because of Nixon's \"realistic and constructive approach to Soviet Union–United States relations [...] passing from an era of confrontation to an era of negotiations between nations.\" \n\n – Talks between Nixon and Prime Minister Edward Heath may have been bugged. Heath did not publicly display his anger, with aides saying that he was unconcerned about having been bugged at the White House. According to officials, Heath commonly had notes taken of his public discussions with Nixon so a recording would not have bothered him. However, officials privately said that if private talks with Nixon were bugged, then Heath would be outraged. Even so, Heath privately was outraged over being taped without his prior knowledge. \n\n – In May 1975, after the fall of Saigon ended the Vietnam War, Secretary of State Henry Kissinger said if the scandal had not caused Nixon to resign, and the Congress did not override Nixon's veto of the War Powers Resolution, North Vietnam would not have captured South Vietnam. \n\nOthers \n\nIn January 1975, publisher of The Sacramento Union John P. McGoff said that the media overemphasized the scandal, although \"an important issue,\" overshadowing more serious topics, like declining economy and the energy crisis." ] }

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The same day, he pleaded no contest to a charge of federal income tax evasion in exchange for the dropping of charges of political corruption. He was subsequently fined $10,000, sentenced to three years probation, and disbarred by the Maryland court of appeals.\nAgnew, a Republican, was elected chief executive of Baltimore County in 1961. In 1967, he became governor of Maryland, an office he held until his nomination as the Republican vice presidential candidate in 1968. During Nixon’s successful campaign, Agnew ran on a tough law-and-order platform, and as vice president he frequently attacked opponents of the Vietnam War and liberals as being disloyal and un-American. Reelected with Nixon in 1972, Agnew resigned on October 10, 1973, after the U.S. Justice Department uncovered widespread evidence of his political corruption, including allegations that his practice of accepting bribes had continued into his tenure as U.S. vice president. He died at the age of 77 on September 17, 1996.\nUnder the process decreed by the 25th Amendment to the Constitution, President Nixon was instructed to the fill vacant office of vice president by nominating a candidate who then had to be approved by both houses of Congress. Nixon’s appointment of Representative Gerald Ford of Michigan was approved by Congress and, on December 6, Ford was sworn in. He became the 38th president of the United States on August 9, 1974, after the escalating Watergate affair caused Nixon to resign.\nRelated Videos", "Spiro T. Agnew, Point Man for Nixon Who Resigned Vice Presidency, Dies at 77 - The New York Times\nThe New York Times\nU.S. |Spiro T. Agnew, Point Man for Nixon Who Resigned Vice Presidency, Dies at 77\nSearch\nContinue reading the main story\nSpiro T. Agnew, the tart-tongued political combatant who fired up the American electorate but then had to resign as Richard M. Nixon's Vice President in the face of a kickback scandal, died on Tuesday at the age of 77.\nThe cause was acute leukemia, which had gone undiagnosed until his death, said officials of Atlantic General Hospital in Berlin, Md., where Mr. Agnew died within three hours of admission.\nA classic practitioner of the hatchet-man role often assigned to Vice Presidents, Mr. Agnew was nationally celebrated by conservatives for his alliterative rallying cries against critics of President Nixon's Vietnam War policy as ''nattering nabobs'' and ''pusillanimous pussyfooters.''\nHis political demise proved no less sensational. He had to bargain as Vice President with prosecutors to avoid prison and finally pleaded no contest to tax evasion charges in a lucrative statehouse ward-heeling scheme that dated from his public service in Maryland politics but continued to reap payoffs even to his days as Vice President.\nContinue reading the main story\nMr. Agnew's resignation on Oct. 10, 1973, capped a heated, flaring five years on the national scene where he gleefully stirred partisan emotions, from celebration to rancor. A searing crisis of Presidential succession was precipitated by his resignation and that of President Nixon less than a year later in the separate abuse-of-power scandal known as Watergate.\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\n''Of all those caught up -- on both sides -- in the American tragedy of 1973-1974, Spiro Agnew was one of the good guys,'' said Patrick J. Buchanan, the unsuccessful Republican candidate for President who mourned the disgraced Vice President today for ''raw political courage'' in having served as ''the voice of the silent majority.''\nMore than two decades removed from the collapse of the Nixon-Agnew incumbency, the national capital today was on a steadier keel, flying most flags, but not all, at half-staff in Mr. Agnew's honor, as some politicians, but not all, spoke well of him in retrospect.\n''Spiro Agnew earned the support of millions of his countrymen because he was never afraid to speak out and stand up for America,'' said Bob Dole, the Republican candidate for President.\nFormer President George Bush said of Mr. Agnew: ''He was a friend. I loved his family.''\nIn his heyday, Mr. Agnew was bolstered by the confrontational writing skills of such White House speechwriters as Mr. Buchanan, who penned ''pusillanimous pussyfooters'' and ''vicars of vacillation,'' and by William Safire, now a columnist for The New York Times, who crafted ''nattering nabobs of negativism.'' But Mr. Agnew's zest in wielding these denunciations in the cut-and-thrust of politics was all his own, electrifying and polarizing the nation.\nOne speech in particular, an excoriation of the ''instant analysis'' of political speeches by television anchors, written by Mr. Buchanan, was delivered so effectively by Mr. Agnew that it set off deep debate about responsibility in the news industry that resonates still with voters.\nFeelings of Resentment For Political Benefactor\nA resourceful man with a cadre of loyal friends in business, politics and show business, Mr. Agnew departed from Washington with special bitterness toward Mr. Nixon who, said, Mr. Agnew, ''naively believed that by throwing me to the wolves, he had appeased his enemies.''\n''I felt totally abandoned,'' he said later.\nAcross the years, he rebuffed eight efforts by Mr. Nixon to talk or meet, Nixon friends said. Mr. Agnew ultimately relented, but only to go to Mr. Nixon's funeral in 1994.\n''I decided after 20 years of resentment to put it all aside,'' he said as fellow mourners took note of the signature nattiness and pugnacious smile of the fallen politician. ''The last time I talked to him was the day I resigned.''\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\nHe had been quickly replaced as Vice President by Representative Gerald R. Ford in Mr. Nixon's effort to recover momentum. But the encompassing whirlwind of the Watergate scandal and hearings saw Mr. Nixon follow Mr. Agnew into resignation and disgrace in August 1974, as a White House political plot against the Democrats and subsequent cover-up was painfully brought to light. A national trauma shook political life to its foundations and Jimmy Carter eventually was chosen by the voters in 1976 to replace President Ford.\nAfter resigning, Mr. Agnew, who had a second successful business career as a broker of international deals, insisted that he had never been guilty of accepting bribes in Maryland from state contractors. In 1980, he wrote a book, ''Go Quietly . . . or Else,'' contending that he had accepted only campaign contributions, not bribes.\nWith his familiar flair of self-confidence back on the scene, he insisted he had been forced to resign by scheming Nixon aides, not by the 40-page specification of charges at his court plea. There, the judge had pointedly reminded Mr. Agnew that his plea of nolo contendere to tax evasion was understood as the ''full equivalent'' of a guilty plea.\nCocky and Combative, Even Amid Legal Woes\nAs events developed, however, assertions in the book freed Mr. Agnew's former lawyer, George White, from the obligation of lawyer-client privilege and he came forward to testify that Mr. Agnew had not only admitted statehouse bribery to him but also said it had been going on ''for a thousand years.''\nA Maryland taxpayers' suit then succeeded in detailing the bribery, chapter and verse. A civil court found in 1981 that Mr. Agnew solicited $147,500 in bribes during 10 years as Baltimore County Executive and Governor, accepting the final $17,500 in discreet envelopes even as he served as Vice President.\nA Maryland assistant attorney general, Diana Motz, declared: ''Spiro Agnew used the privilege of his high office for his own purposes. He violated his trust.''\nIn its rich detail of witnesses and payoff incidents, the suit definitively established the tinhorn nature of the statehouse corruption in Mr. Agnew's tenure. Yet, ever combative, Mr. Agnew tried to use the case seven years later in applying for a tax deduction in California, where he had a home in the affluent town of Rancho Mirage.\nHe argued that the reimbursement of $268,482 in bribes and interest that he had been forced to make to the State of Maryland entitled him to a deduction. His reasoning was rejected by the tax appeals board in California.\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\nThe self-confident Mr. Agnew, who ascended from school board and county politics to make his name at the Nixon White House, has gone down in Maryland political lore for a stylish, wisecracking, casual cronyism that extended to friends who stocked his home with free food and drink.\n''Some of the things he said during his lifetime were extreme and regrettable, but nonetheless I mourn his passing,'' said former Senator George McGovern, who was roughed up rhetorically by the Nixon-Agnew ticket in going down to defeat as the Democratic Presidential nominee in 1972. Mr. Agnew, skewering Mr. McGovern's call for peace negotiations in Vietnam, had declared, ''Even Neville Chamberlain did not carry a beggar's cup to Munich -- as George McGovern proposes to carry to Hanoi.''\nBy then Mr. Agnew was the practiced flash point of the Nixon Administration, a target of charges that he was incendiary and even racist in some of his flinty remarks in which he spoke of ''Polacks'' and a ''fat Jap.''\nThe single Agnew quotation that lives on in the 16th edition of Bartlett's ''Familiar Quotations'' was uttered in 1968 when Mr. Agnew, a suburban-rooted politician campaigning as the ticket's urban expert, feistily defended his skirting some of the sorrier American scenes by declaring: ''To some extent, if you've seen one city slum you've seen them all.''\nMr. Nixon surprised his party and nation when he plucked Spiro Theodore Agnew from relative political obscurity in Maryland, where he had been Governor for less than two years, and made him his running mate.\n''Spiro Who?'' became the nation's instant question. The Washington Post editorialized that there had not been such a surprising political nomination since Caligula appointed his horse as a Consul of Rome. But once Mr. Agnew was fired up on the stump and Mr. Nixon had marched into the White House, their partisans' response came back: ''Spiro Our Hero.''\nNixon biographers have singled out one moment in the Agnew Governorship that attracted the attention of Nixon strategists: the dressing down Mr. Agnew delivered to black civil rights leaders during a spate of urban rioting.\n''It is not evil conditions that cause riots, but evil men,'' he declared. The moderate image that had helped Mr. Agnew to election in that heavily Democratic state soon became sharper-edged as he spoke up increasingly for ''law and order'' and insisted that rioting was caused by ''this permissive climate and the misguided compassion of public opinion.''\nPlease verify you're not a robot by clicking the box.\nInvalid email address. Please re-enter.\nYou must select a newsletter to subscribe to.\nSign Up\nPrivacy Policy\nAt the Republicans' 1968 convention, when national unrest over the Vietnam War and civil protest was a dominant theme, Mr. Agnew was chosen to make the nominating speech for Mr. Nixon. Then he was astonished to find himself installed on the ticket.\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\n''A bolt from the blue,'' he said.\nMr. Nixon said of his choice: ''He has real depth and genuine warmth.'' He enthusiastically added, ''He has the attributes of a statesman of the first rank.''\nIn the privacy of the Nixon White House, however, the President's estimate of Mr. Agnew was mocking and dismissive, said John Ehrlichman, who was the President's counsel and domestic affairs adviser. In his 1982 memoir, ''Witness to Power,'' Mr. Ehrlichman described why Mr. Nixon kept Mr. Agnew on the re-election ticket in 1972 even though he despised him as a fool and an idler and would send him off on speaking tours of Indian reservations.\n''No assassin in his right mind would kill me,'' President Nixon liked to joke, Mr. Ehrlichman said. ''They know if they did that they would wind up with Agnew!''\nFrom a Zoning Board To the Executive Office\nA generation ago, before his fall, Mr. Agnew was rated the third most popular public figure in America, behind President Nixon and the Rev. Billy Graham. He had arrived on the national scene as a political success story, a Greek immigrant's son with a talent for ambitious socializing in politics.\n''Ted got into politics through the P.T.A.,'' recalled his wife of 54 years, the former Elinor Isabel Judefind, known as Judy. ''He kind of spread out.''\nWell tailored, friendly and attentive to detail, he rose in public service from three years as a party appointee on a local zoning board to four years as elected Baltimore County Executive, chief of the suburb that borders the city of Baltimore, and then the governorship.\nHe was born in Baltimore on Nov. 9, 1918, and reared in the inner city, but moved out to the suburbs in the post-immigrant wave of successful migration.\nA public school graduate, Mr. Agnew entered Johns Hopkins University to major in chemistry but then moved on to night school at the University of Baltimore Law School while he worked as an insurance company clerk by day.\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\nIn 1942, Mr. Agnew began three years of Army service, graduating from Officer Training School and serving as a company commander with the 10th Armored Division. He saw action in four World War II campaigns and earned the Bronze Star. After the war, he completed his law degree and worked in a variety of jobs, finally moving to the suburbs and finding his way into and soon upward in Republican Party politics.\nOut Front in Battle To Win Public Opinion\nIn office, Mr. Agnew quickly built upon his public persona, as the news media covered his controversy-etched speeches as closely as Mr. Nixon's. He derided war protesters as ''an effete corps of impudent snobs,'' and television commentators as ''a tiny fraternity of privileged men elected by no one and enjoying a monopoly sanctioned and licensed by the government.''\nHis barbed criticism of news organizations put them on the defensive and in the awkward position of having to report news about themselves and, Mr. Agnew's partisans maintained, even helped prod such changes as wider-ranging editorial pages and columnists.\nVice President Agnew assailed The Washington Post and The New York Times, declaring, ''The American people should be made aware of the trend toward the monopolization of the great public information vehicles and the concentration of power over public opinion in fewer and fewer hands.''\nArthur Ochs Sulzberger, president and publisher of The Times, responded that Mr. Agnew spoke in error ''when he implies that The New York Times ever sought or enjoyed immunity from comment or criticism.''\nThe Nixon Administration took comfort as Mr. Agnew scored with parts of the public and heightened his alliterative volleys to near-parody as he denounced ''hopeless, hysterical hypochondriacs of history.'' (Years after the Vice President was forced to leave the public stage, Mr. Safire mourned, ''And all alliteration ached.'')\nHerbert Klein, the Nixon Administration's director of communications, defended Mr. Agnew's combativeness as a necessary mission ''to explain in a missionary way what Administration policies are and to seek support for them.'' The Vice President ''fills a basic need which the President can't do,'' Mr. Klein added.\nWith ''God Bless Spiro Agnew'' posters sprouting partisanly across the land, Mr. Agnew did heavy duty in the 1970 off-year elections, attacking Democrats as ''radic-libs'' and even ''ideological eunuchs'' for encouraging protest against the war. Commentators credited him with considerable success as such prominent Democrats as Senator Albert Gore Sr. of Tennessee, father of the current Vice President, went down to defeat.\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\nAs controversy rose, so did Mr. Agnew's hopes to succeed President Nixon. But a month after taking the oath for a second term, Mr. Agnew was told that a grand jury in Baltimore was looking into charges about his public service there.\nHe clung to office for another eight months, delivering speeches on his innocence and his refusal to resign even as his lawyers began plea bargaining in the face of Mr. Agnew's possible imprisonment. With classic Nixonian wording, the White House issued a statement vouching for the President's confidence in Mr. Agnew ''during the period that he has served as Vice President.''\nIn one of his last speeches while in office, Mr. Agnew presented himself to a Los Angeles audience as outraged. He fairly bellowed: ''I will not resign if indicted! I will not resign if indicted!''\nBut his effort to limit his accountability to political peers in an impeachment proceeding in Congress failed. With his resignation considered a factor in his plea bargain arrangement, Mr. Agnew finally sent Secretary of State Henry A. Kissinger a note of concession: ''I hereby resign the office of Vice President of the United States, effective immediately.''\nAt that moment, Mr. Agnew was in court in Baltimore, pursued by an army of the very news workers he once delighted in attacking. The deal he bargained spared him indictment on kickback and bribery charges as he accepted the tax evasion plea. The judge ordered three years' probation and a fine of $10,000, and Mr. Agnew disappeared from public view.\nHe surfaced from time to time in a new life of worldwide business travels and an apparently rich social life with Frank Sinatra and other influential figures in his new California circles. Making influential contacts was his specialty, Mr. Agnew once said. In one business undertaking, Mr. Agnew served as the intermediary in a complex $181 million deal by former Nixon aides to sell uniforms to Saddam Hussein of Iraq. His intermediary role was recommended by Mr. Nixon himself to the supplier of the uniforms, the Romanian dictator Nicolae Ceausescu, the historian Stephen E. Ambrose said.\nAfter Political Demise, A Re-Emergence of Sorts\nTwenty-one years after he left Washington in disgrace, Mr. Agnew returned to the Capitol, a quieter man, but still proud as he stood at the unveiling of an addition to the Capitol statuary corridors, a marble bust of the 39th Vice President, Spiro T. Agnew.\n''I'm not blind or deaf to the fact that there are critics who feel this is a ceremony that should not take place,'' Mr. Agnew began, offering a wisp of the old scrappiness. But no combative alliteration was forthcoming. He smiled and thanked the sculptor for capturing ''my squinty little eyes and mastodonic nose.''\n''Lord God, you are the ultimate judge,'' prayed Senator Mark O. Hatfield, the Oregon Republican whose anti-war legislation was vehemently denounced in its day by Mr. Agnew. Loyal friends in a gathering of 300 privately asked, If Aaron Burr's statue is there, why not Spiro Agnew's?\nAdvertisement", "Spiro Agnew Biography (U.S. Vice President)\nBirthplace: Baltimore, Maryland\nBest known as: The 39th vice president of the United States, 1969-73\nAs Richard Nixon 's vice president, Spiro Theodore Agnew served from 20 January 1969 until 10 October 1973, when he resigned over matters unrelated to the Watergate scandal. Agnew, the son of Greek immigrants, grew up in Baltimore, Maryland, where he began practicing law in 1949. From 1962 to 1969 he served as a county executive in Baltimore before being elected governor in 1967. As Nixon's vice president he was not closely involved in policy decisions, but he was a media favorite for his staunch defense of the Vietnam War and his colorful attacks on war protesters, the press and political dissidents. Agnew's fiery rhetoric became legendary: he famously called the press \"nattering nabobs of negativism\" and referred to war critics as \"an effete corps of impudent snobs who characterize themselves as 'intellectuals.'\" After Nixon and Agnew were elected to a second term, Agnew became the focus of an investigation by the U.S. Attorney's office in Maryland for financial irregularities while he held state office. Rather than face trial, Agnew resigned and entered a plea of no contest to charges of evading income tax. He was sentenced to three years probation and fined $10,000. After he left office Agnew avoided publicity and went into business as an international broker. In 1981 he was ordered by a Maryland court to repay more than $248,000 to cover bribes he took while in state office.\nExtra credit:\nAgnew was the second vice president to resign from office — the first, John C. Calhoun, resigned to take a seat to become a U.S. senator… Nixon chose Gerald Ford to be Agnew’s replacement as vice president… In 1976 Agnew published a novel, The Canfield Decision… Political columnists William Safire and Pat Buchanan used to write speeches for Agnew.\nCopyright © 1998-2017 by Who2?, LLC. All rights reserved.", "Richard M. Nixon | whitehouse.gov\nAir Force One\nRichard M. Nixon\nRichard Nixon was elected the 37th President of the United States (1969-1974) after previously serving as a U.S. Representative and a U.S. Senator from California. After successfully ending American fighting in Vietnam and improving international relations with the U.S.S.R. and China, he became the only President to ever resign the office, as a result of the Watergate scandal.\nReconciliation was the first goal set by President Richard M. Nixon. The Nation was painfully divided, with turbulence in the cities and war overseas. During his Presidency, Nixon succeeded in ending American fighting in Viet Nam and improving relations with the U.S.S.R. and China. But the Watergate scandal brought fresh divisions to the country and ultimately led to his resignation.\nHis election in 1968 had climaxed a career unusual on two counts: his early success and his comeback after being defeated for President in 1960 and for Governor of California in 1962.\nBorn in California in 1913, Nixon had a brilliant record at Whittier College and Duke University Law School before beginning the practice of law. In 1940, he married Patricia Ryan; they had two daughters, Patricia (Tricia) and Julie. During World War II, Nixon served as a Navy lieutenant commander in the Pacific.\nOn leaving the service, he was elected to Congress from his California district. In 1950, he won a Senate seat. Two years later, General Eisenhower selected Nixon, age 39, to be his running mate.\nAs Vice President, Nixon took on major duties in the Eisenhower Administration. Nominated for President by acclamation in 1960, he lost by a narrow margin to John F. Kennedy. In 1968, he again won his party's nomination, and went on to defeat Vice President Hubert H. Humphrey and third-party candidate George C. Wallace.\nHis accomplishments while in office included revenue sharing, the end of the draft, new anticrime laws, and a broad environmental program. As he had promised, he appointed Justices of conservative philosophy to the Supreme Court. One of the most dramatic events of his first term occurred in 1969, when American astronauts made the first moon landing.\nSome of his most acclaimed achievements came in his quest for world stability. During visits in 1972 to Beijing and Moscow, he reduced tensions with China and the U.S.S.R. His summit meetings with Russian leader Leonid I. Brezhnev produced a treaty to limit strategic nuclear weapons. In January 1973, he announced an accord with North Viet Nam to end American involvement in Indochina. In 1974, his Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger, negotiated disengagement agreements between Israel and its opponents, Egypt and Syria.\nIn his 1972 bid for office, Nixon defeated Democratic candidate George McGovern by one of the widest margins on record.\nWithin a few months, his administration was embattled over the so-called \"Watergate\" scandal, stemming from a break-in at the offices of the Democratic National Committee during the 1972 campaign. The break-in was traced to officials of the Committee to Re-elect the President. A number of administration officials resigned; some were later convicted of offenses connected with efforts to cover up the affair. Nixon denied any personal involvement, but the courts forced him to yield tape recordings which indicated that he had, in fact, tried to divert the investigation.\nAs a result of unrelated scandals in Maryland, Vice President Spiro T. Agnew resigned in 1973. Nixon nominated, and Congress approved, House Minority Leader Gerald R. Ford as Vice President.\nFaced with what seemed almost certain impeachment, Nixon announced on August 8, 1974, that he would resign the next day to begin \"that process of healing which is so desperately needed in America.\"\nIn his last years, Nixon gained praise as an elder statesman. By the time of his death on April 22, 1994, he had written numerous books on his experiences in public life and on foreign policy.\nThe Presidential biographies on WhiteHouse.gov are from “The Presidents of the United States of America,” by Frank Freidel and Hugh Sidey. Copyright 2006 by the White House Historical Association.\nFor more information about President Nixon, please visit", "Spiro Agnew | vice president of United States | Britannica.com\nvice president of United States\nWritten By:\nAlternative Titles: Spiro T. Agnew, Spiro Theodore Agnew\nSpiro Agnew\nVice president of United States\nAlso known as\nGerald Ford\nSpiro Agnew, in full Spiro Theodore Agnew, also called Spiro T. Agnew (born November 9, 1918, Baltimore , Maryland , U.S.—died September 17, 1996, Berlin, Maryland), 39th vice president of the United States (1969–73) in the Republican administration of President Richard M. Nixon . He was the second person to resign the nation’s second highest office ( John C. Calhoun was the first in 1832) and the first to resign under duress.\nSpiro T. Agnew.\n© Bettmann/Corbis\nAgnew was the son of Theodore Agnew, a Greek-immigrant restaurateur who had shortened his name from Anagnostopoulos, and Margaret Akers, from Virginia . He studied law at the University of Baltimore and began a law practice in a Baltimore suburb in 1947. He was elected Baltimore county executive in 1962 and then governor of Maryland in 1967. During his tenure as governor he established an image as a moderate, securing a graduated income tax, strong antipollution laws, the first open-housing law south of the Mason and Dixon Line , and repeal of the state’s 306-year-old anti- miscegenation law. Although he was little known to the American public at the time of his nomination for the vice presidency in 1968, Agnew won national recognition for speeches in which he denounced Vietnam War protesters and other opponents of the Nixon administration with colourful epithets such as “nattering nabobs of negativism” and “hopeless, hysterical hypochondriacs of history.” Agnew was despised by most Democrats and sometimes drew censure even from Republicans, as he did for accusing Vice President Hubert Humphrey , the Democratic Party candidate for president in 1968, of being “soft on communism.”\nAgnew’s downfall began in the summer of 1973, when he was investigated in connection with accusations of extortion , bribery , and income-tax violations relating chiefly to his tenure as governor of Maryland. Faced with federal indictments, Agnew fought the charges, arguing that the allegations were false, that a sitting vice president could not be indicted, and that the only way he could be removed from office was by impeachment . After the solicitor general released a brief asserting that sitting vice presidents could be indicted, Agnew launched an attack on the administration and vowed not to resign. With Nixon in danger of impeachment for his role in the Watergate scandal , the administration sought to remove Agnew from the presidential line of succession, and secret plea bargaining took place between Agnew’s lawyers and a federal judge. Agnew resigned the vice presidency on October 10, 1973, and appeared in United States District Court in Baltimore on the same day to plead nolo contendere to a single federal count of failing to report on his income-tax return $29,500 in income that he had received in 1967, while governor of Maryland. Acknowledging that the plea amounted to a felony conviction , Agnew declared that he had resigned in the national interest. He was fined $10,000 and sentenced to three years of unsupervised probation.\nBritannica Stories" ] }

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{ "description": [ "Jack Palance exemplified evil incarnate on film ... This recognition helped him secure a 20th Century-Fox contract. ... According to Billy Crystal, ..." ], "filename": [ "29/29_1953.txt" ], "rank": [ 1 ], "title": [ "Jack Palance - Biography - IMDb" ], "url": [ "http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0001588/bio" ], "search_context": [ "Jack Palance - Biography - IMDb\nJack Palance\nBiography\nShowing all 63 items\nJump to: Overview  (4) | Mini Bio  (1) | Spouse  (2) | Trade Mark  (5) | Trivia  (43) | Personal Quotes  (8)\nOverview (4)\n6' 4\" (1.93 m)\nMini Bio (1)\nJack Palance exemplified evil incarnate on film -- portraying some of the most intensely despised villains witnessed in 50s westerns and melodrama. He received two Best Supporting Actor nominations early in his career, but it would take a grizzled, eccentric comic performance 40 years later for him to finally grab the coveted statuette.\nOf Ukrainian descent, Palance was born Volodymyr Jack Palahniuk on February 18, 1919, in Lattimer Mines, Pennsylvania coal country, to Anna (Gramiak) and Ivan Palahniuk. His father, an anthracite miner, died of black lung disease. The sensitive, artistic lad worked in the mines in his early years but averted the same fate as his father. Athletics was his ticket out of the mines when he won a football scholarship to the University of North Carolina. He subsequently dropped out to try his hand at professional boxing. Fighting under the name \"Jack Brazzo,\" he won his first 15 fights, 12 by knockout, before losing a 4th round decision to future heavyweight contender Joe Baksi on Dec. 17, 1940.\nWith the outbreak of World War II, Palance's boxing career ended and his military career began, serving in the Army Air Force as a bomber pilot. Wounded in combat and suffering severe injuries and burns, he received the Purple Heart, Good Conduct Medal, and the World War II Victory Medal. He resumed college studies as a journalist at Stanford University and became a sportswriter for the San Francisco Chronicle. He also worked for a radio station until the acting bug bit.\nPalance made his stage debut in \"The Big Two\" in 1947 and immediately followed it understudying Marlon Brando as Stanley Kowalski in the groundbreaking Broadway classic \"A Streetcar Named Desire,\" a role he eventually took over. Following stage parts in \"Temporary Island\" (1948), \"The Vigil\" (1948) and \"The Silver Tassle\" (1949), Palance won a choice role in \"Darkness of Noon\" and also the Theatre World Award for \"promising new personality\". This recognition helped him secure a 20th Century-Fox contract. The facial burns and resulting reconstructive surgery following the crash and burn of his WWII bomber plane actually worked to the leathery actor's advantage in Hollywood. Hardly possessing the look of a glossy romantic leading man, Palance instead became an archetypal villain equipped with an imposing glare, intimidating stance and killer-shark smile.\nHe stood out among a powerhouse cast ( Richard Widmark , Paul Douglas') in his movie debut in Elia Kazan 's Panic in the Streets (1950), as a plague-carrying fugitive. He was soon on his way. Initially billed as Walter Jack Palance, the actor made fine use of his former boxing skills and war experience for the film Halls of Montezuma (1951) as a boxing Marine in Richard Widmark 's platoon. Palance followed this with the first of his back-to-back Oscar nods. In Sudden Fear (1952), only his third film, he played rich-and-famous playwright Joan Crawford 's struggling actor husband who plots to murder her and run off with gorgeous Gloria Grahame . Finding the right menace and intensity to pretty much steal the proceedings, he followed this with arguably his finest villain of the decade, that of creepy, sadistic gunslinger Jack Wilson who becomes Alan Ladd 's biggest nightmare (not to mention others) in the classic western Shane (1953). Their climactic showdown alone is text book.\nThroughout the 1950s Palance earned some very good film roles such as those in Man in the Attic (1953) (his first lead), The Big Knife (1955) and the war classic Attack (1956). Mixed in were a few routine to highly mediocre parts in Flight to Tangier (1953), Sign of the Pagan (1954), in which he played Attila the Hun, and the biblical bomb The Silver Chalice (1954). In between filmmaking were a host of powerful TV roles -- none better than his down-and-out boxer in Playhouse 90: Requiem for a Heavyweight (1956), a rare sympathetic role that earned him an Emmy. Overseas in the 1960s, Palance made a killing in biblical and war epics and in \"spaghetti -- The Barbarians (1960), Barabbas (1961) [Barabbas], and A Bullet for Rommel (1969) [A Bullet for Rommel]. Also included in his 60s foreign work was his participation in the Jean-Luc Godard masterpiece Contempt (1963) [Contempt].\nOn TV, Palance played a number of nefarious nasties to perfection ranging from Dracula to Dr. Jekyll/Mr. Hyde. Into his twilight years he showed a penchant for brash, quirky comedy capped by his Oscar-winning role in City Slickers (1991), its sequel, and others. He even played Ebenezer Scrooge in a TV-movie incongruously set in the Wild West. Married twice, his three children -- Holly, Brooke and Cody (the last died in 1998 of cancer) -- all dabbled in acting and appeared with their father at one time or another. A man of few words off the set, he owned his own cattle ranch and displayed other creative sides as a exhibited painter and published poet. Jack's last years were marred by failing health and he died at age 87 of natural causes at his daughter Holly's Montecito, California home.\n- IMDb Mini Biography By: Gary Brumburgh / [email protected]\nSpouse (2)\nOften played menacing, sinister villains\nMachiavellian eyebrows\nTowering height and muscular frame\nTrivia (43)\nFormer father-in-law of Roger Spottiswoode . Father-in-law of Michael Wilding Jr. .\nAmerican actor of Ukrainian ancestry.\nFather of Brooke Palance , Holly Palance and Cody Palance .\nClaimed on at least one occasion that he never watched any of his own movies.\nAccording to a website honoring movie celebrities that flew in B-24s, Palance burned his face severely while bailing out of a B-24 which was on fire during a training flight in Tucson in 1942 (that would probably have been the Davis-Monthan Army Air Corps base at that time) and after several surgeries was discharged in 1944. He is described as a \"pilot in training\".\nAttended the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill but did not graduate.\nSpoke six languages: Ukrainian, Russian, Italian, Spanish, French and English.\nOnce fell asleep in his square during a taping of The Hollywood Squares (1965).\nHe was awarded a Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6608 Hollywood Boulevard in Hollywood, California on February 8, 1960.\nInducted into the Hall of Great Western Performers of the National Cowboy and Western Heritage Museum in 1992.\nReceived his Bachelor's degree in Drama from Stanford University in Stanford, California (1949).\nDuring the early phases of pre-production for The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951), 20th Century-Fox studio chief Darryl F. Zanuck suggested Palance for the role of the robot Gort. The role was eventually filled by a much taller non-actor.\nDuring his struggling days, he worked as a short order cook, waiter, soda jerk, lifeguard at Jones Beach, and a photographer's model.\nWhile an understudy to Marlon Brando in the Broadway production of \"A Streetcar Named Desire\", Brando, who was into athletics, rigged up a punching bag in the theater's boiler room and invited Jack to work out with him. One night, Jack threw a hard punch that missed the bag and landed square on Brando's nose. The star had to be hospitalized and understudy Palance created his own big break by going on for Brando. Jack's reviews as Stanley Kowalski helped get him a 20th Century-Fox contract.\nHis father was an anthracite coal miner.\nWas forced to decline the role of General Chang in Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country (1991) due to scheduling conflicts over his work in City Slickers (1991). He went on to receive the Best Supporting Actor Oscar for City Slickers (1991). Christopher Plummer was eventually cast as Chang.\nWas infamous in Hollywood for his Method-style acting, in a time when Marlon Brando was one of its few practitioners. Once, while filming a fight scene with Burt Lancaster , Palance actually punched the unsuspecting Lancaster in the face. Tough guy Lancaster responded by socking Palance in the gut, causing him to vomit.\nDespite all of his film work, Palance will forever be remembered for turning an Oscar acceptance speech into an uproarious display of his physical agility. While accepting his Oscar for Best Supporting Actor for City Slickers (1991) at the 64th Annual Academy Awards (1992) he commented on the casting directors thinking they can make a younger guy look older, while they wouldn't know that an old guy did this at nights: he then flopped down on the floor and began doing a series of one-handed push-ups, stood up, spoke calmly further, even adding a slightly risqué joke. Afterwards, when he was asked about the stunt, he simply said, \"I didn't know what the hell else to do.\" A year later, when he provided the voice of Rothbart in The Swan Princess (1994), his character is featured doing one-handed push-ups.\nWas an avid painter and poet.\nBrother of Ivan Palance , John Palance and Anne Palance.\nStudied acting with Michael Chekhov in Hollywood.\nGrandfather of Lily Palance, Spencer Palance and Tarquin Palance.\nWas a vegetarian but maintained a 1000-acre cattle ranch in California's Tehachapi Mountains and a 500-acre farm in Luzerne County, Pennsylvania. His ranch brand was an \"H\" with a \"B\" and a \"C\" woven around it, the initials of the first names of his children, Holly, Brooke and Cody.\nShortly before his death in 2006, he put his farmhouse near Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, and its contents up for sale. Thousands of items were auctioned off and more than $700,000 was raised.\nOn a nationally televised talk show, Palance addressed the oft repeated story about how he supposedly had such damage done to his face that plastic surgery gave him the face we all know. He said, \"I know I'm no beauty, but these are the Estonian features I was born with.\".\nWas Stephen King 's choice of preference for the (similarly named, coincidentally or not) role of Jack Torrance in The Shining (1980).\nTurned down Telly Savalas ' role in The Dirty Dozen (1967) because he believed the film had too much unnecessary violence.\nMember of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (Actors Branch).\nWas offered the role of Francisco Scaramanga in The Man with the Golden Gun (1974), which went to Christopher Lee .\nReceived a special tribute as part of the Annual Memorial tribute at The 79th Annual Academy Awards (2007).\nDesperately wanted the role of Kid Sheleen in Cat Ballou (1965), which he was never offered.\nThe comic book villain Phil Defer (Phil Wire in the English version) from Lucky Luke contre Phil Defer (1956) is based on Palance's famous evil gunslinger Jack Wilson from Shane (1953).\nDirector Elia Kazan promised to cast him as Marlon Brando 's brother in Viva Zapata! (1952), but then changed his mind and cast Anthony Quinn instead. Quinn won a Best Supporting Oscar for the film and Palance never spoke to Kazan again.\nIn the late 1930s and early 1940s, Palance was a professional boxer in the heavyweight class, fighting under the name Jack Brazzo. He won his first 15 fights, then enlisted in the military when World War II broke out. After the war, he took up acting and never resumed his boxing career.\nHe pronounced his last name \"PAL-unse\" not \"pah-LAHNSE\" as some people believe.\nHis physical likeness inspired the appearance of DC Comics' supervillain Darkseid who regularly fought Superman.\nHe was a lifelong staunch Republican and conservative.\nAccording to Billy Crystal , Charles Bronson turned down the role of Curly Washburn in City Slickers (1991) in an unseemly way which he reveals in his 2013 book \"Still Foolin' Em\". Palance ended up receiving an Academy Award for this role.\nIn the scene where Palance hits Richard Widmark on the head with a gun in Panic in the Streets (1950), the actors rehearsed it with a rubber gun, but when the cameras rolled Palance substituted a real gun. Widmark, who wasn't expecting it, was out for 20 minutes. Widmark said about the incident, \"Why did he switch? Who knows?\" In a 1986 interview also recalled how Palance got into the mood of his character by beating on flunky Zero Mostel off-screen. A black-and-blue Mostel had to go to the hospital after his first week on the movie. \"They had to soak him in epsom pads.\".\nRichard Widmark on working with Palance on the latter's movie debut in Panic in the Streets (1950): \" . . . the toughest guy I ever met. He was the only actor I've ever been physically afraid of.\".\nHe has two roles in common with his Tales of the Haunted (1981) co-star Christopher Lee : (1) Lee played Count Dracula in ten films from Horror of Dracula (1958) to Dracula and Son (1976) while Palance played him in Dracula (1974) and (2) Palance played Dr. Edward Hyde / Mr. Henry Jekyll in The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1968) while Lee played renamed versions of the character(s), Dr. Charles Marlowe and Mr. Edward Blake, in I, Monster (1971).\nHe had two roles in common with his The McMasters (1970) co-star John Carradine : (1) Carradine played Count Dracula in House of Frankenstein (1944), House of Dracula (1945), Billy the Kid Versus Dracula (1966) and Nocturna (1979) while Palance played him in Dracula (1974) and (2) Carradine played Ebenezer Scrooge in A Christmas Carol (1947) while Palance played him in Ebenezer (1998).\nJack Palance passed away on November 10, 2006, three months away from what would have been his 88th birthday on February 18, 2007.\nPersonal Quotes (8)" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Kodak.txt", "Roll_film.txt", "Camera.txt" ], "title": [ "Kodak", "Roll film", "Camera" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Eastman Kodak Company, commonly known as Kodak, is an American technology company that concentrates on imaging products, with its historic basis on photography. The company is headquartered in Rochester, New York, United States and incorporated in New Jersey. It was founded by George Eastman in 1888.\n\nKodak provides packaging, functional printing, graphic communications and professional services for businesses around the world. Its main business segments are Digital Printing & Enterprise and Graphics, Entertainment & Commercial Films. It is best known for photographic film products. During most of the 20th century Kodak held a dominant position in photographic film. The company's ubiquity was such that its tagline \"Kodak moment\" entered the common lexicon to describe a personal event that demanded to be recorded for posterity. \n\nKodak began to struggle financially in the late 1990s as a result of the decline in sales of photographic film and its slowness in transitioning to digital photography. As part of a turnaround strategy, Kodak focused on digital photography and digital printing and attempted to generate revenues through aggressive patent litigation. In January 2012, Kodak filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York. In February 2012, Kodak announced that it would cease making digital cameras, pocket video cameras and digital picture frames and focus on the corporate digital imaging market. In August 2012, Kodak announced the intention to sell its photographic film (excluding motion picture film), commercial scanners and kiosk operations as a measure to emerge from bankruptcy. \n\nIn January 2013, the Court approved financing for Kodak to emerge from bankruptcy by mid-2013. Kodak sold many of its patents for approximately $525,000,000 to a group of companies (including Apple, Google, Facebook, Amazon, Microsoft, Samsung, Adobe Systems and HTC) under the name Intellectual Ventures and RPX Corporation. On September 3, 2013, the company emerged from bankruptcy having shed its large legacy liabilities and exited several businesses. Personalized Imaging and Document Imaging are now part of Kodak Alaris, a separate company owned by the U.K.-based Kodak Pension Plan. On March 12, 2014, it announced that the Board of Directors had elected Jeffrey J. Clarke as Chief Executive Officer and a member of its Board of Directors. \n\nName\n\nThe letter k was a favorite of Eastman's; he is quoted as saying, \"it seems a strong, incisive sort of letter.\"\nHe and his mother devised the name Kodak with an anagrams set. Eastman said that there were three principal concepts he used in creating the name: it should be short, easy to pronounce, and not resemble any other name or be associated with anything else. \n\nHistory\n\nFrom the company's founding by George Eastman in 1888, Kodak followed the razor and blades strategy of selling inexpensive cameras and making large margins from consumables – film, chemicals and paper. As late as 1976, Kodak commanded 90% of film sales and 85% of camera sales in the U.S. \nRivalry with Fujifilm\n\nJapanese competitor Fujifilm entered the U.S. market (via Fuji Photo Film U.S.A.) with lower-priced film and supplies, but Kodak did not believe that American consumers would ever desert its brand. Kodak passed on the opportunity to become the official film of the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics; Fuji won these sponsorship rights, which gave them a permanent foothold in the marketplace. Fuji opened a film plant in the U.S., and its aggressive marketing and price cutting began taking market share from Kodak. Fuji went from a 10% share in the early 1990s to 17% in 1997. Fuji also made headway into the professional market with specialty transparency films such as Velvia and Provia, which competed successfully with Kodak's signature professional product, Kodachrome, but used the more economical and common E-6 processing machines which were standard in most processing labs, rather than the dedicated machines required by Kodachrome. Fuji's films soon also found a competitive edge in higher-speed negative films, with a tighter grain structure.\n\nIn May 1995, Kodak filed a petition with the US Commerce Department under section 301 of the Commerce Act arguing that its poor performance in the Japanese market was a direct result of unfair practices adopted by Fuji. The complaint was lodged by the United States with the World Trade Organization. On January 30, 1998, the WTO announced a \"sweeping rejection of Kodak's complaints\" about the film market in Japan. Kodak's financial results for the year ending December 1997 showed that company's revenues dropped from $15.97 billion in 1996 to $14.36 billion in 1997, a fall of more than 10%; their net earnings went from $1.29 billion to just $5 million for the same period. Kodak's market share declined from 80.1% to 74.7% in the United States, a one-year drop of five percentage points that had observers suggesting that Kodak was slow to react to changes and underestimated its rivals. \n\nAlthough from the 1970s both Fuji and Kodak recognized the upcoming threat of digital photography, and although both sought diversification as a mitigation strategy, Fuji was more successful at diversification. \n\nShift to digital\n\nAlthough Kodak developed a digital camera in 1975, the first of its kind, the product was dropped for fear it would threaten Kodak's photographic film business. In the 1990s, Kodak planned a decade-long journey to move to digital technology. CEO George M. C. Fisher reached out to Microsoft and other new consumer merchandisers. Apple's pioneering QuickTake consumer digital cameras, introduced in 1994, had the Apple label but were produced by Kodak. The DC-20 and DC-25 launched in 1996. Overall, though, there was little implementation of the new digital strategy. Kodak's core business faced no pressure from competing technologies, and as Kodak executives could not fathom a world without traditional film there was little incentive to deviate from that course. Consumers gradually switched to the digital offering from companies such as Sony. In 2001 film sales dropped, which was attributed by Kodak to the financial shocks caused by the September 11 attacks. Executives hoped that Kodak might be able to slow the shift to digital through aggressive marketing. \n\nUnder Daniel Carp, Fisher's successor as CEO, Kodak made its move in the digital camera market, with its EasyShare family of digital cameras. Kodak spent tremendous resources studying customer behavior, finding out that women in particular loved taking digital photos but were frustrated in moving them to their computers. This key unmet consumer need became a major opportunity. Once Kodak got its product development machine started, it released a wide range of products which made it easy to share photos via PCs. One of their key innovations was a printer dock, where consumers could insert their cameras into this compact device, press a button, and watch their photos roll out. By 2005, Kodak ranked No. 1 in the U.S. in digital camera sales that surged 40% to $5.7 billion.\n\nDespite the high growth, Kodak failed to anticipate how fast digital cameras became commodities, with low profit margins, as more companies entered the market in the mid-2000s. In 2001 Kodak held the No. 2 spot in U.S. digital camera sales (behind Sony) but it lost $60 on every camera sold, while there was also a dispute between employees from its digital and film divisions. The film business, where Kodak enjoyed high profit margins, fell 18% in 2005. The combination of these two factors resulted in disappointing profits overall. Its digital cameras soon became undercut by Asian competitors that could produce their offerings more cheaply. Kodak had a 27 percent market-leading share in 1999, that dwindled to 15 percent by 2003. In 2007 Kodak was No. 4 in U.S. digital camera sales with a 9.6 percent share, and by 2010 it held 7 percent in seventh place behind Canon, Sony, Nikon, and others, according to research firm IDC. Also an ever-smaller percentage of digital pictures were being taken on dedicated digital cameras, being gradually displaced in the late 2000s by cameras on cellphones, smartphones, and tablets.\n\nNew strategy\n\nKodak then began a strategy shift: Previously Kodak had done everything in-house, but CEO Antonio Pérez shut down film factories and eliminated 27,000 jobs as it outsourced its manufacturing. Pérez invested heavily in digital technologies and new services that capitalized on its technology innovation to boost profit margins. He also spent hundreds of millions of dollars to build up a high-margin printer ink business to replace shriveling film sales. Kodak's ink strategy rejected the razor and blades business model used by the dominant market leader Hewlett-Packard in that Kodak's printers were expensive but the ink was cheaper. As of 2011, these new lines of inkjet printers were said to be on verge of turning a profit, although some analysts were skeptical as printouts had been replaced gradually by electronic copies on computers, tablets, and smartphones. Home photograph printers, high-speed commercial inkjet presses, workflow software, and packaging were viewed as the company's new core businesses, with sales from those four businesses projected to double to nearly $2 billion in revenue in 2013 and account for 25 percent of all sales. However, while Kodak named home printers as a core business as late as August 2012, at the end of September declining sales forced Kodak to announce an exit from the consumer inkjet market. \n\nKodak has also turned to litigation in order to generate revenue. In 2010, it received $838 million from patent licensing that included a settlement with LG.\n\nIn 2011, despite the turnaround progress, Kodak rapidly used up its cash reserves, stoking fears of bankruptcy; it had $957 million in cash in June 2011, down from $1.6 billion in January 2001. In 2011, Kodak reportedly explored selling off or licensing its vast portfolio of patents in order to stave off bankruptcy. By January 2012, analysts suggested that the company could enter bankruptcy followed by an auction of its patents, as it was reported to be in talks with Citigroup to provide debtor-in-possession financing. This was confirmed on January 19, 2012, when the company filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection and obtained a $950 million, 18-month credit facility from Citigroup to enable it to continue operations. Under the terms of its bankruptcy protection, Kodak had a deadline of February 15, 2013 to produce a reorganization plan. \n\nIn April 2013, Kodak showed its first Micro Four Thirds camera, to be manufactured by JK Imaging. \n\nOn September 3, 2013, Kodak announced that it emerged from bankruptcy as a technology company focused on imaging for business. Its main business segments are Digital Printing & Enterprise and Graphics, Entertainment & Commercial Films.\n\nOn March 12, 2014, Kodak announced that Jeffrey J. Clarke had been named the new CEO. \n\nTimeline\n\n1880–99\n\n*April 1880: George Eastman leased the third floor of a building on State Street in Rochester N.Y. and began the commercial manufacture of dry plates.\n*January 1, 1881: Eastman and businessman Henry A. Strong formed a partnership called the Eastman Dry Plate Company. Eastman resigned his position at the Rochester Savings Bank in order to work full-time at the Eastman Dry Plate Company.\n*1884: The Eastman-Strong partnership was dissolved and the Eastman Dry Plate and Film Company formed with 14 shareowners. The Eastman Dry Plate Company was responsible for the first cameras suitable for non expert use.\n*1885: George Eastman bought David Houston's patents for roll film and developed them further. These were the basis for the invention of motion picture film, as used by early filmmakers and Thomas Edison.\n*September 4, 1888: Eastman registered the trademark Kodak. \n*1888: The first model of the Kodak camera appeared. It took round pictures in diameter, was of the fixed focus type, and carried a roll of film enough for 100 exposures. Its invention practically marked the advent of amateur photography, as before that time both apparatus and processes were too burdensome to classify photography as recreation. The roll film used in the first model of the Kodak camera had a paper base but was soon superseded by a film with a cellulose base, a practical transparent flexible film. The first films had to be loaded into the camera and unloaded in the dark room, but the film cartridge system with its protecting strip of opaque paper made it possible to load and unload the camera in ordinary light. The Kodak Developing Machine (1900) and its simplified successor, the Kodak Film Tank, provided the means for daylight development of film, making the dark room unnecessary for any of the operations of amateur photography. The earlier types of the Kodak cameras were of the box form and of fixed focus, and as various sizes were added, devices for focusing the lenses were incorporated.\n*1889: The Eastman Company was formed. \n*1891: George Eastman began to produce a second line of cameras, the Ordinary range. \n*1892: It was renamed the Eastman Kodak Company in 1892. Eastman Kodak Company of New York was organized. He coined the advertising slogan, \"You Press the Button, We Do the Rest.\" The Kodak company thereby attained its name from the first simple roll film cameras produced by Eastman Dry Plate Company, known as the \"Kodak\" in its product line.\n*Early 1890s: The first folding Kodak cameras were introduced. These were equipped with folding bellows that permitted much greater compactness.\n*1895: The first pocket Kodak camera, the $5 Pocket Kodak, was introduced. It was of the box form type, slipping easily into an ordinary coat pocket, and producing negatives 1½ x 2 inches.\n*1897: The first folding pocket Kodak camera was introduced, and was mentioned in the novel Dracula, published the same year.\n*1899: George Eastman purchased the patent for Velox photographic paper from Leo Baekeland for $1,000,000. After this time, Velox paper was then sold by Eastman Kodak.\n\n1900–99\n\n*1900: The Brownie camera was introduced, creating a new mass market for photography.\n*1901: The present company, Eastman Kodak Company of New Jersey, was formed under the laws of that state. Eventually, the business in Jamestown was moved in its entirety to Rochester, and the plants in Jamestown were demolished.\n*By 1920: An “Autographic Feature” provided a means for recording data on the margin of the negative at the time of exposure. This feature was supplied on all Kodak cameras with the exception of a box camera designed for making panoramic pictures and was discontinued in 1932.\n*1920: Tennessee Eastman was founded as a wholly owned subsidiary. The company's primary purpose was the manufacture of chemicals, such as acetyls, needed for Kodak's film photography products.\n*1930: Eastman Kodak Company was added to the Dow Jones Industrial Average index on July 18, 1930. The company remained listed as one of the DJIA companies for the next 74 years, ending in 2004.\n\n*1932: George Eastman dies at age 77, taking his own life with a gun shot.\n\n*1935: Kodak introduced Kodachrome, a color reversal stock for movie and slide film.\n*1936: Kodak branches out into manufacture of hand-grenades.\n*1940-1944: Eastman Kodak ranked 62nd among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts. \n*1949-1956: Kodak Introduces the Retina Series 35mm Camera \n*1959: Kodak introduced the Starmatic camera, the first automatic Brownie camera, which sold 10 million units over the next five years.\n*1963: Kodak introduced the Instamatic camera, an inexpensive, easy-to-load, point-and-shoot camera.\n*1970: Kodak scientists disclose the continuous wave tunable dye laser. This becomes a product for several high-tech companies but not at Kodak.\n*1975: Steven Sasson, then an electrical engineer at Kodak, invented a digital camera. \n*1976: The Bayer Pattern color filter array (CFA) was invented by Eastman Kodak researcher Bryce Bayer. The order in which dyes are placed on an image sensor photosite is still in use today. The basic technology is still the most commonly used of its kind to date.\n*1976: Kodak introduced the first Kodamatic, instant picture cameras, using a similar film and technology to that of the Polaroid company.\n*1976: The company sold 90% of the photographic film in the US along with 85% of the cameras. \n*New Kodak Moment: A $19M profit. \n*1981: Kodak was sued by Polaroid for infringement of its Instant Picture patents. The suit ran for five years, the court finally finding in favour of Polaroid in 1986.\n*1982: Kodak launched the Kodak Disc film format for consumer cameras. The format ultimately proved unpopular and was later discontinued.\n*1986: Kodak scientists created the world's first megapixel sensor, capable of recording 1.4 million pixels and producing a photo-quality print.\n*1987: Dr. Ching W. Tang, a senior research associate, and his colleague, Steven Van Slyke, developed the first multi-layer OLEDs at the Kodak Research Laboratories, for which he later became a Fellow of the Society for Information Display (SID)\n*1988: Kodak buys Sterling Drug for $5.1 Billion \n*1988: Kodak scientists introduce the coumarin tetramethyl laser dyes also used in OLED devices. These become a successful product until the line of fine chemicals is sold. \n*1991: The Kodak Professional Digital Camera System or DCS, the first commercially available digital single-lens reflex (DSLR) camera. A customized camera back bearing the digital image sensor was mounted on a Nikon F3 body and released by Kodak in May; the company had previously shown the camera at photokina in 1990.\n*1993: Eastman Chemical, a Kodak subsidiary founded by George Eastman in 1920 to supply Kodak's chemical needs, was spun off as a separate corporation. Eastman Chemical became a Fortune 500 company in its own right. \n*1994: Apple Quicktake, a consumer digital camera was debuted by Apple Computer. Some models were manufactured by Kodak.\n\n2000–09\n\n*2003: Kodak introduced the Kodak EasyShare LS633 Digital Camera, the first camera to feature an AMOLED display, and the Kodak EasyShare Printer Dock 6000, the world's first printer-and-camera dock combination.\n* November 2003: Kodak acquired the Israel-based company Algotec Systems, a developer of advanced picture archiving and communication systems (PACS), which enable radiology departments to digitally manage and store medical images and information. \n*January 2004: Kodak announced that it would stop selling traditional film cameras in Europe and North America, and cut up to 15,000 jobs (around a fifth of its total workforce at the time). \n*April 8, 2004: Kodak was delisted from the Dow Jones Industrial Average index, having been a constituent for 74 consecutive years. \n*May 2004: Kodak signed an exclusive long-term agreement with Lexar Media, licensing the Kodak brand for use on digital memory cards designed, manufactured, sold, and distributed by Lexar. \n*January 2005: The Kodak EasyShare-One Digital Camera, the world’s first Wi-Fi consumer digital camera capable of sending pictures by email, was unveiled at the 2005 CES.\n*January 2005: Kodak acquired the Israel-based company OREX Computed Radiography, a provider of compact computed radiography systems that enable medical practitioners to acquire patient x-ray images digitally. \n*January 2005: Kodak acquired the Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada-based company Creo.\n*January 2006: Kodak unveiled the Kodak EasyShare V570 Dual Lens Digital Camera, the world's first dual-lens digital still camera and smallest ultra-wide-angle optical zoom digital camera, at the CES. Using proprietary Kodak Retina Dual Lens technology, the V570 wrapped an ultra-wide angle lens (23 mm) and a second optical zoom lens (39 – 117 mm) into a body less than 2.5 cm (an inch) thick.\n*April 2006: Kodak introduced the Kodak EasyShare V610 Dual Lens Digital Camera, at that time the world’s smallest 10× (38–380 mm) optical zoom camera at less than 2.5 cm (an inch) thick. \n*August 1, 2006: Kodak agreed to divest its digital camera manufacturing operations to Flextronics, including assembly, production and testing. As part of the sale it was agreed that Flextronics would manufacture and distribute consumer digital cameras for Kodak, and conduct some design and development functions for it. Kodak kept high-level digital camera design in house, continued to conduct research and development in digital still cameras, and retained all intellectual property and patents. Approximately 550 Kodak personnel transferred to Flextronics.\n*January 10, 2007: Kodak agreed to sell Kodak Health Group to Onex Corporation for $2.35 billion in cash, and up to $200 million in additional future payments if Onex achieved specified returns on the acquisition. The sale was completed May 1. Kodak used part of the proceeds to fully repay its approximately $1.15 billion of secured term debt. Around 8,100 employees transferred to Onex, and Kodak Health Group was renamed Carestream Health. Kodak Health Group had revenue of $2.54 billion for the 12 months to September 30, 2006.\n*April 19, 2007: Kodak announced an agreement to sell its light management films business, which produced films designed to improve the brightness and efficiency of liquid crystal displays, to Rohm and Haas. The divested business comprised 125 workers. As part of the transaction Rohm and Haas agreed to license technology and purchase equipment from Kodak, and lease Building 318 at Kodak Park. The sale price was not disclosed. \n*May 25, 2007: Kodak announced a cross-licensing agreement with Chi Mei Optoelectronics and its affiliate Chi Mei EL (CMEL), enabling CMEL to use Kodak technology for active matrix OLED modules in a variety of small to medium size display applications. \n*June 14, 2007: Kodak announced a two to fourfold increase in sensitivity to light (from one to two stops) compared to current sensor designs. This design was a departure from the classic \"Bayer filter\" by adding panchromatic or “clear” pixels to the RGB elements on the sensor array. Since these pixels are sensitive to all wavelengths of visible light, they collect a significantly higher proportion of the light striking the sensor. In combination with advanced Kodak software algorithms optimized for these new patterns, photographers benefited from an increase in photographic speed (improving performance in low light), faster shutter speeds (reducing motion blur for moving subjects), and smaller pixels (higher resolutions in a given optical format) while retaining performance. The technology was credited to Kodak scientists John Compton and John Hamilton. \n*September 4, 2007: Kodak announced a five-year extension of its partnership with Lexar Media. \n*November 2008: Kodak released the Kodak Theatre HD Player, allowing photos and videos stored on a computer to be displayed on an HDTV. Kodak licensed technology from Hillcrest Labs for the interface and pointer, which allowed a user to control the player with gestures. \n*January 2009: Kodak posted a $137 million fourth-quarter loss and announced plans to cut up to 4,500 jobs. \n*June 22, 2009: Kodak announced that it would cease selling Kodachrome color film by the end of 2009, ending 74 years of production, after a dramatic decline in sales. \n*December 4, 2009: Kodak sold its organic light-emitting diode (OLED) business unit to LG Electronics, resulting in the lay-off of 60 people. \n\n2010–present\n\n*December 2010: Standard & Poor's removed Kodak from its S&P 500 index. \n*September 2011: Kodak hired law firm Jones Day for restructuring advice and its stock dropped to an all-time low of $0.54 a share. During 2011, Kodak shares fell more than 80 percent. \n*January 2012: Kodak received a warning from the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) notifying it that its average closing price was below $1.00 for 30 consecutive days and that over the next 6 months it must increase the closing share price to at least $1 on the last trading day of each calendar month and have an average closing price of at least $1 over the 30 trading-days prior or it would be delisted. From the $90 range in 1997, Kodak shares closed at 76 cents on January 3, 2012. On January 8, 2012, Kodak shares closed over 50% higher after the company announced a major restructuring into two main divisions, one focused on products and services for businesses, and the other on consumer products including digital cameras. \n*January 19, 2012: Kodak filed for Chapter 11 Bankruptcy Protection. The company's stock was delisted from NYSE and moved to OTC exchange. Following the news it ended the day trading down 35% at $0.36 a share.\n*February 7, 2012: The Image Sensor Solutions (ISS) division of Kodak was sold to Truesense Imaging Inc. \n*February 9, 2012: Kodak announced that it would exit the digital image capture business, phasing out its production of digital cameras. Kodak sees home photo printers, high-speed commercial inkjet presses, workflow software and packaging as the core of its future business. Once the digital camera business is phased out, Kodak said its consumer business will focus on printing. It will seek a company to license its EasyShare digital camera brand.\n*August 24, 2012: Kodak announced that it plans to sell its film, commercial scanner and kiosk divisions. \n*September 10, 2012: Kodak announced plans to cut another 1,000 jobs by the end of 2012 and that it is examining further job cuts as it works to restructure its business in bankruptcy. \n*September 28, 2012: Kodak announced that it is exiting the inkjet printer business.\n*December 20, 2012 Kodak announced that it plans to sell its digital imaging patents for about $525 million to some of the world’s biggest technology companies, thus making a step to end bankruptcy. \n*April 29, 2013 Kodak announced an agreement with the U.K. Kodak Pension Plan (KPP) to spin off Kodak’s Personalized Imaging and Document Imaging businesses and settle $2.8 Billion in KPP claims. \n*September 3, 2013 Kodak announces that it has emerged from Chapter 11 Bankruptcy Protection as a company focused on serving commercial customers.\n*October 17, 2013 Kodak brings European headquarter and the entire EAMER Technology Centre under one roof in Eysins, Switzerland. The relocation brings the company's European headquarters and Inkjet demo facilities, which were based in Gland, Switzerland, and the Kodak EAMER Technology and Solutions Centre, which was based in La Hulpe, Belgium, together. \n*March 12, 2014 Kodak names Jeffrey J. Clarke as its new Chief Executive Officer. \n*July 30, 2014 Kodak is negotiating with movie studios for an annual movie film order guarantee to preserve the last source of movie film manufacturing in the United States. \n*December 2014, Kodak announced to release its first Android smartphone which is made by Bullitt and will be displayed at CES 2015. \n\nProducts and services\n\nCurrent\n\nKodak provides packaging, functional printing, graphic communications and professional services for businesses around the world. Its main business segments are Digital Printing & Enterprise and Graphics, Entertainment & Commercial Films. \n\nDigital printing and enterprise\n\nKodak provides high-speed, high-volume commercial inkjet, and color and black-and-white electrophotographic printing equipment and related consumables and services. \nIt has an installed base of more than 5,000 units.\n\nIts Prosper platform uses Stream inkjet technology, which delivers a continuous flow of ink that enables constant and consistent operation, with uniform size and accurate placement, even at very high print speeds. Applications for PROSPER include publishing, commercial print, direct mail, and packaging. The business also includes the customer base of Kodak VersaMark products.\n\nThe NexPress platform is used for printing short-run, personalized print applications for purposes such as direct mail, books, marketing collateral and photo products. The Digimaster platform uses monochrome electrophotographic printing technology to create high-quality printing of statements, short-run books, corporate documentation, manuals and direct mail. \n\nFlexo printing\n\nKodak designs and manufactures products for flexography printing. Its Flexcel line of flexo printing systems allow label printers to produce their own digital plates for customized flexo printing and flexible printed packaging.\n\nFunctional printing\n\nThe company currently has strategic relationships with worldwide touch-panel sensor leaders, such as the partnerships with UniPixel announced on April 16, 2013 and Kingsbury Corp. launched on June 27, 2013. \n\nEnterprise professional services\n\nEnterprise professional services offers print and managed media services, brand protection solutions and services, and document management services to enterprise customers, including government, pharmaceuticals, and health, consumer and luxury good products, retail and finance.\n\nDigital printing solutions\n\nIn 1997, Heidelberg Printing Machines AG and Eastman Kodak Co. had created the Nexpress Solutions LLC joint venture to develop a digital color printing press for the high-end market segment. Heidelberg acquired Eastman Kodak Co.'s Office Imaging black and white digital printing activities in 1999. In 2000, they had launched Digimaster 9110 - Black & White Production Printer and NexPress 2100 Digital Colour Press.\n\nIn March 2004, Heidelberg transferred its Digital Print division to Eastman Kodak Co. under mutual agreement. Kodak continues to research and develop Digital Printing Systems and introduced more products.\n\nAt present, Kodak has commercial Web-fed presses, commercial imprinting systems - Prosper, VersaMark and commercial sheet-fed press - NexPress digital production colour press, DIGIMASTER HD digital black and white production printer. \n\nConsumer inkjet ink cartridges\n\nKodak entered into consumer inkjet photo printers in a joint venture with manufacturer Lexmark in 1999 with the Kodak Personal Picture Maker.\n\nIn February 2007, Kodak re-entered the market with a new product line of All-In-One (AiO) inkjet printers that employ several technologies marketed as Kodacolor Technology. Advertising emphasizes low price for ink cartridges rather than for the printers themselves. \n\nKodak announced plans to stop selling inkjet printers in 2013 as it focuses on commercial printing, but will still sell ink. \n\nGECF\n\nGraphics\n\nKodak's graphics business consists of computer to plate (CTP) devices, which Kodak first launched in 1995 when the company introduced the first thermal CTP to market. In CTP, an output device exposes a digital image using SQUAREspot laser imaging technology directly to an aluminum surface (printing plate), which is then mounted onto a printing press to reproduce the image. Kodak's Graphics portfolio includes front-end controllers, production workflow software, CTP output devices, and digital plates.\n\nGlobal Technical Services\n\nKodak’s Global Technical Services (\"GTS\") for Commercial Imaging is focused on selling service contracts for Kodak products, including the following service categories: field services, customer support services, educational services, and professional services.\n\nEntertainment Imaging and Commercial Film\n\nKodak's Entertainment Imaging and Commercial Film group (\"E&CF\") encompasses its motion picture film business, providing motion imaging products (camera negative, intermediate, print and archival film), services and technology for the professional motion picture and exhibition industries.\n\nE&CF also offers Aerial and Industrial Films including KODAK Printed Circuit Board film, and delivers external sales for the company’s component businesses: Polyester Film, Specialty Chemicals, Inks and Dispersions and Solvent Recovery.\n\nMotion picture and TV production\n\nThe Kodak company played a role in the invention and development of the motion picture industry. Many cinema and TV productions are shot on Kodak film stocks. \n\nThe company helped set the standard of 35 mm film, and introduced the 16 mm film format for home movie use and lower budget film productions.\n\nThe home market-oriented 8 mm and Super 8 formats were also developed by Kodak. Kodak also entered the professional television production video tape market, briefly in the mid-1980s, under the product portfolio name of Eastman Professional Video Tape Products. In 1990, Kodak launched a Worldwide Student Program working with university faculty throughout the world to help nurture the future generation of film-makers. Kodak formed Educational Advisory Councils in the US, Europe and Asia made up of Deans and Chairs of some of the most prestigious film schools throughout the world to help guide the development of their program.\n\nKodak previously owned the visual effects film post-production facilities Cinesite in Los Angeles and London and also LaserPacific in Los Angeles. Kodak sold Cinesite to Endless LLP, an independent British private equity house. \n\nKodak previously sold LaserPacific and its subsidiaries Laser-Edit, Inc, and Pacific Video, Inc., in April 2010 for an undisclosed sum to TeleCorps Holdings, Inc.\n\nKodak also sold Pro-Tek Media Preservation Services, a film storage company in Burbank, California, in October 2013. \n\nTechnical support and on-site service\n\nAside from technical phone support for their products, Kodak offers onsite service for other devices such as document scanners, data storage systems (optical, tape, and disk), printers, inkjet printing presses, microfilm/microfiche equipment, photograph kiosks, and photocopiers, for which they dispatch technicians who make repairs in the field.\n\nOther\n\nKodak markets Picture CDs and other photo products such as calendars, photo books and photo enlargements through retail partners such as CVS, Walmart and Target and through its Kodak Gallery online service, formerly known as Ofoto.\n\nFormer\n\nStill film cameras\n\nOn January 13, 2004, Kodak announced it would stop marketing traditional still film cameras (excluding disposable cameras) in the United States, Canada and Western Europe, but would continue to sell film cameras in India, Latin America, Eastern Europe and China. By the end of 2005, Kodak ceased manufacturing cameras that used the Advanced Photo System. Kodak licensed the manufacture of Kodak branded cameras to Vivitar in 2005 and 2006. After 2007 Kodak did not license the manufacture of any film camera with the Kodak name.\n\nInstant cameras\n\nAfter losing a patent battle with Polaroid Corporation, Kodak left the instant camera business on January 9, 1986. The Kodak instant camera included models known as the Kodamatic and the Colorburst.\n\nPolaroid was awarded damages in the patent trial in the amount of $909,457,567, a record at the time. (Polaroid Corp. v. Eastman Kodak Co., U.S. District Court District of Massachusetts, decided October 12, 1990, case no. 76-1634-MA. Published in the U.S. Patent Quarterly as 16 USPQ2d 1481). See also the following cases: Polaroid Corp. v. Eastman Kodak Co., 641 F.Supp. 828 [228 USPQ 305] (D. Mass. 1985), stay denied, 833 F.2d 930 [5 USPQ2d 1080] (Fed. Cir.), aff'd, 789 F.2d 1556 [229 USPQ 561] (Fed. Cir.), cert. denied, 479 U.S. 850 (1986). \n\nKodak was the exclusive supplier of negatives for Polaroid cameras from 1963 until 1969, when Polaroid chose to manufacture its own instant film.\n\nImage sensors\n\nAs part of its move toward higher end products, Kodak announced on September 15, 2006 that the new Leica M8 camera incorporates Kodak's KAF-10500 image sensor. This was the second recent partnership between Kodak and the German optical manufacturer. In 2011, Kodak sold its Image Sensor Solutions business to Platinum Equity, who subsequently renamed it Truesense Imaging, Inc. \n\nDigital cameras and video cameras\n\nMany of Kodak's early compact digital cameras were designed and built by Chinon Industries, a Japanese camera manufacturer. In 2004, Kodak Japan acquired Chinon and many of its engineers and designers joined Kodak Japan.\n\nThe Kodak DCS series of digital single-lens reflex cameras and digital camera backs were released by Kodak in the 1990s and 2000s, and discontinued in 2005. They were based on existing 35 mm film SLRs from Nikon and Canon and the range included the original Kodak DCS, the first commercially available digital SLR.\n\nIn July 2006, Kodak announced that Flextronics would manufacture and help design its digital cameras.\n\nDigital picture frames\n\nKodak first entered the digital picture frame market with the Kodak Smart Picture Frame in the fourth quarter of 2000. It was designed by Weave Innovations and licensed to Kodak with an exclusive relationship with Weave's StoryBox online photo network. Smart Frame owners connected to the network via an analog telephone connection built into the frame. The frame could hold 36 images internally and came with a six-month free subscription to the StoryBox network. \n\nKodak re-entered the digital photo frame market at CES in 2007 with the introduction of four new EasyShare-branded models that were available in sizes from 200 to, included multiple memory card slots, and some of which included Wi-Fi capability to connect with the Kodak Gallery—that gallery functionality has now been compromised due to gallery policy changes (see below).\n\nKodak Gallery\n\nIn June 2001, Kodak purchased the photo-developing website Ofoto, later renamed Kodak Gallery. The website enables users to upload their photos into albums, publish them into prints, and create mousepads, calendars, etc. On March 1, 2012, Kodak announced that it sold Kodak Gallery to Shutterfly for $23.8 million. \n\nDocument imaging\n\nKodak provides document imaging solutions. Historically this industry began when George Eastman partnered with banks to image checks in the 1920s. Through the development of microfilm technology, Eastman Kodak was able to provide business and government with a solution for long term document storage. Document imaging was one of the first imaging solutions to move to \"digital imaging\" technology. Kodak manufactured the first digital document scanners for high speed document imaging. Today Kodak has a full line of document scanners providing imaging solutions for banking, finance, insurance, healthcare and other vertical industries. Kodak also provides associated document capture software and business process services. Eastman Kodak acquired the Bowe Bell & Howell scanner division in September 2009.\n\nPhotographic film and paper\n\nKodak continues to produce specialty films and film for newer and more popular consumer formats, while it has also discontinued the manufacture of film in older and less popular formats.\n\nKodak is a leading producer of silver halide (AgX) paper used for printing from film and digital images. Minilabs located in retail stores and larger central photo lab operations (CLOs) use silver halide paper for photo printing. In 2005 Kodak announced it would stop producing black-and-white photo paper. \n\nPhoto kiosks\n\nKodak is a manufacturer of self-service photo kiosks that produce \"prints in seconds\" from multiple sources including digital input, scanned prints, Facebook, the Kodak Gallery and orders placed on-line using thermosublimation printers. The company has placed over 100,000 Picture Kiosks in retail locations worldwide. Employing similar technology, Kodak also offers larger printing systems with additional capabilities including duplex greeting cards, large format poster printers, photobooks and calendars under the brand name \"APEX\". \n\nOperations\n\nSubsidiaries\n\n* [http://wwwuk.kodak.com/UK/en/corp/ Kodak Limited (UK)]\n** the Company's sales and marketing headquarters are located at Hemel Hempstead in Hertfordshire\n** manufacturing facilities are sited at Harrow in north-west London, Kirkby near Liverpool, and Annesley in Nottinghamshire\n* [http://motion.kodak.com/motion/Products/FPC/index.htm FPC, Inc.]\n** FPC, US/Canada\n** FPC Italy\n\nKodak Research Laboratories\n\nThe Kodak Research Laboratories were founded in 1912 with Kenneth Mees as the first director. Principal components of the Kodak Research Laboratories were the Photographic Research Laboratories and then the Imaging Research Laboratories. Additional organizations included the Corporate Research Laboratories. Over nearly a century, scientists at these laboratories produced thousands of patents and scientific publications.\n\nNotable people\n\nPresidents and CEOs\n\nScientists\n\n* Bryce Bayer, color scientist (1929–2012)\n* Harry Coover, polymer chemist (1917–2011)\n* F. J. Duarte, laser physicist and author (left in 2006)\n* Loyd A. Jones, camouflage physicist (1884–1954)\n* Maurice Loyal Huggins, polymer scientist (1897–1981)\n* Rudolf Kingslake, optical designer (1903–2003)\n* David MacAdam, color scientist (1910–1998)\n* Kenneth Mees, film scientist and founder of the research laboratories (1882–1960)\n* Perley G. Nutting, physicist and founder of OSA (1873–1949)\n* Steven Van Slyke, OLED scientist (left in 2010)\n* Warren J. Smith, optical engineer (1922–2008)\n* Ching W. Tang, OLED scientist (left in 2006)\n* Arthur Widmer, Special Effects Film Pioneer and receiver of an Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences Award of Commendation (1914-2006)\n\nArchive donation\n\nIn 2005, Kodak Canada donated its entire historic company archives to Ryerson University in Toronto. The Ryerson University Library also acquired an extensive collection of materials on the history of photography from the private collection of Nicholas M. & Marilyn A. Graver of Rochester, New York. The Kodak Archives, begun in 1909, contain the company's Camera Collection, historic photos, files, trade circulars, Kodak magazines, price lists, daily record books, equipment, and other ephemera. It includes the contents of the Kodak Heritage Collection Museum, a museum established in 1999 for Kodak Canada's centennial that Kodak closed in 2005 along with the company's entire 'Kodak Heights' manufacturing campus in Mount Dennis, Toronto. See also: George Eastman House.\n\nControversies\n\nBetter Business Bureau\n\nOn March 26, 2007, the Council of Better Business Bureaus (CBBB) announced that Eastman Kodak was resigning its national membership in the wake of expulsion proceedings initiated by the CBBB Board of Directors. \nIn 2006, Kodak notified the BBB of Upstate New York that it would no longer accept or respond to consumer complaints submitted by them. In prior years, Kodak responded by offering consumers an adjustment or an explanation of the company’s position. The BBB file contains consumer complaints of problems with repairs of Kodak digital cameras, as well as difficulty communicating with Kodak customer service. Among other complaints, consumers say that their cameras broke and they were charged for repairs when the failure was not the result of any damage or abuse. Some say their cameras failed again after being repaired.\n\nKodak said its customer service and customer privacy teams concluded that 99 percent of all complaints forwarded by the BBB already were handled directly with the customer. Brian O’Connor, Kodak chief privacy officer, said the company was surprised by the news release distributed by the Better Business Bureau:\n\nPatent litigation\n\nIn 2010, Apple filed a patent-infringement claim against Kodak. On May 12, 2011, Judge Robert Rogers rejected Apple's claims that two of its digital photography patents were being violated by Kodak. \n\nOn July 1, 2011, the U.S. International Trade Commission partially reversed a January decision by an administrative law judge stating that neither Apple nor Research in Motion had infringed upon Kodak's patents. The ITC remanded the matter for further proceedings before the ALJ.", "Rollfilm or roll film is any type of spool-wound photographic film protected from white light exposure by a paper backing, as opposed to film which is protected from exposure and wound forward in a cartridge. The term originated in contrast to sheet film. Confusingly, roll film was originally often referred to as \"cartridge\" film because of its resemblance to a shotgun cartridge. The opaque backing paper allows roll film to be loaded in daylight. It is typically printed with frame number markings which can be viewed through a small red window at the rear of the camera. A spool of roll film is usually loaded on one side of the camera and pulled across to an identical take up spool on the other side of the shutter as exposures are made. When the roll is fully exposed, the take up spool is removed for processing and the empty spool on which the film was originally wound is moved to the other side, becoming the take up spool for the next roll of film.\n\nHistory\n\nIn 1881 a farmer in Cambria, Wisconsin, Peter Houston, invented the first roll film camera. His younger brother David, filed the patents for various components of Peter's camera. \nDavid Henderson Houston (b. June 14, 1841; d. May 6, 1906\n), originally from Cambria, Wisconsin, patented the first holders for flexible roll film. Houston moved to Hunter in Dakota Territory in 1880. He was issued an 1881 patent for a roll film holder which he licensed to George Eastman (it was used in Eastman's Kodak 1888 box camera). Houston sold the patent (and an 1886 revision ) outright to Eastman for $5000 in 1889. Houston continued developing the camera, creating 21 patents for cameras or camera parts between 1881 and 1902. In 1912 his estate transferred the remainder of his patents to Eastman.\n\n The most popular rollfilm is the type 120 film format, which is used in most medium-format cameras and roll film magazines for large-format cameras. Until the 1950s, 120 roll film was also used in the then most simplist of snapshot cameras, and box cameras. The use of roll film in consumer cameras was largely superseded by 135 and 126 cartridges, but 120 and 220 (double length) film are still commonly used in medium-format cameras.", "A camera is an optical instrument for recording or capturing images, which may be stored locally, transmitted to another location, or both. The images may be individual still photographs or sequences of images constituting videos or movies.The camera is a remote sensing device as it senses subjects without physical contact. The word camera comes from camera obscura, which means \"dark chamber\" and is the Latin name of the original device for projecting an image of external reality onto a flat surface. The modern photographic camera evolved from the camera obscura. The functioning of the camera is very similar to the functioning of the human eye.\n\nFunctional description\n\nA camera may work with the light of the visible spectrum or with other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. A still camera is an optical device which creates a single image of an object or scene, and records it on an electronic sensor or photographic film. All cameras use the same basic design: light enters an enclosed box through a converging lens/convex lens and an image is recorded on a light-sensitive medium(mainly a transition metal-hallide). A shutter mechanism controls the length of time that light can enter the camera. Most photographic cameras have functions that allow a person to view the scene to be recorded, allow for a desired part of the scene to be in focus, and to control the exposure so that it is not too bright or too dim. A display, often a liquid crystal display (LCD), permits the user to view scene to be recorded and settings such as ISO speed, exposure, and shutter speed. \n\nA movie camera or a video camera operates similarly to a still camera, except it records a series of static images in rapid succession, commonly at a rate of 24 frames per second. When the images are combined and displayed in order, the illusion of motion is achieved. \n\nThanks to the help of modern science, A group of photoscientists of MIT has successfully created a camera having frame rate of 1 trillion per second, able to see the light emerging and reflecting or refracting on an opaque or translucent media.\n\nHistory\n\nThe forerunner to the photographic camera was the camera obscura. In the fifth century B.C., the Chinese philosopher Mo Ti noted that a pinhole can form an inverted and focused image, when light passes through the hole and into a dark area. Mo Ti is the first recorded person to have exploited this phenomenon to trace the inverted image to create a picture. Writing in the fourth century B.C., Aristotle also mentioned this principle. He described observing a partial solar eclipse in 330 B.C. by seeing the image of the Sun projected through the small spaces between the leaves of a tree. In the tenth century, the Arabic scholar Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) also wrote about observing a solar eclipse through a pinhole, and he described how a sharper image could be produced by making the opening of the pinhole smaller. English philosopher Roger Bacon wrote about these optical principles in his 1267 treatise Perspectiva. By the fifteenth century, artists and scientists were using this phenomenon to make observations. Originally, an observer had to enter an actual room, in which a pinhole was made on one wall. On the opposite wall, the observer would view the inverted image of the outside. The name camera obscura, Latin for \"dark room\", derives from this early implementation of the optical phenomenon. The term was first coined by mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler in his Ad Vitellionem paralipomena of 1604. \n\nThe Italian scientist Giambattista della Porta described the camera obscura in detail in his 1558 work Magia Naturalis, and specifically suggested that an artist could project a camera obscura's images onto paper, and trace the outlines. The camera obscura was popular as an aid for drawing and painting from the 1600s to the 1800s. Portable set-ups were devised in the 17th century. For example, Kepler had built a portable tent, and outfitted the camera obscura with a lens by 1620. This set-up remained popular up to the early 1800s. The scientist Robert Hooke presented a paper in 1694 to the Royal Society, in which he described a portable camera obscura. It was a cone-shaped box which fit onto the head and shoulders of its user. A hand-held device with a mirror reflex mechanism was first proposed by Johann Zahn in 1685, a design that would later be used in photographic cameras. \n\nBefore the development of the photographic camera, it had been known for hundreds of years that some substances, such as silver salts, darkened when exposed to sunlight. In a series of experiments, published in 1727, the German scientist Johann Heinrich Schulze demonstrated that the darkening of the salts was due to light alone, and not influenced by heat or exposure to air. The Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele showed in 1777 that silver chloride was especially susceptible to darkening from light exposure, and that once darkened, it becomes insoluble in an ammonia solution. The first person to use this chemistry to create images was Thomas Wedgwood. To create images, Wedgwood placed items, such as leaves and insect wings, on ceramic pots coated with silver nitrate, and exposed the set-up to light. These images weren't permanent, however, as Wedgwood didn't employ a fixing mechanism. He ultimately failed at his goal of using the process to create fixed images created by a camera obscura. \n\nImage:Pinhole-camera.svg|Camera obscura. Light enters a dark box through a small hole and creates an inverted image on the wall opposite the hole.\nImage:View from the Window at Le Gras, Joseph Nicéphore Niépce.jpg|View from the Window at Le Gras (1826), the earliest surviving photograph \nImage:Susse Frére Daguerreotype camera 1839.jpg|The Giroux daguerreotype camera, the first to be commercially produced \n\nThe first permanent photograph of a camera image was made in 1826 by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce using a sliding wooden box camera made by Charles and Vincent Chevalier in Paris. Niépce had been experimenting with ways to fix the images of a camera obscura since 1816. The photograph Niépce succeeded in creating shows the view from his window. It was made using an 8-hour exposure on pewter coated with bitumen. Niépce called his process \"heliography\". Niépce corresponded with the inventor Louis-Jacques-Mande Daguerre, and the pair entered into a partnership to improve the heliographic process. Niépce had experimented further with other chemicals, to improve contrast in his heliographs. Daguerre contributed an improved camera obscura design, but the partnership ended when Niépce died in 1833. Daguerre succeeded in developing a high-contrast and extremely sharp image by exposing on a plate coated with silver iodide, and exposing this plate again to mercury vapor. By 1837, he was able to fix the images with a common salt solution. He called this process Daguerreotype, and tried unsuccessfully for a couple years to commercialize it. Eventually, with help of the scientist and politician François Arago, the French government acquired Daguerre's process for public release. In exchange, pensions were provided to Daguerre as well as Niépce's son, Isidore. \n\nIn the 1830s, the English scientist Henry Fox Talbot independently invented a process to fix camera images using silver salts. Although dismayed that Daguerre had beaten him to the announcement of photography, on January 31, 1839 he submitted a pamphlet to the Royal Institution entitled Some Account of the Art of Photogenic Drawing, which was the first published description of photography. Within two years, Talbot developed a two-step process for creating photographs on paper, which he called calotypes. The calotyping process was the first to utilize negative prints, which reverse all values in the photograph - black shows up as white and vice versa. Negative prints allow, in principle, unlimited duplicates of the positive print to be made. Calotyping also introduced the ability for a printmaker to alter the resulting image through retouching. Calotypes were never as popular or widespread as daguerreotypes, owing mainly to the fact that the latter produced sharper details. However, because daguerreotypes only produce a direct positive print, no duplicates can be made. It is the two-step negative/positive process that formed the basis for modern photography. \n\nThe first photographic camera developed for commercial manufacture was a daguerreotype camera, built by Alphonse Giroux in 1839. Giroux signed a contract with Daguerre and Isidore Niépce to produce the cameras in France, with each device and accessories costing 400 francs. The camera was a double-box design, with a landscape lens fitted to the outer box, and a holder for a ground glass focusing screen and image plate on the inner box. By sliding the inner box, objects at various distances could be brought to as sharp a focus as desired. After a satisfactory image had been focused on the screen, the screen was replaced with a sensitized plate. A knurled wheel controlled a copper flap in front of the lens, which functioned as a shutter. The early daguerreotype cameras required long exposure times, which in 1839 could be from 5 to 30 minutes. \n\nAfter the introduction of the Giroux daguerreotype camera, other manufacturers quickly produced improved variations. Charles Chevalier, who had earlier provided Niépce with lenses, created in 1841 a double-box camera using a half-sized plate for imaging. Chevalier’s camera had a hinged bed, allowing for half of the bed to fold onto the back of the nested box. In addition to having increased portability, the camera had a faster lens, bringing exposure times down to 3 minutes, and a prism at the front of the lens, which allowed the image to be laterally correct. Another French design emerged in 1841, created by Marc Antoine Gaudin. The Nouvel Appareil Gaudin camera had a metal disc with three differently-sized holes mounted on the front of the lens. Rotating to a different hole effectively provided variable f-stops, letting in different amount of light into the camera. Instead of using nested boxes to focus, the Gaudin camera used nested brass tubes. In Germany, Peter Friedrich Voigtländer designed an all-metal camera with a conical shape that produced circular pictures of about 3 inches in diameter. The distinguishing characteristic of the Voigtländer camera was its use of a lens designed by Josef Max Petzval. The f/3.5 Petzval lens was nearly 30 times faster than any other lens of the period, and was the first to be made specifically for portraiture. Its design was the most widely used for portraits until Carl Zeiss introduced the anastigmat lens in 1889. \n\nWithin a decade of being introduced in America, 3 general forms of camera were in popular use: the American- or chamfered-box camera, the Robert’s-type camera or “Boston box”, and the Lewis-type camera. The American-box camera had beveled edges at the front and rear, and an opening in the rear where the formed image could be viewed on ground glass. The top of the camera had hinged doors for placing photographic plates. Inside there was one available slot for distant objects, and another slot in the back for close-ups. The lens was focused either by sliding or with a rack and pinion mechanism. The Robert’s-type cameras were similar to the American-box, except for having a knob-fronted worm gear on the front of the camera, which moved the back box for focusing. Many Robert’s-type cameras allowed focusing directly on the lens mount. The third popular daguerreotype camera in America was the Lewis-type, introduced in 1851, which utilized a bellows for focusing. The main body of the Lewis-type camera was mounted on the front box, but the rear section was slotted into the bed for easy sliding. Once focused, a set screw was tightened to hold the rear section in place. Having the bellows in the middle of the body facilitated making a second, in-camera copy of the original image. \n\nDaguerreotype cameras formed images on silvered copper plates. The earliest daguerreotype cameras required several minutes to half an hour to expose images on the plates. By 1840, exposure times were reduced to just a few seconds owing to improvements in the chemical preparation and development processes, and to advances in lens design. American daguerreotypists introduced manufactured plates in mass production, and plate sizes became internationally standardized: whole plate (6.5 x 8.5 inches), three-quarter plate (5.5 x 7 1/8 inches), half plate (4.5 x 5.5 inches), quarter plate (3.25 x 4.25 inches), sixth plate (2.75 x 3.25 inches), and ninth plate (2 x 2.5 inches). Plates were often cut to fit cases and jewelry with circular and oval shapes. Larger plates were produced, with sizes such as 9 x 13 inches (“double-whole” plate), or 13.5 x 16.5 inches (Southworth & Hawes’ plate). \n\nThe collodion wet plate process that gradually replaced the daguerreotype during the 1850s required photographers to coat and sensitize thin glass or iron plates shortly before use and expose them in the camera while still wet. Early wet plate cameras were very simple and little different from Daguerreotype cameras, but more sophisticated designs eventually appeared. The Dubroni of 1864 allowed the sensitizing and developing of the plates to be carried out inside the camera itself rather than in a separate darkroom. Other cameras were fitted with multiple lenses for photographing several small portraits on a single larger plate, useful when making cartes de visite. It was during the wet plate era that the use of bellows for focusing became widespread, making the bulkier and less easily adjusted nested box design obsolete.\n\nFor many years, exposure times were long enough that the photographer simply removed the lens cap, counted off the number of seconds (or minutes) estimated to be required by the lighting conditions, then replaced the cap. As more sensitive photographic materials became available, cameras began to incorporate mechanical shutter mechanisms that allowed very short and accurately timed exposures to be made.\n\nThe use of photographic film was pioneered by George Eastman, who started manufacturing paper film in 1885 before switching to celluloid in 1889. His first camera, which he called the \"Kodak,\" was first offered for sale in 1888. It was a very simple box camera with a fixed-focus lens and single shutter speed, which along with its relatively low price appealed to the average consumer. The Kodak came pre-loaded with enough film for 100 exposures and needed to be sent back to the factory for processing and reloading when the roll was finished. By the end of the 19th century Eastman had expanded his lineup to several models including both box and folding cameras.\n\nFilms also made possible capture of motion (cinematography) establishing the movie industry by end of 19th century.\n\nThe first camera using digital electronics to capture and store images was developed by Kodak engineer Steven Sasson in 1975. He used a charge-coupled device (CCD) provided by Fairchild Semiconductor, which provided only 0.01 megapixels to capture images. Sasson combined the CCD device with movie camera parts to create a digital camera that saved black and white images onto a cassette tape. The images were then read from the cassette and viewed on a TV monitor. Later, cassette tapes were replaced by flash memory.\n\nGradually in the 2000s and 2010s, digital cameras became the dominant type of camera across consumer, television and movies.\n\nMechanics\n\nImage capture\n\nTraditional cameras capture light onto photographic plate or photographic film. Video and digital cameras use an electronic image sensor, usually a charge coupled device (CCD) or a CMOS sensor to capture images which can be transferred or stored in a memory card or other storage inside the camera for later playback or processing.\n\nCameras that capture many images in sequence are known as movie cameras or as ciné cameras in Europe; those designed for single images are still cameras.\n\nHowever these categories overlap as still cameras are often used to capture moving images in special effects work and many modern cameras can quickly switch between still and motion recording modes.\n\nLens\n\nThe lens of a camera captures the light from the subject and brings it to a focus on the sensor. The design and manufacture of the lens is critical to the quality of the photograph being taken. The technological revolution in camera design in the 19th century revolutionized optical glass manufacture and lens design with great benefits for modern lens manufacture in a wide range of optical instruments from reading glasses to microscopes. Pioneers included Zeiss and Leitz.\n\nCamera lenses are made in a wide range of focal lengths. They range from extreme wide angle, and standard, medium telephoto. Each lens is best suited to a certain type of photography. The extreme wide angle may be preferred for architecture because it has the capacity to capture a wide view of a building. The normal lens, because it often has a wide aperture, is often used for street and documentary photography. The telephoto lens is useful for sports and wildlife but it is more susceptible to camera shake.\n\nFocus\n\nDue to the optical properties of photographic lenses, only objects within a limited range of distances from the camera will be reproduced clearly. The process of adjusting this range is known as changing the camera's focus. There are various ways of focusing a camera accurately. The simplest cameras have fixed focus and use a small aperture and wide-angle lens to ensure that everything within a certain range of distance from the lens, usually around 3 metres (10 ft) to infinity, is in reasonable focus. Fixed focus cameras are usually inexpensive types, such as single-use cameras. The camera can also have a limited focusing range or scale-focus that is indicated on the camera body. The user will guess or calculate the distance to the subject and adjust the focus accordingly. On some cameras this is indicated by symbols (head-and-shoulders; two people standing upright; one tree; mountains).\n\nRangefinder cameras allow the distance to objects to be measured by means of a coupled parallax unit on top of the camera, allowing the focus to be set with accuracy. Single-lens reflex cameras allow the photographer to determine the focus and composition visually using the objective lens and a moving mirror to project the image onto a ground glass or plastic micro-prism screen. Twin-lens reflex cameras use an objective lens and a focusing lens unit (usually identical to the objective lens.) in a parallel body for composition and focusing. View cameras use a ground glass screen which is removed and replaced by either a photographic plate or a reusable holder containing sheet film before exposure. Modern cameras often offer autofocus systems to focus the camera automatically by a variety of methods.\n\nSome experimental cameras, for example the planar Fourier capture array (PFCA), do not require focusing to allow them to take pictures. In conventional digital photography, lenses or mirrors map all of the light originating from a single point of an in-focus object to a single point at the sensor plane. Each pixel thus relates an independent piece of information about the far-away scene. In contrast, a PFCA does not have a lens or mirror, but each pixel has an idiosyncratic pair of diffraction gratings above it, allowing each pixel to likewise relate an independent piece of information (specifically, one component of the 2D Fourier transform) about the far-away scene. Together, complete scene information is captured and images can be reconstructed by computation.\n\nSome cameras have post focusing. Post focusing means take the pictures first and then focusing later at the personal computer. The camera uses many tiny lenses on the sensor to capture light from every camera angle of a scene and is called plenoptics technology. A current plenoptic camera design has 40,000 lenses working together to grab the optimal picture. \n\nExposure control\n\nThe size of the aperture and the brightness of the scene controls the amount of light that enters the camera during a period of time, and the shutter controls the length of time that the light hits the recording surface. Equivalent exposures can be made using a large aperture size with a fast shutter speed and a small aperture with a slow shutter.\n\nShutters\n\nAlthough a range of different shutter devices have been used during the development of the camera only two types have been widely used and remain in use today.\n\nThe Leaf shutter or more precisely the in-lens shutter is a shutter contained within the lens structure, often close to the diaphragm consisting of a number of metal leaves which are maintained under spring tension and which are opened and then closed when the shutter is released. The exposure time is determined by the interval between opening and closing. In this shutter design, the whole film frame is exposed at one time. This makes flash synchronisation much simpler as the flash only needs to fire once the shutter is fully open. Disadvantages of such shutters are their inability to reliably produce very fast shutter speeds ( faster than 1/500th second or so) and the additional cost and weight of having to include a shutter mechanism for every lens.\n\nThe focal-plane shutter operates as close to the film plane as possible and consists of cloth curtains that are pulled across the film plane with a carefully determined gap between the two curtains (typically running horizontally) or consisting of a series of metal plates (typically moving vertically) just in front of the film plane. The focal-plane shutter is primarily associated with the single lens reflex type of cameras, since covering the film rather than blocking light passing through the lens allows the photographer to view through the lens at all times except during the exposure itself. Covering the film also facilitates removing the lens from a loaded camera (many SLRs have interchangeable lenses).\n\nComplexities\n\nProfessional medium format SLR (single-lens-reflex) cameras (typically using 120/220 roll film) use a hybrid solution, since such a large focal-plane shutter would be difficult to make and/or may run slowly. A manually inserted blade known as a dark slide allows the film to be covered when changing lenses or film backs. A blind inside the camera covers the film prior to and after the exposure (but is not designed to be able to give accurately controlled exposure times) and a leaf shutter that is normally open is installed in the lens. To take a picture, the leaf shutter closes, the blind opens, the leaf shutter opens then closes again, and finally the blind closes and the leaf shutter re-opens (the last step may only occur when the shutter is re-cocked).\n\nUsing a focal-plane shutter, exposing the whole film plane can take much longer than the exposure time. The exposure time does not depend on the time taken to make the exposure over all, only on the difference between the time a specific point on the film is uncovered and then covered up again. For example, an exposure of 1/1000 second may be achieved by the shutter curtains moving across the film plane in 1/50th of a second but with the two curtains only separated by 1/20th of the frame width. In fact in practice the curtains do not run at a constant speed as they would in an ideal design, obtaining an even exposure time depends mainly on being able to make the two curtains accelerate in a similar manner.\n\nWhen photographing rapidly moving objects, the use of a focal-plane shutter can produce some unexpected effects, since the film closest to the start position of the curtains is exposed earlier than the film closest to the end position. Typically this can result in a moving object leaving a slanting image. The direction of the slant depends on the direction the shutter curtains run in (noting also that as in all cameras the image is inverted and reversed by the lens, i.e. \"top-left\" is at the bottom right of the sensor as seen by a photographer behind the camera).\n\nFocal-plane shutters are also difficult to synchronise with flash bulbs and electronic flash and it is often only possible to use flash at shutter speeds where the curtain that opens to reveal the film completes its run and the film is fully uncovered, before the second curtain starts to travel and cover it up again. Typically 35mm film SLRs could sync flash at only up to 1/60th second if the camera has horizontal run cloth curtains, and 1/125th if using a vertical run metal shutter.\n\nFormats\n\nA wide range of film and plate formats have been used by cameras. In the early history plate sizes were often specific for the make and model of camera although there quickly developed some standardisation for the more popular cameras. The introduction of roll film drove the standardization process still further so that by the 1950s only a few standard roll films were in use. These included 120 film providing 8, 12 or 16 exposures, 220 film providing 16 or 24 exposures, 127 film providing 8 or 12 exposures (principally in Brownie cameras) and 135 (35 mm film) providing 12, 20 or 36 exposures – or up to 72 exposures in the half-frame format or in bulk cassettes for the Leica Camera range.\n\nFor cine cameras, film 35 mm wide and perforated with sprocket holes was established as the standard format in the 1890s. It was used for nearly all film-based professional motion picture production. For amateur use, several smaller and therefore less expensive formats were introduced. 17.5 mm film, created by splitting 35 mm film, was one early amateur format, but 9.5 mm film, introduced in Europe in 1922, and 16 mm film, introduced in the US in 1923, soon became the standards for \"home movies\" in their respective hemispheres. In 1932, the even more economical 8 mm format was created by doubling the number of perforations in 16 mm film, then splitting it, usually after exposure and processing. The Super 8 format, still 8 mm wide but with smaller perforations to make room for substantially larger film frames, was introduced in 1965.\n\nCamera accessories\n\nAccessories for cameras are mainly for care, protection, special effects and functions.\n*Lens hood: used on the end of a lens to block the sun or other light source to prevent glare and lens flare (see also matte box).\n*Lens cap: covers and protects the lens during storage.\n*Lens adapter: sometimes called a step-ring, adapts the lens to other size filters.\n*Lens filters: allow artificial colors or change light density.\n*Lens extension tubes allow close focus in macro photography.\n*Flash equipment: including light diffuser, mount and stand, reflector, soft box, trigger and cord.\n*Care and protection: including camera case and cover, maintenance tools, and screen protector.\n*Large format cameras use special equipment which includes magnifier loupe, view finder, angle finder, focusing rail /truck.\n*Battery and sometimes a charger.\n*Some professional SLR could be provided with interchangeable finders for eye-level or waist-level focusing, focusing screens, eye-cup, data backs, motor-drives for film transportation or external battery packs.\n*Tripod, microscope adapter, cable release, electric wire release.\n\nCamera designs\n\nPlate camera\n\nThe earliest cameras produced in significant numbers used sensitised glass plates were plate cameras. Light entered a lens mounted on a lens board which was separated from the plate by an extendible bellows.There were simple box cameras for glass plates but also single-lens reflex cameras with interchangeable lenses and even for color photography (Autochrome Lumière). Many of these cameras had controls to raise or lower the lens and to tilt it forwards or backwards to control perspective.\n\nFocussing of these plate cameras was by the use of a ground glass screen at the point of focus. Because lens design only allowed rather small aperture lenses, the image on the ground glass screen was faint and most photographers had a dark cloth to cover their heads to allow focussing and composition to be carried out more easily. When focus and composition were satisfactory, the ground glass screen was removed and a sensitised plate put in its place protected by a dark slide. To make the exposure, the dark slide was carefully slid out and the shutter opened and then closed and the dark slide replaced.\n\nGlass plates were later replaced by sheet film in a dark slide for sheet film; adaptor sleeves were made to allow sheet film to be used in plate holders. In addition to the ground glass, a simple optical viewfinder was often fitted. Cameras which take single exposures on sheet film and are functionally identical to plate cameras were used for static, high-image-quality work; much longer in 20th century, see Large-format camera, below.\n\nFolding camera\n\nThe introduction of films enabled the existing designs for plate cameras to be made much smaller and for the base-plate to be hinged so that it could be folded up compressing the bellows. These designs were very compact and small models were dubbed vest pocket cameras. Folding rollfilm cameras were preceded by folding plate cameras, more compact than other designs.\n\nBox camera\n\nBox cameras were introduced as a budget level camera and had few if any controls. The original box Brownie models had a small reflex viewfinder mounted on the top of the camera and had no aperture or focusing controls and just a simple shutter. Later models such as the Brownie 127 had larger direct view optical viewfinders together with a curved film path to reduce the impact of deficiencies in the lens.\n\nRangefinder camera\n\nAs camera a lens technology developed and wide aperture lenses became more common, rangefinder cameras were introduced to make focussing more precise. Early rangefinders had two separate viewfinder windows, one of which is linked to the focusing mechanisms and moved right or left as the focusing ring is turned. The two separate images are brought together on a ground glass viewing screen. When vertical lines in the object being photographed meet exactly in the combined image, the object is in focus. A normal composition viewfinder is also provided. Later the viewfinder and rangefinder were combined. Many rangefinder cameras had interchangeable lenses, each lens requiring its own range- and viewfinder linkages.\n\nRangefinder cameras were produced in half- and full-frame 35 mm and rollfilm (medium format).\n\nInstant picture camera\n\nAfter exposure every photograph is taken through pinch rollers inside of the instant camera. Thereby the developer paste contained in the paper 'sandwich' distributes on the image. After a minute, the cover sheet just needs to be removed and one gets a single original positive image with a fixed format. With some systems it was also possible to create an instant image negative, from which then could be made copies in the photo lab. The ultimate development was the SX-70 system of Polaroid, in which a row of ten shots - engine driven - could be made without having to remove any cover sheets from the picture. There were instant cameras for a variety of formats, as well as cartridges with instant film for normal system cameras.\n\nSingle-lens reflex\n\nIn the single-lens reflex camera, the photographer sees the scene through the camera lens. This avoids the problem of parallax which occurs when the viewfinder or viewing lens is separated from the taking lens. Single-lens reflex cameras have been made in several formats including sheet film 5x7\" and 4x5\", roll film 220/120 taking 8,10, 12 or 16 photographs on a 120 roll and twice that number of a 220 film. These correspond to 6x9, 6x7, 6x6 and 6x4.5 respectively (all dimensions in cm). Notable manufacturers of large format and roll film SLR cameras include Bronica, Graflex, Hasselblad, Mamiya, and Pentax. However the most common format of SLR cameras has been 35 mm and subsequently the migration to digital SLR cameras, using almost identical sized bodies and sometimes using the same lens systems.\n\nAlmost all SLR cameras use a front surfaced mirror in the optical path to direct the light from the lens via a viewing screen and pentaprism to the eyepiece. At the time of exposure the mirror is flipped up out of the light path before the shutter opens. Some early cameras experimented with other methods of providing through-the-lens viewing, including the use of a semi-transparent pellicle as in the Canon Pellix and others with a small periscope such as in the Corfield Periflex series. \n\nTwin-lens reflex\n\nTwin-lens reflex cameras used a pair of nearly identical lenses, one to form the image and one as a viewfinder. The lenses were arranged with the viewing lens immediately above the taking lens. The viewing lens projects an image onto a viewing screen which can be seen from above. Some manufacturers such as Mamiya also provided a reflex head to attach to the viewing screen to allow the camera to be held to the eye when in use. The advantage of a TLR was that it could be easily focussed using the viewing screen and that under most circumstances the view seen in the viewing screen was identical to that recorded on film. At close distances however, parallax errors were encountered and some cameras also included an indicator to show what part of the composition would be excluded.\n\nSome TLR had interchangeable lenses but as these had to be paired lenses they were relatively heavy and did not provide the range of focal lengths that the SLR could support. Most TLRs used 120 or 220 film; some used the smaller 127 film.\n\nLarge-format camera\n\nThe large-format camera, taking sheet film, is a direct successor of the early plate cameras and remained in use for high quality photography and for technical, architectural and industrial photography. There are three common types, the view camera with its monorail and field camera variants, and the press camera. They have an extensible bellows with the lens and shutter mounted on a lens plate at the front. Backs taking rollfilm, and later digital backs are available in addition to the standard dark slide back. These cameras have a wide range of movements allowing very close control of focus and perspective. Composition and focusing is done on view cameras by viewing a ground-glass screen which is replaced by the film to make the exposure; they are suitable for static subjects only, and are slow to use.\n\nMedium-format camera\n\nMedium-format cameras have a film size between the large-format cameras and smaller 35mm cameras. Typically these systems use 120 or 220 rollfilm. The most common image sizes are 6×4.5 cm, 6×6 cm and 6×7 cm; the older 6×9 cm is rarely used. The designs of this kind of camera show greater variation than their larger brethren, ranging from monorail systems through the classic Hasselblad model with separate backs, to smaller rangefinder cameras. There are even compact amateur cameras available in this format.\n\nSubminiature camera\n\nCameras taking film significantly smaller than 35 mm were made. Subminiature cameras were first produced in the nineteenth century. The expensive 8×11 mm Minox, the only type of camera produced by the company from 1937 to 1976, became very widely known and was often used for espionage (the Minox company later also produced larger cameras). Later inexpensive subminiatures were made for general use, some using rewound 16 mm cine film. Image quality with these small film sizes was limited.\n\nMovie camera\n\nA ciné camera or movie camera takes a rapid sequence of photographs on image sensor or strips of film. In contrast to a still camera, which captures a single snapshot at a time, the ciné camera takes a series of images, each called a \"frame\" through the use of an intermittent mechanism.\n\nThe frames are later played back in a ciné projector at a specific speed, called the \"frame rate\" (number of frames per second). While viewing, a person's eyes and brain merge the separate pictures to create the illusion of motion. The first ciné camera was built around 1888 and by 1890 several types were being manufactured. The standard film size for ciné cameras was quickly established as 35mm film and this remained in use until transition to digital cinematography. Other professional standard formats include 70 mm film and 16mm film whilst amateurs film makers used 9.5 mm film, 8mm film or Standard 8 and Super 8 before the move into digital format.\n\nThe size and complexity of ciné cameras varies greatly depending on the uses required of the camera. Some professional equipment is very large and too heavy to be hand held whilst some amateur cameras were designed to be very small and light for single-handed operation.\n\nCamcorders\n\nA camcorder is an electronic device combining a video camera and a video recorder. Although marketing materials may use the colloquial term \"camcorder\", the name on the package and manual is often \"video camera recorder\". Most devices capable of recording video are camera phones and digital cameras primarily intended for still pictures; the term \"camcorder\" is used to describe a portable, self-contained device, with video capture and recording its primary function.\n\nProfessional video camera\n\nA professional video camera (often called a television camera even though the use has spread beyond television) is a high-end device for creating electronic moving images (as opposed to a movie camera, that earlier recorded the images on film). Originally developed for use in television studios, they are now also used for music videos, direct-to-video movies, corporate and educational videos, marriage videos etc.\n\nThese cameras earlier used vacuum tubes and later electronic sensors.\n\nDigital camera\n\nA digital camera (or digicam) is a camera that encodes digital images and videos digitally and stores them for later reproduction. Most cameras sold today are digital, and digital cameras are incorporated into many devices ranging from mobile phones (called camera phones) to vehicles.\n\nDigital and film cameras share an optical system, typically using a lens with a variable diaphragm to focus light onto an image pickup device. The diaphragm and shutter admit the correct amount of light to the imager, just as with film but the image pickup device is electronic rather than chemical. However, unlike film cameras, digital cameras can display images on a screen immediately after being recorded, and store and delete images from memory. Most digital cameras can also record moving videos with sound. Some digital cameras can crop and stitch pictures and perform other elementary image editing.\n\nConsumers adopted digital cameras in 1990s. Professional video cameras transitioned to digital around the 2000s-2010s. Finally movie cameras transitioned to digital in the 2010s.\n\npanoramic camera\n\nPanoramic cameras are fixed-lens digital action cameras. They usually have a single fish-eye lens or multiple lenses, to cover the entire 180° up to 360° in their field of view.\n\nVR Camera \n\nVR cameras are panoramic cameras that also cover the top and bottom in their field of view. . There have also been camera rigs employing multiple cameras to cover the whole 360° by 360° field of view. The most famous VR camera rig is known as 'Google Jump'.\n\nImage gallery\n\nFile:Susse Frére Daguerreotype camera 1839.jpg|The Giroux daguerreotype camera, the first to be commercially produced\nFile:Studijskifotoaparat.JPG|19th century studio camera, with bellows for focusing\nFile:Leica IIIa Rangefinder.jpg|Rangefinder camera, Leica c. 1936\nImage:Leica M9.jpg|Leica M9 with a Summicron-M 28/2 ASPH Lens\nFile:Olympus E-420.jpg|Olympus Four Thirds single-lens reflex camera\nFile:Rolleiflex camera.jpg|Twin-lens reflex camera\nFile:Institut Lumière - CINEMATOGRAPHE Camera.jpg|Cinématographe Lumière at the Institut Lumière, France\nFile:Canon PowerShot A95 - front and back.jpg|Front and back of Canon PowerShot A95, a typical pocket-size digital camera\nFile:Digital_television_camera.jpg| Digital television camera by Sony\nFile:Arri Alexa camera.jpg|Arri Alexa, a digital movie camera\nFile:Zenit - E camera with Helios 44-2 lens.JPG" ] }

{ "description": [ "George Eastman - invented the roll ... The invention of roll film greatly sped up the process of ... Carin T. (2004). George Eastman: The Kodak Camera Man. Enslow ...", "George Eastman was one of the first to ... The Pocket KODAK Camera was announced. It used roll film and incorporated a small window ... Kodak invented the world's ...", "... George Eastman and the Roll Film Camera. ... Picture of George Eastman with a Kodak camera ... His improvements also proved to be vital to the invention of ...", "George Eastman: The invention of the Kodak hand ... Carver George; ... for his hand-held box camera which used roll film containing a 100 exposure of roll of ...", "Original Kodak Camera, Serial No. 540. ... George Eastman invented flexible roll film and in 1888 introduced the Kodak camera shown to use this film.", "... George Eastman put the first simple camera ... roll film in 1889, it enabled Thomas Edison to develop the first motion picture camera. 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The roll film was also the basis for the invention of the motion picture film in 1888 by world's first filmmaker, Louis Le Prince, and a decade later by his followers Léon Bouly, Thomas Edison, the Lumière Brothers and Georges Méliès.\nBiography\nHe was the third and youngest child of George Washington Eastman and Maria Kilbourn, both from the bordering town of Marshall. His third sister died shortly after her birth. In 1854, his father established the Eastman Commercial College in Rochester. The Eastman family moved to Rochester in 1865. Two years later after his father's death, George Eastman left high school to support his mother and sisters. At age 14 he began working as an office boy.\nIn 1874, Eastman became intrigued with photography, but found the process awkward. It required coating a glass plate with a liquid emulsion, which had to be quickly used before it dried. After three years of experimentation with British gelatin emulsions, Eastman developed a dry photographic plate, and patented it in both England and the US. In 1880 he began a photographic business.\nIn 1884, Eastman patented a photographic medium that replaced fragile glass plates with a photo-emulsion coated on paper rolls. The invention of roll film greatly sped up the process of recording multiple images.\nAd for the Kodak camera.\nEastman then received a patent in 1888 for a camera designed to use roll film. He coined the marketing phrase, \"You press the button, we do the rest.\" The phrase entered the public consciousness. It was even incorporated into a Gilbert & Sullivan operetta (Utopia, Limited).\nThe camera owner could send in the camera with a processing fee of $10. The company would develop the film, print 100 pictures, and also send along a new roll of 100-exposures film.\nOn September 4, 1888 Eastman registered the trademark Kodak. The letter \"K\" had been a favorite of Eastman's. He said, \"[I]t seems a strong, incisive sort of letter\". Eastman and his mother devised the name Kodak with an anagram set. He used three principal concepts to create the name: it must be short, it could not be mispronounced, and it could not resemble anything else or be associated with anything but Kodak.\nBy 1896, 100 Kodak cameras had been sold. The first Kodak cost USD $25. In an effort to bring photography to the masses, Eastman introduced the Brownie in 1900 at a price of just $1. It became a great success.\nIn 1925, Eastman gave up his daily management of Kodak, to become chairman of the board. He thereafter concentrated on philanthropic activities, to which he had already donated substantial sums. He was one of the major philanthropists of his time, ranking only slightly behind Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller, and a few others, but did not seek publicity for his activities. He concentrated on institution-building and causes which could help people's health. He donated to the University of Rochester, establishing the Eastman School of Music and School of Dentistry; to Tuskegee Institute; and to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), donations which provided the capital to build several of their first buildings at their second campus along the Charles River.\nIn his final two years, Eastman was in intense pain, caused by a degenerative disorder affecting his spine. He had trouble standing and his walking became a slow shuffle. Today it might be diagnosed as spinal stenosis, a narrowing of the spinal canal caused by calcification in the vertebrae. Eastman grew depressed, as he had seen his mother spend the last two years of her life in a wheelchair from the same condition. On March 14, 1932, Eastman committed suicide. He left a suicide note that read, \"To my Friends, My work is done. Why wait?\" His funeral was held at St. Paul's Episcopal Church in Rochester. Eastman, who never married, was buried on the grounds of the company he founded at Kodak Park in Rochester, New York.\nLegacy\nDuring his lifetime, he donated $100 million, mostly to the University of Rochester and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (under the alias \"Mr. Smith\"). The Rochester Institute of Technology has a building dedicated to Mr. Eastman, in recognition of his support and substantial donations. He endowed the Eastman School of Music of the University of Rochester.\nMIT has a plaque of Eastman (the rubbing of which is traditionally considered by students to bring good luck) in recognition of his donation. Eastman also made substantial gifts to the Tuskegee Institute and the Hampton Institute. Upon his drew, his entire estate went to the University of Rochester, where his name can be found on the Eastman Quadrangle of the River Campus. His former home at 900 East Avenue in Rochester, New York was opened as the George Eastman House International Museum of Photography and Film in 1949. On the 100th anniversary of his birth in 1954, Eastman was honored with a postage stamp from the United States Post Office.\nA First Day Cover Honoring George Eastman 1954.\nEastman had a very astute business sense. He focused his company on making film when competition heated up in the camera industry. By providing quality and affordable film to every camera manufacturer, Kodak managed to turn its competitors into de facto business partners.\nIn 1926 George Eastman was approached by Lord Riddell, the Chairman of Royal Free Hospital, to fund a dental clinic in London. He agreed to give £200,000 which was matched by £50,000 each from Lord Riddell and Sir Albert Levy, the Royal Free's honorary treasurer.\nThe Eastman Dental Clinic was opened in 20 November 1931 by the American Ambassador in the presence of Neville Chamberlain. The building, which resembled the Rochester Dispensary, was totally integrated into the Royal Free Hospital and included three wards for oral, ear, nose, and throat and cleft lip and palate surgery and was dedicated to providing dental care for children from the poor districts of central London.\nSee also\n•Eastman Dental Institute London\nReferences\n1.^ George Eastman - The Man: About His Life. Kodak: History of Kodak. Retrieved on December 7, 2006.\n2.^ Kodak film patented on October 14, 1884\n3.^ Men of 1914: An Accurate Biographical Record of Prominent Men in All Walks of Life Who Have Achieved Success in Their Chosen Vocations in the Various Civil, Industrial, and Commercial Lines of Activity, Chicago: American Publishers' Association, 1915, OCLC 49777827\n4.^ Building the Foundation. Kodak: History of Kodak. Retrieved on December 7, 2006.\n5.^ Kodak Origins. Retrieved on 2007-02-02.\n6.^ Rochester's History. George Eastman. Retrieved on 2007-02-02.\n7.^ - George Eastman Biography (2006) nnbd.com.\n8.^ - Famous Suicide Notes (2006) corsinet.com.\n9.^ Ford, Carin T. (2004). George Eastman: The Kodak Camera Man. Enslow Publishers, INC..\n• ^ - History of the Eastman Dental Institute (2007) eastman.ucl.ac.uk\n•\nBooks\n•Carl W. Ackerman, George Eastman: Founder of Kodak and the Photography Business (1930), Beard Books, ISBN 1-89312299-9\n•Elizabeth Brayer, George Eastman: A Biography (1996), John's Hopkins University Press, ISBN 0-8018-5263-3, University of Rochester Press 2006 reprint: ISBN 1-58046247-2\nExternal links\n•George Eastman archive at the University of Rochester\n•The George Eastman Memorial", "Milestones | Kodak\nMILESTONES\n1878 1930 1960 1980 1990 2000 2010\nGeorge Eastman was one of the first to demonstrate the great convenience of gelatin dry plates over the cumbersome and messy wet plate photography prevalent in his day. Dry plates could be exposed and developed at the photographer's convenience; wet plates had to be coated, exposed at once, and developed while still wet.\n1878\nEastman invented an emulsion-coating machine which enabled him to mass-produce photographic dry plates.\n1879\nEastman began commercial production of dry plates in a rented loft of a building in Rochester, N.Y.\n1880\nIn January, Eastman and Henry A. Strong (a family friend and buggy-whip manufacturer) formed a partnership known as the Eastman Dry Plate Company. ♦ In September, Eastman quit his job as a bank clerk to devote his full time to the business.\n1881\nThe Eastman Dry Plate Company completed transfer of operations to a four-story building at what is now 343 State Street, Rochester, NY, the company's worldwide headquarters.\n1883\nThe business was changed from a partnership to a $200,000 corporation with 14 shareowners when the Eastman Dry Plate and Film Company was formed. ♦ EASTMAN Negative Paper was introduced. ♦ Eastman and William H. Walker, an associate, invented a roll holder for negative papers.\n1884\nEASTMAN American Film was introduced - the first transparent photographic \"film\" as we know it today. ♦ The company opened a wholesale office in London, England.\n1885\nGeorge Eastman became one of the first American industrialists to employ a full-time research scientist to aid in the commercialization of a flexible, transparent film base.\n1886\nThe name \"Kodak\" was born and the KODAK camera was placed on the market, with the slogan, \"You press the button - we do the rest.\" This was the birth of snapshot photography, as millions of amateur picture-takers know it today.\n1888\nThe first commercial transparent roll film, perfected by Eastman and his research chemist, was put on the market. The availability of this flexible film made possible the development of Thomas Edison's motion picture camera in 1891. ♦ A new corporation - The Eastman Company - was formed, taking over the assets of the Eastman Dry Plate and Film Company.\n1889\nThe company marketed its first daylight-loading camera, which meant that the photographer could now reload the camera without using a darkroom. ♦ The manufacture of photographic film and paper was transferred to four newly-constructed buildings at Kodak Park, in Rochester. Also, the company's first manufacturing plant outside the U.S. was opened in Harrow, England.\n1891\nThe company became Eastman Kodak Company of New York.\n1892\nA six-story Camera Works was built on State Street, in Rochester, to manufacture the growing line of box and folding roll-film cameras.\n1893\nThe Pocket KODAK Camera was announced. It used roll film and incorporated a small window through which positioning numbers for exposures could be read.\n1895\nOne year after the discovery of x-rays, Eastman entered into an agreement to supply plates and paper for the new process. ♦ Kodak also marketed the first film especially coated for motion picture use.\n1896\nKodak established a wholly-owned subsidiary in France, expanding a branch office which had been opened in 1891.\n1897\nKodak marketed the Folding Pocket KODAK Camera, now considered the ancestor of all modern roll-film cameras. It produced a 2 1/4-inch by 3 1/4-inch negative, which remained the standard size for decades. ♦ The company's suggestion system began. It provided cash payments to employees for suggestions that improved the company's operations.\n1898\nThe company developed the continuous wheel process for manufacturing transparent film base, which had previously been coated on long tables. ♦ Eastman awarded Kodak employees a bonus from his personal funds for their \"extra good work.\" ♦ Kodak Canada Limited was organized as a distribution center in Toronto.\n1899\nThe first of the famous BROWNIE Cameras was introduced. It sold for $1 and used film that sold for 15 cents a roll. For the first time, the hobby of photography was within the financial reach of virtually everyone.\n1900\nEastman Kodak Company of New Jersey, the present parent company, was formed. George Eastman became president of the New Jersey holding company. Henry A. Strong, Eastman's original partner, remained at the head of the New York company until his death in 1919.\n1901\nThe KODAK Developing Machine made it possible for amateurs to process their own film without a darkroom.\n1902\nKODAK Non-Curling Film, which would remain the standard for amateur photography for nearly 30 years, was introduced.\n1903\nKodak's worldwide employment passed the 5,000 mark.\n1907\nKodak produced the world's first commercially practical safety film using cellulose acetate base instead of the highly flammable cellulose nitrate base. ♦ A manufacturing plant was opened in Australia.\n1908\nThe company's Blair Camera factory in Rochester was renamed the Hawk-Eye Works, and a department for the design of optics was established there in 1912. ♦ Eastman created a benefit, accident, and pension fund for employees. ♦ The company's first safety committee was organized to study accident prevention.\n1911\nEastman hired Dr. C.E. Kenneth Mees, a British scientist, to organize and head a research laboratory in Rochester, one of the first industrial research centers in the U.S. ♦ Kodak employees received their first Wage Dividend, a profit-sharing program that continues in the U.S. today.\n1912\nThe introduction of EASTMAN Portrait Film began a transition to the use of sheet film instead of glass plates for professional photographers.\n1913\nA 16-story office building, the company's present worldwide headquarters, was completed at 343 State Street in Rochester. Three more stories were added in 1930.\n1914\nKodak developed aerial cameras and trained aerial photographers for the U.S. Signal Corps during World War I. Eastman also offered the U.S. Navy supplies of cellulose acetate for coating airplane wings and producing unbreakable lenses for gas masks.\n1917\nTennessee Eastman Company was organized to manufacture wood alcohol for film base.\n1920\nThe Eastman Savings and Loan Association was established to help employees save and to finance home purchases. It remained part of the company until it became a self-standing credit union in 1994.\n1921\nKodak made amateur motion pictures practical with the introduction of 16 mm reversal film on cellulose acetate (safety) base, the first 16 mm CINE-KODAK Motion Picture Camera, and the KODASCOPE Projector. The immediate popularity of 16 mm movies resulted in a network of Kodak processing laboratories throughout the world.\n1923\nEastman became chairman of Kodak's board of directors. William G. Stuber, whom Eastman had hired in 1894 to direct emulsion-making, was elected president.\n1925\nKodak employment throughout the world passed the 20,000 mark.\n1927\nMotion pictures in color became a reality for amateur cinematographers with the introduction of 16 mm KODACOLOR Film. ♦ The first microfilm system, designed to simplify the management of bank records, was introduced by Recordak Corporation, a newly-formed subsidiary of Kodak. ♦ Retirement annuity, life insurance, and disability benefit programs were established for Kodak men and women.\n1928\nThe company introduced its first motion picture film designed especially for making the then new sound motion pictures.\n1929\nKodak purchased a gelatin manufacturing plant in Peabody, Massachusetts, and formed Eastman Gelatin Corporation.\n1930\nTennessee Eastman began marketing its first cellulose acetate yarn in the textile field. ♦ Kodak introduced KODALITH Film and Plates, which replaced the collodion wet plates used in the graphic arts industry. ♦ KODAK VERICHROME Film was introduced, offering greater latitude and finer grain than the KODAK NC (Non-Curling) Film that had been the standard since 1903. ♦ Kodak bought the Nagel Camera Company in Stuttgart, Germany. This became Kodak A.G., which for decades served as an equipment manufacturing site for Kodak. Another German factory in Koepenick was lost in the division of Germany after World War II.\n1931\nThe first 8 mm amateur motion picture film, cameras, and projectors were introduced. ♦ Tennessee Eastman began production of its first plastic - EASTMAN TENITE Acetate. ♦ George Eastman died, leaving his entire residual estate to the University of Rochester. In 1949, his Rochester home was opened as an independent public museum - The International Museum of Photography at George Eastman House.\n1932\nKodak and Western Electric jointly commercialized high-speed industrial photography with a high-speed camera, synchronized with an electric timer.\n1933\nKodak A.G. (Germany) introduced the first of its 35 mm precision KODAK RETINA Cameras. ♦ Kodak and General Mills, Inc. began a joint research program on molecular distillation, based on earlier Kodak research. By 1938, Distillation Products, Incorporated was manufacturing vitamin concentrates and, in 1948, Kodak bought General Mills' interest in the company. ♦ William G. Stuber became chairman of the board of directors and Frank Lovejoy succeeded him as president.\n1934\nKODACHROME Film was introduced and became the first commercially successful amateur color film. It was initially offered in 16 mm format for motion pictures; 35 mm slides and 8 mm home movies followed in 1936.\n1935\nKodak introduced a new home movie camera - the 16 mm Magazine CINE-KODAK Camera - that used film in magazines instead of rolls. A year later, Kodak introduced its first 16 mm sound-on-film projector, the Sound KODASCOPE Special Projector.\n1936\nKodak introduced its first slide projector, the KODASLIDE Projector. A top-load model, it took one slide at a time.\n1937\nKodak developed the first camera with built-in photoelectric exposure control – the Super KODAK Six-20 Camera.\n1938\nKodak added a READY-MOUNT Service for 35 mm KODACHROME Film. This made it possible to project slides as soon as they were received from a Kodak processing laboratory. ♦ The company began a program of annual fellowship grants to colleges and universities throughout the nation.\n1939\nKodak marketed the versatile KODAK EKTRA Camera, with a shutter-speed range from 1/1000 to 1 second. ♦ Airgraph, or \"V-Mail,\" was developed by Kodak as a system for microfilming letters to conserve shipping space during World War II. ♦ Frank Lovejoy was elected chairman of the board and Thomas J. Hargrave, previously head of the company's legal department, became president.\n1941\nKODACOLOR Film for prints, the world's first true color negative film, was announced. ♦ Kodak's Rochester plants were awarded the U.S. Army-Navy \"E\" for high achievement in the production of equipment and films for the war effort.\n1942\nPerley S. Wilcox succeeded Frank Lovejoy as chairman of the board of directors. He had previously directed the formation of Tennessee Eastman Company in 1920.\n1945\nKodak marketed KODAK EKTACHROME Transparency Sheet Film, the company's first color film that photographers could process themselves using newly marketed chemical kits. ♦ Kodak employment worldwide passed the 60,000 mark.\n1946\nThe world's first commercial production of synthetic vitamin A began at Distillation Product Industries (DPI); DPI discontinued vitamin A production in 1973. ♦ Kodak introduced the EASTMAN Television Recording Camera, in cooperation with DuMont Laboratories and NBC, for recording images from a television screen.\n1947\nKodak announced a 35 mm tri-acetate safety base film for the motion picture industry to replace the flammable cellulose nitrate base - and received an Oscar® for it two years later. ♦ Fully automatic processing of snapshots was made possible by the KODAK Continuous Paper Processor. The machine produced 2,400 finished snapshots an hour.\n1948\nThe company unveiled the first in its long-running series of KODAK COLORAMA Display transparencies - 18 feet high and 60 feet wide - overlooking the main terminal floor of Grand Central Station in New York City. An estimated 650,000 commuters and tourists viewed this popular attraction every business day, and many of the dramatic photographs displayed over the years were the subject of widespread newspaper and magazine coverage. The exhibit was permanently dismantled in early 1989 as part of Grand Central's restoration.\n1950\nThe low-priced BROWNIE 8 mm Movie Camera was introduced. The BROWNIE Movie Projector was added in 1952, and the BROWNIE Turret Camera was introduced in 1955. ♦ Recordak Corporation introduced the new BANTAM Microfilmer with the highest reduction ratio ever achieved - 40:1. ♦ The Texas Eastman Company began operations in Longview, Texas, for the production of alcohols and aldehydes for the chemical trade. ♦ Dr. Albert K. Chapman succeeded Thomas J. Hargrave as president of the company when Hargrave became chairman of the board.\n1951\nKODAK TRI-X Film, a high-speed black-and-white film, was introduced. ♦ Texas Eastman constructed a new plant to produce EASTMAN TENITE polyethylene plastic. ♦ Kodak Brasileira began operating a sensitizing plant in Sao Paulo, Brazil.\n1954\nKodak began selling color films without the cost of processing included, as the result of a consent decree signed in 1954. The long-term result was the creation of a new market for Kodak, providing products and services to independent photofinishers. ♦ The company's employment throughout the world reached 73,000.\n1955\nBlack-and-white KODAK VERICHROME Pan Film was introduced, replacing the popular KODAK VERICHROME Film that was launched in 1931. ♦ Tennessee Eastman introduced VEREL Fiber for use in rugs, draperies and other household furnishings. ♦ Kodak formed the Apparatus and Optical Division, which included the Camera Works and the Hawk-Eye Works in Rochester.\n1956\nThe KODAK BROWNIE STARMATIC Cameras were introduced. These cameras eventually included seven models, and more than 10 million were sold over the next five years.\n1957\nThe KODAK CAVALCADE Projector, the company's first fully automatic slide projector, was introduced. ♦ The KODAK X-OMAT Processor reduced the processing time for x-ray films from one hour to six minutes. ♦ The company's first single-lens reflex camera, the KODAK RETINA Reflex Camera, was manufactured by Kodak A.G. in Stuttgart, Germany. ♦ KODAK Polyester Textile Fiber, developed by Tennessee Eastman, was made available for use in clothing. A plant for large-scale production of EASTMAN KODEL Fiber was built in 1960.\n1958\nKODAK High Speed EKTACHROME Film became the fastest color film on the market. ♦ Fully automatic exposure control was introduced on two Kodak still cameras and four 8 mm movie cameras. ♦ The number of Kodak shareowners passed the 100,000 mark.\n1959\nKODAK ESTAR Film Base (a polyester film base) was introduced to give improved dimensional stability to KODALITH Graphic Arts Film. ♦ The RECORDAK RELIANT 500 Microfilmer was introduced and was capable of photographing up to 500 checks or 185 letters in one minute. ♦ Dr. Albert K. Chapman became vice-chairman of the board of directors and William S. Vaughn became president and chief executive officer.\n1960\nThe company introduced the first in its very successful line of KODAK CAROUSEL Projectors, which featured a round tray holding 80 slides. ♦ KODACHROME II Film was introduced, providing a significant improvement over the long-established KODACHROME Film.\n1961\nThe company's U.S. consolidated sales exceeded $1 billion for the first time and worldwide employment passed the 75,000 mark. ♦ John Glenn became the first American astronaut to orbit the earth, and Kodak film recorded his reactions to traveling through space at 17,400 miles per hour. ♦ Dr. Albert K. Chapman became chairman of the board of directors following the death of Thomas J. Hargrave.\n1962\nThe line of KODAK INSTAMATIC Cameras was introduced, featuring easy-to-use cartridge-loading film, which brought amateur photography to new heights of popularity. More than 50 million INSTAMATIC Cameras were produced by 1970.\n1963\nThe Kodak Pavilion at the New York World's Fair was one of the ten largest buildings at the international exposition. The \"Tower of Photography\" featured the largest outdoor color prints ever exhibited.\n1964\nKodak developed the super 8 format and launched super 8 movies with new cartridge-loading KODACHROME II Film. ♦ KODAK INSTAMATIC Cameras enabled picture-takers to take four flash pictures without changing flashbulbs. ♦ New automated processing systems reduced the processing time for x-ray films to a mere 90 seconds.\n1965\nThe KODAK 2620 Color Printer incorporated an electronic memory to produce 2,000 to 3,000 prints an hour. ♦ \"The photograph of the century,\" a close-up of the crater Copernicus on the moon, was made by Lunar Orbiter II, using a dual-lens camera, film, processor, and readout device supplied by Kodak. ♦ Combined sales of all Kodak units around the world surpassed $4 billion, and Kodak employment throughout the world passed the 100,000 mark.\n1966\nRelocation of the Camera Works plant was begun on a 600-acre site in the town of Gates, NY. The site, Elmgrove Plant, was the center of U.S. equipment manufacturing until its sale in 2000. Afterwards, its operations moved to other Kodak locations. ♦ William S. Vaughn became chairman of the board of directors and Dr. Louis K. Eilers succeeded him as president.\n1967\nCarolina Eastman Company was dedicated in Columbia, South Carolina, for the manufacture of KODEL Polyester fibers and yarn.\n1968\nConstruction began on Kodak Colorado Division - a manufacturing unit for films and papers, located in Windsor, Colorado. ♦ A very special stereo camera made by Kodak accompanied astronauts Aldrin and Armstrong when they set foot on the moon. ♦ Kodak received an Emmy® Award for its development of fast color film processing for television use. ♦ The KODAK EKTAGRAPHIC Slide Projector, Kodak's first slide projector designed for the professional audio-visual market, was introduced. ♦ The number of shareowners passed the 200,000 mark.\n1969\nA new film manufacturing plant in Guadalajara, Mexico was dedicated. ♦ The company's suggestion system received its one millionth suggestion. ♦ Dr. Louis K. Eilers became chairman of the board and Gerald B. Zornow was named president. ♦ More than 50 million KODAK INSTAMATIC Cameras were produced from 1963 to 1970.\n1970\nKodak introduced KODAK EKTACHROME 160 Movie Film (Type A) and two new super 8 movie cameras which, in combination, made possible \"existing light\" movies for home use. ♦ The Marketing Education Center (also known as the Riverwood site), opened as a training facility that offered a variety of educational services to professionals who used Kodak products.\n1971\nKodak reduced the popular INSTAMATIC Camera to pocket size with the introduction of five different KODAK Pocket INSTAMATIC Cameras, using a new KODAK 110 Film Cartridge. The line was so popular that more than 25 million cameras were produced in slightly under three years. ♦ Walter A. Fallon became president and chief executive officer and Gerald B. Zornow was elected chairman of the board.\n1972\nThe company unveiled sound home movies with the introduction of two super 8 sound movie cameras and cartridge-loading super 8 film, magnetically striped for sound recording. ♦ Worldwide employment passed the 120,000 mark.\n1973\nKodak invented the world's first digital camera. The prototype was the size of a toaster and captured black-and-white images at a resolution of 10,000 pixels (.01 megapixels). ♦ Kodak introduced the KODAK EKTAPRINT 100 Copier-Duplicator, which received immediate industry acclaim for its high-quality copies and the user conveniences made possible by an on-board microcomputer.\n1975\nThe line of KODAK EKTAPRINT Copier-Duplicators was expanded to six different models. ♦ New KODAK ORACLE and KODAK STARVUE Microfilm Products were introduced, providing high-speed, automated retrieval of microfilmed images. ♦ New KODAK Instant Cameras, and a print film for self-developing color prints, were announced.\n1976\nArkansas Eastman Company, the newest member of the Eastman Chemicals Division, began commercial production of organic chemicals. ♦ Walter A. Fallon was elected chairman of the board and Colby H. Chandler became president.\n1977\nEastman Chemicals Division introduced EASTMAN KODAPAK Thermoplastic Polyester for use in manufacturing beverage bottles.\n1978\nKodak celebrated its 100th anniversary. ♦ The company announced its entry into the clinical diagnostic market with the KODAK EKTACHEM 400 Analyzer, utilizing dry-chemistry blood serum analysis.\n1980\nCompany sales surpassed the $10 billion mark. ♦ Kodak acquired Atex, Inc., a manufacturer of computer-based publishing systems. ♦ The introduction of KODAK EKTAFLEX PCT Color Printmaking Products made it easy for home darkroom enthusiasts to make color enlargements.\n1981\nKodak launched \"disc photography\" with a line of compact, \"decision-free\" cameras built around a rotating disc of film. ♦ KODACOLOR VR 100 Film was introduced, using a new T-GRAIN Emulsion Technology which represented a major break-through in silver-halide emulsions. ♦ The Kodak pavilion opened in Walt Disney World's new EPCOT Center near Orlando, Florida.\n1982\nColby H. Chandler was elected chairman and chief executive officer and Kay R. Whitmore became president. ♦ The KODAK KAR 4000 Information System provided advanced capabilities for computer-assisted storage and retrieval of microfilm images. ♦ Tennessee Eastman began operation of the only commercial plant in the U.S. for making industrial chemicals from coal. ♦ The KODAK EKTACHEM DT60 Analyzer, a desktop unit, brought the convenience of dry-chemistry blood serum analysis to the physician's office.\n1983\nKodak entered the video market with the KODAVISION Series 2000 8 mm video system and introduced KODAK Videotape Cassettes in 8 mm, Beta, and VHS formats. ♦ The company announced a full line of flexible floppy disks for personal computers.\n1984\nThe company introduced two new image management systems - the KODAK EKTAPRINT Electronic Publishing System (KEEPS) and the KODAK Information Management System (KIMS). ♦ Minilab systems for photofinishers were introduced, offering consumers exceptionally fast photo print service.\n1985\nThe company introduced two new KODACOLOR VR-G 35 Films and re-entered the 35 mm camera market with two new Kodak VR 35 Cameras. ♦ The company announced KODAK ULTRALIFE Lithium Power Cells, the world's first 9-volt lithium cells for consumer use, and entered the general consumer battery market with a line of KODAK SUPRALIFE Batteries. ♦ Kodak entered a new health-care business with the establishment of its Eastman Pharmaceuticals Division.\n1986\nThe company entered the electronic still-video market with seven products for recording, storing, manipulating, transmitting and printing electronic still video images. ♦ Construction began on a new state-of-the-art sensitizing plant in Rochester, N.Y., for coating color films for professional use. ♦ Kodak announced its first one-time-use camera - the KODAK FLING Camera - which contained a 110 KODACOLOR Film Cartridge.\n1987\nKodak acquired Sterling Drug Inc., providing the infrastructure and marketing ability Kodak needed to participate in markets for ethical/prescription and over-the-counter drugs. Kodak eventually sold its non-imaging health-related businesses in 1994. ♦ Qualex, Inc. was established as a joint venture between Kodak and Fuqua Industries, Inc., merging the operations of about 90 photographic processing labs owned by the two parties. ♦ The first line of color negative films created especially for photojournalists was introduced with KODAK EKTAPRESS GOLD Films. ♦ Black-and-white film technology progressed with KODAK T-MAX P3200 Film. ♦ The KODAK CREATE-A-PRINT 35 mm Enlargement Center enabled consumers to crop and make their own enlargements in a few minutes.\n1988\nKodak celebrated the 100th anniversary of motion pictures by introducing EASTMAN EXR Color Negative Films. ♦ The KODAK XL 7700 Digital Continuous Tone Printer, which produced large format thermal color prints, was introduced. ♦ The one-time-use KODAK STRETCH 35 Camera produced 3 1/2 x 10 - inch prints for panoramic scenes. ♦ The one-time-use KODAK WEEKEND 35 Camera was an all-weather camera capable of taking pictures underwater down to a depth of 8 feet. ♦ The KODAK IMAGELINK Component Series (for document imaging) and KODAK OPTISTAR Products (for computer output) offered a choice of micrographic or digital capture of images. ♦ The KODAK X-OMATIC RA cassette significantly reduced radiographic exposure for pediatric patients.\n1989\nKay Whitmore was elected Kodak Chairman and CEO. ♦ Kodak announced the development of its Photo CD system for playing images on television screens, and proposed a worldwide standard for defining color in the digital environment of computers and computer peripherals. ♦ The KODAK PREMIER Image Enhancement System helped commercial and industrial photography labs achieve new levels of quality and productivity by combining silver-halide and electronic technologies to scan photographs, digitize the information, and then output to photographic film or paper. ♦ The company announced its first product in a new family of document management systems, providing high-speed printing capability for centralized duplicating departments. ♦ Kodak began a recycling program for one-time use cameras and also began using recycled paperboard for film boxes.\n1990\nSterling Drug Inc. announced an agreement with Sanofi, a leading French pharmaceutical company, that would result in a number of joint ventures between the companies. ♦ The KODAK Professional Digital Camera System (DCS) was introduced, enabling photojournalists to take electronic pictures with a Nikon F-3 camera equipped by Kodak with a 1.3 megapixel sensor. ♦ New copiers from Kodak offered innovative digital features, such as the ability to customize copies of original documents. ♦ Kodak completed construction, started in 1986, of a new state-of-the-art sensitizing plant in Rochester, N.Y., for coating color professional and motion picture films.\n1991\nThe KODAK FUN SAVER Telephoto 35 Camera was added to the popular line of one-time use cameras. ♦ Kodak sold its 100,000th X-OMAT X-ray film processor, first introduced in 1956. ♦ The company announced a joint R&D project with Canon, Fuji, Minolta and Nikon to develop an Advanced Photographic System. ♦ New digital products included the KODAK Professional DCS 200 Digital Camera and the KODAK XLT 7720 Digital Continuous Tone Printer. ♦ KODAK EKTAPRO Projectors became the first Kodak slide projectors to connect to a computer. ♦ Kodak received an R&D 100 Award for its INSIGHT Thoracic Imaging System, which produced significantly improved X-ray images of soft tissues. ♦ KODACOLOR film celebrated its 50th anniversary.\n1992\nKodak introduced 20 new photographic products, including the sleek, compact CAMEO 35 mm Camera Line; new EKTACHROME LUMIERE Films; an underwater version of EKTACHROME Film; and the KODAK FUN SAVER Portrait 35 One-Time Use Camera. ♦ The company launched a stream of new software products and Photo CD formats for commercial use, in addition to a portable Photo CD player. ♦ Using Kodak's new CINEON Technology, Kodak technicians digitally restored Walt Disney's 1937 classic Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. ♦ George M.C. Fisher, previously CEO of Motorola, became Kodak's Chairman and CEO. ♦ At year-end, Eastman Chemical Company (including Distillation Products business), founded in 1920, was spun off to shareholders and became an independent company with its own board of directors and New York Stock Exchange listing.\n1993\nKodak announced 30 new products, including KODAK ROYAL GOLD Film and new digital imaging products and services. Digital products included the KODAK Copyprint Station, for making new prints from old prints; the KODAK Digital Enhancement Station 100, enabling retailers to help consumers eliminate defects such as \"red-eye;\" and the KODAK Creation Station, an easy-to-use walk-up center for making digital prints from negatives, slides, prints and Photo CD images. ♦ Kodak divested its non-imaging health-related businesses - Sterling Winthrop, L&F Products and Clinical Diagnostics - enabling the company to focus all of its resources on its core imaging business.\n1994\nKodak introduced its Internet website, kodak.com, providing an opportunity for Internet users all over the world to learn more about Kodak's people, products, services, and history. ♦ Kodak advanced its digital imaging business with the KODAK DC40 Point-and-Shoot Digital Camera, and new premium-grade paper and transparency film formulated to provide high-quality color images from ink-jet printers. ♦ Kodak announced that Danka Business Systems PLC would sell and service KODAK High-Volume Copiers throughout the U.S. and Canada.\n1995\nThe Advanced Photo System format was introduced. Features included drop-in film cartridge loading, mid-roll change enabling the film to be removed before being completely exposed, and three picture formats (Classic, Group, and Panoramic). Kodak unveiled the ADVANTIX Brand, for its related products. ♦ The company unveiled the first in a series of pocket-sized digital cameras for the rapidly growing consumer digital market. ♦ Kodak television commercials featured the theme, \"Take Pictures. Further.,\" a campaign designed to broaden the appeal of the Kodak brand. ♦ The company shipped its 10,000th medical laser printer, the KODAK EKTASCAN 2180 Laser Printer. ♦ Daniel A. Carp was appointed Kodak's President and Chief Operating Officer.\n1996\nKodak sold the sales, marketing, and equipment service operations of its Office Imaging business and its facilities management business (formerly known as Kodak Imaging Services) to Danka Business Systems PLC. ♦ The company introduced four new KODAK GOLD Films (100, 200, 400 and Max 800 speeds) that employed COLORSHARP Technology. ♦ By February, the company had recycled more than 100 million one-time-use cameras since the program began in 1990. ♦ The KODAK Picture Network was announced, enabling people to view their photos, order reprints, and share their pictures with friends and family around the world via the Internet. ♦ In April, the company unveiled the KODAK DIGITAL SCIENCE DC120 Zoom Digital Camera, the first point-and-shoot megapixel quality digital camera under $1,000. ♦ Kodak and Sun Chemical Corporation agreed to form a joint venture, Kodak Polychrome Graphics, to supply the graphic arts market with sensitized products as well as computer-to-plate and other digital solutions. ♦ An advanced Kodak image sensor allowed NASA's Mars Rover to \"see\" as it moved about to explore that planet's surface.\n1997\nKODAK PROFESSIONAL PORTRA Color Negative Films, and KODAK PROFESSIONAL SUPRA III Color Paper were introduced. ♦ America Online and Kodak announced \"You've Got Pictures!\" a service where AOL members could have their processed pictures delivered online. ♦ Kodak acquired most of Imation Corporation's worldwide medical imaging business, including the DRYVIEW Laser Imaging business. ♦ Astronaut John Glenn and the other members of the STS-95 crew used a KODAK PROFESSIONAL DCS 460 Digital Camera to capture high-resolution images for real-time transmission back to Earth during their space flight.\n1998\nKodak sold its digital printer, copier/duplicator, and roller assembly operations to Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG. The two companies also expanded their NEXPRESS Joint Venture, which was created in 1989. ♦ The company announced New DURALIFE Paper for snapshots set performance benchmarks for tear-resistance, durability, brightness/whiteness, image sharpness, and curl resistance. ♦ Kodak's Commercial & Government Systems business introduced an Earth-imaging digital camera capable of showing surface objects as small as one meter in length. ♦ Kodak and Lexmark International, Inc. teamed up to introduce the KODAK Personal Picture Maker for home printing of digital images. ♦ The Health Imaging business announced the KODAK DRYVIEW 8600 Laser Imaging System for mammography and three state-of-the-art digital radiography systems for capturing x-ray images. ♦ Kodak and Sanyo Electric Co. unveiled the world's first commercial model of a full-color, active matrix organic electroluminescent (OLED) display.\n1999\nDaniel A. Carp became Kodak's CEO in addition to his role as President. ♦ Kodak's Health Imaging unit introduced 45 new products during the year, including, KODAK INSIGHT Intraoral Dental Film, a dental radiography film that helped dentists reduce radiation exposure to patients while delivering excellent images, and two new digital radiography systems, the KODAK DirectView DR 9000 and DirectViewDR 5000. ♦ Kodak's Entertainment Imaging unit and Qualcomm Inc. launched an initiative to collaborate on testing, core technologies for the creation of a high-quality digital cinema system. ♦ At year-end, Kodak completed the acquisition of Lumisys, Inc., a leading provider of desktop computed radiography systems and x-ray film digitizers.\n2000\nDaniel A. Carp became Kodak's Chairman in addition to his role as President and CEO. ♦ The company completed its acquisition of Bell & Howell Company's imaging businesses. ♦ Kodak announced a new worldwide advertising campaign, \"Share Moments. Share Life.\" ♦ The KODAK EASYSHARE System, a new line of digital cameras and docking systems that set the standard for ease of use for digital photography, was launched. ♦ In June, the company acquired Ofoto, Inc., a leading online photography service.\n2001\nKodak acquired Encad, Inc., a subsidiary focused on the wide-format inkjet printing industry. ♦ KODAK PERFECT TOUCH Processing was introduced. It improved sharpness, contrast and color in photographic prints by individually scanning and digitally processing each picture. ♦ The company introduced the KODAK 8500 Digital Photo Printer, a photo-quality, thermal desktop printer. ♦ Low-volume KODAK i200 Series Scanners featured much of the technology found in Kodak’s higher-speed scanners, plus the market’s first dockable flatbed accessory ♦ Kodak and Sanyo Electric Co. unveiled a prototype of a fifteen-inch flat-panel display based on Kodak's patented organic light-emitting diode (OLED) technology. ♦ The company unveiled KODAK VISION2 Motion Picture Color Negative Film, a descendant of the VISION Films which were introduced in 1995 and quickly became the most widely used motion-picture films in the world.\n2002\nThe KODAK EASYSHARE Printer Dock 6000, which enabled consumers to produce durable, borderless 4\" x 6\" KODAK Prints at home, was introduced. ♦ New digital cameras included the KODAK EASYSHARE LS633 Zoom Digital Camera, the first digital camera to feature an organic light-emitting diode (OLED) display, and the KODAK EASYSHARE DX6490 Camera for advanced amateur photographers.. ♦ Kodak made several acquisitions including PracticeWorks, Inc., a provider of dental practice management software; 20% of Lucky Film Co., Ltd., the largest maker of photo film headquartered in China; Laser-Pacific Media Corporation, a provider of post-production services for filmmakers; Algotec Systems Ltd., developer of picture archiving and communications systems for the health industry; and Applied Science Fiction's Digital PIC rapid film processing technology. ♦ Antonio M. Perez joined the company as President and Chief Operating Officer. ♦ The company unveiled a new digitally oriented strategy to expand into a range of commercial businesses.\n2003\nKODAK EASYSHARE Digital Cameras ranked highest in the J.D. Power and Associates 2004 Digital Camera Satisfaction Study for the $200-$399 and $400-$599 price segments. ♦ Kodak became sole owner of the former NEXPRESS Joint Venture (centered on electrophotographic variable-data printing systems), and Scitex Digital Printing (a leader in high-speed variable data inkjet printing). The latter was renamed Kodak Versamark, Inc. ♦ The company bought remaining shares of Chinon Industries, a digital camera manufacturer, acquired the imaging sensor business of National Semiconductor, and formed an alliance with IBM to manufacture CMOS image sensors. ♦ To more closely focus on its growth areas, Kodak sold its Remote Sensing Systems business, which served defense and aerospace customers, to ITT Industries. ♦ Construction began on a manufacturing facility at Kodak's Windsor, Colorado site to expand capacity for thermal media used in products like Kodak's popular picture kiosks. ♦ The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted approval for Kodak's innovative mammography computer-aided detection system designed to aid radiologists in early detection of breast cancer. ♦ KODAK Ultima Picture Paper, with COLORLAST technology, was introduced. When used with the latest inks, photos printed on this inkjet paper will last for more than 100 years in typical home display.\n2004\nThe EASYSHARE-ONE Zoom Digital Camera provided an unprecedented ability to hold up to 1,500 pictures for instant display and to wirelessly transmit images for printing, e-mailing or online viewing. ♦ Smaller than a deck of playing cards, EASYSHARE V-Series Cameras offered the ability to take print-quality still images from video, or torecord up to 80 continuous minutes of TV-quality videos with sound. ♦ The company's OFOTO Online Photo Service changed its name to KODAK EASYSHARE Gallery. ♦ Kodak acquired OREX Computed Radiography Ltd., a leading provider of compact computed radiography systems that digitally acquire x-ray images. ♦ Continuing to grow its Graphic Communications business, the company became sole owner of former joint venture Kodak Polychrome Graphics and acquired Creo Inc.— a premier supplier of prepress and workflow systems. ♦ New offerings for the graphics industry included the KODAK Enterprise Management Solution for business workflow, and the KODAK VERSAMARK VX5000e printing system which offered an effective resolution twice that previously available with continuous inkjet printheads. ♦ Antonio M. Perez became Kodak CEO, in addition to his role as President. ♦ Kodak announced availability of the first CMOS image sensor (CIS) devices to come from its manufacturing alliance with IBM. ♦ Kodak introduced molecular imaging systems that, through a non-invasive procedure, help identify molecular abnormalities that signal disease at a very early stage. At this point the systems are not intended for human use, but they will aid laboratory researchers in fields like cancer study. ♦ The world's first 39 million pixel image sensor, the KODAK KAF-39000 Image Sensor, was introduced. ♦ Strengthening its leading position in retail printing, Kodak introduced the KODAK Picture Kiosk G4, offering faster uploading and printing of images.\n2005\nAntonio M. Perez became Chairman of Kodak, in addition to his role as CEO. ♦ New cameras included: the world's first dual-lens digital still camera, the KODAK EASYSHARE V570 Zoom Digital Camera; the KODAK EASYSHARE V610 dual lens digital camera, the world's smallest camera to feature a 10x optical zoom; and the KODAK EASYSHARE V705 dual-lens digital camera, the world's smallest ultra-wide-angle optical zoom digital camera. ♦ Kodak updated its brand logo, providing a fresh, contemporary look for today's digital world. ♦ Kodak and Motorola entered a global product, cross-licensing and marketing alliance around mobile imaging. ♦ The KODAK Scan Station 100 allowed office workers to simultaneously scan, store and share documents on an office network, and send them anywhere — without a computer. ♦ Enhanced KODAK PROFESSIONAL PORTRA Color Negative Films, for professional photographers, delivered finer grain, spectacular skin tones and superb color in mixed lighting conditions. ♦ Kodak celebrated the 10th anniversary of the first thermal computer-to-plate system for imaging printing plates. The Kodak system uses heat to digitally image plates, a departure from earlier systems that used light. The faster turnaround times, lower cost and improved quality provided by thermal technology continue to benefit commercial printers today.\n2006\nKodak provided an alternative to the high-cost of inkjet printing, introducing KODAK EASYSHARE All-In-One Printers to affordably print crisp, sharp documents and Kodak lab-quality photos using premium pigment-based inks. ♦ KODAK EASYSHARE Digital Picture Frames were introduced, giving consumers an easy and exciting way to play slideshows of favorite pictures and videos – even set to music. ♦ Two new offerings expanded the KODAK NEXPRESS Platform of digital color printing presses, making it easier for commercial print providers to enter - or grow their presence in - the digital printing market. ♦ Kodak completed the sale of its Health Group to an affiliate of Onex Corporation of Canada. ♦ The KODAK TRACELESS System –designed to protect against counterfeiting of items like tickets, documents, and luxury goods – was launched. Invisible markers are embedded in a product or label. Kodak readers then detect these markers to verify authenticity. ♦ Kodak installed its 10,000th computer-to-plate (CTP) device, further cementing its position as a technology leader in this printing market. ♦ Kodak announced a groundbreaking advance in image sensor technology – a filter pattern array that provides a 2X to 4X increase in light sensitivity versus current sensor designs. ♦ Kodak introduced its first camera featuring the company's innovative CMOS image sensor technology. The KODAK EASYSHARE C513 Digital Camera offered 5-megapixel resolution for under $100. ♦ The KODAK FLEXCEL NX Digital Flexographic System was introduced for the packaging industry, providing near-offset print quality on flexible films, foil, labels and other packaging materials. ♦ Kodak launched KODAK PROFESSIONAL T-MAX 400 Black-and-White Film, offering photographers a level of clarity normally available only from 100-speed film. ♦ A new generation of color motion picture film – KODAK VISION3 Film – was introduced, improving exposure in brightest highlights and darkest shadows.\n2007\nKodak received its ninth Oscar® statuette, this time for developing emulsions for KODAK VISION2 Color Negative Films for the motion picture industry. ♦ Kodak launched the APEX system, a dry lab solution for retailers to produce photographic prints, photo books, cards, and other custom photo items. ♦ Using the new KODAK TRUESENSE CMOS pixel and recent color filter pattern technology, Kodak introduced the world's first 1.4 micron, 5 megapixel sensor – designed for consumer applications like mobile phones. ♦ KODAK CCD Image Sensors were used on the space shuttle Discovery to help assess the orbiter's exterior before reentry. ♦ Motorola announced the MOTOZINE ZN5, a camera phone featuring KODAK Imaging Technology for convenient, high quality picture-taking. ♦ Kodak introduced the first 50 million pixel CCD image sensor, offering unprecedented resolution and detail for professional photography. ♦ Kodak introduced high-definition (HD)-enabled products including The KODAK Zi6 Pocket Video Camera for easy shooting and sharing of videos. ♦ KODAK PROFESSIONAL EKTAR 100, offering the finest grain of any color negative film, was launched. ♦ Wireless versions of Kodak's consumer inkjet printers – the Kodak ESP 7 and ESP 9 AiO Printers – were introduced. By year end, more than one million Kodak AiO printers had been sold to consumers since the product's 2007 introduction.\n2008\nKodak's single-use camera recycling program reached the milestone of recycling 1.5 billion cameras, including both Kodak and competitive models. ♦ Kodak's breakthrough Stream commercial inkjet technology – which delivers offset class, variable data printing – entered the market under the KODAK PROSPER family name. The first product available was the KODAK PROSPER S10 Imprinting System, a printhead for use on existing presses. ♦ Kodak continued to grow its line of popular pocket video cameras, introducing the KODAK Zi8 Pocket Video Camera offering full 1080p High Definition video capture. ♦ KODACHROME Color Film was retired, concluding its 74-year run as a photography icon. ♦ The KODAK EASYSHARE S730 Digital Picture Frame, featuring a rechargeable battery that lets you unplug the frame and pass it around for easy viewing – was introduced. ♦ Kodak acquired the document scanner division of BÖWE BELL + HOWELL, a leading supplier of document scanners to value-added resellers, system integrators and end users. ♦ Kodak subsidiary Cinesite won an Emmy® Award for \"Special Visual Effects for a TV Special or Miniseries\" for its work on the HBO production \"Generation Kill.\" ♦ Kodak announced it will sell the assets of its OLED business to a group of LG companies.\n2009\nNew Kodak consumer products promoted ease of sharing pictures. Offerings included the KODAK PULSE Digital Frame – featuring an e-mail address to receive images from KODAK Gallery, Facebook and e-mail messages – and new KODAK EASYSHARE Digital Cameras – featuring a unique Share Buttonthat let users tag pictures for e-mailing and uploading to popular sharing sites or the PULSE Frame. ♦ The KODAK PLAYSPORT Video Camera was the first waterproof offering in Kodak's popular line of consumer pocket video cameras ♦ KODAK TRILLIAN SP Thermal Plates were introduced, providing outstanding quality, efficiency, and environmental benefits for offset printing. ♦ The first full PROSPER Presses – the monochrome KODAK PROSPER 1000 Press and the color KODAK PROSPER 5000 Press – entered the market. ♦ KODAK Picture Saver Scanning Systems were introduced to enable retailers and niche marketers to help consumers digitize photo prints, keepsake documents and other \"printed memories.\" ♦ The KODAK ESP Office 6150 All-in-One Inkjet Printer, with connectivity to print from multiple sources, brought Kodak's revolutionary affordable ink to home-based businesses. ♦ Kodak continued to innovate in film, introducing KODAK PROFESSIONAL PORTRA 400 Film – which features the finest grain structure available in a 400 speed color negative film – and making KODAK PROFESSIONAL EKTAR 100 Film available in large formats. ♦ Retired Kodak researcher Steve Sasson received the National Medal of Technology and Innovation for invention of the digital camera in 1975. It is the highest U.S. honor for scientists, engineers and inventors. ♦ Kodak announced the highest resolution interline transfer CCD image sensor for demanding applications like industrial inspection, aerial photography and security. ♦ The 100th KODAK FLEXCEL NX Digital Flexographic System – an innovative platemaking solution for the printing of flexible packaging materials – was installed.\n2010\nKodak introduced its first waterproof digital still camera, the KODAK EASYSHARE SPORT Camera. ♦ New offerings were launched to meet the growing demand for high-quality photo books and other photo products. The KODAK NEXPRESS Photo Platform lets photo labs, commercial printers, and others digitally print such product offerings; KODAK PROFESSIONAL ENDURA EP-D and EP-L Papers provide the look and feel of photo paper when used in electrophotographic digital presses. ♦ Sharpening its operational focus, Kodak sold its Image Sensor Solutions (ISS) and Eastman Gelatine businesses, as well as parts of its microfilm products and equipment business. Kodak acquired the relief plates business of Tokyo Ohka Kogyo Co., Ltd., helping expand capabilities for flexographic/packaging markets. The unit operates as Yamanashi RPB Supply Company. ♦ KODAK Picture Kiosks were enhanced to allow users to access – and easily make prints or photo products from – the increasing number of images stored on social sites like Facebook. ♦ A wide-format version of the KODAK FLEXCEL NX System, used to produce plates for flexible packaging products, was introduced. It enables printing of larger materials or printing of multiple jobs at one time. ♦ A new generation of KODAK VERSAMARK Printing Systems – with a 40% smaller footprint than competitive systems – was introduced. The units benefit transactional, newsletter, direct mail and newspaper printers where space is at a premium. ♦ Kodak shipped its 100 millionth digital still camera, placing the company among top manufacturers worldwide over the past 15 years. ♦ Kodak introduced a line of home inkjet printers – KODAK HERO All-in-One Printers – that combined high quality output with affordable ink. ♦ KODAK VISION3 50D Color Negative Film 5203/7203 was introduced, giving filmmakers more flexibility for shooting in natural or simulated daylight.\n2011\nKodak entered Chapter 11 reorganization and embarked on a series of changes to focus the company on commercial markets. The changes included phasing out the digital capture business, and selling assets of the KODAK Gallery (on-line photo services) and Cinesite (Kodak's subsidiary for motion picture effects). Toward year's end, the company announced agreements that would bring it approximately $525 million for sale of its digital imaging patents .♦ Ten new commercial technologies were introduced, including the KODAK PROSPER 6000XL Press, a commercial inkjet system capable of printing 1,000 feet per minute; the KODAK FLEXCEL Direct System, for producing in-the-round sleeves for flexographic package printing; and KODAK SONORA XP Process Free Plates that provide the quality, productivity and print capability of mainstream plates without processing equipment or chemistry. ♦ KODAK NEXPRESS Red Fluorescing Ink received the industry's prestigious 2012 Intertech Technology Award. The ink is virtually invisible when printed but shows up under ultraviolet light and is used for fraud protection on printed documents and promotions. ♦ Kodak negotiated new contracts for motion picture film with four key studios: NBC-Universal, Paramount, Disney and Warner Brothers.\n2012\nAs part of its business reorganization, Kodak sold its consumer imaging patents and spun off its Personalized Imaging and Document Imaging businesses. ♦ As a first step into the functional printing market, Kodak entered agreements with two technology firms engaged in manufacturing touch-screen sensors. Each firm is pursuing a different Kodak technology for its offering. ♦ Key product introductions included the KODAK PROSPER 5000XLi Press, which continuously calculates imaging improvements to enhance quality and productivity; and KODAK PRINERGY Workflow 6, which automates the flow of work through a print shop. ♦ After entering new contracts with four of Hollywood's six major motion picture studios in 2012, in 2013 Kodak added new film supply agreements with the remaining two. ♦ KODAK NEXPRESS Gold Dry Ink was launched, enabling users of KODAK NEXPRESS Digital Production Color Presses to add attention-getting gold ink to printed pieces. ♦ Kodak relocated its Europe, Africa and Middle East Region headquarters and commercial demo center to a state-of-the-art building in Eysins (near Lausanne), Switzerland. ♦ Kodak installed its 300th KODAK FLEXCEL NX System. This digital flexographic platemaking system was introduced in 2008. ♦ On September 3, Kodak emerged from Chapter 11 reorganization as a technology company focused on imaging for business. ♦ Kodak and Bobst formed a strategic development agreement to integrate Kodak technology into the Bobst portfolio of packaging production equipment. ♦ James V. Continenza was elected Chairman of the Board of Directors. ♦ Kodak was relisted on the New York Stock Exchange under the new ticker symbol \"KODK.\"\n2013\nOn January 8, Kodak celebrated its recent relisting on the New York Stock Exchange by ringing the opening bell. ♦ Jeff Clarke was named Kodak's new CEO. ♦ To meet growing demand for KODAK SONORA Process Free Plates, Kodak announced plans to add manufacturing lines in China and the U.S. In July, the company marked its 1,000th customer to adopt use of the plates. ♦ Kodak introduced the industry's fastest full-color inkjet presses, the KODAK PROSPER 6000C and 6000P Presses, for commercial printing and publishing applications. ♦ New extensions to the KODAK FLEXCEL NX System were introduced for use in printing of corrugated packaging printing. ♦ The Kodak Technology Solutions unit was formed as an incubator to accelerate development of new technologies coming out of the Kodak Research Labs. ♦ Kodak opened a Technology Center in Shanghai to act as a showcase and demonstration/ training center for its print industry offerings.\n2014", "Patents: George Eastman and the Roll Film Camera\nGeni Blog Home » Genealogy Research » Patents: George Eastman and the Roll Film Camera\nPatents: George Eastman and the Roll Film Camera\nPosted September 4, 2014 by Amanda | One Comment\nDo you remember the days when cameras used film rolls? Today most of us take photos digitally, either with our phones, tablets or a digital camera and it’s easy to forget that it wasn’t always so easy to snap a picture. Nearly fifty years after the world was first introduced to the daguerrotype, American inventor and entrepreneur George Eastman sought to find a way to make photography less cumbersome and easier for the average person to enjoy.\nA few weeks ago, we took a look at the early history of photographs on the anniversary of the daguerreotype . Today let’s take a look at the invention that made photography accessible to everybody with just the push of a button.\nKodak camera\nOn September 4, 1888, Eastman received a patent for a roll-film camera and registered the trademark “Kodak.”  The name “Kodak” came from Eastman’s fondness for the letter “K.” He found it a “strong, incisive sort of letter.” He and his mother devised the name Kodak with an anagram set.\nPatent filed by George Eastman (click to view full patent)\nBy popularizing the use of roll film, Eastman succeeded in bringing photography to the mainstream. Small, affordable, and easy-to-use, Kodak cameras were an instant hit. They even coined the motto: “You press the button, we do the rest.”\nKodak camera ad, 1889\nEach camera had enough film for 100 exposures. When the roll was finished, the user would send it back to Kodak to be processed and developed. The end result would be a circular photograph.\nPicture of George Eastman with a Kodak camera taken with a Kodak camera, 1890\nIn 1892, Eastman established the Eastman Kodak Company in Rochester, New York. The company was the first of its kind to mass produce standardized photography equipment. In 1900, Kodak introduced their famous Brownie cameras. At just $1 and using film that sold for only 15 cents, the Brownie was easy for people of all ages to use.\nEastman Kodak Company, c.1900-1910\nEastman’s contributions revolutionized the industry of photography and transformed the world’s relationship with photos. His improvements also proved to be vital to the invention of motion picture film by some of the world’s first film-makers.", "George Eastman: The Invention of the Kodak Hand-Held Camera\nThe Invention of the Kodak Hand-Held Camera\nHands On Activity: Build a Victorian or Modern Detective / Spy Camera\nFirst Steps in Photography\nEastman's first Kodak hand-held camera from 1888\nThe original concept of camera dates from Grecian times, when Aristotle referred to the principle of the camera obscura (Latin=dark chamber) known also as pinhole camera.\nThe first diagram of a camera obscura appeared in a manuscript by Leonardo da Vinci in 1519.\nIn 16th century brightness and clarity of camera obscuras were improved by enlarging the hole and inserting lens.\nIn 1800 Thomas Wedgwood makes \"sun pictures\" by placing opaque objects on leather treated with silver nitrate; resulting images (shadows) deteriorated rapidly, however, if displayed under light stronger than from candles.\nIn 1814 Joseph Nic�phore Ni�pce achieved first photographic image with a camera obscura - however, the image required eight hours of light exposure and later faded.\nIn 1837 Louis Jacques Mand� Daguerre uses his daguerreotype method (called after his name) - the first image that was fixed and did not fade and needed under thirty minutes of light exposure but could not be reproduced.\nIn 1841 William Henry Talbot patented the Calotype process - the first negative-positive process making possible the first multiple copies, but suffered from the fact that any print would also show the imperfections of the paper.\nIn 1851 Frederick Scott Archer invented the Collodion process - glass plates coated with collodion (guncotton dissolved in ether and alcohol) . The glass had the effect of greatly increasing the speed of the plates enabling shorter exposure times - images required only two or three seconds of light exposure and it was also possible to reproduce quality pictures. But the disadvantage was the awkward handling of the wet plates by the photographer.\nIn 1859 the panoramic camera is patented by Thomas Sutton - the Sutton.\nGeorge Eastman's Contribution and Inventions\nIn 1880 George Eastman (1854 - 1932) perfected a process for making gelatin dry plates (invented in 1971 by Richard Maddox) for photography that were manufactured by The Eastman Dry Plate and Film Company. Before that, photographers had to coat a plate with wet chemical each time they wanted to take a picture (the Collodion process) - a very discouraging process. The increased speed and sensitivity to light of the dryplates freed the camera from the tripod and paved the way for the handheld camera - instant photography at low cost - of this the most popular was the Kodak handheld camera.\nGeorge Eastman founded the Eastman Kodak Co. (1881) and invented the roll paper film (1885) and celluloid film in 1889 which brought photography to everybody. The roll film was also the basis for the invention of the motion picture film, used by early filmmakers Thomas Edison , the Lumiere Brothers , and Georges M�li�s .\nOn September 4, 1888 Eastman registered the trademark Kodak, and received a patent (388850) for his hand-held box camera which used roll film containing a 100 exposure of roll of paper stripping film and the entire camera was sent back to the manufacturer for developing, printing, and reloading with a new film. He coined the phrase \"You Press The Button and We Do The Rest.\"\nKodak No. 2 Brownie box camera, circa 1910.\nIn 1900, Eastman took mass-market photography one step further with the Brownie, a simple and very inexpensive box camera that introduced the concept of the snapshot. The Brownie was extremely popular and various models remained on sale until the 1960s.\nUpon Eastman�s death, his entire residuary estate went to the University of Rochester. His former home at 900 East Avenue in Rochester, New York, was opened as the International Museum of Photography at the George Eastman House in 1947. On the 100th anniversary of his birth in 1954, Eastman was honored with a postage stamp from the United States Post Office.\nIn 1936 was developed Kodachrome by Eastman Kodak, the first color multi-layered color film.\nLater Photography Developments\nIn 1936 was developed in Germany the Kine Exakta, a pioneering 35mm single-lens reflex (SLR) camera.\nIn 1963 Polaroid introduces instant color film.\nIn 1980 Sony demonstrates first consumer camcorder.\nIn 1990 Eastman Kodak announces Photo CD as a digital image storage medium.\nMany contributed to the development of the camera and photography, during the years, in the fields of chemistry, optics and mechanics but we dedicated this page to George Eastman since we think his inventions of dry rolled film and the hand-held camera that could utilize it revolutionized photography in a manner not seen before.\nBuild Your Own Detective Camera\nBackground\nDuring the 1880s a revolution in photography took place (see above): increase in the speed of the new dry plates that shortened the required exposure times, smaller negative formats and new lenses with shorter focal lengths enabled the invention of miniaturized handheld cameras without the need of tripods and with the ability to take fast snapshots of rapidly moving objects.\nA little terminology: The term �hand cameras� or �handheld cameras� denotes all types and sizes of cameras which were fitted with mechanical shutters, dry plates or film, and which could be used off the tripod enabling instantaneous photography. But other terms were used synonymously, including �pocket cameras,� �detective cameras,� and so on. Although each of these terms had specific connotations, 19th century writers often mixed the terms and as a matter of fact, sometimes cameras referred as \"detective\" were quite big since the public was used, till then, to large tripod mounted cameras. Today, sometimes, the term �detective camera� is used for �spy camera�.\nStrictly speaking, detective cameras were popular Victorian cameras before the turn of the 19th century that were designed to look something other than a camera. Most were box cameras designed to look like parcels, disguised as watches, binoculars, books, purses, walking sticks, revolvers and rifles, alarm clocks, spyglasses, and so on. Some models were designed to be worn underneath a vest with lens peaking out through a buttonhole and the shutter operated by a long cord. These cameras were popular all over Europe, especially in England, France and Germany. Most are rare and valuable today.\nAs its name implies, Detective cameras were for taking surreptitious pictures and at the beginning the �detective� camera was used by the police and prison authorities. The idea was immediately adopted by the public who used detective cameras for surreptitious snapshots of strangers. This is part of a general trend of the time: the late Victorians loved similar gadgets, and the craze included music boxes that looked like books and boats that looked like giant swans, etc.\nStirn's Waistcoat Detective Camera, Germany, 1886.\nA few detective cameras were patented during the 1880s.\nThe earliest detective camera was a twin-lens reflex camera designed for police use by the British inventor Thomas Bolas who also coined the term in 1881 (GB provisional patent No. 4823).\nThe Schmid detective camera from 1883 (patent No. 270133) was the first hand-held camera manufactured for sale. This camera employed a newly introduced rapid dry plate film which was fast enough that a tripod was not required in bright daylight.\nIn 1886 a detective camera was patented by George Eastman and F. M. Cossitt (patent No. 353545) which failed in the market but was a precursor of the famous Kodak handheld camera from 1888. Some of the concepts in the detective camera design were used later in 1888.\nIn 1890 Thomas H. Blair patented the Hawk-Eye Detective Camera (patent No. 428448) which was a large wood box camera that took 4 x 5 inch photographs on dry glass plates.\nSee also:", "Original Kodak Camera, Serial No. 540 | National Museum of American History\nOriginal Kodak Camera, Serial No. 540\nDescription\nThis Original Kodak camera, introduced by George Eastman, placed the power of photography in the hands of anyone who could press a button. Unlike earlier cameras that used a glass-plate negative for each exposure, the Kodak came preloaded with a 100-exposure roll of flexible film. After finishing the roll, the consumer mailed the camera back to the factory to have the prints made. In capturing everyday moments and memories, the Kodak's distinctive circular snapshots defined a new style of photography--informal, personal, and fun.\nGeorge Eastman invented flexible roll film and in 1888 introduced the Kodak camera shown to use this film. It took 100-exposure rolls of film that gave circular images 2 5/8\" in diameter. In 1888 the original Kodak sold for $25 loaded with a roll of film and included a leather carrying case.\nThe Original Kodak was fitted with a rotating barrel shutter unique to this model. The shutter was set by pulling up a string on top of the camera and operated by pushing a button on the side of the camera. After taking a photograph, a key on top of the camera was used to wind the film onto the next frame. There is no viewfinder on the camera; instead two V shaped lines on the top of the camera leather are intended to aid aiming the camera at the subject. The barrel shutter proved to be expensive to manufacture and unreliable in operation. The following year the shutter was replaced by a simpler sector shutter in the No 1 Kodak.\nAfter 100 pictures had been taken on the film strip, the camera could be returned to the Kodak factory for developing and printing at a cost of $10. The camera, loaded with a fresh roll of film was returned with the negatives and mounted prints. Kodak advertisements from 1888 also state that any amateur could \"finish his own pictures\" and spare rolls of film were sold for $2.\nLocation", "Heritage | Kodak\nHeritage\n.\nCultural Icon\nWith the slogan \"you press the button, we do the rest,\" George Eastman put the first simple camera into the hands of a world of consumers in 1888. In so doing, he made a cumbersome and complicated process easy to use and accessible to nearly everyone.\nJust as Eastman had a goal to make photography \"as convenient as the pencil,\" Kodak continues to expand the ways images touch people's daily lives. Read on to Learn More.\nLaying the Foundation\nIn 1880, George Eastman, a young hobbyist photographer and school dropout, became one of the first to successfully manufacture dry plates commercially in the United States. One year later Eastman and Henry Strong formed a partnership called the Eastman Dry Plate Company.\nLearn More\nPhotography\nOur founder, George Eastman, devoted his life to making photography “as convenient as the pencil.” His company has been at the center of most milestones in photography and digital imaging ever since.\nLearn More\nMotion Pictures\nWhen George Eastman marketed the first commercial transparent roll film in 1889, it enabled Thomas Edison to develop the first motion picture camera. Since then, Kodak has earned nine Oscar® statuettes – more than any other non-studio company – for its technical contributions to the movie industry.\nLearn More\nPrinting and Publishing\nKodak first sold materials designed for the printing industry in 1912. During the 1950’s and 60’s we helped fuel the color revolution in books and magazines. Today, we are part of a new revolution – to bring sustainable, as well as digital, solutions to commercial printers and publishers.\nLearn More\nDocument Imaging\nGiven young George Eastman’s experience as a bank clerk, it’s not surprising Kodak created a variety of technologies to preserve, copy and manage documents. One descendant of Kodak’s document technologies is the fastest commercial inkjet print engine in today’s printing industry.\nLearn More\nSpace Imaging\nFrom John Glenn’s first orbit to his historic return to space more than 35 years later… from man’s first walk on the moon, to the Mars Rover’s exploration of that planet’s rough terrain. Our technology has enabled many Kodak Moments from space.\nLearn More\nHealth Imaging\nKodak’s role in health imaging began less than a year after Wilhelm Roentgen discovered the x-ray. In the decades that followed, Kodak technology helped medical professionals get an inside look at their patients’ health.\nLearn More\nMilestones\nThe Kodak name is recognized around the world for its long heritage of delivering imaging innovations. The company is now writing its next chapter as a technology company focused on imaging.", "George Eastman | Kodak\nGeorge Eastman\n1884: Eastman at age 30\nHe was a high school dropout, judged \"not especially gifted\" when measured against the academic standards of the day. He was poor, but even as a young man, he took it upon himself to support his widowed mother and two sisters, one of whom had polio.\nHe began his business career as a 14-year old office boy in an insurance company and followed that with work as a clerk in a local bank.\nHe was George Eastman, and his ability to overcome financial adversity, his gift for organization and management, and his lively and inventive mind made him a successful entrepreneur by his mid-twenties, and enabled him to direct his Eastman Kodak Company to the forefront of American industry.\nBut building a multinational corporation and emerging as one of the nation's most important industrialists required dedication and sacrifice. It did not come easily.\nPhoto Credit: Steven Doane, © Eastman Kodak Company\nBoyhood\nThe youngest of three children, George Eastman was born to Maria Kilbourn and George Washington Eastman on July 12, 1854 in the village of Waterville, some 20 miles southwest of Utica, in upstate New York. The house on the old Eastman homestead, where his father was born and where George spent his early years, has since been moved to the Genesee Country Museum in Mumford, N.Y., outside of Rochester\nEarly photos of Eastman (Click to view gallery)\nWhen George was five years old, his father moved the family to Rochester. There the elder Eastman devoted his energy to establishing Eastman Commercial College. Then tragedy struck. George's father died, the college failed and the family became financially distressed.\nGeorge continued school until he was 14. Then, forced by family circumstances, he had to find employment.\nHis first job, as a messenger boy with an insurance firm, paid $3 a week. A year later, he became office boy for another insurance firm. Through his own initiative, he soon took charge of policy filing and even wrote policies. His pay increased to $5 per week.\nBut, even with that increase, his income was not enough to meet family expenses. He studied accounting at home evenings to get a better paying job.\nIn 1874, after five years in the insurance business, he was hired as a junior clerk at the Rochester Savings Bank. His salary tripled -- to more than $15 a week.\n© Eastman Kodak Company\nTrials of an Amateur\nWhen Eastman was 24, he made plans for a vacation to Santo Domingo. When a co-worker suggested he make a record of the trip, Eastman bought a photographic outfit with all the paraphernalia of the wet plate days.\nThe camera was as big as a microwave oven and needed a heavy tripod. And he carried a tent so that he could spread photographic emulsion on glass plates before exposing them, and develop the exposed plates before they dried out. There were chemicals, glass tanks, a heavy plate holder, and a jug of water. The complete outfit \"was a pack-horse load,\" as he described it. Learning how to use it to take pictures cost $5.\nEastman did not make the Santo Domingo trip. But he did become completely absorbed in photography and sought to simplify the complicated process.\nHe read in British magazines that photographers were making their own gelatin emulsions. Plates coated with this emulsion remained sensitive after they were dry and could be exposed at leisure. Using a formula taken from one of these British journals, Eastman began making gelatin emulsions.\nBox of EASTMAN Dry Plates, early 1880s\nHe worked at the bank during the day and experimented at home in his mother's kitchen at night. His mother said that some nights Eastman was so tired he couldn't undress, but slept on a blanket on the floor beside the kitchen stove.\nAfter three years of photographic experiments, Eastman had a formula that worked. By 1880, he had not only invented a dry plate formula, but had patented a machine for preparing large numbers of the plates. He quickly recognized the possibilities of making dry plates for sale to other photographers.\n© Eastman Kodak Company\nBirth of a Company\nIn 1879, London was the center of the photographic and business world. George Eastman went there to obtain a patent on his plate-coating machine. An American patent was granted the following year.\nEarly sites in Rochester (Click to view gallery)\nIn April 1880, Eastman leased the third floor of a building on State Street in Rochester, and began to manufacture dry plates for sale. One of his first purchases was a second-hand engine priced at $125.\n\"I really needed only a one horse-power,\" he later recalled. \"This was a two horse-power, but I thought perhaps business would grow up to it. It was worth a chance, so I took it.\"\nSuccess of the dry plate venture so impressed businessman Henry A. Strong, that he invested some money in the infant concern.\nOn January 1, 1881, Eastman and Strong formed a partnership called the Eastman Dry Plate Company. Late that year, Eastman resigned from his position at the Rochester Savings Bank to devote all his time to the new company and its business. While actively managing all phases of the firm's activities, he continued research in an effort to simplify photography.\n1906: Employees making film boxes at the Kodak Park site\nIn 1884, the Eastman-Strong partnership had given way to a new firm -- the Eastman Dry Plate and Film Company -- with 14 shareowners. A successive concern -- the Eastman Company, was formed in 1889.\nThe company has been called Eastman Kodak Company since 1892, when Eastman Kodak Company of New York was organized. In 1901, the Eastman Kodak Company of New Jersey was formed under the laws of that state.\nEastman built his business on four basic principles:\na focus on the customer\nmass production at low cost\nworldwide distribution\nextensive advertising\nHe saw all four as being closely related. Mass production could not be justified without wide distribution. Distribution, in turn, needed the support of strong advertising. From the beginning, he imbued the company with the conviction that fulfilling customer needs and desires is the only road to corporate success.\n© Eastman Kodak Company\nCustomer Focus\nAs Eastman’s young company grew, it faced total collapse at least once when dry plates in the hands of dealers went bad. Eastman recalled them and replaced them with a good product. \"Making good on those plates took our last dollar,\" he said. \"But what we had left was more important -- reputation.\"\n\"The idea gradually dawned on me,\" he later said, \"that what we were doing was not merely making dry plates, but that we were starting out to make photography an everyday affair.\" Or as he described it more succinctly \"to make the camera as convenient as the pencil.\"\n1910: Woman with camera\nEastman's experiments were directed to the use of a lighter and more flexible support than glass. His first approach was to coat the photographic emulsion on paper and then load the paper in a roll holder. The holder was used in view cameras in place of the holders for glass plates.\nIn 1883, Eastman startled the trade with the announcement of film in rolls, with the roll holder adaptable to nearly every plate Camera on the market.\nThe first film advertisements in 1885 stated that \"shortly there will be introduced a new sensitive film which it is believed will prove an economical and convenient substitute for glass dry plates both for outdoor and studio work.\"\nThis system of photography using roll holders was immediately successful. However, paper was not entirely satisfactory as a carrier for the emulsion because the grain of the paper was likely to be reproduced in the photo.\nEastman's solution was to coat the paper with a layer of plain, soluble gelatin, and then with a layer of insoluble light-sensitive gelatin. After exposure and development, the gelatin bearing the image was stripped from the paper, transferred to a sheet of clear gelatin, and varnished with collodion -- a cellulose solution that forms a tough, flexible film.\nAs he perfected transparent roll film and the roll holder, Eastman changed the whole direction of his work and established the base on which his success in amateur photography would be built.\nHe later said: \"When we started out with our scheme of film photography, we expected that everybody who used glass plates would take up films. But we found that the number which did so was relatively small. In order to make a large business we would have to reach the general public.\"\nWith the KODAK Camera in 1888, Eastman put down the foundation for making photography available to everyone. Pre-loaded with enough film for 100 exposures, the camera could be easily carried and handheld during operation. It was priced at $25. After exposure, the whole camera was returned to Rochester. There the film was developed, prints were made and new film was inserted -- all for $10.\n© Eastman Kodak Company\nAdvertising\nEastman's faith in the importance of advertising, both to the company and to the public, was unbounded. The very first Kodak products were advertised in leading papers and periodicals of the day -- with ads written by Eastman himself.\nEastman introduced the Kodak camera in 1888. Thanks to his inventive genius, anyone could now take pictures with a handheld camera simply by pressing a button. He coined the slogan, \"you press the button, we do the rest,\" and within a year it became a well-known phrase. Later, with advertising managers and agencies carrying out his ideas, magazines, newspapers, displays and billboards bore the Kodak banner.\nVintage Kodak advertisements (Click to view gallery)\nSpace was taken at world expositions, and the \"Kodak Girl,\" with the style of her clothes and the camera she carried changing every year, smiled engagingly at photographers everywhere. In 1897, the word \"Kodak\" sparkled from an electric sign on London's Trafalgar Square -- one of the first such signs to be used in advertising.\nThe word \"Kodak\" was first registered as a trademark in 1888. There has been some fanciful speculation, from time to time, on how the name was originated. But the plain truth is that Eastman invented it out of thin air.\nHe explained: \"I devised the name myself. The letter 'K' had been a favorite with me -- it seems a strong, incisive sort of letter. It became a question of trying out a great number of combinations of letters that made words starting and ending with 'K.' The word 'Kodak' is the result.\" Eastman also selected Kodak's distinctive yellow trade dress, which is widely known throughout the world.\n© Eastman Kodak Company\nTo his basic principles of business, Eastman added these policies:\n1920: Synthetic Chemical Laboratory, Kodak Park site\nfoster growth and development through continuing research\nreinvest profits to build and extend the business, and\ntreat employees in a fair, self-respecting way\nIn regards to his employees and in building his business, Eastman blended human and democratic qualities, with remarkable foresight. He believed employees should have more than just good wages -- a way of thinking that was far ahead of management people of his era.\nEarly in his business, Eastman began planning for \"dividends on wages\" for employees. His first act, in 1899, was the distribution of a substantial sum of his own money -- an outright gift -- to each person who worked for him\nLater he set up a \"Wage Dividend\" – an innovation for its time – in which each employee benefited above his or her wages in proportion to the yearly dividend on the company stock.\nEastman felt that the prosperity of an organization was not necessarily due to inventions and patents, but more to workers' goodwill and loyalty, which in turn were enhanced by forms of profit sharing.\n1923: Woman assembling winding keys at the Camera Works, Rush Rhees Library, University of Rochester\nIn 1919, Eastman gave one-third of his own holdings of company stock – then worth $10 million – to his employees. Still later came the fulfillment of what he felt was a responsibility to employees with the establishment of retirement annuity, life insurance, and disability benefit plans.\nCarl W. Ackerman, a biographer writing in 1932, said: \"Mr. Eastman was a giant in his day. The social philosophy, which he practiced in building his company, was not only far in advance of the thinking during his lifetime, but it will be years before it is generally recognized and accepted.\"\n© Eastman Kodak Company\nGiving Away His Fortune\nEastman is almost as well known for his philanthropy as he is for his pioneering work in photography. In this field, as in others, he put the direction of an enthusiastic amateur to work.\nHe began giving to nonprofit institutions when his salary was $60 a week -- with a donation of $50 to the young and struggling Mechanics Institute of Rochester, now the Rochester Institute of Technology.\nHe was an admirer of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology because he had hired some of its graduates, who had become his best assistants. This admiration, after thorough study, was translated into a handsome gift to M.I.T., eventually reaching $20 million. It was given anonymously from a \"Mr. Smith,\" and for several years the identity of the mysterious \"Mr. Smith\" was speculated about, even finding expression in a popular M.I.T. song.\n\"If a man has wealth, he has to make a choice, because there is the money heaping up. He can keep it together in a bunch, and then leave it for others to administer after he is dead. Or he can get it into action and have fun, while he is still alive. I prefer getting it into action and adapting it to human needs, and making the plan work.\"\n- George Eastman\nDental clinics were also of great interest to Eastman. He devised complete plans and financial backing for a $2.5 million dental clinic for Rochester. He then started a large-scale, remedial dental program for children. Dental clinics were also given to London, Paris, Rome, Brussels and Stockholm.\nWhen asked why he favored dental clinics, he replied, \"I get more results for my money than in any other philanthropic scheme. It is a medical fact that children can have a better chance in life with better looks, better health and more vigor if the teeth, nose, throat and mouth are taken proper care of at the crucial time of childhood.\"\nEastman loved music and wanted others to enjoy the beauty and pleasure of music. He established and supported the Eastman School of Music, a theatre, and a symphony orchestra. \"It is fairly easy to employ skillful musicians. It is impossible to buy appreciation of music. Yet without a large body of people who get joy out of it, any attempt to develop musical resources of any city is doomed to failure,\" he said. So his plan had a practical formula for exposing the public to music -- with the result that the people of Rochester have for decades supported their own philharmonic orchestra.\nLibrary Of University Of Rochester\nInterest in hospitals and dental clinics had grown with Eastman's work and study of the field. He promoted and brought to fruition a program to develop a medical school and hospital at the University of Rochester, which became as nationally prominent as the university's music school. Rochester is filled with Eastman landmarks that contribute to the enrichment of community life.\nHis sincere concern for the education of African Americans brought gifts to the Hampton and the Tuskegee Institutes. One day in 1924, Eastman signed away $30 million to the University of Rochester, M.I.T., Hampton and Tuskegee. As he laid down the pen he said, \"Now I feel better.\"\nIn explaining these large gifts, he said, \"The progress of the world depends almost entirely upon education. I selected a limited number of recipients because I wanted to cover certain kinds of education, and felt I could get results with those named quicker and more directly than if the money were spread.\"\nEastman often made the beneficiary match his gift in some way, so the institution would have the confidence of standing on its own. For him, great wealth brought the greater opportunity to serve.\n© Eastman Kodak Company\nLeisure Hours\nEastman was reticent and shunned publicity. It seems paradoxical that the man whose name is synonymous with photography should have fewer photographs taken of him than many other outstanding leaders of his time. He could walk down the main street of Rochester without being recognized.\nEastman, fishing in Canada\nEastman lived his philosophy, \"What we do during our working hours determines what we have; what we do in our leisure hours determines what we are.\" A tough competitor, hard-bitten and practical in business, he was gentle and congenial at home or in the field of outdoor enjoyment.\nIn his yearly visits to Europe, he toured the art galleries methodically -- even cycling from place to place. By the time he could afford masterpieces, he had learned enough to say, \"I never buy a painting until I have lived with it in my home.\" The result: his home became the showplace of one of the finest private collections of paintings.\n© Eastman Kodak Company\nThe Vision of a Pioneer\nHe was a modest, unassuming man... an inventor, a marketer, a global visionary, a philanthropist, and a champion of inclusion.\n1929: Eastman (second from left) with Dr. Lewis Perry, Charles A. Lindbergh, Thomas Edison, Henry Ford, and Dr. Samuel Wesley Stratton\nEastman died by his own hand on March 14, 1932 at the age of 77. Plagued by progressive disability resulting from a hardening of the cells in the lower spinal cord, Eastman became increasingly frustrated at his inability to maintain an active life, and set about putting his estate in order.\n\"Eastman was a stupendous factor in the education of the modern world,\" said an editorial in The New York Times following his death. \"Of what he got in return for his great gifts to the human race he gave generously for their good; fostering music, endowing learning, supporting science in its researches and teaching, seeking to promote health and lessen human ills, helping the lowliest in their struggle toward the light, making his own city a center of the arts and glorifying his own country in the eyes of the world.\"\nLearn More by visiting the George Eastman House\nLearn More about Kodak, photography, and the legacy of George Eastman by visiting the George Eastman House in Rochester, N.Y." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "The_Odd_Couple.txt" ], "title": [ "The Odd Couple" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Odd Couple is a play by Neil Simon. Following its premiere on Broadway in 1965, the characters were revived in a successful 1968 film and 1970s television series, as well as other derivative works and spin-offs. The plot concerns two mismatched roommates: the neat, uptight Felix Ungar and the slovenly, easygoing Oscar Madison. Simon adapted the play in 1985 to feature a pair of female roommates (Florence Ungar and Olive Madison) in The Female Odd Couple. An updated version of the 1965 show appeared in 2002 with the title Oscar and Felix: A New Look at the Odd Couple.\n\nHistory\n\nSources vary as to the origins of the play. In Danny Simon's obituary in The Washington Post, Adam Bernstein wrote that the idea for the play came from his divorce. \"Mr. Simon had moved in with a newly single theatrical agent named Roy Gerber in Hollywood, and they invited friends over one night. Mr. Simon botched the pot roast. The next day, Gerber told him: \"Sweetheart, that was a lovely dinner last night. What are we going to have tonight?\" Mr. Simon replied: \"What do you mean, cook you dinner? You never take me out to dinner. You never bring me flowers.\"Bernstein, Adam. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/07/27/AR2005072702568.html \"TV Comedy Writer Danny Simon Dies\"]Washington Post, July 28, 2005 Danny Simon wrote a partial first draft of the play, but then handed over the idea to Neil.\n\nHowever, in the Mel Brooks biography It's Good to Be the King, author James Robert Parish claims that the play came about after Simon observed Brooks, in a separation from his first wife, living with writer Speed Vogel for three months. Vogel later wrote that Brooks had insomnia, \"a brushstroke of paranoia,\" and \"a blood-sugar problem that kept us a scintilla away from insanity.\"\n\nBoston tryout\n\nSimon credited Boston critic Elliot Norton with helping him develop the final act of the play. Norton practiced drama criticism when the relationship between the regional critic and playwrights whose shows were undergoing tryouts in their towns were not as adversarial as they were to become.\n\nAppearing on the public television show Eliott Norton Reviews, during Simon's conversation with the critic, Elliott said that the play went \"flat\" in its final act. As it appeared originally in Boston, the characters the Pigeon Sisters did not appear in the final act. \n\nSimon told the Boston Globe: He invited one of the stars and the writer. He loved the play and gave it a wonderful review but he said the third act was lacking something. On the show he said, 'You know who I missed in the third act was the Pigeon Sisters,' and it was like a light bulb went off in my head. It made an enormous difference in the play. I rewrote it and it worked very well. I was so grateful to Elliot ... Elliot had such a keen eye. I don't know if he saved the play or not, but he made it a bigger success. \n\nPlot overview\n\nFelix Ungar, a neurotic, neat freak newswriter (a photographer in the television series), is thrown out by his wife, and moves in with his friend Oscar Madison, a slovenly sportswriter. Despite Oscar's problems – careless spending, excessive gambling, a poorly kept house filled with spoiled food – he seems to enjoy life. Felix, however, seems utterly incapable of enjoying anything and only finds purpose in pointing out his own and other people's mistakes and foibles. Even when he tries to do so in a gentle and constructive way, his corrections and suggestions prove extremely annoying to those around him. Oscar, his closest friend, feels compelled to throw him out after only a brief time together, though he quickly realizes that Felix has had a positive effect on him.\n\nThe play and the film both spell Felix's name Ungar, while the television series spells it Unger. \n\nCharacters\n\n*Oscar Madison: A slovenly, recently divorced sportswriter.\n*Felix Ungar: A fastidious, hypochondriac photographer whose marriage is ending.\n*Murray: A NYPD policeman, one of Oscar and Felix's poker buddies.\n*Speed: One of the poker buddies. Gruff and sarcastic, often picking on Vinnie and Murray.\n*Vinnie: One of the poker buddies. Vinnie is mild-mannered and henpecked, making him an easy target for Speed's verbal barbs.\n*Roy: One of the poker buddies. Oscar's accountant. Roy has a dry wit but is less acerbic than Speed.\n*Cecily and Gwendolyn Pigeon: Oscar and Felix's giggly upstairs neighbors, a pair of English sisters. The former is a divorcée, the latter a widow.\n\nProductions\n\nThe Odd Couple premiered on Broadway at the Plymouth Theatre on March 10, 1965 and transferred to the Eugene O'Neill Theatre where it closed on July 2, 1967 after 964 performances and two previews. Directed by Mike Nichols, the cast starred Walter Matthau as Oscar Madison and Art Carney as Felix Ungar.[http://www.ibdb.com/production.php?id\n3230 The Odd Couple] Internet Broadway database, accessed April 12, 2012 The production gained Tony Awards for Walter Matthau, Best Actor (Play), Best Author (Play), Best Direction of a Play, and Best Scenic Design (Oliver Smith), and was nominated for Best Play.\n\nMatthau was replaced with Jack Klugman, starting in November 1965 and later Pat Hingle, starting in February 1966. Carney was replaced with Eddie Bracken starting in October 1965 and later Paul Dooley. \n\nStage revivals\n\nIn 1970, the McMaster Shakespearean Players performed The Odd Couple with Martin Short as Felix, Eugene Levy as Oscar, and Dave Thomas as Murray – before any of these performers were famous.\n\nIn 1994, a version of the play moved to Glasgow and toured Scotland, starring Gerard Kelly as Felix, Craig Ferguson as Oscar and Kate Anthony as Gwendolyn Pigeon. Kelly reprised the role of Felix at the 2002 Edinburgh Fringe, opposite Andy Gray.\n\nIn 1996, Klugman and Tony Randall reprised their roles from the TV series for a three-month run at the Theatre Royal in Haymarket, London. The production was an effort to raise money to support Randall's National Actors Theatre. (Klugman had previously played Oscar in London opposite Victor Spinetti as Felix.)\n\nIn a 1997 issue of Premiere Magazine, Billy Crystal and Robin Williams announced a possible stage revival, in anticipation of success of their film Fathers' Day. When that film failed at the box office, the Crystal-Williams revival was quickly forgotten.\n\nAlso in 1997, a tour of the US and Canada was mounted by Troupe America and Lake Pepin Players starring Jamie Farr as Oscar, William Christopher as Felix, and William Richard Rogers as Murray. The production was directed by Curt Wollan.\n\nIn 2001, \"Wheel of Fortune\" host Pat Sajak and Hawaii TV News anchor Joe Moore (Sajak's Viet Nam roommate and close friend) played Felix and Oscar at the Hawaii Theatre Center as a benefit for Hawaii's Manoa Valley Theater.\n\nIn 2002, Simon wrote an updated version of The Odd Couple, titled Oscar and Felix: A New Look at the Odd Couple. This version incorporated updated references and elements into the original storyline. This production ran at the Geffen Playhouse (Los Angeles) from June 2002 to July 21, 2002 with a cast that starred Gregory Jbara (Vinnie ), John Larroquette (Oscar), Joe Regalbuto (Felix) and María Conchita Alonso (Ynes) and was directed by Peter Bonerz. The revival opened on Broadway at The Brooks Atkinson Theatre on October 27, 2005, and closed on June 4, 2006 after 249 performances. Matthew Broderick and Nathan Lane played Felix and Oscar, respectively. Lane was replaced for three performances in January 2006 due to illness by Brad Garrett who had previously played Murray. \n\nA reading featuring Ethan Hawke and Billy Crudup was staged at the Cherry Lane Theatre on January 9, 2011. \n\nA Venezuelan production appeared at the Trasnocho Cultural Theater in 2009. It was Directed by Armando Alvarez and featured Armando Cabrera (Oscar), Luigi Sciamanna (Felix), Juan Carlos Ogando (Richard), Alezander Slorzano (Murray), Alexandra Malave (Clementina), and Stephanie Cardone (Cecilia).\n\nThe all-female Takarazuka Revue Company performed the show under the title in September 2011 in Takarazuka, Japan. It starred Yu Todoroki as Oscar and Misa Noeru as Felix. \n\nIn 2011, Cezary Żak and Artur Barciś (popular actors from the Polish hit TV series Ranczo) performed as Oscar and Felix in Dziwna Para, a Polish rendition of The Odd Couple. The play was performed in the U.S and in Toronto, Canada and received good reviews.\n\nIn 2013, The Dallas Theater Center performed a revival of The Odd Couple that was directed by Kevin Moriarty.\n\nFemale version\n\nIn 1985, Neil Simon revised The Odd Couple for a female cast. The Female Odd Couple was based on the same story line and same lead characters, now called Florence Ungar and Olive Madison. The poker game became Trivial Pursuit with their friends becoming the girlfriends: Mickey, Sylvie, Vera, and Renee. The Pigeon sisters became the Costazuela brothers, Manolo and Jesus.\n\nThe Female Odd Couple opened on Broadway at the Broadhurst Theatre on June 11, 1985, and closed on February 23, 1986, after 295 performances and nine previews. Directed by Gene Saks the cast starred Sally Struthers and Rita Moreno as Florence (Felix) and Olive (Oscar), with Lewis J. Stadlen and Tony Shalhoub (in his Broadway debut) as the Costazuela brothers. \n\nA London production of this version ran at the Apollo Theatre in 2001 and starred Paula Wilcox (Florence) and Jenny Seagrove (Olive). \n\nFilm and TV adaptations \n\nNeil Simon sold film and TV rights to Paramount Pictures in 1967. Paramount produced two theatrical films, three live-action TV series and an animated series based upon the play. Rights are now split between Paramount and CBS, the result of Paramount owner Viacom's purchase of and eventual spinoff from the latter company.\n\n1968 film \n\nIn 1968, The Odd Couple was made into a highly successful film starring Jack Lemmon as Felix and Walter Matthau (once more) as Oscar. Most of the script from the play is the same, although the setting is expanded: instead of taking place entirely in Oscar's apartment, some scenes take place at various outside locations. The film was also written by Simon (who was nominated for an Academy Award) and was directed by Gene Saks.\n\nIn 1998, Jack Lemmon and Walter Matthau reprised their roles for the film The Odd Couple II, produced by Neil Simon.\n\n1970–1975 ABC sitcom \n\nThe success of the film was the basis for the 1970–75 ABC television sitcom, starring Tony Randall as Felix and Jack Klugman as Oscar. Klugman was familiar with the role as he had replaced Walter Matthau in the original Broadway run. Neil Simon originally disapproved of this adaptation, but by the series' final season, he reassessed the show positively to the point of appearing in a cameo role.\n\nRandall and Klugman also reunited in 1993 for a made-for-TV reunion film based upon the series. The movie was initially broadcast on CBS on September 24, 1993. Robert Klane was the writer and director, with a cast that included Barbara Barrie as Felix's wife, Penny Marshall as Myrna and Dick Van Patten. The Jack Klugman's throat-cancer surgery was written into the script, when Felix (Tony Randall) stays with Oscar and helps with his rehabilitation. \n\n1975 ABC cartoon \n\nIn the fall of 1975, ABC aired a cartoon version of the play entitled The Oddball Couple, produced by Paramount and DePatie-Freleng Enterprises. The roles were played by a cat and dog named Spiffy and Fleabag.\n\n1982–1983 ABC sitcom \n\nIn 1982, ABC aired a new version of the series, entitled The New Odd Couple. Produced by Garry Marshall, the premise of the new version has two black actors, Ron Glass as Felix and Demond Wilson as Oscar. The New York Times reviewer noted \"What may be surprising is how little the spine of the show has changed. The dialogue has been updated a little, but the plots are essentially the same. The New Odd Couple bounces along nicely. It adds nothing new to the craft of situation comedy, but it does provide employment and a good showcase for talented black actors, who generally don't have an easy time of it on television these days.\" This new version was not successful and was canceled after just 13 episodes.\n\n2015 CBS sitcom \n\nIn December 2013, it was announced that Matthew Perry would be starring in, co-writing, and executive-producing a remake of The Odd Couple. The multi-camera comedy premiered on February 19, 2015. Perry stars as Oscar while Thomas Lennon stars as Felix. The show also features Wendell Pierce as Teddy, Oscar's agent, Yvette Nicole Brown as Dani, Oscar's assistant, Dave Foley as Roy (a holdover from the original play), and Leslie Bibb and Lindsay Sloane as Casey and Emily (taking over for the Pigeon sisters)." ] }

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Please reload or try later.\nX Beta I'm Watching This!\nKeep track of everything you watch; tell your friends.\nError\nTwo men, a neat freak and a slob separated from their wives, have to live together despite their differences.\nCreators:\nOscar and Felix appear together on Password and Felix is sure that they can win.\n8.7\nOscar, on the advice from girlfriend Nancy, tries being nicer to Felix. In trying too hard to be so, it causes him to sleepwalk and hit Felix on the head with a rolled up newspaper every night.\n8.7\nFelix and Oscar appear on Let's Make a Deal to get a new bed for Felix after Oscar set his on fire.\n8.6\n2017 Golden Globes Nominees Back After 20 Years\nGolden Globes are feeling nostalgic! Find out which Golden Globe winners from more than 20 years ago snagged nominations yet again for their performances this past year. Don't miss our live coverage of the Golden Globes beginning at 4 p.m. PST on Jan. 8 in our Golden Globes section.\na list of 23 titles\ncreated 14 Jun 2011\na list of 49 titles\ncreated 10 Jul 2011\na list of 27 titles\ncreated 09 Mar 2013\na list of 33 titles\ncreated 09 Mar 2015\na list of 25 titles\ncreated 9 months ago\nTitle: The Odd Couple (1970–1975)\n8/10\nWant to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below.\nYou must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin.\nWon 1 Golden Globe. Another 5 wins & 14 nominations. See more awards  »\nPhotos\nThe professional and personal misadventures of a psychologist and his family, patients, friends and colleagues.\nStars: Bob Newhart, Suzanne Pleshette, Bill Daily\nA compassionate teacher returns to his inner city high school of his youth to teach a new generation of trouble making kids.\nStars: Gabe Kaplan, Ron Palillo, John Travolta\nThe lives and trials of a young single woman and her friends, both at work and at home.\nStars: Mary Tyler Moore, Edward Asner, Gavin MacLeod\nThe misadventures of an author turned innkeeper in rural Vermont and his friends.\nStars: Bob Newhart, Mary Frann, Tom Poston\nThe staff of a struggling radio station have a chance at success after the new programming director changes the format to rock music\nStars: Gary Sandy, Gordon Jump, Loni Anderson\nThe staff of a New York City taxicab company go about their job while they dream of greater things.\nStars: Judd Hirsch, Jeff Conaway, Danny DeVito\nThis sitcom follows recently divorced mother (Ann Romano) and her two teenage daughters (Barbara and Julie) as they start a new life together in Indianapolis, They are befriended by the ... See full summary  »\nStars: Bonnie Franklin, Valerie Bertinelli, Pat Harrington Jr.\nA greasy-spoon diner in Phoenix, Arizona is the setting for this long-running series. The title character, Alice Hyatt, is an aspiring singer who arrives in Phoenix with her teenaged son, ... See full summary  »\nStars: Linda Lavin, Beth Howland, Vic Tayback\nAn eccentric fun-loving judge presides over an urban night court and all the silliness going on there.\nStars: Harry Anderson, John Larroquette, Richard Moll\nThe misadventures of a cantankerous junk dealer and his frustrated son.\nStars: Redd Foxx, Demond Wilson, LaWanda Page\nA nouveau riche, African-American family who move into a luxury apartment building develop close, if occasionally fractious, relationships with other tenants.\nStars: Isabel Sanford, Sherman Hemsley, Marla Gibbs\nA working class bigot constantly squabbles with his family over the important issues of the day.\nStars: Carroll O'Connor, Jean Stapleton, Rob Reiner\nEdit\nStoryline\nFelix and Oscar are an extremely odd couple: Felix is anal-retentive, neurotic, precise, and fastidiously clean. Oscar, on the other hand, is the exact opposite: sloppy and casual. They are sharing an apartment together, and their differing lifestyles inevitably lead to some conflicts and laughs. Written by Murray Chapman <[email protected]>\n24 September 1970 (USA) See more  »\nAlso Known As:\nLa extraña pareja See more  »\nFilming Locations:\nDid You Know?\nTrivia\nThe original Broadway production of \"The Odd Couple\" by Neil Simon opened at the Plymouth Theater on March 10, 1965, ran for 966 performances and was nominated for the 1965 Tony Award as Best Play. See more »\nGoofs\nIn the opening credits for the entire series, the type of luggage Felix is carrying changes. When he is indoors (leaving his apartment or arriving at Oscar's) he is carrying a white suitcase. But when he is walking outside he is not carrying the white suitcase. See more »\nQuotes\n(Claremont,USA) – See all my reviews\nGreat comedic concept from Neil Simon—the slob and the neat freak, two divorced men living together in a small Manhattan apartment. But it's really Klugman and Randall that make the premise work so well—their chemistry is simply superb. Klugman seems a natural for Oscar the slob, with his sour expression and grouchy manner. Then there's Randall as Felix, with his no-fat body and absurdly picky manner. You just know he never played with mud pies or put on dirty socks.\nIt's amazing the writers get so many hilarious variations on the same theme—Felix carrying on with his finicky obsessions to an annoying degree. He just can't seem to help himself. At the same time, we can't help sympathizing with poor Oscar who retaliates by turning his bedroom into a city dump. Actually actor Randall pulls off a really difficult trick: he manages to make Felix annoying without being dislikable. Any hint of the latter and the show would have fallen flat.\nAnd who can forget the superb supporting cast, especially hawk-nosed Al Molinaro as Murray, the New York City policeMAN. He fits amiably right in with whatever the shenanigans might be, maybe too amiably for a cop. Then there're the rest of the poker playing characters, plus the girls led by Klugman's real life wife Brett and Father Knows Best's Elinor Donahue. Since nearly all the hijinks occur in the small apartment, the writers have their work cut out for them, and rise to the occasion they do, with only an occasional misfire. My favorite parts are when some poor put-upon old lady gets enough of Felix's extremes and swats him with her purse—he always looks so surprised, like he can't figure out why. Anyway, it's one of the best character-based comedies of the 70's or any TV decade.\n2 of 2 people found this review helpful.  Was this review helpful to you?\nYes", "The Odd Couple TV Show Opening Theme Season Two 1970 - YouTube\nThe Odd Couple TV Show Opening Theme Season Two 1970\nWant to watch this again later?\nSign in to add this video to a playlist.\nNeed to report the video?\nSign in to report inappropriate content.\nThe interactive transcript could not be loaded.\nLoading...\nRating is available when the video has been rented.\nThis feature is not available right now. Please try again later.\nUploaded on May 10, 2008\nBased on the Broadway play by Neil Simon, this tells the story of two mismatched friends, Felix Unger and Oscar Madison. Felix is a neat, tidy, and healthy nut, a photographer at a portrait studio, and a connoisseur of classical music. Because of this, his wife divorced Felix and threw him out of his apartment for good. Desperately in the need of a place to live, he moves in with his longtime childhood friend, Oscar Madison, a sports journalist for the New York Times. What he realizes is that Oscar is the exact opposite of him: sloppy, messy, and doesn't eat the right foods. Felix's cleaning, hygienic tips, and healthiness annoys Oscar while Oscar's crazy world of living like a pig upsets Felix. But in the process they'll learn that love, trust, and friendship are more important than living in different worlds Tony Randall and Jack Klugman star.Al Molinaro 1970\nCategory", "Felix Unger | The Odd Couple Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia\nShare\nFelix Unger, played by Thomas Lennon , is a professional photographer and recent divorcee. He moves in with his old college friend Oscar Madison after his wife Ashley kicks him out of the house. Felix is a bit of a neat-freak and is extremely neurotic and fussy, especially when compared to Oscar. In his free time, he does yoga. He also fancies cooking and baking. Throughout the series, he often gets mistaken to be gay by several characters. Him and Ashley were good friends with Oscar and Gaby when both couples were still together.\nHe is the seventh incarnation of Felix Unger following Art Carney in the original 1965 play, Jack Lemmon in the 1968 film and its 1998 sequel, Tony Randall in the 1970s television series and its made-for-tv film The Odd Couple: Together Again, a cartoon adaptation named Spiffy the Cat in The Oddball Couple, Ron Glass in The New Odd Couple, and Sally Struthers as Florence in The Female Odd Couple.", "New 'Odd Couple' comes to CBS in sitcom reboot - Celebrities - NorthJersey.com\n© 2016 North Jersey Media Group\nFebruary 19, 2015\nLast updated: Thursday, February 19, 2015, 9:22 AM\nNew 'Odd Couple' comes to CBS in sitcom reboot\nBy JIM BECKERMAN\nThe Record\nTHE ODD COUPLE: 8:30 tonight, CBS\nThomas Lennon, left, and Matthew Perry are the newest reincarnations of Felix Unger and Oscar Madison.\nYou don't own the role of Felix Unger, Thomas Lennon discovered. You just keep it clean for the next guy.\nLennon, at first, was dubious about taking on the role of the neat freak played to perfection by Tony Randall in the original 1970s \"Odd Couple\" sitcom, based on Neil Simon's play and movie. But Lennon, who plays the new Felix to Matthew Perry's new Oscar Madison in the new CBS reboot of \"The Odd Couple,\" premiering at 8:30 tonight, has come to take the long view.\n\"My first thought was, 'You cannot play Felix Unger; that can't be done,' \" says Lennon, who created his own iconic character, Lt. Jim Dangle, in the long-running \"Reno 911!\" series on Comedy Central. \"Tony Randall locked that up a long time ago.\"\nBut then he began to think about the history of the character — who, after all, had been played pre-Randall by Art Carney (Broadway, 1965) and Jack Lemmon (the 1968 movie), and was played post-Randall by Frank Nelson (voice talent in the 1975 cartoon series \"The Oddball Couple\"), Ron Glass (in the 1982 reboot \"The New Odd Couple\") and Sally Struthers (in Simon's distaff version, \"The Female Odd Couple,\" which opened on Broadway in 1985).\n\"So I'm seventh,\" Lennon says. \"Well, that's good. Lucky number seven. But I thought, you know what, maybe there is actually something new that I could bring if I don't get it in my head where I'm just trying to re-create what Tony Randall did.\"\nRelated: Neil Simon's brother, roomie inspired a 50-year phenomenon\nThe familiarity of the original show is both a blessing and a curse to the team who have created this redo, complete with a funky update of the original Neal Hefti theme music by New Orleans musician Trombone Shorty, and supporting roles for Wendell Pierce (\"Treme\"), Lindsay Sloane (\"Sabrina, the Teenage Witch\") and Yvette Nicole Brown (\"Community\").\nOn the one hand, the premise is pre-sold: everyone knows that \"The Odd Couple\" is about two divorced men, fussy Felix and sloppy Oscar, who drive each other crazy when they share an apartment. On the other hand, viewers have very specific expectations about these characters, played definitively for most people by the late actors Randall and Jack Klugman, respectively.\n\"It's either gonna grab you right away, or it's gonna be a divider, based on your passion for Tony Randall,\" Lennon says. \"But you should know that my passion for Tony Randall is probably unrivaled in the world. There's no bigger 'Odd Couple' fan than me.\"\nWhat Lennon brings to the part of Felix is — bluntly — himself. He's the first to say that the overlap is frightening.\n\"The Venn diagram between me and Felix Unger looks a lot like a circle,\" he says. \"The two circles would combine to be one ball. It's the OCD thing.\"\nBeyond all this, \"The Odd Couple\" depends on the chemistry between the two leads for its success. Again, Lennon says, they have realism on their side. His relationship with Matthew Perry (\"Friends\"), who spearheaded this reboot, has a natural Felix-and-Oscar component.\n\"We are good friends,\" says Lennon, who worked with Perry before in the film \"17 Again.\" \"But there's also — and he will positively deny this, but it's true — I know that the Felix-isms in my natural life bug him a little bit.\"\nThe true Odd Couple relationship in Lennon's life is with his writing partner of more than 20 years, Robert Ben Garant, co-creator of \"Reno 911!\" (he also played Travis Junior in the series). The two have been, so to speak, one of the power couples of Hollywood: among their other credits are the shows \"The State\" and \"Viva Variety,\" and their screenplays for the \"Night at the Museum\" films.\n\"That relationship is between two Felixes,\" says Lennon, 44, originally from Oak Park, Ill. \"That's what's called the Double-Felix. He and I are absolutely Type A, OCD guys … We're both absolutely compulsive writers. Literally we write anytime we're sitting down.\"\nEven so, some of the most brilliant stuff in \"Reno 911!,\" the inspired sendup of the \"Cops\" reality show featuring a team of spectacularly inept police officers, was made up on the spot. On this show, unlike \"The Odd Couple,\" improv was king.\n\"There's one weird one people quote to me a lot,\" he recalls. \"I was wearing these brand-new white ostrich cowboy boots, and I started doing this weird little dance in the parking lot, and I said, 'I'm just goofin'. I'm just new-boot goofin' .' It was the most offhanded thing. And now people say 'new-boot goofin' ' to me like some sort of mantra. I got this email from Ben Stiller and the whole subject of the email was, 'New-boot goofin.' ' Haha.\"\nPartly, that line was funny because of the character: Lt. Dangle, the nearly-unstereotypical gay cop (the short-shorts, now a popular Halloween costume, are the giveaway). Which brings us back to \"The Odd Couple,\" whose premise of two guys sharing an apartment has always raised eyebrows. \"Homosexuals will enjoy it — for obvious reasons,\" wrote The New York Times in its 1965 review of the play. In the new version, the subject is for the first time mentioned directly. \"He seems a little gay,\" Pierce's Teddy says of Lennon's Felix. \"No, he seems incredibly gay,\" Perry's Oscar corrects him.\nAt the end of the day, the two guys in the 2015 \"Odd Couple\" redux are still straight. But between Felix and Lt. Dangle, Lennon (he's married to actress Jenny Robertson; they have one child) has built himself some serious gay cred.\n\"I'm sort of an accidental gay icon,\" he says. \"Certainly on Halloween.\"\nEmail: [email protected]", "The Odd Couple | The Odd Couple Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia\nEdit\nFelix Unger and Oscar Madison meet at college in the late 1980s and quickly became friends. Years later, Felix is a news writer and photographer and Oscar is a sports talk show host, but both are divorced from their wives. Felix's wife Ashley kicked him out and Oscar's wife Gaby left him, and now the two friends have to live in the same apartment in spite of their differences. Felix is extremely neurotic and fussy in contrast to Oscar who is slovenly and easy-going. In the middle of all this, Felix and Oscar are trying to date Casey and Emily , two sisters who coincidentally are roommates in the same building. Lucky for the divorcees, both women also have recently exited unhealthy relationships. Felix is pretty insecure because of his remaining feelings for Ashley, but Oscar feels better off away from his ex.\nCast", "The Odd Couple / Characters - TV Tropes\nTimeline\nFelix Unger\nPlayed by: Art Carney (stage), Jack Lemmon (film), Tony Randall (1970-'75 series), Ron Glass (New), Thomas Lennon (2015 series)\nAdorkable : Felix takes practically everything, from his habits to his pastimes to his relationships, to extremes, which is why he often finds himself being called a lunatic. In the end, though, his childlike enthusiasm and good heart win out over any annoyance he causes. Felix is especially adorkable when he's happy or excited. In \"I'm Dying of Unger\", he rolls on the bed like a little kid after tricking Oscar's agent into giving him three more days.\nAll Men Are Perverts : Inverted. He's more innocent than even the FEMALE characters, most of whom aren't even particularly lustful. When photographing nudes for Playboy, he's easily able to maintain a businesslike attitude about the whole affair.\nAmbiguous Disorder : It seems quite evident that he has raging OCD.\nAnimals Hate Him : Averted with dogs but played straight with wild animals. During \"I'm Dying of Unger\", Felix gets bitten by three animals that we know of � a chipmunk, a rabbit, and a frog � and his bandaged fingers testify to other cases. However, this is only due to his status as the show's Butt Monkey and not for any lack of innocence on his part. In fact, he's shown to love the animals who attack him, so this could also be considered a subversion of Friend to All Living Things .\nDork Knight : Gentlemanly? Check. Idealistic? Check. Adorkable ? Double check!\nA Fool for a Client : Felix always wants to represent himself in court and is nearly always incompetent at it. There is one spectacular exception when he questions an assuming accuser. And even then, Felix doesn't know when to quit until he has angered the judge enough for him to indict both Felix and Oscar with contempt of court.\nFriend to All Living Things : Zig zagged. He loves all animals, and a few episodes involve him helping them. However, whether or not they love him back depends on the episode. See Animals Hate Him for more details. Moments where he plays this straight include owning and caring deeply about a pet parrot named Albert in one of the early episodes, rescuing Silver the Wonder Dog from the abusive owner, pampering a grayhound that Oscar won in a poker game, tending to an injured frog, and setting worms free to save them from being used as bait by Oscar.\nIn the 2015 series episode \"The Birthday Party\", he receives a pet cockatiel as a present, and seems very happy about it. He remarks that she is \"adorable\" and \"beautiful\" and names her Hope . Things quickly go wrong, however.\nHeroes Love Dogs : Felix adores dogs (and animals in general), if the fact that he owned one while married, pampered a racing greyhound in \"Leave the Greyhounds to Us\", and took a dog from an abusive owner says anything.\nHeroic B.S.O.D. : Felix has one in the 2015 series' episode \"The Birthday Party\". After having spent his entire birthday party getting over his ex-wife (named Ashley in this version), an old friend of his notices her absence and asks him where she is, proceeding to tell him what a good couple he thought they were and that they looked so happy together, sending Felix spiraling into a depression, which culminates in him returning to the roller skate park where the two first met (on his birthday, no less) in the hopes he'll find her again.\nHypochondria : Felix is a self-confessed hypochondriac, though it's more of an Informed Attribute since every time a doctor is called to treat Felix, it's because he really is sick (typically something allergy-related). The trait is downplayed as the original series goes on, but is dialed back Up to Eleven for the 2015 revival.\nThe Idealist : He finds joy and beauty in everyday things, and doesn't hesitate to express it. In one episode, he even writes poems about it.\nIncorruptible Pure Pureness : He's one of the most, if not THE most innocent characters on the show. He's shown to always want to do the right thing, and often serves as a moral compass to the others. Even when Oscar tried to get him to lie to help someone, he was extremely hesitant. He DID end up doing it, but he felt so guilty about it that he cried, and later he couldn't stand the guilt, and went and told the truth. There are several other instances where he outright refuses to do morally questionable things.\nInnocently Insensitive : Sometimes. He has very high standards, so when someone doesn't meet them, he's quick to point out their shortcomings. Even though he usually tries to be very polite about it, he sometimes ends up hurting their feelings unintentionally.\nMan Child : His enthusiasm, excitability, innocence, optimism, and goofy sense of humor solidify him as this. He also occasionally sings or quotes lines from kids' songs, and sometimes throws tantrums when he's upset. The latter is usually his reaction to things involving Gloria.\nMen Can't Keep House : averted, Felix keeps house better than any other character in the story.\nMoment Killer : Felix would sometimes arrive home early \"not feeling well\" and disrupt the romantic mood, much to Oscar's consternation. At the end of \"Felix Gets Sick\", Oscar pretends he's ill to return the favor but finds that Felix is too nice about the disruption for revenge to be sweet.\nNeat Freak : When he was married, his wife would clean the house and a maid would come in once a week to clean some more, but he still felt compelled to get up in the middle of the night and clean everything all over again.\nNice Guy : He's friendly, cheerful, innocent, polite, and tries to always do the right thing. Even when he gets carried away sometimes, he seems to genuinely care about the other character's feelings.\nThe Nose Knows : When Oscar smuggles deli food into a fat farm, Felix can smell and identify every item.... as well as a can opener.\nThe Pollyanna : For the most part. He gets depressed sometimes, but he also tries to look on the bright side, and he always believed deep down that someday, he and his wife would be together again. It pays off in the end, when he and Gloria remarry in the finale of the 70s series.\nPrecision F-Strike : In the 2015 episode \"The Unger Games\".\nSensitive Guy and Manly Man : The Sensitive Guy to Oscar's Manly Man. He loves opera, cooking, and other refined things.\nSickly Neurotic Geek : Especially the TV series which Flanderized his allergies (at first - as the series went on this aspect of the character became less prominent).\nSingle-Target Sexuality : Towards his ex-wife. Downplayed in the original series, as he still has a few other girlfriends and crushes throughout the series, but he ultimately loves and desires Gloria the most. The 2015 series played this straight — he loves Ashley (his ex wife's name in the 2015 series) so much that the idea of being with anyone else seems to confuse and horrify him — until his neighbor Emily finally confesses her feelings toward him and they become an item in the season finale \"The Audit Couple\".\nSpell My Name with an \"S\" : The original play, both films, and The New Odd Couple spell his last name \"Ungar\" while the 1970-75 series and 2015 revival spell it \"Unger\".\nOscar Madison\nPlayed by: Walter Matthau (stage/film), Jack Klugman (stage/1970-'75 series), Demond Wilson (New), Matthew Perry (2015 series)\nAll Men Are Perverts : Although it's not usually explored much due to the series' PG rating, Oscar makes it abundantly clear that his interest in women is decidedly far more than old-fashioned romance.\nThe 2015 series makes no attempt to hide this — if anything, it takes this Up to Eleven .\nCharacterization Marches On : While the main facets of Felix and Oscar's respective personalities (Felix being a compulsive neat freak, and Oscar being a slob) have always remained intact, their demeanors have pretty much flip-flopped from the movie to the series. To wit: instead of Felix being an uptight killjoy and Oscar being fun-loving and carefree, it's Felix who is more a bright-eyed and easygoing guy (for the most part), while Oscar is more of an irritable, quick-tempered grump (mainly because Felix gets on his nerves so much).\nExtreme Omnivore : Oscar once ate a plastic hot dog.\nThe Gambling Addict : He's perennially broke due to all the money he loses, so he repeatedly borrows and, on rare occasions, outright steals large sums from Felix.\nJerk with a Heart of Gold : Oscar is cynical, insensitive, hot-tempered, occasionally vindictive and habitually dishonest. The latter is due to irresponsibility rather than malice, however, and under his thoughtless exterior is a loyal, caring, tolerant and very forgiving man.\nLove Informant : Felix falls madly in love with Gloria and wants to marry her, but he becomes such a nervous wreck that he loses his voice before he can propose to her, and he practically begs Oscar to propose to her on his behalf, even going so far as writing down very specific instructions on what to do and say. Oscar, wanting to get out of there, basically cuts to the chase and asks Gloria to marry Felix, to which she agrees.\nMen Can't Keep House : Oscar practically never cleans. Surprisingly downplayed some in The New Odd Couple.\nPirates Who Don't Do Anything : Oscar is rarely seen performing his job, which makes sense, since he's a perpetual slacker.\n\"The Reason You Suck\" Speech : Oscar criticizes Felix's perfectionist attitude in one episode, uttering \"Felix, the perfect!\"\nOscar also calls out others who make Felix upset . In \"The Rent Strike\", he calls out the other tenants for trying to drive Felix out while forgetting all the things he's done for them and in \"The Subway Story\", he scalds the insensitive subway riders and says that Felix is the only person trying to improve the situation.\nTrash of the Titans : Oscar's room is usually in a state of disarray.\nFelix: Oscar, you have a blue stain on your rug.\nOscar: No, that's the original color.\nTrue Companions : For all the frustrations and irritations Felix causes, Oscar somehow always comes through for him. Many times Oscar has kicked Felix out, and he always (eventually) feels guilty about it, resulting in him bringing Felix back. Likewise, if anyone else starts giving Felix a hard time, Oscar is quick (for the most part) to defend his buddy. Tony Randall and Jack Klugman being such close friends in Real Life certainly helped Felix and Oscar's on-screen chemistry as well.\nTsundere : Towards his ex-wife, especially in the 2015 pilot.\nUptight Loves Wild : In a platonic way. Why else would the prim-and-proper Felix stay with the casual Oscar?\nVitriolic Best Buds : Oscar is often cross at Felix for one reason or another, but if anyone else tries to do anything bad to him, Oscar will be on top of them in an instant.\nMurray Greschler\nPlayed by Herb Edelman (film), Al Molinaro (1970-'75 series), John Schuck (New)\nAscended Extra : Murray was originally listed as one of \"The Poker Players\" but he began to appear more frequently as the series progressed, and not only to play poker.\nGag Nose : Murray's nose is the source of many jokes.\nLovable Coward : He tries to avoid violent situations. During \"The Subway Story\", Oscar tells a joke about how \"last night, I saw three cops standing in our lobby. They were afraid to go outside.\" Murray quickly protests that he was cold.\nMyrna Turner\nAdorkable : She just wants to be loyal and helpful to Oscar.\nAnnoying Laugh : She laughs in a slow monotone which is both irritating and hilarious.\n    open/close all folders \n    Characters Introduced in the 2015 Series  \nTeddy\nPlayed by Wendell Pierce\nBig Eater : Implied. He seems disgusted with Felix's meatless food and, after being on a juice cleanse for an entire episode, eats a prop burger with no hesitation." ] }

{ "aliases": [ "The Odd Couple", "The Female Odd Couple", "Oscar madison", "Murray Greshler", "Oscar Madison" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "oscar madison", "female odd couple", "odd couple", "murray greshler" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "odd couple", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "The Odd Couple" }

{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Philips.txt" ], "title": [ "Philips" ], "wiki_context": [ "Koninklijke Philips N.V. (Royal Philips, commonly known as Philips) is a Dutch technology company headquartered in Amsterdam with primary divisions focused in the areas of electronics, healthcare and lighting. It was founded in Eindhoven in 1891 by Gerard Philips and his father Frederik. It is one of the largest electronics companies in the world and employs around 105,000 people across more than 60 countries.\n\nPhilips is organized into three main divisions: Philips Consumer Lifestyle (formerly Philips Consumer Electronics and Philips Domestic Appliances and Personal Care), Philips Healthcare (formerly Philips Medical Systems) and Philips Lighting. As of 2012 Philips was the largest manufacturer of lighting in the world measured by applicable revenues. In 2013, the company announced the sale of the bulk of its remaining consumer electronics operations to Japan's Funai Electric Co, but in October 2013, the deal to Funai Electric Co was broken off and the consumer electronics operations remain under Philips. Philips said it would seek damages for breach of contract in the $200-million sale. In April 2016, the International Court of Arbitration ruled in favour of Philips, awarding compensation of 135 Million Euro in the process. \n\nPhilips has a primary listing on the Euronext Amsterdam stock exchange and is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index. It has a secondary listing on the New York Stock Exchange.\n\nHistory\n\nThe Philips Company was founded in 1891 by Gerard Philips and his father Frederik. Frederik, a banker based in Zaltbommel, financed the purchase and setup of a modest, empty factory building in Eindhoven, where the company started the production of carbon-filament lamps and other electro-technical products in 1892. This first factory has been adapted and is used as a museum. \n\nIn 1895, after a difficult first few years and near bankruptcy, the Philipses brought in Anton, Gerard's younger brother by sixteen years. Though he had earned a degree in engineering, Anton started work as a sales representative; soon, however, he began to contribute many important business ideas. With Anton's arrival, the family business began to expand rapidly, resulting in the founding of Philips Metaalgloeilampfabriek N.V. (Philips Metal Filament Lamp Factory Ltd.) in Eindhoven in 1908, followed in 1912 by the foundation of Philips Gloeilampenfabrieken N.V. (Philips Lightbulb Factories Ltd.). After Gerard and Anton Philips changed their family business by founding the Philips corporation, they laid the foundations for the later electronics multinational.\n\nIn the 1920s, the company started to manufacture other products, such as vacuum tubes. In 1939 they introduced their electric razor, the Philishave (marketed in the US using the Norelco brand name). The \"Chapel\" is a radio with built-in loudspeaker, which was designed during the early 1930s.\n\nPhilips Radio\n\nOn 11 March 1927 Philips went on the air with shortwave radio station PCJJ (later PCJ) which was joined in 1929 by sister station PHOHI (Philips Omroep Holland-Indië). PHOHI broadcast in Dutch to the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) while PCJJ broadcast in English, Spanish and German to the rest of the world.\n\nThe international program on Sundays commenced in 1928, with host Eddie Startz hosting the Happy Station show, which became the world's longest-running shortwave program. Broadcasts from the Netherlands were interrupted by the German invasion in May 1940. The Germans commandeered the transmitters in Huizen to use for pro-Nazi broadcasts, some originating from Germany, others concerts from Dutch broadcasters under German control.\n\nPhilips Radio was absorbed shortly after liberation when its two shortwave stations were nationalised in 1947 and renamed Radio Netherlands Worldwide, the Dutch International Service. Some PCJ programs, such as Happy Station, continued on the new station.\n\nStirling engine\n\nPhilips was instrumental in the revival of the Stirling engine when, in the early 1930s, the management decided that offering a low-power portable generator would assist in expanding sales of its radios into parts of the world where mains electricity was unavailable and the supply of batteries uncertain. Engineers at the company's research lab carried out a systematic comparison of various power sources and determined that the almost forgotten Stirling engine would be most suitable, citing its quiet operation (both audibly and in terms of radio interference) and ability to run on a variety of heat sources (common lamp oil – \"cheap and available everywhere\" – was favoured). They were also aware that, unlike steam and internal combustion engines, virtually no serious development work had been carried out on the Stirling engine for many years and asserted that modern materials and know-how should enable great improvements. \n\nEncouraged by their first experimental engine, which produced 16 W of shaft power from a bore and stroke of , various development models were produced in a programme which continued throughout World War II. By the late 1940s the 'Type 10' was ready to be handed over to Philips' subsidiary Johan de Witt in Dordrecht to be productionised and incorporated into a generator set as originally planned. The result, rated at 180/200 W electrical output from a bore and stroke of , was designated MP1002CA (known as the \"Bungalow set\"). Production of an initial batch of 250 began in 1951, but it became clear that they could not be made at a competitive price, besides which the advent of transistor radios with their much lower power requirements meant that the original rationale for the set was disappearing. Approximately 150 of these sets were eventually produced. \n\nIn parallel with the generator set Philips developed experimental Stirling engines for a wide variety of applications and continued to work in the field until the late 1970s, though the only commercial success was the 'reversed Stirling engine' cryocooler. However, they filed a large number of patents and amassed a wealth of information, which they later licensed to other companies. \n\nShavers\n\nThe first Philips shaver was introduced in the 1930s, and was simply called “The Philishave”. In the USA, it was called the “Norelco”, which remains a part of their product line today. \n\nWorld War II\n\nOn 9 May 1940, the Philips directors learned that the German invasion of the Netherlands was to take place the following day. Having prepared for this, Anton Philips and his son in law Frans Otten, as well as other Philips family members, fled to the United States, taking a large amount of the company capital with them. Operating from the U.S. as the North American Philips Company, they managed to run the company throughout the war. At the same time, the company was moved (on paper) to the Netherlands Antilles to keep it out of American hands.\n\nOn 6 December 1942, The British No. 2 Group RAF led an air raid which heavily damaged the Philips Radio factory in Eindhoven with few casualties among the Dutch workers and civilians. The Philips works in Eindhoven was bombed again by the RAF on 30 March 1943. \n\nFrits Philips, the son of Anton, was the only Philips family member to stay in the Netherlands. He saved the lives of 382 Jews by convincing the Nazis that they were indispensable for the production process at Philips. In 1943 he was held at the internment camp for political prisoners at Vught for several months because a strike at his factory reduced production. For his actions in saving the hundreds of Jews, he was recognized by Yad Vashem in 1995 as a \"Righteous Among the Nations\". \n\n1945 to 2001\n\nAfter the war the company was moved back to the Netherlands, with their headquarters in Eindhoven.\n\nIn 1949, the company began selling television sets. In 1950, it formed Philips Records.\n\nPhilips introduced the audio Compact Audio Cassette tape in 1963, and it was wildly successful. Compact cassettes were initially used for dictation machines for office typing stenographers and professional journalists. As their sound quality improved, cassettes would also be used to record sound and became the second mass media alongside vinyl records used to sell recorded music.\n\nPhilips introduced the first combination portable radio and cassette recorder, which was marketed as the \"radiorecorder\", and is now better known as the boom box. Later, the cassette was used in telephone answering machines, including a special form of cassette where the tape was wound on an endless loop. The C-cassette was used as the first mass storage device for early personal computers in the 1970s and 1980s. Philips reduced the cassette size for the professional needs with the Mini-Cassette, although it would not be as successful as the Olympus Microcassette. This became the predominant dictation medium up to the advent of fully digital dictation machines.\n\nIn 1972 Philips launched the world's first home video cassette recorder, in the UK, the N1500. Its relatively bulky video cassettes could record 30 minutes or 45 minutes. Later one-hour tapes were also offered. As competition came from Sony's Betamax and the VHS group of manufacturers, Philips introduced the N1700 system which allowed double-length recording. For the first time, a 2-hour movie could fit onto one video cassette. In 1977, the company unveiled a special promotional film for this system in the UK, featuring comedian Denis Norden. The concept was quickly copied by the Japanese makers, whose tapes were significantly cheaper. Philips made one last attempt at a new standard for video recorders with the Video 2000 system, with tapes that could be used on both sides and had 8 hours of total recording time. As Philips only sold its systems on the PAL standard and in Europe, and the Japanese makers sold globally, the scale advantages of the Japanese proved insurmountable and Philips withdrew the V2000 system and joined the VHS Coalition.\n\nPhilips had developed a LaserDisc early on for selling movies, but delayed its commercial launch for fear of cannibalizing its video recorder sales. Later Philips joined with MCA to launch the first commercial LaserDisc standard and players. In 1982, Philips teamed with Sony to launch the Compact Disc; this format evolved into the CD-R, CD-RW, DVD and later Blu-ray, which Philips launched with Sony in 1997 and 2006 respectively.\n\nIn 1984, Philips split off its activities on the field of photolithographic integrated circuit production equipment, the so-called wafer steppers, into a joint venture with ASM International, located in Veldhoven under the name ASML. Over the years, this new company has evolved into the world's leading manufacturer of chip production machines at the expense of competitors like Nikon and Canon.\n\nIn 1991, the company's name was changed from N.V. Philips Gloeilampenfabrieken to Philips Electronics N.V. At the same time, North American Philips was formally dissolved, and a new corporate division was formed in the U.S. with the name Philips Electronics North America Corp.\n\nIn 1997 the company officers decided to move the headquarters from Eindhoven to Amsterdam along with the corporate name change to Koninklijke Philips Electronics N.V. The move was completed in 2001. Initially, the company was housed in the Rembrandt Tower, but in 2002 they moved again, this time to the Breitner Tower. Philips Lighting, Philips Research, Philips Semiconductors (spun off as NXP in September 2006) and Philips Design, are still based in Eindhoven. Philips Healthcare is headquartered in both Best, Netherlands (near Eindhoven) and Andover, Massachusetts, United States (near Boston).\n\nIn 2000, Philips bought Optiva Corporation, the maker of Sonicare electric toothbrushes. The company was renamed Philips Oral Healthcare and made a subsidiary of Philips DAP.\n\nIn 2001, Philips acquired the Healthcare Solutions Group (HSG) based in Böblingen, Germany from Agilent Technologies for EUR 2 billion. \n\n2001 to 2011\n\nIn 2004, Philips abandoned the slogan \"Let's make things better\" in favour of a new one: \"Sense and simplicity\".\n\nIn December 2005 Philips announced its intention to sell or demerge its semiconductor division. On 1 September 2006, it was announced in Berlin that the name of the new company formed by the division would be NXP Semiconductors. On 2 August 2006, Philips completed an agreement to sell a controlling 80.1% stake in NXP Semiconductors to a consortium of private equity investors consisting of Kohlberg Kravis Roberts & Co. (KKR), Silver Lake Partners and AlpInvest Partners. On 21 August 2006, Bain Capital and Apax Partners announced that they had signed definitive commitments to join the acquiring consortium, a process which was completed on 1 October 2006. In 2006 Philips bought out the company Lifeline Systems headquartered in Framingham, Massachusetts.\n\nIn August 2007 Philips acquired the company Ximis, Inc. headquartered in El Paso, Texas for their Medical Informatics Division. In October 2007, it purchased a Moore Microprocessor Patent (MPP) Portfolio license from The TPL Group.\n\nOn 21 December 2007 Philips and Respironics, Inc. announced a definitive agreement pursuant to which Philips acquired all of the outstanding shares of Respironics for US$66 per share, or a total purchase price of approximately €3.6 billion (US$5.1 billion) in cash. \n\nOn 21 February 2008 Philips completed the acquisition of VISICU Baltimore, Maryland through the merger of its indirect wholly owned subsidiary into VISICU. As a result of that merger, VISICU has become an indirect wholly owned subsidiary of Philips. VISICU was the creator of the eICU concept of the use of Telemedicine from a centralized facility to monitor and care for ICU patients. \n\nThe Philips physics laboratory was scaled down in the early 21st century, as the company ceased trying to be innovative in consumer electronics through fundamental research. \n\n2011 to present\n\nIn January 2011 Philips agreed to acquire the assets of Preethi, a leading India-based kitchen appliances company.\n\nOn 27 June 2011 Philips acquired Sectra Mamea AB, the mammography division of Sectra AB, together with the MicroDose brand. \n\nBecause net profit slumped 85 percent in Q3 2011, Philips announced a cut of 4,500 jobs to match part of an €800 million ($1.1 billion) cost-cutting scheme to boost profits and meet its financial target. \n\nIn March 2012 Philips announced its intention to sell, or demerge its television manufacturing operations to TPV Technology.\n\nIn 2011, the company posted a loss of €1.3 billion, but earned a net profit in Q1 and Q2 2012, however the management wanted €1.1 billion cost-cutting which was an increase from €800 million and may cut another 2,200 jobs until end of 2014. \n\nOn 5 December 2012, the antitrust regulators of the European Union fined Philips and several other major companies for fixing prices of TV cathode-ray tubes in two cartels lasting nearly a decade. \n\nOn 29 January 2013, it was announced that Philips had agreed to sell its audio and video operations to the Japan-based Funai Electric for €150 million, with the audio business planned to transfer to Funai in the latter half of 2013, and the video business in 2017. As part of the transaction, Funai was to pay a regular licensing fee to Philips for the use of the Philips brand. The purchase agreement was terminated by Philips in October because of breach of contract. \n\nIn April 2013, Philips announced a collaboration with Paradox Engineering for the realization and implementation of a “pilot project” on network-connected street-lighting management solutions. This project was endorsed by the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC). \n\nIn 2013, Philips omitted the word \"Electronics\" from its name, which is now Royal Philips N.V. \n\nOn 13 November 2013 Philips unveiled its new brand line “Innovation and You” and a new design of its shield mark. The new brand positioning is cited by Philips to signify company’s evolution and emphasize that innovation is only meaningful if it is based on an understanding of people’s needs and desires. \n\nOn 28 April 2014 Philips agreed to sell their Woox Innovations subsidiary (consumer electronics) to Gibson Brands for $US135 million.\n\nOn 23 September 2014, Philips announced a plan to split the company into two, separating the lighting business from the healthcare and consumer lifestyle divisions. it moved to complete this in March 2015 to an investment group for $3.3 billion \n\nOn February 2015, Philips acquired Volcano Corporation to strengthen its position in non-invasive surgery and imaging. \n\nOn June 2016, Philips spun off its lighting division to focus on the healthcare division. \n\nCorporate affairs\n\nCEOs\n\nPast and present CEOs:\n\n*1891–1922: Gerard Philips\n*1922–1939: Anton Philips\n*1939–1961: Frans Otten\n*1961–1971: Frits Philips\n*1971–1977: Henk van Riemsdijk\n*1977–1981: Nico Rodenburg\n*1982–1986: Wisse Dekker\n*1986–1990: Cornelis Van der Klugt\n*1990–1996: Jan Timmer\n*1996–2001: Cor Boonstra\n*2001–2011: Gerard Kleisterlee\n*2011–now: Frans van Houten\n\nCFOs\n\nPast CFO (Chief Financial Officer)\n\n*1960-1968: Cor Dillen\n\nAcquisitions\n\nCompanies acquired by Philips through the years include Amperex, Magnavox, Signetics, Mullard, VLSI, Agilent Healthcare Solutions Group, Marconi Medical Systems, ADAC Laboratories, ATL Ultrasound, Sectra Mamea AB, portions of Westinghouse and the consumer electronics operations of Philco and Sylvania. Philips abandoned the Sylvania trademark which is now owned by Havells Sylvania except in Australia, Canada, Mexico, New Zealand, Puerto Rico and the USA where it is owned by Osram. Formed in November 1999 as an equal joint venture between Philips and Agilent Technologies, the light-emitting diode manufacturer Lumileds became a subsidiary of Phillips Lighting in August 2005 and a fully owned subsidiary in December 2006. An 80.1 percent stake in Lumileds was sold to Go Scale in early 2015. \n\nOn 20 January 2006, Philips Electronics NV said it would buy Lifeline Systems Inc in a deal valued at $750 million, its biggest move yet to expand its consumer-health business (M). \n\nOperations\n\nPhilips is registered in the Netherlands as a naamloze vennootschap and has its global headquarters in Amsterdam. At the end of 2013 Philips had 111 manufacturing facilities, 59 R&D Facilities across 26 countries and sales and service operations in around 100 countries. \n\nPhilips is organized into three main divisions: Philips Consumer Lifestyle (formerly Philips Consumer Electronics and Philips Domestic Appliances and Personal Care), Philips Healthcare (formerly Philips Medical Systems) and Philips Lighting. Philips achieved total revenues of €22.579 billion in 2011, of which €8.852 billion were generated by Philips Healthcare, €7.638 billion by Philips Lighting, €5.823 billion by Philips Consumer Lifestyle and €266 million from group activities. At the end of 2011 Philips had a total of 121,888 employees, of whom around 44% were employed in Philips Lighting, 31% in Philips Healthcare and 15% in Philips Consumer Lifestyle.\n\nPhilips invested a total of €1.61 billion in research and development in 2011, equivalent to 7.1% of sales. Philips Intellectual Property and Standards is the group-wide division responsible for licensing, trademark protection and patenting. Philips currently holds around 54,000 patent rights, 39,000 trademarks, 70,000 design rights and 4,400 domain name registrations.\n\nAsia\n\nThailand\n\nPhilips Thailand was established since 1952. It is a branch of Royal Philips Electronics of the Netherlands which is a healthcare, lifestyle and lighting. Philips started manufacturing in Thailand in 1960 with an incandescent lamp factory. Philips has diversified its production facilities to include a fluorescent lamp factory and a luminaries factory, serving Thai's and worldwide markets.\n \n\nHong Kong\n\nPhilips Hong Kong began operation in 1948. Philips Hong Kong houses the global headquarters of Philips' Audio Business Unit. It also house Philips' Asia Pacific regional office and headquarters for its Design Division, Domestic Appliances & Personal Care Products Division, Lighting Products Division and Medical System Products Division. \n\nIn 1974 Philips opened a lamp factory in Hong Kong. This has a capacity of 200 million pieces a year and is certified with ISO 9001:2000 and ISO 14001. Its product portfolio includes prefocus, lensend and E10 miniature light bulbs.\n\nChina\n\nIn early 2008 Philips Lighting, a division of Royal Philips Electronics, opened a small engineering center in Shanghai to adapt the company's products to vehicles in Asia. \n\nIndia\n\nPhilips began operations in India in 1930 with the establishment of Philips Electrical Co. (India) Pvt Ltd in Kolkata as a sales outlet for imported Philips lamps. In 1938, Philips established its first Indian lamp-manufacturing factory in Kolkata. In 1948, Philips started manufacturing radios in Kolkata. In 1959, a second radio factory was established near Pune. In 1957, the company converted into a public limited company, renamed \"Philips India Ltd\". In 1970 a new consumer electronics factory began operations in Pimpri near Pune; the factory was closed in 2006. In 1996, the Philips Software Centre was established in Bangalore, later renamed the Philips Innovation Campus. In 2008, Philips India entered the water purifier market. In 2014, Philip's was ranked 12th among India's most trusted brands according to the Brand Trust Report, a study conducted by Trust Research Advisory. \n\nIsrael\n\nPhilips has been active in Israel since 1948 and in 1998 set up a wholly owned subsidiary, Philips Electronics (Israel) Ltd. The company has over 700 employees in Israel and generated sales of over $300 million in 2007.\n\nPhilips Medical Systems Technologies Ltd. (Haifa) is a developer and manufacturer of Computerized Tomography (CT), diagnostic and Medical Imaging systems. The company was founded in 1969 as Elscint by Elron Electronic Industries and was acquired by Marconi Medical Systems in 1998, which was itself acquired by Philips in 2001.\n\nPhilips Semiconductors formerly had major operations in Israel; these now form part of NXP Semiconductors.\n\nPakistan\n\nPhilips has been active in Pakistan since 1948 and has a wholly owned subsidiary, Philips Pakistan Limited (Formerly Philips Electrical Industries of Pakistan Limited).\n\nThe head office is in Karachi with regional sales offices in Lahore and Rawalpindi.\n\nEurope\n\nFrance\n\nPhilips France has its headquarters in Suresnes. The company employs over 3600 people nationwide.\n\nPhilips Lighting has manufacturing facilities in Chalon-sur-Saône (fluorescent lamps), Chartres (automotive lighting), Lamotte-Beuvron (architectural lighting by LEDs and professional indoor lighting), Longvic (lamps), Miribel (outdoor lighting), Nevers (professional indoor lighting).\n\nGermany\n\nPhilips Germany was founded in 1926 in Berlin. Now its headquarters is located in Hamburg. Over 4900 people are employed in Germany. \n* Hamburg\n** Distribution center of the divisions Healthcare, Consumer Lifestyle, and Lighting.\n** Philips Medical Systems DMC. \n** Philips Innovative Technologies, Research Laboratories.\n* Aachen\n** Philips Innovative Technologies.\n** Philips Innovation Services.\n* Böblingen\n** Philips Medical Systems, patient monitoring systems.\n* Herrsching\n** Philips Respironics.\n* Ulm\n** Philips Photonics, development and manufacture of vertical laser diodes (VCSELs) and photodiodes for sensing and data communication.\n\nGreece\n\nPhilips' Greece is headquartered in Marousi, Attica. As of 2012 Philips has no manufacturing plants in Greece, although there have been in the past.\n\nItaly\n\nPhilips founded its Italian headquarter in 1918, basing it in Monza (Milan) where it still operates, for commercial activities only.\n\nPoland\n\nPhilips' operations in Poland include: a European financial and accounting centre in Łódź; Philips Lighting facilities in Bielsko-Biała, Pabianice, Piła, and Kętrzyn; and a Philips Domestic Appliances facility in Białystok.\n\nPortugal\n\nPhilips started business in Portugal in 1927 as \"Philips Portuguesa S.A.R.L.\". Currently, Philips Portuguesa S.A. is headquartered in Oeiras near Lisbon. There have been three Philips factories in Portugal: the FAPAE lamp factory in Lisbon; the Carnaxide magnetic-core memory factory near Lisbon, where the Philips Service organization is also based; and the Ovar factory in northern Portugal making camera components and remote control devices. The company still operates in Portugal with divisions for commercial lighting, medical systems and domestic appliances. \n\nSweden\n\nPhilips Sweden has two main sites, Kista, Stockholm County, with regional sales, marketing and a customer support organization and Solna, Stockholm County, with the main office of the mammography division.\n\nUnited Kingdom\n\nPhilips UK has its headquarters in Guildford. The company employs over 2500 people nationwide. \n\n* Philips Healthcare Informatics, Belfast develops healthcare software products.\n* Philips Consumer Products, Guildford provides sales and marketing for televisions, including High Definition televisions, DVD recorders, hi-fi and portable audio, CD recorders, PC peripherals, cordless telephones, home and kitchen appliances, personal care (shavers, hair dryers, body beauty and oral hygiene ).\n* Philips Dictation Systems, Colchester.\n* Philips Lighting: sales from Guildford and manufacture in Hamilton.\n* Philips Healthcare, Reigate. Sales and technical support for X-ray, ultrasound, nuclear medicine, patient monitoring, magnetic resonance, computed tomography, and resuscitation products.\n* Philips Research Laboratories, Cambridge (Until 2008 based in Redhill, Surrey. Originally these were the Mullard Research Laboratories.)\n\nIn the past, Philips UK also included\n* Consumer product manufacturing in Croydon\n* Television Tube Manufacturing Mullard Simonstone\n* Philips Business Communications, Cambridge: offered voice and data communications products, specialising in Customer Relationship Management (CRM) applications, IP Telephony, data networking, voice processing, command and control systems and cordless and mobile telephony. In 2006 the business was placed into a 60/40 joint venture with NEC. NEC later acquired 100% ownership and the business was renamed NEC Unified Solutions.\n* Philips Electronics Blackburn; vacuum tubes, capacitors, delay-lines, Laserdiscs, CDs.\n* Philips Domestic Appliances Hastings: Design and Production of Electric kettles, Fan Heaters, plus former EKCO brand \"Thermotube\" Tubular Heaters and \"Hostess\" Domestic Food Warming Trolleys.\n* Philips Semiconductors, Hazel Grove, Stockport and Southampton, both also earlier part of Mullard. These became part of NXP.\n* London Carriers, logistics and transport division.\n* Mullard Equipment Limited (MEL) which produced products for the military\n* Pye Telecommunications Ltd of Cambridge\n* TMC Limited of Malmesbury\n* Pye TVT Ltd of Cambridge\n\nNorth America\n\nCanada\n\nPhilips Canada was founded in 1934. It is well known in medical systems for diagnosis and therapy, lighting technologies, shavers, and consumer electronics.\n\nThe Canadian headquarters are located in Markham, Ontario.\n\nFor several years, Philips manufactured lighting products in two Canadian factories. The London, Ontario, plant opened in 1971. It produced A19 lamps (including the \"Royale\" long life bulbs), PAR38 lamps and T19 lamps (originally a Westinghouse lamp shape). Philips closed the factory in May 2003. The Trois-Rivières, Quebec plant was a Westinghouse facility which Philips continued to run it after buying Westinghouse's lamp division in 1983. Philips closed this factory a few years later, in the late 1980s.\n\nMexico\n\nPhilips Mexicana SA de CV is headquartered in Mexico City. Philips Lighting has manufacturing facilities in:Monterrey, Nuevo León; Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua; and Tijuana, Baja California. Philips Consumer Electronics has a manufacturing facility in Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua. Philips Domestic Appliances formerly operated a large factory in the Industrial Vallejo sector of Mexico City but this was closed in 2004.\n\nUnited States\n\nPhilips' Electronics North American headquarters is based in Andover, Massachusetts. Philips Lighting has its corporate office in Somerset, New Jersey, with manufacturing plants in Danville, Kentucky, Dallas, Salina, Kansas and Paris, Texas and distribution centers in Mountain Top, Pennsylvania, Ontario, California and Memphis, Tennessee. Philips Healthcare is headquartered in Andover, Massachusetts. The North American sales organization is based in Bothell, Washington. There are also manufacturing facilities in Andover, Massachusetts, Bothell, Washington, Baltimore, Maryland, Cleveland, Ohio, Foster City, California, Gainesville, Florida, Milpitas, California and Reedsville, Pennsylvania. Philips Healthcare also formerly had a factory in Knoxville, Tennessee. Philips Consumer Lifestyle has its corporate office in Stamford, Connecticut. Philips Lighting has a Color Kinetics office in Burlington, Massachusetts. Philips Research North American headquarters is in Cambridge, Massachusetts.\n\nIn 2007, Philips entered into a definitive merger agreement with North American luminaires company Genlyte Group Incorporated, which provides the company with a leading position in the North American luminaires (also known as ˜lighting fixtures\"), controls and related products for a wide variety of applications, including solid state lighting. The company also acquired Respironics, which was a significant gain for its healthcare sector. On 21 February 2008 Philips completed the acquisition of VISICU Baltimore, Maryland. VISICU was the creator of the eICU concept of the use of Telemedicine from a centralized facility to monitor and care for ICU patients.\n\nOceania\n\nAustralia and New Zealand\n\nPhilips Australia was founded in 1927 and is headquartered in North Ryde, New South Wales and also manages the New Zealand operation from there. The company currently employs around 800 people. Regional sales and support offices are located in Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide, Perth and Auckland.\n\nCurrent activities include: Philips Healthcare (also responsible for New Zealand operations); Philips Lighting (also responsible for New Zealand operations); Philips Consumer Lifestyle (also responsible for New Zealand operations); Philips Sleep & Respiratory Care (formerly Respironics), with its ever increasing national network of Sleepeasy Centres ; Philips Dynalite (Lighting Control systems, acquired in 2009, global design and manufacturing centre) and Philips Selecon NZ (Lighting Entertainment product design and manufacture).\n\nSouth America\n\nBrazil\n\nPhilips do Brasil () was founded in 1924 in Rio de Janeiro. In 1929, Philips started to sell radio receivers. In the 1930s, Philips was making its light bulbs and radio receivers in Brazil. From 1939 to 1945, World War II forced Brazilian branch of Philips to sell bicycles, refrigerators and insecticides. After the war, Philips had a great industrial expansion in Brazil, and was among the first groups to establish in Manaus Free Zone. In the 1970s, Philips Records was a major player in Brazil recording industry. Nowadays, Philips do Brasil is one of the largest foreign-owned companies in Brazil. Philips uses the brand Walita for domestic appliances in Brazil.\n\nFormer operations\n\nPhilips subsidiary ' manufactured pharmaceuticals for human and veterinary use and products for crop protection. Duphar was sold to Solvay in 1990. In subsequent years Solvay sold off all divisions to other companies (crop protection to UniRoyal, now Chemtura, the veterinary division to Fort Dodge, a division of Wyeth, and the pharmaceutical division to Abbott Laboratories).\n\nPolyGram, Philips' music television and movies division, was sold to Seagram in 1998 and merged into Universal Music Group and Universal Studios. Philips Records continues to operate as record label of UMG, its name licensed from its former parent.\n\nOrigin, now part of Atos Origin, is a former division of Philips.\n\nASM Lithography is a spin-off from a division of Philips.\n\nHollandse Signaalapparaten was a manufacturer of military electronics. The business was sold to Thomson-CSF in 1990 and is now Thales Nederland.\n\nNXP Semiconductors, formerly known as Philips Semiconductors, was sold a consortium of private equity investors in 2006. On 6 August 2010, NXP completed its IPO, with shares trading on NASDAQ.\n\nPhilips used to sell major household appliances (whitegoods) under the name Philips. After selling the Major Domestic Appliances division to Whirlpool Corporation it changed from Philips Whirlpool to Whirlpool Philips and finally to just Whirlpool. Whirlpool bought a 53% stake in Philips' major appliance operations to form Whirlpool International. Whirlpool bought Philips' remaining interest in Whirlpool International in 1991.\n\nPhilips Cryogenics was split off in 1990 to form the Stirling Cryogenics BV, Netherlands. This company is still active in the development and manufacturing of Stirling cryocoolers and cryogenic cooling systems.\n\nNorth American Philips distributed AKG Acoustics products under the AKG of America, Philips Audio/Video, Norelco and AKG Acoustics Inc. branding until AKG set up its North American division in San Leandro, California in 1985. (AKG's North American division has since moved to Northridge, California.)\n\nPolymer Vision was a Philips spin-off that manufactured a flexible e-ink display screen. The company closed in 2009. \n\nProducts\n\nPhilips' core products are consumer electronics and electrical products, including small domestic appliances, shavers, beauty appliances, mother and childcare appliances, electric toothbrushes and coffee makers (products like Smart Phones, audio equipment, Blu-ray players, computer accessories and televisions are sold under license); healthcare products (including CT scanners, ECG equipment, mammography equipment, monitoring equipment, MRI scanners, radiography equipment, resuscitation equipment, ultrasound equipment and X-ray equipment); \n\nLighting products\n\n* Professional indoor luminaires \n* Professional outdoor luminaires \n* Professional lamps \n* Lighting controls and Control Systems \n* Digital projection lights \n* Horticulture lighting \n* Solar LED lights \n* Smart office lighting systems \n* Smart retail lighting systems \n* Smart city lighting systems \n* Home lamps \n* Home fixtures \n* Home Systems \n\nAudio products\n\n* Hi-fi systems\n* Wireless speakers\n* Radio systems\n* Docking stations\n* Headphones\n* DJ mixers\n* Alarm clocks\n\nHealthcare products\n\nPhilips healthcare products include:\n* CT scan\n\nClinical informatics\n\n* Cardiology informatics (IntelliSpace Cardiovascular, Xcelera)\n* Enterprise Imaging Informatics (IntelliSpace PACS, XIRIS)\n* IntelliSpace family of solutions\n\nImaging systems\n\n* Cardio/Vascular X-Ray\n* Computed tomography (CT)\n* Fluoroscopy\n* Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)\n*Mammography\n* Mobile C-Arms\n* Nuclear medicine\n* PET (Positron emission tomography)\n* PET/CT\n* Radiography\n* Radiation oncology Systemsroots\n* Ultrasound\n\nDiagnostic monitoring\n\n* Diagnostic ECG\n\nDefibrillators\n\n* Accessories\n* Equipment\n* Software\n\nConsumer\n\n* Philips AVENT\n\nPatient care and clinical informatics\n\n* Anesthetic gas monitoring\n* Blood pressure\n* Capnography\n* D.M.E.\n* Diagnostic sleep testing\n* ECG\n* Enterprise patient informatics solutions\nOB TraceVue\nCompurecord\nICIP\neICU program\nEmergin\n* Hemodynamic\n* IntelliSpace Cardiovascular\n* IntelliSpace PACS\n* IntelliSpace portal\n* Multi-measurement servers\n* Neurophedeoiles\n* Pulse oximetry\n* Temperature\n* Transcutaneous gases\n* Ventilation\n* ViewForum\n* Xcelera\n* XIRIS\n* Xper Information Management\n\nCoat of arms/logotype\n\nImage:Philips history shield.jpg|Original Philips shield introduced in 1938\nImage:Philips old logo.svg|Philips shield in use from 1968 until March 2008 \nImage:Philips logo.svg|The Philips logo in use until March 2008\nImage:Philips logo new.svg|The current Philips logo\nImage:Philips Shield blue.svg|Philips Shield in use until November 2013\nImage:Philips New Shield 2013.svg|Philips shield design introduced in November 2013\n\nSponsorships\n\nIn 1913, in celebration of the 100th anniversary of the independence of the Netherlands, Philips founded Philips Sport Vereniging (Philips Sports Club, now commonly known as PSV). The club is active in numerous sports, but is now best known for its football team, PSV Eindhoven, and swimming team. Philips owns the naming rights to Philips Stadion in Eindhoven, which is the home ground of PSV Eindhoven.\n\nOutside of the Netherlands, Philips sponsors and has sponsored numerous sport clubs, sport facilities and events. In November 2008 Philips renewed and extended its F1 partnership with AT&T Williams. Philips owns the naming rights to the Philips Arena in Atlanta, Georgia and to the Philips Championship, the premier basketball league in Australia, traditionally known as the National Basketball League. From 1988 to 1993 Philips was the principal sponsor of the Australian rugby league team The Balmain Tigers.\n\nOutside of sports Philips sponsors the international Philips Monsters of Rock festival.\n\nEnvironmental record\n\nGreen initiatives\n\nPhilips is running the EcoVision4 initiative in which it committed to a number of environmentally positive improvements by 2012. \n\nAlso Philips marks its \"green\" products with the Philips Green Logo, identifying them as products that have a significantly better environmental performance than their competitors or predecessors. \n\nL-Prize competition\n\nIn 2011, Philips won a $10 million cash prize from the US Department of Energy for winning its L-Prize competition, to produce a high-efficiency, long operating life replacement for a standard 60-W incandescent lightbulb. The winning LED lightbulb, which was made available to consumers in April 2012, produces slightly more than 900 lumens at an input power of only 10 W. \n\nGreenpeace ranking\n\nIn Greenpeace's 2012 Guide to Greener Electronics that ranks electronics manufacturers on sustainability, climate and energy and how green their products are, Philips ranks 10th place with a score of 3.8/10. The company was the top scorer in the Energy section due to its energy advocacy work calling upon the EU to adopt a 30% reduction for greenhouse gas emissions by 2020. It is also praised for its new products which are free from PVC plastic and BFRs. However, the guide criticizes Phillips' sourcing of fibres for paper, arguing it must develop a paper procurement policy which excludes suppliers involved in deforestation and illegal logging. \n\nPhilips have made some considerable progress since 2007 (when it was first ranked in this guide), in particular by supporting the Individual Producer Responsibility principle, which means that the company is accepting the responsibility for the toxic impacts of its products on e-waste dumps around the world. \n\nPublications\n\n* A. Heerding: The origin of the Dutch incandescent lamp industry. (Vol. 1 of The history of N.V. Philips gloeilampenfabriek). Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1986. ISBN 0-521-32169-7\n* A. Heerding: A company of many parts. (Vol. 2 of The history of N.V. Philips' gloeilampenfabrieken). Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1988. ISBN 0-521-32170-0\n* I.J. Blanken: The development of N.V. Philips' Gloeilampenfabrieken into a major electrical group. Zaltbommel, European Library, 1999. (Vol. 3 of The history of Philips Electronics N.V.). ISBN 90-288-1439-6\n* I.J. Blanken: Under German rule. Zaltbommel, European Library, 1999. (Vol. 4 of The history of Philips Electronics N.V). ISBN 90-288-1440-X" ] }

{ "description": [ "... 12 facts you might not ... teams didn’t realise the impact the CD would have: “ In the late 70s and ... giants Philips and Sony developed the CD format ...", "* Philips and Sony co-developed CD ... PHI) manufactured the world’s first Compact Disc at a Philips factory in Langenhagen, ... In the late 70s and early 80s, ...", "History of Compact Cassette; Links; ... Philips had already developed a compact cassette in 1963. ... Unfortunatelly it was a start of a decline as CD start taking over.", "Compact Disc is 25 Years Old. ... • Philips and Sony co-developed CD ... In the late 70s and early 80s, ...", "History's Dumpster = GLORIOUS trash ... Philips developed the Compact Audio Cassette ... But the tide really started turning in the late '90s with CD-Rs.", "DVD players and titles were expected to hit the consumer market in late 1996 ... This is the History of DVD ... Around 1994 Sony along with Philips ...", "Fast Guide to CD/DVD; Reference. ... In late 1982, Philips and Sony released the first of the compact ... Rewritable CD (CD-RW) was developed by Philips and Sony in ...", "The History of Car Audio. ... The surge in popularity of FM radio in the late '70s paralleled the development ... The compact disc was introduced by Philips and ..." ], "filename": [ "163/163_2147.txt", "28/28_2148.txt", "26/26_2149.txt", "80/80_2150.txt", "58/58_2151.txt", "98/98_2152.txt", "27/27_2154.txt", "149/149_2155.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8 ], "title": [ "The rise and fall of the CD: 12 facts you might not know - BT", "Philips celebrates 25th anniversary of the compact disc", "History of Compact Cassette: - Vintage Cassettes", "Compact Disc is 25 Years Old | WIRED", "History's Dumpster: The History of Cassettes", "Miqrogroove: History of DVD", "Fast Guide to CD/DVD - Reference from WhatIs.com", "The History of Car Audio | eHow" ], "url": [ "http://home.bt.com/tech-gadgets/the-rise-and-fall-of-the-cd-12-facts-you-might-not-know-11363966503172", "http://www.webwire.com/ViewPressRel.asp?aId=45169", "http://vintagecassettes.com/_history/history.htm", "http://www.wired.com/2007/08/compact-disk-is/", "http://historysdumpster.blogspot.com/2012/07/history-of-cassettes.html", "http://www.miqrogroove.com/writing/history-of-dvd/", "http://whatis.techtarget.com/reference/Fast-Guide-to-CD-DVD", "http://www.ehow.com/about_5380379_history-car-audio.html" ], "search_context": [ "The rise and fall of the CD: 12 facts you might not know - BT\n \nThe rise and fall of the CD: 12 facts you might not know\nWe celebrate the compact disc, a ground-breaking audio format that changed the way we listen to music.\n \nPrint this story\nOn March 8 1979 Philips demonstrated the compact disc for the first time – the Compact Disc Audio Player.\nAlthough this technology has faded a little in the internet age, with the advent of mp3 players and streaming services, it was hugely important.\nPiet Kramer, who worked in Philips optical group said at the time the teams didn’t realise the impact the CD would have: “ In the late 70s and early 80s, we never imagined that one day the computing and entertainment industries would also opt for the digital CD for storing the growing volume of data for computer programs and movies.”\nCheck out the video above from Philips to mark the 25th anniversary of the CD to find out more.\nHere are 12 fascinating facts about the CD\nTechnology giants Philips and Sony developed the CD format together. In 1979, a task force was set-up to create a digital audio disc and set a standard for the music industry that all manufacturers could follow and develop for.\nThe CD was the first digital format, it was marketed as having better sound and less liable to scratch than analogue formats such as cassette or record.\n1.2mm deep and 120mm in diameter, CD’s are made from polycarbonate plastic, with aluminium coating which makes the surface reflective. Data is encoded on a track in indents - known as pits - which start in the centre and spirals out. Lasers in CD players read this information from the disc without physical contact.\nCDs must comply with what is known as the ‘Red Book’ audio specification. The document of standards was created by Sony and Philips in 1980.\nThe world’s first compact disc was manufactured in Langenhagen, Germany on August 17 1982. The first CD made at the plant was Abba’s The Visitors.\nThe CD has a 74-minute playing time, allegedly because vice president of Sony, Norio Ohg’s wife’s favourite piece of music was Beethoven’s Ninth symphony.\nDire Straits’ Brothers in Arms was the first album to sell over one million CDs. The band and Philips promoted the sound quality, as you can see in this picture.\nThe BBC’s Tomorrow’s World famously demonstrated the CD in 1981. Host Kieran Prendiville was sceptical “whether there’s a market for this kind of disc” and is seen scratching a BeeGees CD. Urban legend suggested he spread jam on it first.\nThe first commercially available CD player was the Sony CDP-101, which was released in 1982 priced 168,000 yen (around £922). Sony CEO Nobuyuki Idei based the model name on the numbers 0101, which is number five in binary code, meaning the product was medium class.\nOver 200 billion CDs have been sold worldwide. If all the CDs produced were piled up, they would circle the earth six times.\nThe CD has spawned a range of optical-disc formats: Super Audio CD, CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW, DVD, right up to Blu-ray today.\nSales of CDs have been declining for years, in part down to the rise in digital music for portable music players and smartphones, but the decline has been slow. The Neilson end of year music report states that there were 140.8 million CD album sales in 2014, a drop from 165.4 million in 2013, but more than 106.5 million digital sales. Sales of both are being impacted by the popularity of streaming services like Spotify and YouTube.\nDo you still use CDs or do you download or stream music? What was your first CD player? Let us know in the Comments below.\n \nPhoto credit: Philips Company Archive, Joop Sinjou, Atreyu, Wikimedia Commons", "Philips celebrates 25th anniversary of the compact disc | WebWire\nPhilips celebrates 25th anniversary of the compact disc\nWEBWIRE – Thursday, August 16, 2007\n* World�s first CD manufactured at Philips factory near Hanover, Germany, on August 17, 1982\n* Philips and Sony co-developed CD � over 200 billion CDs sold in last 25 years\n* CD ushered in shift from analogue to digital in the music industry, spawned new digital technologies, including CD-Rom and DVD\nAmsterdam, The Netherlands � Exactly 25 years ago tomorrow, on August 17, 1982, Royal Philips Electronics ( NYSE:PHG , AEX:PHI) manufactured the world�s first Compact Disc at a Philips factory in Langenhagen, just outside of Hanover, Germany. The invention of the CD ushered in a technological revolution in the music industry as CDs � with their superior sound quality and scratch free durability � marked the beginning of the shift from analogue to digital music technology. The CD became a catalyst for further innovation in digital entertainment, helping pave the way for the launch of DVD and the current introduction of Blu-ray optical media. Having played a key role in the innovation of digital music, at home and on the move, consumers continue to witness huge advances in entertainment and lifestyle technologies.\nThe Philips factory in Germany, where the world�s first CD was pressed, belonged to Polygram � the recording company, which Philips owned at the time. The first CD to be manufactured at the plant was �The Visitors� by ABBA. By the time CDs were introduced on the market in November 1982, a catalogue of around 150 titles � mainly classical music � had been produced. The first CDs and CD players � including Philips� CD100 � were introduced in Japan in November, followed by a US and European market introduction in March of 1983.\nPhilips and Sony partnered to develop CD � collaboration based on open innovation helped position CD as standard for the music industry\nAs early as 1979, Philips and Sony set up a joint task force of engineers to design the new digital audio disc. Many decisions were made in the year to follow � such as the disc diameter. The original target storage capacity for a CD was one hour of audio content, and a disc diameter of 115 mm was sufficient for this, however both parties extended the capacity to 74 minutes to accommodate a complete performance of Beethoven�s 9th Symphony. In June 1980, the new standard was proposed by Philips and Sony as the �Red Book� containing all the technical specification for all CD and CD-Rom standards.\nPiet Kramer, who at the time was a member of the optical group at Philips that made a significant contribution to the CD technology, commented on Philips� and Sony�s collaborative work: �When Philips teamed up with Sony to develop the CD, our first target was to win over the world for the CD. We did this by collaborating openly to agree on a new standard. For Philips, this open innovation was a new approach � and it paid off. In the late 70s and early 80s, we never imagined that one day the computing and entertainment industries would also opt for the digital CD for storing the growing volume of data for computer programs and movies.�\nIn 1985, Philips and Dire Straits team up to promote the Compact Disc\nAs music industry sales of CDs started to take off in 1983, more than 1000 different titles were on the market. In 1985, one of the most famous bands in the world, Dire Straits, adopted the CD. The infamous album �Brothers in Arms�, as one of the first fully digital recording (DDD) to be brought to market, went on to become the top selling CD at the time, and the third greatest selling CD of the decade. The joint collaboration with Philips entailed Philips and Dire Straits jointly promoting the sound quality of the CD to consumers, making �Brothers in Arms� the first album to sell over one million copies in this new format, marking the success of the CD as the emerging format of choice for music quality.\n�The Compact Disc has proven its significance in bringing the highest quality of music to consumers who wish to enjoy scratch free music. The enormous success of the CD over the last twenty-five years has opened many new opportunities for consumers to make the most of their music at home and on the move,� said Lucas Covers, Senior Vice President & Chief Marketing Officer, Philips Consumer Electronics. �It has played a pivotal role in the shift from analogue music to digital, not least for the DVD as well in music, though moreover in helping lay the foundation for even new technologies such as Blu-ray quality today,� he added.\nOver 200 billion CDs have been sold worldwide over the past 25 years\nThe Compact Disc, is the forefather of today�s extensive family of optical discs for a wide range of applications such as CD-Rom, CD-R and CD-RW, DVD, DVD R, DVD RW and Blu-ray. Philips estimates that over the past 25 years, since the first CD was pressed at the Philips factory near Hanover, Germany, over 200 billion CDs have been sold worldwide. Even though a single CD is only 1.2 mm thick, if all CDs ever produced were piled up, the stack of CDs would circle the earth six times. The compact disc, as well as the DVD disc, remain a very popular music/ video carrier, because of their digital quality, portability, and resilience to damage, and remain a very popular gift.\nRelated Links", "Vintage Cassettes\nWebsites\nHistory of Compact Cassette:\nThe Compact Cassette is a plastic case containing a spool of 3.81 mm magnetic tape spooled between two reels. The tape is run at a rate of 4.76 cm/second. A tape head in the tape player or deck, in contact with an exposed portion of the tape, interprets an analog signal from the tape's magnetic surface.\nThe dawn of magnetic recording (1878-1930)\n~1878\nOberlin Smith (Mechanical engineer) develops a theory of magnetic recording after a visit to Edison's lab.\n1888\nThe Electrical World publishes Smith's \"Some Possible Forms of Phonograph\" September 8. The paper describes a machine with an electromagnet and a string covered with iron filings.\n1898\nValdemar Poulsen discovered the magnetic recording principle while working as a mechanic in the Copenhagen Telegraph Company (1894). In 1898 he patented the telegraphone, the first successful magnetic recording device (USF patent 661,619)\nWhen Poulsen's patent expired in 1918, Germany led efforts to improved magnetic recording. Between 1920 and 1945 series of machines using wire and steel tape were developed (Germany, UK and Japan).\nMagnetic recording on tape (1930-58)\n1928\nFritz Pfleumer is granted a patent for applying magnetic powder to film or paper strips. (In 1936 the German National Court declares that Pfleumer's patent was covered in Poulsen's original patents of 1898 and 1899.)\n1930\nBASF launched PES-18 tape.\n1962\n3M introduces Scotch 201/202 \"Dynarange,\" a black oxide low-noise mastering tape with a 4 dB improvement in s/n ratio over Scotch 111.\nThe marketing in USA and Europe had learned that home tape recording was a very attractive function for consumers, but that reel-to-reel would never exceed the very limited market of those who have technical skills. Consequently, from around the mid 1950s trials to get the tape in one or another case started (Tefi cassette for Tefifon in 1955, Dictet cassette for Dictaphone in 1957, Saba cassette for Sabamobile in 1958). Below we present the most successful attempts.\nCartridges and Cassettes (1958-65)\nLaunch of tape cartridges by RCA spurred companies worldwide into developing tape cartridges, cassettes and \"magazine tapes\" under various names and based on different standards. The common feature of these products was, unlike manually threaded reel-to-reel systems, simply inserting the encased tape into a tape player and pressing a button could operate the new systems. People without technical backgrounds could operate it very easily. Naturally, the machine itself could also be miniaturized.\n1958\nRCA cartridge. It was the first attempt to put reel-to-reel tape in cartridge form. Dimensions: 5 x 7 1/8 x 1/2 inches (127 x 197 x 13 mm). The cartridges were reversible and either side could be played. Tape speed was either 3.75 ips resulting in 30 minutes of audio on 0.25 inch tape or 1 7/8 ips selected by a small lever. RCA Records made an early attempt at making this a popular pre-recorded music format. However it turned out to be a major \"Flop\" in that regard. Cartridges would have prices ranging from $4.95 for a 20 minute tape to $9.95 for an hour RCA was slow to produce machines for the home market and to license recorded music, and the format disappeared from the market by 1964.\n1959\nFidelipac (NAB cartridge). Introduced in 1959 by Collins Radio at the 1959 NAB Convention. The cart tape format was designed for use by radio broadcasters to play commercials, bumpers and announcements. It will be used until the late 1990s and is on the direct path to the first popular consumer tape format. It was originally a 1/4-inch-wide (6.4 mm) audio recording tape, two-track format at 7.5 ips. Fidelipac cartridge was later adapted by Earl \"Madman\" Muntz in 1962 for his Stereo-Pak cartridge system (run at 3.75 ips). Muntz also sold a library of 3000 titles licensed from 40 record companies. In the 1960s, Muntz sold about half of the 700,000 Fidelipac-type players.\n1963\nCompact Cassette Philips introduced a prototype in Europe in August 1963 (at the Berlin Radio Show). Philips cassette was 1/4 the size of the Fidelipac or Lear cartridge, making possible small battery-powered versatile players that could be carried anywhere. It had a reversible housing with maximum tape protection allowing 30 or 45 minutes of stereo music per side. Tape speed: 1 7/8 ips (=4.76cm/s). Tape width: 0.15inch (=3.81mm). In US Philips was using the name NORELCO. Below is the picture of the first cassette player (EL 3300) and the first cassette (it had BASF PES-18 tape inside).\n1965\nDC International. In 1965 during Berlin Exhibition Grundig together with Telefunken and Blaupunkt introduced \"DC-International\" cassette. The cassette was available in 2x 45 or 2x 90 minutes and run at 5.08cm/s, allowing a 40Hz to 10Khz frequency response. The first recorder was Grundig C 100 L.\n1965\n8-track. (known also as STEREO 8 and Lear Jet). The cartridge was designed by Lear Jet Corporation in 1964 (by Ralph Miller while working under Bill Lear) for the Ford new car models of 1965, with a tape library provided by RCA Victor. The major change to Fidelipac was to incorporate a neoprene rubber and nylon pinch roller into the cartridge itself, rather than to make the pinch roller a part of the tape player, reducing mechanical complexity. It used only one single reel containing a continuous endless loop of recording tape specifically prepared so that the tape were able to slip out from its inner round of the tape spool. Tape speed: 3.75 ips. Tape width: 0.25 in.\nThe King emerge: Compact Cassette\nThe rather stiff license fees demanded by the creators were the reasons why Philips and Grundig decided to jointly develop a \"Euro\" cartridge system. The cooperation did not last long and Philips introduced a prototype in Europe in August 1963 (at the Berlin Radio Show). Scarcely any product has drawn more attention of Japanese industry visitors then the Philips cassette. No doubt it was the most photographed product of that event.\nWhen the cassette was developed there were only three tapes in the world which enabled Philips to get it right, 3M's low-noise cartridge tape, KODAK's triple-play tape P 300 and BASF's PES-18. Of these only BASF tape was perfectly balanced in all its properties, in particular also the mechanical characteristics. Consequently, BASF had the honor to make the very first tapes for the compact cassette.\nGrundig was preparing war against the Philips compact cassettes. In 1965 during Berlin Exhibition together with Telefunken and Blaupunkt they introduced \"DC-International\" cassette system and planned not to ask any license fees. Philips wanted the common license fee for hardware, nothing for music cassettes.\nOne day in September 1963, at the opening of the Berlin IFA Exhibition, Fredrich Lachner of the German company Grundig proposed to Ohga that the two companies cooperate in developing a DC International Standard for cassette tapes, a standard conceived by three German manufacturers. While Ohga considered this possibility, another proposal came from Wisse Dekker, manager of the Philips Electronics Far East Division and later president, and L.F. Ottens, a technical expert also from Philips. They came to Japan and proposed the co-development of the compact cassette to Ohga. Philips had already developed a compact cassette in 1963. The advantages of both the Grundig and Philips formats were weighed and considered. In the end, Ohga chose the Philips compact cassette because of its smaller size.\nA problem over royalties arose during the contract stage. Philips initially suggested that it receive a payment of 25 yen for each unit sold by companies in Japan. Ohga thought this was excessive and did not agree to it. A few days later, Philips showed some flexibility and asked for 6 yen per unit, a figure it said other companies had agreed to. Masanobu Tada, Operations Division manager, recommended that Sony accept the offer, but Ohga still refused, insisting that unless Philips waived royalties altogether, Sony would collaborate with Grundig. Finally, Philips agreed to waive royalties, but did not give Sony exclusive rights to the technology. In 1965, based on a patent that guaranteed compatibility, Philips made the technology available free of charge to manufacturers all over the world.\nDuring first two years everybody has its own name. Sometimes cartridge, sometimes cassette. A uniform name was necessary. The result is well known. Since 1965 the cassette carries the name compact cassette.\nThe reign: Compact Cassette (1965-90)\nThe Compact Cassette format initially offered fairly poor fidelity and was marketed for voice recording and dictation. Technology improved quickly, and advances in noise reduction technology, its ability to play stereo tapes, and new tape formulations soon assured high-quality sound from the compact format. Here we present the milestones in Compact Cassette development:\n1963\nSales of recorded compact cassettes (audio cassettes) exceed LP sales for the first time.\n1990\nDolby S. Based on an advanced profesional spectral recording system. Dolby C reduced tape signal-to-noise by 24 dB.\n1990\nSuper metals. High end metal cassettes were introduced: TDK MA-XG, Metal Vertex, Sony Metal Master, That's Suono.\nOver the years the improvement of tape itself and better shells made compact cassettes high fidelity source. Advances have been made in all areas of compact cassette manufacturer, from the magnetic particles of the tape itself, to the material used to bind material in place and to the cassette shell itself. TDK says it has reduced particle size by almost a factor of 10 over the years, while magnetic energy of each particle has almost doubled.\nUnfortunatelly it was a start of a decline as CD start taking over. It was just cheaper to produce good sounding CD and CD player then cassette deck and compact cassette. The sales declined but they well still high for 10 or so years. The global sale of blank cassettes in 1996 was 2.098 billion pieces. In 1997 this decreased by 4.5% to 2.003 billion.\nReference and Contributors:\nTerry O'Kelly (email exchange)\nWillem Andriessen, `THE WINNER'; compact cassette. A commercial and technical look back at the greatest success story in the history of AUDIO up to now. Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials, Volume 193, Issues 1-3, March 1999, Pages 11-16\nAES Society files. http://www.aes.org/aeshc/docs/audio.history.timeline.html\nMagnetic recording: the first 100 years (Edited By Eric D. Daniel, C. Denis Mee, Mark H. Clark) Wiley-IEEE Press (August 17, 1998).\nPhilips: http://www.philipsmuseumeindhoven.nl/phe/products/e_cc.htm\n\"sowa_pszemodzala\" for picture of the first Compact Cassette.\nWilhelm from \"Tapeheads\" for picture of Magnetophon K1 recorder and Magnetophonband Type C tape.\n© 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 vintagecassettes.com", "Compact Disc is 25 Years Old | WIRED\nCompact Disc is 25 Years Old\nsubscribe\n6 months for $5 - plus a FREE Portable\nPhone Charger.\n1 hour\nThere is no future. There is no past. There is only Donald Glover rocking this look. bit.ly/2jEg1wW\nAuthor: Rob Beschizza. Rob Beschizza Gear\nDate of Publication: 08.16.07.\nTime of Publication: 3:55 pm.\n3:55 pm\nCompact Disc is 25 Years Old\nAn obsolete form of optical media known as the \"Compact Disc\" celebrates its 25th birthday tomorrow. In a press release issued Thursday, Philips said a staggering 200 billion of them were produced (194 billion accounted for by AOL signup disks) since the first one was stamped off the production line on Aug. 17, 1982.\n\"The first CD to be manufactured at the plant was “The Visitors” by ABBA. By the time CDs were introduced on the market in November 1982, a catalogue of around 150 titles – mainly classical music – had been produced. The first CDs and CD players – including Philips’ CD100 – were introduced in Japan in November, followed by a US and European market introduction in March of 1983.\"\nThough the CD is well past its prime, the form factor and basic technology saw renewal in the DVD and, later, next-gen formats such as HD-DVD and Blu-Ray Disc. Anyone remember how the thing was originally marketed as being indestructible? And remember those green pens that audiophiles would pay $19.99 for under the belief it would make the data sound better? Good times, man.\nPHILIPS CELEBRATES 25th ANNIVERSARY OF THE COMPACT DISC\n• World’s first CD manufactured at Philips factory near Hanover, Germany, on August 17, 1982\n• Philips and Sony co-developed CD – over 200 billion CDs sold in last 25 years\n• CD ushered in shift from analogue to digital in the music industry, spawned new digital technologies, including CD-Rom and DVD\nAmsterdam, The Netherlands – Exactly 25 years ago tomorrow, on August 17, 1982, Royal Philips Electronics (NYSE:PHG, AEX:PHI) manufactured the world’s first compact disc at a Philips factory in Langenhagen, just outside of Hanover, Germany. The invention of the CD ushered in a technological revolution in the music industry as CDs – with their superior sound quality and scratch free durability – marked the beginning of the shift from analogue to digital music technology. The CD became a catalyst for further innovation in digital entertainment, helping pave the way for the launch of DVD and the current introduction of Blu-ray optical media. Having played a key role in the innovation of digital music, at home and on the move, consumers continue to witness huge advances in entertainment and lifestyle technologies.\nThe Philips factory in Germany, where the world’s first CD was pressed, belonged to Polygram – the recording company, which Philips owned at the time. The first CD to be manufactured at the plant was “The Visitors” by ABBA. By the time CDs were introduced on the market in November 1982, a catalogue of around 150 titles – mainly classical music – had been produced. The first CDs and CD players – including Philips’ CD100 – were introduced in Japan in November, followed by a US and European market introduction in March of 1983.\nPhilips and Sony partnered to develop CD – collaboration based on\nopen innovation helped position CD as standard for the music industry\nAs early as 1979, Philips and Sony set up a joint task force of engineers to design the new digital audio disc. Many decisions were made in the year to follow – such as the disc diameter. The original target storage capacity for a CD was one hour of audio content, and a disc diameter of 115 mm was sufficient for this, however both parties extended the capacity to 74 minutes to accommodate a complete performance of Beethoven’s 9th Symphony. In June 1980, the new standard was proposed by Philips and Sony as the “Red Book” containing all the technical specification for all CD and CD-Rom standards.\nPiet Kramer, who at the time was a member of the optical group at Philips that made a significant contribution to the CD technology, commented on Philips’ and Sony’s collaborative work: “When Philips teamed up with Sony to develop the CD, our first target was to win over the world for the CD. We did this by collaborating openly to agree on a new standard. For Philips, this open innovation was a new approach – and it paid off. In the late 70s and early 80s, we never imagined that one day the computing and entertainment industries would also opt for the digital CD for storing the growing volume of data for computer programs and movies.”\nIn 1985, Philips and Dire Straits team up to promote the Compact Disc\nAs music industry sales of CDs started to take off in 1983, more than 1000 different titles were on the market. In 1985, one of the most famous bands in the world, Dire Straits, adopted the CD. The infamous album “Brothers in Arms”, as one of the first fully digital recording (DDD) to be brought to market, went on to become the top selling CD at the time, and the third greatest selling CD of the decade. The joint collaboration with Philips entailed Philips and Dire Straits jointly promoting the sound quality of the CD to consumers, making “Brothers in Arms” the first album to sell over one million copies in this new format, marking the success of the CD as the emerging format of choice for music quality.\n“The Compact Disc has proven its significance in bringing the highest quality of music to consumers who wish to enjoy scratch free music. The enormous success of the CD over the last twenty-five years has opened many new opportunities for consumers to make the most of their music at home and on the move,” said Lucas Covers, Senior Vice President & Chief Marketing Officer, Philips Consumer Electronics. “It has played a pivotal role in the shift from analogue music to digital, not least for the DVD as well in music, though moreover in helping lay the foundation for even new technologies such as Blu-ray quality today,” he added.\nOver 200 billion CDs have been sold worldwide over the past 25 years\nThe Compact Disc, is the forefather of today’s extensive family of optical discs for a wide range of applications such as CD-Rom, CD-R and CD-RW, DVD, DVD R, DVD RW and Blu-ray. Philips estimates that over the past 25 years, since the first CD was pressed at the Philips factory near Hanover, Germany, over 200 billion CDs have been sold worldwide. Even though a single CD is only 1.2 mm thick, if all CDs ever produced were piled up, the stack of CDs would circle the earth six times. The compact disc, as well as the DVD disc, remain a very popular music/ video carrier, because of their digital quality, portability, and resilience to damage, and remain a very popular gift.", "History's Dumpster: The History of Cassettes\nHistory's Dumpster for Smartphones, Tablets and Old/Slow Computers http://historysdumpster.blogspot.com/?m=1\nSunday, July 15, 2012\nThe History of Cassettes\nThe advent of the cartridge style tape began with the usual seven words that begin the road to any invention. Fourteen if you count those other seven nasty words (that usually precede these):\n\"There's GOT to be a better way!\"\nTape, like the wire recordings that came before them were on spools or reels and had to be hand threaded through the playback mechanism. A time consuming feat in itself for the average person.  And prone to accidents.\nWhen the first reel tape became available to the masses, it had immediate advantages over the vinyl records of the time. First, they were in stereo years before the first stereo LPs were available. They didn't scratch or have surface noise (other than a very low level audible hiss. Noise reduction would be another 15 years away.) And best yet, you could record 3 hours of uninterrupted, high quality music or radio broadcasts per reel.\nBut to a consumer base who were used to instant playback as offered by records, they didn't want to waste time setting up and threading a reel of tape and take the risk of any clumsy and at the time, expensive accidents. No matter what the audio advantages were.\nRCA noticed this and sympathized. And ever the innovators, they began work on a simple, self threading style of tape and unveiled it in 1958.                                          \nBlank tapes, as well as pre-recorded titles like these, were made available.\nThey were played on machines like this;\nMost of these machines and tapes still work gloriously after all these years. Note the RCA plug inputs on the side of the unit. They're STILL compatible with home stereo/computer inputs/outputs of TODAY with a simple cheap patch cord!\nIt did impress an number of people. But the problem was it was still big and bulky. And reel tape deck machines shrank in size over early '60s.\nSuper small, but not super sounding\nPhilips developed the Compact Audio Cassette in 1963. At the time, it was only one of several competing cartridge based formats (including RCA's cartridge) designed to simplify tape recording. \nThe very first cassette tape recorder, from 1963\nThe very first cassette tape, 1963\nThe format initially offered fairly poor fidelity and was marketed for voice recording and dictation. It's super slow speed, 1 7/8 ips pretty much made sure of that.\n \nBut Philips approached Sony Corporation in Japan after realizing that Japanese acceptance of the new format would vastly improve the chances of success in America and Europe. After some hardball negotiation, Philips agreed to license the system to Sony without royalties. In fact, by 1965 Philips had opened the format up to other manufacturers free of charge.\n \nTechnology improved quickly, including an ability to play stereo tapes, and new tape formulations soon assured a higher quality sound from the cassette than the earliest tapes. \nOne of the very first pre-recorded cassette tapes. From 1968.\nPre-recorded cassettes quietly appeared on the market in the late '60s and at first, didn't gain much traction. First, there were few car stereos..... \n....and very few high-end home units at the time to play them on. The  8-Track was still the dominate portable tape playing medium. Most cassette players were tinny sounding mono portables.  \nAnd cassette tapes, for all their improvements still sounded pretty bad compared to the reel tape and even the 8-Track. But it was soldiers in the Vietnam war that quickly embraced the cassette for it's small size and ease of mailing to and from home. By the dawn of the '70s, things began looking up. Even more improvements, such as Dolby noise reduction and increasingly better tape formulations started putting cassettes on nearly the same par as the other tape formats.\nAmpex and Sony were the companies that REALLY pushed for the cassette's survival in it's early days and paved the way for other companies such as Maxell, Memorex and TDK....\nRemember when pre-recorded cassettes came in boxes and colours like THIS?\nEver try to REMOVE a cassette from one of THESE things? It's vice like grip made for an epic struggle that often took about 5 minutes average just to remove the thing from it's case! New, easier opening cases, similar to what blank cassette manufacturers were using for their products were introduced by the major record companies a few years later.....\nThe first Cr02 (chrome) blank cassette tapes came out in the early '70s. These tapes were not compatible for recording in a Normal bias cassette deck because the erase head needed to re-record over a chrome tape had to be much more powerful than a Normal bias erase head as well as the recording head itself had to be more powerful to make a loud enough recording on them. But a normal bias cassette deck can PLAY a chrome tapes (or later metal formulations, which required even more powerful erase/record heads) perfectly well. For those with unswitchable Normal bias decks, increasingly better Normal bias formulations appeared to put the lowly Normal bias tape nearly on par with the chrome tapes \nBy 1975, cassette tape was starting to overtake the 8-Track as the popular tape format of choice and by the mid-late '70s, the first car stereo cassette players and stereo portables had become popular and the cassettes had improved to the point where it rendered the reel tape pretty much redundant beyond radio stations and professional recording studios.\nNew hope for those left behind with 8-Track machines\nThe Sony Walkman was introduced in 1979 and acceptance of the cassette as a serious home and portable medium started really taking off. \nIn 1980. The British New Wave group Bow Wow Wow released the first cassette single \"C·30 C·60 C·90 Go!\" in the UK. \n \nBy 1983, pre-recorded cassettes were actually starting to outsell vinyl LPs. Record companies began doing extra gimmicks such as adding extra songs to the cassette versions of their albums to help foster the trend. Blank cassettes were also unbelievably cheap.\nAnd I do mean CHEAP.....\nNew looks to the cassettes themselves helped improve the staid appearance of the typical cassette.\nRemember THESE things? (1985)\nIn 1985, Warner/Reprise broke the mold of the old bland pre-recorded cassette look by introducing clear cassette shells and cases for their pre-recorded cassettes, starting with Prince's Around The World In A Day album and Brothers In Arms from Dire Straits. \nIt was in part a reaction to the look of the newly introduced CD, but also illustrated a higher quality mechanism and should the tape have problems, you could directly see what the problem was. Other record companies quickly followed - except for RCA and Columbia/Epic. They would use standard cassette shells and cases until 1989.\n...and who could forget THESE?\nThe standard playing time of a blank cassette tape was 60 to 90 minutes which corresponded to the typical playing time of a complete album for each side. There were 30 minute and 40 minute tapes available in the '70s (they were phased out by the beginning of the '80s) and some 120 minute tape lengths and TDK even made an insane 180 minute tape.\nThe problem with the longest lengths (120 and especially 180 minute tapes) were they were on EXTREMELY thin tape, which were far more prone to stretching and breakage (the manufacturers themselves advised that you should not rewind or fast forward these tapes.) Due to the thinness of the tape, they also suffered from an effect called \"print through\", in which loud passages from adjacent layers of tape would increasingly echo through the tape several seconds earlier during playback.\nBut with the introduction of the CD, the running time of a typical album increased by nearly 10 minutes. And the polymer backing had to be strengthened to allow rewind/fast forward capability as well as eliminating the print through effect, as CDs had a much wider dynamic range and louder volume level than a typical vinyl album or cassette. 110 minute cassettes were introduced by 1987.\n1987 also saw the rebirth of the cassette single, this time for the US market. Which the recording companies hoped would jump start the sagging market for pop singles as sales of the 45 RPM record began to seriously decline.\nA&M records released Bryan Adams \"Heat Of The Night\" as a cassette single, the first one since the Bow Wow Wow cassette mentioned earlier. Note the unusual case. \"O\" slipcards would be introduced by Warner/Reprise a few weeks later with their first cassette singles and all recording companies - including A&M, immediately followed suit.\nThe mid '80s to the mid '90s were the glory days of the cassette tape. And CD prices were still ridiculously expensive ($15 - $20 average). A lawsuit targeting the major record labels for overcharging the public in the late '80s and '90s for CDs resulted in CD prices dropping to nearly the same price as cassettes.\nAnd cassettes themselves got a high tech upgrade when the DCC (Digital Compact Cassette) was invented. They played and recorded special DCC tapes and even standard analog cassettes.\nDCC Cassette tape\nDCC Recorder/player\nBut the tide really started turning in the late '90s with CD-Rs. With the new MP3 format and computers and some stereos capable of playing MP3 discs, a single all 128kb bitrate MP3 CD could play continuously for over 12 HOURS. \nThe last American major label pre-recorded cassettes were released in 2005. (In some areas such as India, Thailand and Indonesia, pre-recorded cassettes are STILL being manufactured.)\nBut like all audio formats once considered \"obsolete\", they never truly are. And like vinyl, the cassette is enjoying a new revival too. Not from long time tape heads, but a new generation who are tired of virtual mediums like MP3s and want something PHYSICAL and retro-cool. As well as independent DIY rock groups who are sick of the corporatization of digital mediums and want something real instead of mass copied MP3s and CDs\nBless 'em all......", "History of DVD « miqrogroove\nFriday, September 24, 1999\n.\nIn May of 1994, Sony and Philips announced that they would be cooperatively developing a new high-density medium known popularly as Digital Video Disk (DVD) (Dwyer).  This infant technology was to be the successor to compact disks (CD-ROM) for computers, and replace VHS tapes and laserdiscs in the entertainment industry.  A disk the same size as a CD but with five to ten times the data capacity would be very useful indeed.  The distribution of some large video games that would otherwise reside on a set of many CD’s would only require a single disk.  DVD audio would be a great improvement over the already crystal clear and popular CD audio.  Watching movies that would normally require you to flip sides on a laserdisc could live up to the same standards of quality, and far surpass them.\nDevelopment of this new technology immediately invited problems of a political nature.  Toshiba and Warner Home Entertainment announced their own project to develop similar, yet specifically different DVD technology at the same time (Dwyer).  The two duo developers would soon find out that the market for potential licensees of the new specifications (e.g. disc and drive manufacturers) would be unreceptive to two competing and incompatible formats of DVD discs.  Organizations such as the Hollywood Digital Video Disc Advisory Group also had a reasonable interest in the development of this technology.  Movie distributors began stirring up controversy about the necessity of copy protections in the DVD specification.  It seemed as though anyone and everyone wanted a say in deciding which methods of video and audio compressions would be used, and details as specific as the color of the book that the DVD specifications would be published in.  All of these concerns led to costly delays for the consumers and manufacturers who expectantly awaited a single seamless solution.\nSony was the first to showcase its DVD technology.  John Eargle described the demonstration that was held at the Winter Consumer Electronics Show in early January 1995.  In his article, The great DVD debate, Eargle quickly said, “its color and sharpness were more than a match for the Laserdisc,” but his focus was on the technical specifications that had been officially announced in December (Pemberton).  Because the new DVD disc would be identical in shape, size, and appearance to a CD, “minimal changes in manufacturing methods will be required for mass production” (Eargle).  The increased data density of a DVD was attributed to a laser of a color higher in the light spectrum and a technology being developed with 3M that would allow the laser to be refocused to a second “layer” in the disc.  Having a double-layer disc increases the capacity to 7.4 gigabytes.\n“Three weeks later, on January 24th in Beverly Hills, Time Warner and Toshiba held a press conference to announce their version of the DVD.”  The “DVD debate” had begun.  Eargle reported two technical differences between the DVD versions.  First, Toshiba’s disc was “double-sided” to give it a capacity of 10 gigabytes.  Although this was an obvious drawback, it did make the disc bigger and better than Sony’s version.  Second, Toshiba used thinner discs, yielding a density that bested even Sony’s DVD.  This allowed for a higher data rate, which would improve the quality of an MPEG-2 picture.  (The Motion Picture Experts Group has set this standard for video compression.)  Additionally, “thinner discs permit shorter manufacturing cycle times.”\nThe contention building between the two formats and their developers was illustrated in Heather Pemberton’s, Has Hollywood fallen in love with Time Warner/Toshiba’s DVD? Matsushita, Thomson, Hitachi, Pioneer, MCA, and MGM/UA were now supporting Toshiba’s DVD format and assisting in the development of its final specifications.  As reported, “their format is being quite widely reported as the winner in the effort to establish a common format.”  This article focused on the movie-related specification that the eight party development team had been emphasizing.  At the time, the group’s obsession with packaging movie specifications into the DVD standard seemed logical.\nDuring the spring of 1995, the conflict between the two developers had been fueled by Toshiba’s own development of a two-layer disc called SD (Super Density).  Sony and Philips were then tightly grid locked in competition.  Then, in December of that same year, after a playful yet appropriate allusion to Chinese literature, Ken Pohlmann coveys the news of an alliance between the two formats.  In The Art of War, Pohlmann begins by writing that “something” had motivated Sony, Philips, and the Toshiba posse to unite in their efforts to create the DVD.  More specifically, that “something” was a report by Apple, Compaq, Fujitsu, HP, IBM, and Microsoft in which the software and hardware giants collectively refused to support the dueling standards.  The agreement to work together toward the DVD standard was centered in the mutual exchange and pooling of technologies.  The developers (now ten corporations large) would use Toshiba’s SD disc, with its thinness and high data density, in combination with Sony’s “data coding methods,” called EFM Plus.\nEight months later the assemblage of DVD inventors were still quibbling over how to produce a five-inch disk.  Every detail of the standardization had to be agreed upon.  The still Hollywood-supported group had decisions in front of it regarding protocols specific to movie reproduction and distribution around the world.  DVD players and titles were expected to hit the consumer market in late 1996 (Pohlmann), but it was already August of that year.  The product development lead-time was getting out of hand.  Philips and Sony then took it upon themselves to break off the stagnant relationship.  On August 5th they announced that they would be licensing the DVD specification (MacLellan), allowing the DVD-Video standards to continue in development for months to come, without further hindering the manufacturers who were antsy to pay for use of the patents.  One month later an agreement was made with Toshiba and Warner to formulate the split of royalties with Philips, the licensor of the patents (Wall Street Journal).\nIn evaluating these articles, there is one in particular which may be flawed.  The title, Has Hollywood fallen in love with Time Warner/Toshiba’s DVD, is the first indication that the author may be biased.  The aforementioned quote, “widely reported as the winner,” is from the first sentence of the article and appears to be wholly unsubstantiated.  The author goes out of her way to show that the “requirements proposed … by the Hollywood Digital Video Disc Advisory Group … are all part of the Time Warner/Toshiba standard,” but does not discuss whether or not Sony’s DVD meets those same standards.  Pemberton does not even answer the question she poses in the title.  The alignment of Warner and Toshiba with several Hollywood companies is the only fact relevant to that question, and is mentioned after the fact that Sony “owns several Hollywood movie companies.”  Her message was unclear.\nDespite the bias, there are two critical statements that can be recognized in the article.  One is regarding the increased data density on Toshiba’s disc: that “several industry experts question the usefulness of this claim; there are also some reservations about the statement that thinner discs permit shorter manufacturing time cycles.”  The other critical statement is a slam against “the Toshiba CD-ROM product line managers’ own unfamiliarity with DVD.”  The first statement is as unsubstantiated as the claim it is trying to refute.  The second statement suggests that the author was irritated because she didn’t get the key interview that she needed for this article.\nThe original intent in researching the History of DVD was to define the DVD as a recently introduced product, then analyze it in terms of engineering processes.  As was discovered and presented here, the DVD began as a technology and not as a product.  When Sony and Philips began work on this new technology, they did not aim to get bought out by a larger company.  With prior experience in licensing the patents on CD technology (MacLellan), these companies set out to establish themselves as having the final say in the successor to the CD.  This is a function in the beginning of product development: concept planning.  They were capable of producing a technology that their customers (the Original Equipment Manufacturers) wanted to license and sell to consumers, who also wanted this technology.\nSony and Philips may have underestimated their competition.  Perhaps sufficient benchmarking would have found that they would have direct competition in their new endeavor.  In the end, they were able to make up for this unanticipated competition in the product-planning phase.  It was this phase in which Toshiba and Warner lost their footing in the market.  Their assumed essential relationship with the movie industry turned out to be a falling block.  Sony and Philips decisively determined which technologies to incorporate and perfect in their DVD format, then carried those technologies through the product-engineering phase.  Both duos were able to manufacture over a million discs “to ascertain mass-producibility” (Pohlmann).  Toshiba and Warner, however, could not weigh the pros and cons of different file formatting techniques in a timely manner.\nThe final phases of product development, including process engineering, were left up to the licensees of the DVD patents.  The final specification for the technology was specific enough that all discs made to the requirements of the standard would be compatible with all drives that were also made to comply with the standard.  Sony and Philips, in terms of product design concepts, engineered a product that they themselves would not produce.  With the exception of a few timely mistakes, they successfully planned out and defined a new technology, and carried out that plan to completion.  This is the History of DVD.\nBibliography\nDwyer, T.  (1994, July 11).  Format wars are back: CD-ROM battles resemble video brawls of the ’70s [Abstract].  Variety.  Retrieved September 24, 1999 from the World Wide Web: http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000005720081&Fmt=1&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=44&Sid=1&RQT=309\nEargle, J.  (1995, May).  The great DVD debate.  Audio.  Retrieved September 23, 1999 from the World Wide Web: http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000004492296&Fmt=3&Deli=1&Mtd=17&Idx=3&Sid=12&RQT=309\nMacLellan, A.  (1996, August 5).  Philips, Sony pooling DVD patents.  Electronic News.  Retrieved September 22, 1999 from the World Wide Web: http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000010059330&Fmt=3&Deli=1&Mtd=17&Idx=6&Sid=1&RQT=309\nPemberton, H.  (1995, April).  Has Hollywood fallen in love with Time Warner/Toshiba’s DVD?  CD – ROM Professional.  Retrieved September 22, 1999 from the World Wide Web: http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000001879634&Fmt=3&Deli=1&Mtd=17&Idx=2&Sid=12&RQT=309\nPohlmann, K.  (1995, December).  The art of war.  Stereo Review.  Retrieved September 22, 1999 from the World Wide Web: http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000009084701&Fmt=3&Deli=1&Mtd=17&Idx=6&Sid=12&RQT=309\nWall Street Journal.  (1996, September 16).  Key firms launching digital video disks reach licensing pact.  New York.  Retrieved September 22, 1999 from the World Wide Web: http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000010232829&Fmt=3&Deli=1&Mtd=17&Idx=9&Sid=1&RQT=309", "Fast Guide to CD/DVD - Reference from WhatIs.com\nFast Guide to CD/DVD\nShare this item with your network:\nWord of the Day\nA Brief History of CD/DVD\nThe first disc that could be written and read by optical means (using light as a medium) was developed by James T. Russell. In the late 1960s, Russell created a system that recorded, stored, and played audio/video data using light rather than the traditional contact methods, which could easily damage the disks during playback. Russell developed a photosensitive disc that stored data as 1 micron-wide dots of light and dark. The dots were read by a laser, converted to an electrical signal, and then to audio or visual display for playback.\nRussell's own company manufactured the first disc player in 1980, although the technology never reached the marketplace until Philips and Sony developed the technology. In late 1982, Philips and Sony released the first of the compact disc (CD) formats, which they then called CD-DA (digital audio). In the years since, format has followed format as the original companies and other industry members developed more adaptations of the original specifications.\nDigital Versatile disc (DVD) had its beginning in 1994, when two formats, Super disc (SD) and Multimedia CD (MMCD) were introduced. Promoters of the competing technologies failed to reach an agreement on a single standard until 1996, when DVD was selected as a convergence format. DVD has, in the few years since, grown to include variations that do anything that CD does, and more efficiently. Standardization and compatibility issues aside, DVD is well-placed to supplant CD.\nMagnetic vs Optical Media\nOptical media are storage media that hold information in digital form and that are written and read by a laser; these media include all the various CD and DVD variations, as well as optical jukeboxes and autochangers. Optical media have a number of advantages over magnetic media such as the floppy disk. Optical disc capacity ranges up to 6 gigabytes; that's 6 billion bytes compared to the 1.44 megabytes (MgB) - 1,440,000 bytes - of the floppy. One optical disc holds about the equivalent of 500 floppies worth of data. Durability is another feature of optical media; they last up to seven times as long as traditional storage media.\nThe Optical Storage Technology Association (OSTA) is an international trade organization dedicated to the promotion of standardized writable optical technologies and related products. Incorporated in 1992, OSTA is made up of members and associates from the leading optical media manufacturers and resellers of North America, Europe, and Asia. OSTA members include Adaptec, Hewlett-Packard, Philips, and Sony.\nHard disks, floppy disks and DAT (digital audio tape) are types of magnetic storage media. Magnetic media function similarly to an audio cassette tape player: there is a device called a read/write head , which creates and reads magnetic impressions on the disk. These microscopic magnets can be polarized to represent either a zero or a one, which is stored as binary data, the only type of data that computers can deal with.\nCDs and DVDs are types of optical storage media. Optical storage media are written and read with an extremely fine, precisely aimed laser beam. Data storage consists of millions of indentations burnt into a reflective metallic surface. The indentations refract (change the direction of) the light, reducing the intensity of the reflection. When a laser beam is aimed at the disc surface through a two-way mirror, sensors register the difference in reflection intensity as binary data - zeros and ones. The two main advantages of optical storage media are greater data density and increased stability. Data can be more densely packed on optical media than on magnetic media. Also, the life span of optical media is much greater than that of magnetic media. After about 5 years, the magnetic impression storing data on magnetic media fades away.\nOptical Media Drives\nDrives (such as the hard drive, floppy drive, CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW, and DVD-ROM drives) are the hardware devices that read computer data from disks. After the hardware is installed, the operating system will assign a drive letter. Typically, on a DOS or Windows-based personal computer, the letters \"A,\" and \"B\" are reserved for the floppy drive (years ago one of the drives was used for a different type of removable disk, larger than the floppy), the letter \"C\" is reserved for the hard drive and the letter \"D\" is usually reserved for the CD-ROM. Drives added subsequently are generally assigned the first available letter after existing drives.\nData can be read once the disc spins (for one to two seconds) and the operating system has located and identified the drive. The CD-ROM's own file system is standardized in ISO 9660.\nOptical Media Drive Capabilities\n1.25 MB/sec\nNo exact data, but much slower than 1X CD-ROM\nThere are only minor increases in speed as one moves from the 24X, 32X, and 40X drives. The high rotation speeds produced can create noise and vibrations, and performance may vary from drive to drive. It seems unlikely, because of these vibrations and performance variations, that speeds will increase much above present levels. Even though a hard drive can reach much faster speeds of rotation, its enclosure stabilizes the entire mechanism and therefore avoids much of the noise and vibration inherent in the open CD-ROM drive.\n \nMulti-beam CD-ROM Drives\nA new technological development, the multi-beam CD-ROM drive uses 7 laser beams instead of one to to produce 36X performance from a 6X rotation speed. Six beams are used for reading data; the other one is used for error correction. A new development by Hi-Val in multi-beam CD-ROM drives, the first 40X drive, utilize 7 laser beams, reading simultaneously. (6 that read, and one for error correction, the same as above). The yield is true 40X performance and a transfer rate that can reach 6MB/second. The CD-ROM disc rotates as smoothly as a 6X drive.\nDVD-ROM Drives\nOn the surface, there isn't much that would distinguish a DVD-ROM drive from a CD-ROM drive; internally, there are more similarities than differences. Drive interfaces are either ATAPI or SCSI and transport of data occurs similarly to the CD-ROM. The DVDs data layer is in the middle of the disc thickness, in order to accomodate double-sided disks, whereas data is recorded near the surface of the CD-ROM disk. The laser on the DVD drive has a pair of lenses on a swivel: one to focus the beam on the correct DVD data layer, and one for reading CD-ROM disks.\nAlthough DVD-ROM drives have a much lower RPM (revolutions per minute) value, data transfer rates are substantially higher than a CD-ROMdrive at equivalent RPMs, because the data is compressed by the use of a greater number of smaller data pits and a smaller track pitch (the distance between tracks). For example, a 1X DVD-ROM drive transfers data at 1,250KBps, whereas a 1X CD-ROM drive transfers data at only 150KBps. By 1998, multispeed DVD-ROM drives became available that were capable of reading DVD media at double-speed, resulting in a transfer rate of 2,700 KBps, and of rotating CDs at 24X. By the end of that year DVD drive speeds had increased to 5X. Presently, DVD drives are capable of a 6X speed (8,100 KBps) for DVD media and 32X speed for reading CD-ROMs.\nOptical Media Drive Interfaces\nThe word interface , defined as the surface that connects two areas which share a common boundary , is used to refer to the connections between certain kinds of computer hardware. For the computer to communicate with the CD-ROM, an additional piece of hardware is necessary to serve as the interface between the two devices.\nSCSI (Small Computer System Interface) vs IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics)\nBefore you select the drive or interface, consider what types of connections are already present in your system. If there is an extra IDE connector on your motherboard, consider an ATAPI drive. If you have a SCSI adapter installed for your hard drive or other external devices, like scanners or drives for high-volume storage disks, or if you have a sound card that offers a SCSI interface, consider a SCSI drive.\nATAPI CD-ROM Interface\nATAPI stands for AT Attachment Packet Interface. This interface was introduced by Western Digital in 1994 as part of the Enhanced IDE specification. Initially used in hard drives, the technology is now being used in CD-ROMs as well. An ATAPI drive plugs directly into an IDE connector in your system. Unlike the SCSI or proprietary interfaces, it does not require a separate card. However, if your motherboard is jammed, many ATAPI drives come with a separate card to be used as the interface. ATAPI cards are also available as stand-alone items. The ATAPI drive and its interface are extremely easy to install and configure, are faster than most proprietary drives, and are almost as fast asmost SCSI drives.\nProprietary Interfaces\nProprietary interfaces are specific to one manufacturer and utilize that company's private standard. For example, Mitsumi, Panasonic, and Sony are three companies that manufacture proprietary CD-ROM drives and interfaces. The primary advantage of purchasing proprietary drives and interfaces is cost savings. The prices of such drives and interfaces are dramatically lower than other ATAPI or SCSI devices. The disadvantage is that the CD-ROM drive is only compatible with an interface card manufactured by the same company that produced the drive. If any other card is used, the drive will simply not function.\nSCSI CD-ROM Interface\nSCSI CD-ROM drives have become extremely popular, and are widely used today, especially on 4X and 6X CD-ROMs. They are both the fastest and most expensive CD-ROM drives and interface cards on the market. A SCSI CD-ROM drive is ideal if you already have a SCSI hard-drive. The drive can be connected directly to the same interface device that your hard-drive uses. If you do not have a SCSI hard-drive, a separate interface card can be installed. It can be purchased separately or may come with the SCSI CD-ROM. All SCSI devices are compatible. In addition, SCSI interfaces are extremely efficient. You can daisy-chain (link sequentially) up to 7 SCSI devices, both internal and external, to one interface card. For example, a printer can be connected to a scanner that is connected to an external storage device that is connected to the SCSI hard-drive that is plugged into the SCSI interface card.\nCompact disc (CD)\nA CD (Compact Disk) is an optical media storage device, originally developed by Philips and Sony and introduced as CD-Digital Audio (CD-DA) in 1982. CD-DA was originally developed to contain only audio information, digitized at a sample rate of 44,100 samples per second, in a range of 65,536 possible values (16 bits), with a storage capacity of about 650 megabytes (MB).\nThe specifications for CD-DA were laid out by the two companies in their 1980 standard document, informally known as the Red Book. Subsequent CD formats (as well as DVD formats) all follow the basic Red Book specification. Adaptations of CD technology have been explicated in amendments to the Red Book, including the Yellow Book (which, in conjunction with other standards, details the specifications for CD-ROM and CD-ROM XA), the Orange Book (which details the specifications for CD-R, CD-WO, CD-RW, and CD-MO), the White Book (which details the specifications for various multimedia disks, such as Video CD), the Green Book (which details the specifications for CD-I), the Blue Book (which details the specifications for Enhanced CD), the Scarlet Book (which details the specifications for Super Audio CD), and the Purple Book (which specifies the Double Density CD (DDCD).\nCD Structure\nAccording to Red Book specifications, a standard CD is 120 mm (4.75 inches) in diameter and 1.2 mm (0.05 inches) thick and is composed of a polycarbonate plastic substrate (underlayer - this is the main body of the disk), one or more thin reflective metal (usually aluminum) layers, and a lacquer coating. CDs are divided into a lead-in area, which contains the table of contents (TOC), a program area, which contains the audio data, and a lead-out area, which contains no data. An audio CD can hold up to 74 minutes of recorded sound, and up to 99 separate tracks. Data on a CD-DA is organized into sectors (the smallest possible separately addressable block) of information and the sectors are further broken down into logical blocks (smaller segments within a sector that can only be accessed by the logical block number (LBN) and are identified by the header bytes that hold this address information. There are a variety of logical block sizes, 512, 1024 and 2048, that might be used on different CDs, but the logical block size cannot exceed the sector size). The audio information is stored in frames of 1/75 second length. 44,100 16-bit samples per second are stored, and there are two channels (left and right). This gives a sector size of 2,352 bytes per frame, which is the total size of a physical block on a CD.\nCD Mastering\nIn a process known as mastering , information from a digital tape master is used to modulate a laser beam, which is tracing a spiral track on a spinning glass disc coated with a photosensitive material. An electromagnetic current is used to vary the intensity of the laser beam and the photosensitive coating dissolves where the laser hits, creating pits in the glass. The glass disc is called a glass master and is in turn used to create metal masters (sometimes called fathers ), formed by coating the glass master with a thin layer of nickel. For mass production, disks called mothers are created from the metal masters; the mothers serve as the masters for a number of metal stampers (sometimes called sons ). The stampers are the forms used to mould the CD's polycarbonate layer, which is then coated with aluminum and the final acrylic layer. The process of recording a CD in a desktop environment is sometimes also referred to as mastering.\nCD Recording and Playback\nData is encoded in the CD's polycarbonate layer in a continuous spiral track, from the inside to the outside, about 1.6 to 2.2 microns wide (a micron is 1/1000 of a millimeter), with pits about 0.6 microns wide scored into the track. The thin metallic layer conforms to the contours of the substrate, and the outer acrylic layer over it is impressed with the CD label.\nWhen a CD is placed in a CD player, the recorded track is scanned by a low-intensity infrared laser. To enable a consistent scanning rate (from the smaller center to the larger outside of the disk), the rotation rate slows from 500 to 200 rpm (revolutions per minute) as the laser beam spirals outward. Two additional lasers are sometimes used to help control the focus of the primary laser and the rotation of the disk. The pits and smooth areas (the smooth areas are called lands ) are read by a laser when the disc is played. Pits and lands reflect the light from the laser differently, and that difference is encoded as binary data: the light hitting a land reflects back directly to a photodiode, which generates an electrical pulse, while the light hitting a pit is refracted (deflected from a straight path, or scattered), and, consequently, reduced below the level needed to activate the photodiode. Based on its length, each pit is interpreted as a sequence of zeroes, and, based on its length, each land is interpreted as a sequence of ones. Digital-to-analog conversion translates the binary data into audio signals for reproduction.\nUDF (Universal Disc Format)\nThe UDF (Universal Disc Format) resolves the numerous incompatibility problems which plagued the CD. Presented by the Optical Storage Technology Association (OSTA), the UDF file structure ensures the accessability of any file by any drive, computer, or consumer video disc player. Because of the use of disks for data, video, audio or a combination of all three, the development of a universal standard became crucial. Reasonable communication with standard operating systems became possible, it was written to be compatible with the ISO 9660 CD standard for file names and structures.\nPrior to the release of Windows 98 by Microsoft, UDF wasn't supported by Windows, however, and DVD manufacturers were forced use an interim format called UDF Bridge. Windows 95 OSR2 (OEM Service Release: a version of Windows 95 incorporating bug fixes and new functionality released to PC vendors for bundling with new PCs. Not available as an upgrade to older versions of Windows95.), supports UDF Bridge. Earlier versions do not. DVD manufacturers who wanted to be compatible with Windows 95 were forced to supply UDF Bridge support in conjunction with their hardware.\nStandards and Specifications\nAccording to industry legend, at least the original CD specification (the Red Book) was released in a booklet with a red cover. Although each of the specifications have formal titles, they are generally referred to as different colours of books.\nSpecification Document\nInformation technology -- Volume and file structure of read-only and write-once compact disc media for information interchange -- Part 2: Volume and file structure, (ISO, http:www.iso.ch)\nCD-DA (Compact Disk-Digital Audio)\nCD-DA (Compact Disk-digital audio), the original compact disc for music, was defined in the Red Book by Philips and Sony, in 1982. The CD-DA allows a music playing time of 74 minutes 30 seconds. Data on a CD-DA is organized into logical blocks of information. The audio information is stored in frames of 1/75 second length. There are 44,100 samples per second stored. Each sample occupies two bytes (16bits) and there are two channels (left and right) stored on the CD-DA. This gives a sector size of 2,352 bytes per frame, which is the total size of a physical block on a CD.\n \nCD-ROM (Read-Only-Memory)\nCD-ROM (Compact Disk, read-only-memory) is an adaptation of the CD that is designed to store computer data in the form of text, video, and graphics, as well as stereo sound. The original data format standard was defined by Philips and Sony in the Yellow Book. Other standards are used in conjunction with it to define directory and file structures, including ISO 9660, HFS (Hierarchal File System, for Macintosh computers), and Hybrid HFS-ISO. Format of the CD-ROM is the same as for audio CDs: a standard CD is 120 mm (4.75 inches) in diameter and 1.2 mm (0.05 inches) thick and is composed of a polycarbonate plastic substrate (underlayer - this is the main body of the disk), one or more thin reflective metal (usually aluminum) layers, and a lacquer coating.\nHigh Sierra Format (HSF)\nThe Yellow Book specifications were so general that there was some fear in the industry that multiple incompatible and proprietary formats would be created. In order to prevent such an occurrence, representatives from industry leaders met at the High Sierra Hotel in Lake Tahoe to collaborate on a common standard. Nicknamed the High Sierra Format , this version was later modified to become ISO 9660. Today, CD-ROMs are standardized and will work in any standard CD-ROM drive. CD-ROM drives can also read audio compact disks for music, although CD players cannot read CD-ROM disks.\nCD-ROM Data Storage\nAlthough the disc media and the drives of the CD and CD-ROM are, in principle, the same, there is a difference in the way data storage is organized. Two new sectors were defined, Mode 1 for storing computer data and Mode 2 for compressed audio or video/graphic data.\nCD-ROM Mode 1\nCD-ROM Mode 1 is the mode used for CD-ROMs that carry data and applications only. In order to access the thousands of data files that may be present on this type of CD, precise addressing is necessary. Data is laid out in nearly the same way as it is on audio disks: data is stored in sectors, which each hold 2,352 bytes of data, with an additional number of bytes used for error detection and correction, as well as control structures. For mode 1 CD-ROM data storage, the sectors are further broken down, and 2,048 used for the expected data, while the other 304 bytes are devoted to extra error detection and correction code, because CD-ROMs are not as fault tolerant as audio CDs. There are 75 sectors per second on the disk, which yields a disc capacity of 681,984,000 bytes (650MB) and a single speed transfer rate of 150 KBps, with higher rates for faster CD-ROM drives. Drive speed is expressed as multiples of the single speed transfer rate, as 2X, 4X, 6X, and so on. Most CD-ROM drives support CD-ROM XA and Photo-CD (including multisession disks).\nCD-ROM Mode 2\nCD-ROM Mode 2 is used for compressed audio/video information and uses only two layers of error detection and correction, the same as the CD-DA. Therefore, all 2,336 bytes of data behind the sync and header bytes are for user data. Although the sectors of CD-DA, CD-ROM Mode 1 and Mode 2 are the same size, the amount of data that can be stored varies considerably because of the use of sync and header bytes, error correction and detection. The Mode 2 format offers a flexible method for storing graphics and video. It allows different kinds of data to be mixed together, and became the basis for CD-ROM XA. Mode 2 can be read by normal CD-ROM drives, in conjunction with the appropriate drivers.\nData Encoding and Reading\nThe CD-ROM, like other CD adaptations, has data encoded in a spiral track beginning at the center and ending at the outermost edge of the disk. The spiral track holds approximately 650 MB of data. That's about 5.5 billion bits. The distance between two rows of pits, measured from the center of one track to the center of the next track is referred to as track pitch. The track pitch can range from 1.5 to 1.7 microns, but in most cases is 1.6 microns.\nConstant Linear Velocity (CLV)\nConstant Linear Velocity is the principle by which data is read from a CD-ROM. This principal states that the read head must interact with the data track at a constant rate, whether it is accessing data from the inner or outermost portions of the disk. This is affected by varying the rotation speed of the disk, from 500 rpm at the center, to 200 rpm at the outside. In a music CD, data is read sequentially, so rotation speed is not an issue. The CD-ROM, on the other hand, must read in random patterns, which necessitates constantly shifting rotation speeds. Pauses in the read function are audible, and some of the faster drives can be quite noisy because of it.\n \nCD-R\nCD-R (for Compact Disk, recordable ) is a type of write once, read many (WORM) CD format that allows one-time recording on a disk. The CD-R (as well as the CD-RW) format was introduced by Philips and Sony in their 1988 specification document, the Orange Book. Prior to the release of the Orange Book, CDs had been read-only audio (CD-Digital Audio, detailed in the Red Book), to be played in CD players, and multimedia (CD-ROM), to be played in computers' CD-ROM drives; after the Orange Book, any user with a CD recorder drive could create their own CDs from their desktop computers.\nCD-Rs are composed of a polycarbonate plastic substrate, a thin reflective metal coating, and a protective outer coating. However, in a CD-R, a layer of organic polymer dye between the polycarbonate and metal layers serves as the recording medium. The composition of the dye is permanently transformed by exposure to a specific frequency of light. Some CD-Rs have an additional protective layer to make them less vulnerable to damage from scratches, since the data - unlike that on a regular CD - is closer to the label side of the disk. A pregrooved spiral track helps to guide the laser for recording data, which is encoded from the inside to the outside of the disc in a single continuous spiral. The laser creates marks in the dye layer that mimic the reflective properties of the pits and lands (lower and higher areas) of the traditional CD. The distinct differences in the way the areas reflect light register as binary data that is then unencoded for playback.\nCD-R disks usually hold the standard 74 minutes (650MB) of data, although some can hold up to 80 minutes (700MB). With packet writing software and a compatible CD-R or CD-RW drive, it is possible to save data to a CD-R in the same way as one can save it to a floppy disk, although - since each part of the disc can only be written once - it is not possible to delete files and then reuse the space. The rewriteable CDs, CD-RWs, use an alloy layer (instead of the dye layer) which can be transformed to and from a crystalline state repeatedly.\nCD recorders (usually referred to as CD burners), were once much too expensive for the home user, but now are similar in price to CD-ROM drives. CD-Rs can be created in any CD-R or CD-RW drive.\nCD-RW\nCD-RW (for Compact Disk, rewriteable ) is a CD format that allows repeated recording on a disk. The CD-RW format was introduced by Hewlett-Packard, Mitsubishi, Philips, Ricoh, and Sony, in a 1997 supplement to Philips and Sony's Orange Book. CD-RW is Orange Book III (CD-MO was I, while CD-R was II). CD-RW drives can write both CD-R and CD-RW disks and can read any type of CD.\nUnlike CD-R, in which is a layer of organic polymer dye (which is permanently changed by the laser) serves as the recording medium, in a CD-RW, the dye is replaced with an alloy that can change back and forth from a crystalline form when exposed to a particular light, through a technology called phase change. The patterns created are less distinct than those of other CD formats, requiring a more sensitive device for playback. Only drives designated as \"MultiRead\" are able to read CD-RW reliably.\nSimilar to CD-R, the CD-RW's polycarbonate substrate is preformed with a spiral groove to guide the laser. The alloy phase-change recording layer, which is commonly a mix of silver, indium, antimony and tellurium, is sandwiched between two dielectric layers that draw excess heat from the recording layer. After heating to one particular temperature, the alloy will become crystalline when it is cooled; after heating to a higher temperature it will become amorphous (won't hold its shape) when it is cooled. By controlling the temperature of the laser, crystalline areas and non-crystalline areas are formed. The crystalline areas will reflect the laser, while the other areas will absorb it. The differences will register as binary data that can be unencoded for playback. To erase or write over recorded data, the higher temperature laser is used, which results in the non-crystalline form, which can then be reformed by the lower temperature laser.\nCD-RW disks usually hold 74 minutes (650MB) of data, although some can hold up to 80 minutes (700MB) and, according to some reports, can be rewritten as many as 1000 times. With packet writing software and a compatible CD-RW drive, it is possible to save data to a CD-RW in the same way as one can save it to a floppy disk. For a CD to record correctly, it is crucial for a steady data stream to be created. Typically, the drives have a 2MB cache, used as a buffer. If the buffer runs out of data during the writing process, the CD produced will be unusable.\n \nCD-ROM XA\nCD-ROM XA (Compact disc - read-only-memory, extended architecture) is a modification of CD-ROM that defines two new types of sectors that enable it to read and display data, graphics, video, and audio at the same time. CD-ROM XA was developed jointly by Sony, Philips and Microsoft, and its specifications were published in an extension to the Yellow Book.\nCD-ROM XA (for eXtended Architecture) disks contain Mode 2 sectors (areas left free for extra data by the omission of error detection and correction code) and were designed to allow audio and other data to be interleaved (stored in a mixed format rather than separately) and read simultaneously. Formerly, images had to be loaded before the audio tracks could be played. The CD-ROM XA specifications include 256 color modes, which are compatible with PC formats and CD-I, and Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation (ADPCM) audio, which is also defined for CD-I. Photo CD, Video CD and CD-EXTRA have all subsequently been based on CD-ROM XA, although it has not survived as a separate technology. p>\nCD-ROM XA disks can mix standard CD-ROM, Mode 1 and CD-ROM, Mode 2 tracks. The mode 2 tracks are divided into two additional types, Form 1 and Form 2. CD-ROM XA disks usually must be read by drives certified to decipher the CD-ROM XA format. These drives will probably contain hardware decoders that will allow decompression of compressed audio or video files.\nThe two logical block sizes on the CD-ROM XA are:\n1. 2048 bytes per block for data\n2. 2324 bytes per block for audio/video information\nCD-i\nCD-i (Compact disc - interactive) is a multimedia CD format specified in 1986, in the Green Book. CD-i was detailed as a whole system, comprising not just a disc and data format, but an entire hardware and software system, a variety of special compression methods for audio and visual data, and a method of interleaving audio, video, and text data. Developed as a user-friendly alternative to a PC, CD-i players are easier to use, and have TV video output as well. Full screen motion video capabilities were added to the original specification later.\nA CD-i player is a stand-alone system that comprises CPU, memory and an integrated operating system. It can be connected to a TV-set for displaying pictures and sound, or to a stereo system. The user interacts by positioning a cursor and selecting options, with a device such as a specialized remote control.\nAlthough CD-i never realized broad commercial success, it is now used in the education system, and for training and other professional applications.\nBridge Disks\nA CD-Bridge disc (sometimes just called a bridge disk ) is a CD format that includes extra information on a CD-ROM XA track, so that the disc can be played on either a CD-i player attached to a television, or a CD-ROM XA drive attached to a computer. A bridge disc with appropriate application software may also play on other XA-compatible devices, such as a Photo CD or Karaoke CD player. Video CD (VCD), Photo CD, and Karaoke CD are three bridge disc formats.\nCD-Bridge disc specifications are built on those from the Yellow Book extension, which defined CD-ROM XA, and the Green Book, which defined CD-i, and must conform to the complete requirements of both formats. The complete CD-Bridge disc definition is detailed in the White Book, which was released by Sony, Philips, Matsushita, and JVC in 1993.\n \nEnhanced CD\nEnhanced CD (E-CD) is a CD format that enables disks to be played on either a CD player or a multimedia-capable device, such as a CD-i player,or a DVD-ROM, or CD-ROM drive, where added material can be displayed. E-CD, technically known as stamped multisession , is used to refer to any audio CD that has CD-ROM data added. Most audio CDs use only about 60 minutes-worth of the disk's 74 available minutes-worth of space; E-CD takes advantage of the unused space to include extra data on audio CDs. Recording artists have used E-CD technology to include video clips, artist profiles, lyrics, interviews, animation, promotional material, and even games on audio disks.\nE-CD specifications are detailed in the Blue Book, a 1995 supplement to the 1988 Philips and Sony Orange Book, that was intended as a separate definition for stamped multisession disc format. Because the disks are stamped (pressed from copies of the original recording), they are not user-recordable. The Blue Book, which called the new format CD Plus specified two recording sessions, one for audio data and one for any other included data. Like all CD formats, enhanced CD is based on the original Red Book specifications. E-CD is sometimes called CD-Extra, CD-Plus, stamped multisession , or simply Blue Book format .\nE-CD format is designed to overcome the problems of mixed-mode CDs, which also consisted of separate tracks for audio and other data. Mixed-mode disks were often responsible for speaker damage: when a CD player tried to read the data tracks, the result was loud static. Because E-CD data and audio tracks are written in separate sessions, the data track(s) can be made invisible to the CD player, so that only the audio tracks are played.\nCD-MO (Magneto-Optical)\nCompact disc - Magneto Optical (CD-MO) is a CD format that uses magnetic fields for data storage. Defined by Philips and Sony in their 1990 Recordable CD Standard , (informally known as the Orange Book) CD-MO disks can, at least theoretically, be rewritten an unlimited number of times.\nCD-MO disks are constructed of an alloy of terbium ferrite and cobalt. The reading of an MO disc is based on the Kerr effect. (In the Kerr effect, linear, polarized light is deflected when it is influenced by a magnetic field, and the plane of polarization is twisted.) The MO method changes the magnetic characteristics of tiny areas on the disk's surface so that the reading laser beam is reflected differently on altered areas than on unaltered areas.\nWhen writing to the disk, a laser beam is focused on an extremely small spot, and the alloy is heated to a specific temperature (called the Curie point ) sufficient to cause the ferromagnetic properties of the aligned elementary particles to be lost. An electromagnet is positioned on the other side of the disk, changing the polarity of the particles, whose differences will be encoded as binary data for storage. Like other optical media, such as DVD and other CD formats, CD-MO is read by a laser beam, which makes it more reliable than a hard disc or a floppy disk. However, a strong magnetic field can corrupt the stored data.\nMultisession CD\nA Multisession CD is a recordable CD (like a CD-R) that allows data to be recorded to a disc in more than one recording session. If there is free space left on the CD after the first session, additional data can be written to it at a later date. Every session has its own lead in, program area, and lead out. This takes up about 20MB of space, and therefore, is less efficient than recording data all at once.\nMultisession CDs can be read in current CD-ROM drives, unless data is recorded track-by-track or sector by sector. This process is known as packet writing and in this case only newer CD-ROM drives accompanied by appropriate software would be able to read the disk.\nSuper Audio CD (SACD)\nSuper Audio Compact disc (SACD) is a high-resolution audio CD format. Version 1.0 specifications were detailed by Philips and Sony in March of 1999, in the Scarlet Book. SACD and DVD-Audio (DVD-A)are the two formats competing to replace the standard audio CD. Most of the industry is backing DVD-A, with Philips and Sony being the major exceptions.\nLike SACD, DVD-A offers 5.1 channel surround sound in addition to 2-channel stereo. Both formats improve the complexity of sound by increasing bit rates and sampling frequencies, and can be played on existing CD players, although only at quality levels similar to those of traditional CDs. SACD uses Direct Stream Digital (DSD) recording, a proprietary Sony technology that converts an analog waveform to a 1-bit signal for direct recording, instead of the pulse code modulation (PCM) and filtering used by standard CDs. DSD uses lossless compression (so-called because none of the data is lost in the compression process) and a sampling rate of 2.8MHz to improve the complexity and realism of sound. SACD can also contain extra information, such as text, graphics, and video clips.\nThe first SACD player was released in North America in December of 1999, with an $8000 price tag. In late 2000, Sony released a new model, priced at $1000.\nDouble Density CD (DDCD)\nDouble Density Compact disc (DDCD) is a CD format that increases the storage capacity of the disc through means such as increasing the number of tracks and pits. Philips and Sony detailed the DDCD specifications in their 2000 document (known informally as the Purple Book).\nAlthough DDCD did not receive much industry notice until Philips and Sony produced the Purple Book specifications, the Optical disc Corporation (ODC) released a similar format, High Density CD (HDCD) in 1993, and Nimbus Technology and Engineering introduced their own Double Density CD format in 1994. The general feeling in the industry is that DDCD has been introduced as a stop-gap measure to tide over the market until DVD inevitably solves its problems (such as standardization and compatibility issues) and completely obliterates the CD.\n \nDVD ( Digital Versatile Disk)\nDVD is a relatively new optical disc technology that uses denser recording techniques in addition to layering and two-sided manufacturing to achieve very large disc capacities. DVDs can hold video, audio and computer data. DVD drives are also able to read CD-ROMs. The original purpose of DVD was to hold video data in particular - DVD once was said to stand for Digital Video Disk . However, as the number of DVD applications grew, the variety of data that can be stored on DVD was reflected in its present name, Digital Versatile disc (although some claim that it should be referred to only by the three letters, DVD).\nAlso a 4.7 inch diameter (120 mm) by .05 inch (1.2mm) thick disk, the DVD stores data on a spiral track like the CD. The wave length of the laser beam used to read the DVD disc is shorter than that used for standard CDs. The DVD disc is created with shallower and smaller indentions, thereby enabling greater storage capacity.\nIn addition, there are more tracks per disc on DVDs, because they are placed closer together than on CDs. The track pitch has been reduced to 0.74 microns. This is less than half that of CDs, which is 1.6 microns. Data pits are considerably smaller, which allows a greater number per track than on CDs. The average DVD disc holds 4 times the number of data pits that can be held by a CD. The average capacity of a single-sided, single-layered disc is 4.7 gigabytes. DVD has also increased the efficiency of the data structure on the disk. In the 1970s, when CDs were first developed, considerable error correction was necessary to ensure that the disc would play correctly. More bits were being used for error detection and correction, which limited the disk's capacity to carry user data. DVD's more efficient error correction code (ECC) allows increased capacity for user data.\nThe larger number of data pits on a DVD is accomplished by shortening the wavelength of the laser used to create the pits. The wavelength was reduced from 780nm (nanometers), infrared light, for the CD, to 635nm to 650nm, red light, for the DVD. Synchronization ensures that both audio and video portions of the DVD are presented to the user simultaneously (at the same time), an important aspect of digital movie playback architecture.\nDouble-Layered DVD Disks\nDVD disks can also be constructed with two layers. On a double-layered disk, each data layer is half as thick as that used in the CD-ROM. Data can, therefore, be written in two layers. The outer layer is semi transparent to allow reading of the underlying silver layer. The reading laser operates at two different intensities, the stronger one reads the inner, silver layer. This increases the storage capacity to 8.5 Gb of data and eliminates the necessity of removing and flipping the disk.\nAn additional feature that improves efficiency is the dual-directional readability of the second data layer. Unlike standard-density CD-ROMs, which can only be read from the innermost part of the spiral track to the outermost part, the second layer of the double-layered DVD can be written to and read from either direction. This results in faster transitions by the reading laser. It can actually take less time for the reading laser to refocus to retrieve data from a different layer on a DVD than it does for the laser to relocate and retrieve data from a different part of the same layer on a CD-ROM.\nAn extension of the double-layered disc is the double-sided DVD disk. To enable the refocusing of the read laser, manufacturers have constructed DVD disks with a thinner plastic substrate than that used on a CD-ROM disk. This reduces the distance that the laser must travel to reach the data pits. The resulting disks were only 0.6mm thick, too thin to remain flat and withstand handling. Two disks were then bonded back-to-back resulting in a thickness of 1.2mm, a manageable thickness. This virtually doubled the disc capacity.\nDVD Versions and Storage Capacity\nUnlike standard CDs, DVD disks have varying storage capacities, expressed as a numeral.\nDVD Version\nDouble-sided, double-layered disc with 17Gb capacity\nDVD Regional Codes\nIn an effort to control the home release of movies in different countries, motion picture studios have devised a method to prevent playback of certain disks in certain geographical regions. Since theatre releases are not simultaneous, and because studios sell distribution rights to foreign distributors and would like to guarantee exclusive markets, pressure was brought to bear on the writers of the DVD standard. The standard now includes codes that can be used in playback devices to ensure that only disks purchased in the same geographical areas as the players will function properly.\nRegional codes are entirely optional for disc manufacturers, however. disks without codes will play on any player regardless of its origin. One byte of information holding the regional code can be checked by the player. There is no encryption involved, but regional codes are a permanent part of the disc with no unlocking mechanism included. Although manufacturers originally planned to code only new releases, most DVD disks today are geographically coded.\nThe DVD Forum\nThe DVD Forum is an international organization made up of companies using or manufacturing DVD - related products. The Forum, which was originally called the DVD Consortium, was created in 1995 when ten companies (Hitachi, Matsushita, Mitsubishi, Philips, Pioneer, Sony, Thomson Multimedia, Time Warner, Toshiba Corporation, and Victor) joined for the common purpose of promoting DVD worldwide, establishing single formats of each DVD application for the marketplace, and addressing the issues threatening DVD acceptance, such as standardization and device compatibility issues. From ten founding members, the DVD Forum membership has grown to include some 230 companies worldwide. The Forum's activities are directed by a steering committee that is elected every second year. Separate working groups are established to define specifications. A Verification Task Force (VTF) exists to define test specifications, tools, and procedures to be used and to ensure that products bearing the official DVD logo comply with all specifications. The DVD defines as its purposes, to:\nDefine DVD Format specification\nDVD Formats\nAlthough DVD was once thought of as being solely a video format, there are several other DVD specifications:\nDVD-ROM\nDigital Versatile disc - Read Only Memory (DVD-ROM) is a DVD format with technology similar to the familiar DVD video disk, but with a more computer-friendly file structure. The DVD-ROM format was designed to store the same type of computer data typical of a CD-ROM, and is intended for use in DVD-ROM drives in a personal computer. DVD-ROMs have seven times the storage capacity of CD-ROMs. DVD-ROM specifications were detailed in the original 1997 document, Book A.\nDVD-ROM is sometimes described as a \"bigger bit bucket,\" meaning that it is a larger storage space, and one that can be filled with whatever the user chooses, such as video, music, or computer-specific data. A DVD-ROM drive is similar to the CD-ROM drive, but with enhanced optical engineering that enables it to read the greater data load. DVDs, although the same size as CDs, have varying storage capacities of up to 17GB (this is a format called DVD-18), compared with the standard CD's approximate (and unvarying) capacity of 750MB. DVDs increase the numbers of pits and lands (lower and higher areas on the disc that are read by the laser and recorded as binary data) by decreasing both the size of the pits and the track pitch (space between tracks). In order to read the data from the smaller pits, the laser wavelength used by DVD-ROM drives was also reduced significantly.\nDVD-ROM drives have a base speed of 1.32 megabytes/second; specific drive speeds are expressed as multiples of base, in the same way that CD-ROM drives are. DVD-ROM drives are backward compatible, and can read CD-ROMs, usually at speeds comparable to a 24X or 32X CD-ROM drive. The DVD-ROM drive - which is being manufactured by most makers of CD-ROM drives - is expected to replace the CD-ROM in the near future.\nDVD-RAM\nDigital Versatile disc - Random Access Memory (DVD-RAM) is an adaptation of DVD-ROM that uses magneto-optical technology to record data, both on the grooves and the lands (flat areas) of the disk. DVD-RAM specifications, known as Book E, were released by the DVD Forum in 1998. Like most DVD formats, DVD-RAM can contain any type of information, such as video, text, audio, and computer data; however, at 2.6 gigabytes, the storage capacity is much lower than the other types of DVD. Single-sided DVD-RAM disks can be read by DVD-ROM drives, but double-sided DVD-RAM disks are not compatible with most DVD-ROM drives. Hitachi's DVD-RAM drive was introduced in 1998. The Hitachi drive could record and play single and double-sided DVD-RAM disks and could play CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW, and audio CDs .\nDVD-Audio\nDVD-Audio (DVD-A) is a DVD format developed by Panasonic that is specifically designed to hold audio data, and particularly, high-quality music. The DVD Forum released the final DVD-A specification in March of 1999. The new DVD format is said to provide at least twice the sound quality of audio CD on disks that can contain up to seven times as much information. Various types of DVD-A-compatible DVD players are being manufactured, in addition to the DVD-A players specifically developed for the format.\nAlmost all of the space on a DVD video disc is devoted to containing video data. As a consequence, the space allotted to audio data, such as a Dolby Digital 5.1 soundtrack, is severely limited. A lossy compression technique - so-called because some of the data is lost - is used to enable audio information to be stored in the available space, both on standard CDs and DVD-Video disks. In addition to using lossless compression methods, DVD-A also provides more complexity of sound by increasing the sampling rate and the frequency range beyond what is possible for the space limitations of CDs and DVD-Video. DVD-Audio is 24-bit, with a sampling rate of 96kHz; in comparison, DVD-Video soundtrack is 16-bit, with a sampling rate of 48kHz, and standard audio CD is 16-bit, with a sampling rate of 44.1kHz.\nAlthough DVD-A is designed for music, it can also contain other data, so that - similarly to Enhanced CD - it can provide the listener with extra information, such as liner notes, and images. A variation on the format, DVD-AudioV, is designed to hold a limited amount of conventional DVD video data in addition to DVD-Audio. DVD-A is backed by most of the industry as the technology that will replace the standard audio CD. The major exceptions are Philips and Sony, whose Super Audio provides similar audio quality. Like DVD-A, SACD offers 5.1 channel surround sound in addition to 2-channel stereo. Both formats improve the complexity of sound by increasing bit rates and sampling frequencies (among other techniques), and can be played on existing CD players, although only at quality levels similar to those of traditional CDs.\nDVD-R\nDigital Versatile disc - Recordable (DVD-R) is a type of write once, read many (WORM) DVD format that allows the user to record a single time on a DVD disk. DVD-R specifications, known as Book D, were released by the DVD Forum in 1997. Similarly to CD-R, DVD-R can contain any type of information, such as video, text, audio, and computer data, for example. DVD-R disks can be played on any type of DVD playback device that can handle the type of information stored, such as a DVD-ROM drive, or a DVD video player. DVD-R disks are read at the same speeds as commercially made DVDs.\nDVD-R recording, like CD-R recording, is enabled by the use of a layer of organic dye that is permanently changed by exposure to a finely focused laser beam. The dye layer is coated onto the DVD's base layer, a polycarbonate plastic substrate (the base layer of all CDs and DVDs), which is injection molded, and has a pre-grooved spiral track on its surface to guide the laser. To increase the storage capacity of DVDs, both the wavelength and aperture size of the laser are decreased so that smaller pits (the areas read by the laser to obtain binary data) can be created - reading the disc also requires the same changes. Once the data has been written, the dye layer is coated with a thin, reflective metal coat that will enable the laser to read data from the differences in the way pits and lands reflect light. DVD-Rs can be written in a single session (called write-at-once recording) or incrementally, in a process similar to the packet writing technology used for CD-Rs.\nDVD-RW\nDigital Versatile disc - Rewritable (DVD-RW) is a DVD format that allows the user to record and erase multiple times on a single DVD disk. DVD-RW specifications were released as Book F in 1999 by the DVD Forum. A slightly different rewritable DVD format, DVD+RW is backed by a group of companies known as the DVD+RW Consortium, made up of Philips, Sony, Hewlett-Packard, Mitsubishi Chemical, Yamaha, and Ricoh.\nSimilarly to CD-RW and DVD-R, DVD-RW can contain any type of information, such as video, text, audio, and computer data, for example. DVD-RW disks can be played on any type of DVD playback device that can handle the type of information stored, such as a DVD-ROM drive, or a DVD video player. Like DVD-R, DVD-RW disks can hold up to 9.4 gigabytes of data, compared to the 650 megabyte capacity of the CD.\nDVD-RW recording is similar to CD-RW recording, just as the one-time recording format, DVD-R, has a similar process to that of CD-R. The basic structure of all CDs and DVDs - a polycarbonate substrate, a thin, reflective metal layer, and a protective outer layer - is the same. In the case of the one-time recording formats, an organic dye layer (which is permanently changed by exposure to a finely focused laser) serves as the recording medium. In a DVD-RW, the dye layer is replaced with an alloy that can change back and forth from a crystalline form when exposed to a particular light, through a technology called phase change. The patterns created are less distinct than those of other CD formats, requiring a more sensitive device for playback.\nSimilarly to DVD-R, the DVD-RW's polycarbonate substrate is preformed with a spiral groove to guide the laser. The alloy phase-change recording layer is sandwiched between two dielectric layers that draw excess heat from the recording layer. After heating to one particular temperature, the alloy will become crystalline when it is cooled; after heating to a higher temperature it will become amorphous (won't hold its shape) when it is cooled. By controlling the temperature of the laser, crystalline areas and non-crystalline areas are formed. The crystalline areas will reflect the laser, while the other areas will absorb it. The differences will register as binary data that can be unencoded for playback. To erase or write over recorded data, the higher temperature laser is used, which results in the non-crystalline form, which can then be reformed by the lower temperature laser.\nThe Future of CD/DVD Technology\nAlthough there are still compatibility and standardization issues to settle - and a few challenges from some of the newer CD formats - most industry members predict that DVD, which has greater storage capacities and faster access times, will replace CD technologies in the near future. DVD-ROM drives are likely to be bundled with new computer systems in the way that CD-ROM drives have been. Nevertheless, the future is hard to predict, given the pace of ongoing research and development. The industry moves forward, and newer technologies, such as HD-ROM, are being developed.\nHD-ROM (High Density-Read-Only-Memory)\nHD-ROM (High-Density - Read Only Memory) is a high capacity storage technology developed at Norsam Technologies, in conjunction with an IBM research group, that enables the discs to store hundreds of times as much information as a CD-ROM. HD-ROM uses a very narrow, finely focused particle beam (consisting of charged gallium ions) to write data. HD-ROM technology can be used to write data on different types of media, such as metal or other durable materials, to create virtually indestructible storage.\nHD-ROM's particle beam, at a size of 50 nanometers, enables a storage capacity of 165 gigabytes on disks the same size as a CD or DVD. In comparison, CD-ROM uses an 800-nanometer wavelength laser beam for a storage capacity of 650 megabytes, and DVD-ROM uses a 350-nanometer wavelength laser for a storage capacity of 4.7 gigabytes. HD-ROM was designed to store large databases, such as those required by government agencies, banks, insurance companies, scientific users, and libraries. In addition to the enormous storage capacity, HD-ROM's benefits over traditional archival storage systems (such as magnetic tape and RAID) include faster access times, greater durability, and lower costs.\nMedia", "The History of Car Audio | eHow\nThe History of Car Audio\nphoto by Alex Cosper\nThe automobile industry developed in the early 1900s, followed by the radio industry in the 1920s. Since the 1950s, people have been able to choose what they listen to beyond radio in their cars. From tapes to discs and now digital files, drivers keep gaining more control of their listening choices.\n1900s-1920s\nRadio was invented in the early 1900s but did not come into widespread use until the 1920s. Early car radio experimentation was done in 1922 by George Frost. The earliest listing of a car radio in \"Radio Collector's Guide 1921-1932\" is the Airtone 3D in 1925. Mass production of car radios began in 1927 with the Transitone TH-1. Two years later two brothers in Chicago, Paul and Joseph Galvin of Galvin Manufacturing, developed a car radio that was marketed in 1930 by Motorola as model 5T71.\n1930s-1950s\nBy the 1930s, AM car radios were common. In 1952 the first FM tuner to join the AM band in cars was introduced, although FM radio listening remained scarce all decade. Chrysler included a turntable in its Imperial series, but the idea never caught on. The advent of the portable transistor radio in the late '50s created another way to listen to radio while moving in a car.\n1960s\nThe 8-track tape player made its debut in Ford vehicles in 1965, nine years after Ford began to feature similar 4-track tape players. This system of tape cartridges won over turntables in the car because cartridges were more stable and gave the listener more control. An album was divided into four stereo programs, accounting for the eight tracks. The listener could select a program.\n1970s\nCassettes were introduced in the early '60s and made their way into the car by 1970. Cassettes became the most popular audio medium in 1977, as 8-track tapes faded. Cassettes were smaller and easier to store and had sound quality that rivaled all audio formats. The surge in popularity of FM radio in the late '70s paralleled the development of car receivers that could pick up FM signals better while driving. Citizens Band radio, used by truckers, was a brief fad in 1976.\n1980s\nFM became so popular in the '80s that AM stations had to reinvent themselves, leading to more talk and sports channels. With the expansion of radio dial choices for drivers, button-pushing became part of the common listening experience. The compact disc was introduced by Philips and Sony in 1982, and the first CD players in cars arrived in 1984. A year later, automatic CD changers began to appear in cars.\n1990s\nThe cassette remained viable through the '90s but inevitably was overshadowed by the CD. The cassette had been the best medium to date for making \"mix tapes\" that were ideal for road trips. People making their own CD compilations paralleled the rise in popularity of personal computers. DVD players first appeared in 1996.\n2000s\nThe 2000s marked an acceleration in the development of portable digital gadgets. Apple introduced the iPod in 2001, allowing 1,000 songs to be stored on a small player. The iPod and MP3 players became accessories for car listening. Another new package of listening choices came with Sirius XM, a satellite radio company offering hundreds of channels that can be heard around the world." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Nestlé.txt" ], "title": [ "Nestlé" ], "wiki_context": [ "Nestlé S.A. (;,,) is a Swiss transnational food and drink company headquartered in Vevey, Vaud, Switzerland. It is the largest food company in the world measured by revenues, and ranked #72 on the Fortune Global 500 in 2014. \n\nNestlé’s products include baby food, medical food, bottled water, breakfast cereals, coffee and tea, confectionery, dairy products, ice cream, frozen food, pet foods, and snacks. Twenty-nine of Nestlé’s brands have annual sales of over CHF1 billion (about ), including Nespresso, Nescafé, Kit Kat, Smarties, Nesquik, Stouffer’s, Vittel, and Maggi. Nestlé has 447 factories, operates in 194 countries, and employs around 339,000 people. It is one of the main shareholders of L’Oreal, the world’s largest cosmetics company. \n\nNestlé was formed in 1905 by the merger of the Anglo-Swiss Milk Company, established in 1866 by brothers George Page and Charles Page, and Farine Lactée Henri Nestlé, founded in 1866 by Henri Nestlé (born Heinrich Nestle). The company grew significantly during the First World War and again following the Second World War, expanding its offerings beyond its early condensed milk and infant formula products. The company has made a number of corporate acquisitions, including Crosse & Blackwell in 1950, Findus in 1963, Libby's in 1971, Rowntree Mackintosh in 1988, and Gerber in 2007.\n\nNestlé has a primary listing on the SIX Swiss Exchange and is a constituent of the Swiss Market Index. It has a secondary listing on Euronext. In 2011, Nestlé was listed No.1 in the Fortune Global 500 as the world’s most profitable corporation. With a market capitalisation of , Nestlé ranked No.11 in the FT Global 500 2014. \n\nHistory\n\nNestlé’s origins date back to 1866, when two separate Swiss enterprises were founded that would later form the core of Nestlé. In the succeeding decades, the two competing enterprises aggressively expanded their businesses throughout Europe and the United States.\n\nIn August 1867 Charles (US consul in Switzerland) and George Page, two brothers from Lee County, Illinois, USA, established the Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Company in Cham, Switzerland. Their first British operation was opened at Chippenham, Wiltshire, in 1873. \n\nIn September 1866 in Vevey, Henri Nestlé developed milk-based baby food, and soon began marketing it. The following year saw Daniel Peter begin seven years of work perfecting his invention, the milk chocolate manufacturing process. Nestlé was the crucial co-operation that Peter needed to solve the problem of removing all the water from the milk added to his chocolate and thus preventing the product from developing mildew. Henri Nestlé retired in 1875 but the company, under new ownership, retained his name as Société Farine Lactée Henri Nestlé.\n\nIn 1877 Anglo-Swiss added milk-based baby foods to their products; in the following year, the Nestlé Company added condensed milk to their portfolio, which made the firms direct and fierce rivals.\n\nIn 1879 Nestle merged with milk chocolate inventor Daniel Peter.\n\nIn 1904 François-Louis Cailler, Charles Amédée Kohler, Daniel Peter and Henri Nestlé participated in the creation and development of Swiss chocolate, marketing the first chocolate - milk Nestlé. \n\nIn 1905 the companies merged to become the Nestlé and Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Company, retaining that name until 1947, when the name ‘Nestlé Alimentana SA’ was taken as a result of the acquisition of Fabrique de Produits Maggi SA (founded 1884) and its holding company, Alimentana SA, of Kempttal, Switzerland. Maggi was a major manufacturer of soup mixes and related foodstuffs. The company’s current name was adopted in 1977. By the early 1900s, the company was operating factories in the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, and Spain. The First World War created demand for dairy products in the form of government contracts, and, by the end of the war, Nestlé’s production had more than doubled.\n\nNestlé felt the effects of the Second World War immediately. Profits dropped from US$20 million in 1938, to US$6 million in 1939. Factories were established in developing countries, particularly in Latin America. Ironically, the war helped with the introduction of the company’s newest product, Nescafé (\"Nestlé’s Coffee\"), which became a staple drink of the US military. Nestlé’s production and sales rose in the wartime economy.\n\nAfter the war, government contracts dried up, and consumers switched back to fresh milk. However, Nestlé’s management responded quickly, streamlining operations and reducing debt. The 1920s saw Nestlé’s first expansion into new products, with chocolate-manufacture becoming the company’s second most important activity. Louis Dapples was CEO till 1937, when succeeded by Édouard Muller till his death in 1948.\n\nThe end of World War II was the beginning of a dynamic phase for Nestlé. Growth accelerated and numerous companies were acquired. In 1947 Nestlé merged with Maggi, a manufacturer of seasonings and soups. Crosse & Blackwell followed in 1950, as did Findus (1963), Libby’s (1971) and Stouffer’s (1973). Diversification came with a shareholding in L’Oreal in 1974. In 1977, Nestlé made its second venture outside the food industry, by acquiring Alcon Laboratories Inc.\n\nIn the 1980s, Nestlé’s improved bottom line which allowed the company to launch a new round of acquisitions. Carnation was acquired for $3 billion in 1984 and brought the evaporated milk brand, as well as Coffee-Mate and Friskies to Nestlé. The confectionery company Rowntree Mackintosh was acquired in 1988 for $4.5 billion, which brought brands such as Kit Kat, Smarties and Aero.\n\nThe first half of the 1990s proved to be favourable for Nestlé. Trade barriers crumbled, and world markets developed into more or less integrated trading areas. Since 1996, there have been various acquisitions, including San Pellegrino (1997), Spillers Petfoods (1998), and Ralston Purina (2002). There were two major acquisitions in North America, both in 2002 – in June, Nestlé merged its US ice cream business into Dreyer's, and in August a acquisition was announced of Chef America, the creator of Hot Pockets. In the same time-frame, Nestlé entered in a joint bid with Cadbury and came close to purchasing the iconic American company Hershey's, one of its fiercest confectionery competitors, but the deal eventually fell through. Another recent purchase included the Jenny Craig weight-loss program, for .\n\nNestlé sold the Jenny Craig business unit to North Castle Partners in 2013. \n\nIn December 2005, Nestlé bought the Greek company Delta Ice Cream for €240million. In January 2006, it took full ownership of Dreyer’s, thus becoming the world’s largest ice cream maker, with a 17.5% market share. In November 2006, Nestlé purchased the Medical Nutrition division of Novartis Pharmaceutical for , also acquiring, in 2007, the milk-flavoring product known as Ovaltine.\n\nIn April 2007, returning to its roots, Nestlé bought US baby-food manufacturer Gerber for . In December 2007, Nestlé entered into a strategic partnership with a Belgian chocolate maker, Pierre Marcolini. \n\nNestlé agreed to sell its controlling stake in Alcon to Novartis on 4 January 2010. The sale was to form part of a broader offer, by Novartis, for full acquisition of the world’s largest eye-care company. On 1 March 2010, Nestlé concluded the purchase of Kraft Foods's North American frozen pizza business for .\n\nSince 2010, Nestle has been working to transform itself into a nutrition, health and wellness company in an effort to combat declining confectionery sales and the threat of expanding government regulation of such foods. This effort is being led through the Nestlé Institute of Health Sciences under the direction of Ed Baetge. The Institute aims to develop “a new industry between food and pharmaceuticals” by creating foodstuffs with preventative and corrective health properties that would replace pharmaceutical drugs from pill bottles. The Health Science branch has already produced several products, such as drinks and protein shakes meant to combat malnutrition, diabetes, digestive health, obesity and other diseases. \n\nIn July 2011, Nestlé SA agreed to buy 60 percent of Hsu Fu Chi International Ltd. for about . On 23 April 2012, Nestlé agreed to acquire Pfizer Inc.'s infant-nutrition, formerly Wyeth Nutrition, unit for , topping a joint bid from Danone and Mead Johnson. \n\nIn February 2013, Nestlé Health Science bought Pamlab, which makes medical foods based on L-methylfolate targeting depression, diabetes and memory loss. \n\nIn February 2014, Nestlé sold its PowerBar sports nutrition business to Post Holdings, Inc. Later, in November 2014, Nestlé announced that it was exploring strategic options for its frozen food subsidiary, Davigel. \n\nIn recent years, Nestlé Health Science has made several acquisitions. It acquired Vitaflo, which makes clinical nutritional products for people with genetic disorders; CM&D Pharma Ltd., a company that specialises in the development of products for patients with chronic conditions like kidney disease; and Prometheus Laboratories, a firm specialising in treatments for gastrointestinal diseases and cancer. It also holds a minority stake in Vital Foods, a New Zealand-based company that develops kiwifruit-based solutions for gastrointestinal conditions. \n\nIn December 2014, Nestlé announced that it was opening 10 skin care research centres worldwide, deepening its investment in a faster-growing market for healthcare products. That year, Nestlé spend about $350 million on dermatology research and development. The first of the research hubs, Nestlé Skin Health Investigation, Education and Longevity Development (SHIELD) centres, will open mid 2015 in New York, followed by Hong Kong and São Paulo, and later others in North America, Asia and Europe. The initiative is being launched in partnership with the Global Coalition on Aging (GCOA), a consortium that includes companies such as Intel and Bank of America. \n\nProducts\n\nNestlé has 64 brands, with a wide range of products across a number of markets, including coffee, bottled water, milkshakes and other beverages, breakfast cereals, infant foods, performance and healthcare nutrition, seasonings, soups and sauces, frozen and refrigerated foods, and pet food.\n\nCorporate affairs\n\nNestlé is the biggest food company in the world, with a market capitalisation of roughly 231 billion Swiss francs, which is more than US$ 247 billion as of May 2015. \n\nIn 2014, consolidated sales were CHF 91.61 billion and net profit was CHF 14.46billion. Research and development investment was CHF 1.63billion. \n* Sales per category in CHF \n** 20.3 billion powdered and liquid beverages\n** 16.7 billion milk products and ice cream\n** 13.5 billion prepared dishes and cooking aids\n** 13.1 billion nutrition and health science\n** 11.3 billion petcare\n** 9.6 billion confectionery\n** 6.9 billion water\n* Percentage of sales by geographic area breakdown \n** 43% from Americas\n** 28% from Europe\n** 29% from Asia, Oceania and Africa\n\nAccording to a 2015 global survey of online consumers by the Reputation Institute, Nestlé has a reputation score of 74.5 on a scale of 1100. \n\nJoint ventures\n\nJoint ventures include:\n* Cereal Partners Worldwide with General Mills (50%/50%) \n* Beverage Partners Worldwide with The Coca-Cola Company(50%/50%) \n* Lactalis Nestlé Produits Frais with Lactalis (40%/60%) \n* Nestlé Colgate-Palmolive with Colgate-Palmolive (50%/50%) \n* Nestlé Indofood Citarasa Indonesia with Indofood (50%/50%) \n* Nestlé Snow with Snow Brand Milk Products (50%/50%) \n* Nestlé Modelo with Grupo Modelo\n* Dairy Partners America Brasil with Fonterra (51%/49%)\n\nSafety of food products\n\nMaggi noodles\n\nIn May 2015, Food Safety Regulators from the Uttar Pradesh, India found that samples of Nestlé's leading noodles Maggi had up to 17 times beyond permissible safe limits of lead in addition to monosodium glutamate. \n\nOn 3 June 2015, New Delhi Government banned the sale of Maggi in New Delhi stores for 15 days because it found lead and monosodium glutamate in the eatable beyond permissible limit. The Gujarat FDA on 4 June 2015 banned the noodles for 30 days after 27 out of 39 samples were detected with objectionable levels of metallic lead, among other things. Some of India's biggest retailers like Future Group, Big Bazaar, Easyday and Nilgiris have imposed a nationwide ban on Maggi. Thereafter multiple state authorities in India found unacceptable amount of lead and it has been banned in more than 5 other states in India. \nOn 5 June 2015, Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) orders banned all nine approved variants of Maggi instant noodles from India, terming them \"unsafe and hazardous\" for human consumption. \nIn June 2015 Nepal indefinitely banned Maggi over concerns about lead levels in the product. On the same day Food Safety Agency, United Kingdom has launched an investigation to find levels of lead in Maggi. Maggi noodles has been withdrawn in five African nations- Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda and South Sudan by a super-market chain after a complaint by the Consumer Federation of Kenya, as a reaction to the ban in India. \n\nOn 3 June 2015, Nestlé India's shares fell down 11% due to the incident. Continuously on the second day, Nestlé's share fell down by 3% over concerns related to its safety standards. \n\nAs of August 2015, India's government made public that it was seeking damages of nearly $100 million from Nestlé India for \"unfair trade practices\" following the June ban on Maggi noodles. The 6,400 million rupee suit was filed with the National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission (NCDRC), regarded as the country's top consumer court, but was settled on 13 August 2015. The court ruled that the government ban on the Nestlé product was both \"arbitrary\" and had violated the \"principles of natural justice.\" Although Nestlé was not ordered to pay the fine requested in the government's suit, the court ruled that the Maggi noodle producers must \"send five samples from each batch of Maggi [noodles] for testing to three labs and only if the lead is found to be lower than permitted will they start manufacturing and sale again.\" Although the tests have yet to take place, Nestlé has already destroyed 400 million packets of Maggi products. Although the ban has been repealed by the Government of India, with effect from the end of 2015, a few states still needs to lift their versions of the ban, after newer tests.\n\nMilk products and baby food\n\nIn late September 2008, the Hong Kong government found melamine in a Chinese-made Nestlé milk product. Six infants died from kidney damage, and a further 860 babies were hospitalised. The Dairy Farm milk was made by Nestlé's division in the Chinese coastal city Qingdao. Nestlé affirmed that all its products were safe and were not made from milk adulterated with melamine. On 2 October 2008, the Taiwan Health ministry announced that six types of milk powders produced in China by Nestlé contained low-level traces of melamine, and were \"removed from the shelves\". \n\nIn another incident weevils and fungus were found in Cerelac baby food. \n\nNestlé has implemented initiatives to prevent contamination and utilizes what it calls a “factory and farmers” model that eliminates the middleman. Farmers bring milk directly to a network of Nestlé-owned collection centers, where a computerized system samples, tests, and tags each batch of milk. To reduce further the risk of contamination at the source, the company provides farmers with continuous training and assistance in cow selection, feed quality, storage, and other areas. \n\nIn 2014, the company opened the Nestlé Food Safety Institute (NFSI) in Beijing that will help meet China’s growing demand for healthy and safe food, one of the top three concerns among Chinese consumers. The NFSI will work closely with authorities to help provide the scientific foundation for food-safety policies and standards. Support will include early management of food-safety issues and collaboration with local universities, research institutes and government agencies on food-safety. \n\nCookie dough\n\nIn June 2009, an outbreak of E. coli O157:H7 was linked to Nestlé's refrigerated cookie dough originating in a plant in Danville, Virginia. In the US, it caused sickness in more than 50 people in 30 states, half of whom required hospitalisation. Following the outbreak, Nestlé voluntarily recalled 30,000 cases of the cookie dough. The cause was determined to be contaminated flour obtained from a raw material supplier. When operations resumed, the flour used was heat-treated to kill bacteria. \n\nSponsorships\n\nAnimation\nIn 1993, plans were made to update and modernise the overall tone of Walt Disney's EPCOT Center, including a major refurbishment of The Land pavilion. Kraft Foods withdrew its sponsorship on 26 September 1993, with Nestlé taking its place. Co-financed by Nestlé and the Walt Disney World Resort, a gradual refurbishment of the pavilion began on 27 September 1993. In 2003, Nestlé renewed its sponsorship of The Land; however, it was under agreement that Nestlé would oversee its own refurbishment to both the interior and exterior of the pavilion. Between 2004 and 2005, the pavilion underwent its second major refurbishment. Nestlé’s withdrawal from the Land dates back from 2009.[http://disneyparkhistory.com/the-land.html The Land - Disney Park History]\n\nMusic festivals\nOn 5 August 2010, Nestlé and the Beijing Music Festival signed an agreement to extend by three years Nestlé's sponsorship of this international music festival. Nestlé has been an extended sponsor of the Beijing Music Festival for 11 years since 2000. The new agreement will continue the partnership through 2013. \n\nNestlé has partnered the prestigious Salzburg Festival in Austria for 20 years. In 2011, Nestlé renewed its sponsorship of the Salzburg Festival until 2015. \n\nTogether, they have created the \"Nestlé and Salzburg Festival Young Conductors Award,\" an initiative that aims to discover young conductors globally and to contribute to the development of their careers. \n\nSports\nNestlé's sponsorship of the Tour de France began in 2001 and the agreement was extended in 2004, a move which demonstrated the company’s interest in the Tour. In July 2009, Nestlé Waters and the organisers of the Tour de France announced that their partnership will continue until 2013. The main promotional benefits of this partnership will spread on four key brands from Nestlé's product portfolio: Vittel, Powerbar, Nesquik or Ricore. \n\nIn 2014, Nestlé Waters sponsored the UK leg of the Tour de France through its Buxton Natural Mineral Water brand. \nIn 2002 Nestlé announced it was main sponsor for the Great Britain Lionesses Women's rugby league team for the team's second tour of Australia with its Munchies product. \n\nOn 27 January 2012, the International Association of Athletics Federations announced that Nestlé will be the main sponsor for the further development of IAAF's Kids' Athletics Programme, which is one of the biggest grassroots development programmes in the world of sports. The five-year sponsorship started in January 2012. On 11 February 2016, Nestlé decided to withdraw its sponsorship of the IAAF's Kids' Athletics Programmes because of doping and corruption allegations against the IAAF. Nestlé followed suit after other large sponsors, including Adidas, also stopped supporting the IAAF. \n\nNestlé supports the Australian Institute of Sport (AIS) on a number of nutrition and fitness fronts, funding a Fellowship position in AIS Sports Nutrition; nutrition activities in the AIS Dining Hall; research activities; and the development of education resources for use at the AIS and in the public domain. \n\nControversy and criticisms\n\nNestlé baby formula boycott\n\nA boycott was launched in the United States on 7 July 1977, against the Swiss-based Nestlé corporation. It spread in the United States, and expanded into Europe in the early 1980s. It was prompted by concern about Nestlé's \"aggressive marketing\" of breast milk substitutes, particularly in less economically developed countries (LEDCs), largely among the poor. The boycott was officially suspended in the U.S. in 1984, after Nestlé agreed to follow an international marketing code endorsed by the World Health Organization. The boycott was also ended in the UK by several organisations including the General Synod of the Church of England in July 1994, the Royal College of Midwives in July 1997, and the Methodist Ethical Investment Committee in November 2005 and the Reformed Churches in November 2011 as a result of the company’s inclusion in the responsible investment index FTSE4Good Responsible Investment Index. \nSince 2011, Nestlé is the only infant formula manufacturer to have met the 104 criteria on the marketing of breastmilk substitutes (FTSE4Good BMS Criteria) of the FTSE4Good Responsible Investment Index. Nestlé’s inclusion in the index is based on results of independent and transparent verifications conducted by Pricewaterhouse Coopers every 18 months. Every year since 2009, Bureau Veritas - one of the world’s leading verification and auditing firm - conducts independent assurance of compliance with the Nestlé Policy and Instructions for Implementation of the WHO International Code of Marketing of Breastmilk Substitutes. Their Assurance Statements are transparently available in the public domain. \n\nIn May 2011, the debate over Nestlé's unethical marketing of infant formula was relaunched in the Asia-Pacific region. Nineteen leading Laos-based international NGOs, including Save the Children, Oxfam, CARE International, Plan International and World Vision have launched a boycott of Nestlé and written an open letter to the company. Among other unethical practices, the NGOs criticised the lack of labelling in Laos and the provision of incentives to doctors and nurses to promote the use of infant formula. In November 2011, Bureau Veritas, commissioned by Nestlé S.A. to provide independent assurance of Nestlé Indochina’s compliance with the Nestlé policy for the implementation of the World Health Organisation (WHO) International Code of Marketing of Breast Milk Substitutes (1981). There were no significant evidence that indicated Nestlé Indochina was systematically operating in violation of the WHO Code and Lao PDR Decree in Lao PDR. The presence of promotional materials in retail units constituted a non-conformance and Bureau Veritas recommended that the Nestlé’s Policy and Procedures Manual on the Marketing of breastmilk substitutes be reviewed and updated to ensure consistency against the more stringent requirements of the Lao PDR Decree. Ernest W. Lefever and the Ethics and Public Policy Center were criticized for accepting a $25,000 contribution from Nestlé while the organization was in the process of developing a report investigating medical care in developing nations which was never published, in an alleged deal to minimize Nestlé's marketing of infant formula in many of these countries. \n\nBottled water\n\nAt the second World Water Forum, Nestlé and other corporations persuaded the World Water Council to change its statement so as to reduce access to drinking water from a \"right\" to a \"need.\" Nestlé chairman and former CEO Peter Brabeck-Letmathe stated that \"access to water should not be a public right.\" Nestlé continues to take control of aquifers and bottle their water for profit. Peter Brabeck-Letmathe has later changed his statement. \n\nEthiopian debt (2002)\n\nIn 2002, Nestlé demanded that the nation of Ethiopia repay US$6 million of debt to the company. Ethiopia was suffering a severe famine at the time. Nestlé backed down from its demand after more than 8,500 people complained via e-mail to the company about its treatment of the Ethiopian government. The company agreed to re-invest any money it received from Ethiopia back into the country. In 2003, Nestlé agreed to accept an offer of $1.5 million, and donated the money to three active charities in Ethiopia: the Red Cross, Caritas and UNHCR. \n\nChild labour\n\nIn 2005, after the cocoa industry had not met the Harkin–Engel Protocol deadline for certifying the worst forms of child labour (according to the International Labour Organization's Convention 182) had been eliminated from cocoa production, the International Labor Rights Fund filed a lawsuit in 2005 under the Alien Tort Claims Act against Nestlé and others on behalf of three Malian children. The suit alleged the children were trafficked to Ivory Coast, forced into slavery, and experienced frequent beatings on a cocoa plantation. In September 2010, the US District Court for the Central District of California determined corporations cannot be held liable for violations of international law and dismissed the suit. The case was appealed to the US Court of Appeals. The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed the decision. In 2016, the U.S. Supreme Court declined to hear Nestle's appeal of the Ninth Circuit's decision. \n\nThe 2010 documentary The Dark Side of Chocolate brought attention to purchases of cocoa beans from Ivorian plantations that use child slave labour. The children are usually 12 to 15 years old, and some are trafficked from nearby countries. The first allegations that child slavery is used in cocoa production appeared in 1998. In late 2000, a BBC documentary reported the use of enslaved children in the production of cocoa in West Africa. Other media followed by reporting widespread child slavery and child trafficking in the production of cocoa. In September 2001, Bradley Alford, Chairman and CEO of Nestlé USA, signed the Harkin–Engel Protocol (commonly called the Cocoa Protocol), an international agreement aimed at ending child labour in the production of cocoa.\n\nIn 2012, Nestlé became the first company in the food industry to join the Fair Labor Association (FLA). This followed collaborations with the FLA on special projects to assess labor conditions and compliance risks throughout Nestlé’s supply chain of hazelnuts and cocoa. As a Participating Company, Nestlé has committed to ten Principles of Fair Labor and Responsible Sourcing, and to upholding the FLA Workplace Code of Conduct throughout their supply chains, starting with farms. \n\nThe 2014 Assessments of Shared Hazelnut Supply Chain In Turkey published by the Fair Labor Association identified \"a total of 46 child workers younger than 15 years\" as well as \"a total of 83 young workers (between 15 and 18 years of age) working the same hours as adults and performing similar hazardous\nand strenuous tasks, such as carrying heavy bags of\nhazelnuts weighing up to 70 kilograms\". \n\nChocolate price fixing\n\nIn Canada, the Competition Bureau raided the offices of Nestlé Canada (along with those of Hershey Canada Inc. and Mars Canada Inc) in 2007 to investigate the matter of price fixing of chocolates. It is alleged that executives with Nestlé, the maker of KitKat, Coffee Crisp and Big Turk, colluded with competitors in Canada to inflate prices. \n\nThe Bureau alleged that competitors' executives met in restaurants, coffee shops and at conventions and that Nestlé Canada CEO, Robert Leonidas once handed a competitor an envelope containing his company’s pricing information, saying: \"I want you to hear it from the top – I take my pricing seriously.\"\n\nNestlé and the other companies were subject to class-action lawsuits for price fixing after the raids were made public in 2007. Nestlé settled for $9 million, without admitting liability, subject to court approval in the new year. A massive class-action lawsuit continues in the United States.\n\nFormer Nestlé Canada CEO Robert Leonidas is under threat of a criminal charge for his role in the price fixing of chocolates in Canada when he was at the helm of Nestlé Canada from 2006 to 2010.\n\nPackaging claims (2008)\n\nA coalition of environmental groups filed a complaint against Nestlé to the Canadian Code of Advertising Standards after Nestlé took out full-page advertisements in October 2008 claiming that \"Most water bottles avoid landfill sites and are recycled\", \"Nestlé Pure Life is a healthy, eco-friendly choice\" and that \"Bottled water is the most environmentally responsible consumer product in the world.\" A spokesperson from one of the environmental groups stated: \"For Nestlé to claim that its bottled water product is environmentally superior to any other consumer product in the world is not supportable.\" In their 2008 Corporate Citizenship Report, Nestlé themselves stated that many of their bottles end up in the solid-waste stream, and that most of their bottles are not recycled. The advertising campaign has been called greenwashing. Nestlé defended its ads, saying they will show they have been truthful in their campaign. \n\nWater bottling operations in California and Oregon\n\nConsiderable controversy has surrounded Nestlé's bottled water brand 'Arrowhead' sourced from wells alongside a spring in Millard Canyon situated in a Native American Reservation at the base of the San Bernardino Mountains in California. While corporate officials and representatives of the governing Morongo tribe have asserted that the company, which started its operations in 2000, is providing meaningful jobs in the area and that the spring is sustaining current surface water flows, a number of local citizen groups and environmental action committees have started to question the amount of water drawn in the light of the ongoing drought, and the restrictions that have been placed on residential water use. Additionally, recent evidence suggests that representatives of the Forest Service failed to follow through on a review process for Nestlé's permit to draw water from the San Bernardino wells, which expired in 1988. The former forest supervisor Gene Zimmerman has explained that the review process was rigorous, and that the Forest Service \"didn't have the money or the budget or the staff\" to follow through on the review of Nestlé's long-expired permit. However, Zimmerman's observations and action have come under scrutiny for a number of reasons. Firstly, along with the natural resource manager for Nestlé, Larry Lawrence, Zimmerman is a board member for and played a vital role in the founding of the nonprofit Southern California Mountains Foundation, of which Nestlé is the most noteworthy and longtime donor. Secondly, the Zimmerman Community Partnership Award - an award inspired by Zimmerman's actions and efforts \"to create a public/private partnership for resource development and community engagement\" - was presented by the foundation to Nestlé's Arrowhead Water division in 2013. Finally, while Zimmerman retired from his former role in 2005, he currently works as a paid consultant for Nestlé, leading many investigative journalists to question Zimmerman's allegiances prior to his retirement from the Forest Service.\n\nIn April 2015, the city of Cascade Locks, Oregon and the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife using water for a salmon hatchery, applied with the Oregon Water Resources Department to permanently trade their water rights to Nestlé, which does not require a public-interest review. Nestlé approached them in 2008 and they had been considering to trade their well water with Oregon's Oxbow Springs water, a publicly owned water source in the Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area, and to sell the spring water at over 100 million gallons of water per year to Nestlé. The plan has been criticized by legislators and 80,000 citizens. The 250,000-square-foot, $50 million Nestlé bottling plant in Cascade Locks with an unemployment rate of 18.8 percent would have 50 employees and would increase property-tax collections by 67 percent. The Oregon Water Resources Department is expected to issue a proposal in 2015, that would allow Nestlé to utilise spring water for its bottling operation. \n\nBoycott Nestlé products manufactured in Russia\n\nIn August 2015 the Ukrainian TV channel \"Ukrayina\" refused to hire a worker of the weekly magazine \"Krayina\", Alla Zheliznyak, as a host of a cooking show because she speaks Ukrainian. The demand to only hire a Russian speaking host was allegedly set by a sponsor of the show - \"Nesquik\", which is a brand of \"Nestlé S.A.\" Activists of the Vidsich civil movement held a rally near the office of the company in Kyiv accusing Nestlé for discriminating against people who speak Ukrainian and supporting russification of Ukraine. They also added that goods sold in Ukraine are manufactured in Russia. Activists threatened to start a boycott campaign against Nestlé if they will not fulfill their requirements. In September 2015 there were \"Russian kills!\" flashmobs protesting against Nestlé products that are manufactured in Russia. \n\nForced Labour in Thailand Fishing Industry\n\nAt the conclusion of a year-long, self-imposed investigation in November 2015, Nestlé disclosed that seafood products sourced in Thailand were produced with forced labour. Nestlé is not a major purchaser of seafood in Southeast Asia but does some business in Thailand, primarily for its Purina cat food. The study found virtually all U.S. and European companies buying seafood from Thailand are exposed to the same risks of abuse in their supply chains. This type of disclosure was a surprise to many in the industry because international companies rarely acknowledge abuses in supply chains. \n\nNestlé is expected to launch a yearlong program in 2016 focused on protecting workers across its supply chain. The company has promised to impose new requirements on all potential suppliers, train boat owners and captains about human rights, and hire auditors to check for compliance with new rules. \n\nCorporate social responsibility\n\nWorld Cocoa Foundation\nIn 2000, Nestlé and other chocolate companies formed the World Cocoa Foundation (WCF). The WCF is an international membership organization representing more than 100 member companies across the cocoa value chain. It is committed to creating a sustainable cocoa economy by putting farmers first, promoting agricultural & environmental stewardship, and strengthening development in cocoa-growing communities. \n\nSustainable Agriculture Initiative\nIn 2002 Nestlé, Unilever and Danone created the Sustainable Agriculture Initiative (SAI) Platform, a non-profit organization to facilitate sharing of knowledge and initiatives to support the development and implementation of sustainable agriculture practices involving the different stakeholders of the food chain.\n\nThe SAI Platform has more than 60 members, which actively share the same view on sustainable agriculture seen as \"the efficient production of safe, high quality agricultural products, in a way that protects and improves the natural environment, the social and economic conditions of farmers, their employees and local communities, and safeguards the health and welfare of all farmed species.”\n\nAmong the latest deliverables produced, the SAI Platform developed (or co-developed) Principles and Practices for sustainable water management at farm level; recommendations for Sustainability Performance Assessment (SPA); a standardised methodology for the dairy sector to assess green house gas emissions; an Executives Training on Sustainable Sourcing; and many more. \n\nA case of Nestlé's impact on sustainable agricultural practices has been documented in academic literature. \n\nCreating Shared Value\nCreating Shared Value (CSV) is a business concept intended to encourage businesses to create economic and social value simultaneously by focusing on the social issues that they are capable of addressing. In 2006, Nestlé adopted the CSV approach, focusing on three areas – nutrition, water and rural development – as these are core to their business activities.\n\nNestlé now publishes an annual progress report on its goals. \n\nNestlé CEO Paul Bulcke describes CSV as follows: “Creating Shared Value, these three words, are the fundamental way we want to behave as a company, and by nature, also as persons; it is the fundamental way we want to go about our activities; it also is linked with the conviction that in order to be meaningful and successful, a company must intersect with society in a very positive and constructive way.” \n\nNestlé has also established the Creating Shared Value Prize, which is awarded every other year with the aim of rewarding the best examples of CSV initiatives worldwide and to encourage other companies to adopt a shared value approach. These initiatives should take a business-oriented approach in addressing challenges in nutrition, water or rural development. The winner can win up to CHF 500,000. Nestlé was an early mover in the shared value space and hosts a global forum, the Creating Shared Value Global Forum.\n \n\nNestlé Cocoa Plan\nIn October 2009, Nestlé announced \"The Cocoa Plan.\" The company is working to get 100 percent of its chocolate portfolio using certified sustainable cocoa. For third-party certification, Nestlé has partnered with UTZ Certified to ensure that best practices are being used. Many of Nestlé’s efforts are focused on the Ivory Coast, where 40 percent of the world’s cocoa comes from. The company has developed a higher-yielding, more drought- and disease-resistant cocoa tree; and they have given 3 million of these super trees to farmers thus far and plan to give away 12 million of them in total. They are also training farmers in efficient and sustainable growing techniques, which focuses on better farming practices, including pruning trees, pest control (with an emphasis on integrated pest management) and harvesting, as well as caring for the environment. In addition, they have built 23 new schools so far and plan to build 40 in total by 2015. \n\nAnother important part of the plan has been to address child labor. Nestlé says that according to U.S. statistics, there are about 800,000 children who work the cocoa supply chain. With this in mind, Nestlé approached the Fair Labor Association to map out strategies to help curb child labor in the cocoa sector, and these efforts – including community education and the building of schools – have become a focus of the Cocoa Plan.\n\nEcolaboration\nOn 22 June 2009, Nestlé Nespresso and Rainforest Alliance signed a pact called \"Ecolaboration\". One of the shared goals is to reduce the environmental impacts and increase the social benefits of coffee cultivation in enough tropical regions so that 80 percent of Nespresso's coffee comes from Rainforest Alliance Certified farms by the year 2013. Certified farms comply with comprehensive standards covering all aspects of sustainable farming, including soil and water conservation, protection of wildlife and forests, and ensuring that farm workers, women and children have all the proper rights and benefits, such as good wages, clean drinking water, access to schools and health care and security. \n\nThe Nescafé Plan\nIn 2010, Nestlé launched the Nescafé Plan, an initiative to increase sustainable coffee production and make sustainable coffee farming more accessible to farmers. The plan aims to increase the company’s supply of coffee beans without clearing rainforests, as well as using less water and fewer agrochemicals. According to Nestlé, Nescafé will invest 350 million Swiss francs (about $336 million) over the next ten years to expand the company's agricultural research and training capacity to help benefit many of the 25 million people who make their living growing and trading coffee. The Rainforest Alliance and the other NGOs in the Sustainable Agriculture Network will support Nestlé in meeting the objectives of the plan. \n\nCommitted to Health Care and Nutrition\nIn September 2010, Nestlé announced to invest more than $500 million between 2011 and 2020 to develop health and wellness products to help prevent and treat major ailments like diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular disease and Alzheimer’s, which are placing an increasing burden on governments at a time when budgets are being squeezed. Nestlé created a wholly owned subsidiary, Nestlé Health Science, as well as a research body, the Nestlé Institute of Health Sciences. \n\nMember of Fair Labour Association\nIn 2011, Nestlé started to work with the Fair Labor Association (FLA), a non-profit, multi-stakeholder association that works with major companies to improve working conditions in their supply chains.\n\nOn 29 February 2012, Nestlé became the first food company to join the FLA. Building on Nestlé's efforts under the Cocoa Plan, the FLA will send independent experts to Ivory Coast in 2012 and where evidence of child labour is found, the FLA will identify root causes and advise Nestlé how to address them in sustainable and lasting ways. \n\nRural Development Framework\nIn 2012, Nestlé developed the Rural Development Framework, which supports farmers and cocoa growing communities. It is an investment program aimed at improving infrastructure, increasing access to safe water, address financing and market efficiency gaps and improving labor conditions. \n\nPartnership with IFRC\nIn 2014, Nestlé renewed its long-standing partnership long with the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) to increase access to safe water and sanitation in rural communities. In recent years, the partnership has brought clean drinking water and sanitation facilities to 100,000 people in Ivory Coast’s cocoa communities. Nestlé has committed to contributing five million Swiss francs over the next five years to the IFRC. \n\nRecognition and awards\n\n* In May 2006, Nestlé’s executive board decided to adapt the existing Nestlé management systems to full conformity with the international standards ISO 14001 (Environmental Management Systems) and OHSAS 18001 (Occupational Health and Safety Management Systems), and to certify all Nestlé factories against these standards by 2010. In the meanwhile a lot of the Nestlé factories have obtained these certifications.\n* Nestlé Purina received in 2010 the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award for their excellence in the areas of leadership, customer and market focus, strategic planning, process management, measurement, analysis and knowledge management, workforce focus and results. \n* In March 2011, Nestlé became the first infant formula company to meet the FTSE4Good Index criteria in full. \n* In September 2011, Nestlé occupied 19th position in the Universum's global ranking of Best Employers Worldwide. According to a survey by Universum Communications Nestlé was in 2011 the best employer to work for in Switzerland. \n* The International Union of Food Science and Technology (IUFoST) honoured Nestlé in 2010 with the Global Food Industry Award. \n* In May 2011, Nestlé won the 27th World Environment Center (WEC) Gold Medal award for its commitment to environmental sustainability. \n* On 19 April 2012, The Great Place to Work® Institute Canada mentioned Nestlé Canada Inc. as one of the '50 Best Large and Multinational Workplaces' in Canada (with more than 1,000 employees working in Canada and/or worldwide). \n* On 21 May 2012, Gartner published their annual Supply Chain Top 25, a list with global supply chain leaders. Nestlé ranks 18th in the list. \n* In September 2012, Nestlé was among the top-scoring companies on the Climate Disclosure Leadership Index (CDLI)\n* In 2013, Nestlé retained its number one position in charity Oxfam’s sustainability scorecard, and improved its ratings on the issues of land, workers and climate. \n* In 2014, Nestlé received the Henry Spira Corporate Progress Awards for altering its policies and practices to minimize adverse impacts on animals. \n* In March 2015, Nestlé ranked second in Oxfam’s Behind the Brands scorecard, where the NGO ranks the world’s ‘Big 10’ consumer food and beverage companies on their policies and commitments to improve food security and sustainability. Nestlé assumed the number one ranking for land rights, while the company also outperformed its peers on transparency and water. \n\nBibliography\n\n* La stratégie Nestlé (Nestlé Strategy), Helmut Maucher, French translation by Monique Thiollet, Maxima Ed., Paris, 1995, ISBN 2840010720" ] }

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This is not an example of the work written by our professional essay writers.\nIntroduction to MNC (Multinational Corporate)\nMNC (Multinational corporate) known started from 17th century which traces origin from Dutch East India Company. And this corporate structure more widely functioned in 21th century.\nAccording to Stuart Wall, Sonal Minocha and Bronwen Rees (2010), MNC (Multinational corporate) is a company that has headquarters in one country but has operations in other country. MNC had defined by Dunning (1993) MNC are engages in FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) and owns or controls value-adding activities in more than one country. Typically the multinational would not just own value-adding activities, but might buy resources and create goods or services in a variety of countries. Multinational Corporate in 2007 an estimated 79000 multinational corporate, collectively controlled a total of around 800000 foreign affiliates, employed almost 82million people worldwide and accounted for sales revenue of over $31 trillion, some 11% of world GDP. . (Stuart Wall;SonalMinocha and Bronwen Rees. 2010. pg. 31).\nForeign Direct Investment (FDI) is any forms that investor earns interest in corporation which functions outside of the domestic territory of investor. Besides that, foreign direct investment needs a relationship between a parent company and it foreign subsidiary. It is also gives rise for multinational corporate based on their report Economy Watch (2010).\nWhat is Globalization?\nGlobalization means businesses transaction around the world.\nResearch (Global Education, 2009) has shown that globalization have many meanings and definitions, but mostly known as the greater movement of people, goods, capital and ideas affected by the increments of the economic integration which in turn is propelled by the increasing trades and investments. It is like moving towards living in a borderless world. There has always been a sharing of goods, services, knowledge and cultures between people and countries. In recent years, the improvement of technologies and a reduction of barriers mean the speed of exchange is much faster. Globalization provides lots of different types of opportunities and challenges (Global Education, 2009).\nWhy Nestle is Multinational Corporate?\nNestle is a multinational corporate since the headquarter is located in Switzerland but operates businesses in the many other countries over the world such as Europe, United State, China, Malaysia, Hong Kong etc. As we know, Nestle is an infant's product. Besides producing infants, Nestle has also produces some other products such as chocolate, yogurt drink, cornflakes, ice-cream etc which can easily found in supermarkets all over the world.\nIntroduction to Nestle\nIn 1860s, a pharmacist named Henri Nestle had succeeded developed a food for babies whom are unable to breastfeed. And his first success was to be able to feed a premature infant who could not tolerate his mother's milk or any of the usual substitutes. (Nestle, 2010)\nIn 1867, he adopted his own coat of arms as a trademark in 1867. In German Nestle means little nest. The Nestle symbol is universally understood to carry the meaning of nurturing and caring, security, nourishment and family bonding. These attributes are still the guiding legacy for the company Henri Nestlé founded which fulfills the commitment to 'Good Food, Good Life.\nThe Nestlé Coat-of-Arms\nSources: Nestle Sdn Bhd 2010\nIn 1905 Nestlé work together with the Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Company, the year after Nestlé added chocolate to its line of foods. The newly formed Nestlé and Anglo-Swiss Milk Company had factories in the Spain, Germany, United States and Britain. Soon, the company had full-scale manufacturing in Australia with warehouses in Hong Kong, Singapore and Bombay. Most production still took place in Europe. (English Tea Store, 2004-2009)\nAt first, Nestle business was mainly based on milk and dietetic foods for children. Then, Nestlé grew and diversified its range of products, through acquisitions and mergers with the already famous brands of that time. For example, the manufacturing of LACTOGEN began in 1921, and in the same year, a beverage containing wheat flour was marketed under the brand name MILO. In 1938, NESCAFÉ was introduced to the as the first instant coffee. Then, in 1947, Nestlé merged with the MAGGI Company.\nCurrently, Nestle is still having their principles, which to provide the best products throughout the world. As the leading Food, Nutrition, Health and Wellness Company, Nestlé provides the best food for anytime of day and for anytime of your life. Nestlé has grown to become the world's largest food company which offers more than 8500 brands and 10000 products throughout the whole world. With its headquarters in Vevey, Switzerland, Nestlé has more than 456 factories in more than 80 countries and having more than 283,000 employers. (Nestle Products Sdn Bhd , 2010)\nActual impact of globalization on Nestle\nPESTLE analysis which contains of political, economic, social, technology, legal and environment analysis which consist of external environmental. It is a useful analysis to understanding the situation of a company in an industry.\nPolitical analysis\nThe stability of political in a country will be under the consideration by NESTLE to build a plant that can operates NESTLE's factories that considering the country's political stability, good tax incentives as well as its skilled workforce, NESTLE chose Malaysia to be the site of another regional manufacturing centre for NESCAFE (Mr. José Lopez, Executive Vice President, Nestle S.A. responsible for global operations and GLOBE (Nestlé's Global Business Excellence Programmer)).\nEconomic Analysis\nThe important of economic factors will leads to the strength of consumer spending. For example, in recession economy, people might cut of their budget to consume household stuff rather than unnecessary stuff such as chocolate. Americans likes luxury chocolates, a new premium line of cacao which is called Nestle Treasures God had launched in order to cash in on the recession.\nSocial Analysis\nEven though Nestle as a multinational corporate which operates their business in the other country, but do respect to people's culture and traditional which is a corporate that think global, act local by working hard to integrate itself into the cultures and traditions of the country. For example, Kit-Kat's formula is almost different everywhere. A Russian Kit-Kat is smaller than a Bulgarian, but less sweet than Germany's Kit-Kat. While in Japan, the strawberry Kit-Kat is all the rage.\nTechnology Analysis\nAs the technology of recently changed rapidly in global, Nestle have attracted people to purchasing their products by using advertising. For example, Kit-Kat have been advertised by attracting youngster or child because it is a sweeten tid-bits. Infants food's advertisement is to attracted housewife to purchase it to given their child a healthy life.\nRecent research on technology analysis (Nestle Policy and Environmental sustainable) (2008) reports shown that during the manufacturing process, Nestle had using efficient technologies to ensure that there is no wasted energy while producing products. In addition, to control the eliminate emission including the greenhouse gases.\nLegal Analysis\nIn 1996, Nestle was the first multinational corporate that voluntary for Halal certification for its own food products. Those food products that exported to the other countries were certified as Halal products. As a global food company like Nestle, hygiene is a must. Since Nestle has the Halal certification and hygiene was the procedure which contain in that certificate.\nBesides that, health and safety were the principle that keeps by Nestle. While provided employees to minimize risks in their personal lives, Nestle had always emphasize each of their employees about to change the employee's attitudes towards personal safety.\nEnvironmental Analysis\nNestle always committed to people to produce the best quality to their consumers. Besides that, Nestle also prevented the wasted food by reduced the material's weight and volume, yet supported initiatives of recycle from used packaging. Nestle have also use recycled materials to produce its products.\nBut, Nestle had done a fact that will cause of the lost of the home for orangutan. According to Heidi Marshall (2010), Nestle's product-Kit Kat is a product of environmental destruction. This is because of the material that used in the candy bars and for the other Nestle products as well was comes from a palm oil that get from by destroying Indonesia rainforests.\nThe strategy that used by Nestle to actual impact of globalization are included:\nMarket Penetration Strategy\nMarket penetration strategy is which to refer to increase market share of the current products. A firm using this method by raises their sale revenue without any changing of their existing products. Nestle may try to use the promotion which is buy 1 free 1 for its products. For example, buy 2 packs of 1kg Milo free a 10 pack of instant Nescafe.\nA market penetration will also involve the 4ps which is products, price, promotion and place. According to (Stuart Wall; SonalMinocha and Bronwen Rees, 2010), the product in international marketing is the extent to which a standard and differentiated product should be provided. For example, Nestle is using the differentiated products since it produce its products Kit-Kat in different flavor. A Russian Kit-Kat is smaller than a Bulgarian, but less sweet than Germany's Kit-Kat. While in Japan, the strawberry Kit-Kat is all the rage.\nThe international price is related to the account market different between countries, exchange rates, difficulties of voicing and collecting payment across borders, the effects of tariffs and purchase taxes on competitiveness, governmental regulations of the host country and the long term strategic plan of the company in the different markets in which it operates.\nFor the promotion, it is often expressed to attracted people to consume their products and yet to capture a new consumer to purchasing their products. Nestle is always advertise their products thru media ways. To make sure that people know their products yet to pursuing people to make a purchase on their products. For example, Nestle advertise its products thru the television advertisement. This can make sure that children will attracted by its advertisement while it advertise.\nA place or distribution it is difficult to control from outside the overseas country itself. A company will solve this problem by its own subsidiary. In addition, if the products are being imported, a multinational company will recruit a local agent to ensure that there is safety, cheapest and quickest way is using. For example, Nestle might recruit a people that located outside of overseas of it country to solve the problem such as a warehouses, the selling markets and etc.\nSWOT Analysis of Nestle\nAs Dr. Jill Novak, (2009) commented that:\nStrength\nNestle is a global food producer since it located in over 100 countries. It is consistently one of the world's largest producers which with global sales in 2008 topped $101 billion. In addition, Nestle was named one of \"America's Most Admired Food Companies\" in Fortune magazine. Furthermore, Nestle provides quality brands and products and line extensions that are well-known, top-selling brands including: Maggi, Haagen Dazs, Kit Kat, Nescafe, CoffeeMate, prepared baby foods, yogurt, foods for infants and many more.\nWeakness\nMost of the products have their own weaknesses. For Nestle, it was not as successful as the other country in France. Nestle could not compete against a strong and established brand which is Dannon that entered into France earlier than Nestle which is top selling of health yogurt. Besides that, since 2004, Nestle has been forced to reduce the amount of sugar in their products that may cause of diabetes among American children. In addition, Nestle has been removed the packaging and advertising that false claims of \"heart healthy\" and \"lower cholesterol\" which is an order from FDA(Food and Drug Administration) and American Medical Association which is the under fire of the breakfast cereal industry.\nOpportunities\nIn today, everyone hope and needs to have a healthy life, as a producer like Nestle, it has an opportunities to raise their selling profits with producing health-based products. Since Nestle was a well-known branded, for sure, it will be easy to attract people to purchase their products. Further, they launched a new premium line of cacao called Nestle Treasures Gold, in order to cash in on the \"recession economy\" in which consumers cut back on luxury goods, but regularly indulge in candy and chocolate. Americans want luxury chocolates, and high-end chocolate is immune to the recession (so far), because it is an inexpensive indulgence.\nThreats\nEven though Nestle was a big producer in the world, but it still has its competitor, such as Hershey's, Cadbury-Schweppes (owned by Pepsi), Kellogg's, Starbucks, , Quaker, Kraft Foods, Danone, , Heinz, Unilevel and many more. Furthermore, any contamination foods supply especially e.coli which causes the recalled of their brand-Toll House cookie dough. Outbreaks were linked to 28 states and the product had to be recalled globally. Nestlé has yet to find out how this happened, and is still investigating (Dr. Jill Novak, (2009).\nPotential impacts of globalization on Nestle\nNestle corporate have its own potential in globalization since it is a big foods producer in global.\nTechnology\nIn the world of today, technology will be changing rapidly in global. And this will leads a good improvement in all type of products that will be produce around the world. A research and development department will be a part of Nestle from today towards future achievement by gaining profits without wasting the raw material in manufacturing process. Besides that, by using a developed technology may reduce the effects that will occurs greenhouse effect. For example, use of plastics packaging in every single of Nestle products improve to recycled paper packaging, used of plastic bottle in filling the Nestle beverage into tin that can recycle use.\nOn the others side, a case that occurs in India, which is Nestle chocolate, will be melted before its eyes. This is because there are lacks of distribution and the heat temperature in India will make the chocolate melted. By using the technology that can solve this problem that is using the technology to change its chocolate ingredients so that can afford India heat temperature.\nEnvironmental\nAs the info below, Nestle's Kit Kats was made from a palm oil that came from by destroying the rainforest in Indonesia. This is cause of the pollution in Indonesia. To solve this problem, Nestle corporate should consider using the palm oil from the other countries by not destroying the rainforest of the country. On the other side, there is another solution too. That is, refining the vegetables oil that can out inside the ingredient of making chocolate.\nSocial\nAs a food producer in global, Nestle may do some different in their products. Such as, a new flavor of the chocolate could be launch. This is because different country has a different taste towards foods. For Malaysia, a durian can be a part of the ingredient in the making of Kit-Kat. For Korea, a Kim chi flavor Kit-Kat can also create. This is a try for Nestle to attract people by producing different flavor but same products around the world.\nThe strategy that might use by Nestle in the potential impacts on globalization is:\nDiversification strategy\nAccording to Stuart Wall;SonalMinocha and Bronwen Rees diversification strategy involve the company branching out into both new products and new markets. For example, from the info that I mention below, Nestle might create a different flavor of Kit-Kat to attracted new customer. For Malaysia, Nestle may create a durian flavor Kit-Kat to attracted those customer who are not chocolate lover but is a durian lover to purchase this products.\nConclusion\nOn the day Nestle was introduced, it was only food for infants. As time goes, Nestle has grown to be more famous in brand name and focus in widen its product line. Today, Nestle is one of the most famous and successful foods and drinks producer. Furthermore, Nestle had expands to globalization which consist of factories around the world. Besides that, Nestle will always try counter threats and competitor, such as the current products or new product entrants. Therefore, Nestle still has the potential to grow more and continue to be the one of the leader in the market share.", "The Organization Change – Nestle | Student Simple\nThe Organization Change – Nestle\nby student simple | Mar 17, 2014 | Uncategorized\nNestlé is a multinational packaged food and beverage company founded and headquartered in Vesey, Switzerland. Nestlé Company is the world’s first company to make infant cereal. Henri Nestlé is the chemist who starts to do research on baby food in year 1867. His products soon became known worldwide after introducing a baby drink, which is his new product. In 1905, Nestlé Company merged with Angle-Swiss Condensed Milk Company and after that Nestlé Company produced milk chocolate.\nNestlé has a wide range of products across a number of markets including coffee, bottled water, other beverages, chocolate, ice cream, infant foods, performance and healthcare nutrition, seasonings, frozen and refrigerated foods, confectionery and pet food. Because of its variety production, now Nestlé becomes of the largest food companies in the world, marketing over 8500 brands and 30,000 products.\nNestlé has almost 500 factories around the world and employs more than 200,000 employees worldwide. Nestlé operates in nearly 100 countries across 5 continents and the brand is trusted and confident for its customers to consume.\nUnder the leadership of Peter Brabeck- Letmathe, Nestle went through second-order change. According the National Academy for Academic leadership “Second-order change is deciding – or being forced – to do something significantly or fundamentally different from what we have done before. The process is irreversible: once you begin, it is impossible to return to the way you were doing before. Second- order, discontinuous change is transformational, radical, and fundamentally alters the organization at its core. Second- order change entails not only developing but transforming the nature of the organization. Below I have listed a few examples of this second order change:\n•    Nestlé only sold through sales agents to countries outside of its home market.\n•    Its launch into the American market was initiated when the First World War increased demand for dairy products. Nestlé took this opportunity to establish its presence in the United States by acquiring several existing factories.\n•    In 1974 Nestlé diversified for the first time out-side the food industry in order to promote growth.\n•    It became a major shareholder in the cosmetic giant L’Oreal.\n•    Nestlé later made a second foray outside the food industry with the purchase of Alcon Laboratories Inc.,\nBrabeck- Letmathe emphasizes the need for an incremental approach to change. However, I don’t think he actually follows this process all the time. Even though he says “Why should we manufacture dramatic change? Just for changes sake? To follow some sort of fad with-out logical thinking behind it? We are very skeptical of any kind of fad.” He initiated a complete overhaul of the executive board, replacing it with 10 new executives. He claims that change is incremental; however he is making a radical change.\n \nChange may mean adding on to, and integrating, rather than removing and replacing current practices. What this reminds the managers of change is that they need to assess how carrying out a change will impact upon current practices and the extent to which a change will create ripple effects on practices and routines that they need to retain. So instead of removing the technological policy of the firm, they can try to improve it.\nNestle can also downsize their firm. Downsizing is the intentional process of permanently reducing staff numbers in an organization. Since they are unnecessarily big and invested every single sector, they can sell some of their industries and focus on most profitable ones.\nThere are three examples of lessons from the front line that are evident in the Nestlé case. They are:\n•    There is a dramatic pace of change in Nestle. This has to be slowed down.\n•    There is high risk in its investments; the firm has to hedge its risks.\n•    There is a wrong policy in technology. Care needs to be taken in assuming that types of organizational changes can be neatly categorized as small, adaptive, and incremental compared to those that are large and transformational. Mental frameworks, individual perspectives, the extent to which a change is directly relevant to a person and his or her activities, and the degree to which he or she accepts the need for change", "Case Study: Nestle's Growth Strategy\nHome » Management Case Studies » Case Study: Nestle’s Growth Strategy\nCase Study: Nestle’s Growth Strategy\nNestle is one of the oldest of all multinational businesses. The company was founded in Switzerland in 1866 by Heinrich Nestle, who established Nestle to distribute “milk food,” a type of infant food he had invented that was made from powdered milk, baked food, and sugar. From its very early days, the company looked to other countries for growth opportunities, establishing its first foreign offices in London in 1868. In 1905, the company merged with the Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk, thereby broadening the company’s product line to include both condensed milk and infant formulas. Forced by Switzer­land’s small size to look outside’ its borders for growth opportunities, Nestle established condensed milk and infant food processing plants in the United States and Britain in the late 19th century and in Australia, South America, Africa, and Asia in the first three decades of the 20th century. In 1929, Nestle moved into the chocolate business when it acquired a Swiss chocolate maker. This was fol­lowed in 1938 by the development of Nestle’s most rev­olutionary product, Nescafe, the world’s first soluble coffee drink. After World War 11, Nestle continued to expand into other areas of the food business, primarily through a series of acquisitions that included Maggi (1947), Cross & Blackwell (1960), Findus (1962), Libby’s (1970), Stouffer’s (1973), Carnation (1985), Rowntree (1988), and Perrier (1992). By the late 1990s, Nestle had 500 factories in 76 countries and sold its products in a staggering 193 nations-almost every country in the world. In 1998, the company generated sales of close to SWF 72 billion ($51 billion), only 1 percent of which occurred in its home country. Similarly, only 3 percent of its- 210,000 employees were located in Switzerland. Nestle was the world’s biggest maker of infant formula, powdered milk, chocolates, instant coffee, soups, and mineral waters. It was number two in ice cream, breakfast cereals, and pet food. Roughly 38 percent of its food sales were made in Europe, 32 percent in the Americas, and 20 percent in Africa and Asia.\nManagement Structure\nNestlé is a decentralized organization .  Responsibility for operating decisions is pushed down to local units, which typically enjoy a high degree of autonomy with regard to decisions involving pricing, distribution, marketing, human resources, and so on.  At the same time, the company is organized into seven worldwide strategic business units (SBUs) that have responsibility for high-level strategic decisions and business development.  For example, a strategic business unit focuses on coffee and beverages.  Another one focuses on confectionery and ice cream.  These SBUs engage in overall strategy development, including acquisitions and market entry strategy.  In recent years, two-thirds of Nestlé’s growth has come from acquisitions, so this is a critical function.  Running in parallel to this structure is a regional organization that divides the world into five major geographical zones, such as Europe, North America and Asia.  The regional organizations assist in the overall strategy development process and are responsible for developing regional strategies (an example would be Nestlé’s strategy in the Middle East, which was discussed earlier).  Neither the SBU nor regional managers, however, get involved in local operating or strategic decisions on anything other than an exceptional basis.\nAlthough Nestlé makes intensive use of local managers to knit its diverse worldwide operations together, the company relies on its “expatriate army.”  This consists of about 700 managers who spend the bulk of their careers on foreign assignments , moving from one country to the next.  Selected primarily on the basis of their ability, drive and willingness to live a quasi-nomadic lifestyle, these individuals often work in half-a-dozen nations during their careers.  Nestlé also uses management development programs as a strategic tool for creating an esprit de corps among managers.  At Rive-Reine, the company’s international training center in Switzerland, the company brings together, managers from around the world, at different stages in their careers, for specially targetted development programs of two to three weeks’ duration.  The objective of these programs is to give the managers a better understanding of Nestlé’s culture and strategy, and to give them access to the company’s top management.\nThe research and development operation has a special place within Nestlé, which is not surprising for a company that was established to commercialize innovative food stuffs.  The R&D function comprises 18 different groups that operate in 11 countries throughout the world.  Nestlé spends approximately 1 percent of its annual sales revenue on R&D and has 3,100 employees dedicated to the function.  Around 70 percent of the R&D budget is spent on development initiatives.  These initiatives focus on developing products and processes that fulfill market needs, as identified by the SBUs, in concert with regional and local managers.  For example, Nestlé instant noodle products were originally developed by the R&D group in response to the perceived needs of local operating companies through the Asian region. The company also has longer-term development projects that focus on developing new technological platforms, such as non-animal protein sources or agricultural biotechnology products.\nA Growth Strategy for the 21st Century\nDespite its undisputed success, Nestlé realized by the early 1990s, that it faced significant challenges in maintaining its growth rate. The large Western European and North American markets were mature.  In several countries, population growth had stagnated and in some, there had been a small decline in food consumption. The retail environment in many Western nations had become increasingly challenging and the balance of power was shifting away from the large-scale manufacturers of branded foods and beverages, and toward nationwide supermarket and discount chains. Increasingly, retailers found themselves in the unfamiliar position of playing off against each other – manufacturers of branded foods, thus bargaining down prices. Particularly in Europe, this trend was enhanced by the successful introduction of private-label brands by several of Europe’s leading supermarket chains.  The results included increased price competition in several key segments of the food and beverage market, such as cereals, coffee and soft drinks.\nAt Nestlé, one response has been to look toward emerging markets in Eastern Europe, Asia and Latin America for growth possibilities.  The logic is simple and obvious – a combination of economic and population growth, when coupled with the widespread adoption of market-oriented economic policies by the governments of many developing nations, makes for attractive business opportunities.  Many of these countries are still relatively poor, but their economies are growing rapidly.  For example, if current economic growth forecasts occur, by 2010, there will be 700 million people in China and India that have income levels approaching those of Spain in the mid-1990s.  As income levels rise, it is increasingly likely that consumers in these nations will start to substitute branded food products for basic foodstuffs, creating a large market opportunity for companies such as Nestlé.\nIn general, Nestle’s growth strategy had been to enter emerging markets early – before competitors – and build a substantial position by selling basic food items that appeal to the local population base, such as infant formula, condensed milk, noodles and tofu. By narrowing its initial market focus to just a handful of strategic brands, Nestlé claims it can simplify life, reduce risk, and concentrate its marketing resources and managerial effort on a limited number of key niches.  The goal is to build a commanding market position in each of these niches.  By pursuing such a strategy, Nestlé has taken as much as 85 percent of the market for instant coffee in Mexico, 66 percent of the market for powdered milk in the Philippines, and 70 percent of the markets for soups in Chile.  As income levels rise, the company progressively moves out from these niches, introducing more upscale items, such as mineral water, chocolate, cookies, and prepared foodstuffs.\nAlthough the company is known worldwide for several key brands, such as Nescafe, it uses local brands in many markets.  The company owns 8,500 brands, but only 750 of them are registered in more than one country, and only 80 are registered in more than 10 countries.  While the company will use the same “global brands” in multiple developed markets, in the developing world it focuses on trying to optimize ingredients and processing technology to local conditions and then using a brand name that resonates locally. Customization rather than globalization is the key to the Nestle’s growth strategy in emerging markets.\nExecuting the Strategy\nSuccessful execution of the strategy for developing markets requires a degree of flexibility, an ability to adapt in often unforeseen ways to local conditions, and a long-term perspective that puts building a sustainable business before short-term profitability.  In Nigeria, for example, a crumbling road system, aging trucks, and the danger of violence forced the company to re-think its traditional distribution methods.  Instead of operating a central warehouse, as is its preference in most nations, the country.  For safety reasons, trucks carrying Nestlé goods are allowed to travel only during the day and frequently under-armed guard.  Marketing also poses challenges in Nigeria.  With little opportunity for typical Western-style advertising on television of billboards, the company hired local singers to go to towns and villages offering a mix of entertainment and product demonstrations.\nChina provides another interesting example of local adaptation and long-term focus.  After 13 years of talks, Nestlé was formally invited into China in 1987, by the Government of Heilongjiang province.  Nestlé opened a plant to produce powdered milk and infant formula there in 1990, but quickly realized that the local rail and road infrastructure was inadequate and inhibited the collection of milk and delivery of finished products.  Rather than make do with the local infrastructure, Nestlé embarked on an ambitious plan to establish its own distribution network, known as milk roads, between 27 villages in the region and factory collection points, called chilling centres.  Farmers brought their milk – often on bicycles or carts – to the centres where it was weighed and analysed.  Unlike the government, Nestlé paid the farmers promptly.  Suddenly the farmers had an incentive to produce milk and many bought a second cow, increasing the cow population in the district by 3,000 to 9,000 in 18 months.  Area managers then organized a delivery system that used dedicated vans to deliver the milk to Nestlé’s factory.\nAlthough at first glance this might seem to be a very costly solution, Nestlé calculated that the long-term benefits would be substantial.  Nestlé’s strategy is similar to that undertaken by many European and American companies during the first waves of industrialization in those countries.  Companies often had to invest in infrastructure that we now take for granted to get production off the ground.  Once the infrastructure was in place, in China, Nestlé’s production took off.  In 1990, 316 tons of powdered milk and infant formula were produced.  By 1994, output exceeded 10,000 tons and the company decided to triple capacity.  Based on this experience, Nestlé decided to build another two powdered milk factories in China and was aiming to generate sales of $700 million by 2000.\nNestlé is pursuing a similar long-term bet in the Middle East, an area in which most multinational food companies have little presence.  Collectively, the Middle East accounts for only about 2 percent of Nestlé’s worldwide sales and the individual markets are very small.  However, Nestlé’s long-term strategy is based on the assumption that regional conflicts will subside and intra-regional trade will expand as trade barriers between countries in the region come down.  Once that happens, Nestlé’s factories in the Middle East should be able to sell throughout the region, thereby realizing scale economies.  In anticipation of this development, Nestlé has established a network of factories in five countries, in the hope that each will, someday, supply the entire region with different products.  The company, currently makes ice-cream in Dubai, soups and cereals in Saudi Arabia, yogurt and bouillon in Egypt, chocolate in Turkey, and ketchup and instant noodles in Syria.  For the present, Nestlé can survive in these markets by using local materials and focusing on local demand.  The Syrian factory, for example, relies on products that use tomatoes, a major local agricultural product.  Syria also produces wheat, which is the main ingredient in instant noodles. Even if trade barriers don’t come down soon, Nestlé has indicated it will remain committed to the region. By using local inputs and focussing on local consumer needs, it has earned a good rate of return in the region, even though the individual markets are small.\nDespite its successes in places such as China and parts of the Middle East, not all of Nestlé’s moves have worked out so well.  Like several other Western companies, Nestlé has had its problems in Japan, where a failure to adapt its coffee brand to local conditions meant the loss of a significant market opportunity to another Western company, Coca Cola.  For years, Nestlé’s instant coffee brand was the dominant coffee product in Japan.  In the 1960s, cold canned coffee (which can be purchased from soda vending machines) started to gain a following in Japan. Nestlé dismissed the product as just a coffee-flavoured drink rather than the real thing and declined to enter the market.  Nestlé’s local partner at the time, Kirin Beer, was so incensed at Nestlé’s refusal to enter the canned coffee market that it broke off its relationship with the company. In contrast, Coca Cola entered the market with Georgia, a product developed specifically for this segment of the Japanese market.  By leveraging its existing distribution channel, Coca Cola captured a 40 percent share of the $4 billion a year, market for canned coffee in Japan.  Nestlé, which failed to enter the market until the 1980s, has only a 4 percent share.\nWhile Nestlé has built businesses from the ground up, in many emerging markets, such as Nigeria and China, in others it will purchase local companies if suitable candidates can be found.  The company pursued such a strategy in Poland, which it entered in 1994, by purchasing Goplana, the country’s second largest chocolate manufacturer. With the collapse of communism and the opening of the Polish market, income levels in Poland have started to rise and so has chocolate consumption.  Once a scarce item, the market grew by 8 percent a year, throughout the 1990s.  To take advantage of this opportunity, Nestlé has pursued a strategy of evolution, rather than revolution.  It has kept the top management of the company staffed with locals – as it does in most of its operations around the world – and carefully adjusted Goplana’s product line to better match local opportunities.  At the same time, it has pumped money into Goplana’s marketing, which has enabled the unit to gain share from several other chocolate makers in the country.  Still, competition in the market is intense.  Eight companies, including several foreign-owned enterprises, such as the market leader, Wedel, which is owned by PepsiCo , are vying for market share, and this has depressed prices and profit margins, despite the healthy volume growth.\nDiscussions:\nDoes it make sense for Nestle to focus its growth efforts on emerging markets? Why?\nWhat is the company’s strategy with regard to business development in emerging markets? Does this strategy make sense? From an organizational perspective, what is required for this strategy to work effectively?\nThrough your own research on NESTLE, identify appropriate performance indicators. Once you have gathered relevant data on these, undertake a performance analysis of the company over the last five years. What does the analysis tell you about the success or otherwise of the strategy adopted by the company?\nHow would you describe Nestle’s strategic posture at the corporate level; is it pursuing a global strategy, a multidomestic strategy an international strategy or a transnational strategy?\nDoes this overall strategic posture make sense given the markets and countries that Nestle participates in? Why?\nIs Nestle’s management structure and philosophy aligned with its overall strategic posture?", "World's biggest food and beverage companies - Rediff.com Business\nRediff.com   »  Business » World's biggest food and beverage companies\nWorld's biggest food and beverage companies\nLast updated on: April 16, 2012 14:56 IST\nWorld's biggest food and beverage companies\nThere are some food and beverage companies that have more money than some countries of the world.\nLet's take a look at some of the biggest food and beverage companies in the world.\nClick NEXT to read more...\nImage: Shoppers inside the Carrefour Planet in Lyon, France.\nPhotographs: Emmanuel Foudrot/Reuters\nNestle\nGlobal rank: 1\nNestle is the world's largest food and nutrition company. Founded and headquartered in Vevey, Switzerland, Nestle originated in a 1905 merger of the Anglo-Swiss Milk Company, established in 1867 by brothers George Page and Charles Page, and Farine Lactee Henri Nestle, founded in 1866 by Henri Nestle.\nClick NEXT to read more...\nImage: Bottles of baby food are seen in the company supermarket at the Nestle headquarters in Vevey, Switzerland.\nPhotographs: Denis Balibouse/Reuters\nPepsiCo\nGlobal rank: 2\nPepsiCo is an American multinational corporation headquartered in Purchase, New York, United States, with interests in the manufacturing, marketing and distribution of grain-based snack foods, beverages, and other products.\nClick NEXT to read more...\nImage: Bottles of Pepsi on display in New York.\nPhotographs: Mike Segar/Reuters\nKraft\nGlobal rank: 3\nKraft Foods is an American multinational confectionery, food and beverage conglomerate. It markets many brands in more than 170 countries. Twelve of its brands annually earn more than $1 billion worldwide: Cadbury, Jacobs, Kraft, LU, Maxwell House, Milka, Nabisco, Oscar Mayer, Philadelphia, Trident and Tang.\nForty of its brands are at least a century old.\nClick NEXT to read more...\nImage: Kraft Macaroni and Cheese is displayed at the company's headquarters in Northfield, Illinois, US.\nPhotographs: John Gress/Reuters\nAnheuser-Busch Companies is an American brewing company and a wholly owned subsidiary of Anheuser-Busch InBev.\nThe company operates 12 breweries in the United States and 18 in other countries.\nClick NEXT to read more...\nImage: A man walks past a logo at the headquarters of Anheuser-Busch InBev in St Louis, Missouri, US.\nPhotographs: Sebastien Pirlet/Reuters\nCoca-Cola\nGlobal rank: 5\nThe Coca-Cola Company is an American multinational beverage corporation and manufacturer, retailer and marketer of non-alcoholic beverage concentrates and syrups.\nThe company is best known for its flagship product Coca-Cola, invented in 1886 by pharmacist John Stith Pemberton in Columbus, Georgia.\nClick NEXT to read more...\nImage: Cases of Coca-Cola in a warehouse at the Swire Coca-Cola facility in Draper, Utah, US.\nPhotographs: George Frey/Reuters\nJBS\nGlobal rank: 6\nJBS is the largest Brazilian multinational in the food industry, producing fresh, chilled, and processed beef, chicken and pork, and also selling by-products from the processing of these meats.\nIt is headquartered in Sao Paulo. It was founded in 1953 in Anapolis, Goias.\nClick NEXT to read more...\nImage: Beef cattle feed on the Wulf farm in Morris, Minnesota.\nPhotographs: Diane Bartz/Reuters\nGlobal rank: 7\nArcher Daniels Midland Company is an American global food processing corporation headquartered in Decatur, Illinois.\nADM operates more than 270 plants worldwide, where cereal grains and oilseeds are processed into products used in food, beverage, nutraceutical, industrial and animal feed markets worldwide.\nClick NEXT to read more...\nImage: Dan Lizee, operation manager, picks up a handful of wheat at the Alliance Grain Terminal in Vancouver.\nPhotographs: Ben Nelms/Reuters\nUnilever\nGlobal rank: 8\nUnilever is a British-Dutch multinational consumer goods company. Its products include foods, beverages, cleaning agents and personal care products.\nIt is the world's largest maker of ice cream.\nClick NEXT to read more...\nImage: A worker scans barcodes by a chiller cabinet of Flora margarine at a Sainsbury's supermarket in London.\nPhotographs: Luke MacGregor/Reuters\nMars\nGlobal rank: 9\nMars is an American manufacturer of confectionery, pet food, and other food products with $30 billion in annual sales in 2010, and is ranked as the fifth-largest privately held company in the United States by Forbes.\nClick NEXT to read more...\nImage: Packets of M&M's chocolates are seen at the production line of candy and chocolate maker Mars Chocolate France's plant in Haguenau.\nPhotographs: Vincent Kessler/Reuters\nTyson Foods\nGlobal rank: 10\nTyson Foods is a American multinational corporation based in Springdale, Arkansas, that operates in the food industry.\nThe company is the world's second-largest processor and marketer of chicken, beef, and pork only behind Brazilian JBS, and annually exports the largest percentage of beef out of the United States.\nClick NEXT to read more...\nImage: Women buy eggs in a supermarket in Bucharest.\nPhotographs: Bogdan Cristel/Reuters\nSABMiller\nGlobal rank: 11\nSABMiller is a global brewing and bottling company headquartered in London, United Kingdom. It is the world's second-largest brewing company measured by revenues (after Anheuser-Busch InBev) and is also a major bottler of Coca-Cola.\nClick NEXT to read more...\nImage: Barmaid pours a glass of beer in Sydney.\nPhotographs: Tim Wimborne/Reuters\nCargill\nGlobal rank: 12\nCargill is an American privately held, multinational corporation based in Minnetonka, Minnesota. Founded in 1865, it is now the largest privately held corporation in the United States in terms of revenue.\nIf it were a public company, it would rank, as of 2011, number 13 on the Fortune 500, behind AT&T and ahead of JP Morgan Chase.\nClick NEXT to read more...\nImage: A man gathers bags of cocoa beans at the Cargill factory in Ivory Coast.\nPhotographs: Luc Gnago/Reuters", "Complications of Nestle being a Global Multinational company\nComplications of Nestle being a Global Multinational company\nPublished:\nLast Edited:\n23rd March, 2015\nThis essay has been submitted by a student. This is not an example of the work written by our professional essay writers.\nBrief of company: Nestlé with headquarters in Vevey, Switzerland was founded in 1866 by Henri Nestlé and is today the world's leading nutrition, health and wellness company. Its sales for 2009 were $ 112.3 billion, with a net profit of $ 11.1 billion. They employ around 276,050 people and have factories or operations in almost every country in the world.\nReasons for selecting the company: Nestlé can trace back its origins to 1867, from selling milk-based baby foods and condensed milk as its primary products to a market leader in today's Food & Beverage Industry with more than 6000 brands under its belt ranging from coffee and candy to hotdogs and pasta. Instead of just reaping the profits from the market, Nestlé has given back to the community by adopting social responsibilities, showing above the bar ethical behaviour and in many cases raising the standards in the industry. Its founding ethos reflects the basic ideas of fairness, honesty, and a general concern for people.\nMain strategic issues facing the company:\nNestlé has been facing 'Nestlé boycott' since 1977 due to its promotions of the use of artificial infant foods.\nGrowing resistance of consumers against the use of genetically engineered foods in Nestlé's products.\nIncreasing competition.\nIncreasing awareness in the consumers with the demand of being socially and ethically responsible increasing day by day.\nIncreasing control and regulations in the policies of the governments worldwide.\nCompany's contribution to the National Economy: Switzerland's GDP for the year 2009 was estimated at $522.4 billion with GDP growth rate of 2.8% (2010 estimate). Out of which Merchandise exports for 2009 were of $173 billion.\n*Company's contribution to the regional economy: Nestlé employs around 280,000 people all over the world and have factories or operations in almost every country in the world. Nestlé's gross revenue for the year 2009 was $ 112.3 billion and R&D investment was $ 2.11 billion. \n*Recent strategic dilemma:\nEnvironmental impact of palm oil and the role of multi-nationals such as Nestlé in this.\nRecent strategic choice:\nIn March 2010, Nestlé purchased Kraft's North American frozen pizza business for $3.7 billion.\nNestlé has been heavily investing in Africa.\nSource of Information on Company:\nhttp://www.nestle.com\n(334 words)\nExecutive Summary\nThis assignment analyzes Nestlé's current situation and strategies in context of Global Food & Beverage Industry and then recommends the key strategies Nestlé should use to be more successful and retain its status as the global market leader in future.\nTo analyze the F&B Industry on a higher level and examine Nestlé's external environment, the following business models are used in this assignment: Industry Life Cycle, Key Success Factors and Porter's Five Forces. And to analyze Nestlé's current status and its internal environment the business models used are: SWOT analysis, Strategic Factor Analysis, TOWS Matrix.\nAfter analyzing the information based on the above mentioned models, Nestlé is currently facing issues like product recalls, stagnant growth, high logistical costs, negative publicity and false allegations which are damaging its image and goodwill in the market. To combat some of these issues Nestlé has introduced innovative and healthier food products to cater the rising number of health conscious consumers, started focusing on the rising middle class consumers in developing and emerging economies, which has helped Nestlé to increase their growth again post the 2009 Financial Crisis.\nFor further improvement in the market share and company image, key strategies recommended to Nestlé are Expansion strategy through strategically acquiring and merging with its competitors and investing in production facilities in developing economies and Growth through Innovation in health & nutrition food segment. One area that Nestlé has to care of immediately is improvement in its Public Relations management to create a high level of loyalty and trust in its customers by building and reinforcing the notion that Nestlé still follows its founding ethos of fairness, honesty, and a general concern for people.\n(277 words)\nY\nSALES\nThe Global Food, Beverage and Tobacco Industry's growth has slowed down in recent years. But all this is set to change due to the recent technological advancements, rapid globalisation and opening up of the many restricted markets worldwide such as India, China, African nations, etc. With the technological advancements in food processing, handling and storing capacity and the rapid emergence of organized retailing in Asia, Africa, and other third world countries, along with fast changing demographics and habits has changed consumption the patterns and is fuelling the next growth trajectory for the global food, beverage and tobacco industry.\nThe Global Food, Beverage and Tobacco Industry is in the High Growth stage of the growth phase as the increase in sales has slowed down in recent years. The global food, beverage & tobacco industry generated total revenues of $6,319.2 billion in 2009, growing at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 3.4% for the period spanning 2005-2009. Food sales generated total revenues of $4,235.4 billion, equivalent to 67.1% of the industry's overall value and sale of beverages generated revenues of $1,581.7 billion in 2009, equating to 25% of the industry's aggregate revenues. The industry is forecasted to grow at CAGR of 3.8% for the five year period 2009-2014.\nNestlé recorded revenues of $99 billion in year ending December 2009, showing decrease of 2.1% compared to fiscal 2008. In 2009, Nestlé renovated 7,252 products for nutrition or health reasons, as health awareness among consumers is rapidly increasing and it wants capitalize on the health conscious trend. Nestlé has been active in Developing &Emerging (D&E) economies through its subsidiaries in Asia Pacific, Africa, the Middle East, Turkey and Latin America. Nestlé's sales in emerging countries accounted for almost 32.5% of total revenue and reached $32.32 billion in 2009. According to IMF, the advanced economies are set to grow at 2.1% and 2.4%, respectively, in 2010 and 2011, while the D&E economies are forecasted to grow at 6% and 6.3% in 2010 and 2011, respectively. Therefore in the future, Nestlé's growth will be driven by high-growth D&E economies.\nKey Factors for Success\n4.37\nKey Factors for Success in the Food and Beverage Industry:\nBranding in F&B industry is of utmost importance as people do not prefer to buy products that they are not familiar with; also in this industry brand image is everything as it can attract consumers to a company's new products if it is already reputable in the market. Diversification in F&B industry are almost always related as companies prefer to have a healthy portfolio of products while still maintaining their core competencies and using them in their related products; as by having a large range of products a company will be more competitive and would not have to rely on a single product.\nProduct quality is very important in F&B industry, as bad quality products can & will lead to consumer boycott of the company's products, health issues in consumers and lawsuits against the company. While quality of the products also have to justify their prices, such as normal milk chocolates (Nestlé, Cadbury, etc.) cannot be priced high while specialty chocolates (Lindt, Godiva, etc.) are high priced. A strong distribution network is a must in F&B industry as it gives the companies low costs operations, fast delivery, and optimal shelf presence in retail stores. R&D is vital for gaining market share for the companies as development of better tasting, more nutritional and new foods & beverages is the fastest way of capitalizing on the fast changing trends of the consumers (like current healthy & organic food trend).\nTwo of the many competitors that Nestlé has, I have chosen Kraft Foods and Unilever for the comparison of KFS. After analyzing the KFS it is clear that Nestlé's response to the current and expected key success factors is above the industry average, with Unilever quite close behind and Kraft Foods just managing the industry average. So the analysis of KFS also reinforces Nestlé's position as the largest F&B Company in the world.\nPorter's Five Forces Model:\nAnalysis of Porter's Five Forces:\nThe Bargaining Power of Suppliers (Low):\nThe bargaining power of suppliers in F&B Industry low as the raw materials for this industry includes fruits and vegetables, meat and fish, dairy products and grains, tobacco, cereals and grains, etc which could be purchased in the open markets around the world. And some F&B producers have integrated backwards into producing their own raw materials, negating the need for suppliers. Also suppliers tend to be financially quite weak giving market players upper hand.\nThe Bargaining Power of Buyers (High):\nThe bargaining power of suppliers on the other hand is quite high as typical buyers are large retailers such as Wal-Mart, Carrefour, etc. who are financially very strong and usually make large purchases and enter into long term contracts with market players; as the profit margins for the buyers is quite low. So loss of one retailer could significantly impact upon a manufacturer's revenue. Buyers are frequently integrating backwards, with many retail chains offering their own branded packaged food goods usually referred to as Private label products.\nThe Threat of Potential New Entrants (Present):\nThe threat of new entrants is high for small players who only serve few products and few markets (regional or national players) but is low for highly diversified big market players such as Nestlé, Unilever, etc. who operate globally. Since it's a highly fragmented market small-scale entrance by occupying a niche in the industry is possible and high these days. But new entrants have to bear switching costs (which can be quite high) as it's very hard to convince consumers to try new brands/products. Also big players can restrict the access to distribution channels for new players through their contacts and power in the market.\nThe Threat of Substitutes (High):\nThe substitutes are often cheaper and just as popular with consumers in F&B Industry as most of the products in this industry are in a way a substitute of some other products, like Tea for Coffee, Coke for Pepsi, NutraSweet for Sugar, etc. These days private label products, organic foods; nutritional foods, etc. are also rapidly substituting the packaged foods. And there are almost no switching costs for end consumers as they just pick any new products instead of their regular ones if they want to experiment.\nThe Extent of Competitive Rivalry (High):\nThe competitive rivalry among the firms is quite high in this industry as the enormous size of the industry creates endless opportunities for the players to compete for. Large number of players, ready availability of substitutes, low entry barriers, low bargaining power of suppliers and fast changing customer tastes intensifies rivalry in the F&B Industry. And also slow down of sales in the industry in 2009 will intensify the competition in the market, as everyone would try and gain market share now by take sales away from other competitors.", "Introduction: Nestlé Was Founded in 1866 by Henri Nestlé And | Nestlé | Milk\nIntroduction: Nestlé Was Founded in 1866 by Henri Nestlé And\n \nIntroduction: -\n Nestlé was founded in 1866 by Henri Nestlé and is today theworld's biggest food and beverage company. Sales at the end of 2005 were CHF 91 bn, with a net profit of CHF 8 bn. Nestléemploy around 250,000 people from more than 70 countries andhave factories or operations in almost every country in the world.The history of Nestlé began in Switzerland in 1867 when Henri Nestlé, the pharmacist,launched his product Farine Lactée Nestlé, a nutritious gruel for children. Henri used hissurname, which means ’little nest’, in both the company name and the logotype. The nest,which symbolizes security, family and nourishment, still plays a central role in Nestlé’s profile.Since it began over 130 years ago, Nestlé’s success with product innovations and business acquisitions has turned it into the largest Food Company in the world. As theyears have passed, the Nestlé family has grown to include chocolates, soups, coffee,cereals, frozen products, yoghurts, mineral water and other food products. Beginning inthe 70s, Nestlé has continued to expand its product portfolio to include pet foods, pharmaceutical products and cosmetics too.Today, Nestlé markets a great number of products, all with one thing in common: thehigh quality for which Nestlé has become renowned throughout the worldThe Company's strategy is guided by several fundamental principles. Nestlé's existing products grow through innovation and renovation while maintaining a balance ingeographic activities and product lines. Long-term potential is never sacrificed for short-term performance. The Company's priority is to bring the best and most relevant productsto people, wherever they are, whatever their needs, throughout their lives.Taste of Nestlé in each of the countries where Nestlé sell products. Nestlé is based on the principle of decentralization, which means each country is responsible for the efficientrunning of its business - including the recruitment of its staff.1\n \nThat's not to say that every operating company can do as it wishes. Headquarters inVevey sets the overall strategy and ensures that it is carried out. It's an approach that is best summed up as: 'centralize what you must, decentralize what you can'. Nestlé is a company which is present in all over the world but It has difference andunique motto to deal in all over the world. Nestlé believes that they should think abouttheir organizations globally but they deal with people by interacting with them locally.\n“Thinking globally - acting locally”Evolution of Nestlé: -\n1867", "Multinational Corporations\nMultinational Corporations\n \n Definition of MNC\nMultinational firms arise because capital is much more mobile than labor. Since cheap labor and raw material inputs are located in other countries, multinational firms establish subsidiaries there. They are often criticized as being runaway corporations.\nEconomists are not in agreement as to how multinational or transnational corporations should be defined. Multinational corporations have many dimensions and can be viewed from several perspectives (ownership, management, strategy and structural, etc.)\nThe following is an excerpt from Franklin Root, International Trade and Investment\nOwnership criterion\nSome argue that ownership is a key criterion. A firm becomes multinational only when the headquarter or parent company is effectively owned by nationals of two or more countries.\nFor example, Shell and Unilever, controlled by British and Dutch interests, are good examples. However, by ownership test, very few multinationals are multinational. The ownership of most MNCs are uninational. (e.g., the Smith-Corona versus Brothers case)\nDepending on the production process, each is considered an American multinational company in one case, and each is considered a foreign multinational in another. Thus, ownership does not really matter.\nNationality mix of headquarters managers\nAn international company is multinational if the managers of the parent company are nationals of several countries. Usually, managers of the headquarters (e.g., GM, Toyota) are nationals of the home country. This may be a transitional phenomenon.\nVery few companies pass this test currently.\nBusiness Strategy\nsome are home country oriented,\nothers are host country oriented.\nSuccessful firms:\nStarkbuck shop in Qian Men street, Beijing\nAccording to Franklin Root (1994), an MNC is a parent company that\n(i) engages in foreign production through its affiliates located in several countries,\n(ii) exercises direct control over the policies of its affiliates, and\n(iii) implements transnational business strategies in production, marketing, finance and staffing in a way that transcend national boundaries.\nIn other words, MNCs exhibit no loyalty to the country in which they are incorporated. \nExample\nhas plants and offices in Greece, France, Germany, Norway, Russia, Sweden, Turkey, US, and Mexico.\nWheat is purchased from around the world.\nReference \nHoward V. Perlmutter, \"The Tortuous Evolution of the Multinational Corporation,\" Columbia Journal of World Business, 1969, pp. 9-18.\n \n2. Three Stages of Evolution\nExport Stage\n(i)  initial inquiries ⇒ result in first export.\n(ii) Initially, firms rely on export agents. ⇒ expansion of export sales\n(iii) ⇒ foreign sales branch or assembly operations are established (to save transportation costs)\nForeign production stage\n(i) There is a limit to foreign exports, due to tariffs, quotas and transportation costs.\n(ii) Wage rates may be lower in LDCs.\n(iii) Environmental regulations may be lax in LDCs (e.g., China). Itai-Itai (meaning: ouch ouch) disease in Japan since the 1920s was caused by cadmium poisoning. Contaminated effluents leaked into rice paddies and water source.) Watch the movie, Erin Brochovich.\n(iv) meet Consumer demands in the foreign countries\n \nDFI versus Licensing\nOnce the firm chooses foreign production as a method of delivering goods to foreign markets, it must decide whether to establish a foreign production subsidiary or license the technology to a foreign firm.\n Licensing\n Licensing is usually the first experience (because it is easy)\ne.g.: Kentucky Fried Chicken in the U.K.\nLicensing does not require any capital expenditure\nFinancial risk is zero.\nroyalty payment = a fixed % of sales\nlicensor may provide training, equipment, etc.\nProblem:\nthe parent firm cannot exercise any managerial control over the licensee (it is independent)\nThe licensee may transfer industrial secrets to other independent firms, thereby creating rivals.\nIn order to deter entry of copycat producers, MacDonalds may supply American ingredients or raw materials (e.g., beef)\n Direct Investment\n It requires the decision of top management because it is a critical step.\n(i) it is risky (lack of information, large capital requirement)\nUS firms tend to establish subsidiaries in Canada first. Singer Manufacturing Company established its foreign plants in Scotland and Australia in the 1850s.\n(ii) plants are established in several countries\n(iii) licensing is switched from independent producers to its subsidiaries.\n(iv) export continues (exports and FDI may be substitues or complements)\n Multinational Stage\nThe company becomes a multinational enterprise when it begins to plan, organize and coordinate production, marketing, R&D, financing, and staffing.\nFor each of these operations, the firm must find the best location.\n \nA lion's share of MNCs are headquartered in the US:\nWall-Mart\nHow to tell whether a firm is multinational?\nRule of Thumb\nA company whose foreign sales are 25% or more of total sales. This ratio is high for small countries, but low for large countries, e.g. Nestle (98%: Dutch), Phillips (94%: Swiss).\nExamples: Manufacturing MNCs\n24 of top fifty firms are located in the U.S.\n9 in Japan (shrinking)\nPetroleum companies: 6/10 located in the U.S.\nFood/Restaurant Chains. 10/10 are headquartered in the U.S.\nUS Multinational Corporations: Exxon, GM, Ford, etc.\n \n3. Motives for Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)\n \nAnecdote on Sunzi , who wrote \"The Art of War.\" Sunzi (544-496 BC) was a native of Ch'i, but served under King of Wu during the Spring and Autumn period (771-476 BC).\n \n New MNCs do not pop up randomly in foreign nations. They are the product of conscious planning by corporate managers. Investment flows from regions of low profits to those of high returns.\n 1  Growth motive\nA company may have reached a plateau satisfying domestic demand, which is not growing. Looking for new markets.\n 2 Bypass protection in importing countries\n Foreign direct investment is one way to expand. FDI is a means to bypassing protective instruments in the importing country.\nExamples:\n(i) European Union: imposed common external tariff against outsiders.\nUS companies circumvented these barriers by setting up subsidiaries\n. JBS USA is a subsidiary of a Brazilian company, the world's largest meat processor of beef and pork. (It kills 5000 head of cattle per day.)\n(ii) Japanese corporations built auto assembly plants in the US, to bypass VERs.\n3. avoid high corporate tax\nUS corporate tax = 39.6%, Greece = 29%, France = 33%. Corporate tax rates are lower in most other countries.\n 4 avoid high transport costs\nBuild factories where consumers are.\n Transportation costs are like tariffs in that they are barriers which raise consumer prices. When transportation costs are high, multinational firms want to build production plants close to either the input source or to the market in order to save transportation costs.\nMultinational firms (e.g. Toyota) are better off establishing factories where consumers are located than shipping goods to faraway counries.\n 5 avoid Exchange Rate fluctuations\n Japanese firms (e.g., Komatsu) invest here to produce heavy construction machines to avoid excessive exchange rate fluctuations. Also, Japanese automobile firms have plants to produce automobile parts. For instance, Toyota imports engines and transmissions from Japanese plants, and produce the rest in the U.S.\nToyota is behind GM and Volkswagen in China, and plans to expand its production in China (in addition to Tianjin and Guangzhou) and has no plans to build more plants in North America. (China's autoparts are cheaper.) It may have been a mistake for Toyota to overexpand its plants in the US. GM and Volkswagen have expanded their production plants in Shanghai.\nA Komatsu machine used in ethanol production in Ida Grove, Iowa.\n 6 reduce competition\n The most certain method of preventing actual or potential competition is to acquire foreign businesses.\nGM purchased Monarch (GM Canada) and Opel (GM Germany). It did not buy Toyota, Datsun (Nissan) and Volkswagen. Subsequently, they became competitors. Toyota is #1 in the car industry at present. Market shares of car companies are:\nToyota: 12%, GM = Volkswagen: 11%, Hyundai-Kia: 9%.\nWorld = 90 million cars. China = 24 million, US =12 million.\n7 secure essential inputs\nTransfer prices are the prices paid for imports/exports between the headquarters and subsidiaries. \n Why manipulate TP?\nMNCs manipulate prices between the headquarter and the subsidiaries so as to realize more profits in that profits may be the highest in the countries with lower tax rates.\nPurpose: to minimize the total tax a multinational firm pays.\nMNCs try to reduce their overall tax burden. An MNC reports most of its profits in a low-tax country, even though the actual profits are earned in a high tax country.\n Example\n tp = tax rate in the parent country\nth = tax rate in the host country\nIf tp > th, then lower export prices to the subsidiary in the host country, and raise import prices from the subsidiary. => lower tax.\n \nMNC's Goal: maximize profit in the country with the lowest tax rate.\nIn High tax countries: To reduce MNC profits:\n(i) lower selling price, and\n(ii) raise buying prices\nIn Low Tax countries, do the opposite\nTotal tax = $135 ($7000 × 15%)\nThus, a multinational company's overall tax could be paid at the lowest tax rate of all countries in which it operates.\nAbuses in pricing across national borders are illegal (if they can be proved). MNCs are required to set prices at \"arms length\" (set prices as if they are unrelated).\nIRS argued that Toyota Inc. of Japan had systematically overcharged its US subsidiary for years on most of trucks, automobiles and parts sold to the US.\nBecause of abuses in transfer pricing, taxable profits were shifted to Japan. The settlement Toyota offered to IRS reportedly approached $1 billion." ] }

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{ "description": [ "Theme From Mahogany (Do You Know Where You're ... Do you know where youre going to? ... \"The Theme From Mahogany (Do You Know Where You're Going To?) ...", "“Theme from Mahogany (Do You Know Where You’re Going To) ... (Do You Know Where You’re Going To)” is the theme song to the 1975 film Mahogany starring Diana Ross.", "The Theme from the movie \"Mahogany\" also titled \"Do You Know Where You're Going To\" is a song written by Michael Masser and Gerald Giffin and was sung by ...", "Lyrics to \"Theme From Mahogany (Do You Know Where You're Going To)\" song by DIANA ROSS: ...", "Listen to songs from the album Do You Know Where You're Going To (Theme From \"Mahogany\") - Single, including \"Do You Know Where You're Going To (Theme From \"Mahogany\").\"", "... / Do you know where you're going to? / Do you like the ... Do You Know Where You're Going To? (Theme From ... Ross as the theme to the 1975 Motown/Paramount film ...", "Get this from a library! Theme from Mahogany : Do you know where you're going to? : from the original soundtract [sic] of a Berry Gordy film Mahogany. [Michael Masser ...", "Do You Know Where You're Going To? by Diana Ross song ... Do You Know Where You%27re Going To%3F by Diana Ross ... This song was the theme song of the 1976 movie ..." ], "filename": [ "36/36_2290.txt", "85/85_2291.txt", "151/151_2292.txt", "187/187_2294.txt", "30/30_2295.txt", "79/79_2296.txt", "107/107_2297.txt", "119/119_2299.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9 ], "title": [ "Theme From Mahogany (Do You Know Where You're Going To)", "Theme from Mahogany (Do You Know Where You're Going To)", "THEME FROM MAHOGANY - (DO YOU KNOW WHERE YOU'RE GOING TO ...", "\"Theme From Mahogany (Do You Know Where You're Going To ...", "Do You Know Where You're Going To (Theme From ... - Apple", "Do You Know Where You're Going To? (Theme From ... - Genius", "Theme from Mahogany : Do you know where you're going to ...", "Do You Know Where You're Going To? by Diana Ross" ], "url": [ "http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VOH6SzDX3l4", "http://genius.com/Diana-ross-theme-from-mahogany-do-you-know-where-youre-going-to-lyrics", "http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oVj2cq0wDYY", "http://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/dianaross/themefrommahoganydoyouknowwhereyouregoingto.html", "https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/do-you-know-where-youre-going/id997528269", "http://genius.com/Mariah-carey-do-you-know-where-youre-going-to-theme-from-mahogany-lyrics", "http://www.worldcat.org/title/theme-from-mahogany-do-you-know-where-youre-going-to-from-the-original-soundtract-sic-of-a-berry-gordy-film-mahogany/oclc/15797322", "http://www.songfacts.com/detail.php?id=3641" ], "search_context": [ "Theme From Mahogany (Do You Know Where You're Going To) - YouTube\nRating is available when the video has been rented.\nThis feature is not available right now. Please try again later.\nUploaded on Dec 29, 2008\nThis movie was the first movie I ever saw after moving to the Bay Area in 1975. Having come from a small town, everything was so BIG. Intersections, malls, people rushing everywhere. The question this song asks, I asked myself over and over after such upheaval. I still don't have the answer. The movie Mahogany (and this theme song) turn 40 this October.\nTheme From Mahogany (Do You Know Where You're Going To), by Diana Ross. From the movie, Mahogany in the year 1975.\nDo you know where youre going to?\nDo you like the things that life is showing you\nWhere are you going to?\nDo you know...?", "Diana Ross – Theme from Mahogany (Do You Know Where You're Going To) Lyrics | Genius Lyrics\nTheme from Mahogany (Do You Know Where You're Going To) Lyrics\nDo you know where you're going to?\nDo you like the things that life is showing you?\nWhere are you going to?\nDo you know?\nDo you get what you're hoping for?\nWhen you look behind you\nThere's no open door\nWhat are you hoping for?\nDo you know?\nOnce we were standing still in time\nChasing the fantasies that filled our minds\nYou knew i loved you\nBut my spirit was free\nLaughing at the question\nThat you once ask me\nDo you know where you're going to?\nDo you like the things that life is showing you?\nWhere are you going to?\nDo you know?\nNow, looking back in all we pass\nWe've let so many dreams\nJust slip through our hands\nWhy must we wait so long before we see\nHow sad the answers to those questions can be?\nDo you know where you're going to?\nDo you like the things that life is showing you?\nWhere are you going to?\nDo you know?\nDo you get what you're hoping for?\nWhen you look behind you\nThere's no open door\nWhat are you hoping for?\nDo you know?", "THEME FROM MAHOGANY - (DO YOU KNOW WHERE YOU'RE GOING TO) - YouTube\nTHEME FROM MAHOGANY - (DO YOU KNOW WHERE YOU'RE GOING TO)\nWant to watch this again later?\nSign in to add this video to a playlist.\nNeed to report the video?\nSign in to report inappropriate content.\nRating is available when the video has been rented.\nThis feature is not available right now. Please try again later.\nPublished on Jun 28, 2013\nThe Theme from the movie \"Mahogany\" also titled \"Do You Know Where You're Going To\" is a song written by Michael Masser and Gerald Giffin and was sung by Dianna Ross as the theme to the 1975 Paramount film. Her recording of the theme became a number one hit on both the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 Hits and the Easy Listening Charts. The song was nominated for an Academy Award and was performed live by Dianna Ross at the oscars show. INFRINGEMENT OF COPYRIGHT LAW IS NEVER INTENDED!\nCategory", "DIANA ROSS LYRICS - Theme From Mahogany (Do You Know Where You're Going To)\n\"Theme From Mahogany (Do You Know Where You're Going To)\" lyrics\nDIANA ROSS LYRICS\n\"Theme From Mahogany (Do You Know Where You're Going To)\"\nDo you know where you're going to\nDo you like the things that life is showing you\nWhere are you going to\nDo you know\nWhen you look behind you\nThere's no open doors\nWhat are you hoping for\nDo you know\nOnce we were standing still in time\nChasing the fantasies\nYou knew how I loved you\nBut my spirit was free\nLaughin' at the questions\nThat you once asked of me\nDo you know where you're going to\nDo you like the things that life is showing you\nWhere are you going to\nDo you know\nNow looking back at all we've planned\nWe let so many dreams\nJust slip through our hands\nWhy must we wait so long\nBefore we'll see\nTo those questions can be\nDo you know where you're going to\nDo you like the things that life is showing you\nWhere are you going to\nDo you know", "Do You Know Where You're Going To (Theme From \"Mahogany\") - Single by Mariah Carey on Apple Music\nDo You Know Where You're Going To (Theme From \"Mahogany\")\nby you dont tell me what to do\nfinally, this amazing song is on iTunes!!!\nGreat Listen, awesome song by Mariah!\n     \nby AdiosToreatavros\nI was so surprised when I saw that this song was here in the US store since it was actually part of the #1's album internationally❤️ it's a really good song to listen to at night.\nwow\n     \nby chriscarey\namazing cover!!! im soooo surprised this is on the us itunes store!!!! im soooo glad everyone can listen to an amazing song by an amazing artist!!!! god bless mariah baby yas!!!!\nBiography\nBorn: March 27, 1970 in Huntington, NY\nGenre: Pop\nYears Active: '80s, '90s, '00s, '10s\nThe best-selling female performer of the 1990s and one of the most popular artists through the 2010s, Mariah Carey rose to superstardom on the strength of her stunning five-octave voice. An elastic talent who moved easily from glossy ballads to hip-hop-inspired dance-pop, she earned frequent comparison to rivals Whitney Houston and Celine Dion, but did them both one better by co-writing almost all her material. Like all artists with lengthy periods in the mainstream spotlight, Carey experienced creative...\nTop Albums and Songs by Mariah Carey\n1.", "Mariah Carey – Do You Know Where You're Going To? (Theme From Mahogany) Lyrics | Genius Lyrics\nDo you know where you're going to?\nDo you like the things that life is showing you?\nWhere are you going to?\nDo you know?\nDo you get what you're hoping for?\nWhen you look behind you there's no open doors\nWhat are you hoping for?\nDo you know?\nOnce we were standing still in time\nChasing the fantasies that filled our minds\nYou knew how I loved you, but my spirit was free\nLaughing at the questions that you once asked of me\n[Chorus]\nDo you know where you're going to?\nDo you like the things that life is showing you?\nWhere are you going to?\nDo you know?\nNow looking back at all we've had\nWe let so many dreams just slip through our hands\nWhy must we wait so long before we see\nHow sad the answers to those questions can be?\n[Chorus]\nDo you know where you're going to?\nDo you like the things that life is showing you?\nWhere are you going to?\nDo you know?\nDo you get what you're hoping for?\nWhen you look behind you there's no open doors\nWhat are you hoping for?\nDo you know baby?\nAbout “Do You Know Where You're Going To? (Theme From Mahogany)”\n(Unreviewed)\n“Theme from Mahogany (Do You Know Where You’re Going To?)” is a song written by Michael Masser and Gerald Goffin, and recorded first by American singer Thelma Houston in 1973, and most notably by Diana Ross as the theme to the 1975 Motown/Paramount film Mahogany.\nMariah Carey covered the song in 1998 and intended to release it as the fourth single from the #1’s album but it was not included on the american version due to Jennifer Lopez covering it on her debut album On the 6 and intending to release it as a single as well.\nSony felt it that it wasn’t right to have two artists covering and releasing the same song as a single at the same time. Both of them ended up not releasing the song after all.\nIt was later included on international pressings of M’s #1’s album and issued as a promotional single in Brazil and some parts of Europe during June.\nHidden", "Theme from Mahogany : Do you know where you're going to? : from the original soundtract [sic] of a Berry Gordy film Mahogany (Musical score, 1975) [WorldCat.org]\nThe E-mail message field is required. Please enter the message.\nE-mail Message:\nI thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/15797322 Title: Theme from Mahogany : Do you know where you're going to? : from the original soundtract [sic] of a Berry Gordy film Mahogany Author: Michael Masser; Gerry Goffin Publisher: Hialeah, Fla. : Screen Gems-Columbia Music : Jobete Music, ©1975. OCLC:15797322\nThe ReCaptcha terms you entered were incorrect. Please try to match the 2 words shown in the window, or try the audio version.", "Do You Know Where You're Going To? by Diana Ross Songfacts\nThis song was the theme song of the 1976 movie Mahogany, where Ross acted as the title character and as Tracy Chambers. The movie was directed by Berry Gordy Jr., who worked with Ross as head of Motown Records. >>\nSuggestion credit:\nAlong with Elgar's \"Pomp and Circumstance,\" this was one of the most requested graduation songs. >>\nSuggestion credit:\nTiffany - Dover, FL, for above 2\nGerry Goffin and Michael Masser wrote this. Goffin was married to Carole King, and wrote many famous songs with her, including \"The Locomotion\" and \"You Make Me Feel Like A Natural Woman.\" Masser wrote \"Touch Me In The Morning\" for Ross in 1973, and wrote several hits for Whitney Houston.\nDiana Ross was the first singer to perform at the Oscar ceremony live via telecast; she was in Holland and sang this while walking the streets of Amsterdam. >>\nSuggestion credit:\nAndy - Glasgow, Scotland\nThis song makes the bad grammar category because it ends a statement in a preposition. Proper grammar would be \"Do you know where you're going?,\" but that wouldn't scan very well." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "History_of_China.txt" ], "title": [ "History of China" ], "wiki_context": [ "Written records of the history of China can be found from as early as 1500 BC under the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC). Ancient historical texts such as the Records of the Grand Historian (ca. 100 BC) and the Bamboo Annals describe a Xia dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BC), which had no system of writing on a durable medium, before the Shang. The Yellow River is said to be the cradle of Chinese civilization, although cultures originated at various regional centers along both the Yellow River and the Yangtze River valleys millennia ago in the Neolithic era. With thousands of years of continuous history, China is one of the world's oldest civilizations, and is regarded as one of the cradles of civilization. \n\nMuch of Chinese culture, literature and philosophy further developed during the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC). The Zhou dynasty began to bow to external and internal pressures in the 8th century BC, and the kingdom eventually broke apart into smaller states, beginning in the Spring and Autumn period and reaching full expression in the Warring States period. This is one of multiple periods of failed statehood in Chinese history, the most recent being the Chinese Civil War that started in 1927.\n\nBetween eras of multiple kingdoms and warlordism, Chinese dynasties have ruled parts or all of China; in some eras control stretched as far as Xinjiang and Tibet, as at present. In 221 BC Qin Shi Huang united the various warring kingdoms and created for himself the title of \"emperor\" (huangdi) of the Qin dynasty, marking the beginning of imperial China. Successive dynasties developed bureaucratic systems that enabled the emperor to control vast territories directly. China's last dynasty was the Qing (1644–1912), which was replaced by the Republic of China in 1912, and in the mainland by the People's Republic of China in 1949.\n\nIn the 21 centuries from 206 BC until AD 1912, routine administrative tasks were handled by a special elite, the Scholar-officials (\"Scholar-gentlemen\"). Young men were carefully selected through difficult examinations and were well-versed in calligraphy and philosophy. \nThe conventional view of Chinese history is that of alternating periods of political unity and disunity, with China occasionally being dominated by steppe peoples, most of whom were in turn assimilated into the Han Chinese population. Cultural and political influences from other parts of Asia and the Western world, carried by successive waves of immigration, cultural assimilation, expansion, and foreign contact, form the basis of the modern culture of China.\n\nPrehistory \n\nPaleolithic\n\nWhat is now China was inhabited by Homo erectus more than a million years ago. Recent study shows that the stone tools found at Xiaochangliang site are magnetostratigraphically dated to 1.36 million years ago. The archaeological site of Xihoudu in Shanxi Province is the earliest recorded use of fire by Homo erectus, which is dated 1.27 million years ago.\nThe excavations at Yuanmou and later Lantian show early habitation. Perhaps the most famous specimen of Homo erectus found in China is the so-called Peking Man discovered in 1923–27. Fossilised teeth of Homo sapiens dating to 125,000–80,000 BCE have been discovered in Fuyan Cave in Dao County in Hunan. \n\nNeolithic\n\nThe Neolithic age in China can be traced back to about 10,000 BC. \n\nEarly evidence for proto-Chinese millet agriculture is radiocarbon-dated to about 7000 BC. The earliest evidence of cultivated rice, found by the Yangtze River, is carbon-dated to 8,000 years ago. Farming gave rise to the Jiahu culture (7000 to 5800 BC). At Damaidi in Ningxia, 3,172 cliff carvings dating to 6000–5000 BC have been discovered, \"featuring 8,453 individual characters such as the sun, moon, stars, gods and scenes of hunting or grazing.\" These pictographs are reputed to be similar to the earliest characters confirmed to be written Chinese. Chinese proto-writing existed in Jiahu around 7000 BC, Dadiwan from 5800 BC to 5400 BC, Damaidi around 6000 BC and Banpo dating from the 5th millennium BC. Some scholars have suggested that Jiahu symbols (7th millennium BC) were the earliest Chinese writing system. Excavation of a Peiligang culture site in Xinzheng county, Henan, found a community that flourished in 5,500 to 4,900 BC, with evidence of agriculture, constructed buildings, pottery, and burial of the dead. With agriculture came increased population, the ability to store and redistribute crops, and the potential to support specialist craftsmen and administrators. In late Neolithic times, the Yellow River valley began to establish itself as a center of Yangshao culture (5000 BC to 3000 BC), and the first villages were founded; the most archaeologically significant of these was found at Banpo, Xi'an. Later, Yangshao culture was superseded by the Longshan culture, which was also centered on the Yellow River from about 3000 BC to 2000 BC.\n\nBronze Age\n\nBronze artifacts have been found at the Majiayao culture site (between 3100 and 2700 BC), The Bronze Age is also represented at the Lower Xiajiadian culture (2200–1600 BC ) site in northeast China.\n\nAncient China \n\nXia dynasty (c. 2100 – c. 1600 BC)\n\nThe Xia dynasty of China (from c. 2100 to c. 1600 BC) is the first dynasty to be described in ancient historical records such as Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian and Bamboo Annals.\n\nAlthough there is disagreement as to whether the dynasty actually existed, there is some archaeological evidence pointing to its possible existence. Writing in the late 2nd century BC, Sima Qian dated the founding of the Xia dynasty to around 2200 BC, but this date has not been corroborated. Most archaeologists now connect the Xia to excavations at Erlitou in central Henan province, where a bronze smelter from around 2000 BC was unearthed. Early markings from this period found on pottery and shells are thought to be ancestral to modern Chinese characters. With few clear records matching the Shang oracle bones or the Zhou bronze vessel writings, the Xia era remains poorly understood.\n\nAccording to mythology, the dynasty ended around 1600 BC as a consequence of the Battle of Mingtiao.\n\nShang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC)\n\nCapital: Yin, near Anyang\n\nArchaeological findings providing evidence for the existence of the Shang dynasty, c. 1600–1046 BC, are divided into two sets. The first set, from the earlier Shang period, comes from sources at Erligang, Zhengzhou, and Shangcheng. The second set, from the later Shang or Yin (殷) period, is at Anyang, in modern-day Henan, which has been confirmed as the last of the Shang's nine capitals (c. 1300–1046 BC). The findings at Anyang include the earliest written record of Chinese past so far discovered: inscriptions of divination records in ancient Chinese writing on the bones or shells of animals — the so-called \"oracle bones\", dating from around 1500 BC.\n\n31 kings reigned over the Shang dynasty. During their reign, according to the Records of the Grand Historian, the capital city was moved six times. The final (and most important) move was to Yin in 1350 BC which led to the dynasty's golden age. The term Yin dynasty has been synonymous with the Shang dynasty in history, although it has lately been used to refer specifically to the latter half of the Shang dynasty.\n\nChinese historians living in later periods were accustomed to the notion of one dynasty succeeding another, but the actual political situation in early China is known to have been much more complicated. Hence, as some scholars of China suggest, the Xia and the Shang can possibly refer to political entities that existed concurrently, just as the early Zhou is known to have existed at the same time as the Shang.\n\nAlthough written records found at Anyang confirm the existence of the Shang dynasty, Western scholars are often hesitant to associate settlements that are contemporaneous with the Anyang settlement with the Shang dynasty. For example, archaeological findings at Sanxingdui suggest a technologically advanced civilization culturally unlike Anyang. The evidence is inconclusive in proving how far the Shang realm extended from Anyang. The leading hypothesis is that Anyang, ruled by the same Shang in the official history, coexisted and traded with numerous other culturally diverse settlements in the area that is now referred to as China proper.\n\nZhou dynasty (1046–256 BC)\n\nCapitals: Xi'an, Luoyang\n\nThe Zhou dynasty (1046 BC to approximately 256 BC) was the longest-lasting dynasty in Chinese history. By the end of the 2nd millennium BC, the Zhou dynasty began to emerge in the Yellow River valley, overrunning the territory of the Shang. The Zhou appeared to have begun their rule under a semi-feudal system. The Zhou lived west of the Shang, and the Zhou leader had been appointed Western Protector by the Shang. The ruler of the Zhou, King Wu, with the assistance of his brother, the Duke of Zhou, as regent, managed to defeat the Shang at the Battle of Muye.\n\nThe king of Zhou at this time invoked the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to legitimize his rule, a concept that would be influential for almost every succeeding dynasty. Like Shangdi, Heaven (tian) ruled over all the other gods, and it decided who would rule China. It was believed that a ruler had lost the Mandate of Heaven when natural disasters occurred in great number, and when, more realistically, the sovereign had apparently lost his concern for the people. In response, the royal house would be overthrown, and a new house would rule, having been granted the Mandate of Heaven.\n\nThe Zhou initially moved their capital west to an area near modern Xi'an, on the Wei River, a tributary of the Yellow River, but they would preside over a series of expansions into the Yangtze River valley. This would be the first of many population migrations from north to south in Chinese history.\n\nSpring and Autumn period (722–476 BC)\n\nCapitals: Beijing ; Xi'an \n\nIn the 8th century BC, power became decentralized during the Spring and Autumn period, named after the influential Spring and Autumn Annals. In this period, local military leaders used by the Zhou began to assert their power and vie for hegemony. The situation was aggravated by the invasion of other peoples from the northwest, such as the Qin, forcing the Zhou to move their capital east to Luoyang. This marks the second major phase of the Zhou dynasty: the Eastern Zhou. The Spring and Autumn period is marked by a falling apart of the central Zhou power. In each of the hundreds of states that eventually arose, local strongmen held most of the political power and continued their subservience to the Zhou kings in name only. Some local leaders even started using royal titles for themselves. China now consisted of hundreds of states, some of them only as large as a village with a fort.\n\nThe Hundred Schools of Thought of Chinese philosophy blossomed during this period, and such influential intellectual movements as Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism and Mohism were founded, partly in response to the changing political world.\n\nWarring States period (476–221 BC)\n\nCapitals: several \n\nAfter further political consolidation, seven prominent states remained by the end of 5th century BC, and the years in which these few states battled each other are known as the Warring States period. Though there remained a nominal Zhou king until 256 BC, he was largely a figurehead and held little real power.\n\nAs neighboring territories of these warring states, including areas of modern Sichuan and Liaoning, were annexed, they were governed under the new local administrative system of commandery and prefecture (郡縣/郡县). This system had been in use since the Spring and Autumn period, and parts can still be seen in the modern system of Sheng & Xian (province and county, 省縣/省县).\n\nThe final expansion in this period began during the reign of Ying Zheng, the king of Qin. His unification of the other six powers, and further annexations in the modern regions of Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong and Guangxi in 214 BC, enabled him to proclaim himself the First Emperor (Qin Shi Huang).\n\nImperial China \n\nQin dynasty (221–206 BC)\n\nCapital: Xianyang\n\nHistorians often refer to the period from Qin dynasty to the end of Qing dynasty as Imperial China. Though the unified reign of the First Qin Emperor lasted only 12 years, he managed to subdue great parts of what constitutes the core of the Han Chinese homeland and to unite them under a tightly centralized Legalist government seated at Xianyang (close to modern Xi'an). The doctrine of Legalism that guided the Qin emphasized strict adherence to a legal code and the absolute power of the emperor. This philosophy, while effective for expanding the empire in a military fashion, proved unworkable for governing it in peacetime. The Qin Emperor presided over the brutal silencing of political opposition, including the event known as the burning of books and burying of scholars. This would be the impetus behind the later Han synthesis incorporating the more moderate schools of political governance.\n\nMajor contributions of the Qin include the concept of a centralized government, the unification of the legal code, development of the written language, measurement, and currency of China after the tribulations of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. Even something as basic as the length of axles for carts—which need to match ruts in the roads—had to be made uniform to ensure a viable trading system throughout the empire. Also as part of its centralization, the Qin connected the northern border walls of the states it defeated, making the first Great Wall of China.\n\nA major Qin innovation that lasted until 1912 was reliance upon a trained intellectual elite, the Scholar-official (\"Scholar-gentlemen\"). They were civil servants appointed by the Emperor to handle daily governance. Talented young men were selected through an elaborate process of imperial examination. They had to demonstrate skill at calligraphy, and had to know knew Confucian philosophy. Historian Wing-Tsit Chan concludes that:\nGenerally speaking, the record of these scholar-gentlemen has been a worthy one. It was good enough to be praised and imitated in 18th century Europe. Nevertheless, it has given China a tremendous handicap in their transition from government by men to government by law, and personal considerations in Chinese government have been a curse. \n\nHan dynasty (202 BC–AD 220)\n\nCapitals: Chang'an, Luoyang, Liyang, Xuchang\n\nWestern Han\n\nThe Han dynasty was founded by Liu Bang, who emerged victorious in the civil war that followed the collapse of the unified but short-lived Qin dynasty. A golden age in Chinese history, the Han dynasty's long period of stability and prosperity consolidated the foundation of China as a unified state under a central imperial bureaucracy, which was to last intermittently for most of the next two millennium. During the Han dynasty, territory of China was extended to most of the China proper and to areas far west. Confucianism was officially elevated to orthodox status and was to shape the subsequent Chinese Civilization. Art, culture and science all advanced to unprecedented heights. With the profound and lasting impacts of this period of Chinese history, the dynasty name \"Han\" had been taken as the name of the Chinese people, now the dominant ethnic group in modern China, and had been commonly used to refer to Chinese language and written characters.\n\nAfter the initial Laissez-faire policies of Emperors Wen and Jing, the ambitious Emperor Wu brought the empire to its zenith. To consolidate his power, Confucianism, which emphasizes stability and order in a well-structured society, was given exclusive patronage to be the guiding philosophical thoughts and moral principles of the empire. Imperial Universities were established to support its study and further development, while other schools of thoughts were discouraged.\n\nMajor military campaigns were launched to weaken the nomadic Xiongnu Empire, limiting their influence north of the Great Wall. Along with the diplomatic efforts led by Zhang Qian, the sphere of influence of the Han Empire extended to the states in the Tarim Basin, opened up the Silk Road that connected China to the west, stimulating bilateral trade and cultural exchange. To the south, various small kingdoms far beyond the Yangtze River Valley were formally incorporated into the empire.\n\nEmperor Wu also dispatched a series of military campaigns against the Baiyue tribes. The Han annexed Minyue in 135 BC and 111 BC, Nanyue in 111 BC, and Dian in 109 BC. Migration and military expeditions led to the cultural assimilation of the south. It also brought the Han into contact with kingdoms in Southeast Asia, introducing diplomacy and trade. \n\nAfter Emperor Wu, the empire slipped into gradual stagnation and decline. Economically, the state treasury was strained by excessive campaigns and projects, while land acquisitions by elite families gradually drained the tax base. Various consort clans exerted increasing control over strings of incompetent emperors and eventually the dynasty was briefly interrupted by the usurpation of Wang Mang.\n\nXin dynasty\n\nIn AD 9, the usurper Wang Mang claimed that the Mandate of Heaven called for the end of the Han dynasty and the rise of his own, and he founded the short-lived Xin (\"New\") dynasty. Wang Mang started an extensive program of land and other economic reforms, including the outlawing of slavery and land nationalization and redistribution. These programs, however, were never supported by the landholding families, because they favored the peasants. The instability of power brought about chaos, uprisings, and loss of territories. This was compounded by mass flooding of the Yellow River; silt buildup caused it to split into two channels and displaced large numbers of farmers. Wang Mang was eventually killed in Weiyang Palace by an enraged peasant mob in AD 23.\n\nEastern Han\n\nEmperor Guangwu reinstated the Han dynasty with the support of landholding and merchant families at Luoyang, east of the former capital Xi'an. Thus, this new era is termed the Eastern Han dynasty. With the capable administrations of Emperors Ming and Zhang, former glories of the dynasty was reclaimed, with brilliant military and cultural achievements. The Xiongnu Empire was decisively defeated. The diplomat and general Ban Chao further expanded the conquests across the Pamirs to the shores of the Caspian Sea, thus reopening the Silk Road, and bringing trade, foreign cultures, along with the arrival of Buddhism. With extensive connections with the west, the first of several Roman embassies to China were recorded in Chinese sources, coming from the sea route in AD 166, and a second one in AD 284.\n\nThe Eastern Han dynasty was one of the most prolific era of science and technology in ancient China, notably the historic invention of papermaking by Cai Lun, and the numerous contributions by the polymath Zhang Heng.\n\nThree Kingdoms (AD 220–280)\n\nCapitals: Luoyang ; Chengdu ; Jiankang ; Chang'an \n\nBy the 2nd century, the empire declined amidst land acquisitions, invasions, and feuding between consort clans and eunuchs. The Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out in AD 184, ushering in an era of warlords. In the ensuing turmoil, three states tried to gain predominance in the period of the Three Kingdoms. This time period has been greatly romanticized in works such as Romance of the Three Kingdoms.\n\nAfter Cao Cao reunified the north in 208, his son proclaimed the Wei dynasty in 220. Soon, Wei's rivals Shu and Wu proclaimed their independence, leading China into the Three Kingdoms period. This period was characterized by a gradual decentralization of the state that had existed during the Qin and Han dynasties, and an increase in the power of great families.\n\nIn 265, the Jin dynasty overthrew the Wei and later unified the country in 280, but this union was short-lived.\n\nJin dynasty (AD 265–420)\n\nCapitals: Chang'an ; Jiankang \n\nThe Jin dynasty was severely weakened by interceine fighting among imperial princes and lost control of northern China after non-Han Chinese settlers rebelled and captured Luoyang and Chang’an. In 317, a Jin prince in modern-day Nanjing became emperor and continued the dynasty, now known as the Eastern Jin, which held southern China for another century. Prior to this move, historians refer to the Jin dynasty as the Western Jin.\n\nNorthern China fragmented into a series of independent kingdoms, most of which were founded by Xiongnu, Xianbei, Jie, Di and Qiang rulers. These non-Han peoples were ancestors of the Turks, Mongols, and Tibetans. Many had, to some extent, been \"sinicized\" long before their ascent to power. In fact, some of them, notably the Qiang and the Xiongnu, had already been allowed to live in the frontier regions within the Great Wall since late Han times. During the period of the Sixteen Kingdoms, warfare ravaged the north and prompted large-scale Han Chinese migration south to the Yangtze Basin and Delta.\n\nNorthern and Southern dynasties (AD 420–589)\n\nCapitals: Ye, Chang'an ; Jiankang \n\nIn the early 5th century, China entered a period known as the Northern and Southern dynasties, in which parallel regimes ruled the northern and southern halves of the country. In the south, the Eastern Jin gave way to the Liu Song, Southern Qi, Liang and finally Chen. Each of these Southern Dynasties were led by Han Chinese ruling families and used Jiankang (modern Nanjing) as the capital. They held off attacks from the north and preserved many aspects of Chinese civilization, while northern barbarian regimes began to sinify.\n\nIn the north, the last of the Sixteen Kingdoms was extinguished in 439 by the Northern Wei, a kingdom founded by the Xianbei, a nomadic people who unified northern China. The Northern Wei eventually split into the Eastern and Western Wei, which then became the Northern Qi and Northern Zhou. These regimes were dominated by Xianbei or Han Chinese who had married into Xianbei families.\n\nDespite the division of the country, Buddhism spread throughout the land. In southern China, fierce debates about whether Buddhism should be allowed were held frequently by the royal court and nobles. Finally, towards the end of the Southern and Northern Dynasties era, Buddhists and Taoists reached a compromise and became more tolerant of each other.\n\nIn 589, the Sui dynasty united China once again, ending a prolonged period of division in Chinese history. In the nearly four centuries between the Han and Sui dynasties, the country was united for only 24 years during the Western Jin.\n\nSui dynasty (AD 589–618)\n\nCapital: Daxing ; Dongdu \n\nThe Sui dynasty, which lasted 29 years, played a role more important than its length of existence would suggest. The Sui brought China together again and set up many institutions that were to be adopted by their successors, the Tang. These included the government system of Three Departments and Six Ministries, standard coinage, improved defense and expansion of the Great Wall, and official support for Buddhism. Like the Qin, however, the Sui overused their resources and collapsed.\n\nTang dynasty (AD 618–907)\n\nCapitals: Chang'an, Luoyang\n\nAccording to historian Mark Edward Lewis:\nMost Chinese regard the Tang dynasty (618-907) as the high point of Imperial China, both politically and culturally. The empire reached its greatest size prior to the Manchu Qing Dynasty, becoming the center of and East Asian world linked by religion, script, and many economic and political institutions. Moreover, Tang writers produce the finest poetry in China's great lyric tradition. \n\nThe Tang dynasty was founded by Emperor Gaozu on 18 June 618. It was a golden age of Chinese civilization with significant developments in art, literature, particularly poetry, and technology. Buddhism became the predominant religion for common people. Chang'an (modern Xi'an), the national capital, was the largest city in the world of its time. \n\nThe second emperor, Taizong, started military campaigns to eliminate threats from nomadic tribes, extend the border, and submit neighboring states into a tributary system. Military victories in the Tarim Basin kept the Silk Road open, connecting Chang'an to Central Asia and areas far to the west. In the south, lucrative maritime trade routes began from port cities such as Guangzhou. There was extensive trade with distant foreign countries, and many foreign merchants settled in China, encouraging a cosmopolitan culture. The Tang culture and social systems were observed and imitated by neighboring countries such as Japan. Internally the Grand Canal linked the political heartland in Chang'an to the economic and agricultural centers in the eastern and southern parts of the empire.\n\nUnderlying the prosperity of the early Tang dynasty was a strong centralized bureaucracy with efficient policies. The government was organized as \"Three Departments and Six Ministries\" to separately draft, review, and implement policies. These departments were run by royal family members as well as scholar officials who were selected by imperial examinations. These practices, which matured in the Tang dynasty, were continued by the later dynasties, with some modifications.\n\nUnder the Tang \"equal-field system\" all land was owned by the Emperor and granted to people according to household size. Men granted land were conscripted for military service for a fixed period each year, a military policy known as the \"Fubing system\". These policies stimulated a rapid growth in productivity and a significant army without much burden on the state treasury. By the dynasty's midpoint, however, standing armies had replaced conscription, and land was continuously falling into the hands of private owners.\n\nThe dynasty continued to flourish under Empress Wu Zetian, the only empress regnant in Chinese history, and reached its zenith during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong, who oversaw an empire that stretched from the Pacific to the Aral Sea with at least 50 million people.\n\nAt the zenith of prosperity of the empire, the An Lushan Rebellion from 755 to 763 was a watershed event that devastated the population and drastically weakened the central imperial government. Upon suppression of the rebellion, regional military governors, known as Jiedushi, gained increasingly autonomous status. With loss of revenue from land tax, the central imperial government relied heavily on salt monopoly. Nevertheless, civil society recovered and thrived amidst the weakened imperial bureaucracy. Externally, former submissive states raided the empire and the vast border territories were irreversibly lost for subsequent centuries.\n\nIn late Tang period. ineffective and corrupted rules in imperial court and regional warlords triggered widespread revolts. The most catastrophic was the Huang Chao Rebellion, from 874 to 884, which raided the entire empire for a decade. The sack of southern port Guangzhou in 879 was followed by massacre of most of its inhabitants, along with the large foreign merchant enclaves. By 881, both capitals Luoyang and Chang'an fell successively. The reliance on ethnic Han and Turkic warlords in suppressing the rebellion escalated their powers. Consequently, upon the fall of the dynasty by Zhu Wen's usurpation. an era of fragmentation followed.\n\nFive Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (AD 907–960)\n\nCapitals: Kaifeng, Luoyang (Five Dynasties), various cities (Ten Kingdoms)\n\nThe period of political disunity between the Tang and the Song, known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, lasted from 907 to 960. During this half-century, China was in all respects a multi-state system. Five regimes, namely, (Later) Liang, Tang, Jin, Han and Zhou, rapidly succeeded one another in control of the traditional Imperial heartland in northern China. Among the regimes, rulers of (Later) Tang, Jin and Han were sinicized Shatuo Turks, which ruled over a majority of Chinese people. More stable and smaller regimes of mostly ethnic Han rulers coexisted in south and western China over the period, cumulatively constituted the \"Ten Kingdoms\".\n\nAmidst political chaos in the north, the strategic Sixteen Prefectures (region along today's Great Wall) were ceded to the emerging Khitan Liao Dynasty, which drastically weakened the defense of the China proper against northern nomadic empires.To the south, Vietnam gained lasting independence after being a Chinese prefecture for many centuries. With wars dominated in Northern China, there were mass southward migrations of population, which further enhanced the southward shift of cultural and economic centers in China. The era ended with the coup of Later Zhou general Zhao Kuangyin, and the establishment the Song dynasty in 960, which would eventually annihilated the remains of the \"Ten Kingdoms\" and reunified China.\n\nSong, Liao, Jin, and Western Xia dynasties (AD 960–1234)\n\nCapitals: Kaifeng and Lin'an ; Shangjing, Nanjing, Tokmok ; Shangjing, Zhongdu, Kaifeng ; Yinchuan \n\nIn 960, the Song dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu, with its capital established in Kaifeng (also known as Bianjing). In 979. the Song dynasty reunified most of the China proper, while large swaths of outskirt territories were occupied by sinicized nomadic empires. The Khitan Liao dynasty, which lasted from 907 to 1125, ruled over Manchuria, Mongolia, and parts of Northern China. Meanwhile, in what are now the northwestern Chinese provinces of Gansu, Shaanxi, and Ningxia, the Tangut tribes founded the Western Xia dynasty from 1032 to 1227.\n\nAiming to recover the strategic Sixteen Prefectures lost in the previous dynasty, campaigns were launched against the Liao dynasty in the early Song period, which all ended in failure. Then in 1004, the Liao cavalry swept past the exposed North China Plain and reached the outskirt of Kaifeng, forcing the Song's submission to the Chanyuan Treaty, which imposed heavy annual tributes from the Song treasury. The treaty was a significant reversal of Chinese dominance in traditional tributary system. Yet the annual outflow of Song's silver to the Liao were paid back for Chinese goods and products, which expanded the Song economy, and replenished its treasury. This would have dampened the incentive for the Song to further campaign against the Liao. Meanwhile, such cross-border trade and contact induced further sinicization within the Liao Empire, in the expense of its military might derived from primitive nomadic lifestyle. Similar treaties and social-economical consequences recurred in Song's relation to the Jin dynasty.\n\nWithin the Liao Empire, the Jurchen tribes revolted against their overlords to establish the Jin dynasty in 1115. In 1125, the devastating Jin cataphract annihilated the Liao dynasty, while remnants of Liao court members fled to Central Asia to found the Qara Khitai Empire (Western Liao Dynasty). Jin's invasion of Song dynasty followed swiftly. In 1127, Kaifeng was sacked, a massive catastrophe known as the Jingkang Incident, ending the era of Northern Song Dynasty. Later the entire northern China was conquered. The survived members of Song court regrouped in the new capital city of Hangzhou (杭州), and initiated the era of Southern Song dynasty, which ruled territories south of the Huai River. In the ensuing years, the territory and population of China were divided between the Song dynasty, the Jin dynasty and the Western Xia dynasty. The era ended by the Mongol conquest, as Western Xia fell in 1227, the Jin dynasty in 1234, and finally the Southern Song dynasty in 1279.\n\nDespite its military weakness, the Song dynasty is widely considered to be the high point of classical Chinese civilization. The Song economy, facilitated by technology advancement, had reached such sophistication probably unseen in world history before its time. Population soared to over 100 millions and the living standard of common people tremendously enhanced, due to improvement of rice cultivation, and the wide availability of coal for production. The capital cities of Kaifeng, and subsequently Hangzhou, were both the most populous cities in the world of their time, and boosted vibrant civil societies unmatched by previous Chinese dynasties. As land trading routes to far west were blocked by nomadic empires, there were extensive maritime trade with neighboring states, which facilitated the use of Song coinage as the de facto currency of exchange, while giant wooden vessels equipped with compasses roamed throughout the China Seas and north Indian Ocean. Concept of insurance was practiced by merchants to hedge the risks of such long-haul maritime shipment. With prosperous economic activities, the historically first use of paper currency emerged in the western city of Chengdu, as supplement to copper coins to some extents.\n\nIn science and technology, with innovative scholar-officials such as Su Song (1020–1101) and Shen Kuo (1031–1095). There was court intrigue between the political rivals of the reformers and conservatives, led by the chancellors Wang Anshi and Sima Guang, respectively. By the mid-to-late 13th century, the Chinese had adopted the dogma of Neo-Confucian philosophy formulated by Zhu Xi. Enormous literary works were compiled during the Song dynasty, such as the historical work of the Zizhi Tongjian (\"Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government\"). Invention of movable-type printing further facilitated the spread of knowledge. Culture and the arts flourished, with grandiose artworks such as Along the River During the Qingming Festival and Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute, along with great Buddhist painters such as the prolific Lin Tinggui\n\nSong dynasty also recorded major innovation in the history of warfare. Gunpowder, while invented in the Tang Dynasty, was first put into use in battlefields by the Song army, inspiring successions of new firearms and siege engines designs. During the Southern Song Dynasty, as its survival hinged decisively on guarding the Yangtze and Huai River against the cavalry forces from the north, the first standing navy in China was assembled in 1132, with its admiral's headquarter setup at Dinghai. Paddle-wheel warships equipped with trebuchets could launch incendiary bombs of gunpowder and lime, as recorded in Song's victory over the invading Jin forces at the Battle of Tangdao in the East China Sea, and the Battle of Caishi on Yangtze River in 1161.\n\nThe great civilization development of the Song dynasty came to an abrupt end by the devastating Mongol conquest, during which population sharply dwindled, with marked contraction in economy. Despite resistively halting Mongol advance for more than three decades, Hangzhou was sacked in 1276, followed by the final annihilation of the Song standing navy at the Battle of Yamen in 1279.\n\nYuan dynasty (AD 1271–1368)\n\nCapitals: Xanadu, Dadu\n\nThe Jurchen-founded Jin dynasty was defeated by the Mongols, who then proceeded to defeat the Southern Song in a long and bloody war, the first war in which firearms played an important role. During the era after the war, later called the Pax Mongolica, adventurous Westerners such as Marco Polo travelled all the way to China and brought the first reports of its wonders to Europe. In the Yuan dynasty, the Mongols were divided between those who wanted to remain based in the steppes and those who wished to adopt the customs of the Chinese.\n\nKublai Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, wanting to adopt the customs of China, established the Yuan dynasty. This was the first dynasty to rule the whole of China from Beijing as the capital. Beijing had been ceded to Liao in AD 938 with the Sixteen Prefectures of Yan Yun. Before that, it had been the capital of the Jin, who did not rule all of China.\n\nBefore the Mongol invasion, Chinese dynasties reported approximately 120 million inhabitants; after the conquest had been completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported roughly 60 million people. This major decline is not necessarily due only to Mongol killings. Scholars such as Frederick W. Mote argue that the wide drop in numbers reflects an administrative failure to record rather than an actual decrease; others such as Timothy Brook argue that the Mongols created a system of enserfment among a huge portion of the Chinese populace, causing many to disappear from the census altogether; other historians including William McNeill and David Morgan consider that plague was the main factor behind the demographic decline during this period.\n\nIn the 14th century China suffered additional depredations from epidemics of plague, estimated to have killed 25 million people, 30% of the population of China. \n\nMing dynasty (AD 1368–1644)\n\nCapitals: Nanjing, Beijing\n\nThroughout the Yuan dynasty, which lasted less than a century, there was relatively strong sentiment among the populace against Mongol rule. The frequent natural disasters since the 1340s finally led to peasant revolts. The Yuan dynasty was eventually overthrown by the Ming dynasty in 1368.\n\nUrbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew more complex. Large urban centers, such as Nanjing and Beijing, also contributed to the growth of private industry. In particular, small-scale industries grew up, often specializing in paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain goods. For the most part, however, relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country. Town markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil.\n\nDespite the xenophobia and intellectual introspection characteristic of the increasingly popular new school of neo-Confucianism, China under the early Ming dynasty was not isolated. Foreign trade and other contacts with the outside world, particularly Japan, increased considerably. Chinese merchants explored all of the Indian Ocean, reaching East Africa with the voyages of Zheng He.\n\nZhu Yuanzhang (the Hongwu Emperor), the founder of the dynasty, laid the foundations for a state interested less in commerce and more in extracting revenues from the agricultural sector. Perhaps because of Zhu's background as a peasant, the Ming economic system emphasized agriculture, unlike that of the Song and the Mongolian dynasties, which relied on traders and merchants for revenue. Neo-feudal landholdings of the Song and Mongol periods were expropriated by the Ming rulers. Land estates were confiscated by the government, fragmented, and rented out. Private slavery was forbidden. Consequently, after the death of the Yongle Emperor, independent peasant landholders predominated in Chinese agriculture. These laws might have paved the way to removing the worst of the poverty during the previous regimes.\n\nThe dynasty had a strong and complex central government that unified and controlled the empire. The emperor's role became more autocratic, although Zhu Yuanzhang necessarily continued to use what he called the \"Grand Secretariat\" to assist with the immense paperwork of the bureaucracy, including memorials (petitions and recommendations to the throne), imperial edicts in reply, reports of various kinds, and tax records. It was this same bureaucracy that later prevented the Ming government from being able to adapt to changes in society, and eventually led to its decline.\n\nThe Yongle Emperor strenuously tried to extend China's influence beyond its borders by demanding other rulers send ambassadors to China to present tribute. A large navy was built, including four-masted ships displacing 1,500 tons. A standing army of 1 million troops (some estimate as many as 1.9 million ) was created. The Chinese armies conquered Vietnam for around 20 years, while the Chinese fleet sailed the China seas and the Indian Ocean, cruising as far as the east coast of Africa. The Chinese gained influence in eastern Moghulistan. Several maritime Asian nations sent envoys with tribute for the Chinese emperor. Domestically, the Grand Canal was expanded and became a stimulus to domestic trade. Over 100,000 tons of iron per year were produced. Many books were printed using movable type. The imperial palace in Beijing's Forbidden City reached its current splendor. It was also during these centuries that the potential of south China came to be fully exploited. New crops were widely cultivated and industries such as those producing porcelain and textiles flourished.\n\nIn 1449 Esen Tayisi led an Oirat Mongol invasion of northern China which culminated in the capture of the Zhengtong Emperor at Tumu. Since then, the Ming became on the defensive on the northern frontier, which led to the Ming Great Wall being built. Most of what remains of the Great Wall of China today was either built or repaired by the Ming. The brick and granite work was enlarged, the watchtowers were redesigned, and cannons were placed along its length.\n\nAt sea, the Ming became increasingly isolationist after the death of the Yongle Emperor. The treasure voyages which sailed Indian Ocean were discontinued, and the maritime prohibition laws were set in place banning the Chinese from sailing abroad. European traders who reached China in the midst of the Age of Discovery were repeatedly rebuked in their requests for trade, with the Portuguese being repulsed by the Ming navy at Tuen Mun in 1521 and again in 1522. Domestic and foreign demands for overseas trade, deemed illegal by the state, led to widespread wokou piracy attacking the southeastern coastline during the rule of the Jiajing Emperor (1507-1567), which only subsided after the opening of ports in Guangdong and Fujian and much military suppression. The Portuguese were allowed to settle in Macau in 1557 for trade, which remained in Portuguese hands until 1999. The Dutch entry into the Chinese seas was also met with fierce resistance, with the Dutch being chased off the Penghu islands in the Sino-Dutch conflicts of 1622–1624 and were forced to settle in Taiwan instead. The Dutch in Taiwan fought with the Ming in the Battle of Liaoluo Bay in 1633 and lost, and eventually surrendered to the Ming loyalist Koxinga in 1662, after the fall of the Ming dynasty.\n\nIn 1556, during the rule of the Jiajing Emperor, the Shaanxi earthquake killed about 830,000 people, the deadliest earthquake of all time.\n\nQing dynasty (AD 1644–1911)\n\nCapitals: Shenyang, Beijing\n\nThe Qing dynasty (1644–1911) was the last imperial dynasty in China. Founded by the Manchus, it was the second conquest dynasty to rule the entire territory of China and its people. The Manchus were formerly known as Jurchens, residing in the northeastern part of the Ming territory outside the Great Wall. They emerged as the major threat to the late Ming dynasty after Nurhaci united all Jurchen tribes and established an independent state. However, the Ming dynasty would be overthrown by Li Zicheng's peasants rebellion, with Beijing captured in 1644 and the Chongzhen Emperor, the last Ming emperor, committing suicide. The Manchus allied with the former Ming general Wu Sangui to seize Beijing, which was made the capital of the Qing dynasty, and then proceeded to subdue the Ming remnants in the south. The decades of Manchu conquest caused enormous loss of lives and the economic scale of China shrank drastically. In total, the Qing conquest of the Ming (1618–1683) cost as many as 25 million lives. Nevertheless, the Manchus adopted the Confucian norms of traditional Chinese government in their rule and were considered a Chinese dynasty.\n\nThe Manchus enforced a 'queue order,' forcing the Han Chinese to adopt the Manchu queue hairstyle. Officials were required to wear Manchu-style clothing Changshan (bannermen dress and Tangzhuang), but ordinary Han civilians were allowed to wear traditional Han clothing, or Hanfu. Most Han then voluntarily shifted to wearing Qipao anyway. The Kangxi Emperor ordered the creation of the Kangxi Dictionary, the most complete dictionary of Chinese characters that had been compiled. The Qing dynasty set up the Eight Banners system that provided the basic framework for the Qing military organization. Bannermen could not undertake trade or manual labor; they had to petition to be removed from banner status. They were considered a form of nobility and were given preferential treatment in terms of annual pensions, land, and allotments of cloth.\n\nOver the next half-century, all areas previously under the Ming dynasty were consolidated under the Qing. Xinjiang, Tibet, and Mongolia were also formally incorporated into Chinese territory. Between 1673 and 1681, the Kangxi Emperor suppressed the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, an uprising of three generals in Southern China who had been denied hereditary rule of large fiefdoms granted by the previous emperor. In 1683, the Qing staged an amphibious assault on southern Taiwan, bringing down the rebel Kingdom of Tungning, which was founded by the Ming loyalist Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong) in 1662 after the fall of the Southern Ming, and had served as a base for continued Ming resistance in Southern China. The Qing defeated the Russians at Albazin, resulting in the Treaty of Nerchinsk.\n\nBy the end of Qianlong Emperor's long reign, the Qing Empire was at its zenith. China ruled more than one-third of the world's population, and had the largest economy in the world. By area it was one of the largest empires ever.\n\nIn the 19th century the empire was internally stagnant and externally threatened by western powers. The defeat by the British Empire in the First Opium War (1840) led to the Treaty of Nanking (1842), under which Hong Kong was ceded to Britain and importation of opium (produced by British Empire territories) was allowed. Subsequent military defeats and unequal treaties with other western powers continued even after the fall of the Qing dynasty.\n\nInternally the Taiping Rebellion (1851–1864), a quasi-Christian religious movement led by the \"Heavenly King\" Hong Xiuquan, raided roughly a third of Chinese territory for over a decade until they were finally crushed in the Third Battle of Nanking in 1864. This was one of the largest wars in the 19th century in terms of troop involvement; there was massive loss of life, with a death toll of about 20 million. A string of civil disturbances followed, including the Punti–Hakka Clan Wars, Nian Rebellion, Dungan Revolt, and Panthay Rebellion. All rebellions were ultimately put down, but at enormous cost and with many casualties, seriously weakening the central imperial authority. The Banner system that the Manchus had relied upon for so long failed: Banner forces were unable to suppress the rebels, and the government called upon local officials in the provinces, who raised \"New Armies\", which successfully crushed the challenges to Qing authority. China never rebuilt a strong central army, and many local officials became warlords who used military power to effectively rule independently in their provinces. \n\n \nIn response to calamities within the empire and threats from imperialism, the Self-Strengthening Movement was an institutional reform in the second half of the 1800s. The aim was to modernize the empire, with prime emphasis on strengthening the military. However, the reform was undermined by corrupt officials, cynicism, and quarrels within the imperial family. As a result, the \"Beiyang Fleet\" were soundly defeated in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895). The Guangxu Emperor and the reformists then launched a more comprehensive reform effort, the Hundred Days' Reform (1898), but it was soon overturned by the conservatives under Empress Dowager Cixi in a military coup.\n\nAt the turn of the 20th century, the violent Boxer Rebellion opposed foreign influence in Northern China, and attacked Chinese Christians and missionaries. When Boxers entered Beijing, the Qing government ordered all foreigners to leave. But instead the foreigners and many Chinese were besieged in the foreign legations quarter. The Eight-Nation Alliance sent the Seymour Expedition of Japanese, Russian, Italian, German, French, American, and Austrian troops to relieve the siege. The Expedition was stopped by the Boxers at the Battle of Langfang and forced to retreat. Due to the Alliance's attack on the Dagu Forts, the Qing government in response sided with the Boxers and declared war on the Alliance. There was fierce fighting at Tientsin. The Alliance formed the second, much larger Gaselee Expedition and finally reached Beijing; the Qing government evacuated to Xi'an. The Boxer Protocol ended the war.\n\nRepublic and People's Republic of China \n\nRepublic of China (1912–1949)\n\nCapitals: Nanjing, Beijing, Chongqing, several short-lived wartime capitals, Taipei \n\nFrustrated by the Qing court's resistance to reform and by China's weakness, young officials, military officers, and students began to advocate the overthrow of the Qing dynasty and the creation of a republic. They were inspired by the revolutionary ideas of Sun Yat-sen. A revolutionary military uprising, the Wuchang Uprising, began on 10 October 1911, in Wuhan. The provisional government of the Republic of China was formed in Nanjing on 12 March 1912. The Xinhai Revolution ended 2,000 years of dynastic rule in China.\n\nAfter the success of the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty, Sun Yat-sen was declared President, but Sun was forced to turn power over to Yuan Shikai, who commanded the New Army and was Prime Minister under the Qing government, as part of the agreement to let the last Qing monarch abdicate (a decision Sun would later regret). Over the next few years, Yuan proceeded to abolish the national and provincial assemblies, and declared himself emperor in late 1915. Yuan's imperial ambitions were fiercely opposed by his subordinates; faced with the prospect of rebellion, he abdicated in March 1916, and died in June of that year.\n\nYuan's death in 1916 left a power vacuum in China; the republican government was all but shattered. This ushered in the Warlord Era, during which much of the country was ruled by shifting coalitions of competing provincial military leaders.\n\nIn 1919, the May Fourth Movement began as a response to the terms imposed on China by the Treaty of Versailles ending World War I, but quickly became a nationwide protest movement about the domestic situation in China. The protests were a moral success as the cabinet fell and China refused to sign the Treaty of Versailles, which had awarded German holdings to Japan. The New Culture Movement stimulated by the May Fourth Movement waxed strong throughout the 1920s and 1930s. According to Ebrey:\n\"Nationalism, patriotism, progress, science, democracy, and freedom were the goals; imperialism, feudalism, warlordism, autocracy, patriarchy, and blind adherence to tradition were the enemies. Intellectuals struggled with how to be strong and modern and yet Chinese, how to preserve China as a political entity in the world of competing nations.\" \n\nThe discrediting of liberal Western philosophy amongst leftist Chinese intellectuals led to more radical lines of thought inspired by the Russian Revolution, and supported by agents of the Comintern sent to China by Moscow. This created the seeds for the irreconcilable conflict between the left and right in China that would dominate Chinese history for the rest of the century.\n\nIn the 1920s, Sun Yat-sen established a revolutionary base in south China, and set out to unite the fragmented nation. With assistance from the Soviet Union (themselves fresh from a socialist uprising), he entered into an alliance with the fledgling Communist Party of China. After Sun's death from cancer in 1925, one of his protégés, Chiang Kai-shek, seized control of the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party or KMT) and succeeded in bringing most of south and central China under its rule in a military campaign known as the Northern Expedition (1926–1927). Having defeated the warlords in south and central China by military force, Chiang was able to secure the nominal allegiance of the warlords in the North. In 1927, Chiang turned on the CPC and relentlessly chased the CPC armies and its leaders from their bases in southern and eastern China. In 1934, driven from their mountain bases such as the Chinese Soviet Republic, the CPC forces embarked on the Long March across China's most desolate terrain to the northwest, where they established a guerrilla base at Yan'an in Shaanxi Province. During the Long March, the communists reorganized under a new leader, Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung).\n\nThe bitter struggle between the KMT and the CPC continued, openly or clandestinely, through the 14-year-long Japanese occupation of various parts of the country (1931–1945). The two Chinese parties nominally formed a united front to oppose the Japanese in 1937, during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), which became a part of World War II. Japanese forces committed numerous war atrocities against the civilian population, including biological warfare (see Unit 731) and the Three Alls Policy (Sankō Sakusen), the three alls being: \"Kill All, Burn All and Loot All\". \n\nFollowing the defeat of Japan in 1945, the war between the Nationalist government forces and the CPC resumed, after failed attempts at reconciliation and a negotiated settlement. By 1949, the CPC had established control over most of the country (see Chinese Civil War). Westad says the Communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than Chiang, and because in his search for a powerful centralized government, Chiang antagonized too many interest groups in China. Furthermore, his party was weakened in the war against the Japanese. Meanwhile, the Communists told different groups, such as peasants, exactly what they wanted to hear, and cloaked themselves in the cover of Chinese Nationalism. During the civil war both the Nationalists and Communists carried out mass atrocities, with millions of non-combatants killed by both sides. These included deaths from forced conscription and massacres. When the Nationalist government forces were defeated by CPC forces in mainland China in 1949, the Nationalist government retreated to Taiwan with its forces, along with Chiang and most of the KMT leadership and a large number of their supporters; the Nationalist government had taken effective control of Taiwan at the end of WWII as part of the overall Japanese surrender, when Japanese troops in Taiwan surrendered to Republic of China troops. \n\nPeople's Republic of China (since 1949)\n\nMajor combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with Kuomintang (KMT) pulling out of the mainland, with the government relocating to Taipei and maintaining control only over a few islands. The Communist Party of China was left in control of mainland China. On 1 October 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China. \"Communist China\" and \"Red China\" were two common names for the PRC. \n\nThe PRC was shaped by a series of campaigns and five-year plans. The economic and social plan known as the Great Leap Forward caused an estimated 45 million deaths. Mao's government carried out mass executions of landowners, instituted collectivisation and implemented the Laogai camp system. Execution, deaths from forced labor and other atrocities resulted in millions of deaths under Mao. In 1966 Mao and his allies launched the Cultural Revolution, which continued until Mao's death a decade later. The Cultural Revolution, motivated by power struggles within the Party and a fear of the Soviet Union, led to a major upheaval in Chinese society.\n\nIn 1972, at the peak of the Sino-Soviet split, Mao and Zhou Enlai met US president Richard Nixon in Beijing to establish relations with the United States. In the same year, the PRC was admitted to the United Nations in place of the Republic of China, with permanent membership of the Security Council.\n\nA power struggle followed Mao's death in 1976. The Gang of Four were arrested and blamed for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution, marking the end of a turbulent political era in China. Deng Xiaoping outmaneuvered Mao's anointed successor chairman Hua Guofeng, and gradually emerged as the de facto leader over the next few years.\n\nDeng Xiaoping was the Paramount Leader of China from 1978 to 1992, although he never became the head of the party or state, and his influence within the Party led the country to significant economic reforms. The Communist Party subsequently loosened governmental control over citizens' personal lives and the communes were disbanded with many peasants receiving multiple land leases, which greatly increased incentives and agricultural production. This turn of events marked China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with an increasingly open market environment, a system termed by some as \"market socialism\", and officially by the Communist Party of China as \"Socialism with Chinese characteristics\". The PRC adopted its current constitution on 4 December 1982.\n\nIn 1989 the death of former general secretary Hu Yaobang helped to spark the Tiananmen Square protests of that year, during which students and others campaigned for several months, speaking out against corruption and in favour of greater political reform, including democratic rights and freedom of speech. However, they were eventually put down on 4 June when PLA troops and vehicles entered and forcibly cleared the square, with many fatalities. This event was widely reported, and brought worldwide condemnation and sanctions against the government. A filmed incident involving the \"tank man\" was seen worldwide.\n\nCPC general secretary and PRC President Jiang Zemin and PRC Premier Zhu Rongji, both former mayors of Shanghai, led post-Tiananmen PRC in the 1990s. Under Jiang and Zhu's ten years of administration, the PRC's economic performance pulled an estimated 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11.2%. The country formally joined the World Trade Organization in 2001.\n\nAlthough the PRC needs economic growth to spur its development, the government began to worry that rapid economic growth was degrading the country's resources and environment. Another concern is that certain sectors of society are not sufficiently benefiting from the PRC's economic development; one example of this is the wide gap between urban and rural areas. As a result, under former CPC general secretary and President Hu Jintao and Premier Wen Jiabao, the PRC initiated policies to address issues of equitable distribution of resources, but the outcome was not known . More than 40 million farmers were displaced from their land, usually for economic development, contributing to 87,000 demonstrations and riots across China in 2005. For much of the PRC's population, living standards improved very substantially and freedom increased, but political controls remained tight and rural areas poor." ] }

{ "description": [ "Chinese Zodiac Signs, The Chinese animal ... Traditionally these zodiac animals were used to date the years. The 12 Animals of the Chinese Zodiac In order, the 12 ...", "Learn about the animals of the Chinese Zodiac, ... In 2016, the Chinese New Year begins on February 8 (according to the Gregorian calendar). With festivals, ...", "The Chinese Calendar. The Chinese lunisolar calendar is divided ... after one of 12 animals. (Learn more about the Chinese ... to the Chinese year 4707 ...", "Chinese New Year is the most important of the traditional Chinese holidays. Sign In Join. ... These animals use their hands and feet to grip objects and climb trees.", "... Based on what year you were born, find out which Chinese New Year Zodiac Animal you are and your typical characteristics. Chinese New Year Animals ...", "Chinese New Year Dates and ... The Chinese Lunar calendar follows a 12 year cycle and each of the 12 years is represented by 12 Animals which form the Chinese ...", "It is used to record birth years of Chinese ... 2016 is the Year of the Monkey according to Chinese zodiac. The Year of ... animals in Chinese zodiac were also ...", "Animals of the Chinese zodiac ... 12 animals who cross the swift current river and reach the designated shore would be assigned to the 12 Zodiac Years. The ..." ], "filename": [ "85/85_2340.txt", "156/156_2342.txt", "137/137_2343.txt", "122/122_2344.txt", "23/23_2345.txt", "132/132_2346.txt", "68/68_2347.txt", "89/89_2348.txt" ], "rank": [ 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 ], "title": [ "Chinese Zodiac, 12 Chinese Zodiac Animals, Find Your ...", "chinese zodiac new year animal signs symbols | The Old ...", "Chinese Calendar - Infoplease", "Chinese Horoscopes and New Year", "Chinese New Year Zodiac Animal - About.com Travel", "Chinese New Year | Chinese Animal Year Zodiac | Chinese ...", "Chinese Zodiac: 12 Animal Signs, Calculator, Origin", "Exploring Chinese History :: Features :: Chinese Lunar ..." ], "url": [ "http://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-zodiac/", "http://www.almanac.com/content/chinese-zodiac", "http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0002076.html", "http://kids.nationalgeographic.com/explore/chinese-horoscopes/", "http://gohongkong.about.com/od/chinesenewyear/tp/Chinese-New-Year-Zodiac-Signs.htm", "http://www.prokerala.com/general/calendar/chinese-years.php", "https://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/social_customs/zodiac/", "http://www.ibiblio.org/chinesehistory/contents/08fea/c06s04.htm" ], "search_context": [ "The Chinese Zodiac, 12 Zodiac Animals, Find Your Zodiac Sign\nThe Chinese animal zodiac, or shengxiao (/shnng-sshyaoww/ ‘born resembling’), is a repeating cycle of 12 years, with each year being represented by an animal and its reputed attributes. Traditionally these zodiac animals were used to date the years.\nThe 12 Animals of the Chinese Zodiac\nIn order, the 12 animals are: Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, Pig.\nWhat Your Chinese Zodiac Animal Sign Is\nYour Chinese Zodiac sign is derived from your birth year, according to the Chinese lunar calendar. See the years of each animal below or use the calculator on the right to determine your own sign.\nRat: 2008, 1996, 1984, 1972, 1960\nOx: 2009, 1997, 1985, 1973, 1961\nTiger: 2010, 1998, 1986, 1974, 1962\nRabbit: 2011, 1999, 1987, 1975, 1963\nDragon: 2012, 2000, 1988, 1976, 1964\nSnake: 2013, 2001, 1989, 1977, 1965\nHorse: 2014, 2002, 1990, 1978, 1966\nGoat: 2015, 2003, 1991, 1979, 1967\nMonkey: 2016, 2004, 1992, 1980, 1968\nRooster: 2017 , 2005, 1993, 1981, 1969\nDog: 2018, 2006, 1994, 1982, 1970\nPig: 2019, 2007, 1995, 1983, 1971\nFind Your Chinese Zodiac Sign\nChoose your date of birth and find out about your Chinese zodiac sign.\nYou are a:\nLove:\nHealth:\nThose born in January and February take care: Chinese (Lunar) New Year moves between 21 January and February 20. If you were born in January or February, check whether your birth date falls before or after Chinese New Year to know what your Chinese zodiac year is.\nChinese Zodiac Love Compatibility — Is He/She Right for You?\nPeople born in a certain animal year are believed to have attributes of that animal, which could either help or hinder a relationship.\nAn important use of Chinese Zodiac is to determine if two people are compatible, in a romantic relationship or any kind of relationship. In ancient times people were faithful to Chinese Zodiac compatibility and often referred to it before a romantic relationship began. Even nowadays some people still refer to it.\nTake our online test on the right and find how suitable you and your partner are. See our Chinese Zodiac Love Compatibility Charts\nChinese Zodiac Love Compatibility Test Is she/he compatible with you? Take the test and see...\nBoy's Name:\nDate of Birth:\nIt’s BAD LUCK When Your Zodiac Year Comes Around!\nAs the Chinese zodiac recurs every 12 years, your animal year will come around when you are 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, etc.\nAccording to ancient Chinese superstition, in your birth sign year, he will offend the God of Age, and will have bad luck during that year. The best way to avoid bad luck during this year is by wearing something red given by an elder (relative), such as socks, a neck cord, underwear, a waistband, a bracelet, or an anklet.\nRead more on How to be Lucky in Your Zodiac Year .\nChinese Zodiac Years Have Two Different Starts!\nThere are two dates a Chinese zodiac year could be said to start on, and neither is January 1! China traditionally uses two calendars: the solar calendar and the lunar calendar.\nThe traditional solar calendar has 24 fifteen-day solar terms, and the first, called ‘Start of Spring’, falls on February 4 (or 5).\nThe lunar calendar has 12 or 13 months and starts on Chinese New Year, which is somewhere in the period January 21 to February 20.\nMost Chinese people use lunar New Year as the start of the zodiac year. But for fortune telling and astrology, people believe ‘Start of Spring’ is the beginning of the zodiac year.\nChinese Zodiac Origins — Why 12 Animals\nThe 12 animals were chosen deliberately, after many revisions. The zodiac animals are either closely related to ancient Chinese people’s daily lives, or have lucky meanings.\nThe ox, horse, goat, rooster, pig, and dog are six of the main domestic animals raised by Chinese people. The other six animals: rat, tiger, rabbit, dragon, snake, and monkey are all loved by the Chinese people.\nWhy the 12 Zodiac Animals Are in That Order\nThe 12 Chinese Zodiac animals are in a fixed order according to Chinese Yin and Yang Theory and perceived attributes.\nThe yin or the yang of the animals is defined based on the odd or even number of their claws (or toes, hoofs). The animals are then arranged in an alternating (complementary) yin-yang sequence.\nUsually an animal has is the same number of claws on its front and rear legs. However the rat has four toes on its fore legs and five on its hind legs. As the old saying goes, “a thing is valued in proportion to its rarity”, so the Rat ranks first of the 12 zodiac animals. It uniquely combines the attributes of odd (yang) and even (yin). 4+5=9, and yang is dominant, so the Rat is classified as odd (yang) overall.\nZodiac Animal\nAmiability without fidelity leads to immorality.\nChinese Zodiac Hours — Each Hour is Associated with a Zodiac Animal\nChinese zodiac hours\nIt is widely known that each year is associated with a Chinese zodiac animal, but in Chinese culture the 12 zodiac animals are also associated with hours of a day.\nIn ancient times, in order to tell the time, people divided a day into twelve 2-hour periods, and designated an animal to represent each period, according to each animal’s “special time”.\nAccording to Chinese astrology, though not popularly used, a person’s personality and life is more decided by his/her birth hour than year. The zodiac hour is widely used for character and destiny analysis.\nRat", "chinese zodiac new year animal signs symbols | The Old Farmer's Almanac\nxu = dog\nhai - boar/pig\nSo, putting the stem and branch terms together, the first year in a 60-year cycle is called jia-zi (Year of the Rat) as jia is the celestial stem and zi (rat) is the terrestrial branch. The next year is yi-chou (Year of the Ox), and son on. The 11th year is jia-xu, etc., until a new cycle starts over with jia-zi.\n2016 is bing-shen (Year of the Monkey).\nWhich Chinese Zodiac Are You?\nBelow are the 12 animal designations of the Chinese zodiac:\nRat (Zi)\nAmbitious and sincere, you can be generous with your money. Compatible with the dragon and the monkey. Your opposite is the horse.\n1900, 1912, 1924, 1936, 1948, 1960, 1972, 1984, 1996, 2008, 2020\nOx or Buffalo (Chou)\nA leader, you are bright, patient, and cheerful. Compatible with the snake and the rooster. Your opposite is the sheep.\n1901, 1913, 1925, 1937, 1949, 1961, 1973, 1985, 1997, 2009, 2021\nTiger (Yin)\nForthright and sensitive, you possess great courage. You have the ability to be a strong leader capable of great sympathy. Compatible with the horse and the dog. Your opposite is the monkey.\n1902, 1914, 1926, 1938, 1950, 1962, 1974, 1986, 1998, 2010, 2022\nRabbit or Hare (Mao)\nTalented and affectionate, you are a seeker of tranquility. Compatible with the sheep and the pig. Your opposite is the rooster.\n1903, 1915, 1927, 1939, 1951, 1963, 1975, 1987, 1999, 2011, 2023\nDragon (Chen)\nRobust and passionate, your life is filled with complexity. Compatible with the monkey and the rat. Your opposite is the dog.\n1904, 1916, 1928, 1940, 1952, 1964, 1976, 1988, 2000, 2012, 2024\nSnake (Si)\nStrong-willed and intense, you display great wisdom. Compatible with the rooster and the ox. Your opposite is the pig.\n1905, 1917, 1929, 1941, 1953, 1965, 1977, 1989, 2001, 2013, 2025\nHorse (Wu)\nPhysically attractive and popular, you like the company of others. Compatible with the tiger and the dog. Your opposite is the rat.\n1906, 1918, 1930, 1942, 1954, 1966, 1978, 1990, 2002, 2014, 2026\nSheep or Goat (Wei)\nAesthetic and stylish, you enjoy being a private person. Compatible with the pig and the rabbit. Your opposite is the ox.\n1907, 1919, 1931, 1943, 1955, 1967, 1979, 1991, 2003, 2015, 2027\nMonkey (Shen)\nPersuasive, skillful, and intelligent, you strive to excel. Compatible with the dragon and the rat. Your opposite is the tiger.\n1908, 1920, 1932, 1944, 1956, 1968, 1980, 1992, 2004, 2016, 2028\nRooster or Cock (You)\nSeeking wisdom and truth, you have a pioneering spirit. Compatible with the snake and the ox. Your opposite is the rabbit.\n1909, 1921, 1933, 1945, 1957, 1969, 1981, 1993, 2005, 2017, 2029\nDog (Xu)\nGenerous and loyal, you have the ability to work well with others. Compatible with the horse and the tiger. Your opposite is the dragon.\n1910, 1922, 1934, 1946, 1958, 1970, 1982, 1994, 2006, 2018, 2030\nPig or Boar (Hai)\nGallant and noble, your friends will remain at your side. Compatible with the rabbit and the sheep. Your opposite is the snake.\n1911, 1923, 1935, 1947, 1959, 1971, 1983, 1995, 2007, 2019, 2031", "Chinese Calendar\nSociety and Culture > Calendar & Holidays > Calendars\nThe Chinese Calendar\nThe Chinese lunisolar calendar is divided into 12 months of 29 or 30 days. The calendar is adjusted to the length of the solar year by the addition of extra months at regular intervals. The years are arranged in major cycles of 60 years. Each successive year is named after one of 12 animals. (Learn more about the Chinese Zodiac .) These 12-year cycles are continuously repeated. The Chinese New Year is celebrated at the second new moon after the winter solstice and falls between January 21 and February 19 on the Gregorian calendar . The year 2010 translates to the Chinese year 4707–4708. The year 2011 translates to the Chinese year 4708–4709.\nRat", "Chinese Horoscopes and New Year\nFIND YOUR BIRTH YEAR ANIMAL!\n \nAccording to the Chinese calendar, the year you were born may determine your personality. Every year is represented by an animal, and legend has it that people born under that animal have certain personality traits. So just for fun, find your birth year and that year's animal, and see what some people believe it says about you. Do the same for your friends, parents, relatives, and teachers!\nSheep Can Recognize Faces\nYear of the Sheep/Goat\nThe Real Thing\nTimid sheep graze in flocks to guard against predators. Sheep have good memories; they can recognize many other sheep faces and remember them for two years. They can also remember human faces. Most are raised for their wool.\n \nBorn a Sheep/Goat?\nAt your best when people who admire you flock to your side, you stick by your friends. You are artistic, creative, and like to look good.\n \nIf you were born in any of these years, you're a Sheep/Goat!\n1943, 1955, 1967, 1979, 1991, 2003, 2015\nYear of the Rat\nThe Real Thing\nMost rats are highly adaptable. They can live just about anywhere and eat just about anything. Before brown rats leave their underground burrows, these clever creatures send one rat ahead to make sure danger isn't lurking outside.\n \nBorn a Rat? \nYou welcome challenges and enjoy learning about new things. Funny and smart, you are generous and will protect your pack of friends.\n \nIf you were born in any of these years, you're a Rat!\n1960, 1972, 1984, 1996, 2008\nRats Are Adaptable\nYear of the Ox\nThe Real Thing\nOxen have been known to pull loads of 11,284 pounds (5,118 kilograms). People value their strength as well as their work ethic. An ox's horns can grow to be more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) long.\n \nBorn an Ox?\nYou approach projects in a step-by-step manner, wanting to do things right the first time. Shy but dependable, you are caring and trustworthy and never lose sight of your goal.\n \nIf you were born in any of these years, you're an Oxen!\n1925, 1937, 1949, 1961, 1973, 1985, 1997, 2009\nYear of the Tiger\nThe Real Thing\nThe largest of the big cats, tigers hunt alone. They secretly stalk prey, then leap and attack when the time seems right. Dinner still escapes most of the time.\n \nBorn a Tiger?\nYou're a natural leader but often like to do things by yourself. (That's how you stay in charge!) You believe in fighting for what's right, even if you'll lose in the end.\n \nIf you were born in any of these years, you're a tiger!\n1926, 1938, 1950, 1962, 1974, 1986, 1998, 2010\nTigers Hunt Alone\nYear of the Rabbit\nThe Real Thing\nRabbits normally give birth to about six babies at once and often live in groups. Their long ears help them cool off by lowering the temperature of the blood that circulates through them.\n \nBorn a Rabbit? \nWell-liked and popular, you have a large circle of family and friends. You are very protective of them, and they protect you back. You tend to keep your cool and avoid conflicts.\n \nIf you were born in any of these years, you're a Rabbit!\n1927, 1939, 1951, 1963, 1975, 1987, 1999, 2011\n \nYear of the Dragon\nThe Real Thing\nThe mythical dragon is a symbol of power and good fortune in Chinese culture. One of the most popular figures in Chinese art, the dragon is believed to be a combination of nine animals, including a frog, a tiger, an eagle, and a fish.\n \nBorn a Dragon?\nYou go out of your way to help your friends, who often seek you out for advice. Your outgoing personality helps you get along with many types of people.\n \nIf you were born in any of these years, you're a Dragon!\n1928, 1940, 1952, 1964, 1976, 1988, 2000, 2012\nDragons Are Mythical\nYear of the Snake\nThe Real Thing\nSnakes have great instincts. Some \"play dead\" to fool predators, and most sense prey by detecting ground vibrations. They can take more than an hour to swallow a meal, and they become inactive for up to two weeks before they shed their skin.\n \nBorn a Snake?\nYou rely on your instincts before asking others their opinions. At times you want to take a break from the action. It's not that you're lazy—sometimes you just like to think.\n \nIf you were born in any of these years, you're a Snake!\n1941, 1953, 1965, 1977, 1989, 2001, 2013\nYear of the Horse\nThe Real Thing\nA horse sleeps only about three hours a day. Intelligent, most can sense nervousness in people.\n \nBorn a Horse?\nYou have loads of energy and love adventure. You take charge and understand people, so you know how to work a crowd.\n \nIf you were born in any of these years, you're a Horse!\n1942, 1954, 1966, 1978, 1990, 2002, 2014\nHorses Are Intelligent\nYear of the Monkey\nThe Real Thing\nSocial and playful, monkeys show affection and friendship by picking bugs and dirt out of each other's fur. These animals use their hands and feet to grip objects and climb trees. Some even have tails that can grab items as small as peanuts.\n \nBorn a Monkey?\nSwinging from one group of friends to another, you love to have a good time. You like to entertain your friends by showing off your talents, and they appreciate your cleverness and sense of humor.\n \nIf you were born in any of these years, you're a Monkey!\n1944, 1956, 1968, 1980, 1992, 2004, 2016\nMonkeys Are Clever\nYear of the Rooster\nThe Real Thing\nThe rooster's loud cock-a-doodle-doo attracts females and warns other males to stay away. The red comb on his head may help other roosters identify him, and it also sets him apart from other bird species.\n \nBorn a Rooster?\nYou are practical and resourceful, and you use what you have to succeed without taking a lot of risks. A hard worker, you say what's on your mind and have a sense of style that sets you apart.\n \nIf you were born in any of these years, you're a Rooster!\n1945, 1957, 1969, 1981, 1993, 2005, 2017\nYear of the Dog\nThe Real Thing\nA dog's supersensitive ears can hear a noise about 100 yards (91.44 meters) away that a person couldn't hear more than 25 yards (22.86 meters) away. Its strong sense of smell helps it do things like find lost people or sniff out bad guys.\n \nBorn a Dog?\nYou're a great listener who can keep a secret. Loyal to your friends, you have a keen sense of right and wrong and stick to what you believe in.\n \nIf you were born in any of these years, you're a Dog!\n1934, 1946, 1958, 1970, 1982, 1994, 2006\nDogs Have Super-Sensitive Ears", "Chinese New Year Zodiac Animal\ncontinue reading below our video\nTips for Taking Better Travel Photos\nChinese New Year Cow Zodiac Sign. Getty/Stephanie Dalton Cowan\n2.  Cow\nBirth Years for the Cow Zodiac Sign: 1913, 1925, 1937, 1949, 1961, 1973, 1985, 1997\nPatient, reliable and loyal, cows are happiest when their life and relationships are stable. They tend to form strong and long lasting friendships and often have a small but solid circle of friends. While usually relaxed, cows can be apprehensive of change and this fear can make them sensitive to criticism and unwilling to accept other people’s opinions. \nChinese New Year Tiger Zodiac Sign. Getty/Stephanie Dalton Cowan\n3.  Tiger\nBirth Years for the Tiger Zodiac Sign: 1914, 1926, 1938, 1950, 1962, 1974, 1986, 1998\nPassionate about life, Tigers tend to act before they think and throw all their energies into every situation headlong. Supremely confident, they breed confidence in those around them and are natural born leaders and great orators. But their hot and cold emotions mean they are easily bored and change their mind and opinions frequently. They warm to people quickly and usually have a wide circle of friends, but can often be too easily influenced.\nChinese New Year Rabbit Zodiac Sign. Getty/Stephanie Dalton Cowan\n4.  Rabbit\nBirth Years for the Rabbit Zodiac Sign : 1915, 1927, 1939, 1951, 1963, 1975, 1987, 1999\nOne of the noblest signs, rabbits are considered principled and honorable and often gain the admiration of those around them. They care deeply about family and friends and their kindness and sympathy for others means they have long and strong relationships. Inscrutability honest and with a talent for dealing with people, they can often rise to positions of influence.  Their good intentions can make them a soft target for people to take advantage of their charity and sympathy, and their gullibility can lead them into trouble.\nChinese New Year Dragon Zodiac Sign. Getty/Stephanie Dalton Cowan\n5.  Dragon\nBirth Years for the Dragon Zodiac Sign: 1916, 1928, 1940, 1952, 1964, 1976, 1988, 2000\nThe red blooded dragon is one of the strongest signs in the Chinese zodiac and their tireless spirit can often bring them success. Their backbone and resolve means they are often turned to in times of crisis, and they can be relied upon to help out others. Their bravery means there are few situations they cannot over come. Driving them is a fiery temperament and it can make them impulsive and impetuous. They dislike routines and are regularly searching for new challenges and opportunities.\nChinese New Year Snake Zodiac Sign. Getty/Stephanie Dalton Cowan\n6.  Snake\nBirth Years for the Snake Zodiac Sign: 1917, 1929, 1941, 1953, 1965, 1977, 1989, 2001\nNaturally intelligent, snakes have a thirst for knowledge and education giving them a wisdom that makes them prudent and rational when it comes to both money and relationships.  They rarely make snap decisions, preferring to be patient, weigh up the pros and cons before choosing the right course. Their cool, calm and collected approach to life snakes cope with stress well but it can make them seem emotionally detached and they struggle to express themselves.\nChinese New Year Horse Zodiac Sign. Getty/Stephanie Dalton Cowan\n7.  Horse\nBirth Years for the Horse Zodiac Sign: 1918, 1930, 1942, 1954, 1966, 1978, 1990, 2002\nFull of wit and personality, horses revel in being the center of attention, and their outgoing and sociable behavior means they usually have a wide circle of friends. They usually have little difficulty in attracting the opposite sex but quickly fall in love and relationships can often be intense and short; ending in heartbreak. In a relationship or not, horses like to be independent and their can do attitude and belief in themselves can often drive them to success.\nChinese New Year Goat Zodiac Sign. Getty/Stephanie Dalton Cowan\n8.  Sheep\nBirth Years for the Sheep Zodiac Sign: 1919, 1931, 1943, 1955, 1967, 1979, 1991, 2003\nAlways thoughtful and kind to those around them, sheep value deep links to family friends and are unselfish in putting other people first. Gentle in their personality, sheep tend to have an affinity for culture and are often creatively gifted. Their sensitivity and concern makes them deep thinkers, but also worriers, and they are easily stressed and often tense.\nChinese New Year Monkey Zodiac Sign. Getty/Stephanie Dalton Cowan\n9.  Monkey\nBirth Years for the Monkey Zodiac Sign: 1920, 1932, 1944, 1956, 1968, 1980, 1992, 2004\nCombining confidence, charisma and a dash of cuteness, monkeys are usually the life and soul of the party and popular with friends and potential partners. Imaginative with an ability to think creatively, adventurous and restless, they can seem rebellious, unwilling to accept authority, but their inquisitive nature, imagination and ability to think outside the box often makes them gifted at overcoming challenges and striving under stress. Their natural talents may sometimes be lost to laziness and they can seem condescending and egotistical. \nChinese New Year Chicken Zodiac Sign. Getty/Stephanie Dalton Cowan\n10.  Rooster\nBirth Years for the Rooster Zodiac Sign: 1921, 1933, 1945, 1957, 1969, 1981, 1993, 2005\nWith high expectations and high standards, roosters demand the best for themselves and are tenacious in doing whatever it takes to achieve their goals. While their ideals may seem impossibly ambitious, their approach to life is practical, disciplined and hard working. Sharp and capable, they conquer the obstacles that face them resolutely and are unflappable in a crisis. Roosters take failure very personally and can be highly critical of themselves and others around them; sometimes showing insensitivity.\nChinese New Year Dog Zodiac Sign. Getty/Stephanie Dalton Cowan\n11.  Dog\nBirth Years for the Dog Zodiac Sign: 1922, 1934, 1946, 1958, 1970, 1982, 1994, 2006\nThe eternal optimists, dogs always see the best in themselves and others and have a naturally happy disposition. Their enthusiasm is infectious and can inspire others to look towards them for leadership. While they value loyalty and are trusting of others, they are easily jealous and are unforgiving after disagreements and arguments. An innate stubbornness also means they will rarely admit when they are wrong.\nChinese New Year Pig Zodiac Sign. Getty/Stephanie Dalton Cowan\n12.  Pig\nBirth Years for the Pig Zodiac Sign: 1923, 1935, 1947, 1959, 1971, 1983, 1995, 2007\nThe down to earth pig is instantly likable and can always be relied upon for their honesty and sense of fair play. Their friendliness and compassion make them excellent at dealing with people and they are an excellent judge of character. Despite their belief in other people they can often underestimate themselves and often --- wrongly --- feel they lack the skills or talent to achieve what they want most in life.", "Chinese New Year | Chinese Animal Year Zodiac | Chinese New Year Dates\nToday's Horoscope\nThe Chinese Lunar calendar follows a 12 year cycle and each of the 12 years is represented by 12 Animals which form the Chinese Zodiac. After every 12 years the Chinese Calendar repeats itself. The animals in the Chinese Zodiac or the animals which constitute the Chinese calendar are Rat, Ox, Tiger, Hare, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Sheep, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig.\n• Chinese New Year Dates - Chinese new year dates as per English calendar\nChinese Years - Chinese Animal Years List\nGiven below is a list of all the years starting from the year 1900 to 2100 sorted according to the Chinese Animal they represent. For example, the Years listed under the column rat represent the Chinese Year of the Rat, likewise, Chinese Year of the Tiger, Chinese Year of the Hare etc...\nRat\n2103\nChinese New Year - Chinese New Year Date\nWhen in Chinese New Year 2018 or 2019? What is the English date corresponding to Chinese New Year date? Given below is the Chinese New Year dates of all Years between 2005 and 2020.\nChinese New year date in English calendar format and English new year date in Chinese Year Format.\nChinese new year date as per English calendar\nEnglish date corresponding to Chinese new year i.e., first day of first Chinese month of each year.\nChinese New Year 2011 - February 3, 2011\nChinese New Year 2012 - January 23, 2012\nChinese New Year 2013 - February 10, 2013\nChinese New Year 2014 - January 31, 2014\nChinese New Year 2015 - February 19, 2015\nChinese New Year 2016 - February 8, 2016\nChinese New Year 2017 - January 28, 2017\nChinese New Year 2018 - February 16, 2018\nChinese New Year 2019 - February 5, 2019\nChinese New Year 2020 - January 25, 2020\nChinese New Year 2021 - February 12, 2021\nChinese New Year 2022 - February 1, 2022\nChinese New Year 2023 - January 22, 2023\nChinese New Year 2024 - February 10, 2024\nChinese New Year 2025 - January 29, 2025\nChinese New Year 2026 - February 17, 2026\nNew year date as per Chinese calendar year\nChinese date corresponding to English new year i.e., January 1.\nJanuary, 1 2012 is 8-12-4709\nJanuary, 1 2013 is 20-11-4710\nJanuary, 1 2014 is 1-12-4711\nJanuary, 1 2015 is 11-11-4712\nJanuary, 1 2016 is 22-11-4713\nJanuary, 1 2017 is 4-12-4714\nJanuary, 1 2018 is 15-11-4715\nJanuary, 1 2019 is 26-11-4716\nJanuary, 1 2020 is 7-12-4717\nJanuary, 1 2021 is 18-11-4718\nJanuary, 1 2022 is 29-11-4719\nJanuary, 1 2023 is 10-12-4720\nJanuary, 1 2024 is 20-11-4721\nJanuary, 1 2025 is 2-12-4722\nJanuary, 1 2026 is 13-11-4723\nJanuary, 1 2027 is 24-11-4724\nChinese Calendar is the traditional astrology calendar of the Chinese people. Many of the chinese festivals and Government Holidays are determined based on the Chinese Calendar. The months of the Chinese Calendar is a sixty year cycle.\nChinese Animal Year / Chinese Zodiac Calendar\nChinese calendar related links", "Chinese Zodiac: 12 Animal Signs, Calculator, Origin, App\nZi Shi: 11 p.m. to 1 a.m.\nThis is the time rats actively seek food.\nOx\nChou Shi: 1 to 3 a.m.\nThis is the time that oxen ruminate.\nTiger\nYin Shi: 3 to 5 a.m.\nTigers hunt prey and display fiercest nature.\nRabbit\nMao Shi: 5 to 7 a.m.\nThe Jade Rabbit on the moon is busy pounding medicinal herb with a pestle.\nDragon\nChen Shi: 7 to 9 a.m.\nDragons are hover in the sky at that time to give people rainfall.\nSnake\nSi Shi: 9 to 11 a.m.\nSnakes start to leave their burrows.\nHorse\nWu Shi: 11 a.m. to 1 p.m.\nWith the sun high above, other animals are lying down for a noon break while the unconstrained horse is still vigorous.\nSheep\nWei Shi: 1 to 3 p.m.\nIt is said that if sheep ate grass at this time, they would grow stronger.\nMonkey\nShen Shi: 3 to 5 p.m.\nMonkeys become lively.\nYou Shi: 5 to 7 p.m.\nRoosters return to their roost as it is dark.\nDog\nXu Shi: 7 to 9 p.m.\nDogs begin to carry out their duty to guard entrances.\nPig", "Exploring Chinese History :: Features :: Chinese Lunar Calendar :: Zodiac Animals\nThe Legend of the Animals\nMany centuries ago, the Chinese had no means to measure time. The Yellow Jade Emperor, the Emperor of Heaven, decided to arrange a contest. He invited all animals to a race on his birthday. The first 12 animals who cross the swift current river and reach the designated shore would be assigned to the 12 Zodiac Years.\nThe cat and the rat, who were once good friends and poor swimmers, convinced the ox to carry them across the river. Being naive, gullible, good-natured, the powerful swimmer ox agreed. As they were crossing the river, the rat was worried that the cat might win the race; so the rat pushed the cat into the river. This explains why cats hate rats, because they never forgave the rat for the incident. Right before the ox and the rat reached the shore, the rat jumped off the ox's back and took first place in the race.\nAs the Jade Emperor named the ox as the 2nd zodiac animal, the tiger reached the finished line. Panting his way toward the Jade Emperor, the tiger explained that he had difficulty crossing the river because the current kept pushing him down stream. With his powerful strength, he was able to reach the shore safely. The Emperor recorded the tiger as the 3rd zodiac animal.\nFrom a distance, the crowd heard a thumping noise. Twitching its pinkish nose, the rabbit told the crowd that he had to hop from one stone to another in order to cross the river. Luckily, he was able to get hold of a floating log which finally washed him to shore. The Emperor named the rabbit, the 4th zodiac animal.\nIn the 5th place came the dragon flying and belching fire in the air. Jade Emperor was very curious as to why the dragon came in late for he can fly and swim. Because the mighty dragon could not bare to see his people and all the creatures on earth suffer a drought, he had to stop to make rain. When he reached the river, he spotted a helpless little rabbit clutching tightly to a log, so he gave a little puff and blew the log with the rabbit on it to the shore.\nJust as the Jade Emperor complimented the dragon for his consideration, he heard the horse whining and galloping. From out of the horse's hoof sneaked a shrewd slimy snake. The sudden appearance and the hissing of the snake startled the horse and made him jump backwards, thus forcing the horse to fall in 7th place and the snake to take the 6th place in the race.\nFrom a distance, approached the sheep, the monkey, and the rooster. The rooster proudly described how he had spotted a raft from a high ground, picked up the sheep, and the monkey. Along the way, the monkey and the sheep helped clear the weeds, pulled and pushed the raft to the shore. The Emperor complimented the trios for their combined efforts and named the sheep the 8th of the zodiac animals, the monkey the 9th, and the rooster the 10th.\nJust as the Emperor was making the record official, next came the dog . The dog was trying to justify to the Emperor why, being one of the best swimmers, he was late. It turned out that the dog hadn't had a bath for a long time. The river water was so clean and fresh that he had to stop. The dog was recorded as the 11th zodiac animal.\nJade Emperor was about to dismiss the crowd and retire from the long day when he heard an oink and a squeal from the little pig who was waddling down the path. Needless to explain, the pig was hungry during the race and he stopped for a feast. After the feast, he felt tired and took a little nap. The little pig made it as the last of the 12th zodiac animals.\nAnother Version of the legend\nThe origins of the 12 animals of Chinese astrology are unclear. One legend holds that Buddha invited all the earth's animals to a gathering before his final departure, and these 12 were the only animals that showed up.\nAs a token of his appreciation, Buddha named a year after each of them in the order in which they arrived." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "Search", "Search", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Formula_One_racing.txt", "Lewis_Hamilton.txt", "Pole_position.txt" ], "title": [ "Formula One racing", "Lewis Hamilton", "Pole position" ], "wiki_context": [ "A Formula One race or Grand Prix is a sporting event which takes place over three days (usually Friday to Sunday), with a series of practice and qualifying sessions prior to a race on Sunday.\n\nCurrent regulations provide for two free practice sessions on Friday, a morning practice session and an afternoon qualifying session held on Saturday, and the race held on Sunday afternoon or evening, though the structure of the weekend has changed numerous times over the history of the sport.\n\nAt most Formula One race weekends, other events such as races in other FIA series (such as the GP2 Series) are staged.\n\nFree practice sessions\n\nSince 2006, three practice sessions are held before the race; the first on Friday morning and the second on Friday afternoon. Both sessions last one and a half hours. The third session is held on Saturday morning and lasts an hour. A third driver is permitted to take part in the Friday free practice sessions in the place of a regular driver. With testing in the middle of the season banned, many teams will nominate their third driver to take part in the first session. The Monaco Grand Prix traditionally begins on a Thursday, with Friday as a day of rest. Practice sessions for the Singapore and Abu Dhabi Grands Prix take place in the evening as these races are run at night. \n \nQualifying sessions\n\nTraditionally before , qualifying was split into two one-hour sessions; the first was held on Friday (Thursday at Monaco) afternoon from 13:00 to 14:00 local time, with the second held on Saturday afternoon at the same time. The fastest time set by each driver from either session counted towards his final grid position. Each driver was limited to twelve laps per qualifying session.\n\nIn 1996 qualifying was amended with the Friday qualifying session abolished in a favour for a single qualifying session held on Saturday afternoon. As previously, each driver was limited to twelve laps with the inclusion of a 107% rule to exclude drivers with slow lap times. This was calculated by using the time of the driver on pole position and adding on 7% to create a cut-off time. This format remained until the conclusion of the 2002 season.\n\nBetween and , the qualifying session was run as a one-lap session and took place on Friday and Saturday afternoon with the cars running one at a time.\n\nIn 2003 the Friday running order was determined with the leader of the Drivers' Championship heading out first. The Saturday running order was determined by times set in Friday afternoon qualifying with the fastest heading out last and the slowest running first. No refuelling was allowed between the start of Saturday qualifying and the start of the race, so drivers qualified on race fuel. The lap times from the Friday afternoon session did not determine the grid order.\n\nIn 2004 the Friday session was moved to Saturday. The running order for the first session was now based on the result of the previous race. At first both sessions were held back-to-back, but the first session was later moved earlier in the day.\n\nAt the start of 2005 the sessions were held on Saturday afternoon and Sunday morning. Lap times from both sessions were counted to give the overall aggregate position. From the 2005 European Grand Prix onwards, the Sunday morning session was dropped for a single run on Saturday afternoon having proved unpopular with drivers, teams and broadcasters. The running order was the reverse of the previous race result. \n\nSince , qualifying takes place on Saturday afternoon in a three-stage \"knockout\" system. One hour is dedicated to determining the grid order, divided into three periods with short intermissions between them. \n\nCurrently, the first qualifying period is eighteen minutes long, with all twenty two cars on the circuit. At the end of the period, the six slowest drivers are eliminated, and they fill positions seventeen to twenty two on the grid. Any driver attempting to set a qualifying time when the period ends is permitted to finish his lap, though no new laps may be started once the chequered flag is shown. After a short break, the second period begins, with sixteen cars on the circuit. At the end of the fifteen-minute period, the six slowest drivers are once again eliminated, filling grid positions eleven to sixteen. Finally, the third qualifying period features the ten fastest drivers from the second period. The drivers have twelve minutes to set a qualifying time, which will determine the top ten positions on the grid. The driver who sets the fastest qualifying time is said to be on pole position, the grid position that offers the best physical position from which to start the race. For the first two races of the 2016 season, a modified format was used where drivers were eliminated during the sessions rather than just at the end and only eight drivers progressed to the final session. Qualifying reverted to the previous format from the third race of the season onwards.\n\nDrivers may complete as many laps as they choose. However, the top ten drivers must start the race on the set of tyres they used during their fastest lap time in the second qualifying period. These may only be changed if qualifying and the race are held under different weather conditions, or if a tyre is damaged as a result of an accident. The remaining ten drivers are free to start the race with any tyres they choose.\n\nGenerally, a driver will leave the pits and drive around the track in order to get to the start/finish line (the out-lap). Having crossed the line, they will attempt to achieve the quickest time around the circuit that they can in one or more laps (the flying lap or hot lap). This is the lap time which is used in calculating grid position. Finally, the driver will continue back around the track and re-enter the pit-lane (the in-lap). However, this is merely strategy, and no teams are obliged by the rules to follow this formula.\n\nDNQ\n\nAs of 2016, eleven teams are entered for the Formula One World Championship, each entering two cars for a total of twenty two cars. The regulations place a limit of twenty-six entries for the championship. At some periods in the history of Formula One the number of cars entered for each race has exceeded the number permitted, which historically would vary from race to race according to the circuit used. Monaco, for example, for many years allowed only twenty cars to compete because of the restricted space available. The slowest cars excess to the circuit limit would not qualify for the race and would be list as 'Did Not Qualify' (DNQ) in race results. \n\nPre-qualifying\n\nIn the late 1980s and early 1990s the number of cars attempting to enter each race was as high as thirty-nine for some races. Because of the dangers of having so many cars on the track at the same time, a pre-qualifying session was introduced for the teams with the worst record over the previous six months, including any new teams. Only the four fastest cars from this session were then allowed into the qualifying session proper, where thirty cars competed for twenty-six places on the starting grid for the race. The slowest cars from the pre-qualifying session were listed in race results as 'Did Not Pre-Qualify' (DNPQ). Pre-qualifying was discontinued after 1992 when many small teams withdrew from the sport. \n\n107% rule\n\nAs the number of cars entered in the world championship fell below twenty-six, a situation arose in which any car entered would automatically qualify for the race, no matter how slowly it had been driven. The 107% rule was introduced in to prevent completely uncompetitive cars being entered in the championship. If a car's qualifying time was not within 107% of the pole sitter's time, that car would not qualify for the race, unless at the discretion of the race stewards for a situation such as a rain affected qualifying session. For example, if the pole-sitter's time was one minute and forty seconds, then all cars must set a time within one minute and forty-seven seconds. \n\nThe 107% rule was removed since the FIA's rules indicated previously that 24 cars can take the start of a Formula One race, and a minimum of twenty cars must enter a race. In , the qualifying procedure changed to a single-lap system, rendering the rule inoperable. However, there were concerns about the pace of the new teams in the 2010 season. As the qualifying procedure had been changed since the 2006 season to a three-part knockout system, the rule could now be reintroduced. As such, the 107% rule has been reintroduced for the 2011 Formula One season. Currently, cars have to be within 107% of the fastest Q1 time in order to qualify for the race. \n\nRace \n\nSee Formula One regulations for detailed information on the race start procedure.\n\nThe race itself is held on Sunday afternoon, with the exception of night races at Singapore since 2008 and Bahrain since 2014. \n\nThirty minutes prior to race time, the cars take to the track for any number of warm-up laps (formally known as reconnaissance laps), provided they pass through the pit lane and not the grid, after which they assemble on the starting grid in the order they qualified. At the hour of the race, a green light signifies the beginning of the relatively slow formation lap during which all cars parade around the course doing a final tire warmup and system checks. The cars then return to their assigned grid spot for the standing race start. The starting light system, which consists of five pairs of lights mounted above the start/finish line, then lights up each pair at one-second intervals. Once all five pairs are illuminated, after a random length of time (one to nine seconds), the red lights are turned off by the race director, at which point the race starts. The race length is defined as the smallest number of complete laps that exceeds 305 kilometers (the Monaco Grand Prix is the sole exception with a race length of 78 laps / 260.5 km), though occasionally some races are truncated due to special circumstances. The race can not exceed two hours in length; if this interval is reached the race will be ended at the end of that lap. The only exception is if the race is halted by a Red flag in which case the total time including the red flag stoppage must not exceed 4 hours (since 2012), and the total time excluding the red flag stoppage may not exceed 2 hours. \n\nSince the 2007, teams are supplied by the sole tyre supplier (currently Pirelli which replaced Bridgestone in 2011 ), and receive two different types of slick dry tyre compounds: \"Prime\" tyres (now either the Hard, Medium or Soft compound), and \"Option\" tyres (either the Medium, Soft or Supersoft compound). The Prime tyres are more durable than the Option tyres, however the Option tyres produce faster lap times than the Prime tyres (the Option tyres are said to be one second per lap quicker than the Prime tyres, though this figure varies between circuits). From 2014, drivers who qualify in the top ten must start the race with the tyres they used in the second qualifying session (previously this had been the tyres they used in the final qualifying session); all other drivers have freedom over which tyres they can start with. Each driver is also required to use both types of dry compound during a dry race, and so must make a mandatory pit-stop. Timing pitstops with reference to other cars is crucial - if they are following another car but are unable to pass, the driver may try to stay on the track as long as possible, or pit immediately, as newer tyres are usually faster. Prior to the 2010 season, drivers used to make pitstops for fuel more than once during a race, as the cars on average consumed two kilometres per litre (approximately five miles per gallon)- nowadays this figure is lower, due to changes in engines from 2014. From 2010, refuelling has been forbidden during a race. \n\nAt the end of the race, the first, second and third-placed drivers take their places on a podium, where they stand as the national anthem of the race winner's home country and that of his team is played. Dignitaries from the country hosting the race then present trophies to the drivers and a constructor's trophy to a representative from the winner's team, and the winning drivers spray champagne and are interviewed, often by a former racing driver. The three drivers then go to a media room for a press conference where they answer questions in English and their native languages.\n\nPoints system \n\nPoints are awarded to drivers and teams exclusively on where they finish in a race. The winner receives 25 points, the second-place finisher 18 points, with 15, 12, 10, 8, 6, 4, 2 and 1 points for positions 3 through 10. If a race has to be abandoned before 75% of the planned distance has been completed all points are halved. In a dead heat, prizes and points are added together and shared equally for all those drivers who tie. The winner of the annual championship is the driver (or team, for the Constructors' Championship) with the most points. If the number of points is the same, priority is given to the driver with more wins. If that is the same it will be decided on the most second places and so on. \n\nHistorically, the races were scored on the basis of a five-place tally: i.e. via an 8–6–4–3–2 scoring system, with the holder of the fastest race lap also receiving a bonus point. In 1961, the scoring was revised to give the winner nine points instead of eight, and the single point awarded for fastest lap was given for sixth place for the first time the previous year. In 1991, the points system was again revised to give the victor 10 points, with all other scorers recording the same 6–4–3–2–1 result. In 2003, the FIA further revised the scoring system to apportion points to the first eight classified finishers (a classified finisher must complete 90% of race distance) on a 10–8–6–5–4–3–2–1 basis.\n\nAt certain periods in Formula One's history, the world champion has been determined by virtue of the \"best 7 scores\" in each \"half\" of the world championship, meaning that drivers have had to \"discard\" lower scores in either half of the season. This was done in order to equalise the footings of teams which may not have had the wherewithal to compete in all events. With the advent of the Concorde Agreements, this practice has been discontinued, though it did feature prominently in several world championships through the 1970s and 1980s.\n\nThe change in the awarding of world championship points has rendered the comparison of historical teams and drivers to current ones largely ineffective. For instance, Michael Schumacher is widely credited with being the most successful GP driver of all time. While his statistics are very impressive and easily outstrip those of his nearest competitor, it is worth noting that his points tally vs points available, and winning percentage of grands prix entered, do not significantly exceed those of Juan Manuel Fangio, whom he recently dethroned as winner of the most World Championships. As with most other sports, it is very difficult to compare stars of different eras owing to the changes in the sport and regulations.\n\nWorldwide appeal \n\nDespite having the highest budget in all of auto racing, Formula One racing has often been accused of being unexciting when compared to less expensive categories. The differences in driver ability are usually dwarfed when compared to the relative speed of the different makes of cars, and on-track overtaking is very rare due to the aerodynamics of trailing cars being adversely affected by the car in front (making overtaking only possible by very risky and thus rarely taken chances, or a much faster car trailing a slower one). So, beginning in the 2011 season F1 adopted 2 new innovations to help with passing/overtaking and to bring a little more excitement to the races. These innovations are \"DRS\" and the \"KERS\" systems. The DRS (Drag Reduction System) allows for one of the horizontal fins/blade on the rear spoiler to be \"lifted\" open which reduces the downforce and increases the race car speed. This system is only operable on straightaways where rear downforce is not as important. The system cannot be activated unless the driver is within (1) second or less behind the car he is trying to pass. The DRS zones on each track are set by the F1 governing body. And although the system on is controlled by computers and timers, the driver has to activate it by pushing a button on the steering wheel when he wants to use it. The \"KERS\" (kinetic energy recovery system) grabs and stores the energy usually lost during braking (which has always been wasted) and stores the energy into the batteries. Again, when allowed and the driver wants to use this system it is a matter of pushing a button and the engine gets another 60-80 horse power for a short time. The system will deplete/discharge this stored energy quickly and the driver has to wait until it gets charged back up. Also the use of electronic driver aids such as semi-automatic gearboxes and traction control has been widely criticized by F1 fans around the globe. Traction control was banned in the 2008 Formula One season.\n\nThe sport is lesser-known in the United States than the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series or their mostly domestic open-wheel racing series, the IndyCar Series, but in terms of budgets and global TV audiences F1 is bigger than both combined.\n\nEstimates for Ferrari's racing budget in 1999 were around 240 million USD, and even tailender Minardi reportedly spent 50 million. Estimates of TV audiences are around 300 million per race.", "Lewis Carl Davidson Hamilton, MBE (born 7 January 1985) is a British Formula One racing driver from England, currently racing for the Mercedes AMG Petronas team. He is the , and Formula One World Champion.\n\nIn December 1995, at the age of ten, he approached McLaren team principal Ron Dennis at the Autosport Awards ceremony and told him, \"I want to race for you one day ... I want to race for McLaren.\" Less than three years later McLaren and Mercedes-Benz signed him to their Young Driver Support Programme. After winning the British Formula Renault, Formula Three Euroseries, and GP2 championships on his way up the racing career ladder, he drove for McLaren in 2007, making his Formula One debut 12 years after his initial encounter with Dennis. Hamilton's contract for the McLaren driver development program made him the youngest ever driver to secure a contract which later resulted in a Formula One drive.\n\nComing from a mixed background, with a black father and white mother, Hamilton is often labelled \"the first black driver in Formula One\", although Willy T. Ribbs tested a Formula One car in 1986. \n\nIn his first season in Formula One, Hamilton set numerous records while finishing second in the 2007 Formula One Championship, just one point behind Kimi Räikkönen. He won the World Championship the following season in dramatic fashion, becoming the then-youngest Formula One world champion in history before Sebastian Vettel broke the record two years later. Following his second world title in 2014, he was named BBC Sports Personality of the Year. In 2015, he became the first British driver in history to win consecutive F1 titles, and the second Brit to win three titles after Jackie Stewart. He also became the first English driver to reach that milestone. He is the only driver in the history of the sport to have won at least one race in each season he has competed to date, with McLaren from 2007 until 2012, and with Mercedes since 2013. He has more race victories than any other British driver in the history of Formula One and is currently third on the all-time wins list, with wins. \n\nEarly life\n\nHamilton was born on 7 January 1985 in Stevenage, Hertfordshire, England. Although widely reported as being named after American sprinter Carl Lewis, Hamilton states that this is not the case. Hamilton's mother, Carmen (Larbalestier), is white British, while his father, Anthony Hamilton, is black British, making him mixed-race; Anthony Hamilton's parents moved to the UK from Grenada in the 1950s. Lewis Hamilton's parents separated when he was two; as a result of this, he lived with his mother and half-sisters Nicola and Samantha until he was twelve, when he started living with his father, stepmother Linda and half-brother Nicolas, also a professional racing driver, who has cerebral palsy. In early 2011, Nicolas signed with Total Control Racing to start a racing career in the 2011 Renault Clio Cup. Hamilton was raised a Roman Catholic. \n\nHamilton's father bought him a radio-controlled car in 1991, which gave him his first taste of racing competition. Hamilton finished second in the national BRCA championship the following year. He said of the time: \"I was racing these remote-controlled cars and winning club championships against adults\". As a result of this his father bought him his first go-kart as a Christmas present at the age of six. His father told him that he would support his racing career as long as he worked hard at school. Supporting his son became problematic, which caused him to take redundancy from his position as an IT Manager and become a contractor. He was sometimes employed in up to three jobs at a time, while still managing to find enough time to attend all Hamilton's races. He later set up his own computer company as well as working as a full-time manager for Hamilton. Hamilton ended his working relationship with his father in early 2010 and subsequently signed a management deal in March 2011 with Simon Fuller's firm XIX Entertainment. In November 2014, Hamilton announced that he would not be renewing his management contract with Fuller. \n\nHamilton was educated at The John Henry Newman School, a voluntary aided Catholic secondary school in Stevenage, Hertfordshire. Alongside his interest for racing, he played association football for his school team with England international midfielder Ashley Young. Hamilton said that if Formula One had not worked for him he would have been a footballer, being a big fan of Arsenal F.C. or a cricketer, having played both for his school teams as a youngster. He subsequently attended, in February 2001, Cambridge Arts and Sciences (CATS), a private sixth-form college in Cambridge. At the age of five Hamilton took up karate to defend himself as a result of bullying at school. At around 12, he learned to ride a unicycle, as part of his karting rivalry with future F1 Mercedes teammate, Nico Rosberg, who could already ride one. \n\nEarly career\n\nKarting\n\nHamilton began karting in 1993 at the age of eight, at the Rye House Kart Circuit and quickly began winning races and Cadet class championships. At the age of ten he approached McLaren F1 team boss Ron Dennis for an autograph, and told him, \"Hi. I'm Lewis Hamilton. I won the British Championship and one day I want to be racing your cars.\" Dennis wrote in his autograph book, \"Phone me in nine years, we'll sort something out then.\" Hamilton drove for Martin Hines's Zip Young Guns Karting Team. From the Cadet ranks, he progressed through to Junior Yamaha (1997) and Ron Dennis actually called him in 1998 after Hamilton won an additional Super One series and his second British championship. Dennis delivered on his promise and signed Hamilton to the McLaren driver development program. This contract included an option of a future F1 seat, which would eventually make Hamilton the youngest ever driver to secure a contract which later resulted in an F1 drive.\n\nHamilton continued his progress in the Intercontinental A (1999), Formula A (2000) and Formula Super A (2001) ranks, and became European Champion in 2000 with maximum points. In Formula A and Formula Super A, racing for TeamMBM.com, his team mate was Nico Rosberg who would later drive for the Williams and Mercedes teams in Formula One; they would later team up again for Mercedes in 2013. Following his karting successes the British Racing Drivers' Club made him a \"Rising Star\" Member in 2000. \n\nIn 2001, Michael Schumacher made a one-off return to karts and competed against Hamilton along with other future F1 drivers Vitantonio Liuzzi and Nico Rosberg. Hamilton ended the final in seventh, four places behind Schumacher. Although the two saw little of each other on the track Schumacher praised the young Briton (see quote box). \n\nFormula Renault and Formula Three\n\nHamilton began his car racing career in the 2001 British Formula Renault Winter Series. Despite crashing on his third lap in the car in testing, he finished fifth overall in the winter series. This led to a full 2002 Formula Renault UK campaign with Manor Motorsport. Hamilton finished third overall with three wins and three pole positions. He remained with Manor for another year and won the championship with ten wins and 419 points to the two wins and 377 points of his nearest rival, Alex Lloyd. Having clinched the championship, Hamilton missed the last two races of the season to make his debut in the season finale of the British Formula 3 Championship. Here he was less successful: in the first race he was forced out with a puncture, and in the second he crashed out and was taken to hospital after a collision with his team-mate Tor Graves. He did show his speed at both the Macau Grand Prix and Korea Super Prix, in the latter he qualified on pole position in his first visit to the track and in only his fourth F3 race. Asked in 2002 about the prospect of becoming one of the youngest ever Formula One drivers, Hamilton replied that his goal was \"not to be the youngest in F1 ...[but] to be experienced and then show what I can do in F1\".\n\nLater in 2004, Williams would announce that they had come close to signing him but were refused the opportunity due to BMW, their engine supplier at the time, refusing to fund Hamilton's career. Hamilton eventually re-signed with McLaren, and made his debut with Manor in the 2004 Formula 3 Euro Series. They won one race and Hamilton ended the year fifth in the championship. He also won the Bahrain F3 Superprix and raced one of the Macau F3 Grand Prix. Hamilton first tested for McLaren in late 2004 at Silverstone. \n\nHamilton moved to the reigning Euro Series champions ASM for the 2005 season and dominated the championship, winning 15 of the 20 rounds. This would have been 16 but for being disqualified from one win at Spa-Francorchamps on a technical infringement that caught out several other drivers. He also won the Marlboro Masters of Formula 3 at Zandvoort. After the season British magazine Autosport featured him in their \"Top 50 Drivers of 2005\" issue, ranking Hamilton 24th. \n\nGP2\n\nDue to his success in Formula Three, he moved to ASM's sister GP2 team ART Grand Prix for 2006. Just like their sister team in F3, ART were the leaders of the field and reigning champions having taken the 2005 GP2 crown with Nico Rosberg. Hamilton won the GP2 championship at his first attempt, beating Nelson Piquet, Jr. and Timo Glock.\n\nHis performances included a dominant win at the Nürburgring, despite serving a penalty for speeding in the pit lane. At his home race at Silverstone, supporting the , Hamilton overtook two rivals at Becketts, a series of high-speed (up to 150 mph in a GP2 car) bends where overtaking is rare. In Istanbul he recovered from a spin that left him in eighteenth place to take second position in the final corners. He won the title in unusual circumstances, inheriting the final point he needed after Giorgio Pantano was stripped of fastest lap in the Monza feature race. In the sprint race, though he finished second with Piquet sixth, he finished twelve points clear of his rival. \n\nHis 2006 GP2 championship coincided with a vacancy at McLaren following the departure of Juan Pablo Montoya to NASCAR and Kimi Räikkönen to Ferrari. After months of speculation on whether Hamilton, Pedro de la Rosa or Gary Paffett would be paired with defending champion Fernando Alonso for , Hamilton was confirmed as the team's second driver. He was told of McLaren's decision on 30 September, but the news was not made public until 24 November, for fear that it would be overshadowed by Michael Schumacher's retirement announcement. \n\nFormula One career\n\nMcLaren (2007–2012)\n\n2007\n\nIt was announced prior to the start of the season that Hamilton would be partnering defending double World Champion Fernando Alonso who had joined McLaren after leaving Renault. On his debut at the , he finished third in the race, becoming the thirteenth driver to finish on the podium in his first F1 career race (excluding those in the first ever World Championship round). In Bahrain and Barcelona, Hamilton finished second behind Felipe Massa to take the lead in the drivers championship. This meant that Hamilton broke Bruce McLaren's record of being the youngest driver to ever lead the world championship. \n\nHamilton finished second behind Alonso at Monaco and afterwards he suggested he was prevented from racing his team mate. The FIA cleared McLaren following an investigation. Hamilton had both his first pole position and first victory of his F1 career in the in Montreal. A week later Hamilton won the , becoming the first Briton since John Watson in 1983 to win an F1 race in the US, and only the second person, after Jacques Villeneuve, to win more than one race in his rookie Formula One season since the first year of the Championship.\n\nBy finishing third at Magny-Cours behind Ferrari drivers Kimi Räikkönen and Felipe Massa, Hamilton extended his lead in the Driver's Championship to 14 points. In Hamilton's first home Grand Prix at Silverstone he finished third. Having secured this podium finish meant he equalled Jim Clark's record of 9 consecutive podium finishes for a British driver.\n\nDuring qualifying for the , Hamilton crashed at the Schumacher chicane after a problem with the wheel nut caused by the wheel gun used on his car. He was taken to the circuit's medical centre on a stretcher with an oxygen mask and drip, but was conscious throughout. He was unable to complete qualifying and his existing laptime was surpassed by all other competitors during Q3, thus he qualified in tenth position. After a final medical check on Sunday morning, Hamilton was cleared to race. During a heavy rainstorm which caused the race to be red-flagged Hamilton slid off into a gravel trap, however as he kept his engine running he was lifted back on to the circuit and able to rejoin the race after the restart. His ninth-place finish in this race was his first non-podium and non-points finish. Controversially, Hamilton became the first and only driver to have his car recovered by a crane and put back on the track during a Formula One race. This led some to the conclusion Hamilton was getting preferential treatment by the FIA as all other drivers who went off into the gravel were not craned back onto the track. The FIA subsequently banned the use of mechanical assistance to move a car back on track afterwards. \n\nHamilton won the from pole position following a controversial qualifying session. Alonso had set the fastest time, but was relegated five places down the grid to sixth for preventing Hamilton from leaving the pit lane in time to complete his final qualifying lap. After the race Hamilton declared that he had restored his relationship with Alonso. At the Turkish Grand Prix Hamilton suffered a puncture which saw him finish in fifth place. \n\nAlonso beat Hamilton in the Italian and Belgian Grands Prix, leaving Hamilton with a two-point lead in the title race. However he extended his lead to 12 points after winning the in heavy rain after Alonso crashed. Following the race Hamilton was investigated by the race stewards over his involvement in an incident behind the safety car, which saw both Sebastian Vettel and Mark Webber crash out of the race while following him. The trio were cleared on the Friday of the weekend. \n\nAt the Chinese Grand Prix, Hamilton started from pole, but failed to finish after McLaren left him out for too long on worn tyres, (despite advice from Bridgestone), and he slid into a gravel trap as he came into the pit lane. Hamilton thus went into the final race of the season four and seven points ahead of Alonso and Räikkönen respectively. \n\nIn the Hamilton finished in seventh place and Räikkönen won, which meant that Hamilton came second in the championship by one point. On the first lap Hamilton was passed by several cars and dropped to eighth place. On the ninth lap of the race Hamilton could not select a gear and ending up coasting for 40 seconds. He recovered to seventh place but Ferrari switched their two drivers allowing the championship to go to Räikkönen. Hamilton took the record of Youngest World Drivers' Championship runner-up, at 22 years and 288 days, previously held by Kimi Räikkönen at 23 years and 360 days (since beaten by Sebastian Vettel in 2009).\n\nOn 21 October 2007 it was announced that the FIA were investigating BMW Sauber and Williams for fuel irregularities, the BMW drivers had finished in fifth and sixth place, and if they were to be excluded Hamilton would be promoted to fifth and would win the 2007 Drivers World Championship by one point over Räikkönen. Ultimately no penalty whatsoever was given to any team as there was \"sufficient doubt as to render it inappropriate to impose a penalty\", though McLaren officially appealed this decision. Hamilton subsequently told the BBC he did not want to win an F1 title through the disqualifications of other drivers. \n\nTeam tensions\n\nHamilton's relationship with McLaren team boss Ron Dennis dates back to 1995, with the first indication that Hamilton was unhappy with his team appearing after he finished second at Monaco in 2007. After post-race comments made by Hamilton which suggested he had been forced into a supporting role, the FIA initiated an inquiry to determine whether McLaren had broken rules by enforcing team orders. McLaren denied favouring double world champion Fernando Alonso, and the FIA subsequently vindicated the team, stating that: \"McLaren were able to pursue an optimum team strategy because they had a substantial advantage over all other cars. They did nothing which could be described as interfering with the race result\".\n\nThe tensions within the team surfaced again at the 2007 Hungarian Grand Prix. During the final qualifying session for the race Hamilton was delayed in the pits by Alonso and thus unable to set a final lap time before the end of the session. McLaren pointed out that Hamilton had disobeyed an earlier instruction to let Alonso pass in qualifying, for fear of losing his own position. Alonso was relegated to sixth place on the starting grid, thus elevating Hamilton (who had originally qualified second) to first, while McLaren were docked constructors championship points. Hamilton said he thought Alonso's penalty was \"quite light if anything\" and only regretted the loss of constructors' points. Hamilton was reported to have sworn at Dennis on the team radio following the incident. British motorsport journal Autosport claimed that this \"[led] Dennis to throw his headphones on the pit wall in disgust (a gesture that was misinterpreted by many to be in reaction to Alonso's pole)\". However McLaren later issued a statement on behalf of Hamilton which denied the use of any profanity. As a result of these events, the relationship between Hamilton and Alonso temporarily collapsed, with the pair not on speaking terms for a short period. In the aftermath it was reported that Hamilton had been targeted by Luca di Montezemolo regarding a Ferrari drive for . \n\nFollowing the stewards' investigation into the incident at the 2007 Japanese Grand Prix, Alonso stated: \"I'm not thinking of this championship any more, it's been decided off the track. The drivers' briefing has no purpose. You go there to hear what Charlie Whiting and the other officials say. Twenty one drivers have an opinion, Charlie and the officials another, and so it's like talking to a wall\". \n\nThe rivalry between Hamilton and teammate Alonso led to speculation that one of the pair would leave McLaren at the end of the 2007 season and Alonso and McLaren subsequently terminated their contract by mutual consent on 2 November 2007. \n\n2008\n\nOn 14 December 2007, it was confirmed that Heikki Kovalainen who drove for Renault in 2007 would drive the second car for McLaren-Mercedes for the 2008 Formula One season alongside Hamilton. In January 2008, Hamilton signed a new five-year multimillion-pound contract to stay with McLaren-Mercedes until the end of the 2012 season. \n\nHamilton won the first race of the 2008 season, the , having qualified on pole position. In Malaysia, he finished fifth after he had started from ninth on the grid, serving a penalty for impeding Nick Heidfeld's qualifying lap. He was back on the podium in Spain finishing third. Hamilton finished second in Turkey, and won the , putting him in the lead of the championship. In Montreal, Hamilton crashed into the back of Räikkönen during the race, after failing to see that the Finn was waiting at a red light at the end of the pit lane as the whole field went past under the guide of the safety car. Both cars were forced to retire and Hamilton was given a 10 position grid penalty for the next race, the . Despite an error in qualifying that saw him start fourth on the grid, Hamilton went on to win the in difficult, wet conditions. His performance was stated as being one of his best drives to date. Hamilton himself said in the post race press conference that it was his most difficult and most meaningful win. In the next race at Hockenheim, Hamilton won the race despite a tactical blunder by the team. \n\nHamilton won the , however he was later judged to have gained an unfair advantage by cutting a chicane when he used a tarmac run off area to avoid hitting Kimi Räikkönen. McLaren said that their telemetry showed Hamilton backed off to let Räikkönen past but Hamilton was given a 25-second penalty, thereby dropping him to third. As a result, his main title rival Massa inherited the win. Hamilton's lead in the Drivers' Championship was cut to two points, and a subsequent appeal by McLaren to the FIA World Motor Sport Council was rejected on the grounds that the case was inadmissible. \n\nThe Italian Grand Prix saw Hamilton finish in seventh place. This result cut Hamilton's lead in the Championship to one point. Hamilton finished third at the next race in Singapore, while Massa failed to score any points, allowing Hamilton to increase his championship lead to seven points. At Fuji, Hamilton was given a drive-through penalty for forcing other cars off the track when he made an error on the first lap. Before he could serve the penalty Hamilton attempted to pass Massa who hit him after the Ferraris driver made a mistake. Massa was later given a drive-through penalty for this move. Hamilton could only finish in 12th position, however Massa finished seventh after being given an extra point after a penalty was given to Toro Rosso's Sébastien Bourdais. This meant that with just two races to go Hamilton led the World Championship by five points from Massa. At the , Hamilton won the race from Felipe Massa and Kimi Räikkönen, taking a 7-point lead in the World Championship into the last race of the season. Speaking afterwards, Hamilton said \"All weekend we have had God on our side as always, and the team did a phenomenal job in preparing the car, which has been a dream to drive.\" \n\nAt the , Hamilton needed to finish at least in fifth position if Massa won the race to secure the World Championship. In mixed conditions, Hamilton became the youngest Formula One World Champion as he snatched the championship on the very last corner. Just before the race began a rain shower hit and Hamilton ran in fourth place before dropping down to sixth to put on dry weather tyres. Hamilton moved back to fourth place after passing Fisichella and overtaking the three stopping Vettel. Hamilton held Vettel off and after they pitted for wet weather tyres as another shower he was fifth. But with two laps to go Vettel overtook Hamilton and the Brit could not get back past, but on the final lap he and Vettel made up an eighteen-second gap on Glock who had stayed out on dry tyres and Hamilton overtook him for fifth place and the championship by one point in the very last corner as Massa won the race. This meant that Hamilton had clinched the 2008 Formula One World Championship, becoming the youngest driver to win the title, as well as the first black driver. He is also the first British driver to win the World Championship since Damon Hill triumphed in 1996. \n\nRacial abuse\n\nOn 4 February 2008, Hamilton was verbally heckled and otherwise abused during pre-season testing at the Circuit de Catalunya in Catalonia by several Spanish spectators who wore black face paint and black wigs, as well as shirts bearing the words \"Hamilton's \". Hamilton became widely unpopular in Spain because of his rivalry with Spanish former team-mate Fernando Alonso. The FIA have warned Spanish authorities about the repetition of such behaviour. In reaction to this behaviour, the FIA announced on 13 February 2008 that it will launch a \"Race Against Racism\" campaign. \n\nShortly before the 2008 Brazilian Grand Prix, a website owned by the Spanish branch of the New York-based advertising agency TBWA and named \"pinchalaruedadeHamilton\" (burst Hamilton's tyre) was featured in the British media. The website contained an animated image of Interlagos that allowed users to leave nails and porcupines on the track for Hamilton's car to run over. Among thousands of comments left since 2007, some included racial insults. His rival Fernando Alonso condemned the racist supporters. \n\n2009\n\nHamilton started the season-opening from 18th place on the grid after the McLaren team incurred a penalty for changing his gearbox during qualifying. Hamilton benefited from a late crash between Red Bull's Sebastian Vettel and BMW Sauber's Robert Kubica to move into fourth place by the end of the race. He was then promoted to third after Jarno Trulli was penalised for overtaking him under safety-car conditions. During a post-race stewards' hearing, Hamilton and McLaren officials told stewards they had not purposely let Trulli pass, but it was revealed by release of the McLaren race radio communication that this was not true. Hamilton was then disqualified from the race for providing \"misleading evidence\" during the stewards' hearing. He later privately apologised to FIA race director Charlie Whiting for having lied to the stewards. He went on to describe the incident as the hardest week of his life, and considered quitting Formula One. \n\nHamilton scored minor points at the Malaysian, Chinese and Bahrain Grands Prix. Hamilton's fortunes were reversed at the Hungaroring, the tenth round of the season where he won the race, 11.529 seconds clear of Räikkönen to take his 10th career win and the first for a KERS-equipped car. McLaren's return to form continued in Valencia, where Hamilton finished second. In , Hamilton took his second win of the season. He finished third at the Japanese and Brazilian Grands Prix. In the inaugural , Hamilton led the race, but retired on lap 20 due to a rear brake problem, his first technical-related retirement in Formula One.\n\n2010\n\nFor the new season Hamilton would drive alongside Jenson Button, after Heikki Kovalainen moved to Lotus Racing. \n\nHamilton finished third in Bahrain, In Australia, Hamilton ended the race in sixth place, after a late-race collision with Mark Webber. In Malaysia a misjudgement on the weather by his team in qualifying, left him on tyres that were unfavourable for the wet conditions. This restricted him to 20th on the grid for the race, but he made his way through the field to finish in sixth place. Hamilton was given a warning during the race, after he weaved four times on a straight as he tried to break the tow that Vitaly Petrov was receiving and was not intending to block him. After the race the rules were clarified by stewards to only allow a driver to make one move during an overtaking manoeuvre.\n\nHamilton achieved a second-place finish in China behind Jenson Button. This completed McLaren's first 1–2 finish since the 2007 Italian Grand Prix. Hamilton was involved in a pit lane incident with Red Bull driver Sebastian Vettel, for which both later received a reprimand from race stewards. In Monaco Hamilton qualified and finished 5th. In the Grand Prix, Hamilton claimed his first victory of the 2010 season as he and Button completed a 1–2. Hamilton qualified on pole for the , continuing a 100% pole record at Circuit Gilles Villeneuve. After setting his pole lap, Hamilton received instructions from his team to stop on circuit due to a lack of fuel in the car which would not be equivalent to the level necessary for a sample to be taken by the FIA. Hamilton was reprimanded after failing to complete his in-lap in a sufficient time, while his team received a $10,000 fine. But Hamilton went on to win the race and take the lead in the Drivers' Championship after McLaren's third 1–2 of the season. In Valencia Alonso complained on his radio that Hamilton had gained an advantage by not following the safety car which led to the stewards giving Hamilton a drive through penalty. However Alonso and the Ferrari were furious as the length of time to make a decision meant that the penalty did not alter the result of the race as Hamilton finished second. This led to Hamilton to accuse Alonso of \"sour grapes\", although the pair reconciled before the next race. \n\nHe finished second at his home race at Silverstone, and followed it up with fourth at the . Despite running into the gravel at Spa-Francorchamps, Hamilton won his third race of the season and reclaimed the championship lead. At the , Hamilton finished fifth. In South Korea, Hamilton finished second and finished fourth at the . In the final race of the season in Abu Dhabi Hamilton finished second to Vettel in the race, who broke Hamilton's record for being the youngest ever Formula One World Champion.\n\n2011\n\nAt the start of the 2011 season Hamilton dismissed Red Bull Racing as \"just a drinks company\". Hamilton began the season qualifying and finishing second in the , despite having to deal with a damaged floor on his McLaren. In the , he qualified second and finished seventh on-the-road, struggling partly due to tyre wear and being tagged by Ferrari's Fernando Alonso in the closing stages. Hamilton received a 20-second time penalty post-race for weaving whilst defending and unsuitable driving, which dropped Hamilton to eighth place. Hamilton took his first win of the season in China. He then finished fourth in Turkey, and second in Spain. \n\nIn Monaco, he qualified tenth after Q3 was red-flagged before he could set a competitive time due to a heavy crash from Sergio Pérez. During the race Hamilton received a drive through penalty after he bumped into Massa at the Hotel Harpin. Later on, Alguersuari crashed into Hamilton, breaking his rear wing; the race was red-flagged as Petrov crashed at the same time allowing his team to fix the car. On the restart he had a collision with Maldonado at Sainte Devote, which later he was given a 20-second time penalty for but it did not affect his finishing position. In an interview with the BBC Hamilton, said that he had been to the stewards five races out of six thus far in the season and felt victimised. When prompted why he had been to the stewards so much Hamilton replied \"Maybe it's because I'm black. That's what Ali G says.\" He later returned to the stewards and explained the joke and escaped further punishment. \n\nAt the , Hamilton collided with Webber at the first corner before rejoining behind his team mate. A few laps later Hamilton tried to capitalise on a mistake attempted to pass teammate Button who pushed the former into the pitwall causing Hamilton to retire with a broken driveshaft, both agreed that it was one of those things. In Valencia and Silverstone Hamilton finished fourth after holding off Massa whilst managing high tyre wear in the former and conserve fuel in the later. In Germany, Hamilton took his second victory of 2011 as he held off Webber and Alonso. In Hungary Hamilton had five pitstops and a drive-through penalty for sending Paul di Resta onto the grass as he finished fourth. He finished fourth at Monza after a race long battle with Michael Schumacher, who he refused to blame the German after his aggressive tactics. \n\nIn , Hamilton caused an accident with Felipe Massa which left Hamilton needing a new front wing and a drive through penalty. Hamilton was accused by Massa of being \"incapable of using his brain,\" during a post race interview. Whilst the pair conducted interviews, Massa grabbed Hamilton's shoulder saying \"Good job, man, well done\" which Hamilton responded by telling the Brazilian to leave him alone. Before the Japanese Grand Prix Hamilton insisted that he had not done anything wrong during the season. During the race Hamilton suffered a puncture before once again tangling with Massa; despite Ferrari pushing for Hamilton to be punished, Hamilton escaped a reprimand as he finished fifth. Hamilton later told Massa to \"grow up\", after admitting that his Formula One career had driven over a cliff. \n\nIn Korea, Hamilton qualified on pole position, ending a run of 16 consecutive pole positions for Red Bull. He led only until turn four on lap 1, where World Champion Sebastian Vettel overtook him and went on to win the race as Hamilton finished second. At the inaugural race in India, Hamilton recorded the second-fastest time in qualifying, but was penalised three places on the starting grid, after a yellow flag infraction in Friday practice. Hamilton finished seventh after yet another incident with Massa which left the Brazilian facing the penalty as Hamilton had to replace the front wing. In Abu Dhabi, Hamilton qualified second and won the race. In Brazil Hamilton and Massa ended their feud as he retired from the race and finish fifth overall in the championship. \n\n2012\n\nHamilton remained at McLaren alongside Button for the 2012 season. Hamilton qualified in pole position for the , but finished third after being passed by Button at the start, and by Vettel after pitting before a safety car. Hamilton again qualified on pole for the , but in the race was passed early on by Fernando Alonso and Sergio Pérez, finishing third. Hamilton took his third consecutive third-place finish in China, with Nico Rosberg and Button ahead. Hamilton qualified in second place in Bahrain, but during the race, a series of poor pitstops put him out of contention, and he finished eighth. Hamilton was also involved in a controversial racing incident with Rosberg, with Rosberg appearing to push Hamilton off track while he attempted to overtake. Hamilton qualified on pole position for the , but had to stop the car on track in order for a reputable fuel sample to be given post-qualifying. The stewards decided he had breached qualifying rules introduced after a similar incident involving Hamilton at the 2010 Canadian Grand Prix. Race stewards excluded him from the qualifying results, and demoted him to the back of the grid; but despite this, Hamilton finished eighth, ahead of Button, who had started in tenth.\n\nHamilton achieved his first victory of the season at the  – winning the race for the third time – after overtaking Fernando Alonso in the closing stages. \n\nHamilton won the on 29 July 2012 to claim his second win of the season. Hamilton, along with championship leader Fernando Alonso, retired from the after being involved in a multiple car accident on the first corner of the race. Romain Grosjean was deemed responsible for causing the accident and was given a one-race ban. Hamilton bounced back with pole position for the , and led for the majority of the race to claim his third victory of the season and keep his hopes of winning the Drivers' Championship alive. Hamilton again qualified on pole at the , but suffered a gearbox failure whilst leading the race. He also retired from the lead of the , before he won the in Austin. Hamilton's season ended with another pole position and retirement in the Brazilian GP, when he was involved in a collision with Nico Hülkenberg while leading in the late stages.\n\nMercedes (2013–present)\n\n2013\n\nOn 28 September 2012, it was announced after much speculation that Hamilton would be leaving McLaren after the 2012 season to join the Mercedes-Benz works team for the season onwards, partnering Nico Rosberg after signing a three-year contract with the team. \n\nIn his first race weekend for Mercedes, the , Hamilton qualified in third and ended the race in fifth place. Hamilton finished third in Malaysia to take his first podium for the team, although Nico Rosberg was prevented from attempting to overtake him by team orders. At the following race in China, Hamilton secured his first pole position for Mercedes.\n\nAt Monaco after being out-qualified by his team-mate Rosberg for the third successive race, Hamilton admitted that he was struggling to control the car under braking. Prior to the race, both Red Bull and Ferrari had lodged formal complaints against Mercedes for taking part in what was determined to be an illegal 1000 km tyre test. Neither Mercedes drivers received any punishment for the breach of rules, and Mercedes was given a reprimand.\n\nAt the , Hamilton secured his first race win as a Mercedes driver, the first British driver to win a Formula One race in a Mercedes works car since Stirling Moss did so at the 1955 British Grand Prix, at Silverstone. He won the race from an unexpected pole position, eventually crossing the line nearly 11 seconds ahead of second-place finisher Kimi Räikkönen. By winning the Hungarian Grand Prix, Hamilton continued his personal record of winning at least one race prior to the mid-season break, and went into the summer break in the fourth place in the Drivers' Championship. At the he secured his fifth and last pole position of the season and finished the race third. Although he did not score any podiums for the rest of the season, a string of point finishes helped him end the season in fourth place.\n\n2014\n\nA new rule for the 2014 season allowed the drivers to pick a unique car number that they will use for their entire career. Hamilton picked No. 44, the same number he used during his karting days. \n\nDuring pre-season testing in Jerez, Hamilton along with Mercedes team-mate Rosberg showed themselves as the team to beat. This was realised at the where Hamilton took pole. He was forced to retire, but Rosberg dominated to win by over 20 seconds. In Malaysia, Hamilton's potential was realised when he won from pole in a Mercedes one-two, the first since . In Bahrain, Mercedes were unstoppable with Rosberg claiming pole in a Mercedes front-row lock-out. Hamilton got a better start but still battled hard with Rosberg through the early part of the race. Mercedes chose split strategies for their drivers, and Hamilton opened up a gap on the faster option tyres. But the safety car was called out after Esteban Gutiérrez rolled his Sauber. Hamilton was forced to battle Rosberg in a gripping race to the finish with tight wheel-to-wheel racing. In the end Hamilton won, taking consecutive victories for the first time since the season, when he won in Turkey and Canada. \t\n\nMercedes's dominance was further confirmed in China where Hamilton took pole and then led every lap of the race while his teammate finished in second place. This completed a hat-trick of wins, the first of Hamilton's career. Mercedes continued to dominate in Spain where Hamilton once again set pole position and went on to win the race – his fourth successive win – despite close competition from team-mate Nico Rosberg who finished in second place. At Monaco, Hamilton qualified 2nd behind Rosberg. Rosberg was investigated by the stewards after he went down the escape road at the Mirabeau corner. The resulting yellow flags forced Hamilton to back off in the final moments of the session, which could have cost Hamilton a chance at pole position. Rosberg was cleared of any wrongdoing in that incident. Rosberg won the race with Hamilton finishing 2nd. During qualifying for the , Hamilton had a brake failure and started 20th but managed to finish 3rd. An engine fire in qualifying for the meant he would start from the pit lane from where he again managed to climb to third ahead of Rosberg, despite being ordered by his race engineer to let his teammate past. \n\nAt the first race after the summer break in Belgium, Hamilton took the lead from Rosberg at the start but a collision between them on lap two punctured his rear tyre and he later retired from the race. He then won the Italian, and Singapore Grands Prix each from pole to take the lead in the Drivers' Championship. This was followed by victories at the  – which was stopped due to heavy rain – the Russian and United States Grands Prix to achieve five consecutive victories for the first time in his career. His tenth victory of the season was also his 32nd career victory, the most of any British driver. Hamilton became the World Champion after winning the , beating team mate Rosberg by 67 points, after Rosberg's car encountered mechanical trouble during the race. Hamilton said in the podium interview \"This is the greatest day of my life\". At the end of the year, Hamilton was awarded with the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Award. \n\n2015\n\nHamilton enjoyed a continuation of Mercedes's dominance heading into the season, as the new W06 Hybrid completed more laps in pre-season testing than any rival car, and did so using just one power unit. At the opening race in Australia, Hamilton qualified in pole position, 0.594 seconds quicker than team-mate Rosberg and 1.391 seconds clear of Felipe Massa's Williams in third. Hamilton then won the race ahead of Rosberg in second, with Sebastian Vettel's Ferrari in third, 34 seconds back. In Monaco he lost first position to his team mate Rosberg after leading the race for 65 laps due to a pit-stop error made by his team, eventually finishing third.\n\nAhead of the Monaco Grand Prix, Mercedes announced they had extended the contract with Hamilton for three additional years, keeping him at the squad until the end of the 2018 season. This followed months of widely publicised contract talks between the driver, who chose to negotiate on his own behalf, and the team. The deal is reportedly worth more than 100 million pounds over the full three years, making Hamilton one of the best paid drivers in Formula One. It was also reported that the extension contract granted Hamilton the right to maintain his own image rights, which is considered unusual in the sport, and keep his championship winning cars as well as the trophies he collects. \n\nAfter a win-less start to the European round, Hamilton went on to win the British Grand Prix for the second time in a row and third overall, also surpassing Jackie Stewart's 45-year-old record of laps led in eighteen consecutive Grands Prix. He finished 6th in an eventful Hungarian Grand Prix, ending his run of 16 consecutive podium finishes, the second-longest in F1 history. Hamilton won the next two races at Spa and Monza and extended his championship lead over Nico Rosberg, who was forced to retire in the latter race due to engine failure, to 53 points. At the Singapore Grand Prix, Hamilton was only able qualify in 5th ahead of teammate Nico Rosberg, and had moved up to 4th in the race before he was forced to retire due to a power unit issue. By winning the United States Grand Prix, Hamilton secured his third Drivers' Championship with three races left to run. \n\n2016\n\nJust before the season opener in Australia, Hamilton was pictured riding a motorcycle in New Zealand on the public road whilst using a mobile phone, against the law. Though urged by triple world champion Jackie Stewart to apologise, Hamilton refused to comment on the incident. At the season opening Australian Grand Prix, Hamilton qualified on pole however made a poor start to the race before recovering to finish second behind his Mercedes teammate Nico Rosberg. In the second race of the season, the Bahrain Grand Prix, Hamilton again qualified on pole. On the first lap however there was a collision between him and Bottas with Bottas getting a drive-through penalty. Hamilton finished the race in third behind Rosberg and Räikkönen. In the next race, the Chinese Grand Prix, Hamilton did not set a time in qualifying so started at the back of the grid. He got as high up fifth but was overtaken by Räikkönen and Ricciardo near the end of the race to finish seventh. In the fourth race of the season, the Russian Grand Prix, Hamilton did not set a time in the third part of qualifying so he started in tenth. Hamilton came second behind Rosberg despite having zero water pressure for the last 16 laps. In the next race in Spain, Hamilton qualified on pole. On the opening lap a collision between Hamilton and Rosberg meant that both Mercedes cars retired instantly. The stewards decided that the collision was a racing incident. On 3 July 2016, Hamilton went on to win the Austrian Grand Prix despite having a last lap collision with Rosberg. On 10 July 2016, Hamilton completed a hat-trick of home wins by triumphing in the British Grand Prix to cut his Mercedes team-mate's championship lead to just one point. \n\nHelmet\n\nHamilton's helmet was made yellow so that his father could tell which kart his son was driving back in his karting days. Hamilton chose the colours blue, green and red and they were originally in a ribbon design; however before entering F1, Hamilton felt that the design was \"a bit old hat\" so it was changed. In later years a white ring was added and the ribbons moved forward to make room for adverts and logos. \n\nDuring the 2010 Monaco Grand Prix, Hamilton had an altered helmet design with the addition of a roulette wheel image on the top. Hamilton had said, \"I'll also be wearing a specially-painted helmet for the occasion. When you see it, you'll know why I'll be hoping for it to swing the odds in my favour.\" \n\nHamilton's helmet underwent one major change during his F1 career. From his debut in 2007 until 2010 his helmet was yellow with a metallic green ribbon on the upper visor and a metallic blue ribbon on the lower visor (these being visually near identical to the helmet of Ayrton Senna, apart from the fact that their designs did not loop all around the back of the helmet, but were cut off either side of the helmet.) It furthermore featured a bright red diagonal patch where these stripes bordered the visor. The yellow however was not a rich, sunburst yellow like Senna's helmet but was a whiter, pastel yellow.\n\nFrom 2011 onwards Hamilton's helmet was changed whereby it no longer resembled Senna's helmet as much as it had done. The green and blue ribbons were changed to the diagonal style of the red patch, with a single red stripe behind the helmet with the letters \"Hamilton\" printed within it.\n\nFor the 2011 Brazilian Grand Prix, Hamilton wore a special helmet that was a fusion of his post 2011 helmet, and that of Ayrton Senna. The helmet was auctioned after the race in aid of the Ayrton Senna Foundation. \n\nRacing record\n\nCareer summary\n\n* Season still in progress.\n\nComplete Formula 3 Euro Series results\n\n(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)\n\nComplete GP2 Series results\n\n(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)\n\nComplete Formula One results\n\n(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)\n\n* Season still in progress.\n Did not finish, but was classified as he had completed more than 90% of the race distance.\n Half points awarded as less than 75% of race distance was completed.\n\nFormula One records\n\nHamilton holds the following Formula One records:\n\n;Footnotes:\n\nPersonal life\n\nIn October 2007, Hamilton announced his intention to live in Switzerland, stating that this was because he wished to get away from the media scrutiny that he experienced living in the United Kingdom. Hamilton admitted under questioning on the television show Parkinson, which was broadcast on 10 November 2007, that taxation was partly responsible for his decision, in addition to wanting more privacy. Hamilton received public criticism from UK MPs including Liberal Democrat MP Bob Russell for avoiding UK taxes. He settled in Luins in Vaud canton on Lake Geneva; other Formula One drivers, including world champions Michael Schumacher, Kimi Räikkönen and Fernando Alonso, also live in Switzerland. Hamilton was one of several super-rich figures whose tax arrangements were singled out for criticism in a report by the charity Christian Aid in 2008. \n\nIn November 2007, Hamilton started dating Nicole Scherzinger, the lead singer of the American girl band Pussycat Dolls; it was announced in January 2010 that they split up to focus on their respective careers. However, they were seen together at the 2010 Turkish Grand Prix and at the Canadian Grand Prix in Montreal, on 13 June 2010. The couple split up and reunited numerous times between 2011 and 2013, but appeared to have got back together in November 2013. They split up again in February 2015. \t\n\nAt the start of 2012, he moved his personal residence from Switzerland to Monaco, which is also a tax haven. \n\nAt the start of 2013, Hamilton took delivery of a metallic red and black Bombardier Challenger 600 series private jet, tail plate number G-LCDH. \n\nHamilton was awarded an MBE by the Queen in the 2009 New Year Honours. \n\nOn 18 March 2009, Madame Tussauds unveiled a waxwork of Hamilton in his Vodafone McLaren Mercedes race suit. This wax replica cost around £150,000 and took over six months to complete. In 2012, Hamilton featured in the cartoon Tooned, alongside Jenson Button and comedian Alexander Armstrong.\n\nOn 18 December 2007, Hamilton was suspended from driving in France for a month after being caught speeding at 196 km/h on a French motorway. His Mercedes-Benz CLK was also impounded.\n\nTwo days before the 2010 Australian Grand Prix, Victoria Police witnessed Hamilton \"deliberately losing traction\" in his silver Mercedes-AMG C63, and impounded the car for 48 hours. Hamilton immediately released a statement of apology for \"driving in an over-exuberant manner\". After being charged with intentionally losing control of a vehicle, Hamilton was eventually fined A$500 (£288), being described as a \"Hoon\" [boy racer] by the magistrate. \n\nHamilton is a fan of art; one of his favourite artists is Andy Warhol. Prior to the 2014 United States Grand Prix, Hamilton wore a gold-framed version of Warhol's Cars, Mercedes-Benz 300 SL Coupe painting hanging from a chain around his neck.\n\nOne of Hamilton's favourite cars is the AC Cobra. He owns two unrestored 1967 models, one black and one red. In February 2015, it was reported that Hamilton had purchased a Ferrari LaFerrari from \"his rivals in Maranello.\" \n\nHamilton has an estimated personal fortune of £88m.", "In motorsport the pole position is the position at the inside of the front row at the start of a racing event. This position is typically given to the vehicle and driver with the best qualifying time in the trials before the race (the leader in the starting grid). This number-one qualifying driver is referred to as the pole sitter.\n\nGrid position is typically determined by a qualifying session prior to the race, where race participants compete to ascend to the number 1 grid slot, the driver, pilot, or rider having recorded fastest qualification time awarded the advantage of the number 1 grid slot (i.e. pole-position) ahead of all other vehicles for the start of the race. \n\nHistorically, the fastest qualifier was not necessarily the designated pole-sitter. Different sanctioning bodies in motor sport employ different qualifying formats in designating who starts from pole position. Often, a starting grid is derived either by current rank in the championship, or based on finishing position of a previous race. In particularly important events where multiple qualification attempts spanned several days, the qualification result was segmented or staggered, by which session a driver qualified, or by which particular day a driver set his qualification time, only drivers having qualified on the initial day eligible for pole position. In a phenomenon known as race rigging, where race promoters or sanctioning bodies invert their starting grid for the purpose of entertainment value (e.g., pack racing; to artificially stimulate passing), the slowest qualifier would be designated as pole-sitter. \n\nIn contrast to contemporary motorsport, where only a race participant is designated pole-sitter, prior to World War II, once upon a time the pace car was designated as official pole-sitter for the Indianapolis 500.\n\nOrigin\n\nThe term has its origins in horse racing, in which the fastest qualifying horse would be placed on the inside part of the course, next to the pole.\n\nFormula One\n\nOriginally in Grand Prix racing, grid positions, including pole, were determined by lottery among the drivers. Prior to the inception of the Formula 1 World Championship, the first instance of grid positions being determined by qualifying times was at the 1933 Monaco Grand Prix. Since then, the FIA have introduced many different qualifying systems to F1. From the long-standing one session on Friday and Saturday, to the current knockout style qualifying leaving 10 out of 22 drivers to battle for pole, there have been many changes to qualifying systems. Between 1996 and 2006, the FIA made 6 significant changes to the qualifying procedure, each with the intention of making the battle for pole more interesting to an F1 viewer at home.\n\nTraditionally, pole was always occupied by the fastest driver due to low-fuel qualifying. The race-fuel qualifying era between 2003 and 2009 briefly changed this. Despite the changing formats, drivers attempting pole were required between 2003 and 2009 to do qualifying laps with the fuel they would use to start the race the next day. An underfuelled slower car and driver would therefore be able to take pole ahead of a better but heavier-fueled car. In this situation, pole was not always advantageous to have in the race as the under-fueled driver would have to pit for more fuel before their rivals. With the race refueling ban introduced, low-fuel qualifying returned and these strategy decisions are no longer in play.\n\nAlso, when F1 enforced the 107% rule between 1996 and 2002, a driver's pole time might affect slower cars also posting times for qualifying, as cars that could not get within 107% of the pole time were disqualified for the race. Since the reintroduction of the rule in 2011, this only applies to the quickest first session (Q1) time, not the pole time.\n\nFIA Pole Trophy\n\nSince 2014, the FIA has awarded a trophy to the driver who wins the most pole positions in the season. \n\n(WC) indicates that the driver won the World Championship in the same season.\n\nIndyCar\n\nIndyCar uses four formats for qualifying: one for most oval tracks, one for Iowa Speedway, one for the Indianapolis 500, and another for road and street circuits. Oval qualifying is almost like the Indianapolis 500, with two laps, instead of four, averaged together with one attempt, although with just one session.\n\nAt Iowa, each car takes one qualifying lap, and the top six cars advance to the feature race for the pole position. Positions from 7th onward are assigned to their races, based on time, with cars in the odd-numbered finishing order starting in one race, and cars in the even-numbered finishing order starting in the second race. The finishing order for the odd-numbered race starts on the inside, starting in Row 6 (11th), and even-numbered race on the outside based on finishing position, again from Row 6 (12th), except for the top two in each race, which start in the inside and outside, respectively (Row 4 and 5) of the race for the pole position. The result of the feature race determines positions 1–10. All three races are 50 laps.\n\nOn road and street courses, cars are drawn randomly into two qualifying groups. After each group has one twenty-minute session, the top six cars from each group qualify for a second session. The cars that finished seventh or worse are lined up by their times, with the best of these times starting 13th. The twelve remaining cars run a 15-minute session, after which the top six cars move on to a final 10-minute session to determine positions one through six on the grid.\n\nThe Iowa format was instituted in 2012 with major modifications (times set based on open qualifying session in second practice, positions 11th and back in odd positions raced in the inside heat, positions 12th and back in even positions raced in the outside heat, and positions 1–10 raced for the pole, each heat 30 laps), and non-Iowa oval format in August 2010, while the Indianapolis format was in 2010. The road course format was installed for 2008. In prior seasons, oval qualifying ran for four laps, Indianapolis-style, from 2008, and previously two laps with the best lap used for qualification. Street and road circuits used a two-phase format similar to oval qualifying except that cars took one qualifying lap, then the top six advanced to the ten-minute session for the pole.\n\nIndianapolis 500\n\nThe pole position for the Indianapolis 500 is determined on the first day (or first full round) of time trials. Cars run four consecutive laps (10 miles), and the total elapsed time on the four laps determines the positioning. The fastest car on the first day of time trials wins the pole position. Times recorded in earlier days (rounds) start ahead of subsequent days (rounds). A driver could record a time faster than that of the pole winner on a subsequent day; however he will be required to line up behind the previous day(s)' qualifiers.\n\nStarting in 2010, the first day is split into Q1 and Q2. At the end of Q1, positions 10–24 are set. The top nine cars will then have their times wiped out and advance to Q2 where cars will have 90 minutes to run for pole. If inclement weather causes officials to cancel Q2, positions 1–24 are set. If inclement weather in Q1 is early where Q2 is late (past 6 PM usually), drivers will have only one attempt in Q2.\n\nGrand Prix motorcycle racing\n\nSince , there has been one hour-long session on Saturday where the riders have an unlimited number of laps to record a fast lap time. Simply, the rider with the fastest lap gains pole position for the race.\n\nIn a new format was introduced whereby qualifying is conducted over two 15-minute sessions labelled Q1 and Q2. The fastest 10 riders over combined practice times advance automatically to Q2, while the rest of the field compete in Q1. At the conclusion of Q1 the fastest 2 riders progress to Q2 with a chance to further improve their grid position\n\nTop ten riders in Grand Prix motorcycle racing with most pole positions\n\nNASCAR\n\nBefore 2001, NASCAR used a two-day qualifying format in its national series. Before 2002 only one lap was run on oval tracks except short tracks and restrictor plate tracks. Until 2014, the pole position has been determined by a two-lap time trial (one lap on road courses) with the faster lap time used as the driver's qualifying speed. In 2014, NASCAR used a knockout qualifying format for all races except the Daytona 500, non-points races, and the Camping World Truck Series' Mudsummer Classic: after a 25-minute session (on tracks longer than ; tracks shorter than 1.25 miles have a 30-minute session), the 24 fastest cars advance to a ten-minute session, with the top 12 advancing to a final five-minute session. Starting in 2003, if a driver's team changed their car's engine after the qualifying segment was over, the car would be relegated to the rear of the 43-car field. In the case of multiple teams changing engines on the same weekend after a qualifying segment (although this is a rare occurrence), qualifying times from that segment are used to determine the starting order for those cars.\n\nIn the Mudsummer Classic, two-lap qualifying runs are held, which determine the starting grids for five heat races of eight laps each. The top five fastest qualifiers started on pole for each heat, and the winner of the first heat is awarded the pole for the feature race. \n\nTop ten most Sprint Cup Series pole positions\n\nRadio-controlled racing\n\nIn radio-controlled car racing, the term Top Qualifier (TQ) is used to determine the fastest qualifying driver, usually over a two-day, five/six rounds qualifying sessions, depending on the overall duration of the event. The result is determined by the best half of the driver's performance. As the event bring in over 100 entrants, the fastest driver is guaranteed directly a place in front of the A-main final, the group that carries a chance of being the overall winner. The slower drivers are allocated a spot to compete in their groups to determine the overall positions." ] }

{ "description": [ "The drivers’ title has been awarded ... The scale of points awarded to the first six ... at each Grand Prix, the FIA has an electronic ...", "The most famous of cycling's grand tours is, for many, ... rider who has won the most points in the mountain sections ... is awarded to the most ...", "... players need to have at least 18 match points (a 6–3 record). Grand Prix ... the requirement for three byes has been ... No player has finished a Grand Prix ...", "The second generation of the Pontiac Grand Prix came ... As the '90s approached, the Grand Prix received a 2.3L LD2 High ... racers have been fitting scoops ...", "The Official Site of Mario Andretti: ... But Grand Prix racing was in his blood and the decade of the Seventies would ... while finishing second in points in both ...", "... present Grand Prix Detroit 2015! 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Who organises the Formula One World Championship?\nThe sporting branch of the  Fédération Internationale de l’Automobile , FIA Sport. The FIA governs motor sport worldwide and, as such, administers the Formula One and World Rally Championships, and the F3000 and GT Championships, as well as all other international motor sport.\nThe Formula One World Championship was created in 1950 and is the oldest FIA Championship. It also has the greatest media impact. It is estimated that the 17 Grands Prix of the 1997 season attracted over 50 billion television viewers, while the printed press maintained a significant presence, with an average of 650 journalists and photographers traveling from all over the world to cover each event.\n2. How far back does Formula One go?\nThere was no “formula” from the heroic era of the motor car in 1894 (the year of the first motor race in history, from Paris to Rouen) up until 1900. The existing vehicles were simply raced. A differentiation was made between the cars on the basis of their method of propulsion (petrol or steam), and their number of seats. At the time, cars always had at least two seats, and it was not until the end of the 1920s that single-seater cars were used. The invention of the rear-view mirror made an important contribution to this development, since one of the mechanic’s tasks was to warn the driver that someone was trying to overtake him.\nImmediately after its creation in 1904, the FIA, which is the international sporting authority, became obliged to formulate restrictions to ensure the safety of the drivers and spectators, and to guide motor sport in a direction which would benefit the development of road cars, thus setting a pattern which has been repeated throughout the long history of motor sport. From 1907 to 1939, almost every possible formula was tried. The minimum weight, maximum weight, consumption and bore were each restricted in their turn, but the formula most frequently used, even after 1939, was to limit the cylinder capacity of the engines. This restriction was first introduced in 1914.\nFollowing the introduction of the first “formula” defined by the FIA (which restricted maximum weight) in 1904, categories were created for the smaller cars, yet the name “Formula One” did not appear until after the Second World War, or more specifically, until the creation of the FIA Formula One World Championship at Silverstone on 13 May 1950.\n3. Why was the Federation Internationale de l’Automobile (FIA) created?\nPrior to 1904, every country and automobile club organised races, each with its own set of regulations. It was thus virtually impossible to organise international races, since there were no common regulations. The most influential Automobile Clubs of the time therefore decided to put an end to this situation, which was preventing motor sport from flourishing, by creating an international organisation which would draw up common regulations, applicable to races all over the world. This led to the birth of the Fédération Internationale de l’Automobile (the FIA), which was thus able to guarantee to English or German drivers, for example, that the same rules would apply whether they were racing in France, Italy, Belgium, or Monaco.\n4. “Formula One:” what is the current formula?\nIn addition to a large number of specifications relating, in particular, to safety and aerodynamics, the current formula restricts the cylinder capacity of the engine to 3 litres, prohibits supercharging and stipulates a minimum weight of 600 kg, including the weight of the driver and his race equipment.\n5. What is a Grand Prix?\nThe first race to be given the “Grand Prix” title was the Grand Prix de l’Automobile Club de France held at Le Mans in 1906. It was restricted to “big cars”, which could be described as the “Formula One” cars of the period. From then on, the term Grand Prix became associated with all types of circuit races for cars. Major events, which were the equivalent of today’s Grands Prix, were called “Grandes Epreuves” (Great Events). However, the FIA was opposed to the popular usage of the “Grand Prix” title, which it wished to reserve for events counting towards its Formula One World Championship. Henceforth, it became prohibited to use the Grand Prix title for an event which did not count towards this Championship, except for very rare cases with historic justification, such as the Grand Prix de Pau, which is currently a Formula 3000 event.\n6. How is the World Championship title obtained?\nThere are two titles: “drivers” and “constructors”. The drivers’ title has been awarded since 1950, while the Constructors’ title was introduced in 1958. The constructors add together the points scored in every race by each car of their make (they cannot enter more than two), in the same way as the drivers accumulate the total number of points scored in each event (at one time they could cancel their worst results).\nIn the event of a dead heat, the title is decided on the basis of the quality of the places obtained, that is, the number of first places, followed by the number of second places, etc.\n7. What is the scale of points?\nThe scale of points awarded to the first six finishers in each race has been modified on two occasions, the most recent of which was in 1991; the first now obtains 10 points (previously nine, and only eight between 1950 and 1960), and the following five are awarded: 6 – 4 – 3 – 2 – 1 points. There was a time when the driver who recorded the fastest lap was given 1 point.\n8. How many Grands Prix are held every year?\nWhen the World Championship was created, Formula One was not as popular as it is today, and the 1950 Championship, for example, consisted of only 7 Grands Prix. This figure gradually increased, peaking at 17 events in 1977. It was then limited to 16, and the possibility of holding a maximum of 17 events was reintroduced in 1996.\nA minimum of eight events out of those entered on the calendar must take place for the World Champion Drivers’ and Constructors’ titles to be awarded. The 1997 Argentine Grand Prix was the 600th Grand Prix counting towards the FIA Formula One World Championship.\n11. How is a circuit deemed suitable to hold a Grand Prix?\nEach circuit must be homologated by the FIA Circuits and Safety Commission following a series of inspections which are carried out from the start of the work right up until the inauguration of the circuit. The homologation criteria are less strict for circuits hosting events for slower formulae. In addition to the initial procedure, the circuits sometimes have to carry out maintenance work or update their facilities so that their homologation may be renewed. In the past, with the exception of the Monaco Grand Prix, which is the only event to take place within a town itself, circuits tended to be very fast with long straights. The increase in the cars’ performances has meant that these straights have had to give way to series of bends, which are the only means of preventing excessive speeds. Similarly, very long tracks, like that at the old Nürburgring (22.835 km), have had to be abandoned, since the costs involved in providing the safety facilities and personnel required by the regulations together with the technical facilities necessary for television broadcasting are too great. Monaco is still the shortest circuit (3.328 km), while Spa is the longest (6.940 km).\n12. What criteria must a constructor meet to be able to participate?\nA constructor who wishes to become involved in Formula One must submit his entry to the FIA, to which he must provide evidence that he is both the designer and constructor of the chassis of his car, and that he also has sufficient technical and financial resources to take part in the whole of the Championship.\n13. Who is the constructor of a Formula One car?\nBy Formula One constructor, we mean the chassis manufacturer. In most cases, this is not the same as the engine manufacturer, and the name of the chassis manufacturer is always given before that of the engine manufacturer. In the event of winning the Constructors’ World Championship, the title is awarded to the chassis manufacturer.\nFerrari is currently the only constructor producing both the chassis and the engine.\n14. Do the constructors have to compete throughout the season?\nYes. Any constructor who fails to turn up at an event may be fined several hundred thousand dollars per event and per car, except in the case of force majeure (but the FIA is very strict when it comes to defining a case of force majeure). A constructor may not join the championship during the season.\n15. On what criteria are the Formula One technical regulations based?\nThey address two main concerns:\nControlling performance, in the interests of safety, while at the same time preserving the visual perception of speed and of the technological prowess of a Formula One car;\nEnsuring the best possible level of passive safety in the event of an accident.\nThere are thus restrictions on cylinder capacity, fuel, tyre dimensions, the minimum weight and width of the car, as well as on the dimensions and positioning of the aerodynamic devices and on electronic driving aids, most of which are prohibited.\nMoreover, there are stipulations relating not only to the strength of the chassis and the protective rollbars, but also to flexible fuel tanks (inspired by military aviation), fire extinguishers, harnesses, head and neck protection, and so on. The positions of the fuel and oil tanks are specified and they must have special protection. Access to and from the cockpit together with its dimensions are also controlled.\nFor financial reasons, engines which are not reciprocating or 4-stroke are prohibited, and the engines are restricted to a maximum of twelve cylinders which cannot have an oval section. It is obligatory for each car to have four wheels, only two of which are driven (yes, in the past there were Formula One cars with six wheels!).\n16. Can any driver compete in a Grand Prix?\nIn order to be able to take part in a Grand Prix, a driver must hold a “Super License”, which is awarded on the basis of his past record in junior formulae and of his having a valid contract with a Formula One team which has entered the World Championship.\n \n17. Are the teams allowed to change drivers during the season?\nYes, each team with two cars may change the driver of its first car once in the season. For the second car, a maximum of three drivers may take turns, without restriction, during any one season. This excludes cases of force majeure, which are not counted. Notification of a change of driver must be made before the end of the scrutineering and the sporting checks (the Thursday preceding the event, at 18.00).\n18. Do the drivers keep the same race number throughout the season?\nYes, if they stay with the same team, as the numbers are attributed to the constructors, and not the drivers, at the beginning of the season. The only exceptions to this are the reigning World Champion, who is always allocated number 1 even if he is driving for a different make from that with which he won the title, and his team mate who is given number 2.\n19. Is the number of laps during the practice sessions free?\nFor qualifying practice, a maximum of 12 laps is allowed and any driver running over the maximum of 12 laps will have its best qualifying time withdrawn. The number of laps is no longer limited for the free practice sessions, including the warm-up.\n20. What is the warm-up?\nThe warm-up is a free practice session which takes place on the morning of the race and lasts for half an hour. Only drivers who have qualified may take part in it. It is obligatory for this practice session to begin four and a half hours before the start of the race. If all the practice sessions have taken place in dry conditions and it begins to rain after the warm-up, or vice-versa, the Race Director may authorise an additional 15-minute practice session, which will allow the cars to adapt to the weather conditions.\nThe warm-up is very important, since it enables the teams to test the cars in their race configuration, in conditions (pressure, temperature, humidity, etc.) which are, theoretically, very similar to those of the race itself.\n21. Can the drivers change cars during the event?\nDuring the practice sessions, teams with two cars may use a maximum of two cars for each day of free practice, and a maximum of three cars for qualifying practice, provided that all the cars have been checked by the Scrutineers and are of the same make (chassis and engine).\nDuring the race, however, no change of car is authorised following the green light signaling the start of the formation lap.\nNevertheless, if the race is interrupted before two laps have been completed, the starting procedure is repeated, and car changes are authorised once again until the green light (indicating the start of the formation lap) is shown.\n22. How do drivers qualify for a race?\nQualifying practice is on Saturday, from 1 pm to 2 pm. During this hour each driver has a maximum of 12 laps to set the fastest possible time.\nThe driver who set the fastest time will start from the first line in the “pole position”, and the others will line up on the grid in the order of the times they have achieved. In the event of a tie, the driver who achieved the time first is given priority.\nAny driver whose fastest time in qualifying practice exceeds the pole position time by 7% or more is not allowed to start without special permission of the Stewards.\n24. Do the constructors design special cars for the qualifying session?\nSpecial cars as such are not built specifically for qualification, but, in a few cases only, special engines, or even special set-ups, are designed for qualifying practice, so that the engine’s full potential may be reached, even though this shortens its life-span.\n25. How long does a grand prix last?\nThe distance of a Grand Prix may not exceed 305 km, and no race may last for more than two hours. On certain slower circuits (such as Monaco), in the event of rain, the Clerk of the Course is sometimes obliged to stop the race after two hours.\n26. Does a Grand Prix always go ahead, rain or shine?\nYes, a Formula One Grand Prix takes place in all weather conditions, and the tyre manufacturers have developed treaded tyres which help to avoid the risk of aquaplaning. Nevertheless, the Clerk of the Course has the power to stop the event, if this becomes necessary for safety reasons. Apart from grip, the greatest problem in the event of rain is visibility, which is significantly reduced due to the spray thrown up by the cars’ tyres. In order to counteract this problem, the cars are equipped with a red light at the rear which must be switched on if it starts to rain.\n27. How powerful are formula one engines?\nEven though the constructors refuse to divulge details of their engine power, it is rumored that at the beginning of the 1997 season the maximum power easily exceeded seven hundred horse power. Manufacturers of engines with eight or ten cylinders maintain that maximum power is not the only valid criteria, since there is also the power curve which in their case is better at a low engine speed.\n28. What speeds do formula one cars reach?\nThe Grand Prix with the highest average speed in history was the 1971 Italian Grand Prix, won by Peter Gethin in a BRM at an average speed of 242.615 kph (151.634 mph) on the Monza circuit which at the time did not yet have any chicanes (interestingly, a recent computer simulation suggested that current Formula One cars would achieve an average speed of well over 300 kph – 190 mph – on the original circuit). In 1997, the fastest Grand Prix was the Italian, won by David Coulthard at an average of 238.036 kph (147.940 mph). The highest speed recorded during practice in 1997 was 250.295 kph (155.559 mph), which was set at Monza by Jean Alesi, while the highest straight line speed recorded during a Grand Prix in the 1997 season was set by Jacques Villeneuve, at 351.7 kph (218.6 mph), during the German Grand Prix. The lowest average speed of a Grand Prix winner in 1997 was 104.264 kph (64.800 mph), and was recorded by Michael Schumacher in the Monaco Grand Prix.\n29. Are the cars currently used faster than the cars of the “turbo” era?\nIf a 1.5-litre turbocharged car were produced today, as was the case up until 1988, it would be a great deal faster than the contemporary 3-litre cars. However, contemporary cars benefit from significant technological progress, allowing them to exceed the speeds of the 1988 turbocharged models, despite the fact that these were able to rely on over 1,200 horsepower in qualifying!\n31. Why do the regulations require the cars to have a flat bottom?\nIt became evident that significant lift could be achieved by giving the bottom of the two side members the shape of inverted aeroplane wings. In order to reduce downforce (the so-called “ground effect”), and thus reduce cornering speed, the FIA made it obligatory for each car to have a flat bottom between the front of the rear wheels and the rear of the front wheels, as well as a ground clearance obtained by means of a skid block attached to the flat bottom. The constructors have nevertheless managed to optimise the behavior of the airfoils and aerodynamic extractors situated behind the gear box, to such an extent that a current Formula One car is capable of a transverse acceleration of up to 4G, whereas a road car does not exceed 1G.\n32. Are Formula One cars fitted with a starter?\nA starter has not been obligatory for several years, and teams choose not to fit one in order to prevent an additional source of energy from causing incidents such as a fire or an explosion. They are authorised to use a portable starter in front of their pits, but if a driver stalls on the circuit during the race, he has to retire, even if the car restarts once the marshals have pushed it away from a dangerous position.\n33. Do Formula One cars have automatic gearboxes?\nAutomatic gearboxes are prohibited by the technical regulations. However, all the cars are equipped with semi-automatic gearboxes: to change gear, the driver no longer has to activate the clutch pedal at the same time as the gear lever. He simply presses a button on the side of his steering wheel. There is a button on each side: one for changing up, the other for changing down. He therefore no longer has to take his hand off the steering wheel, and this hydraulic device, which is electronically activated, allows the driver to change gear in one or two hundredths of a second, which is unquestionably faster than with a conventional system.\n34. How many gear ratios do Formula One cars have?\nThe rapid changes possible with semi-automatic gearboxes mean that transmissions with a greater number of ratios (six or seven) can be installed. On circuits with a large number of bends, the drivers only use four or five ratios. Reverse gear is obligatory, but must not be used in the pit-lane, on pain of immediate exclusion from the Grand Prix.\n35. Do Formula One cars have better brakes than series produced cars?\nThe brakes on series-produced cars are derived from the disc brakes which were first used in racing. All Formula One cars are equipped with brakes with callipers made from light alloy while the discs and pads tend to be made from synthetic materials, i.e. carbon/carbon. Their resistance to heat is much greater than that of series-produced brakes (which is why, in certain conditions, the insides of the wheels appear completely incandescent) and they weigh significantly less. Their braking power is thus uncommonly high: at the end of a straight, at maximum speed (around 340 kph – 212.5 mph), a Formula One car can brake at less than 100 meters in order to take a slow corner. Naturally, carbon/carbon is expensive: it takes six months to produce a disc, at a temperature of between 900 and 2000°C. The same material is now used to produce clutch discs.\n36. Is a special type of fuel used in Formula One?\nNo. “Green”, unleaded fuel is used, similar to that available at petrol stations. The petrol used in Formula One also has to comply with the strictest EEC standards concerning pollution.\nAt one time, the fuel used in Formula One consisted of a mixture of hydrocarbons, and was a very special fuel, which bore no resemblance to commercial petrol. The FIA put an end to these permissive regulations, with the dual aim of steering the oil companies’ research in the right direction, so that it would benefit the ordinary motor car, and of significantly reducing pollution.\nIt is clear that even after this revision of the regulations, the fuel used by Formula One cars is still not yet available from petrol pumps. However, it is also clear that the oil companies are obliged by the regulations to use fuels which could be commercialized, and which probably will be in the future. It is therefore evident that Formula One continues to serve as a laboratory, which will ultimately be of benefit to the ordinary motor car (see also question 40).\n37. How many tyres are authorised per car at each Grand Prix?\nThe regulations stipulate that each driver may use a maximum of 40 dry-weather tyres and 28 wet-weather tyres throughout the duration of the event. Moreover, each driver may use a maximum of two rubber specifications for his dry-weather tyres during free practice, but he must designate the rubber specification he wishes to use for the rest of the event before the start of qualifying practice. Thus, the maximum number of tyres he may use for qualifying practice, the warm-up and the race is 28 (14 front and 14 rear), chosen from amongst the 40. All of these tyres are marked by the scrutineers, who are also responsible for checking that no driver exceeds the maximum number of tyres allowed.\n38. How is the type of rubber selected?\nA hard or softer type of rubber is selected on the basis of the driver’s style, the design of the car, the atmospheric temperature and the layout of the circuit. In general, the slower the circuit and the cooler the temperature, the softer the rubber, allowing greater grip. On the other hand, high speeds, together with a highly abrasive track and a heavy and powerful car wear the tyres down more quickly. The team and the driver must therefore strike a balance between various options, i.e., whether to mount harder tyres which grip less well but permit fewer pit-stops, or whether to use softer tyres which will have to be changed several times during the race. A judicious choice sometimes enables one of the less powerful cars to win a Grand Prix. Tyre changes are a part of the Formula One landscape; the better trained teams usually manage to change all four tyres and refuel in the space of 5 to 10 seconds.\n39. Are the cars checked during the event?\nThe day before practice begins, the Scrutineers carry out a tour of the garages, checking that all the cars comply with the regulations. In addition to this, spot checks may be carried out at any time, and all the cars which finish the race are checked in the parc fermé once they have crossed the finish line. Any car which does not comply with the technical regulations is penalized with exclusion. This penalty is declared by the Stewards.\n40. How are the fuel checks carried out?\nAt the start of the season, each team entered in the Championship must provide a sample of 120 litres of the petrol it wishes to use. The sample is analysed in a specialised laboratory, to check not only that it is in conformity with the Technical Regulations, but also that it is a genuine fuel of the type “available from the pump”.\nIf the sample is approved, an “imprint” (a sort of “genetic code” of the fuel) is provided. At the events, the FIA Technical Delegate carries out spot checks, taking samples of petrol from the cars during the practice sessions or after the race. Using the principles of gas chromatography with extremely sophisticated and very accurate technological equipment (a gas chromatograph and a machine for measuring the density of the fuel), the samples are analysed instantaneously, to see on site whether their “imprint” is identical to the reference imprint approved by the FIA.\nIf a sample is not in conformity, the Technical Delegate will make a report to the Stewards of the Meeting, who may then pronounce the exclusion of the car in question or any other sanction provided for in the Regulations. Of course, a team may change the petrol it uses several times during the season, but each time it wishes to do so it must submit a new sample to the FIA before using this new petrol. If this sample is approved, the reference “imprint” of this new petrol will be registered.\n41. How can prohibited electronic functions be detected?\nOn site, at each Grand Prix, the FIA has an electronic laboratory as well as sophisticated equipment and a team of experts who, at any time (even on the starting grid!), may check whether the cars’ electronics is concealing electronic driving aids prohibited by the regulations, such as traction control.\nThe electronics of a Formula One car comprise up to 500,000 lines of source code (software). Obviously, it would be impossible to carry out an in-depth check of such an electronic program, for example on the grid just before the start of the Grand Prix. Therefore, the procedure is similar to that used for the petrol. The teams provide the FIA with their electronic programme, and the FIA checks it in detail before the start of the season. Once the programme is approved, the FIA keeps an “imprint” (an electronic “genetic code” of the car); at the events, the FIA team assigned to check the electronic programmes makes sure that the programmes installed in the cars do not differ in any way from the approved model. If need be, they may examine in detail only the lines which do not correspond to those of the approved code, and check whether or not they contain one or more parameters in breach of the regulations.\nOnce again, if anything is not in conformity, the Technical Delegate makes a report to the Stewards of the Meeting who will decide to exclude the car or to impose any other sanction provided for in the Regulations.\n42. What role does the technical delegate play\nThe FIA Technical Delegate heads the team of Scrutineers responsible for checking that the cars comply with the Technical Regulations. If he finds that a car does not comply, he submits a report to the Stewards, but does not have the power to disqualify or penalise a car himself.\n43. Who are the Stewards and what are their powers?\nThe three Stewards are the judges, or the referees, of an event. They examine the reports submitted by the various officials and, once they have heard the explanations and defense of all the parties concerned, decide on any sanctions. In order to ensure sporting equity, the Stewards vary from one event to another; two of them are nominated by the FIA from amongst holders of the Stewards’ “super license”. The third Steward is designated by the National Sporting Authority of the country in which the event is taking place. The Stewards appointed by the FIA are of a different nationality from that of the country in which the event is taking place.\nThey may, at any time, impose the sanctions set out in the International Sporting Code and, if they judge the behavior of a competitor or a driver to be reprehensible, they may request that he be summoned before the World Motor Sport Council.\n44. What types of sanctions may be imposed?\nThe sanctions set out in the International Sporting Code range from a reprimand to disqualification, and include fines, exclusion, suspension for one or more races, and even the withdrawal of Championship points.\nDuring the race, the Stewards may also impose a time penalty on a driver. In this case, the driver must remain at his pit for the duration of his penalty. In reality, this penalty, which is usually 10 seconds, involves a far greater loss of time, given the time taken to return to the pit and to leave it again, both at reduced speed. Depending on the configuration of the circuit, this can result in a time loss of between 25 and 40 seconds.\nFor any faults committed during qualifying practice, whether they be of a sporting or technical nature, the Stewards may also cancel all the driver’s times. Nevertheless, the Stewards have the power to authorise a driver who is penalised in this manner to take the start from the back of the grid.\n45. Are the Stewards’ decisions final?\nNo. Any competitor who feels that he has been unfairly penalised by a Stewards’ decision may appeal against this decision before the International Court of Appeal. He must declare his intention to do so within one hour of being notified of the Stewards’ decision. Similarly, the FIA has the right to defer a decision of the Stewards to the International Court of Appeal, if it believes that the Stewards have misjudged or inappropriately penalised the matter. There have already been cases in which the Stewards or the Clerk of the Course have been penalised by having their licenses suspended, or in which competitors’ rights have been restored by the International Court of Appeal.\n46. What is the International Court of Appeal?\nIt is the final and highest recourse, and is, in a way, the Fédération Internationale de l’Automobile’s very own “Supreme Court of Appeal”. The International Court of Appeal is independent of the Sport, and its fifteen members, who have a three-year mandate, are chosen from amongst eminent judges and magistrates (some of whom are Supreme Court of Appeal judges in their own country). In order for the International Court of Appeal to be able to convene, at least three judges must be present, none of whom may be of the same nationality as any of the parties concerned.\n47. What are the prerogatives of the Clerk of the Course and the Race Director?\nThe Clerk of the Course, who is nominated by the organiser, is materially responsible for the coordination of all the officials and track marshals at the Grand Prix. It is he who gives the order to send out the safety car, for example, or to stop the race or practice session. Nevertheless, the Clerk of the Course must work closely with, and under the authority of, the Race Director, who is nominated by the FIA. The same Race Director officiates at all the Grands Prix in the Championship. The Race Director also acts as Safety Delegate and Official Starter, while it is the Clerk of the Course who waves the traditional chequered flag at the end of the race.\n48. How is the race started?\nHalf an hour before the start, the cars leave the pit lane. The drivers may cover several laps if they wish, but to do this they must pass through the pit lane at greatly reduced speed. They come to a standstill on the starting grid with their engines stopped.\nFifteen minutes before the start, the pit lane exit is closed and any driver who is not yet on the track has to start from the pit lane exit, after all the other competitors have gone past.\nFive minutes before the start, access to the grid is closed and any driver who is delayed on the circuit has to start from the pit lane exit. His vacant position is not filled on the grid.\nWhen the green light comes on, the drivers begin the formation lap. When they come back to the grid, they keep their engines running. Once all the cars have come to a halt in their starting positions, the starter activates the automatic pre-programmed final start procedure: five lights turn red one after the other at one second intervals until all five lights are lit. The start signal is the extinction of all the lights at once. This occurs between 0.2 and 3 seconds after the last red light has been lit. This lapse of time is pre-programmed by the starter at each race, but kept secret. If a driver is delayed during the formation lap and arrives within sight of the grid once the starting procedure is underway, he must start from the pit lane.\n49. How are false starts detected?\nEach position on the grid is equipped with electronic sensors. These transmit a signal to a central unit located in the control tower if any car moves before the start signal has been given. The Stewards will usually inflict a time penalty on a driver who jumps the start.\n50. What happens if a driver stalls on the starting grid?\nThere are three distinct scenarios:\nIf a driver stalls while the green light is on (indicating the start of the formation lap), his mechanics are allowed to push the car to get it to start, once all the competitors have left the grid. Since overtaking is not permitted during the formation lap, he must start from the back of the grid. However, a driver who has had difficulty starting the car but who manages to leave before the last car has crossed the Start/Finish line is allowed to overtake during the formation lap and take up his original position on the grid.\nIf a driver stalls on the grid after the formation lap, but before the start, he must raise his arm to notify the starter, who turns on the flashing yellow lights. The start is aborted and the procedure begins again from the “5-minute” board. In order to compensate for the additional formation lap, the race is reduced by one lap. The driver responsible for the false start must start from the back of the grid.\nIf a driver stalls during the start (when all the lights are extinguished), and therefore too late for the starting procedure to be interrupted and aborted, the marshals will push his car to the pit lane once all the competitors have left the grid. If the driver is then able to start his engine, he may rejoin the race. Otherwise, he is pushed back to his pit where his mechanics will take over.\n51. Are there special starting procedures in the event of rain?\nIn the event of rain, the regulations provide for different possibilities, depending on the circumstances:\nIf the rain is such that, in the opinion of the Race Director, it would be dangerous to start the race with the normal procedure, it is possible to start behind the “Safety Car”. In this case, the revolving yellow lights on the Safety Car, which is positioned in front of the starting grid, are switched on at the 5-minute signal. This indicates to the drivers that the race will be started behind the Safety Car. When the green light is switched on, the Safety Car leaves the grid followed by all the other cars. The race starts when the leading car having completed one lap crosses the Start/Finish line. Overtaking is permitted only after the Safety Car has returned into the pit lane (see 55). Prior to this, overtaking is only permitted in order to pass a car which remains on the grid, or in order to retain a grid position provided the car overtaking left the grid before the last car crossed the Start/Finish line.\nIf it starts to rain after the 5-minute signal but before the start of the race, the procedure may be interrupted and recommence at the 15-minute point.\nIf the start of the race is imminent and a particularly heavy shower begins, and the volume of water on the track is such that it cannot be negotiated safely, the procedure may be interrupted by the Race Director, who will order a “10” board with a red background to be shown. This indicates that the start has been aborted and that there will be a delay of at least 10 minutes before the procedure is resumed.If weather conditions have improved at the end of the ten-minute period, a “10” board with a green background will be shown, indicating that the start of the formation lap will be given 10 minutes later. If however, the weather conditions have not improved within ten minutes, the “10” board with the red background is shown again, indicating a further delay of ten minutes. This procedure may be repeated several times, but it is not necessary to wait for the end of the 10 minutes to show the green board.\n52. Can the race be stopped?\nYes, the Clerk of the Course (under the direction of the FIA Race Director) may interrupt the race at any time in the interests of safety, and particularly if the circuit is blocked. This is done by ordering red flags to be shown along the whole of the track.\nIn the event of this happening, there are three possibilities, depending on the number of laps completed by the race leader:\nA. Less than two laps completed\nB. Two or more laps completed, but less than 75% of the total distance of the race.\nC.75% or more of the total race distance completed.\nIn case A, which is typical when accidents occur during the start, the first start is considered null and void and the new start is given twenty minutes later.\nIn case B, the race is considered to be in two parts. Thus, if the safety conditions permit, there is a second start twenty minutes later, for which the grid is determined on the basis of the classification of the penultimate lap before the signal to stop the race was given (red flag). If a second start cannot be given, the classification of the race will be that of the penultimate lap preceding the signal to stop the race and only half the points will be awarded.\nIn case C, the race will be considered as finished, and all the points will be awarded on the basis of the classification of the penultimate lap preceding the signal to stop the race.\n54. When is the Safety Car used?\nThe purpose of the Safety Car is to neutralise the race in the event of an accident or other incident which exposes competitors or officials to immediate physical danger. This is not only to allow ambulances and other emergency teams to be able to get through, but also because the presence of these vehicles on the track would constitute a major risk for the other competitors if the race had not been neutralised. However, the Safety Car may only be used when the track is not blocked.\n55. What procedure is followed for the safety car?\nThe Clerk of the Course (under the direction of the FIA Race Director) is responsible for giving the order to dispatch the Safety Car. When the Safety Car is in use, and as soon as it leaves the pit-lane, a yellow flag together with the “SC” board is shown at the track marshals’ posts. Overtaking is prohibited, and the cars must reduce their speed and line up, in classification order, behind the Safety Car. As soon as circuit (or weather) conditions permit, the Safety Car will extinguish its revolving lights and return to the pit lane to indicate that the race will start again when the cars next cross the Start/Finish line.\n57. May a car stop at its pit while the safety car is on the track?\nYes, but it may only rejoin the track when the green light is on in the pit lane. It will be on at all times except when the Safety Car and the line of cars following it are about to pass or are passing the pit exit. A car rejoining the track will proceed at reduced speed until it reaches the end of the line of cars behind the Safety Car.\nThus, a car which makes a pit stop in such circumstances will lose its position and rejoin the race at the back of the field, but not necessarily in last place since there might be cars in the field which are one or more laps behind the car which made the pit-stop.\n59. Are there any speed limits?\nStrange though it may seem, yes, but only in the pit lane, where the speed limit is between 80 or 120 kph (50 or 75 mph), depending on the circuit and the configuration of the pit lane.\nThere are electronic devices checking the speed of the cars along the whole of the pit lane; if a competitor exceeds the limit during the race, he is usually penalised with a time penalty (see question 44), whereas if he exceeds it during a practice session, he is usually given a fine ($ x km). However, as in everyday life, the severity of the punishment is proportional to the seriousness of the offense, and also takes repeat offenses into account.\nTo avoid this, most of the constructors have equipped their cars with a “speed limiter” which the driver has to activate (usually by pressing a button on the steering wheel) as soon as he enters the pit lane. However, sometimes drivers forget to do so….\n60. In what conditions are the cars weighed?\nThe Scrutineers may weigh the cars at all times, to make sure that they never weigh less than 600 kg, including driver. Electronic weighing devices are located at the entrance to the pit lane to enable these checks to be carried out. During qualifying practice, an electronic programme selects at random the cars which are to be checked. When a car is chosen by the computer, a red light comes on and the driver returning to his pit must proceed to the weighing area. If the weight of the car is insufficient, the driver is excluded for the rest of the event, but he has the right to request that the car be weighed a second time. To avoid cheating, any car which breaks down on the circuit also has to pass in front of the computer which decides whether the car must be weighed in the same conditions. At the finish of the race, all the cars are directed to the parc fermé where they are weighed; the drivers are also weighed before proceeding to the podium or to their motorhome. If a car’s weight does not comply at the finish, it is excluded from the classification. Such an instance has already occurred.\n61. What are the different signals which the officials may give to the competitors?\nIn addition to the red flag, “stopping the race”, and the chequered flag, “end of the race”, there are other flags, each having a specific meaning.\nThe blue flag indicates “a competitor is about to overtake you”, but if the flag is waved, it orders him to let the other car overtake, on pain of a time penalty for obstruction. This order is only given to a car which is one or more laps behind the overtaker. The yellow flag indicates danger, and overtaking under yellow flag is always prohibited. Also the yellow flag may have two meanings, depending if it is stationary (“drive well within your limits”) or waved (“slow down”).\nThe green flag indicates the end of the danger and of the ban on overtaking. The flag with vertical red and yellow stripes warns the competitors that the track is slippery (usually oil), and a black flag with an orange disc accompanied by the number of a car warns the driver that his car has a mechanical problem and that he must go to his pit. A flag with a white triangle and a black triangle accompanied by the number of a car is a warning for unsporting behaviour. The black flag, accompanied by the number of a car, summons the driver of such car to immediately return to his pit. This procedure is mostly used to notify a competitor of his exclusion from the race.\n62. Does the chequered flag always signal the finish?\nYes, even if the Clerk of the Course waves his flag too early, the race still ends when he gives this signal. However, if he waves it too late the classification is that obtained at the end of the scheduled number of laps. Only cars which have covered 90% of the distance will be classified. A driver does not necessarily have to still be on the track to be classified, but if a car takes more than twice as long as the fastest lap time achieved by the winner to complete his last lap, this lap will not be taken into account.\nIf an event is due to be held on a new circuit, free practice may take place on the Thursday before the event.\nOtherwise, private testing is forbidden:\nOn any circuit which appears on the Formula One World Championship calendar, except for Monza, Barcelona, Silverstone and Magny-Cours.\nOn all circuits during the week preceding the event (except for a shakedown test of no more than 50 km).\nOn any circuit which has not been approved for Formula One.", "The Tour de France: a guide to the basics - Telegraph\nTour de France\nThe Tour de France: a guide to the basics\nConfused by the cols? Puzzled by the peloton? The Tour de France is more popular than ever in England but it hasn't got any easier to understand. For all of you who find yourself a little confused as the world's biggest bike race winds its way around France, here are a few basic pointers to guide you...\nSafety in numbers: Team Sky's Ian Stannard, Luke Rowe and Wout Poels protect their leader, Chris Froome Photo: EPA\nFollow\nThere are some sports you can switch on and grasp what's going on within a few seconds. They've scored more goals, she has more points, he's in front of him, etc. The fact that a tennis game went against serve or that one Formula 1 driver's had more pit stops than another is about as complicated as the tactical situation gets.\nNot so the Tour de France . The most famous of cycling's grand tours is, for many, about as easy to understand as it would be to win on the clapped-out, rusted old Raleigh in the shed. How can a rider win it without winning a single stage? What do all the different coloured jerseys mean? And just how do they go the toilet?\nTerminology is presented here both in English and, for those out to impress, en Français.\nThe race and its various stages\nThe Tour goes on for three weeks, during which the riders cover about 3,500km in a rough circuit of the country. It is divided into 21 days of racing, with each day's stage lasting up to five and a half hours and covering up to 225km. Some stages are relatively flat, some torturously mountainous. Each stage has its own winner and offers points for the first 15 riders across both the finish line and and intermediate line around halfway through.\nThe Tour comprises five competitions in total: the general classification, points classification, mountains classification, best young rider, and team classification. The rider that completes all the stages in the lowest time over three weeks comes top of the general classification and wins the Tour. The points and mountains classifications are won on points, the general, young rider and team classifications on time. More on that later.\nTeams and riders\nA total of 198 riders start the Tour in 22 teams of nine. Each team is followed around the course by a support car, from which a sporting director (directeur sportif) can give instructions over the radio, refresh water and supplies, and give mechanical help and replacement bikes during the race. Riders can also get mechanical help from a neutral service car in the event of a puncture or other failure, and treatment from the medical car.\nEach team of nine riders will have a leader, with the remaining riders – known as domestiques, literally 'servant' riders – responsible for supporting him in doing what he does best, whether that's getting stage wins, accumulating points, or going for the overall win.\nIn the case of British Team Sky, they have an overall contender in Chris Froome and the team's job includes protecting him, setting the pace for him, and chasing down attacks by other contenders.\nIf the leader of the group were a good sprinter say, not in contention for the overall win, the team focus would be getting him near the front of the bunch on stages with sprints, where points can be won toward getting the green jersey.\nThe different competitions and jerseys\nThe yellow jersey (maillot jaune): the most important one, as we all know. The famous yellow jersey is worn by the rider at the top of the general classification, meaning they have completed the stages so far in the least time. Wearing yellow in the Tour for just a day or two can be the highlight of a cyclist's career. At the end it goes to the winner.\nContenders for the yellow jersey don't worry about winning every stage, or maybe even any. As long as the riders in front of them on the road are a good way behind them in the overall standings, they will concentrate on where the other yellow jersey contenders are relative to them.\nThe green jersey (maillot vert): goes to the rider with the most points overall, leader of the points classification. Points are given for the first 15 riders across an intermediate sprint line about halfway through the race and the finish line. It is sprinters like Mark Cavendish and Peter Sagan who tend to aim for the green jersey.\nThe polka-dot jersey (maillot a pois): a prestigious garment, this is also known as the 'King of the Mountains' jersey. The red polka dots go to the rider who has won the most points in the mountain sections of stages by reaching the top of categorised climbs first. Like the green jersey system, but specifically for the climbers.\nThe white jersey (maillot blanc): a junior yellow basically. Given to the rider under 26 with the lowest overall time.\nThose are the four main jerseys, there is also the rainbow stripes on white worn by the world champion, currently Michal Kwiatkowski, and jerseys with nation colours are worn by the champions of individual countries.\nLast (and probably least), the team classification, which goes to the fastest team. Measured by the times of the top three riders, the team classification is rewarded with a yellow race number and the opportunity to all wear yellow helmets.\nA red race number is awarded to the most combative rider of the previous day's stage - someone who has put in a decent attack or two during the day.\nSprints and 'lead-out trains'\nTeams built around sprinters often create a lead-out train in the run up to the finish or intermediate sprint, guiding their fast-man through the front of the pack where he can break out from behind his final lead out man and make a dash for it. Going solo and piggy-baking on other teams' wheels is known as 'freelancing'.\nTime trials\nThe vast majority of the stages of the Tour are long road races, but there are also two or three time trials. Often called the race of truth ('you can't hide from the clock'), they see the riders set off at regular intervals, racing alone against time along a shorter course than normal stages. The time they take on the course is then simply added to their overall time. Special time trial bikes are used for these stages and a different cycling position, designed to be more aerodynamic at the cost of comfort and stability.\nBreakaways and attacks\nThe Tour is a tactical affair. Riders don't simply set off attempting to go as fast as they can at all times. They largely ride together in a main group called the peloton with small groups breaking away off the front in nearly every stage. It is customary for a group of three to six or so riders to break off the peloton early and go out ahead, often just to reward their sponsor with some time on camera, sometimes hoping they can make it stick for the whole day's racing and take a stage win. The breakaways rarely contain overall contenders, and the peloton will happily let them stray around five to 10 minutes down the road, depending on who's among them, before swallowing them up again when they have tired out.\nAttacks, which often take place on climbs, will see a rider suddenly break away from the group he is with and accelerate ahead hoping that the other riders will not be able to stay with him. Domestique riders can be vital when leaders attack, pacing them up the climbs and chasing down other attacks by other leaders to try and stay in control.\nCrashes\nThe early stages of this year's Tour were marred by several big bunch crashes, likely down to what commentators like to call a \"nervous peloton\" at the beginning of the Tour. Crashes can destroy an overall contender's hopes in seconds, which is why teams like Team Sky and BMC Racing like to ride right at the front of the peloton where they are least at risk of being taken out by a crash. Riders who get knocked off or held up by crashes in the last 3km of a stage are awarded the same time as the rest of the peloton.\nEtiquette\nThe Tour is a gentlemanly affair, for the most part, with riders often slowing down to allow others to catch up after a crash or puncture. Attacking in the wake of such incidents is frowned upon. The yellow jersey is often looked to in such incidents to lead the peloton.\nEating, drinking, using the bathroom.\nPeople do get to wondering, with the riders out for up to five hours a day on their bikes, how they eat, drink and use the toilet. Each stage has a feeding station along the way, at which riders will grab a bag (musette) from someone working for their team standing on the side of the road. The bags contain things like energy bars and gels, as well as sandwiches and drinks. As for going to the toilet, riders will sometimes just take care of business while riding, with other riders taking care not to overtake at the time. Other times the peloton will generally agree to stop up by the side of the road somewhere discrete, with few spectators, and the cameras will artfully cut away to show viewers a nice bit of local architecture or geography with some historical commentary to boot.\nThat stuffed lion\nOne of the most confusing elements of all for the novice viewer: why do they give the yellow jersey holder a stuffed lion at the end of the stage? Not a symbol of riderly prowess, unfortunately, but the logo of French bank Credit Lyonnaise, which has sponsored the jersey since 1987.", "Grand Prix - MTG Salvation Wiki\nGrand Prix\nJump to: navigation , search\nA Grand Prix, frequently abbreviated GP, is a type of DCI -sanctioned Magic: The Gathering tournament. Grand Prix events are open to all players, with no need to qualify for the event, unlike a Pro Tour event. [1] [2] As a result, these tournaments have the largest turnouts of any Magic tournaments.\nGrand Prix events are split over two days, with the top players advancing to Day 2 and a final single elimination top eight playoff taking place at the end of Day 2.\nContents\nStructure[ edit | edit source ]\nCurrently, Grand Prix are two-day events with nine rounds of Swiss on day one, and six rounds on day two (five for team events), followed by a top eight playoff (top four for team events). In the past, Grand Prix had rounds according to the size of the event; individual Grand Prix events had 11 to 17 rounds of Swiss, but present-day individual events have 15 rounds regardless of size, while team events have 14.\nIn order to advance to the second day of competition, players need to have at least 18 match points (a 6–3 record). [3]\nGrand Prix events are either Limited , Team Limited, Standard , Modern , or Legacy , and starting in 2017, Team Modern. [4] For Limited Grand Prix, day one of competition is Sealed deck , while day two is Booster draft . For Team Limited Grand Prix, the Swiss portion is Team Sealed, while the single elimination is Team Draft.\nGrand Prix events' prize purse depends on the size of the tournament, with a minimum of $50,000. [5] Starting in 2016, the winner of individual Grand Prix earns $10,000. [3] [6]\nAttendance\n30 points\n1\nAdditionally, the top finishers at Grand Prix events qualify for the Pro Tour it feeds. All players in the top eight receive an invitation. Additionally, for individual Grand Prix, all players with 39 or more match points (a 13–2 record) win an invitation; for team Grand Prix, players on teams with 36 or more match points (a 12–2 record) receive invitations. Starting with the 2015–16 season, players who earn invitations this way also get free airfare.\nByes[ edit | edit source ]\nIt is possible to earn free wins (byes) at individual Grand Prix events by fulfilling various requirements. Byes are awarded at the start of the first day of competition; a player with three byes gets an automatic win in the first three rounds of a Grand Prix.\nThe requirements for byes are as follows:\nOne bye:\nHave 1,300 Yearly Planeswalker Points (current season or previous season)\nTwo byes:\nBe Silver-level in the Pro Players Club\nWin a Grand Prix Trial\nThree byes:\nBe a member of the Magic Pro Tour Hall of Fame\nPreviously, winning a Grand Prix Trial or having a sufficient number of Planeswalker Points (or a high enough DCI Rating, prior to 2012) could make a player earn three byes; however, the requirement for three byes has been tightened, as Wizards found the number of three-round byes awarded to be detrimental to tournament play. [7]\nNo byes are awarded at Team Limited events.\nGrand Prix Trials[ edit | edit source ]\nGrand Prix Trials, or GPTs, are tournaments associated with a particular Grand Prix, often using the same format. Winning a GPT will give a player two byes for the Grand Prix it feeds. GPTs are held locally around the world, and at the Grand Prix itself; GPTs at Grand Prix are typically held on the day before the event (the Friday), and are 32-man single elimination tournaments.\nTrivia[ edit | edit source ]\nThe largest Grand Prix tournament of all time was GP Las Vegas 2015 ( Modern Masters 2015 Limited ), with 7,551 players. However, this event was split into two Grand Prix; if these are counted as separate events, the largest Grand Prix was GP Las Vegas 2013 ( Modern Masters Limited ), with 4,500 players.\nThe largest Standard Grand Prix: GP Tokyo 2016 – 3,335 players\nThe largest Modern Grand Prix: GP Richmond 2014 – 4,303 players\nThe largest Extended Grand Prix: GP Atlanta 2011 – 1,223 players\nThe largest Legacy Grand Prix: GP New Jersey 2014 – 4,003 players\nThe largest Block Constructed Grand Prix: GP Madrid 2004 – 1,465 players\nThe largest Team Limited Grand Prix: GP Washington, D.C. 2016 – 3,366 players (1,122 teams)\nThe smallest Grand Prix tournaments of all time were both at Melbourne: GP Melbourne 1998 ( Limited ) and GP Melbourne 2005 ( Extended ), both with 140 players.\nThe most successful Grand Prix player of all time is Japanese professional player Shuhei Nakamura , with seven wins in 27 top eights.\nNotably, all of Nakamura's wins were at Limited Grand Prix events.\nYuuya Watanabe and Kai Budde also have seven Grand Prix wins, but they have 25 and 15 top eights, respectively.\nOlivier Ruel has 28 top eights, but only five wins.\nNo player has finished a Grand Prix with a perfect record (no draws or losses). The closest was Jeremey Schofield, who lost in the finals of Grand Prix Vancouver 2012 to David Stroud after finishing the Swiss rounds 15–0. [8]\nFour additional players have finished the Swiss portion of the event 15–0: Kevin Grove at Grand Prix Brighton 2009, [9] Fabrizio Anteri at Grand Prix Madrid 2015, [10] Josh Buitenhuis at Grand Prix Toronto 2016, [11] and Mike Sigrist at Grand Prix New York 2016. [12] All four players lost in the quarterfinals.\nGermany's Christoph Hölzl posted a 14–0 record for the Swiss portion of Grand Prix London 2002, but lost in the finals to Jakub Slemr . [13] Rene Kraft did the same at Grand Prix Birmingham 2004, losing in the finals to Stefan Jedlicka. [14]\nThe oldest Grand Prix winner at the time of the win was American Tom Swan, who was 50 years old when he won Grand Prix Boston 2001. [15]\nEight players have won two consecutive Grand Prix events:\nKai Budde won GP Barcelona on 6–7 February 1999, and then GP Vienna on 13–14 March 1999.\nDaniel Clegg won GP Turin on 26–27 May 2001, and then GP Taipei on 21–22 July 2001 (both of these were Team Limited Grand Prix).\nKenji Tsumura won GP Kuala Lumpur on 3–4 June 2006, and then GP Toulouse on 24–25 June 2006.\nShuhei Nakamura won GP St. Louis on 22–23 July 2006, and then GP Hiroshima on 19–20 August 2006.\nRaphaël Lévy won GP Dallas on 24–25 February 2007, and then GP Singapore on 3–4 March 2007.\nTomoharu Saito won GP Singapore on 21–22 March 2009, and then GP Kobe on 18–19 April 2009.\nYuuya Watanabe won GP Shanghai on 20–21 August 2011, and then GP Pittsburgh on 27–28 August 2011.\nOwen Turtenwald won GP Washington, D.C. on 16–17 November 2013, and then GP Albuquerque on 23–24 November 2013.", "Pontiac Grand Prix Accessories & Parts - CARiD.com\nPontiac Grand Prix Accessories & Parts\nA WholeNew LookFor Your Interior\nOne of Pontiac's original performance-oriented cruisers, the Grand Prix first set sail on American roadways in the early '70s and lasted over thirty years. The first generation of the Pontiac Grand Prix debuted in 1973 as a midsize sports sedan. The model was deemed by the automaker to present a viable option for U.S. car buyers over the influx of upscale luxury entrants from Europe and elsewhere. The standard engine equipped inside the Grand Prix was a 6.5L V8, which got credit for producing up to 170 horsepower. An optional 7.4L V8 configuration stepped it up a notch with 230 horsepower, while a boosted version threw out up to 250 hp. The Grand Prix was also offered with either a single or dual exhaust system. Throughout the 1970s, Pontiac did not implement many changes to the Grand Prix parts other than various restyling cues. Pontiac halted production of the car by 1975 due to the oil crisis and sagging sales. But in 1978, the Grand Prix was brought back, this time smaller and with a few V8 engine configurations to choose from. Although more compact than the previous generation, the Grand Prix was still geared towards performance and showcased a radial tuned suspension as well as both front and rear sway bars.\nThe second generation of the Pontiac Grand Prix came and went quickly, as it was phased out by 1980. For the model's third go-round, the Grand Prix was essentially a compact car that was given a little muscle. It was initially outfitted with a 2.5L Tech IV, but by 1987, a turbocharged 2.0L four-cylinder sourced from the Sunbird GT began being used. As the '90s approached, the Grand Prix received a 2.3L LD2 High Output Quad 4 that pumped out 160 horsepower along with 155 pounds-per-foot of torque. A slightly more powerful LG0 2.3L High Output Quad 4 offered up to 180 hp. Pontiac instituted another redesign for Grand Prix parts with the model heading into the 1992 model year. Introduced as the fourth generation of the Grand Prix, the model was given smoother lines and a new base SOHC 2.3L Quad 4. Antilock brakes were made standard for the first time, as well. 1996 welcomed in another redesign to Grand Prix parts. Once again, the exterior parts were restyled for a more aerodynamic look. Dual airbags, a new stereo, and an updated design highlighted the interior. Air conditioning became standard a year later, but no other major changes were introduced until the premiere of the fifth generation Grand Prix in 1999.\nWhen the fifth generation was released for the 1999 model year, the Pontiac Grand Prix displayed a slightly longer wheelbase, an independent suspension, and five separate trim levels: SE. SE1, SE2, GT, and GT1. The base engine (SE and SE1) was a 2.4L Twin Cam inline four-cylinder good for 150 horsepower mated to a four-speed automatic transmission. The SE2, GT, and GT1 used a 3.4L V6, which got credit for churning out up to 170 (GT- 175) horsepower along with 150 pounds-per-foot of torque (GT- 200). All trims featured traction control and antilock brakes. In 2001, Pontiac dropped the SE2 trim level and a year after that, a new 2.2L DOHC Ecotec four-cylinder engine (140 hp/150 pounds-per-foot of torque) was introduced into the lineup to replace the previous 2.4L. 2005 saw Pontiac stop producing the GT coupe. This eventually led to the introduction of the G6, the Grand Prix's successor. Although no longer assembled, the Pontiac Grand Prix is still a visible presence on the blacktop. While it was in production, the Pontiac Grand Prix was consistently recognized as one of GM's most successful and reliable cars with impressive sales numbers to back it up.\nOne of the more respected models that helped put Pontiac on the map, the Grand Prix is a success story that keeps adding chapters. This sedan fills a variety of roles depending on the type of driver behind the wheel. For some, it is a family car that gets the job done, equipped with reliable Pontiac Grand Prix parts delivering efficiency. For others, it is a custom-enhanced joyride of class and performance that takes on a whole new personality due to stylish accessories. It doesn't really matter. After all, that's what it was designed for. The Pontiac Grand Prix is still a presence because of its unrelenting versatility and style.\nCARiD.com knows premier quality is always the name of the game. Our inventory of Pontiac Grand Prix Accessories and Parts is all the proof you need. We handpick the most respected brand-names in the business and offer them right here at the best prices on the web. That means you can get your hands on all the Pontiac Grand Prix accessories and parts that make a difference, including spoilers, floor mats, wheels, and grille guards. Pontiac Grand Prix accessories help distinguish your car from the rest of the pack. Let everyone know it's time to follow the leader!\nWhatever you expect from your Pontiac Grand Prix, a bold look, mind-boggling performance, greater ride comfort, or safer driving, CARiD goes the extra mile to meet all your needs. Our extensive range of premium accessories and parts covers all the bases, whether you want your vehicle to be more powerful, smarter, fun to drive, or just need to restore it to original condition. We know how to throw a classy appeal into your Pontiac Grand Prix and keep it providing the best performance, so trust us and get the greatest bang for the buck!\nFeatured Products\nClassic Car Seats | Finish Your Interior Restoration in Style\nWhen you've got an unrestored classic car, it's almost par for the course that the original seats are worn out structurally, if not visibly. You may have gotten used to the sagging, pinching, and squeaking that comes from tired or broken seat frame components, but the point always comes where you just can't take any more.\nOctober 25, 2016\nHow To Install 'Cut-out' Fender Flares\nFenders are the body panels that surround a car or truck's wheel wells. Because they contribute so much to the overall shape and look of your vehicle, it's easy to forget that fenders serve an extremely valuable function - keeping water, snow, dirt and debris from being flung upward from the tire treads and onto the body or glass of the vehicle.\nSeptember 06, 2016\nHow to Install Dash & Rear Deck Covers\nIn other areas of our website, we've pointed out that dashboards and rear deck areas are usually among the more neglected areas of your vehicle. They are constantly exposed to the sun's damaging ultraviolet rays, yet they're still perceived as needing zero upkeep.\nSeptember 01, 2016\nChrome Mirror Covers Hide Scratches and Add Brightness\nNarrow driveways with inches to spare on each side. Overgrown roadways with bushes and tree branches sticking out into the center. Crowded garages filled with bicycles and lawn equipment strewn everywhere. Supermarket parking lots where shoppers push their carts errantly close to get by.\nAugust 25, 2016\nTonneau Cover Cleaners & Protectors Remove the Dirt & Restore the Shine\nAt CARiD, we sell a lot of tonneau covers because we're real believers in their benefits, and because we offer a broader selection than our competitors. We also use many different styles and makes of vinyl tonneau covers on our own trucks for demonstration purposes, and we've learned quite a bit about them.\nAugust 23, 2016\nBumper Guards | Full-Width Protection in the City and the Country\nYou may never go off-roading or drive down wooded trails where large animals are likely to materialize in front of your path, but if you live in city areas or suburbs, you still need to prepare your car or truck for survival in a different type of jungle - the urban jungle.\nAugust 15, 2016\nNo-drill Fender Flares are So Easy to Install!\nHave you ever seen another truck like yours and thought, \"It looks the same as mine, but more…rugged\"? And after a moment of reflection, the answer finally came to you why. The other vehicle was equipped with fender flares, and yours wasn't. Yes, there's a reason automakers fit fender flares on top-trim versions of their cars and trucks at the factory. It's because they can serve as elegant-looking pieces that make your vehicle look more expensive, or as more robust ones that add well-toned, muscular definition, without great cost or complexity. Because we understand just how much they add to a vehicle, we offer a great selection of fender flares. And regardless of what you opt for, fender flares can be left their original color (usually black), or they can be easily custom painted to blend in or contrast as desired.\nJuly 07, 2016\nDash Kit Options: Upgrade Kits, Factory Match Wood\nThere's no question that custom dash kits add richness and spice to your vehicle's interior - regardless of whether you choose a finish of wood, brushed metal, carbon fiber, bright solid colors, or even camouflage. The high-quality trim sets we offer are crafted to exacting specifications in order to ensure everything looks right and fits tight the way original equipment does.\nJune 30, 2016\nInterior Mirror Options Bring You into the 21st Century\nIt may be hard to imagine, but interior rearview mirrors are subject to a lot of stress. Direct sunlight and extreme interior temperatures take their toll - eventually causing glue and bonding materials to deteriorate from the edges inward. As a result, those edges of the mirror appear to be crinkling up like tinfoil - a distracting and unsightly sight that has the effect of making the rest of your vehicle seem old and tired.\nJune 24, 2016\nRear Deck Covers Complete Your Interior Protection\nIf you've got a coupe or sedan, when was the last time you actually looked at your vehicle's interior \"rear deck\"? This is the horizontal shelf that sits between the rear window and the edge of the rear seat back cushion. This area may also be described as a hat shelf or package tray, and it's usually covered at the factory in carpeting or other material that's closely knit and low in height. This covering is discreet enough to blend into surrounding areas of the interior and, in most cases, no one gives it a thought.\nJune 23, 2016\nGrille Emblems | The Finishing Touch to Your Factory or Custom Grille\nA grille emblem is a source of pride for vehicle manufacturers because it's a final signature on what designers and engineers have spent a lot of time and hard work creating. It's fair to say a grille emblem is similar to an artist's name on a completed painting - because both represent a show of pride about what's been created, and in the creator's own abilities to produce it. And while pieces by any artist will vary, the signature on them is distinctive in its own right because it's the one constant that doesn't change. If an artist or carmaker goes in a new direction, that signature may be the only thing that's recognizable initially - until what's newly created becomes appreciated on its own merits.\nJune 21, 2016\nPainted Tonneau Covers | Move From Utility To Luxury\nIf you're like most pickup truck owners, you carry a lot in the bed of your truck. And if your truck bed floor is bare, you may have noticed the increasing numbers of scratches and dents that have resulted from loading and unloading cargo. Glancing back at your truck isn't as enjoyable any more - because the whole of it no longer shines with the unified look of a single, unadulterated color. Or maybe you've protected your bed with a bedliner and have come to feel its black appearance just doesn't blend with your truck's finish the way you thought it would.\nMay 24, 2016\nSkid Plates Provide The Ultimate In Off-Road Protection\nIf you take your 4x4 off-roading, you have likely gained an appreciation of how unforgiving trails can be when it comes to your vehicle's underside. Deep ruts with rough edges can appear out of nowhere, sturdy-looking rocks can shift unexpectedly, and tranquil bodies of water can hide everything from sinkholes to fallen tree trunks. Before you know it, the underside of your truck has bounced off something hard enough to damage moving suspension components or puncture housings containing engine oil, gasoline, transmission fluid, or differential gear oil.\nMay 18, 2016\nWhat Is The Procedure To Install A Hood Scoop?\nIn the custom hoods section of our website, you'll find add-on hood air scoops that create an unmistakable look of power. Since the beginning of hot-rodding, racers have been fitting scoops onto their cars both for looks and function. Over the years, many high-performance muscle cars have even featured them as original equipment on top trim levels. Hood scoop openings can face forward in order to guide cool air into the engine, or the openings can face rearward to take advantage of the high pressure area at the base of the windshield. Whichever way they are positioned, airflow under the hood increases - a factor that improves both induction and heat ventilation to varying degrees.\nMay 17, 2016\nLift Your Car Easily And Safely With A Quality Floor Jack\nWhen working as a do-it-yourselfer (DIY), whether you're a beginner or an expert, having the right equipment to get your vehicle off the ground is a starting point for easier car repairs at home. You work on your own vehicle because you enjoy the experience of improving your car or truck with your own hands, and you do it to save money. With that spirit in mind, we've written this article to cover the very items that help you get started - floor jacks which are the right size, quality, and price for your home garage workshop.\nMay 06, 2016\nHow To Install A Set Of Custom Seat Covers\nThe design and construction of seat covers have truly come a long way. Computer-aided design and better production methods have allowed the creation of modern seat covers that are custom-tailored to fit individual makes and models - stretching like a glove over every contour. And thanks to modern materials, today's covers will stay form-fittingly snug over each fold and crease - even under heavy use. Passengers won't notice they are add-ons, and you may forget they're not original equipment yourself. Installation is relatively easy and does not require any tools because seat covers we sell come equipped with all the straps, zippers, and clips you'll need to snugly secure them in place.\nMay 05, 2016\nPortable Generators: Superstorm Salvation For The Household\nWith storms and weather events that intensify with every passing year, power outages lasting for extended periods of time have become commonplace - a problem that's only going to get worse in the future. When power outages hit, hot water heaters, heating systems, kitchen appliances, basement pumps, security alarms, and other items that use electricity as their lifeblood are rendered useless. You're left literally powerless to control your environment against extreme temperatures, and you have no way to stop flooding and property damage that tend to go hand-in-hand with heavy storms.\nMay 04, 2016\nLifts & Ramps Safely Bring Your Vehicle Up To Working Height\nThe odds are that if you clicked on this article to read it, then you appreciate the idea of working on your own car. Perhaps when you pass by a professional garage or shop, you're a bit envious as you glance in and see service bays filled with lifts and other equipment that make certain repair jobs easier. Professionals use lifts for a good reason - they allow you to perform almost any repair at a more comfortable height so you can see clearly, apply torque easily, reach for tools faster, and have access to areas normally inaccessible with the vehicle on the ground.\nMay 03, 2016\nWhat Are My Choices For Custom Hood Materials?\nAn automobile hood is one of the body panels on your vehicle with the largest surface area, and it's the one panel you'll be looking at every minute you're behind the wheel. Considering this, maybe you find it as odd as we do that many vehicle manufacturers have chosen to make modern hood panels flat and boring, thanks in large part to the search for low wind resistance.\nApril 25, 2016\nHow To Install A Universal Sunroof Visor\nSunroof deflectors install on your vehicle's roof in front of the leading edge of the sunroof itself. The rounded, upwardly-curving shape they possess redirects air so it flows up and over the sunroof opening instead of into the vehicle. Because of that built-in curve, most deflectors extend over and effectively cover approximately three to six inches of the sunroof opening at the front - blocking sun glare that would normally beam directly into your eyes.\nMarch 23, 2016\nRain Guards: In-Channel vs. Stick-On\nRain Guards, also known as wind deflectors, window deflectors, or window visors, are an underrated automotive accessory - simply because it's difficult to know just how effective they are until you experience them. However, once fitted on your car or truck, it's hard to imagine how you got along without them. Deflectors improve your vehicle's aerodynamics when the windows are down, reducing annoying wind noise. Deflectors also allow you to drive in the rain with windows cracked for ventilation without getting wet. And when blistering hot summer days roll around, windows can be left cracked in a parking lot without being noticeable to potential thieves.\nMarch 23, 2016\nThe Age Old Debate: Do Bug Deflectors Work?\nThe effectiveness of bug deflectors has been a point of contention between believers and non-believers for a long time. Some insist they work wonders, while others swear to the contrary. Because lots of testimonials supporting both points of view float around the internet and through word of mouth, deciding what to believe can be difficult. Before doing that, it's important to understand the thinking behind bug deflector designs.\nMarch 22, 2016\nSunroof Visors Let You Enjoy Fresh Air No Matter The Weather\nAccording to recent statistics, over half of new vehicles sold in the United States are equipped with a factory \"sunroof\", \"moonroof\", \"panorama roof\", or similarly-named panel which allows part of a vehicle's roof to slide open. It wouldn't be a stretch to say almost 9 million cars and trucks leave factories so equipped each year. And the reason for their popularity is simple - sunroofs are great! They make it possible to enjoy fresh air, warm sun, and cool breezes right by our heads while driving our four-door sedans, SUVs, and minivans. We get a taste of the convertible life without giving up 98% of the practicality we need every day. At the dealership, most buyers see a sunroof option on the checklist and immediately envision blissfully taking in all the joys of Mother Nature while driving their future car. Mentally, the forecast is sunshine with no rain - a powerful enough thought to make the extra cost of a sunroof seem well worthwhile.\nMarch 16, 2016\nHow To Install Rain Guards | In-Channel And Stick-On\nRain Guards, also known as wind deflectors, window deflectors, or window visors, improve your vehicle's aerodynamics when the windows are down, reduce annoying wind noise, shield you from rain spray, and allow windows to be left cracked in a parking lot without giving notice to potential thieves. Going forward, we'll refer to them as \"deflectors\" in this article.\nMarch 02, 2016\nRooftop Carriers Can Carry All Your Water Sports Equipment\nSo you've got a kayak, canoe, surfboard, or stand up paddleboard you can't wait to use. Before you can do that, however, you've got to find a practical way to get your toy to a lake or ocean - safely, and without damage. While these watersport items embody grace and fluidity in the waves, the truth is they're extremely cumbersome to transport on land. If you find yourself scratching your head trying to figure out the best solution, we've created this article to cover the many rooftop carriers for these items that we offer.\nFebruary 24, 2016\nRear Window Deflectors | Made To Shade Your Truck’s Back Glass\nHave you ever driven your pickup truck and found that the sun glare coming from the rear window is a real nuisance? It's difficult to block the sunlight from streaming through that location, especially given that your vehicle manufacturer was not thoughtful enough to provide fold-down visors for the rear window area. You could fashion and install some kind of curtain, but that would only create a greater nuisance by blocking rear vision.\nFebruary 18, 2016\nDo Rain Guards Really Work?\nIf the air conditioning system in your car no longer blows cold air because performing costly repairs isn't feasible, you've probably become familiar with the cooling off method some describe as \"460 Air Conditioning\" - signifying 4 windows down at 60 miles per hour. You play around with just how much to open each window in order to create a balance that maximizes crosswind and minimizes unpleasant, ear-popping buffeting inside the cabin. But no matter how hard you try, you and your hair still end up disheveled. Hopefully you're not going to a place where that matters.\nFebruary 12, 2016\nRooftop Storage Solutions | Cargo Boxes, Bags, Baskets\nMaybe you've got an SUV with three rows of seats. They're great fun when 6 or 8 people are along for a road trip, but most such modern vehicles utilize every inch of interior space in order to fit that third row. Consequentially, there's virtually zero room for cargo when seats are in the upright position. Or maybe you have a similar problem with a compact hatchback, or even a minivan. Your vehicle may have fold-flat seats that make carrying cargo easy, but what good are they when you need to bring passengers with you? You can't ask adults to squeeze in between duffel bags or sporting gear, and you can't ask them to hang on tight and surf on the roof either.\nFebruary 11, 2016\nRooftop Carriers Can Carry All Your Winter Sports Equipment\nSkiing and snowboarding are not inexpensive hobbies. After purchasing skis, poles, shoes, clothes, lift passes, and even lodging accommodations, you've shelled out enough money that it becomes tempting to skip spending more on a rooftop carrier. But if you've ever jammed all your snow gear inside your car, you know how chaotic, slushy, and awkward that can be - especially if you're trying to make room for friends and luggage. That's why we offer cleverly-designed rooftop carriers that won't break your bank in the Ski & Snowboard Racks section of our website.\nFebruary 11, 2016", "The Official Site of Mario Andretti\nTODAY\n1940s\nMario was born in Montona, Italy (now Croatia), about 35 miles from the northeastern city of Trieste. World War II broke out around the time he was born, at the beginning of 1940. When the war ended, the peninsula of Istria, which is where Montona was located, became part of Yugoslavia. So the Andrettis were inside a Communist country. The family stuck it out for three years, hoping that the only world they had ever known would right itself. In 1948, they decided to leave. Their first stop was a central dispersement camp in Udine. About a week later they were transferred to Lucca, in Tuscany.\nFor seven years, from 1948 to 1955, the Andrettis lived in a refugee camp in Lucca. They lived in one room with several other families - with blankets separating each one's quarters.\nUnfortunately, it was not just 'pick up and go'. Formal requests for visas had to be submitted to the American Consulate. Only so many people got visas. And when they reached a quota, there were no more granted. And many people were trying to leave. Some were going to Argentina, some to Australia, some to Canada. Everyone followed their imagination. And some people stayed. Whatever you thought was your best bet.\n1950s\nThe Andrettis waited several years for U.S. visas. When they were finally granted, the family of five left all their belongings behind and began their new life in America. On the morning of June 16, 1955, the Italian ocean liner Conte Biancamano arrived into New York Harbor. Settling in Nazareth, Pennsylvania, the family of five had $125 and didn't speak English. Mario and his twin brother, Aldo, were 15.\nIn 1954, a year before arriving in the United States, the twins had gone to Monza to watch the Italian Grand Prix. They were only 14 years old, but motor racing was becoming more and more of a dream for both boys. In those days, it was more popular than any other sport in Italy. That was especially true in the 1950s, when Ferrari, Maserati and Alfa Romeo were the top players in Formula One. And the world champion at that time was Alberto Ascari - Mario's idol.\nSo imagine the thrill when, a few days after arriving in America, the Andretti boys discovered a race track - right near their home in Pennsylvania. It was a half mile oval track, which was different than what they had seen in Europe. And the cars were modified stock cars, not sophisticated grand prix cars. But there was a lot of speed. And it looked very, very do-able to them. The twins were now on a mission.\nTo become a racer, you need your own car. And there are only three ways to obtain a car: Steal it (which was against their principles). Buy it (except they didn't have any money). Or build it yourself (their only real option). They set out listening to anybody who had even the slightest knowledge of a race car. They found out about engines, shocks, spring rates, suspension, chassis setup, and on and on.\nWith some local friends they built a car - a 1948 Hudson Hornet Sportsman Stock Car - and raced it for the first time in March of 1959. Four years after arriving in America, Mario and Aldo were racing. While Aldo didn't have the same good fortune, Mario's career flourished as he won 20 races in the sportsman stock car class in his first two seasons.\n1960s\nMario's \"first victory of consequence\" came on March 3, 1962, a 100-lap feature TQ Midget race at Teaneck, NJ. On Labor Day in 1963, he won three midget features on the same day - one at Flemington, NJ and two at Hatfield, PA.\nAfter joining the United States Auto Club in 1964, Mario finished third in the sprint car point standings, capped by a dramatic victory in a 100-lap race at Salem, IN. He also drove in his first Indy Car event at Trenton, NJ on April 19, 1964, starting 16th and finishing 11th in the 100-mile race, and earned $526.90 in his professional debut.\nMario won his first Indy Car race in 1965, the Hoosier Grand Prix, and finished third in the Indianapolis 500, earning him Rookie-of-the-Year honors. He went on to win his first Indy Car Championship that year - with 12 top-four finishes - and became the youngest driver (at age 25) to win that title. In 1966, he won eight Indy Car races, his first pole at the Indy 500 and a second straight national championship.\nIn 1967, Mario's passion for racing saw him compete and win in the Daytona 500 stock car race, take his second pole at the Indy 500, claim his first of three career victories in the 12 Hours of Sebring endurance race, finish as runner-up in the Indy Car national championship and be named Driver of the Year for the first time.\nHe even tried drag racing in 1968 - driving a Ford Mustang - and earned eight more Indy Car victories en route to second place in the Indy Car point standings. Realizing a lifelong dream, Mario qualified on the pole in his very first Formula One race at the 1968 U.S. Grand Prix at Watkins Glen, but was forced out of the race with a clutch problem. But Grand Prix racing was in his blood and the decade of the Seventies would see his dream come true.\nMario's celebrated win in the Indianapolis 500 came in 1969. He led a total of 116 laps and established 15 of 20 new records set during that event. Mario scored a total of nine wins and five pole positions that season and went on to win his third national Indy Car title. He ended the decade with a total of 30 victories and 29 poles out of 111 Indy Car starts.\n1970s\nThe 1970s proved to be a decade of successful versatility for Andretti, beginning with his second victory in the 12 Hours of Sebring in 1970, followed by his first Formula One triumph in South Africa, driving for Ferrari in 1971. His mastery of endurance racing was at its zenith in 1972, when he co-drove a Ferrari 312P to victory with Jacky Ickx at the 6 Hours of Daytona, 12 Hours of Sebring, BAOC 1000 km at Brands Hatch and Watkins Glen 6 Hours.\nHe continued his attack on the open-wheel series, winning a total of seven Formula 5000 events in 1974 and 1975, while finishing second in points in both seasons. He also took the USAC National Dirt Track Championship title in 1974, with three wins.\nAndretti returned full-time to the Grand Prix circuit in the mid-seventies. His quest for the world title began in earnest in 1976, racing for the legendary Colin Chapman at Team Lotus. Their first taste of success came in the year's final Grand Prix in Japan, a race Andretti won in a monumental downpour. Conditions, in fact, were so bad that Niki Lauda pulled into the pits and forfeited his chance to attain the championship.\nIn 1977, Mario was third in the world standings with seven poles and four wins, including Grand Prix victories in his native Italy (Monza) and again in the United States (Long Beach).\nThe culmination of his international career came in 1978, when he won the World Championship driving for Lotus, making him the first driver in motor racing history to win the Formula One and Indy Car titles. Mario dominated the scene with nine poles and six wins in the revolutionary \"ground effects\" Lotus, which he had worked so hard to develop, and joined Phil Hill (1961) as the only American ever to capture the world title. He was again honored by being selected Driver of the Year, in recognition of his accomplishments.\nAndretti topped the sport's best again in 1979, taking the International Race of Champions (IROC) series. As the decade came to an end, his full-time return to Indy Cars was imminent.\n1980s\nIn 1980, Mario competed for one last season with Team Lotus but was plagued by mechanical problems. He switched to the Alfa Romeo team in 1981, in what was to be his last full-time stint as a Formula One driver.\nWhen the call came from his old friends at Ferrari to replace the injured Didier Pironi in 1982, Andretti put the car on pole at Monza and finished third, much to the delight of his Italian fans. The final Grand Prix start of his career was in the last race of the season at Las Vegas; however, a mechanical failure caused his day to end early. All told, Mario earned 12 victories and won 18 poles in a total of 128 Grand Prix starts.\nAs he returned to the States in the early 1980s to concentrate on Indy Car competition, Andretti teamed with his son Michael and Philippe Alliot to compete at the 24 Hours of LeMans in 1983, where they qualified and finished third, the highest finish for a non-factory team. It was also Mario's first season with the newly-formed Newman/Haas Racing team.\nThe 1984 Indy Car season proved to be a memorable one for Andretti, who at age 44, won his fourth national championship by winning six events, eight pole positions and setting ten track records. The season was capped with his third Driver of the Year selection, bestowed for the first time by unanimous vote, making Mario the only man to ever win the trophy in three different decades (1969, 1978, 1984).\nAs the 80s progressed, Andretti continued to make racing history with some personal milestones. With his son, Michael, they established the first-ever, father-son front row in qualifying for the 1986 Phoenix Indy Car event, a feat they accomplished a total of ten times before the close of the decade.\nIn 1987, in the debut of the Chevrolet-powered engine, Mario sat on the pole eight times, including his third pole at the Indy 500. He went on to lead 170 of the first 177 laps before engine failure cut his day disappointedly short.\nMario won his 50th Indy Car race at Phoenix and his 51st at Cleveland in 1988. As the decade came to a close in 1989, Andretti took on what would be the ultimate teammate -his son, Michael. It marked the first father-son team in Indy Car history.\n1990s\nWith his two sons (Michael and Jeff) and his nephew (John Andretti), Mario made another \"first\" as the four family members competed in the same Indy Car race at Milwaukee, June 3, 1990.\nThe following year, the four Andrettis raced against one another for the first time in the Indianapolis 500. Jeff was voted Rookie of the Year, joining Mario (1965) and Michael (1984) as the only three members of the same family to win the award.\nIn 1992, Mario achieved two new milestones. He became the oldest Indy Car pole winner when he earned his record-setting 66th pole at the Michigan 500 and, at Cleveland, he set an all-time record for most Indy Car race starts with 370 (Mario finished his career with 407 starts). He was also named Driver of the Quarter Century by a vote of all former Driver of the Year winners and a panel of 12 journalists.\nAs he began his 35th year of professional racing in 1993, Mario continued to make headlines with his 52nd Indy Car victory at the Phoenix 200, making him the first driver to win Indy Car races in four decades and the first driver to win races in five decades. This race also marked his 111th major career victory. Records continued to be made in 1993, when Mario set a world closed-course speed record (234.275 mph) in qualifying for the Michigan 500, as he earned his 67th pole. This record stood intact until 1996, a year after the track was repaved.\nMario decided that 1994 would be his final year of competition as a Indy Car driver. The season-long farewell campaign, entitled Arrivederci, Mario featured special tributes, salutes and honors at every race venue. As he sped around a Indy Car track for the last time on October 9, 1994 at Laguna Seca Raceway, the legend of Mario Andretti assumed its place in the record books and in the hearts of his many fans.\nEven though officially retired, Mario continued the next few years to seek the one major trophy missing from his mantle, the 24 Hours of LeMans. He competed an additional four times in the world's most prestigious endurance race, winning the WSC class and finishing second overall in 1995.\nToday\nToday Mario is a spokesman, associate and friend to top executives around the world. He works with Bridgestone Firestone, MagnaFlow, Mattel, Phillips Van Heusen, Honda and GoDaddy.\nHealthy and fit, he looks as though he could slip right back into the cockpit of a race car and often does, in the two-seater which allows for a passenger to sit behind the driver and truly experience the speed and pressure that comes with open-wheel racing. Mario remains vibrant, pursuing other passions, still working at a number of personal business ventures including a winery and petroleum business. He plays tennis, enjoys waterskiing and flying his ultralight. He was in the first Cars movie. He's on Twitter and Facebook, carries a tablet computer and stays current in the digital era. He isn't just any 72-year-old, any more than he was just any race car driver. He remains one of the most popular interviews in racing and the most respected voice in motorsports. He is a much sought-after source by journalists from all over the world.", "FACT SHEET GRAND PRIX DETROIT 2015 | MAGIC: THE GATHERING\nTRAVEL\nProfessional Event Services is proud to present Grand Prix Detroit 2015! The Grand Prix circuit is returning to the Motor City in 2015 for three full days of Magic! You are going to want to tell your friends, because you are going to need them by your side as the main event is 3-player Team Sealed featuring the Origins set! Get your team together and join us Friday for some Team Sealed Practice events to get your tech ready for the GP!\nEven in the diverse land of Magic GPs, team events are a rarity. This is the LAST team event in North America for 2015 and one of only TWO for the remainder of the year! Need more? Ok, how about FREE Friday Mini Master events and a full range of Side Events including the Super Sunday Series events. Not enough? How about the opportunity to walk away with four (!) unique playmats from the event, a fantastic Prize Wall, vendors galore and a host of very talented artists! Whatever you want from a Magic event, we're sure you'll find it at Grand Prix Detroit!\nMain Event Registration Fee: $150/team\nMain Event Maximum Capacity is 2250 players (750 teams).\nRegistration online until August 14\nRegistration will be held on-site Friday, August 14 from 12:00 p.m. – 10:00 p.m.\nThere will be no on-site registration on Saturday.\nThe cut-off to adjust your team order is 10:00 PM Friday, August 14. After that time, your team order is frozen.\nYou may replace missing team members up until 8:30 AM, Saturday, August 15.\nMany Grand Prix offer additional services to participants, such as Sleep-In Specials and VIP packages. Sleep-In Specials allow players with byes to skip the player meeting on Saturday and arrive shortly before their first round begins. VIP packages provide various perks such as complimentary bottled water, special seating, and exclusive artist signings. Details of these services vary from event to event; please check the organizer's web site for specifics.\nThe format for Grand Prix Detroit is Magic: Origins Team Limited. For more information on the format and schedule, click here .\nThere are no byes for Team Limited events.\nAlong with the main event, there are additional side-event tournaments to play in at a Grand Prix. Side events are offered at all Grand Prix on Friday, Saturday, and Sunday. For details on side events that you can find at every Grand Prix, click here .\nA list of additional events and a full schedule for when side events take place can be found on the Grand Prix Detroit website . All side events (except casual events) will have a Planeswalker Points multiplier of 3x.\nTeam Sealed Practice\nFriday, August 14 from 12:00 PM – 6:00 PM\nTrios Sealed: Starts when 8 teams register - Single Elimination\nEntry Fee: $75/team\nParticipation Prize: Each team will receive one set of the three GP Detroit playmats.\n1st: 36 prize tickets/team\n2nd: 18 prize tickets/team\n3rd-4th: 9 prize tickets/team\nSome of the hottest and most famous artists in Magic will be joining us at Grand Prix Detroit. All artists will be available to sign cards, playmats, and more. In addition, all will be selling prints, artist proofs, original art/sketches, and doing custom alterations of mats and cards!\nArtists scheduled to appear at Grand Prix Detroit include Jeff Miracola, Steve Prescott, Chris Rahn and Randy Asplund. For more information on these artists, click here .\nThe airport for Grand Prix Detroit is Detroit Metro Airport (DTW) .\nDriving Directions\nSouthbound on the Lodge US-10, exit Larned St. (on left); right on Washington Blvd.\nSouthbound on I-75 take I-375 to Jefferson Ave. west to Washington Blvd.\n• From South\nNorthbound on I-75, exit Lodge US-10 to Larned St. (on left); right on\nWashington Blvd.\nWestbound on I-94 to I-75 south; take I-375 to Jefferson Ave. west to\nWashington Blvd.\nEastbound on I-96 or I-94, take the Lodge US-10 south; exit Larned St. (on left);\nright on Washington Blvd.\nTunnel crossing: left on Jefferson Ave. west to Washington Blvd.\nAmbassador Bridge crossing: take I-75 northbound to the Lodge US-10 south;\nexit Larned St. (left side); right on Washington Blvd.\nPublic Transportation Info\nDetroit People Mover - A Detroit People Mover station is located inside COBO Center on the third floor near Congress St.\nMain Event Registration Fee: $150 per team\nMaximum Main Event Capacity is 2250 players (750 teams).\nOnline registration until August 14.\nOn-site registration on Friday, August 14 from 12 p.m. to 10 p.m.\nSaturday, August 15: Grand Prix Detroit begins at 9:00 a.m.\nSunday, August 16: Day Two begins at 9:00 a.m.\nRegistration for the Grand Prix main event closes Friday night. There will be no Saturday registration.\nThe cut-off to adjust your team order is 10:00 PM Friday, August 14. After that time, your team order is frozen.\nYou may replace missing team members up until 8:30 AM, Saturday, August 15.\"\nThe main tournament at Grand Prix Detroit is open to Magic players of all ages.\nPlayers must have a signed waiver and consent form to compete at Grand Prix Detroit. Forms can be downloaded here and will be available on-site. Minors must have a parent of guardian’s signature on these forms. Minors will not be able to register or play unless we receive a waiver signed by a parent or guardian. No exceptions.\nPlayers should review the Magic Tournament Rules for the rules specific to Team Tournaments, paying particular attention to the following sections:\nSection 7.7 – Booster Draft Procedure\nSection 8.2 – Team Composition and Identification\nSection 8.3 – Team Communication\nDay One: Team Sealed Deck (12 Magic: Origins boosters)\n20 minutes for sealed deck pool registration and deck swap\n60 minutes for deck building\nDecklists are required\nDay Two: Team Sealed Deck (12 Magic: Origins boosters)\n60 minutes for deck building\nDecklists are required\nTop 4: Team Booster Draft (3 Magic: Origins boosters)\nTeam members draft at the same draft table with one opposing team (6 total players per draft table). Team members will be seated at the draft table in exactly the following order:\nTeam 1, Player A\nTeam 2, Player B\nNo communication (verbal or non-verbal) is permitted between team members during the draft.\nAfter the draft, team members will be located to separate tables to record their draft pools (15 minutes for draft pool registration and verification). After draft pool registration, team members will sit together for deck building (30 minutes for deck building).\nEach team member will play the opposing team member with the same player designation (A, B, or C).\nAfter the semifinals, the Top 2 teams will draft again using the procedure described above.\nDecklists are required\nModified Swiss-style (50-minute rounds).\nDay One will consist of 9 Swiss rounds. Day Two will consist of 5 Swiss rounds and the Top 4 single-elimination playoff.\nAll teams with an X-2-0 record (or better) or the top 40 teams – whichever is greater – advance to the second day of competition for prizes and invitations.\nThe Top 4 teams after the final Swiss round on Day Two will advance to the Top 8 single-elimination playoff.\nTop 4 playoff matches will be best 2 of 3 per individual match, with no time limit. (Players are still expected to play at a normal pace and complete playoff matches in a reasonable amount of time.)\nEach team member will be randomly paired against an opposing team member. Only 1 round will be played in the semi-finals and finals.\nStandings after the Swiss rounds will be used to determine final order in the standings for losing players in the quarterfinal and semifinal playoff rounds.\nFor the first game of each match in the playoff, the players on the team that finished higher in the Swiss rounds chooses either to play first or to play second. For subsequent games in each Top 4 playoff match, the usual Play/Draw rule applies (loser of the previous game decides whether to play first in the next game).\nJudges interested in applying for the event should do so using the Judge Center .\nNotes\nPlaneswalker Points multiplier 8x, Rules Enforcement Level (REL) is Competitive on Day One and Professional on Day Two." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Stapleton_International_Airport.txt", "U.S._state.txt" ], "title": [ "Stapleton International Airport", "U.S. state" ], "wiki_context": [ "Stapleton International Airport was the primary airport serving Denver, Colorado, United States from 1929 to 1995. At different times it served as a hub for Continental Airlines, the original Frontier Airlines, People Express, Trans World Airlines, (TWA), United Airlines and Western Airlines. Other airlines with smaller hub operations at Stapleton included Aspen Airways, the current version of Frontier Airlines and Rocky Mountain Airways with all three of these air carriers being based in Denver at the time. \n\nIn 1995, Stapleton was replaced by Denver International Airport. It has since been decommissioned and the property redeveloped as a retail and residential neighborhood.\n\nHistory\n\nStapleton opened on October 17, 1929, as Denver Municipal Airport. Its name became Stapleton Airfield after a 1944 expansion, in honor of Benjamin F. Stapleton, the city's mayor most of the time from 1923 to 1947, and the force behind the project when it began in 1928. Concourse A, the original building from 1929, was still in use when the airport closed. The airport was created by Ira Boyd Humphreys in 1919.\n\nThe March 1939 Official Aviation Guide shows nine weekday departures: seven United and two Continental. The April 1957 shows 38 United, 12 Continental, seven Braniff, seven Frontier, seven Western, five TWA and one Central. The jet age arrived during the summer of 1959 when Continental began operating Boeing 707 jetliners into Stapleton.\n\nRunway 17/35 and a new terminal building opened in 1964. Concourse D was built in 1972. After deregulation three airlines had hubs at Stapleton: (Frontier Airlines, Continental Airlines, and United Airlines). To combat congestion runway 18/36 was added in the 1980s and the terminal was again expanded with the $250 million (or $58 million according to the New York Times ) 24 gate Concourse E opening in 1988, despite Denver's replacement airport already under construction. When it closed in 1995 Stapleton had six runways (2 sets of 3 parallel runways) and five terminal concourses.\n\n[http://digital.denverlibrary.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15330coll5/id/335 1938,] [https://www.flickr.com/photos/12530375@N08/8085581195/sizes/h/ 1956] and [https://www.flickr.com/photos/12530375@N08/15586694927/sizes/h/ 1984 airport diagrams]\n\nIn the early 1980s Stapleton was a hub for four airlines—United, Continental, Frontier and Western—making it one of the most competitive markets in the United States. Southwest Airlines and People Express tried low-cost service to Denver in the mid-1980s, but Southwest withdrew and People Express was acquired by Continental. \n\nIn September 1982 the first revenue flight of the Boeing 767 arrived at Stapleton from O'Hare International Airport in Chicago.\n\nDuring the energy boom of the early 1980s, several skyscrapers were built in downtown Denver, including Republic Plaza (Denver's tallest at 714′). Due to Stapleton's location 3 mi east of downtown, the Federal Aviation Administration imposed a building height restriction of 700'-715' (depending on where the building was). This allowed an unimpeded glide slope for runways (8L/26R) and (8R/26L). The height restriction was lifted in 1995, well after the city's skyscrapers had been erected.\n\nStapleton Airport was the site for Ted Fujita's studies of microbursts.\n\nContinental Airlines closed its Stapleton pilot and flight attendant bases in October 1994, reducing operations and making United Airlines the airport's largest carrier. On February 25, 1995, George Hosford, Air Traffic Controller, cleared the last plane (Continental Flight 34, to London Gatwick) to depart from Stapleton International Airport. This would also mark the end of Continental Airlines' use of Denver as its hub.\n\nDecommissioning\n\nBy the 1980s, plans were under way to replace Stapleton with a new airport. Stapleton was plagued with a number of problems, including:\n* inadequate separation between runways, leading to extremely long waits in bad weather\n* little or no room for other airlines that proposed/wanted to use Stapleton for new destinations (an example of this was Southwest Airlines)\n* a lawsuit over aircraft noise, brought by residents of the nearby Park Hill community\n* legal threats by Adams County, Colorado, to block a runway extension into Rocky Mountain Arsenal lands\n\nThe Colorado General Assembly brokered a deal in 1985 to annex a plot of land in Adams County into the city of Denver, and use that land to build a new airport. Adams County voters approved the plan in 1988, and Denver voters approved the plan in a 1989 referendum.\n\nAfter weeks of delays, a Continental Airlines flight, with a destination of London Gatwick, was the last flight to depart Stapleton. The airport was then shut down. A convoy of vehicles of many kinds (rental cars, baggage carts, fuel trucks, etc.) traveled to the new Denver International Airport (DEN), which officially opened for all operations the following morning. \n\nThe runways at Stapleton were then marked with large yellow \"X\"s, which indicated it was no longer legal or safe for any aircraft to land there. The IATA and ICAO airport codes of DEN and KDEN were then transferred to the new DIA, to coincide with the same changes in airline and ATC computers, to ensure that flights to Denver would land at the new DIA. \n\nOriginally Denver sought tenants for Stapleton's terminal and concourses, but these buildings proved ill-suited for alternative uses. A July 1997 hail storm punched roughly 4,000 holes in the roofs of the old terminal and concourses, causing severe water damage, which compelled the city to tear them down. However, the airport's 12-story control tower will be retained as a monument to the airport's history and is likely to have an added observation deck for tourists.\n\nAll of Stapleton's airport infrastructure has been removed, except for the former control tower. The final parking structure was torn down to make room for the \"Central Park West\" section of the housing development in May 2011.\n\nFacilities\n\nAt the time of its decommissioning, the airport had the following runways:\n* 17R/35L (11,500 ft)\n* 17L/35R (12,000 ft)\n* 8L/26R (8,599 ft)\n* 8R/26L (10,004 ft)\n* 7/25 (4,871 ft)\n* 18/36 (7,750 ft)\n\nThe terminal had five concourses:\n* Concourse A – Commuter flights, Mesa Air Group, United Airlines\n* Concourse B – United Airlines\n* Concourse C – Continental Airlines, Frontier Airlines, Mexicana Airlines\n* Concourse D – Continental Express, Delta Air Lines, MarkAir, Pan American World Airways, Trans World Airlines\n* Concourse E – America West Airlines, American Airlines, Northwest Airlines, Sun Country, USAir\n\nContinental Airlines was once headquartered in Stapleton, moving there in October 1937. Airline president Robert F. Six arranged to have the headquarters moved to Denver from El Paso, Texas because he believed that the airline should have its headquarters in a large city with a potential base of customers. At a 1962 press conference in the office of Mayor of Los Angeles Sam Yorty, Continental Airlines announced that it planned to move its headquarters to Los Angeles in July 1963. \n\nRedevelopment\n\nWhile Denver International was being constructed, planners began to consider how the Stapleton site would be redeveloped. A private group of Denver civic leaders, the Stapleton Development Foundation, convened in 1990 and produced a master plan for the site in 1995, emphasizing a pedestrian-oriented design rather than the automobile-oriented designs found in many other planned developments.\n\nAccidents and incidents\n\nSeveral major air crashes involved Stapleton as the origin or destination airport, with four evidently occurring at Stapleton.\n\nAt Stapleton\n\n* On July 11, 1961, United Airlines Flight 859, a DC-8-12 tail number N8040U, was destroyed after landing. Asymmetric thrust on engines 1 & 2 (left wing) forced a loss of control on the runway. The aircraft struck a maintenance vehicle, killing the driver. In the ensuing disaster, 17 of the DC-8's 122 occupants died.\n* On August 7, 1975, Continental Airlines Flight 426 crashed due to windshear after taking off and climbing to 100 ft on runway 35L. Nobody was killed in the accident.\n* On November 16, 1976, a Texas International DC-9-10 aircraft stalled after takeoff at Stapleton and crashed. The 81 passengers and 5 crewmembers suffered a total of 14 injured, but there were no deaths.\n* On November 15, 1987, Continental Airlines Flight 1713, a DC-9-14 jetliner bound for Boise, Idaho, crashed on takeoff at Stapleton during a snowstorm. The probable cause of the crash was the failure of the flight crew to have the aircraft de-iced prior to take-off and the over-rotation of the aircraft on take-off. Twenty-eight of the plane's 82 occupants were killed.", "A state of the United States of America is one of the 50 constituent political entities that shares its sovereignty with the United States federal government. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the federal government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders (e.g., paroled convicts and children of divorced spouses who are sharing custody).\n\nStates range in population from just under 600,000 (Wyoming) to over 38 million (California), and in area from (Rhode Island) to (Alaska). Four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names.\n\nStates are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local governmental authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state. State governments are allocated power by the people (of each respective state) through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in republican principles, and each provides for a government, consisting of three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. \n\nStates possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution; among them ratifying constitutional amendments. Historically, the tasks of local law enforcement, public education, public health, regulating intrastate commerce, and local transportation and infrastructure have generally been considered primarily state responsibilities, although all of these now have significant federal funding and regulation as well. Over time, the U.S. Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the federal government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a continuing debate over states' rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states' powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government and the rights of individuals.\n\nStates and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Each state is represented by two Senators, and at least one Representative, while additional representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census. Each state is also entitled to select a number of electors to vote in the Electoral College, the body that elects the President of the United States, equal to the total of Representatives and Senators from that state. \n\nThe Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. Alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959.\n\nThe Constitution is silent on the question of whether states have the power to secede (withdraw from) from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U.S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, held that a state cannot unilaterally do so. \n\nStates of the United States\n\nThe 50 U.S. states (in alphabetical order), along with state flag and date each joined the union:\n\nGovernments\n\nAs each state is itself a sovereign entity, it reserves the right to organize its individual government in any way (within the broad parameters set by the U.S. Constitution) deemed appropriate by its people. As a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance. No two state governments are identical.\n\nConstitutions\n\nThe government of each state is structured in accordance with its individual constitution. Many of these documents are more detailed and more elaborate than their federal counterpart. The Constitution of Alabama, for example, contains 310,296 words — more than 40 times as many as the U.S. Constitution. In practice, each state has adopted a three-branch system of government, modeled after the federal government, and consisting of three branches (although the three-branch structure is not required): executive, legislative, and judicial. \n\nExecutive\n\nIn each state, the chief executive is called the governor, who serves as both head of state and head of government. The governor may approve or veto bills passed by the state legislature, as well as push for the passage of bills supported by the party of the Governor. In 43 states, governors have line item veto power. \n\nMost states have a \"plural executive\" in which two or more members of the executive branch are elected directly by the people. Such additional elected officials serve as members of the executive branch, but are not beholden to the governor and the governor cannot dismiss them. For example, the attorney general is elected, rather than appointed, in 43 of the 50 U.S. states.\n\nLegislative\n\nThe legislatures of 49 of the 50 states are made up of two chambers: a lower house (termed the House of Representatives, State Assembly, General Assembly or House of Delegates) and a smaller upper house, always termed the Senate. The exception is the unicameral Nebraska Legislature, which is composed of only a single chamber.\n\nMost states have part-time legislatures, while six of the most populated states have full-time legislatures. However, several states with high population have short legislative sessions, including Texas and Florida. \n\nIn Baker v. Carr (1962) and Reynolds v. Sims (1964), the U.S. Supreme Court held that all states are required to elect their legislatures in such a way as to afford each citizen the same degree of representation (the one person, one vote standard). In practice, most states choose to elect legislators from single-member districts, each of which has approximately the same population. Some states, such as Maryland and Vermont, divide the state into single- and multi-member districts, in which case multi-member districts must have proportionately larger populations, e.g., a district electing two representatives must have approximately twice the population of a district electing just one. If the governor vetoes legislation, all legislatures may override it, usually, but not always, requiring a two-thirds majority.\n\nIn 2013, there were a total of 7,383 legislators in the 50 state legislative bodies. They earned from $0 annually (New Mexico) to $90,526 (California). There were various per diem and mileage compensation. \n\nJudicial\n\nStates can also organize their judicial systems differently from the federal judiciary, as long as they protect the federal constitutional right of their citizens to procedural due process. Most have a trial level court, generally called a District Court or Superior Court, a first-level appellate court, generally called a Court of Appeal (or Appeals), and a Supreme Court. However, Oklahoma and Texas have separate highest courts for criminal appeals. In New York State the trial court is called the Supreme Court; appeals are then taken to the Supreme Court's Appellate Division, and from there to the Court of Appeals.\n\nMost states base their legal system on English common law (with substantial indigenous changes and incorporation of certain civil law innovations), with the notable exception of Louisiana, a former French colony, which draws large parts of its legal system from French civil law.\n\nOnly a few states choose to have the judges on the state's courts serve for life terms. In most of the states the judges, including the justices of the highest court in the state, are either elected or appointed for terms of a limited number of years, and are usually eligible for re-election or reappointment.\n\nRelationships\n\nAmong states\n\nEach state admitted to the Union by Congress since 1789 has entered it on an equal footing with the original States in all respects. With the growth of states' rights advocacy during the antebellum period, the Supreme Court asserted, in Lessee of Pollard v. Hagan (1845), that the Constitution mandated admission of new states on the basis of equality.\n\nUnder Article Four of the United States Constitution, which outlines the relationship between the states, each state is required to give full faith and credit to the acts of each other's legislatures and courts, which is generally held to include the recognition of legal contracts and criminal judgments, and before 1865, slavery status. Regardless of the Full Faith and Credit Clause, some legal arrangements, such as professional licensure and marriages, may be state-specific, and until recently states have not been found by the courts to be required to honor such arrangements from other states. \n\nSuch legal acts are nevertheless often recognized state-to-state according to the common practice of comity. States are prohibited from discriminating against citizens of other states with respect to their basic rights, under the Privileges and Immunities Clause. Under the Extradition Clause, a state must extradite people located there who have fled charges of \"treason, felony, or other crimes\" in another state if the other state so demands. The principle of hot pursuit of a presumed felon and arrest by the law officers of one state in another state are often permitted by a state. \n\nWith the consent of Congress, states may enter into interstate compacts, agreements between two or more states. Compacts are frequently used to manage a shared resource, such as transportation infrastructure or water rights. \n\nWith the federal government\n\nEvery state is guaranteed a form of government that is grounded in republican principles, such as the consent of the governed. This guarantee has long been at the fore-front of the debate about the rights of citizens vis-à-vis the government. States are also guaranteed protection from invasion, and, upon the application of the state legislature (or executive, if the legislature cannot be convened), from domestic violence. This provision was discussed during the 1967 Detroit riot, but was not invoked.\n\nSince the early 20th century, the Supreme Court has interpreted the Commerce Clause of the Constitution of the United States to allow greatly expanded scope of federal power over time, at the expense of powers formerly considered purely states' matters. The Cambridge Economic History of the United States says, \"On the whole, especially after the mid-1880s, the Court construed the Commerce Clause in favor of increased federal power.\" In Wickard v. Filburn , the court expanded federal power to regulate the economy by holding that federal authority under the commerce clause extends to activities which may appear to be local in nature but in reality effect the entire national economy and are therefore of national concern. \n\nFor example, Congress can regulate railway traffic across state lines, but it may also regulate rail traffic solely within a state, based on the reality that intrastate traffic still affects interstate commerce. In recent years, the Court has tried to place limits on the Commerce Clause in such cases as United States v. Lopez and United States v. Morrison.\n\nAnother example of congressional power is its spending power—the ability of Congress to impose taxes and distribute the resulting revenue back to the states (subject to conditions set by Congress). An example of this is the system of federal aid for highways, which include the Interstate Highway System. The system is mandated and largely funded by the federal government, and also serves the interests of the states. By threatening to withhold federal highway funds, Congress has been able to pressure state legislatures to pass a variety of laws. An example is the nationwide legal drinking age of 21, enacted by each state, brought about by the National Minimum Drinking Age Act. Although some objected that this infringes on states' rights, the Supreme Court upheld the practice as a permissible use of the Constitution's Spending Clause in South Dakota v. Dole .\n\nAdmission into the Union\n\nArticle IV, Section 3, Clause 1 of the U.S. Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. Each new state has been admitted on an equal footing with the existing states. It also forbids the creation of new states from parts of existing states without the consent of both the affected states and Congress. This caveat was designed to give Eastern states that still had Western land claims (there were 4 in 1787), to have a veto over whether their western counties could become states, and has served this same function since, whenever a proposal to partition an existing state or states in order that a region within might either join another state or to create a new state has come before Congress.\n\nMost of the states admitted to the Union after the original 13 have been created from organized territories established and governed by Congress in accord with its plenary power under Article IV, Section 3, Clause 2. The outline for this process was established by the Northwest Ordinance (1787), which predates the ratification of the Constitution. In some cases, an entire territory has become a state; in others some part of a territory has.\n\nWhen the people of a territory make their desire for statehood known to the federal government, Congress may pass an enabling act authorizing the people of that territory to organize a constitutional convention to write a state constitution as a step towards admission to the Union. Each act details the mechanism by which the territory will be admitted as a state following ratification of their constitution and election of state officers. Although the use of an enabling act is a traditional historic practice, a number of territories have drafted constitutions for submission to Congress absent an enabling act and were subsequently admitted. Upon acceptance of that constitution, and upon meeting any additional Congressional stipulations, Congress has always admitted that territory as a state.\n\nIn addition to the original 13, six subsequent states were never an organized territory of the federal government, or part of one, before being admitted to the Union. Three were set off from an already existing state, two entered the Union after having been sovereign states, and one was established from unorganized territory:\n*California, 1850, from land ceded to the United States by Mexico in 1848 under the terms of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. \n*Kentucky, 1792, from Virginia (District of Kentucky: Fayette, Jefferson, and Lincoln counties)Michael P. Riccards, \"Lincoln and the Political Question: The Creation of the State of West Virginia\" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 27, 1997 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a\no&d=5000522904 online edition]\n*Maine, 1820, from Massachusetts (District of Maine)\n*Texas, 1845, previously the Republic of Texas \n*Vermont, 1791, previously the Vermont Republic (also known as the New Hampshire Grants and claimed by New York) \n*West Virginia, 1863, from Virginia (Trans-Allegheny region counties) during the Civil War \n\nCongress is under no obligation to admit states, even in those areas whose population expresses a desire for statehood. Such has been the case numerous times during the nation's history. In one instance, Mormon pioneers in Salt Lake City sought to establish the state of Deseret in 1849. It existed for slightly over two years and was never approved by the United States Congress. In another, leaders of the Five Civilized Tribes (Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole) in Indian Territory proposed to establish the state of Sequoyah in 1905, as a means to retain control of their lands. The proposed constitution ultimately failed in the U.S. Congress. Instead, the Indian Territory, along with Oklahoma Territory were both incorporated into the new state of Oklahoma in 1907. The first instance occurred while the nation still operated under the Articles of Confederation. The State of Franklin existed for several years, not long after the end of the American Revolution, but was never recognized by the Confederation Congress, which ultimately recognized North Carolina's claim of sovereignty over the area. The territory comprising Franklin later became part of the Southwest Territory, and ultimately the state of Tennessee.\n\nAdditionally, the entry of several states into the Union was delayed due to distinctive complicating factors. Among them, Michigan Territory, which petitioned Congress for statehood in 1835, was not admitted to the Union until 1837, due to a boundary dispute the adjoining state of Ohio. The Republic of Texas requested annexation to the United States in 1837, but fears about potential conflict with Mexico delayed the admission of Texas for nine years. Also, statehood for Kansas Territory was held up for several years (1854–61) due to a series of internal violent conflicts involving anti-slavery and pro-slavery factions.\n\nPossible new states\n\nPuerto Rico\n\nPuerto Rico referred to itself as the \"Commonwealth of Puerto Rico\" in the English version of its constitution, and as \"Estado Libre Asociado\" (literally, Associated Free State) in the Spanish version.\n\nAs with any non-state territory of the United States, its residents do not have voting representation in the federal government. Puerto Rico has limited representation in the U.S. Congress in the form of a Resident Commissioner, a delegate with limited voting rights in the Committee of the Whole House on the State of the Union, and no voting rights otherwise. \n\nA non-binding referendum on statehood, independence, or a new option for an associated territory (different from the current status) was held on November 6, 2012. Sixty one percent (61%) of voters chose the statehood option, while one third of the ballots were submitted blank. \n\nOn December 11, 2012, the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico enacted a concurrent resolution requesting the President and the Congress of the United States to respond to the referendum of the people of Puerto Rico, held on November 6, 2012, to end its current form of territorial status and to begin the process to admit Puerto Rico as a State. \n\nWashington, D.C.\n\nThe intention of the Founding Fathers was that the United States capital should be at a neutral site, not giving favor to any existing state; as a result, the District of Columbia was created in 1800 to serve as the seat of government. The inhabitants of the District do not have full representation in Congress or a sovereign elected government (they were allotted presidential electors by the 23rd amendment, and have a non-voting delegate in Congress).\n\nSome residents of the District support statehood of some form for that jurisdiction—either statehood for the whole district or for the inhabited part, with the remainder remaining under federal jurisdiction.\n\nOthers\n\nVarious proposals to divide California, usually involving splitting the south half from the north or the urban coastline from the rest of the state, have been advanced since the 1850s. Similarly, numerous proposals to divide New York, all of which involve to some degree the separation of New York City from the rest of the state, have been promoted over the past several decades. The partitioning of either state is, at the present, highly unlikely.\n\nOther even less likely possible new states are Guam and the Virgin Islands, both of which are unincorporated organized territories of the United States. Also, either the Northern Mariana Islands or American Samoa, an unorganized, unincorporated territory, could seek statehood.\n\nSecession from the Union\n\nThe Constitution is silent on the issue of the secession of a state from the union. However, its predecessor document, the Articles of Confederation, stated that the United States \"shall be perpetual.\" The question of whether or not individual states held the right to unilateral secession remained a difficult and divisive one until the American Civil War. In 1860 and 1861, eleven southern states seceded, but following their defeat in the American Civil War were brought back into the Union during the Reconstruction Era. The federal government never recognized the secession of any of the rebellious states. \n\nFollowing the Civil War, the United States Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, held that states did not have the right to secede and that any act of secession was legally void. Drawing on the Preamble to the Constitution, which states that the Constitution was intended to \"form a more perfect union\" and speaks of the people of the United States in effect as a single body politic, as well as the language of the Articles of Confederation, the Supreme Court maintained that states did not have a right to secede. However, the court's reference in the same decision to the possibility of such changes occurring \"through revolution, or through consent of the States,\" essentially means that this decision holds that no state has a right to unilaterally decide to leave the Union.\n\nCommonwealths\n\nFour states—Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia —adopted Constitutions early in their post-colonial existence identifying themselves as commonwealths, rather than states. These commonwealths are states, but legally, each is a commonwealth because the term is contained in its constitution. As a result, \"commonwealth\" is used in all public and other state writings, actions or activities within their bounds.\n\nThe term, which refers to a state in which the supreme power is vested in the people, was first used in Virginia during the Interregnum, the 1649–60 period between the reigns of Charles I and Charles II during which parliament's Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector established a republican government known as the Commonwealth of England. Virginia became a royal colony again in 1660, and the word was dropped from the full title. When Virginia adopted its first constitution on June 29, 1776, it was reintroduced. Pennsylvania followed suit when it drew up a constitution later that year, as did Massachusetts, in 1780, and Kentucky, in 1792.\n\nThe U.S. territories of the Northern Marianas and Puerto Rico are also referred to as commonwealths. This designation does have a legal status different from that of the 50 states. Both of these commonwealths are unincorporated territories of the United States.\n\nOrigins of states' names\n\nThe 50 states have taken their names from a wide variety of languages. Twenty-four state names originate from Native American languages. Of these, eight are from Algonquian languages, seven are from Siouan languages, three are from Iroquoian languages, one is from Uto-Aztecan languages and five others are from other indigenous languages. Hawaii's name is derived from the Polynesian Hawaiian language.\n\nOf the remaining names, 22 are from European languages: Seven from Latin (mainly Latinized forms of English names), the rest are from English, Spanish and French. Eleven states are named after individual people, including seven named for royalty and one named after an American president. The origins of six state names are unknown or disputed. Several of the states that derive their names from (corrupted) names used for Native peoples, have retained the plural ending of \"s\".\n\nGeography\n\nBorders\n\nThe borders of the 13 original states were largely determined by colonial charters. Their western boundaries were subsequently modified as the states ceded their western land claims to the Federal government during the 1780s and 1790s. Many state borders beyond those of the original 13 were set by Congress as it created territories, divided them, and over time, created states within them. Territorial and new state lines often followed various geographic features (such as rivers or mountain range peaks), and were influenced by settlement or transportation patterns. At various times, national borders with territories formerly controlled by other countries (British North America, New France, New Spain including Spanish Florida, and Russian America) became institutionalized as the borders of U.S. states. In the West, relatively arbitrary straight lines following latitude and longitude often prevail, due to the sparseness of settlement west of the Mississippi River.\n\nOnce established, most state borders have, with few exceptions, been generally stable. Only two states, Missouri (Platte Purchase) and Nevada, grew appreciably after statehood. Several of the original states ceded land, over a several year period, to the Federal government, which in turn became the Northwest Territory, Southwest Territory, and Mississippi Territory. In 1791 Maryland and Virginia ceded land to create the District of Columbia (Virginia's portion was returned in 1847). In 1850, Texas ceded a large swath of land to the federal government. Additionally, Massachusetts and Virginia (on two occasions), have lost land, in each instance to form a new state.\n\nThere have been numerous other minor adjustments to state boundaries over the years due to improved surveys, resolution of ambiguous or disputed boundary definitions, or minor mutually agreed boundary adjustments for administrative convenience or other purposes. Occasionally the United States Congress or the United States Supreme Court have settled state border disputes. One notable example is the case New Jersey v. New York, in which New Jersey won roughly 90% of Ellis Island from New York in 1998. \n\nRegional grouping\n\nStates may be grouped in regions; there are endless variations and possible groupings. Many are defined in law or regulations by the federal government. For example, the United States Census Bureau defines four statistical regions, with nine divisions. The Census Bureau region definition is \"widely used … for data collection and analysis,\"\"The National Energy Modeling System: An Overview 2003\" (Report #:DOE/EIA-0581, October 2009). United States Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration. and is the most commonly used classification system. Other multi-state regions are unofficial, and defined by geography or cultural affinity rather than by state lines." ] }

{ "description": [ "... United States. The Stapleton International Airport webcam below is the best ... If you know of a better webcam for this location then please let us know and we'll ...", "Stapleton International Airport was the primary airport serving Denver, ... Stapleton, Denver, Colorado, United States: Location: Stapleton, Denver, Colorado: Hub for:" ], "filename": [ "35/35_2440.txt", "130/130_2441.txt" ], "rank": [ 4, 5 ], "title": [ "Stapleton International Airport Webcam", "Stapleton International Airport - PediaView.com" ], "url": [ "http://www.weather-forecast.com/locations/Denver-Centennial-Airport/webcams/latest", "https://pediaview.com/openpedia/Stapleton_International_Airport" ], "search_context": [ "Stapleton International Airport Webcam\nStapleton International Airport Webcam\nStapleton International Airport Forecast Widget\nStapleton International Airport, Denver County, Colorado, United States\nThe Stapleton International Airport webcam below is the best available in our database. This Stapleton International Airport webcam and those cams nearby are not operated by weather-forecast.com, however please let us know if the Stapleton International Airport webcam is dead or frequently offline. If you know of a better webcam for this location then please let us know and we'll update our records.\nStapleton International Airport Webcam Archive\nStapleton International Airport Webcam at 2pm today", "Stapleton International Airport\nStapleton International Airport\n7,750\nAsphalt\nStapleton International Airport was the primary airport serving Denver , Colorado , United States from 1929 to 1995. At different times it served as a hub for Continental Airlines , the original Frontier Airlines , People Express , Trans World Airlines ( TWA ), United Airlines and Western Airlines . Other airlines with smaller hub operations at Stapleton included Aspen Airways , the current version of Frontier Airlines and Rocky Mountain Airways with all three of these air carriers being based in Denver at the time. [1]\nIn 1995, Stapleton was replaced by Denver International Airport . It has since been decommissioned and the property redeveloped as a retail and residential neighborhood.\nContents\n7 External links\nHistory\nLooking west, January 1966. Only concourses A, B, and C existed then. A United Airlines Pilot Training Center was later built on the vacant land between the airport’s west boundary and the housing tracts.\nLooking north, January 1966. Runway 35 became 35L, after 35R was built. The old United Airlines pilot training center buildings, on the airport proper, were still in operation. A UAL DC-8 pilot training flight has just made a missed approach, complete with its shadow.\nUSGS aerial photo of Stapleton International Airport looking north, June 1993, shortly before its closure. Runway 17R/35L crosses Interstate 70 at its midpoint.\nFormer Stapleton International Airport from the air (6 February 2006)\nTwo Convair 580s of the Denver-based Aspen Airways at Stapleton in 1986\nStapleton opened on October 17, 1929, as Denver Municipal Airport. Its name became Stapleton Airfield after a 1944 expansion, in honor of Benjamin F. Stapleton , the city’s mayor most of the time from 1923 to 1947, and the force behind the project when it began in 1928. Concourse A, the original building from 1929, was still in use when the airport closed. The airport was created by Ira Boyd Humphreys in 1919.\nThe March 1939 Official Aviation Guide shows nine weekday departures: seven United and two Continental. The April 1957 shows 38 United, 12 Continental, seven Braniff, seven Frontier, seven Western, five TWA and one Central. The jet age arrived during the summer of 1959 when Continental began operating Boeing 707 jetliners into Stapleton.\nRunway 17/35 and a new terminal building opened in 1964. Concourse D was built in 1972. After deregulation three airlines had hubs at Stapleton: ( Frontier Airlines , Continental Airlines , and United Airlines ). To combat congestion runway 18/36 was added in the 1980s and the terminal was again expanded with the $250 million (or $58 million according to the New York Times [2] ) 24 gate Concourse E opening in 1988, despite Denver’s replacement airport already under construction. [3] [4] [5] When it closed in 1995 Stapleton had six runways (2 sets of 3 parallel runways) and five terminal concourses.\n1938, 1956 and 1984 airport diagrams\nIn the early 1980s Stapleton was a hub for four airlines—United, Continental, Frontier and Western—making it one of the most competitive markets in the United States. Southwest Airlines and People Express tried low-cost service to Denver in the mid-1980s, but Southwest withdrew and People Express was acquired by Continental. [6]\nIn September 1982 the first revenue flight of the Boeing 767 arrived at Stapleton from O’Hare International Airport in Chicago.\nDuring the energy boom of the early 1980s, several skyscrapers were built in downtown Denver, including Republic Plaza (Denver’s tallest at 714′). Due to Stapleton’s location 3 miles (4.8 km) east of downtown, the Federal Aviation Administration imposed a building height restriction of 700′-715′ (depending on where the building was). This allowed an unimpeded glide slope for runways (8L/26R) and (8R/26L). The height restriction was lifted in 1995, well after the city’s skyscrapers had been erected.\nStapleton Airport was the site for Ted Fujita ‘s studies of microbursts .\nContinental Airlines closed its Stapleton pilot and flight attendant bases in October 1994, reducing operations and making United Airlines the airport’s largest carrier. [7] On February 25, 1995, George Hosford, Air Traffic Controller, cleared the last plane (Continental Flight 34, to London Gatwick) to depart from Stapleton International Airport. This would also mark the end of Continental Airlines’ use of Denver as its hub .\nDecommissioning\nBy the 1980s, plans were under way to replace Stapleton with a new airport. Stapleton was plagued with a number of problems, including:\ninadequate separation between runways, leading to extremely long waits in bad weather\nlittle or no room for other airlines that proposed/wanted to use Stapleton for new destinations (an example of this was Southwest Airlines )\na lawsuit over aircraft noise , brought by residents of the nearby Park Hill community\nlegal threats by Adams County, Colorado , to block a runway extension into Rocky Mountain Arsenal lands\nThe Colorado General Assembly brokered a deal in 1985 to annex a plot of land in Adams County into the city of Denver, and use that land to build a new airport. Adams County voters approved the plan in 1988, and Denver voters approved the plan in a 1989 referendum.\nAfter weeks of delays, a Continental Airlines flight, with a destination of London Gatwick , was the last flight to depart Stapleton. The airport was then shut down. A convoy of vehicles of many kinds (rental cars, baggage carts, fuel trucks, etc.) traveled to the new Denver International Airport (DEN) , which officially opened for all operations the following morning. [8]\nThe runways at Stapleton were then marked with large yellow “X”s, which indicated it was no longer legal or safe for any aircraft to land there. The IATA and ICAO airport codes of DEN and KDEN were then transferred to the new DIA, to coincide with the same changes in airline and ATC computers, to ensure that flights to Denver would land at the new DIA. [9]\nOriginally Denver sought tenants for Stapleton’s terminal and concourses, but these buildings proved ill-suited for alternative uses. A July 1997 hail storm punched roughly 4,000 holes in the roofs of the old terminal and concourses, causing severe water damage, which compelled the city to tear them down. However, the airport’s 12-story control tower will be retained as a monument to the airport’s history and is likely to have an added observation deck for tourists. [2]\nAll of Stapleton’s airport infrastructure has been removed, except for the former control tower. The final parking structure was torn down to make room for the “Central Park West” section of the housing development in May 2011.\nFacilities\nUAL Douglas DC-6 , N37514, code 5414, parked on the northwest maintenance ramp of Stapleton Airport, in September 1966.\nControl tower at Denver’s Stapleton International Airport photographed from top level of close-in parking structure, 1995.\nAt the time of its decommissioning, the airport had the following runways:\n17R/35L (11,500 ft)\nConcourse E – America West Airlines , American Airlines , Northwest Airlines , Sun Country , USAir\nContinental Airlines was once headquartered in Stapleton, moving there in October 1937. [10] Airline president Robert F. Six arranged to have the headquarters moved to Denver from El Paso, Texas because he believed that the airline should have its headquarters in a large city with a potential base of customers. [11] At a 1962 press conference in the office of Mayor of Los Angeles Sam Yorty , Continental Airlines announced that it planned to move its headquarters to Los Angeles in July 1963. [12]\nRedevelopment\nWhile Denver International was being constructed, planners began to consider how the Stapleton site would be redeveloped. A private group of Denver civic leaders, the Stapleton Development Foundation, convened in 1990 and produced a master plan for the site in 1995, emphasizing a pedestrian-oriented design rather than the automobile-oriented designs found in many other planned developments.\nAccidents and incidents\nSeveral major air crashes involved Stapleton as the origin or destination airport, with four evidently occurring at Stapleton.\nAt Stapleton\nOn July 11, 1961, United Airlines Flight 859 , a DC-8-12 tail number N8040U, was destroyed after landing. Asymmetric thrust on engines 1 & 2 (left wing) forced a loss of control on the runway. The aircraft struck a maintenance vehicle, killing the driver. In the ensuing disaster, 17 of the DC-8′s 122 occupants died.\nOn August 7, 1975, Continental Airlines Flight 426 crashed due to windshear after taking off and climbing to 100 feet (30 m) on runway 35L. Nobody was killed in the accident.\nOn November 16, 1976, a Texas International DC-9-10 aircraft stalled after takeoff at Stapleton and crashed. The 81 passengers and 5 crewmembers suffered a total of 14 injured, but there were no deaths.\nOn November 15, 1987, Continental Airlines Flight 1713 , a DC-9-14 jetliner bound for Boise, Idaho , crashed on takeoff at Stapleton during a snowstorm. The probable cause of the crash was the failure of the flight crew to have the aircraft de-iced prior to take-off and the over-rotation of the aircraft on take-off. Twenty-eight of the plane’s 82 occupants were killed.\nReferences\n^ http://www.departedflights.com , Feb. 15, 1985 Aspen Airways route map; Jan. 16, 1995 Frontier Airlines route map; Dec. 13, 1985 Rocky Mountain Airways route map" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Kevin_Kline.txt" ], "title": [ "Kevin Kline" ], "wiki_context": [ "Kevin Delaney Kline (born October 24, 1947) is an American film and stage actor, comedian, and singer. He has won an Academy Award and two Tony Awards, and is a 2003 American Theatre Hall of Fame inductee. \n\nKline began his career on stage in 1972 with The Acting Company. He went on to win two Tony Awards for his work in Broadway musicals, winning Best Featured Actor in a Musical for the 1978 original production of On the Twentieth Century and Best Actor in a Musical for the 1981 revival of The Pirates of Penzance. \n\nHe made his film debut the following year, opposite Meryl Streep in Sophie's Choice (1982). For his role in the 1988 comedy hit A Fish Called Wanda, he won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. In 2003, he starred as Falstaff in the Broadway production of Henry IV, for which he won the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actor in a Play.\n\nHe has been nominated for an Emmy Award, two BAFTA Awards and five Golden Globe Awards. His other films include The Big Chill (1983), Silverado (1985), Cry Freedom (1987), Dave (1993), The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1996), The Ice Storm (1997), In & Out (1997), De-Lovely (2004) and My Old Lady (2014).\n\nEarly life\n\nKline was born in St. Louis, Missouri, the son of Margaret Agnes Kirk (1918-2000) and Robert Joseph Kline. His father was a classical music lover and an amateur opera singer who owned and operated The Record Bar, a record store in St. Louis that opened in the early 1940s, and sold toys during the 1960s and 1970s; his father's family also owned Kline's Inc., a department store chain. Kline has described his mother as the \"dramatic theatrical character in our family\". Kline's father was Jewish, from a family that had emigrated from Germany, and had become an agnostic. Kline's mother was a Roman Catholic of Irish descent, the daughter of an immigrant from County Louth. Kline was raised in his mother's Catholic faith. He has three siblings, Alex, Christopher, and Kate. He graduated from the Saint Louis Priory School in 1965. \n\nIn 1997, the school named its new auditorium the Kevin Kline Theater, and Kline did a benefit performance of selections from Shakespeare at the dedication.\n\nHe attended Indiana University, Bloomington, where he began studying composing and conducting music, but switched to a theater and speech major for his last two years, graduating in 1970. Kline remembers: \"When I switched to the Theater Department, all I did was theater...I could barely make it to class because this was my passion.\" While an undergraduate, he was a co-founder of the Vest Pocket Players, an off-campus theatrical troupe. \n\nCareer\n\nIn 1970, Kline was awarded a scholarship to the newly formed Drama Division at the Juilliard School in New York. In 1972, he joined with fellow Juilliard graduates, including Patti LuPone and David Ogden Stiers, and formed the City Center Acting Company (now The Acting Company), under the aegis of John Houseman. \n\nThe Company traveled across the U.S. performing Shakespeare's plays, other classical works, and the musical The Robber Bridegroom, founding one of the most widely praised groups in American repertory theatre. At Juilliard he studied singing with Beverley Peck Johnson. \n\nIn 1976, Kline left The Acting Company and settled in New York City, doing a brief appearance as the character \"Woody Reed\" in the now-defunct soap opera Search for Tomorrow. He followed this with a return to the stage in 1977 to play Clym Yeobright opposite Donna Theodore as Eustacia Vye in The Hudson Guild Theater production of Dance on a Country Grave, Kelly Hamilton's musical version of Thomas Hardy's The Return of the Native. In 1978 he played the role of Bruce Granit, a matinée idol caricature, in Harold Prince's On the Twentieth Century, for which he won his first Tony Award. In 1981, Kline appeared with rock diva Linda Ronstadt and singer Rex Smith in the New York Shakespeare Festival's Central Park production of The Pirates of Penzance, winning another Tony Award for Best Leading Actor in a Musical, for his comically dashing portrayal of the Pirate King. In 1983, he played the role in a film version of the musical, also with Ronstadt, Smith and Angela Lansbury, which had a limited theatrical release. \n\nIn the ensuing years, Kline appeared many times in New York Shakespeare Festival productions of Shakespeare plays, including starring roles in Richard III (1983), Much Ado About Nothing (1988), Henry V (1984) and two productions of Hamlet, in 1986 and 1990 (which he also directed). \n\nHe also appeared in a Lincoln Center production that combined the two parts of Henry IV on Broadway at the Vivian Beaumont Theatre in 2003 as Falstaff. Kline was nominated for the 2004 Tony Award, Actor in a Play. \n\nDubbed \"the American Olivier\" by New York Times theater critic Frank Rich for his stage acting, Kline finally ventured into film in 1982 in Sophie's Choice. He won the coveted role of the tormented and mercurial Nathan opposite Meryl Streep. Streep won an Academy Award for her performance in the film. Kline was nominated for a 1983 Golden Globe award (New Star of the Year) and BAFTA Award for Most Outstanding Newcomer To Film. \n\nDuring the 1980s and early 1990s, Kline made several films with director Lawrence Kasdan, including The Big Chill, Silverado, Grand Canyon, I Love You to Death, and French Kiss. He played Donald Woods in Richard Attenborough's Cry Freedom opposite Denzel Washington about the friendship between Activist Stephen Biko and editor Donald Woods.\n\nIn 1989, Kline won an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his role in the British comedy A Fish Called Wanda, in which he played a painfully inept American ex-CIA thug opposite John Cleese's genteel British barrister and Jamie Lee Curtis' femme fatale/con woman. In 2000, the American Film Institute ranked the film twenty-first on AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs. \n\nKline had a reputation for being so picky about his roles that it was actually detrimental to his career, and thus earned himself the nickname \"Kevin Decline\". Other awards have included Drama Desk Awards, Golden Globe awards, a Gotham Award, a Hasty Pudding Theatricals Man of the Year Award, and a St. Louis International Film Festival Lifetime Achievement Award. He was inducted in the American Theatre Hall of Fame in 2003. He has a star on the St. Louis Walk of Fame. Film reviewers have praised Kline. Newsday critic Lynn Darling wrote on July 13, 1988 that Kline \"has proved himself to be one of the most talented and versatile American actors of his generation.\"\n\nKline played the title role in King Lear at the Public Theater, and took the lead role in a Broadway production of Cyrano de Bergerac opposite Jennifer Garner. That production was forced to close temporarily after only 11 performances as a result of the Broadway stagehands' strike, but subsequently reopened. Cyrano was filmed in 2008 and aired as part of PBS's Great Performances series in January 2009.\n\nIn January 2008, Kline won a Screen Actors Guild award for his portrayal of Jaques in Kenneth Branagh's film As You Like It, adapted from Shakespeare's play. The film premiered theatrically in 2006 in Europe. It bypassed theatres and was sent straight to HBO in the U.S. Kline's film The Conspirator premiered during the Toronto International Film Festival in 2010 and was described as an \"old fashioned historical thriller\". It was well received by most critics. Kline also starred in the 2012 comedy Darling Companion alongside Diane Keaton.\n\nIn December 2004, Kline became the 2,272nd recipient of a star on Hollywood Walk of Fame, for his contributions to the motion picture industry, located at 7000 Hollywood Boulevard. \n\nPersonal life\n\nDuring the 1970s Kline was in a relationship with his Juilliard classmate Patti LuPone. He met actress Phoebe Cates in 1983 and they were married in 1989. The couple live in New York City and they have two children, including a daughter, Greta, a musician currently performing as Frankie Cosmos. \n\nAfter his son, Owen, was diagnosed with juvenile diabetes, Kline became active with the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation. In November 2004, he was presented with the JDRF's Humanitarian of the Year award by Meryl Streep for his volunteer efforts on behalf of the organization.\n\nThe Kevin Kline Awards honor theatre professionals in St. Louis in an array of categories, which include best actor and actress, set design, choreography, and new play or musical. \n\nFilmography\n\nFilm\n\nTelevision\n\nAwards and nominations" ] }

{ "description": [ "Kevin Kline's Best Movies ... He probably wasn’t the first director that anyone expected to weigh in with a trenchant observation on the American cultural mores ...", "Actor Kevin Kline poses for a portrait ... 'Sure, you can go off and do that movie for four months and I'm gonna go off and ... Kevin Kline (in his first French ...", "Kevin Kline was born in ... Kevin is the first American actor to receive the Sir John Gielgud Golden Quill ... The Kevin Kline Awards were first presented on ...", "Kevin Kline Celebrity Profile ... Movies and TV shows are Certified Fresh with a steady Tomatometer of 75% or higher after a set amount of reviews ..." ], "filename": [ "119/119_2532.txt", "62/62_2535.txt", "22/22_2536.txt", "98/98_2539.txt" ], "rank": [ 2, 5, 6, 9 ], "title": [ "Kevin Kline’s Best Movies << Movie & TV News and ...", "Kevin Kline - Kevin Kline - Pictures - CBS News", "Kevin Kline - Biography - IMDb", "Kevin Kline - Rotten Tomatoes" ], "url": [ "https://editorial.rottentomatoes.com/article/kevin-klines-best-movies/", "http://www.cbsnews.com/pictures/kevin-kline/", "http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000177/bio", "https://www.rottentomatoes.com/celebrity/kevin_kline/" ], "search_context": [ "Kevin Kline’s Best Movies << Movie & TV News and Interviews – Rotten Tomatoes\n10. In & Out\nHoward Brackett (Kevin Kline) seems to have it made — he’s a well-liked English teacher and coach at his small-town high school, with a wedding to his fiancee (Joan Cusack) on the horizon and a former student (Matt Dillon) up for an Academy Award. But Howard’s world comes unglued after his ex-pupil uses the Oscar telecast to tell the world that Howard’s gay — a revelation that proves shocking for everyone, most of all Howard, who thinks of himself as heterosexual. A comedy of errors ensues, ably supported by a cast that also includes Tom Selleck and Bob Newhart, and although it’s a premise that probably wouldn’t fly today, it was handled so nimbly by director Frank Oz and writer Paul Rudnick that most critics couldn’t complain too much. “A man questioning his own sexuality does not seem like the ideal topic for a comedy,” admitted Cinematter’s Madeleine Williams. “But with a good script, and plenty of humor, In & Out tackles this touchy subject matter with aplomb.”\n76%\n9. Silverado\nOnce you cast Brian Dennehy as your movie’s bad guy, you’ve won half the battle. Fortunately for Silverado director/co-writer Lawrence Kasdan, he also managed to line up a pretty capable cast of heroes for his stylishly assembled Western. Kevin Kline, Kevin Costner, Scott Glenn and Danny Glover all saddled up and rode against Dennehy’s crooked sheriff, and even the supporting cast managed to shine, with memorable turns from Jeff Goldblum, Linda Hunt, and Rosanna Arquette. Westerns weren’t exactly in vogue during the mid-’80s — especially ones as unabashedly retro as this one — but according to most critics, Silverado made it work; as Roger Ebert wrote, “This is a story, you will agree, that has been told before. What distinguishes Kasdan’s telling of it is the style and energy he brings to the project.”\n80%\n8. The Pirates of Penzance\nThe next time you find yourself wondering why more big movies don’t premiere on-demand at the same time they’re in theaters, think about The Pirates of Penzance. A film adaptation of the Broadway hit, starring most of the original stage cast, it bowed to widely positive reviews; problem was, it had a hard time holding on to theatrical engagements due to Universal’s decision to simultaneously send the movie to a pay-TV service. Thus did ticked-off theater owners opt to shun our cinematic Pirates, and lo did the audience suffer — at least in the estimation of most critics, who felt that the cast (including Kline, Linda Ronstadt, Angela Lansbury, and Rex Smith) did a fine job of bringing the stage musical to the screen. In addition to a “well made musical,” Michael A. Smith of Nolan’s Pop Culture Review deemed it “Proof that Kline can do ANYTHING!”\n81%\n7. Cry Freedom\nThe life of legendary anti-apartheid activist Steve Biko got its big-screen due with Richard Attenborough’s Cry Freedom, starring Denzel Washington as Biko and Kline as Biko’s journalist friend Donald Woods, whose books formed the basis for John Briley’s screenplay. Although it arrived at a moment when the South African government’s racially oppressive policies were under particularly harsh scrutiny on the international stage, Freedom‘s stark drama proved a tough sell for American filmgoers, who mostly failed to turn out during its theatrical run. Critics found it problematic due to what Roger Ebert termed its “liberal yuppie” focus, although he went on to admit, “Cry Freedom is a sincere and valuable movie, and despite my fundamental reservations about it, I think it probably should be seen.”\n79%\n6. Sophie’s Choice\nOne of the heaviest Holocaust movies of the 1980s, Sophie’s Choice found writer/director Alan J. Pakula adapting William Styron’s heartbreaking novel into an equally shattering film, starring Meryl Streep as the titular protagonist, Kline as her emotionally unwell lover, and Peter MacNicol as the young novelist whose arrival at their Brooklyn boarding house coincides with a particularly fraught period in their lives. While its sad story and deliberate pace proved an unappealing blend for some scribes, most critics were won over by the movie’s stellar performances, led by Streep’s Oscar-winning work. “Though it’s far from a flawless movie, Sophie’s Choice is a unified and deeply affecting one,” wrote Janet Maslin for the New York Times, “thanks in large part to Miss Streep’s bravura performance, it’s a film that casts a powerful, uninterrupted spell.”\n81%\n5. Grand Canyon\nIn 1991, Kline reunited with his Silverado director Lawrence Kasdan for a very different kind of project: Grand Canyon, a thoughtful ensemble drama about a group of Los Angelenos (including Kline’s Silverado castmate Danny Glover) thrown together across racial backgrounds and class lines. Though not without superficial similarities to Kasdan’s 1983 hit The Big Chill, Canyon found the writer/director in a gloomier state of mind, observing the country’s widening income gap with just enough compassion to overcome his script’s more heavy-handed moments. “Even when he wasn’t trying, Kasdan’s camera found tragedy, as with the opening footage of Magic Johnson, filmed before anybody knew he had the AIDS virus,” observed the Washington Post’s Rita Kempley. “The filmmaker and his team have truly caught society on the verge.”\n81%\n4. A Prairie Home Companion\nOne of America’s longest-running radio programs celebrated its 31st birthday in style with this Robert Altman-directed ensemble dramedy, an artful blend of fact and fiction that dramatizes one very important night behind the scenes. Completed mere months before Altman’s death, it provided a worthy closing statement for one of Hollywood’s most dignified careers — and gave Harrelson an opportunity to rub shoulders with a cast that included Meryl Streep, Lily Tomlin, Tommy Lee Jones, John C. Reilly, and Kline. “It sparkles with a magic all its own as an engagingly performed piece of Midwestern whimsy and stoicism,” wrote Andrew Sarris for the New York Observer, adding, “Mr. Altman’s flair for ensemble spectacle and seamless improvisation in the midst of utter chaos is as apparent as ever.”\n84%\n3. The Ice Storm\nHe probably wasn’t the first director that anyone expected to weigh in with a trenchant observation on the American cultural mores of the 1970s, but that’s exactly what Ang Lee did with 1997’s The Ice Storm — an impeccably cast, sensitively filmed adaptation of the acclaimed Rick Moody novel about the largely unspoken divisions festering in a well-to-do suburban Connecticut family headed up by former Dave castmates Kevin Kline and Sigourney Weaver. Replete with sadness and populated by deeply flawed characters, Storm could have been an unintentional parody of the 1990s indie scene in less capable hands — but instead, as Rick Groen wrote for the Globe and Mail, it’s “a remarkable film that takes us straight into John Updike territory, duplicating on screen exactly what the writer achieves on the page.”\n93%\n2. A Fish Called Wanda\nKline picked up a Best Supporting Actor Academy Award for his work in A Fish Called Wanda, a feat made all the more impressive by the stellar company he’d been keeping onscreen — with a cast that included Jamie Lee Curtis, John Cleese, and Michael Palin, this heist caper about bumbling jewel thieves boasted one of the decade’s more remarkable comedic pedigrees. Cleese, who wrote the script and co-directed with Charles Chrichton (both earning Oscar nominations along the way), put all these ingredients to work in the best way — namely, by bringing some very funny people together and giving them some very silly things to do. “Wanda defies gravity, in both senses of the word, and redefines a great comic tradition,” marveled TIME Magazine’s Richard Schickel.\n94%", "Kevin Kline - Kevin Kline - Pictures - CBS News\nKevin Kline\nNext\nKevin Kline\nActor Kevin Kline poses for a portrait during the 2010 Sundance Film Festival, January 25, 2010 in Park City, Utah.\nThe two-time Tony Award-winner, and the Oscar-winning star of such films as \"Sophie's Choice,\" \"The Big Chill,\" \"A Fish Called Wanda\" and \"The Ice Storm,\" has proven himself one of the most versatile stage and screen actors - adept at tortured drama, light-footed musical comedy, and everything in-between. His most recent film is the buddy comedy, \"Last Vegas,\" starring opposite three actors who are no slouches themselves: Michael Douglas, Robert De Niro and Morgan Freeman.\nBy CBSNews.com senior producer David Morgan\nCredit: Matt Carr/Getty Images\n\"Last Vegas\"\nIn the 2013 comedy, \"Last Vegas,\" Robert De Niro, Morgan Freeman and Kevin Kline arrive in Sin City for the bachelor party of their childhood buddy (Michael Douglas).\n\"In the 'Last Vegas' trailer, it says, 'Four legends come together,'\" said CBS News correspondent Tracy Smith. \"What's it like to hear that word applied to you?\"\n\"It's a lovely advertising ploy,\" Kline laughed, \"and I love being lumped in with these 'four icons, four legends' -- three legends and Kline.\"\n\"People would argue with you about that.\"\n\"I have not done nearly the amount of, sort of commercially successful movies that these guys have.\"\n\"Is that what makes a legend?\"\n\"Apparently -- so it has nothing to do with talent!\" he laughed.\nCredit: CBS Films\n\"Last Vegas\"\nLeft: \"Kevin Kline\" in \"Last Vegas.\"\nWhen asked by Tracy Smith about his choice of film roles and whether he hasn't done as many commercially successful moves as his \"Last Vegas\" costars.\n\"Is that by design that you haven't done as many commercially successful moves as the other guys?\" Smith asked.\n\"Yes, I've avoided success as much as possible,\" he replied. \"It's a family thing. It's partially my own doing, but I mean, Morgan [Freeman] and I just shared the same agent for 35 years, [who] used to say, 'Why don't you want to do this movie? This is going to be a very commercially successful movie.' And I'd say, 'I'm sure it is, but I think it's crap, I'm sorry.'\n\"I just try to do what interests me at the moment. And I've made a lot of probably stupid career choices!\"\nCredit: CBS Films\nJuilliard\nLeft: Kevin Kline (center) in a production of \"School for Scandal\" at the Juilliard School, 1971.\nBorn and raised in St. Louis, Kline studied music at Indiana University before coming to New York as part of the Juilliard School's very first drama class.\nKline followed Juilliard by joining John Houseman's The Acting Company, which toured doing such plays as \"The Three Sisters\" and \"Measure for Measure.\"\n\"It was God sent,\" Kline said. \"We were all handed our Equity cards and sent out on the road doing great plays. But my agent would always say, 'Can we now get serious ... 'cause no one knows who you are, you're out there.' Even though we'd have three or four-week seasons in New York, most the time we spent touring -- you weren't establishing a reputation in New York. And so when I finally left the company after four years, it was back to square one.\"\nCredit: Stephen Aaron//Juilliard School\n\"The Pirates of Penzance\"\nLeft: Rex Smith, Linda Ronstadt and Kevin Kline in the Broadway production of Gilbert & Sullivan's \"The Pirates of Penzance\" (1981). Kline, as the Pirate King, won a Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical.\nKline told CBS News correspondent Tracy Smith that he initially resisted doing \"Pirates\" because, two years earlier, he'd done another musical on Broadway with a lot of physical comedy, \"On the Twentieth Century,\" and feared he'd be pegged as a musical comedy actor.\n\"But I got sort of talked into it, and it was a good thing,\" he said, \"because Alan Pakula saw me in it and cast me in 'Sophie's Choice.' It actually started my movie career, ironically.\"\nCredit: Martha Swope/Courtesy of Elektra Records\n\"Sophie's Choice\"\nMeryl Streep as a Polish immigrant and Holocaust survivor, and Kevin Kline as Nathan Landau, her erratic lover, in \"Sophie's Choice\" (1982).\nCredit: Universal Pictures\n\"The Big Chill\"\nKevin Kline co-starred with William Hurt in \"The Big Chill\" (1983), the first of several films Kline would do with writer-director Lawrence Kasdan.\nCredit: Columbia Pictures\nKevin Kline, with Scott Glenn, in the 1985 western, \"Silverado.\"\nCredit: Columbia Pictures\n\"Violets Are Blue\"\nKevin Kline played an old flame who rekindles romance with Sissy Spacek in the 1986 drama, \"Violets Are Blue.\"\nCredit: Columbia Pictures\n\"Cry Freedom\"\nKevin Kline played South African journalist Donald Woods and Oscar-nominee Denzel Washington starred as anti-apartheid activist Stephen Biko in the 1987 drama, \"Cry Freedom.\"\nCredit: Universal Pictures\n\"A Fish Called Wanda\"\nMichael Palin, Jamie Lee Curtis, John Cleese and Kevin Kline in the 1988 comedy, \"A Fish Called Wanda.\" Kline played the erratic thief Otto, whom you better not call stupid.\nCredit: MGM\n\"A Fish Called Wanda\"\nKevin Kline gleefully tortures fish lover Michael Palin (with fish and chips!) in \"A Fish Called Wanda.\" Kline won the Best Supporting Actor Oscar for his performance -- a rarity for a comedy film.\nAnd he did manage to thank his wife in his acceptance speech. \"At the very last moment!\" he said. \"We'd only been married for about two weeks at that point. And then the music started to play. Oh, and, and my wife, thank you!\"\nCredit: MGM\nPhoebe Cates & Kevin Kline\nActors Kevin Kline and Phoebe Cates arrive at the 62nd Annual Golden Globe Awards at the Beverly Hilton Hotel January 16, 2005 in Beverly Hills, California.\nKline and Cates, who had starred in \"Fast Times at Ridgemont High,\" first met briefly during auditions for \"The Big Chill\" (she was up for the role that went to Meg Tilly), but lightning didn't strike until a few months later, when both were in separate plays in New York.\n\"I was upstairs rehearsing that, and she was downstairs rehearsing that, and [we] met in the hallway,\" Kline recalled.\nThe two married in 1989.\nCredit: Carlo Allegri/Getty Images\n\"I Love You to Death\"\nKevin Kline played a womanizing pizza shop owner, whose vengeful wife discovers to be distressingly difficult to kill, in the 1990 comedy, \"I Love You to Death,\" directed by Lawrence Kasdan.\nCredit: TriStar Pictures\n\"Hamlet\"\nKevin Kline as Hamlet, with Dana Ivey as Gertrude, in his 1990 production for PBS of \"Hamlet.\"\nWhen asked by Tracy Smith if he ever studied or picked apart his performances afterwards, Kline said no. \"If I'm asked to, I can tell you where I've failed and where it could have been better, sure. I mean, I played Hamlet in two different productions. You can do it ten different times, you're never gonna finish it.\"\n\"And you're never satisfied?\" Smith asked.\n\"You can be satisfied, like, 'Yeah, I think that was okay.' 'I got away with it.' Or, 'There were parts of it that -- ' But you cannot be definitive. It's different from night to night, it's different from production to production. It's different one year and then ten years later. If I did 'Hamlet' now, obviously, it's going to be different than it was 30 years ago or whenever I did it. You never 'finish' a great masterpiece of Shakespeare's or Chekhov's.\"\n\"It's always a work-in-progress?\"\n\"Yeah, and it's open to interpretation. I mean, somewhere I read that Jane Austen used to read 'Hamlet' every year just to kind of know where she was in her life by how she responded. The same way for an actor. You want to find out where you're at? Play Hamlet this year. Once a year. Because you're forced to reckon with some of the larger question. But you're not gonna say, 'Oh, I nailed that one!'\" he laughed.\nCredit: PBS/\"Great Performances\"\nKevin Kline and Sally Field in the 1991 comedy, \"Soapdish.\"\nCredit: Paramount Pictures\n\"Grand Canyon\"\nKevin Kline played an immigration lawyer and Steve Martin as a producer of violent Hollywood films, who each experience life-changing events, in Lawrence Kasdan's 1991 ensemble drama, \"Grand Canyon.\"\nCredit: 20th Century Fox\n\"Chaplin\"\nKevin Kline played Hollywood star Douglas Fairbanks opposite Robert Downey Jr. as Charlie Chaplin in the 1992 biography, \"Chaplin.\"\nCredit: TriStar Pictures\n\"Consenting Adults\"\nKevin Kline re-teamed with his \"Sophie's Choice\" director, Alan J. Pakula, for the 1992 thriller, \"Consenting Adults.\" Kevin Spacey co-starred as a neighbor not to be trusted, with Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio as Kline's wife.\nCredit: Buena Vista Pictures\n\"Dave\"\nKevin Kline is hired to impersonate the president of the United States, who has been incapacitated by a stroke and hidden away by White House officials, in the 1993 comedy, \"Dave.\"\nCredit: Warner Brothers\n\"Dave\"\nKevin Kline pretends to be the president of the United States, and Sigourney Weaver plays his unsuspecting first lady, in the 1993 comedy, \"Dave.\"\nCredit: Warner Brothers\n\"Princess Caraboo\"\nKevin Kline and Phoebe Cates co-starred in the 1994 historical drama \"Princess Caraboo.\"\nThough Cates later appeared with Kline (along with their two children) in the 2001 film, \"The Anniversary Party,\" she pretty much retired from acting following the birth of her first child, in 1991.\nKline told Smith he admired Cates' decision: \"It was always one of the things I admired about Phoebe. She loved acting, but it wasn't her life. Once she had children, that was it. For me, [acting] was everything; I had no life. It's just acting.\"\n\"So did she show you that there was life beyond acting?\" Smith asked.\n\"Yeah, I think so. I think it even started once you're married; your decisions aren't just yours anymore. And Phoebe and I, before we had children, would take turns. We're not stupid enough to say, 'Sure, you can go off and do that movie for four months and I'm gonna go off and do this movie for six months and it's not gonna hurt our relationship.' It's like, get real.\"\nCredit: TriStar Pictures\n\"In and Out\"\nKevin Kline dances unabashedly to \"I Will Survive,\" in a test of his masculinity, in the comedy, \"In and Out\" (1997).\n\"They brought in a brilliant choreographer, and I said to [director] Frank Oz, 'This is not about choreography. This is a private moment, a man in his living room dancing to music and I can't be thinking about choreography. It has to be sloppy and crazy.'\n\"But we arrived at a sort of compromise. A guy gave me a couple [moves], 'This is what is going on in all the gay clubs right now\" - which I then argued, 'Yeah, but my character doesn't go to gay clubs, so he wouldn't know that.' But maybe intuitively!\n\"It took two days to shoot that. I had a canister of oxygen, to do that over and over and over. It was a much longer sequence. I was doing ballet and Martha Graham and Paul Taylor and all kinds of crazy moves. But again, I did it and I thought, 'Well, this will never make it to the movie, it's too outrageous' - and it's the thing that most people seem to remember.\"\nCredit: Paramount Pictures\n\"The Ice Storm\"\nAng Lee's 1997 drama, \"The Ice Storm,\" adapted from Rick Moody's novel, told of the wreckage caused by loose sexual mores among a group of Connecticut families in the early 1970s. Kevin Kline starred with Joan Allen (as his wife) and Sigourney Weaver (as someone else's wife).\nCredit: Fox Searchlight Pictures\n\"A Midsummer Nigh's Dream\"\nKevin Kline as Bottom and Michelle Pfeiffer as Titania in Michael Hoffman's 1999 film version of Shakespeare's \"A Midsummer Night's Dream.\"\nCredit: Fox Searchlight Pictures\n\"Wild, Wild West\"\nWill Smith and Kevin Kline engage in some blue screen acrobatics during production of the 1999 big-screen version of the Old West/sci-fi series, \"Wild, Wild West.\"\nCredit: Warner Brothers\n\"Life as a House\"\nKevin Kline starred as a terminally-ill architect who embarks on a project to build a new home on the California shore, while also seeking to repair his family relationships, in the 2001 drama, \"Life as a House.\"\nCredit: New Line Cinema\nKevin Kline\nDozens of children who suffer juvenile diabetes crowd the floor of the Senate Governmental Affairs Committee hearing to hear testimony on combating the disease June 26, 2001 in Washington, D.C. Testifying (background left to right) are Katie Zucker, age 13; actor Kevin Kline; actress Mary Tyler Moore; astronaut James Lovell; and actor Jonathan Lipnicki.\nCredit: Mike Theiler/Getty Images\n\"The Emperor's Club\"\nKevin Kline played a school teacher at an Andover, Mass., prep school in the 2002 drama, \"The Emperor's Club.\" Among his charges were Emile Hirsch and Jesse Eisenberg.\nCredit: Universal Pictures\nGlenn Close & Kevin Kline\nKevin Kline and Glenn Close (who played husband and wife in \"The Big Chill\") attend the after-party for the opening of \"Henry IV,\" held on November 20, 2003 in New York City.\nCredit: Peter Kramer/Getty Images\n\"De-Lovely\"\nKevin Kline starred as composer Cole Porter int he 2004 bio-pic, \"De-Lovely,\" directed by Irwin Winkler.\nCredit: Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer\n\"De-Lovely\"\nThe cast and crew of \"De-Lovely\" pose stage during the Closing Night Concert at the Palais de festival on the last night of the 57th Cannes Film Festival on May 22, 2004 in Cannes, France.\nCredit: Carlo Allegri/Getty Images\n\"De-Lovely\"\nActor Kevin Kline and musician Alanis Morissette sit backstage and watch the \"De-Lovely\" Closing Night Concert on the beach at the Palais de Festival during the 57th Annual International Cannes Film Festival May 22, 2004 in Cannes, France.\nCredit: Carlo Allegri/Getty Images\nKevin Kline & Sigourney Weaver\nKevin Kline and Sigourney Weaver pose at the ceremony honoring Kline with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on December 3, 2004 in Hollywood, Calif.\nCredit: Vince Bucci/Getty Images\n\"The Squid & the Whale\"\nFrom left: Director Noah Baumbach, actor Owen Kline, and his father, actor Kevin Kline, attend the film premiere of \"The Squid and the Whale,\" during the New York Film Festival at Alice Tully Hall, September 26, 2005 in New York City.\nCredit: Evan Agostini/Getty Images\n\"A Prairie Home Companion\"\nGarrison Keillor's long-running NPR radio series, \"A Prairie Home Companion,\" was turned into a 2006 film of on-stage music and backstage intrigues by director Robert Altman.\nKevin Kline starred as Guy Noir, Private Eye, who encounters singing cowboys John C. Reilly and Woody Harrelson.\nCredit: New Line Cinema\nLindsay Lohan & Kevin Kline\nLindsay Lohan and Kevin Kline attend the premiere of \"A Prairie Home Companion,\" at the DGA Theater, June 4, 2006, in New York City.\nCredit: Evan Agostini/Getty Images\n\"The Pink Panther\"\nIn the 2006 remake of \"The Pink Panther,\" Kevin Kline stepped into the role of Chief Inspector Dreyfus opposite Steve Martin's Inspector Clouseau.\nCredit: MGM\n\"Cyrano de Bergerac\"\nJennifer Garner and Kevin Kline appear on stage after the opening night performance of \"Cyrano De Bergerac,\" at the Richard Rodgers Theatre, November 1, 2007 in New York City.\nCredit: Stephen Lovekin/Getty Images\n\"Queen to Play\"\nIn \"Queen to Play\" (2009), Kevin Kline (in his first French-language role) starred as an American who teaches chess to his French hotel maid (Sandrine Bonnaire) who has become obsessed with the game.\nCredit: Zeitgeist Films\n\"The Extra Man\"\nPaul Dano and Kevin Kline starred in the 2010 film, \"The Extra Man,\" based on the novel by Jonathan Ames, about an aspiring writer's relationship with an older playwright.\nCredit: Magnolia Pictures\n\"The Conspirator\"\nKevin Kline appeared as Secretary of War Edwin Stanton in the 2011 drama, \"The Conspirator.\" Directed by Robert Redford, the film told of the hunt for collaborators to the assassin of President Lincoln.\nCredit: Lionsgate\n\"The Conspirator\"\nFrom left: Greta Simone Kline, Phoebe Cates and Kevin Kline attend the New York Premiere of \"The Conspirator\" at The Museum of Modern Art on April 11, 2011 in New York City.\nCredit: Stephen Lovekin/Getty Images\n\"No Strings Attached\"\nKevin Kline played a TV actor and father of Ashton Kutcher in the 2011 romantic comedy, \"No Strings Attached.\"\nCredit: Paramount Pictures", "Kevin Kline - Biography - IMDb\nKevin Kline\nBiography\nShowing all 46 items\nJump to: Overview  (3) | Mini Bio  (1) | Spouse  (1) | Trade Mark  (1) | Trivia  (33) | Personal Quotes  (6) | Salary  (1)\nOverview (3)\n6' 2\" (1.88 m)\nMini Bio (1)\nKevin Kline was born in St. Louis, Missouri, to Margaret and Robert Joseph Kline, who owned several stores. His father was of German Jewish descent and his mother was of Irish ancestry. After attending Indiana University in Bloomington, Kline studied at the Juilliard School in New York. In 1972, Kline joined the Acting Company in New York which was run by John Houseman . With this company, Kline performed Shakespeare across the country. On the stage, Kline has won two Tony Awards for his work in the musicals \"On the Twentieth Century\" (1978) and \"The Pirates of Penzance\" (1981). After working on the Television soap Search for Tomorrow (1951), Kline went to Hollywood where his first film was Sophie's Choice (1982). He was nominated for a Golden Globe for his performance. His work in the ensemble cast of The Big Chill (1983) would again be highly successful, so that when Lawrence Kasdan wrote Silverado (1985), Kline would again be part of the cast. With his role as Otto \"Don't call me Stupid!\" West in the film A Fish Called Wanda (1988), Kline would win the Oscar for Supporting Actor. Kline could play classic roles such as Hamlet in Great Performances: Hamlet (1990); or a swashbuckling actor like Douglas Fairbanks in Chaplin (1992); or a comedic role in Soapdish (1991). In all the films that he has worked in, it is hard to find a performance that is not well done. In 1989, Kline married actress Phoebe Cates .\n- IMDb Mini Biography By: Tony Fontana <[email protected]>\nSpouse (1)\n( 5 March  1989 - present) (2 children)\nTrade Mark (1)\nUsually has a mustache in comedies and is clean-shaven in dramas\nTrivia (33)\nHas played presidents and their doubles twice to date: he played Dave and President Bill Mitchell in Dave (1993), and Artemus Gordon and President Ulysses S. Grant in Wild Wild West (1999).\nHas appeared with wife Phoebe Cates and their two children, Owen Kline and Greta Kline , as a family of four in The Anniversary Party (2001).\nAttended and graduated from the Saint Louis Priory School in St. Louis, Missouri (1965).\nReceived his Bachelor's degree in Speech and Theatre from Indiana University in Bloomington, Indiana (1970).\nBrother of producer Kate Kline May .\nTurned down the role of Bruce Wayne in Batman (1989), which went to Michael Keaton .\nIn 1975, he met with director Steven Spielberg about playing Matt Hooper in Jaws (1975) (played by Richard Dreyfuss ). Kevin said that he knew someone who was an oceanographer and thought he could play one. Spielberg then told him \"I don't want someone who knows someone who is an oceanographer, I want someone who is an oceanographer.\" Richard Dreyfuss then got the role.\nThough this appears that his feature debut was in Sophie's Choice (1982), Kline had actually completed The Pirates of Penzance (1983) before going on to co-star with Meryl Streep , but the release of 'Pirates' was sufficiently delayed, enabling 'Sophie' to receive an earlier release.\nHe was awarded a Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 7000 Hollywood Boulevard in Hollywood, California December 3, 2004.\nWon two Tony Awards: in 1978 as Best Actor (Featured Role - Musical) for playing Bruce Granit in \"On the Twentieth Century\", and in 1981 as Best Actor (Musical) for playing The Pirate King in \"The Pirates of Penzance\", a performance he recreated in the film version of the same title, The Pirates of Penzance (1983). He was also nominated in 2004 as Best Actor (Play) for portraying Sir John Falstaff in Shakespeare's \"Henry IV\".\nMet future wife Phoebe Cates when she auditioned for the role of Chloe in The Big Chill (1983), which eventually went to Meg Tilly .\nWon an Obie Award in 1980/1981 for his role as The Pirate King in \"The Pirates of Penzance\".\nThe theater at his alma mater, St. Louis Priory School, is named in his honor.\nHas a star in the St. Louis Walk of Fame located on the Delmar Loop.\nInspired the Kevin Kline Mustache Principle, according to movie critic Roger Ebert : Kline always has facial hair in comedies, but is clean-shaven in dramatic roles. There are several exceptions to the rule, most notably In & Out (1997), Silverado (1985), and Wild Wild West (1999) (although in the latter, he did wear a beard and mustache to play President Ulysses S. Grant).\nHas played dual roles in three of his films: Dave (1993), Wild Wild West (1999) and Fierce Creatures (1997). In each film, one of his characters has to impersonate the other one.\nKline is one of the few actors in history to receive the Academy Award for a comedic acting role ( A Fish Called Wanda (1988)).\nKevin is the first American actor to receive the Sir John Gielgud Golden Quill Award and was recently honored with the Lucille Lortel Lifetime Achievement Award. In 2004, he was inducted into the Theatre Hall of Fame.\nThe Kevin Kline Awards were first presented on March 20, 2006 in honor of the actor, a St. Louis native and Priory School graduate. The awards recognize outstanding achievement in Professional Theatre in the Greater St. Louis Area. They honor theatre artists and productions in over 20 categories. Earlier in 1998, he was inducted to the St. Louis Wall of Fame.\nKevin Kline 's father owned a toy and record store in Clayton, Missouri, called \"The Record Bar\".\nStudied acting with Michael Howard in New York City.\nHas appeared with John Cleese in Silverado (1985), A Fish Called Wanda (1988) and Fierce Creatures (1997). He would later appear in The Pink Panther (2006), but was replaced in the sequel by none other than Cleese. His castmate in that film is Steve Martin , with whom he previously appeared in Grand Canyon (1991). Kline went on to appear on stage as Cyrano de Bergerac, while Martin played a modern Cyrano-like character in Roxanne (1987).\nSpeaks French fluently.\nHis father was from an Ashkenazi Jewish family from Germany, and his mother was from an Irish Catholic family. Kevin was raised in his mother's faith.\nBecame a father for the first time at age 43 when his wife Phoebe Cates gave birth to their son Owen Joseph Kline, aka Owen Kline , on October 14, 1991.\nBecame a father for the second time at age 46 when his wife Phoebe Cates gave birth to their daughter Greta Simone Kline, aka Greta Kline , on March 21, 1994.\nHas two brothers: Chris Kline and Alex Kline.\nHe majored in music for two years at Indiana University but switched to drama. He joined the first class of John Houseman's new drama division at Lincoln Center's Julliard School and became a founding member of Houseman's The Acting Company.\nHas portrayed two famous movie swashbuckler stars: Douglas Fairbanks in the film Chaplin (1992) and Errol Flynn in the film The Last of Robin Hood (2013).\nWas considered for the role of Dan Gallagher in Fatal Attraction (1987), which went to Michael Douglas .\nKevin is one of the few actors alongside Harrison Ford , Arnold Schwarzenegger , etc. to audition for Alan Parrish for the early development of Jumanji (1995).\nHas collaborated with director Lawrence Kasdan [to date, September 2015] in cinema movies on six occasions. The films are Silverado (1985), Grand Canyon (1991), French Kiss (1995), The Big Chill (1983), Darling Companion (2012), and I Love You to Death (1990).\nPersonal Quotes (6)\nIt is these children we must admire... Their honesty and bravery are models for us all. Their stories and their role here today - advocating for their cure, their own future - must be heard. - In reference to the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation International Children's Congress 2001.\nI think every American actor wants to be a movie star. But I never wanted to do stupid movies, I wanted to do films. I vowed I would never do a commercial, or a soap opera - both of which I did as soon as I left the Acting Company and was starving.\nI've never felt completely satisfied with what I've done. I tend to see things too critically. I'm trying to get over that. I've got the Jewish guilt and the Irish shame and it's a hell of a job distinguishing which is which.\n[on improving his chess game for a role] I can now predict four or five moves ahead. I can see that I'm going to lose much sooner.\n[on Sophie's Choice (1982)] There was a tremendous ensemble feeling. There was never any sense that anything but what was best for a scene was at stake. We were all treated equally, with a tremendous amount of caring.\n[1983 interview] When I'm doing a film, I prefer the stage; when I'm working on stage, I prefer film. That doesn't sound neurotic, does it? Seriously, I like them both. They're both different. I've heard of a lot of actors who do both, who have done both for years, say that the stage is more fulfilling. Film is still new enough to me that, right now, I find film more fulfilling. In films, you don't have the audience and the communication and the contact that you do on stage. You have to wait six months or a year before you commune with an audience in a film, and you're not even there when it happens... When you work in a film, you're working in a vacuum... that also has advantages. It's a different sensation which is not altogether unpleasant.\nSalary (1)", "Birthplace:\nSt. Louis, Missouri, USA\nOne of the most versatile and respected actors of his generation, Kevin Kline has made a name for himself on the stage and screen. Equally comfortable in comedic and dramatic roles, he is one of those rare actors whose onscreen characterizations are not overshadowed by his offscreen personality; remarkably free of ego, he has impressed both critics and audiences as a performer in the purest sense of the word.\nA product of the American Midwest, Kline was born in Saint Louis, MO, on October 24, 1947. He became active in theater while growing up in the Saint Louis suburbs, performing in a number of school productions. He continued to act while a student at Indiana University at Bloomington, and following graduation, moved to New York, where he was accepted at the Juilliard School. In 1972, Kline added professional experience to his formal training when he joined New York's Acting Company, led at the time by John Houseman. He toured the country with the company, performing Shakespeare and winning particular acclaim for his portrayals of Romeo and Hamlet. This praise translated to the New York stage a few years later, when Kline won Tony and Drama Desk Awards for his role in the 1978 Broadway production of On the Twentieth Century. Three years later, he earned these same honors for his work in the Broadway production of The Pirates of Penzance (he later reprised his role for the musical's 1983 film adaptation).\nAfter a stint on the soap opera Search for Tomorrow, Kline made his film debut in Alan Pakula's 1982 Sophie's Choice. It was an inarguably auspicious beginning: aside from the wide acclaim lavished on the film, Kline earned a Golden Globe nomination for his portrayal of Nathan Landau. The following year, he again struck gold, starring in The Big Chill, Lawrence Kasdan's seminal exploration of baby-boomer anxiety. Two years later, Kline and Kasdan enjoyed another successful collaboration with Silverado, an homage to the Westerns of the 1950s and '60s.\nAfter turning in a strong performance as a South African newspaper editor in Cry Freedom, Richard Attenborough's powerful 1987 apartheid drama, Kline won a Best Supporting Actor Oscar for his relentlessly hilarious portrayal of dimwitted petty thief Otto West in A Fish Called Wanda (1988). The award gave him international recognition and established him as an actor as adept at comedy as he was at drama, something Kline again proved in Soapdish; the 1991 comedy was a major disappointment, but Kline nonetheless managed to turn in another excellent performance, earning a Golden Globe nomination.\nThe '90s saw Kline -- now a married man, having wed actress Phoebe Cates in 1989 -- continue to tackle a range of diverse roles. In 1992, he could be seen playing Douglas Fairbanks in Chaplin, while the next year he gave a winning portrayal of two men -- one, the U.S. President, the other, his reluctant stand-in -- in Dave, earning another Golden Globe nomination. Kline then appeared in one of his most high-profile roles to date, starring as a sexually conflicted schoolteacher in Frank Oz's 1997 comedy In & Out. His portrayal earned him another Golden Globe nomination, as well as a number of other accolades (including an MTV Award nomination for Best Kiss with Tom Selleck).\nFurther praise followed for Kline the next year, when he turned in a stellar dramatic performance as an adulterous family man in 1973 Connecticut in Ang Lee's The Ice Storm. He then turned back to Shakespeare, portraying Bottom in the star-studded 1999 adaptation of A Midsummer Night's Dream. His work in that film was so well received that it helped to overshadow his involvement in Wild Wild West, one of the most critically lambasted and financially disappointing films of the year.\n2001 found Kline returning to straight drama in the introspective Life as a House. The actor continued in this niche the following year, starring as an unorthodox pre\nPhotos" ] }

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{ "description": [ "Famous Doberman Owners. ... Actor William Shatner, Captain Kirk of Star Trek fame. His dobermans were: Kirk, Morgan, China, Heidi, Paris, ...", "Doberman Pinscher’s heads ... who’s Doberman was named Moe. Actor William Shatner has owned a handful of Doberman Pinschers over time, their names were Kirk ...", "It's a fast paced tale of five doberman pinschers who hold up ... So does this mean that \"The Doberman Gang\" is a fantastic 70s ... just love a so called 'B' movie ...", "Title: The Doberman Gang (1972) 6 /10. Want to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below. You must be a registered ..." ], "filename": [ "176/176_2579.txt", "170/170_2581.txt", "36/36_2585.txt", "63/63_2586.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 2, 6, 7 ], "title": [ "Famous Doberman Owners - Dobermans Den - The", "Breed Breakdown: Doberman Pinscher - unleashmagazine.com", "The Doberman Gang Reviews & Ratings - IMDb", "The Doberman Gang (1972) - IMDb" ], "url": [ "http://dobermansden.com/famous-doberman-owners/", "http://unleashmagazine.com/features?catid=0&id=19", "http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0068491/reviews", "http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0068491/" ], "search_context": [ "Famous Doberman Owners\nHome > Fun Stuff > Famous Doberman Owners\nFamous Doberman Owners\nUsually we see celebrities with toy dogs that look more like a fashion accessories than a loved pet. And rarely do we see our beloved Doberman with a celebrity,  photographed by the paparazzi.  But of course, there are some famous people who own Dobermans, (some who have sadly passed away).\nI think you’ll find this list interesting and it shows how diverse the people who love Dobermans are. This list is partially taken from Stanley Coren’s book, “Why we love the dogs we do”, as well as various online research. If I missed anyone please let me know in the comments below.\nIf you’re looking for famous Dobermans from the movies and tv, here’s a fun list of the most famous Dobermans .\n \nHunter S Thompson\nHunter S Thompson, was a popular American writer who died in 2005.  He had several Dobermans and has included them in his books.  In Where The Buffalo Roam, Hunter had the doberman Bronco, trained to attack on the command word, Nixon.  When Mr. Thompson was alive he apparently  raised peacocks and dobermans. What an interesting man.\nBeatrice Arthur\nBeatrice Arthur,  was an actress who played Dorothy on Golden Girls died in 2009.  She owned dobermans, Jennifer, Emma and Albert.\nJean-Christophe Novelli\nFrench celebrity chef who is known to have a whole pack of dobermans, 21 dobes at one time!  This guy loves dobermans. I wonder if he cooks for them.\n Bela Lugosi\nBela Lugosi, the actor best known for portraying Dracula.  One of his dobermans was named Hector.\nPriscilla Presley\nPriscilla Presley, actress from the Naked Gun and the Dallas tv series.  Her dog was named Willie.\n Tanya Roberts\nTanya Roberts, actress from Sheena, Charlies Angels and a bond girl in A View to a Kill.  Her dobermans are named  Catcher, Champ and Huckleberry.\n \n35th American president with his doberman Moe.\nRaquel Welch\nAmerican actress, Raquel Welch also owned a doberman.\nRudolph Valentino\nRudolph Valentino, actor of silent films in the 20’s. His doberman was named Kabar.\nIt is said that when Valentino died suddenly at the age of 31, his dog Kabar was upset and passed away six months later.\nVictoria Principal\nVictoria Principal, actress from the tv series Dallas, owns dobermans, China and Dyla.\nWilliam Shatner\nActor William Shatner, Captain Kirk of Star Trek fame.\nHis dobermans were: Kirk, Morgan, China, Heidi, Paris, Royale, Martika, Sterling, Charity, Bella, and Starbuck.\nForest Whitaker\nThe academy award winning actor.\nNicolas Cage\nCaesar Millan has mentioned that Nicolas Cage,  owns a white doberman.\nLance Ito\nLance Ito, American judge of the O.J. Simpson murder trial.  His doberman is named Gillis.\nKevin Hart\n                                                                                                   \nKevin Hart is a comedian and our newest doberman owner.  He girl Roxy looks super cute.\nHenrik Lundqvist\nNew York Rangers hockey goalie having dinner with his doberman. Strawberries?\nMariah Carey\nMariah Carey, the singer owns dobermans, Duke and Princess.  You can see Princess in her music video , “All I want for Christmas is You”.\n \nSnoop Dogg\nSnoop Dogg doesn’t own a Doberman, but he kind of looks like one and he did turn into one in his music video ,”Who Am I?”", "Breed Breakdown: Doberman Pinscher\nBreed Breakdown: Doberman Pinscher\nFast as the wind and strong as a bull, the Doberman Pinscher has proven itself to be one of the world’s elite canines. They are known for their agility, intelligence, speed, stamina and strength. Amazingly enough, this breed originated in Germany and was bred by a German man named Karl Friedrich Louis Dobermann in the 1860s for those purposes. This is of course where the Doberman, also known as Dobes, get their name. Louis wanted to create a guard dog that would protect him as he traveled through dangerous communities filled with thieves. They are a mix between German Pinschers, Beaucerons, Manchester Terriers, Greyhounds and Rottweilers. This very interesting mix of dogs produced a magnificent animal. Not only do they make loyal companions, but they also are great for search and rescue, military and police work, guarding, therapy work and competitive obedience.\n    So what makes this dog so good at what it does? Well, its body is very muscular. The chest is broad and legs are perfectly straight. Dobes have perfect strides when they run, as their hind legs are in sync with their front legs. This gives them fast capabilities to hunt down their prey. Doberman Pinscher’s heads are long and the tops of their heads are flat. Their sleek head give them advantage in their surroundings. As for their teeth, they meet in a scissor-like bite. Their coats are coarse and can range from black, red, fawn, and even to blue.  An interesting breed fact is that their nose matches the color of the coat. Because their coats are short they can be sensitive to cold weather.  These dogs shed very little, so maintenance is minimal. The Doberman's expectancy of life is 10 to 13 years.\n     Due to the breed’s ability to comprehend what it learns, the Doberman Pinscher can be a very clever dog. They are smart and relatively easy to train. With such a unique breed, come special requirements as an owner.  Because Dobermans can be stubborn at times, they require a handler who is assertive and confident. Also, early socialization is important in effort to curtail shy and timid-like behavior.\n    Alike all dogs, the Doberman can be a pleasure to own if cared for properly. A helpful tip when considering this breed is to allow them plenty of physical activity. Dobes need enough space to run and stretch, therefore apartment life isn’t recommended. Common health issues of the breed include bloating, hip dysplasia, minor heart defects and prostatic disease.\n      Well known owners of the breed are President John F. Kennedy, who’s Doberman was named Moe. Actor William Shatner has owned a handful of Doberman Pinschers over time, their names were Kirk, Morgan, China, Heidi, Paris, Royale, Martika, Sterling, Charity, Bella and Starbuck. Even Mariah Carey flaunted her Doberman, Princess, in her “All I Want For Christmas is You” video.", "The Doberman Gang Reviews & Ratings - IMDb\nIMDb\n16 out of 16 people found the following review useful:\nRidiculous but entertaining crime caper\nfrom Oakland CA\n21 September 2000\nI seem to remember this film being a pretty big hit when it came out in 1972 and it's easy to understand why. It's a fast paced tale of five doberman pinschers who hold up a bank and get away with the loot. There are some rather dull human beings around but pay them no attention--this is all about the dogs.\nWas the above review useful to you?\n11 out of 11 people found the following review useful:\nThe best movie EVER about dogs robbing a bank.\nAuthor: hausrathman\n20 February 2003\nA group of clever criminals train a six Doberman Pinchers to rob a bank for them in this low-budget crime caper film. Director Byron Chudnow doesn't display a great deal of finesse, nor does the cast of unknowns for that matter, but he manages to get the job done. One of the better B-caper films of its time. This is a guilty pleasure I return to time and time again.\nWas the above review useful to you?\n10 out of 10 people found the following review useful:\nGreat B-Caper Film\nfrom Los Angeles, California\n10 October 2003\nI remember seeing this when I was just six years old and I really enjoyed it. This was probably one of the most outlandish films I ever saw, but it is still a great film to watch. Even though the budget was low and the acting is barely professional, it still was a great treat. Also, even though there are a few violent moments, especially when one of the dogs attacks the bank guard, it is still something that I wouldn't mind showing younger kids.\nWas the above review useful to you?\n8 out of 8 people found the following review useful:\nAmiable low-budget caper movie\nfrom Victoria, BC\n4 October 2003\nTraining 6 doberman dogs to rob a bank? Actually, this outlandish premise is executed with far more believability than you'd think. The criminals behind the dogs are not portrayed as buffoons or as totally unredeemable; in fact, they are pretty likable guys for the most part. (And - shock of all shocks - it's the Vietnam veteran character who comes across as the most sympathetic!) As well, we are taken through the plan step by step, seeing how they slowly train the dogs and deal with any potential problems that come up during the way. It's a little dry at times (the low budget doesn't exactly make it flashy), but never does it get really boring. The only thing I question about the movie is how it got a \"G\" rating, given a couple of (mild, admitedly) love scenes and a couple of *seriously* bloody sequences! Those bloody sequences really shatter the agreeably fluffy and light tone, and make it questionable as a family movie. Despite that, the movie was pretty successful, subsequently generating two theatrical sequels and one made-for-TV movie.\nWas the above review useful to you?\n5 out of 6 people found the following review useful:\none of the dumbest movies of the 70s- which means, more or less, that it's also awesome\nfrom United States\n12 April 2007\nI had to make sure not to lose it too much during the Doberman Gang, because simply put it's got the goofiest premise one could ever think to not imagine: dogs that rob banks. You got it, simply put, and trained by bank robbers who'd rather let the mutts get it done then do it themselves, in an elaborate scheme involving whistles made for each dog, OVER-elaborate training montages teaching the dogs how to, well, jump and bite the crap out of people, and throwing in a really inane romantic triangle between three main characters- the mastermind behind the caper, a waitress, and the dogs' trainer- leading up to an ending that had me laughing my head off not even caring what the hell had just happened. If I tried to explain it all it would make even less sense and one would wonder how in Heaven's name something like this could get funding. Well, it was the 70s, and movies like this filled a niche for kids wanting a quick fix of delirious hijinks and adults wanting a good nap. As an adult myself, however, the delirious part had me from start to finish.\nIt's not just the dogs and getting trained, or how the robbery is planned and the dogs meant to be dispatched (and the wretched ways the filmmakers get around making it violent, but not quite violent enough for an R at the time), or the extraordinarily cheesy songs (by Alan Silvestri no less!), or that the filmmakers decided to throw in an unbelievably underdeveloped sub-plot involving the three main characters- scuse me, caricatures- or even that one of the bank robbers looks very oddly like Kurt Vonnegut. Actually, it's a sum of this and more, and it's got enough to laugh about for days. There's not a slice of logic to the proceedings, and one can figure on director Bryon Chudnow, who with one obscure exception directed nothing BUT Doberman movies for the rest of his career afterwords (yes, more than one; they even got Fred Astaire for the third movie), likes it that way. Bank robbery, of course, is never an easy thing, but the central joy of the Doberman Gang is that it's meant to look like it's nothing when planned to a T. In the midst of all this, dramatic tension or suspense is at zero, and the line between what may be meant as sick jokes or just so-serious-it's-funny bits (like the dog that, sad to say, get's run over, and the dog that comes by and just snatched up the leftover money).\nIn truth, some of it is almost too goofy to really get into, and for kids that could in some weird chance come across it today some jokes will fly over heads (Bonnie and Clyde as names of the Dobermans, J. Edgar Hoover as the bulldog, who is maybe the most convincing and well-rounded character in the picture if that says anything). But for a certain section of fans of B-movies of the 1970s looking for something not as trashy or rough as an AIP picture may want to take a glance at this crazy turkey that, unfortunately in this day and age, could conceivably get a remake someday if it has not yet.\nWas the above review useful to you?\n3 out of 3 people found the following review useful:\nGreat B-movie caper, with the dogs as the big stars...\nfrom Canada\n6 July 2006\nConsidering that the main cast are primarily television bit actors, they gel together very well. Even director Byron Chudnow's primary work was producing and editing in television, which probably goes a long way to explain why the film is so economically paced. Julie Parrish was most recognized for appearing opposite Elvis Presley in \"Paradise, Hawaiian Style\", and briefly in Star Trek's \"The Menagerie\" (part 1).\nThe film is notable especially for being composer Alan Sylvestri's first motion picture score (alternating between dramatic and humorous), with absolutely no prior composing experience, and a two week deadline. He would eventually be linked regularly to director Robert Zemeckis, enjoying a working relationship similar to Steven Spielberg and John Williams.\nExtremely entertaining and generally a well paced film, rated GP on original theatrical prints (re-classified PG) for a couple of bloody sequences.\nWas the above review useful to you?\n5 out of 7 people found the following review useful:\nthe dog'gonest gang you ever did see...\nfrom the blurred line between dreams and reality\n30 May 2002\nI really liked this film, I thought it was a good, fun romp and I liked the mix of light-hearted moments and the slightly grittier more exciting parts.\nI will admit that I also loved the two main songs in the film aswell -the theme tune and the romantic one, really enjoyed them, 70's or not!\nAnd of course there were lots of beautiful, precious doggies - who are (as others so rightly pointed out) the real stars of the film!, the main human leads were all solid but forgettable.\nOverall pretty good, and the ending is just perfect, see this fun film if you can.\nWas the above review useful to you?\nThis is a – WOOF – hold up! Put your paws in the air and give me all your biscuits!\nfrom the Draconian Swamp of Unholy Souls\n11 June 2016\nCertain seventies movies have such a bonkers plot concept that you have to watch them, if only just to see with your own eyes how they elaborated the idea! Take \"The Doberman Gang\", for instance. Following a screwed-up bank heist (they put the loot in the trunk of the wrong getaway car) and a romantic night with waitress June, the embittered ex-con Eddie comes up with the brilliant plan to train six fierce Doberman dogs to commit a bank robbery, so that he and his buddies can observe from a distance without running any risks. Brilliant, isn't it? So does this mean that \"The Doberman Gang\" is a fantastic 70s crime-caper gem with plenty of virulent action sequences and spectacular animal stunts? Unfortunately not … It's more of a slow-paced comedy/buddy movie with enormous amounts of dog training footage and a LOT of country music montages. Eddie enlists the help of former police dog trainer Barney, even though he only worked with German Shepard dogs before and initially doesn't know what he's training the Dobermans for, and puts together a forceful dog pack with the glorious sounding names of legendary bank robbers like Dillinger, Pretty Boy Floyd, Ma Barker, Baby Face Nelson and – of course – Bonnie and Clyde. Unless you have a strong affection for this particular type of dogs (like my mother-in-law, who for some reason collects everything that has to do with Dobermans) there's very little to recommend here. The first 70 or so minutes are quite dull and substantially void, unless you like country music, and the only things to enjoy are the charismatic dogs and the reasonably sympathetic acting performances of the second-rate bank robbers Sammy Bow and JoJo D'Amore. The actual bank heist is obviously a lot more entertaining and the tricks of the dogs and their trek back home are quite exhilarating to watch. There isn't any violence or verbal/physical brutality, so it's perfectly suitable for younger audiences.\nWas the above review useful to you?\nGood Fun\nfrom United Kingdom\n10 April 2012\n1972 is a long time ago and judged by todays standards many might dismiss this as a poor B movie flick. On the other hand judged by todays TV standards this is a great laugh and if it was produced now it would be a success. We love dogs and hate banks. How often have you sat on the porch looking at the stars and wondered how the hell can I get back at the bank who just charged £30 for going slightly overdrawn. Mans best friend comes to the rescue. The producer of this film deserves full credit for his foresight and a remake is long overdue perhaps with Brad Pitt as the staring role and Courtney love as the lead Doberman. Okay with died hair. I jest, just love a so called 'B' movie form 1972 thats entertaining.\nWas the above review useful to you?\n1 out of 2 people found the following review useful:\nA really cool and enjoyable oddball 70's crime caper flick\nfrom The Last New Jersey Drive-In on the Left\n28 February 2007\n*** This review may contain spoilers ***\nThis really choice and pleasingly idiosyncratic early 70's low-budget canine crime caper winner delivers the quirky low-key nickel'n'dime junk movie goods with mucho gusto and a welcome dearth of pretense. Irascible criminal mastermind Eddie, fed up with the gross constant ineptitude of his hopelessly fallible human cohorts, kidnaps and trains a sextet of non-error prone super-sharp Doberman pinchers to pull off an intricate bank heist. This funky little number hits all the necessary bases: we've got a speedy steady pace, competent, assured direction by Bryon Ross Chudnow, nifty gritty lowlife characters, solid pro acting, a crankin' soulful heavy on the brass score by Bradford Craig and Alan Silvestri, exquisite crystal clear cinematography by Robert Caramico, a terrifically tense heist set piece, cheesy montages set to marvelously mawkish light FM tunes, and even a slight mild sprinkling of good old fashioned gratuitous sex and violence. Bonus points are in order for both the fabulously corny country-and-western theme song (\"They were the dog gonest gang that man did ever see\") and the fact that each dobie is named after a notorious 30's Depression era criminal (Ma Parker, Dillinger, Bonnie, Clyde, etc.). In short, this fun flick overall rates as the totally authentic gnarly article.\nWas the above review useful to you?\nPage 1 of 2:", "The Doberman Gang (1972) - IMDb\nIMDb\n7 January 2017 5:00 AM, UTC\nNEWS\nThere was an error trying to load your rating for this title.\nSome parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later.\nX Beta I'm Watching This!\nKeep track of everything you watch; tell your friends.\nError\nAfter a failed bank robbery, an ex-con, an ex-waitress and a few of their friends train a pack of doberman dogs to rob a bank for them.\nDirector:\nByron Chudnow (as Byron Ross Chudnow)\nWriters:\nLouis Garfinkle (original story and screenplay), Frank Ray Perilli (original story and screenplay)\nStars:\n\"No Small Parts\" IMDb Exclusive: 'Edge of Seventeen' Star Hailee Steinfeld\nHailee Steinfeld has received critical acclaim for her role in the coming-of-age comedy The Edge of Seventeen . What other roles has she played over the years? Don't miss our live coverage of the Golden Globes beginning at 4 p.m. PST on Jan. 8 in our Golden Globes section.\na list of 30 titles\ncreated 15 Feb 2013\na list of 40 titles\ncreated 16 Feb 2013\na list of 35 titles\ncreated 28 Mar 2014\na list of 28 titles\ncreated 26 Nov 2014\na list of 31 titles\ncreated 26 Dec 2014\nTitle: The Doberman Gang (1972)\n6/10\nWant to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below.\nYou must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin.\nAdd Image Add an image\nDo you have any images for this title?\nEdit\nStoryline\nAfter a failed bank robbery, an ex-con, an ex-waitress and a few of their friends train a pack of doberman dogs to rob a bank for them. Written by Anonymous\nTrained To Commit The Most Incredible Caper Ever Conceived\nGenres:\nA Gang dos Doberman See more  »\nFilming Locations:\nDid You Know?\nTrivia\nIn September 1972, Dimension Pictures was widely exhibiting this film on a double bill with The Twilight People (1972). See more »\nConnections\n(Victoria, BC) – See all my reviews\nTraining 6 doberman dogs to rob a bank? Actually, this outlandish premise is executed with far more believability than you'd think. The criminals behind the dogs are not portrayed as buffoons or as totally unredeemable; in fact, they are pretty likable guys for the most part. (And - shock of all shocks - it's the Vietnam veteran character who comes across as the most sympathetic!) As well, we are taken through the plan step by step, seeing how they slowly train the dogs and deal with any potential problems that come up during the way. It's a little dry at times (the low budget doesn't exactly make it flashy), but never does it get really boring. The only thing I question about the movie is how it got a \"G\" rating, given a couple of (mild, admitedly) love scenes and a couple of *seriously* bloody sequences! Those bloody sequences really shatter the agreeably fluffy and light tone, and make it questionable as a family movie. Despite that, the movie was pretty successful, subsequently generating two theatrical sequels and one made-for-TV movie.\n8 of 8 people found this review helpful.  Was this review helpful to you?\nYes" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929.txt" ], "title": [ "Wall Street Crash of 1929" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Wall Street Crash of 1929, also known as Black Tuesday (October 29), the Great Crash, or the Stock Market Crash of 1929, began on October 24, 1929 (\"Black Thursday\"), and was the most devastating stock market crash in the history of the United States, when taking into consideration the full extent and duration of its aftereffects. The crash signaled the beginning of the 10-year Great Depression that affected all Western industrialized countries. \n\nTimeline\n\nThe Roaring Twenties, the decade that followed World War I and led to the Crash, was a time of wealth and excess. Building on post-war optimism, rural Americans immigrated to the cities in vast numbers throughout the decade with the hopes of finding a more prosperous life in the ever growing expansion of America's industrial sector. While the American cities prospered, the overproduction of agricultural produce created widespread financial despair among American farmers throughout the decade. This would later be blamed as one of the key factors that led to the 1929 stock market crash. \n\nDespite the dangers of speculation, many believed that the stock market would continue to rise forever. On March 25, 1929, after the Federal Reserve warned of excessive speculation, a mini crash occurred as investors started to sell stocks at a rapid pace, exposing the market's shaky foundation. Two days later, banker Charles E. Mitchell announced his company the National City Bank would provide $25 million in credit to stop the market's slide. Mitchell's move brought a temporary halt to the financial crisis and call money declined from 20 to 8 percent. However, the American economy showed ominous signs of trouble: steel production declined, construction was sluggish, automobile sales went down, and consumers were building up high debts because of easy credit. Despite all these economic trouble signs and the market breaks in March and May 1929, stocks resumed their advance in June and the gains continued almost unabated until early September 1929 (the Dow Jones average gained more than 20% between June and September). The market had been on a nine-year run that saw the Dow Jones Industrial Average increase in value tenfold, peaking at 381.17 on September 3, 1929. Shortly before the crash, economist Irving Fisher famously proclaimed, \"Stock prices have reached what looks like a permanently high plateau.\" The optimism and financial gains of the great bull market were shaken on September 18, 1929, when prices on the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) abruptly fell a few days after a well publicized warning from financial expert Roger Babson that \"a crash was coming\". The initial September decline was thus called the \"Babson Break\" in the press.\n\nOn September 20, the London Stock Exchange officially crashed when top British investor Clarence Hatry and many of his associates were jailed for fraud and forgery. The London crash greatly weakened the optimism of American investment in markets overseas. In the days leading up to the crash, the market was severely unstable. Periods of selling and high volumes were interspersed with brief periods of rising prices and recovery.\n\nOn October 24 (\"Black Thursday\"), the market lost 11 percent of its value at the opening bell on very heavy trading. The huge volume meant that the report of prices on the ticker tape in brokerage offices around the nation was hours late, so investors had no idea what most stocks were actually trading for at that moment, increasing panic. Several leading Wall Street bankers met to find a solution to the panic and chaos on the trading floor. The meeting included Thomas W. Lamont, acting head of Morgan Bank; Albert Wiggin, head of the Chase National Bank; and Charles E. Mitchell, president of the National City Bank of New York. They chose Richard Whitney, vice president of the Exchange, to act on their behalf.\n\nWith the bankers' financial resources behind him, Whitney placed a bid to purchase a large block of shares in U.S. Steel at a price well above the current market. As traders watched, Whitney then placed similar bids on other \"blue chip\" stocks. This tactic was similar to one that ended the Panic of 1907. It succeeded in halting the slide. The Dow Jones Industrial Average recovered, closing with it down only 6.38 points for the day. The rally continued on Friday, October 25, and the half day session on Saturday the 26th but, unlike 1907, the respite was only temporary.\n\nOver the weekend, the events were covered by the newspapers across the United States. On October 28, \"Black Monday\", more investors facing margin calls decided to get out of the market, and the slide continued with a record loss in the Dow for the day of 38.33 points, or 13%.\n\nThe next day, \"Black Tuesday\", October 29, 1929, about 16 million shares traded as the panic selling reached its crescendo. Some stocks actually had no buyers at any price that day (\"air pockets\"). The Dow lost an additional 30 points, or 12 percent. The volume of stocks traded on October 29, 1929 was a record that was not broken for nearly 40 years.\n\nOn October 29, William C. Durant joined with members of the Rockefeller family and other financial giants to buy large quantities of stocks to demonstrate to the public their confidence in the market, but their efforts failed to stop the large decline in prices. Due to the massive volume of stocks traded that day, the ticker did not stop running until about 7:45 p.m. that evening. The market had lost over $30 billion in the space of two days which included $14 billion on October 29 alone.[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/newyork/ New York: A Documentary Film] PBS\n\nAfter a one-day recovery on October 30, where the Dow regained an additional 28.40 points, or 12 percent, to close at 258.47, the market continued to fall, arriving at an interim bottom on November 13, 1929, with the Dow closing at 198.60. The market then recovered for several months, starting on November 14, with the Dow gaining 18.59 points to close at 217.28, and reaching a secondary closing peak (i.e., bear market rally) of 294.07 on April 17, 1930. The following year, the Dow embarked on another, much longer, steady slide from April 1931 to July 8, 1932 when it closed at 41.22—its lowest level of the 20th century, concluding an 89 percent loss rate for all of the market's stocks. For most of the 1930s, the Dow began slowly to regain the ground it lost during the 1929 crash and the three years following it, beginning on March 15, 1933, with the largest percentage increase of 15.34 percent, with the Dow Jones closing at 62.10, with an 8.26 point increase. The largest percentage increases of the Dow Jones occurred during the early and mid-1930s. In late 1937, there was a sharp dip in the stock market, but prices held well above the 1932 lows. The market would not return to the peak closing of September 3, 1929 until November 23, 1954. \n\nAnalysis\n\nEconomic fundamentals\n\nThe crash followed a speculative boom that had taken hold in the late 1920s. During the later half of the 1920s, steel production, building construction, retail turnover, automobiles registered, even railway receipts advanced from record to record. The combined net profits of 536 manufacturing and trading companies showed an increase, in fact for the first six months of 1929, of 36.6% over 1928, itself a record half-year. Iron and steel led the way with doubled gains. Such figures set up a crescendo of stock-exchange speculation which had led hundreds of thousands of Americans to invest heavily in the stock market. A significant number of them were borrowing money to buy more stocks. By August 1929, brokers were routinely lending small investors more than two-thirds of the face value of the stocks they were buying. Over $8.5 billion was out on loan, more than the entire amount of currency circulating in the U.S. at the time. \n\nThe rising share prices encouraged more people to invest; people hoped the share prices would rise further. Speculation thus fueled further rises and created an economic bubble. Because of margin buying, investors stood to lose large sums of money if the market turned down—or even failed to advance quickly enough. The average P/E (price to earnings) ratio of S&P Composite stocks was 32.6 in September 1929, clearly above historical norms. \n\nGood harvests had built up a mass of 250 million bushels of wheat to be \"carried over\" when 1929 opened. By May there was also a winter-wheat crop of 560 million bushels ready for harvest in the Mississippi Valley. This oversupply caused a drop in wheat prices so heavy that the net incomes of the farming population from wheat were threatened with extinction. Stock markets are always sensitive to the future state of commodity markets, and the slump in Wall Street predicted for May by Sir George Paish arrived on time. In June 1929, the position was saved by a severe drought in the Dakotas and the Canadian West, plus unfavorable seed times in Argentina and eastern Australia. The oversupply would now be wanted to fill the big gaps in the 1929 world wheat production. From 97¢ per bushel in May, the price of wheat rose to $1.49 in July. When it was seen that at this figure the American farmers would get rather more for their smaller crop than for that of 1928, up went stocks again and from far and wide orders came to buy shares for the profits to come.\n\nIn August, the wheat price fell when France and Italy were bragging of a magnificent harvest, and the situation in Australia improved. This sent a shiver through Wall Street and stock prices quickly dropped, but word of cheap stocks brought a fresh rush of 'stags,' amateur speculators and investors. Congress had also voted for a 100 million dollar relief package for the farmers, hoping to stabilize wheat prices. By October though, the price had fallen to $1.31 per bushel. \n\nOther important economic barometers were also slowing or even falling by mid-1929, including car sales, house sales, and steel production. The falling commodity and industrial production may have dented even American self-confidence, and the stock market peaked on September 3 at 381.17 just after Labor Day, then started to falter after Roger Babson issued his prescient \"market crash\" forecast. By the end of September, the market was down 10% from the peak (the \"Babson Break\"). Selling intensified in early and mid October, with sharp down days punctuated by a few up days. Panic selling on huge volume started the week of October 21 and intensified and culminated on October 24, the 28th and especially the 29th (\"Black Tuesday\"). \n\nThe president of the Chase National Bank said at the time \"We are reaping the natural fruit of the orgy of speculation in which millions of people have indulged. It was inevitable, because of the tremendous increase in the number of stockholders in recent years, that the number of sellers would be greater than ever when the boom ended and selling took the place of buying.\" \n\nSubsequent actions\n\nIn 1932, the Pecora Commission was established by the U.S. Senate to study the causes of the crash. The following year, the U.S. Congress passed the Glass–Steagall Act mandating a separation between commercial banks, which take deposits and extend loans, and investment banks, which underwrite, issue, and distribute stocks, bonds, and other securities.\n\nAfter the experience of the 1929 crash, stock markets around the world instituted measures to suspend trading in the event of rapid declines, claiming that the measures would prevent such panic sales. However, the one-day crash of Black Monday, October 19, 1987, when the Dow Jones Industrial Average fell 22.6%, was worse in percentage terms than any single day of the 1929 crash (although the combined 25% decline of October 28–29, 1929 was larger than October 19, 1987, and remains the worst two-day decline ever).\n\nWorld War II\n\nThe American mobilization for World War II at the end of 1941 moved approximately ten million people out of the civilian labor force and into the war. World War II had a dramatic effect on many parts of the economy, and may have hastened the end of the Great Depression in the United States. Government-financed capital spending accounted for only 5 percent of the annual U.S. investment in industrial capital in 1940; by 1943, the government accounted for 67 percent of U.S. capital investment.\n\nEffects\n\nTogether, the 1929 stock market crash and the Great Depression formed the largest financial crisis of the 20th century. The panic of October 1929 has come to serve as a symbol of the economic contraction that gripped the world during the next decade. The falls in share prices on October 24 and 29, 1929 were practically instantaneous in all financial markets, except Japan. \n\nThe Wall Street Crash had a major impact on the U.S. and world economy, and it has been the source of intense academic debate—historical, economic, and political—from its aftermath until the present day. Some people believed that abuses by utility holding companies contributed to the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the Depression that followed. Many people blamed the crash on commercial banks that were too eager to put deposits at risk on the stock market. \n\nThe 1929 crash brought the Roaring Twenties to a shuddering halt. As tentatively expressed by economic historian Charles P. Kindleberger, in 1929, there was no lender of last resort effectively present, which, if it had existed and were properly exercised, would have been key in shortening the business slowdown[s] that normally follows financial crises. The crash marked the beginning of widespread and long-lasting consequences for the United States. Historians still debate the question: did the 1929 Crash spark The Depression, or did it merely coincide with the bursting of a loose credit-inspired economic bubble? Only 16% of American households were invested in the stock market within the United States during the period leading up to the depression, suggesting that the crash carried somewhat less of a weight in causing the depression.\n\nHowever, the psychological effects of the crash reverberated across the nation as businesses became aware of the difficulties in securing capital markets investments for new projects and expansions. Business uncertainty naturally affects job security for employees, and as the American worker (the consumer) faced uncertainty with regards to income, naturally the propensity to consume declined. The decline in stock prices caused bankruptcies and severe macroeconomic difficulties including contraction of credit, business closures, firing of workers, bank failures, decline of the money supply, and other economic depressing events.\n\nThe resultant rise of mass unemployment is seen as a result of the crash, although the crash is by no means the sole event that contributed to the depression. The Wall Street Crash is usually seen as having the greatest impact on the events that followed and therefore is widely regarded as signaling the downward economic slide that initiated the Great Depression.\nTrue or not, the consequences were dire for almost everybody. Most academic experts agree on one aspect of the crash: It wiped out billions of dollars of wealth in one day, and this immediately depressed consumer buying.\n\nThe failure set off a worldwide run on US gold deposits (i.e., the dollar), and forced the Federal Reserve to raise interest rates into the slump. Some 4,000 banks and other lenders ultimately failed. Also, the uptick rule, which allowed short selling only when the last tick in a stock's price was positive, was implemented after the 1929 market crash to prevent short sellers from driving the price of a stock down in a bear raid. \n\nAcademic debate\n\nEconomists and historians disagree as to what role the crash played in subsequent economic, social, and political events. The Economist argued in a 1998 article that the Depression did not start with the stock market crash. Nor was it clear at the time of the crash that a depression was starting. They asked, \"Can a very serious Stock Exchange collapse produce a serious setback to industry when industrial production is for the most part in a healthy and balanced condition?\" They argued that there must be some setback, but there was not yet sufficient evidence to prove that it will be long or that it need go to the length of producing a general industrial depression. \n\nBut The Economist also cautioned that some bank failures are also to be expected and some banks may not have any reserves left for financing commercial and industrial enterprises. They concluded that the position of the banks is the key to the situation, but what was going to happen could not have been foreseen.\n\nAcademics see the Wall Street Crash of 1929 as part of a historical process that was a part of the new theories of boom and bust. According to economists such as Joseph Schumpeter, Nikolai Kondratiev and Charles E. Mitchell the crash was merely a historical event in the continuing process known as economic cycles. The impact of the crash was merely to increase the speed at which the cycle proceeded to its next level.\n\nMilton Friedman's A Monetary History of the United States, co-written with Anna Schwartz, advances the argument that what made the \"great contraction\" so severe was not the downturn in the business cycle, protectionism, or the 1929 stock market crash in themselves - but instead, according to Friedman, what plunged the country into a deep depression was the collapse of the banking system during three waves of panics over the 1930–33 period." ] }

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The Crash of 1929 | PBS", "Glossary of Events: Wa - Marxists Internet Archive" ], "url": [ "http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/crash.htm", "http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/stock-market-crashes", "http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/primary-resources/crash-headlines/", "http://www.theweek.co.uk/pictures/30609/wall-street-crash-1929", "http://www.wallstcrash.com/wall-street-crash-1929/", "http://content.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1854569,00.html", "http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/timeline/crash/", "https://www.marxists.org/glossary/events/w/a.htm" ], "search_context": [ "The Wall Street Crash, 1929\nThe Wall Street Crash, 1929\nPrinter Friendly Version >>>\nThe \"Roaring 20s\" that followed the end of World War I was a period of prosperity for most Americans. As the economy grew, stock prices soared. By the end of the decade, as many as 25 million Americans had placed money in the stock market in order to share in the wealth. The best part of the process was that you didn't need a lot of cash to join the party. You could buy your stock on margin. That is, borrow the money for your stock purchase using the value of the stock itself as collateral. It is estimated that by 1929, the total amount of debt amassed by the practice had reached six billion dollars. It was a house of cards that remained erect as long as stocks continued to increase in value. However, if stock prices plummeted, the whole rickety structure could collapse.\nVariety's headline after the Crash\nThe tremors that would eventually destroy this flimsy economic edifice made their first rumblings in September 1929. The market dropped sharply at the beginning of the month but rose again only to drop and rise again. The rollercoaster ride continued in October as the beginning of the month saw another drop followed by another burst of strength. Then came Black Thursday � October 24 � when a drop in stock prices triggered a burst of panic-selling so frantic that it overwhelmed the Stock Exchange's ability to keep track of the transactions.\nWall Street financers were able to reverse the downward plunge only by buying as many shares of stock as they could over the next two days. It was a temporary victory. Monday's opening bell unleashed a frenzy of selling that soon turned into an uncontrolled panic that continued for the rest of the trading day. The following day � Black Tuesday, October 29 � saw the previous day's panic turn into bedlam on the trading floor.\nAccording to one observer, traders \"hollered and screamed, they clawed at one another's collars. It was like a bunch of crazy men. Every once in a while, when Radio or Steel or Auburn would take another tumble, you'd see some poor devil collapse and fall to the floor.\" This was the Crash, although few could see it at the time. The Market continued its decline but never as dramatic. Thirty billion dollars had been lost - more than twice the national debt. The nation reeled, and slipped into the depths of the Great Depression.\n\"This was real panic.\"\nJonathan Leonard was a reporter who was on the scene as Wall Street tumbled. We join his story following \"Black Thursday.\"\n\"That Saturday and Sunday Wall Street hummed with week-day activity. The great buildings were ablaze with lights all night as sleepy clerks fought desperately to get the accounts in shape for the Monday opening. Horrified brokers watched the selling orders accumulate. It wasn't a flood; it was a deluge. Everybody wanted to sell-the man with five shares and the man with ten thousand. Evidently the week-end cheer barrage had not hit its mark.\nADVERTISMENT\nMonday was a rout for the banking pool, which was still supposed to be 'on guard.' If it did any net buying at all, which is doubtful, the market paid little attention. Leading stocks broke through the support levels as soon as trading started and kept sinking all day. Periodically the news would circulate that the banks were about to turn the tide as they had done on Thursday, but it didn't happen. A certain cynicism developed in the board rooms as the day wore on. Obviously the big financial interests had abandoned the market to its fate, probably intending to pick up the fragments cheap when the wreck hit the final bottom. 'Very well,' said the little man, 'I shall do the same.'\nWhen the market finally closed, 9,212,800 shares had been sold. The Times index of 25 industrials fell from 367.42 to 318.29. The whole list showed alarming losses, and margin calls were on their way to those speculators who had not already sold out.\nThat night Wall Street was lit up like a Christmas tree. Restaurants, barber shops, and speakeasies were open and doing a roaring business. Messenger boys and runners raced through the streets whooping and singing at the tops of their lungs. Slum children invaded the district to play with balls of ticker tape. Well-dressed gentlemen fell asleep in lunch counters. All the downtown hotels, rooming houses, even flophouses were full of financial employees who usually slept in the Bronx. It was probably Wall Street's worst night. Not only had the day been bad, but everybody down to the youngest office boy had a pretty good idea of what was going to happen tomorrow.\nBewildered crowds on Wall Street\nThe morning papers were black with the story of the Monday smash. Except for rather feeble hopes that the great banks would step into the gap they had no heart for cheerful headlines. In the inside pages, however, the sunshine chorus continued as merry as ever. Bankers said that heavy buying had been sighted on the horizon. Brokers were loud with \"technical\" reasons why the decline could not continue.\nIt wasn't only the financial bigwigs who spoke up. Even the outriders of the New Era felt that if everybody pretended to be happy, their phoney smiles would blow the trouble away. Jimmy Walker, for example, asked the movie houses to show only cheerful pictures. True Story Magazine, currently suffering from delusions of grandeur, ran full page advertisements in many papers urging all wage earners to buy luxuries on credit. That would fix things right up. McGraw-Hill Company, another publishing house with boom-time megalomania, told the public to avert its eyes from the obscene spectacle in Wall Street. What they did not observe would not affect their state of mind and good times could continue as before.\nThese noble but childish dabbles in mass psychology failed as utterly as might have been expected. Even the more substantial contributions of U.S. Steel and American Can in the shape of $1 extra dividends had the same fate. Ordinarily such action would have sent the respective stocks shooting upward, but in the present mood of the public it created not the slightest ripple of interest. Steel and Can plunged down as steeply as if they had canceled their dividends entirely. The next day, Tuesday, the 29th of October, was the worst of all. In the first half hour 3,259,800 shares were traded, almost a full day's work for the laboring machinery of the Exchange. The selling pressure was wholly without precedent. It was coming from everywhere. The wires to other cities were jammed with frantic orders to sell. So were the cables, radio and telephones to Europe and the rest of the world. Buyers were few, sometimes wholly absent. Often the specialists stood baffled at their posts, sellers pressing around them and not a single buyer at any price.\nThis was real panic. It was what the banks had prevented on Thursday, had slowed on Monday. Now they were helpless. Reportedly they were trying to force their associated corporations to toss their buying power into the whirlpool, but they were getting no results. Albert Conway, New York State Superintendent of Insurance, took the dubious step of urging the companies under his jurisdiction to buy common stocks. If they did so, their buying was insufficient to halt the rout.\"\nReferences:\n   This account appears in: Leonard, Jonathan Norton, Three Years Down (1944); Allen, Frederick, Lewis, Since Yesterday: the 30's in America (1972).\nHow To Cite This Article:\n\"The Wall Street Crash, 1929,\" EyeWitness to History, www.eyewitnesstohistory.com (2008).", "Stock market crashes - Oct 29, 1929 - HISTORY.com\nStock market crashes\nPublisher\nA+E Networks\nBlack Tuesday hits Wall Street as investors trade 16,410,030 shares on the New York Stock Exchange in a single day. Billions of dollars were lost, wiping out thousands of investors, and stock tickers ran hours behind because the machinery could not handle the tremendous volume of trading. In the aftermath of Black Tuesday, America and the rest of the industrialized world spiraled downward into the Great Depression.\nDuring the 1920s, the U.S. stock market underwent rapid expansion, reaching its peak in August 1929, a period of wild speculation. By then, production had already declined and unemployment had risen, leaving stocks in great excess of their real value. Among the other causes of the eventual market collapse were low wages, the proliferation of debt, a weak agriculture, and an excess of large bank loans that could not be liquidated.\nStock prices began to decline in September and early October 1929, and on October 18 the fall began. Panic set in, and on October 24—Black Thursday—a record 12,894,650 shares were traded. Investment companies and leading bankers attempted to stabilize the market by buying up great blocks of stock, producing a moderate rally on Friday. On Monday, however, the storm broke anew, and the market went into free fall. Black Monday was followed by Black Tuesday, in which stock prices collapsed completely.\nAfter October 29, 1929, stock prices had nowhere to go but up, so there was considerable recovery during succeeding weeks. Overall, however, prices continued to drop as the United States slumped into the Great Depression, and by 1932 stocks were worth only about 20 percent of their value in the summer of 1929. The stock market crash of 1929 was not the sole cause of the Great Depression, but it did act to accelerate the global economic collapse of which it was also a symptom. By 1933, nearly half of America’s banks had failed, and unemployment was approaching 15 million people, or 30 percent of the workforce. It would take World War II, and the massive level of armaments production taken on by the United States, to finally bring the country out of the Depression after a decade of suffering.\nRelated Videos", "Headlines . The Crash of 1929 . WGBH American Experience | PBS\nOther Primary Resources\nStock market news moved from the financial pages to the front pages as the number of first-time investors grew in the 1920s. Throughout 1929 daily papers reported that the future looked bright for investors — even after the devastating market crash in October.\nRead newspaper excerpts from three New York papers: The World, The New York Herald Tribune, and The New York Times.\nWave of Buying Sweeps Over Market as Stocks Swing Upward\nRadio Flashes High; General Motors and Steels Soar\nBy Laurence Stern\nThe atmosphere of doubt and caution which Wall Street in recent weeks has come to regard almost as habitual on Thursdays was swept away yesterday in a rush of buying…\nPerhaps the market’s own strength weighed as heavily with speculative minds as the logic of the situation, since the tape is the one institution Wall Street does not argue with. At any rate, the market appeared entirely confident from the opening gong. It was a firm, almost buoyant, opening, many initial transactions involving large blocks at sizable price advances…\nThe advance was one of the most vigorous of the year, amounting to a net gain of 6.97 points in the Dow Jones “average” of thirty representative industrial issues…\n— The World, March 15, 1929\nStocks Soar As Bank Aid Ends Fear of Money Panic\nBy W. A. Lyon\nThe stock market strode out from under the shadow of a panic in call money that so lately threatened, revived in all its old strength yesterday. Assured that the New York banks were ready with their boundless resources to prevent a money crisis, the public and the professional trader set out to repair the damage done to prices on Monday and the major part of Tuesday.\nStocks in the aggregate, though bucking a 15 per cent rate for loans, enjoyed the greatest advance they have known in a single day in the last two years. Not even the surging bull markets of the memorable year 1928 saw such a day of heavy buying.\n— New York Herald Tribune, March 28, 1929\nBanker Says Boom Will Run Into 1930\nThat at least a part of the great amount of money in the securities market may represent temporary employment of funds eventually finding their way into business uses, and that the prosperity of the present business cycle will probably not end in 1929, is the belief expressed by the J. Henry Schroder Banking Corporation in the quarterly review of the London house of Schroder.\n— The World, March 30, 1929\nBrokers to Open Offices on Ships\nThe New York Stock Exchange decided yesterday to put to sea. It gave two brokerage houses permission to establish offices with continuous stock quotations by radio, on trans-Atlantic ships. Within a few weeks business will be following the flags of three nations across the bounding main.\nThe American business man will be able to take a vacation in Europe without stopping for a single day his transactions at the centre of speculation…\nWhat the psychological effect may be remains to be seen. Lady Luck always has been a favorite companion for diversions seekers at sea, a fact that has provided good incomes to many generations of traveling card players. Ships’ pools and the “horse races” on deck always have been popular. They may retain their popularity, but now they will be outclassed.\n— The World, October 4, 1929\nPublic Liquidation Spurred by Bears, Hits Low Market\nScare Orders From All Over Country Halt Ticker an Hour in Feverish Day\nBy Laurence Stern\nWith speculative nerves rubbed raw under the persistent hammering of bearish traders, a renewed wave of public liquidation swept over the stock market yesterday, depressing prices severely and hopelessly clogging the quotation ticker…\n...To the majority of the market’s followers, who now must be counted in millions, the most significant aspect of the decline is that it has carried the average level of the list to a lower point than was reached on Oct. 4 in the sharp break that climaxed a month of gradual recession.\nThis raises a pertinent question, whether the bull movement of the last five years has definitely given way to a liquidating market…\n— The World, October 20, 1929\nBrokerage Houses Are Optimistic on the Recovery of Stocks\nBrokers in Meeting Predict Recovery\nA reassuring message to the stock market community went out last night over the country-wide network of private wires operated by brokerage houses. This was the result of a tacit agreement reached yesterday afternoon at a special meeting of the partners of about thirty-five of the largest wire houses of the New York Stock Exchange, at which the stock market situation was canvassed thoroughly…\n...Much of the selling of the last few days, the brokers felt, was induced by hysteria. The views of all of the brokers present were heard, and none knew of anything disturbing to the general market situation…\n— The New York Times, October 25, 1929\nBrokers Believe Worst Is Over and Recommend Buying of Real Bargains\nWall Street in looking over the wreckage of the week, has come generally to the opinion that high grade investment issues can be bought now, without fear of a drastic decline. There is some difference of opinion as to whether not the correction must go further, but everyone realizes that the worst is over, and that there are bargains for those who are willing to buy conservatively and live through the immediate irregularity.\n— New York Herald Tribune, October 27, 1929\nGigantic Bank Pool Pledged To Avert Disaster as Second Big Crash Stuns Wall Street\nLargest Financial Powers in the City Meet After Day of Hysterical Liquidation Sinking Prices Below Thursday’s\nBy Laurence Stern\nAfter the stock market had come crashing down again in a veritable deluge of forced and hysterical liquidation, word sped through the financial district last evening that the largest banks in the city were prepared to exert their organized power this morning to prevent further disaster.\nArrangements described as “fully adequate” were completed at a conference at the offices of J. P. Morgan & Co. at Broad and Wall Streets…\nAlthough no formal statement was issued, it was the consensus of those at the meeting that the worst of the liquidation is over and that a natural demand for investment stocks now available on the bargain counter should go far toward an immediate restoration of trading stability.\n— The World, October 29, 1929\nStocks Up in S\ntrong Rally; Rockefellers Big Buyers; Exchanges Close 2-1/2 Days\nBy Ferdinand Lundberg\nRevived by spontaneous investment buying and declarations of large extra cash dividends by leading companies, and free of the delirium that has recently gripped share owners, the stock market yesterday received a fresh start and scored a record comeback. Volume on the Stock Exchange totaled 10,727,320 shares, the third largest day on record.\nThe high spot of the day from a stock market viewpoint was the statement by John D. Rockefeller that there was no need to destroy values and that he and his son, John D. Rockefeller Jr., had been heavy buyers of stocks for investment in the last few days, and would continue to buy at present prices…\n— New York Herald Tribune, October 31, 1929\nVery Prosperous Year Is Forecast\nGuenther Analyzes the Report of Mellon Covering 1929\nThat 1930 may be a very prosperous year, industrially and otherwise, without the peak conditions that made 1929 an exceptional year for business prosperity, is an observation made by Louis Guenther, publisher of the Financial World, in a statement based upon Secretary Mellon’s fiscal report…\n“To grow too fast is often unhealthy because of the suddenness with which a readjustment must be met. By far and large the country would be better off were further progress made along more normal lines…\nFortunately, we have returned to a more normal mind in appraising prospects. We are not looking for the Midas touch on everything to which we turn. That makes us more satisfied with normal incomes and normal profit returns.”\n— The World, December 15, 1929", "Wall Street Crash, 1929 | The Week UK\nWall Street Crash, 1929\n1 of 5\n››\nCrowds flock to Wall Street in New York after news of the stock market collapse. Right, the front page of the Brooklyn Daily Eagle on 'Black Thursday', the first day of the crash. The stock market had been fuelled by a speculative boom throughout the 'Roaring Twenties', but it lost a quarter of its value over the course of just six days in late October 1929\nIn October 1929, the New York Stock Exchange collapsed\nRead more about", "Wall Street Crash of 1929 – Wall Street Crash\nWall Street Stock Market Crash of 2008\nWall Street Crash of 1929\nThe most consequential U.S. event of the 20th century would have to be the Wall Street Crash of 1929.  It not only had a country wide effect, but a long term global effect, resulting in a month long economic decline.  The crash would later be defined into three phases, Black Thursday, Black Monday, and Black Tuesday.\nThe decade leading up to the crash was a time of prosperity and wealth.  The stock market had experienced plateau highs, and there was increasing speculation that it would continue along this path for the long term.  More and more individuals saw the stock market as a good long term investment, and increasingly invested money in the market.  The market was seen as such a good investment that borrowing money to invest was becoming increasingly common.  At the time of the crash over 8.5 billion was out on loan, more than the amount of currency being circulated in the entire United States.  Brokers were routinely lending small investors up to 2/3 the face value of the stocks they were purchasing.  As a result, stock prices were rising which encouraged more people to invest, creating an economic bubble.\nBlack Thursday happened first, on October 24th, 1929.  The market finally turned down and investors began to panic.  In order to ease investors fears, a group of major banks (Morgan Bank, Chase National Bank, and National City Bank) got together and purchased a large block of shares in US steel.  They also purchased similar blocks of other “blue chip” stocks.  To no avail, on Black Monday, more investors decided to get out of the market, causing stocks to slip further down with a record loss in the Dow that day of 13%.  On Black Tuesday, amist rumors that president Herbert Hoover would not veto the pending Hawley-Smoot Tariff bill, the stock market plummeted even more.  Approximately 16 million shares were traded that day, a record that had not been broken in nearly 40 years in 1968.  The Dow lost another 12% that day.  The market lost 14 billion in value that day, bringing the week total losses to 30 billion, ten times more the the U.S. annual budget, more than the U.S. had spent in all of World War I.\nBe Sociable, Share!\n[...] New Deal 2.0 10 years after the the 1929 crash on Wall Street, the Treasury Secretary of the US was quoted saying  “We have tried spending money. We are [...]\n1929 Wall Street Stock Market Crash\nRecent Posts", "Brief History of The Crash of 1929 - TIME\nFollow @TIME\nSeventy-nine years ago this week, the New York Stock Exchange experienced the worst financial panic the country had ever seen. There have been more crashes since — with bigger numbers and bigger losses — but nothing quite rivals the terror and devastation of Black Tuesday: October 29, 1929.\nWhen President Calvin Coolidge delivered his 1928 State of the Union address, he noted that America had never \"met with a more pleasing prospect than that which appears at the present time.\" Americans had a lot to be proud of back then: World War I was thoroughly behind them, radio had been invented, and automobiles were growing cheaper and more popular. Sure, the disparity between the rich and the poor had widened within the past decade, but Americans could now buy goods on installment plans — a relatively new concept — and families could afford more than ever before. Stocks were on a tear: between 1924 and 1929, the Dow Jones Industrial Average quadrupled. At that time, it was the longest bull market ever recorded; some thought it would last forever. In the fall of 1929, economist Irving Fisher announced that \"stock prices have reached what looks like a permanent plateau.\" ( See pictures of the stock market crash of 1929. )\nUnsurprisingly, this exuberance lured more investors to the market, investing on margin with borrowed money. By 1929, 2 out of every 5 dollars a bank loaned were used to purchase stocks.\nThe market peaked on September 3, 1929. Steel production was down, several banks had failed, and fewer homes were being built, but few paid attention — the Dow stood at 381.17, up 27% from the previous year. Over the next few weeks, however, prices began to move downward. And the lower they fell, the faster they picked up speed.\nIn the last hour of trading on Thursday, Oct. 23, 1929, stock prices suddenly plummeted. When the closing bell rang at 3 p.m. people were shaken. No one was sure what had just happened, but that evening provided enough time for fear and panic to set in. When the market opened again the next day, prices plunged with renewed violence. Stock transactions in those days were printed on ticker tape, which could only produce 285 words a minute. Thirteen million shares changed hands — the highest daily volume in the exchange's history at that point — and the tape didn't stop running until four hours after the market closed. The following day, President Herbert Hoover went on the radio to reassure the American people, saying \"The fundamental business of the country...is on a sound and prosperous basis.\"\nAnd then came Black Monday. As soon as the opening bell rang on Oct. 28, prices began to drop. Huge blocks of shares changed hands, as previously impregnable companies like U.S. Steel and General Electric began to tumble. By the end of the day, the Dow had dropped 13%. So many shares changed hands that day that traders didn't have time to record them all. They worked into the night, sleeping in their offices or on the floor, trying to catch up to be ready for October 29.\nAs the story goes, the opening bell was never heard on Black Tuesday because the shouts of \"Sell! Sell! Sell!\" drowned it out. In the first thirty minutes, 3 million shares changed hands and with them, another $2 million disappeared into thin air. Phone lines clogged. The volume of Western Union telegrams traveling across the country tripled. The ticker tape ran so far behind the actual transactions that some traders simply let it run out. Trades happened so quickly that although people knew they were losing money, they didn't know how much. Rumors of investors jumping out of buildings spread through Wall Street; although they weren't true, they drove the prices down further. Brokers called in margins; if stockholders couldn't pay up, their stocks were sold, wiping out many an investor's life savings in an instant. So many trades were made — each recorded on a slip of paper — that traders didn't know where to store them, and ended up stuffing them into trash cans. One trader fainted from exhaustion, was revived and put back to work. Others got into fistfights. The New York Stock Exchange's board of governors considered closing the market, but decided against it, lest the move increase the panic. When the market closed at 3 p.m., more than 16.4 million shares had changed hands, using 15,000 miles of ticker tape paper. The Dow had dropped another 12%.\nIn total, $25 billion — some $319 billion in today's dollars — was lost in the 1929 crash. Stocks continued to fall over subsequent weeks, finally bottoming out on November 13, 1929. The market recovered for a few months and then slid again, gliding swiftly and steadily with the rest of the country into the Great Depression. Companies incurred huge layoffs, unemployment skyrocketed, wages plummeted and the economy went into a tailspin. While World War II helped pull the country out of a Depression by the early 1940s, the stock market wouldn't recover to its pre-crash numbers until 1954.", "Timeline . The Crash of 1929 . American Experience . WGBH | PBS\nPage 1 of 2\n1653: Early History\nDutch colonists construct a wooden stockade across lower Manhattan to protect the north side of their settlement against attacks by the British and Indians. By the turn of the 18th century, the British have taken over the colony and dismantled the barrier, turning it into a paved lane called Wall Street.\nSeptember 21, 1776\nA devastating fire, probably the work of colonial arsonists trying to disrupt the British occupation of the city during the American Revolution, destroys hundreds of structures in the vicinity of Wall Street.\nJanuary 14, 1790\nIn his landmark Report on the Public Credit, the young nation’s first treasury secretary, Alexander Hamilton , proposes a method for the U.S. to handle federal and state debt by issuing government bonds, and establishes the principle of free trade for securities in the marketplace.\nAugust 1790\nBrokers meet in Philadelphia, where they buy and sell the first major issues of publicly-traded securities: $80 million in bonds issued by the federal government to pay off debt from the Revolutionary War .\nMay 17, 1792\nAt the Merchants’ Coffee House at the corner of Wall and Water Streets, two dozen New York City stockbrokers and merchants sign the “Buttonwood Agreement,” named after a buttonwood tree under which business has been transacted in the past. The agreement lists rules for securities transactions.\n1793\nThe locus for securities transactions in New York moves to the Tontine Coffee House, across the street from the Merchants’ Coffee House. Business is also transacted on the street.\nMarch 8, 1817\nA group of New York brokers formally establish the New York Stock and Exchange Board, an organization that later will be renamed the New York Stock Exchange (N.Y.S.E.).\n1829: 5,000 Shares a Day\nThe stock market reaches a trading volume of 5,000 shares a day.\nDecember 16, 1835\nOn a bitterly cold night, a fire starts in lower Manhattan. Raging for two days, it will destroy 700 buildings, including the Merchants’ Exchange.\nSeptember 12, 1836\nThe N.Y.S.E. bars its members from conducting business in the streets.\nMarch 22, 1837\nThe N.Y.S.E. starts paying its president a salary. The first paid president, David Clarkson, earns $2000 a year ($31,960 in 2003 dollars).\nMay 24, 1844\nSamuel F. B. Morse transmits the first viable telegraph message. Securities brokers quickly adopt the technology to send market quotations. The telegraph helps expand the stock market by making trades accessible to brokers and investors outside of New York.\nMay 11, 1861\nIn response to the outbreak of the Civil War , trading of Confederate securities is banned.\nJuly 27, 1866\nCyrus Field completes a transatlantic cable, connecting telegraph operators across the Atlantic Ocean. For the first time, London and New York markets can communicate instantaneously.\nNovember 15, 1867\nEdward Callahan invents the stock ticker, a device that shows current market prices and represents each company on the stock market with symbols based on Morse code .\nSeptember 24, 1869\nBlack Friday . A group of speculators led by Jay Gould and Jim Fiske try to corner the gold market, setting off a U.S. financial panic.\nLibrary of Congress\nWall Street, 1873\nSeptember 18, 1873\nThe brokerage firm of Jay Cooke & Company, a major investor in new railroad construction , collapses, sparking the Panic of 1873 .\nNovember 13, 1878\nThe N.Y.S.E. installs the first telephones on its trading floor.\nNovember 1882: Dow Jones & Company\nCharles Dow and Edward Jones form Dow Jones & Company and design the first index to measure the activity of the N.Y.S.E.\nLibrary of Congress\nWall Street, 1884\nMay 6, 1884\nThe Wall Street brokerage firm of Grand and Ward fails, leading to a panic and the failure of 15 other stock exchange firms. Grant and Ward is co-owned by Buck Grant, the son of former Union general and president Ulysses S. Grant , and the failure plunges the ex-president into bankruptcy. Desperate for money, he will begin writing his wartime memoirs soon afterward.\nDecember 15, 1886\nThe N.Y.S.E.'s trading volume reaches one million shares a day for the first time.\nApril 8, 1890\nJunius S. Morgan, the head of the Morgan banking family, dies. His son, John Pierpont Morgan , will turn the family financial empire into one of the most powerful banking houses in the world.\nMay 26, 1896\nCharles Dow reveals his industrial stock average in the first publication of his daily paper — the Wall Street Journal. Dow Jones creates four averages to measure market performance, including the Dow Jones Industrial Average.\nJanuary 12, 1906\nThe Dow Jones Industrial Average closes the day at over 100 for the first time.\nOctober 21, 1907\nRumors of financial problems at a leading New York bank trigger investors to run on banks throughout the city, beginning the Panic of 1907. J. P. Morgan devises a plan to return cash to banks, saving the country from its most severe financial crisis to date.\nFebruary 28, 1913\nThe Pujo Committee, appointed by Congress to investigate practices of the banking and securities industry, issues a report which leads Congress to create the Federal Reserve System. The Fed is designed to stabilize the nation’s banking structure.\nJuly 31, 1914: WWI Begins\nWorld War I begins in Europe, leading to sharp declines in world stock prices. The N.Y.S.E. and exchanges throughout the world temporarily suspend trading in order to stop prices from dropping further.\nApril 7, 1917\nFollowing a series of German provocations, President Woodrow Wilson asks Congress for a formal declaration of war. The U.S. enters World War I .\nJune 8, 1917\nA liberty loan rally is held on the trading floor of the N.Y.S.E., where former president William H. Taft encourages Americans to purchase war bonds.\nLibrary of Congress\nAble-bodied men return home from war.\nNovember 11, 1918\nThe United States emerges from World War I as a creditor nation and a rising global force.\nOctober 1923\nA bull market begins. It will continue growing for nearly six years.\nApril 13, 1928\nThe N.Y.S.E. introduces new and improved high-speed tickers. The devices can print 500 characters per minute, almost twice as fast as the earlier models.\nFebruary 1929: 1929\nAstrologer Evangeline Adams, who counts Charlie Chaplin , Mary Pickford , and J. P. Morgan among her clients, predicts the market will rise in the coming months.\nMarch 15, 1929\nNewspapers quote Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellon saying there are bargains to be found in the bond market. Wall Street is in the midst of a buying frenzy. As the market rises, some begin to fear it will soon collapse. The Federal Reserve Board meets, but does not make any public statements.\nMarch 4, 1929\nPresident Herbert Hoover is inaugurated. Nicknamed “The Great Engineer,” the former geologist and mining engineer takes office amid booming prosperity. During the campaign, he has promised: “We shall soon, with the help of God, be in sight of the day when poverty will be banished from this nation.”\nMarch 8, 1929\nMichael J. Meehan begins one of the most successful brokerage pools in Wall Street history. Over the next ten days, he drives the value of R.C.A. stock up almost 50%. In today’s money, his pool will make the colluding investors $100 million.\nMarch 25, 1929\nA mini-crash begins as investors start to sell, revealing the market’s shaky foundations. For the many people playing the market with borrowed money, the day is a disaster, as margin calls wipe out their holdings. While the investors seek to borrow more money, interest rates soar to 20 percent. The New York Daily News calls it a “selling avalanche.”\nMarch 27, 1929\nBanker Charles Mitchell announces that the national city bank will provide $25 million in credit to stop the market’s slide. His move stops the panic, and call money declines from 20 to eight percent. Senator and former Treasury Secretary Carter Glass calls for Mitchell to resign from his post on the Federal Reserve Board because of his intervention in the market.\nSpring, 1929\nThe American economy shows ominous signs of trouble. Steel production is declining, construction is sluggish, car sales are down, and consumers are building up high debts because of easy credit. Yet the stock market continues its upward momentum, heedless of real economic indicators.\nMay 14, 1929\nThe N.Y.S.E. opens a new bond room, adding 6,000 feet to the trading floor.\nSummer, 1929\nThe market continues to rebound, and stocks hit record levels month after month.\nAugust 17, 1929\nMichael Meehan’s brokerage firm launches a new service: an office aboard ocean liners, including the Berengaria. This convenience allows transatlantic passengers to buy or sell shares during the weeklong passage between the U.S. and Europe.\nSeptember 3, 1929: The Market Reaches its Peak\nAfter a surge of optimism, the bull market reaches its peak — the Dow Jones Industrial Average closes at 381.17. A newspaper headline trumpets, “Public Demand for Stock Appears Insatiable.”\nSeptember 5, 1929\nBearish economist Roger Babson gives a speech, saying, “Sooner or later, a crash is coming, and it may be terrific.” He has been delivering this message for two years, but for the first time, investors listen. The market takes a severe dip, which will be called the “Babson Break.” The next day, prices will stabilize, but the collapse has begun.\nMid-September, 1929\nThe market fluctuates wildly up and down.\nOctober 24, 1929\n“Black Thursday.” The economic bubble finally bursts. Stock prices fall sharply on a day of heavy liquidation. Ticker tape runs four hours later than normal at a volume of 12.9 million shares. Headlines will report the market’s paper loss at $5 billion. A pool of bankers acts to stem the drop by putting more money into the market, and President Hoover reassures Americans that U.S. business is sound. Within a few days, a headline will read, “Brokers Believe Worst is Over and Recommend Buying of Real Bargains.”\nOctober 28, 1929\n“Black Monday.” The stock market falls 22.6%, the highest one-day decline in U.S. history. The crash triggers similar declines in markets around the world.\nOctober 29, 1929\n“Black Tuesday.” Panic sets in as investors all try to sell their stocks at once. Over 16 million shares of stock are sold, setting a record — and the market records over $14 billion in paper losses. Stock tickers cannot keep up with the heavy trading volume. At the end of the day, the market is down 33 points, more than 12.8%. Some of the nation’s financial elite, including General Motors’ William C. Durant and the Rockefeller family , show confidence by buying stocks, but their efforts fail to stem the tide.\nNovember 23, 1929\nAfter weeks in freefall, the market hits its bottom and stabilizes. The New York Times reports, “Regular Schedule to be Resumed, but Trading Will Be Suspended Last Half of Week; Business Nearly Normal.” The market’s daily volume is at 3 million shares with “orderly although irregular” prices.\nCorbis\nA desperate man sells his car for $100\nJanuary 7, 1931\nA report released by the Committee for Unemployment Relief states that over four million Americans are unemployed.\n1", "Glossary of Events: Wa\nWa\nWall Street Crash (October 1929)\nThe Wall Street Crash was the U.S. Stock Market crash of October 29, 1929, which precipitated a world-wide collapse of share values and triggered the Great Depression – 10 years of economic slump with catastrophic levels of unemployment across all the industrialised countries apart from the Soviet Union.\nAfter the end of the First World War, the world economy was boosted by a period of reconstruction. In the early- to mid-1920s, a series of defeats were inflicted on the workers movement which had been engaged in revolutionary struggles in the wake of the War and the Russian Revolution. These events created conditions for an economic boom which became known as the “Roaring Twenties”. The value of shares on the US stock market rapidly climbed, reaching a peak at the end of August 1929. Prices began to decline in September and early October, while speculation continued, but came to an abrupt end on October 18, when the Stock Market began to fall precipitately. The first day of real panic, October 24, is known as “Black Thursday” – a record 12,894,650 shares were traded. Major banks and investment companies bought up stocks in an attempt to hold up prices and stem the panic, but the panic began again on “Black Monday”, and on “Black Tuesday”, October 29, 16,000,000 shares were sold, and prices on the stock market collapsed completely.\nBankruptcies and skyrocketing unemployment spread from the US to every country in the world, except the USSR, where production continued to expand after the devastation of the Wars of Intervention (1918-1922). The Soviet Union was relatively unaffected by the Crash, firstly because it was a planned economy and not dependent on speculation, and secondly because, in any case, it had been more or less isolated from the world economy. The Great Depression lasted into the late 1930s with 14 million unemployed in the US alone, most with little means of support until Roosevelt’s New Deal was brought in.\nShare markets had collapsed before, indeed a ten-year business cycle of boom and bust was quite normal up to that time, but the particularly rampant speculation of the preceding decade of boom, inflating the value of shares, and the proliferation of holding companies and investment trusts and the extent of large bank loans in the U.S. had accumulated a vast mass of fictitious capital , and its collapse made this crash particularly spectacular. The extent of capitalist development meant that the effects of the crash were more devastating than ever before; every sector of the economy was tied up in bank loans and share issues. When the value of stocks fell, those who had invested in them lost money, including banks who had loaned money to failed firms; banks in trouble called in their loans, borrowers were invariably unable to pay and were repossessed and their businesses closed down; employees were put off and creditors remained unpaid, triggering an indefinite chain of bankruptcies and ejecting millions onto the dole queues; when the factories closed down people had no alternative means of livelihood. The preceding rapid growth of the world market meant that, as the saying went, “When America sneezed, the rest of the world caught a cold”, and stock markets crashed across the world in the wake of the Wall Street Crash, plunging the world into the Great Depression .\nThere have been even larger crashes since 1929 as well, which have not had the same extent of effect. This is mainly because the share market is only one relatively minor avenue for speculation and even a total wipe out on the share market has only a partial impact." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Panama.txt" ], "title": [ "Panama" ], "wiki_context": [ "Panama ( ; ), officially called the Republic of Panama (), is a transcontinental country situated between North and South America. It is bordered by Costa Rica to the west, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean to the north and the Pacific Ocean to the south. The capital and largest city is Panama City, whose metropolitan area is home to nearly half of the country's 3.9 million people.\n\nPanama was inhabited by several indigenous tribes prior to settlement by the Spanish in the 16th century. Panama broke away from Spain in 1821 and joined a union of Nueva Granada, Ecuador, and Venezuela named the Republic of Gran Colombia. When Gran Colombia dissolved in 1831, Panama and Nueva Granada remained joined, eventually becoming the Republic of Colombia. With the backing of the United States, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903, allowing the Panama Canal to be built by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers between 1904 and 1914. In 1977, an agreement was signed for the total transfer of the Canal from the United States to Panama by the end of the 20th century, which culminated on 31 December 1999. \n\nRevenue from canal tolls continues to represent a significant portion of Panama's GDP, although commerce, banking, and tourism are major and growing sectors. In 2015, Panama ranked 60th in the world in terms of the Human Development Index. Since 2010, Panama remains the second most competitive economy in Latin America, according to the World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Index. Covering around 40 percent of its land area, Panama's jungles are home to an abundance of tropical plants and animals – some of them to be found nowhere else on the planet. \n\nEtymology\n\nThere are several theories about the origin of the name \"Panama\". Some believe that the country was named after a commonly found species of tree (Sterculia apetala, the Panama tree). Others believe that the first settlers arrived in Panama in August, when butterflies abound, and that the name means \"many butterflies\" in an indigenous language.\n\nThe best-known version is that a fishing village and its nearby beach bore the name \"Panamá\", which meant \"an abundance of fish\". Captain Antonio Tello de Guzmán, while exploring the Pacific side in 1515, stopped in the small indigenous fishing town. In 1517 Don Gaspar De Espinosa, a Spanish lieutenant, decided to settle a post there. In 1519, Pedrarias Dávila decided to establish the Empire's Pacific city in this site. The new settlement replaced Santa María La Antigua del Darién, which had lost its function within the Crown's global plan after the beginning of the Spanish exploitation of the riches in the Pacific.\n\nBlending all of the above together, Panamanians believe in general that the word Panama means \"abundance of fish, trees and butterflies\". This is the official definition given in social studies textbooks approved by the Ministry of Education in Panama. However, others believe the word Panama comes from the Kuna word \"bannaba\" which means \"distant\" or \"far away\".\n\nHistory\n\nAt the time of the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, the known inhabitants of Panama included the Cuevas and the Coclé tribes. These people have nearly disappeared, as they had no immunity from European infectious diseases. \n\nPre-Columbian period \n\nThe Isthmus of Panama was formed about 3 million years ago when the land bridge between North and South America finally closed and plants and animals gradually crossed it in both directions. The existence of the isthmus affected the dispersal of people, agriculture and technology throughout the American continent from the appearance of the first hunters and collectors to the era of villages and cities. \n\nThe earliest discovered artifacts of indigenous peoples in Panama include Paleo-Indians projectile points. Later central Panama was home to some of the first pottery-making in the Americas, for example the cultures at Monagrillo, which date back to 2500–1700 BC. These evolved into significant populations best known through their spectacular burials (dating to c. 500–900 AD) at the Monagrillo archaeological site, and their beautiful Gran Coclé style polychrome pottery. The monumental monolithic sculptures at the Barriles (Chiriqui) site are also important traces of these ancient isthmian cultures.\n\nBefore Europeans arrived Panama was widely settled by Chibchan, Chocoan, and Cueva peoples. The largest group were the Cueva (whose specific language affiliation is poorly documented). The size of the indigenous population of the isthmus at the time of European colonization is uncertain. Estimates range as high as two million people, but more recent studies place that number closer to 200,000. Archaeological finds and testimonials by early European explorers describe diverse native isthmian groups exhibiting cultural variety and suggesting people with developedned by regular regional routes of commerce.\n\nWhen Panama was colonized, the indigenous peoples fled into the forest and nearby islands. Scholars believe that infectious disease was the primary cause of the population decline of American natives. The indigenous peoples had no acquired immunity to diseases which had been chronic in Eurasian populations for centuries. \n\nConquest to 1799\n\nRodrigo de Bastidas, sailed westward from Venezuela in 1501 in search of gold, and became the first European to explore the isthmus of Panama. A year later, Christopher Columbus visited the isthmus and established a short-lived settlement in the Darien. Vasco Núñez de Balboa's tortuous trek from the Atlantic to the Pacific in 1513 demonstrated that the isthmus was, indeed, the path between the seas, and Panama quickly became the crossroads and marketplace of Spain's empire in the New World. Gold and silver were brought by ship from South America, hauled across the isthmus, and loaded aboard ships for Spain. The route became known as the Camino Real, or Royal Road, although it was more commonly known as Camino de Cruces (Road of Crosses) because of the number of gravesites along the way.\n\nPanama was under Spanish rule for almost 300 years (1538–1821) and became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, along with all other Spanish possessions in South America. From the outset, Panamanian identity was based on a sense of \"geographic destiny\", and Panamanian fortunes fluctuated with the geopolitical importance of the isthmus. The colonial experience also spawned Panamanian nationalism as well as a racially complex and highly stratified society, the source of internal conflicts that ran counter to the unifying force of nationalism.\n\nIn 1538, the Real Audiencia de Panama was established, initially with jurisdiction from Nicaragua to Cape Horn before the conquest of Peru. A Real Audiencia (royal audiency) was a judicial district that functioned as an appeals court. Each audiencia had an oidores (Spanish: hearer, a judge).\n\nSpanish authorities had little control over much of the territory of Panama. Large sections managed to resist conquest and missionization until very late in the colonial era. Because of this, indigenous people of the area were often referred to as \"indios de guerra\" (war Indians) and resisted Spanish attempts to conquer them or missionize them. However, Panama was enormously important to Spain strategically because it was the easiest way to transship silver mined in Peru to Europe. Silver cargos were landed at Panama and then taken overland to Portobello or Nombre de Dios on the Caribbean side of the isthmus for further shipment.\n\nBecause of the incomplete Spanish control, the Panama route was vulnerable to attack from pirates (mostly Dutch and English) and from 'new world' Africans called cimarrons who had freed themselves from enslavement and lived in communes or palenques around the Camino Real in Panama's Interior, and on some of the islands off Panama's Pacific coast. One such famous community amounted to a small kingdom under Bayano, which emerged in the 1552 to 1558. Sir Francis Drake's famous raids on Panama in 1572–73 were aided by Panama cimarrons, and Spanish authorities were only able to bring them under control by making an alliance with them that guaranteed their freedom in exchange for military support in 1582. \n\nThe prosperity enjoyed during the first two centuries (1540–1740) while contributing to colonial growth; the placing of extensive regional judicial authority (Real Audiencia) as part of its jurisdiction; and the pivotal role it played at the height of the Spanish Empire – the first modern global empire – helped define a distinctive sense of autonomy and of regional or national identity within Panama well before the rest of the colonies.\n\nThe end of the encomienda system in Azuero, however, sparked the conquest of Veraguas in that same year. Under the leadership of Francisco Vázquez, the region of Veraguas passed into Castillan rule in 1558. In the newly conquered region, the old system of encomienda was imposed. On the other hand, the Panamanian movement for independence can be indirectly attributed to the abolishment of the encomienda system in the Azuero Peninsula, set forth by the Spanish Crown, in 1558 because of repeated protests by locals against the mistreatment of the native population. In its stead, a system of medium and smaller-sized landownership was promoted, thus taking away the power from the large landowners and into the hands of medium and small sized proprietors.\n\nPanama was the site of the ill-fated Darien scheme, which set up a Scottish colony in the region in 1698. This failed for a number of reasons, and the ensuing debt contributed to the union of England and Scotland in 1707. \n\nIn 1671, the privateer Henry Morgan, licensed by the English government, sacked and burned the city of Panama – the second most important city in the Spanish New World at the time. In 1717, the viceroyalty of New Granada (northern South America) was created in response to other Europeans trying to take Spanish territory in the Caribbean region. The Isthmus of Panama was placed under its jurisdiction. However, the remoteness of New Granada's capital, Santa Fe de Bogotá (the modern capital of Colombia) proved a greater obstacle than the Spanish crown anticipated as the authority of New Granada was contested by the seniority, closer proximity, and previous ties to the viceroyalty of Lima and even by Panama's own initiative. This uneasy relationship between Panama and Bogotá would persist for centuries.\n\nIn 1744, Bishop Francisco Javier de Luna Victoria DeCastro established the College of San Ignacio de Loyola and on June 3, 1749, founded La Real y Pontificia Universidad de San Javier. By this time, however, Panama's importance and influence had become insignificant as Spain's power dwindled in Europe and advances in navigation technique increasingly permitted to round Cape Horn in order to reach the Pacific. While the Panama route was short it was also labor-intensive and expensive because of the loading and unloading and laden-down trek required to get from the one coast to the other.\n\nDuring the last half of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century, migrations to the countryside decreased Panama City's population and the isthmus' economy shifted from the tertiary to the primary sector.\n\n1800s\n\nAs the Spanish American wars of independence were heating up all across Latin America, Panama City was preparing for independence; however, their plans were accelerated by the unilateral Grito de La Villa de Los Santos (Cry From the Town of Saints), issued on November 10, 1821 by the residents of Azuero without backing from Panama City to declare their separation from the Spanish Empire. In both Veraguas and the capital this act was met with disdain, although on differing levels. To Veraguas, it was the ultimate act of treason, while to the capital, it was seen as inefficient and irregular, and furthermore forced them to accelerate their plans.\n\nNevertheless, the Grito was an event that shook the isthmus to its very core. It was a sign, on the part of the residents of Azuero, of their antagonism toward the independence movement in the capital.Those in the capital region in turn regarded the Azueran movement with contempt, since the separatists in Panama City believed that their counterparts in Azuero were fighting not only for independence from Spain, but also for their right to self-rule apart from Panama City once the Spaniards were gone.\n\nIt was an incredibly brave move on the part of Azuero, which lived in fear of Colonel José Pedro Antonio de Fábrega y de las Cuevas (1774–1841), and with good reason. The Colonel was a staunch loyalist and had all of the isthmus' military supplies in his hands.They feared quick retaliation and swift retribution against the separatists.\n\nWhat they had counted on, however, was the influence of the separatists in the capital. Ever since October 1821, when the former Governor General, Juan de la Cruz Murgeón, left the isthmus on a campaign in Quito and left the Veraguan colonel in charge, the separatists had been slowly converting Fábrega to the separatist side. So, by November 10, Fábrega was now a supporter of the independence movement. Soon after the separatist declaration of Los Santos, Fábrega convened every organization in the capital with separatist interests and formally declared the city's support for independence. No military repercussions occurred because of the skillful bribing of royalist troops.\n\nPost-colonial Panama\n\nIn the first eighty years following independence from Spain, Panama was a department of Colombia, after voluntarily joining it at the end of 1821. The people of the isthmus made several attempts to secede and came close to success in 1831, and again during the Thousand Days' War of 1899–1902. When the Senate of Colombia rejected the Hay–Herrán Treaty, the United States decided to support the Panamanian independence movement. \n\nIn November 1903 Panama proclaimed its independence and concluded the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty with the United States. The treaty granted rights to the United States \"as if it were sovereign\" in a zone roughly 10 mi wide and 50 mi long. In that zone, the U.S. would build a canal, then administer, fortify, and defend it \"in perpetuity\". In 1914, the United States completed the existing 83 km (52 mi) canal. The early 1960s saw the beginning of sustained pressure in Panama for the renegotiation of this treaty.\n\nThe US intention to influence the area, especially the Panama Canal's construction and control, led to the separation of Panama from Colombia in 1903 and its establishment as a nation. The United States intensively encouraged the Panamanian separatist movement. From 1903 to 1968, Panama was a constitutional democracy dominated by a commercially oriented oligarchy. During the 1950s, the Panamanian military began to challenge the oligarchy's political hegemony.\n\nAmid negotiations for the Robles–Johnson treaty, Panama held elections in 1968. The candidates were \n*Dr. Arnulfo Arias Madrid,Unión Nacional (\"National Union\")\n*Antonio González Revilla,Democracia Cristiana (\"Christian Democrats\")\n*engineer David Samudio, Alianza del Pueblo (\"People's Alliance\") who had the government's support.\n(see Pizzurno Gelós and Araúz, Estudios sobre el Panamá republicano 508). \n\nArias Madrid was declared the winner of elections that were marked by violence and accusations of fraud against Alianza del Pueblo. On October 1, 1968, Arias Madrid took office as president of Panama, promising to lead a government of \"national union\" that would end the reigning corruption and pave the way for a new Panama. A week and a half later, on October 11, 1968, the National Guard (Guardia Nacional) ousted Arias and initiated the downward spiral that would culminate with the United States' invasion in 1989. Arias, who had promised to respect the hierarchy of the National Guard, broke the pact and started a large restructuring of the Guard. To preserve the Guard's interests, Lieutenant Colonel Omar Torrijos Herrera and Major Boris Martínez commanded the first military coup against a civilian government in Panamanian republican history.\n\nThe military justified itself by declaring that Arias Madrid was trying to install a dictatorship, and promised a return to constitutional rule. In the meantime, the Guard began a series of populist measures that would gain support for the coup. Among them were:\n*Price freezing on food, medicine and other goods until January 31, 1969\n*rent level freeze\n*legalization of the permanence of squatting families in boroughs surrounding the historic site of Panama Viejo. \nParallel to this, the military began a policy of repression against the opposition, who were labeled communists. The military appointed a Provisional Government Junta that was to arrange new elections. However, the National Guard would prove to be very reluctant to abandon power and soon began calling itself El Gobierno Revolucionario (\"The Revolutionary Government\").\n\nPost-1970\n\nDuring Omar Torrijos's control, the military regime transformed the political and economic structure of the country by initiating massive coverage of social security services and expanding public education. The constitution was changed in 1972. For the reform to the constitution, the military created a new organization, the Assembly of Corregimiento Representatives, which replaced the National Assembly. The new assembly, also known as the Poder Popular (\"Power of the People\"), was composed of 505 members selected by the military with no participation from political parties, which the military had eliminated. The new constitution proclaimed Omar Torrijos the \"Maximum Leader of the Panamanian Revolution\", and conceded him unlimited power for six years, although, to keep a façade of constitutionality, Demetrio B. Lakas was appointed president for the same period (Pizzurno Gelós and Araúz, Estudios sobre el Panamá republicano 541).\n\nIn 1981 Torrijos died in a plane crash. Torrijos' death altered the tone of Panama's political evolution. Despite the 1983 constitutional amendments, which proscribed a political role for the military, the Panama Defense Forces (PDF), as they were then known, continued to dominate Panamanian political life. By this time, General Manuel Noriega was firmly in control of both the PDF and the civilian government.\n\nIn the 1984 elections, the candidates were \n*Nicolás Ardito Barletta Vallarino, supported by the military in a union called UNADE\n*Dr. Arnulfo Arias Madrid, for the opposition union ADO\n*ex-General Rubén Darío Paredes, who had been forced to an early retirement by Noriega, running for Partido Nacionalista Popular PNP (\"Popular Nationalist Party\")\n*Carlos Iván Zúñiga, running for Partido Acción Popular (PAPO) meaning \"Popular Action Party\"\nBarletta was declared the winner of elections that had been clearly won by Madrid. Ardito Barletta inherited a country in economic ruin and hugely indebted to the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. Amid the economic crisis and Barletta's efforts to calm the country's creditors, street protests arose, and so did military repression.\n\nMeanwhile, Noriega's regime had fostered a well-hidden criminal economy that operated as a parallel source of income for the military and their allies, providing revenues from drugs and money laundering. Toward the end of the military dictatorship, a new wave of Chinese migrants arrived on the isthmus in the hope of migrating to the United States. The smuggling of Chinese became an enormous business, with revenues of up to 200 million dollars for Noriega's regime (see Mon 167). \n\nThe military dictatorship, at that time supported by the United States, perpetrated the assassination and torture of more than one hundred Panamanians and forced at least a hundred more dissidents into exile. (see Zárate 15). Noriega also began playing a double role in Central America under the supervision of the CIA. While the Contadora group conducted diplomatic efforts to achieve peace in the region, Noriega supplied Nicaraguan Contras and other guerrillas in the region with weapons and ammunition.\n\nOn June 6, 1987, the recently retired Colonel Roberto Díaz Herrera, resentful that Noriega's broke the agreed \"Torrijos Plan\" of succession that would have made him the chief of the military after Noriega, decided to denounce the regime. He revealed details of the electoral fraud, accused Noriega of planning Torrijos's death and declared that Torrijos had received 12 million dollars from the Shah of Iran for giving the exiled Iranian leader asylum. Hd also accused Noriega of the assassination by decapitation of then opposition leader Dr. Hugo Spadafora.\n\nOn the night of June 9, 1987, the Cruzada Civilista (\"Civic Crusade\") was created and began organizing actions of civil disobedience. The Crusade called for a general strike. In response, the military suspended constitutional rights and declared a state of emergency in the country. On July 10, the Civic Crusade called for a massive demonstration that was violently repressed by the \"Dobermans\", the military's special riot control unit. That day, later known as El Viernes Negro (\"Black Friday\"), left six hundred people injured and another six hundred detained, many of whom were later tortured and raped.\n\nUnited States President Ronald Reagan began a series of sanctions against the military regime. The United States froze economic and military assistance to Panama in the summer of 1987 in response to the domestic political crisis in Panama and an attack on the U.S. Embassy. Yet these sanctions did little to overthrow Noriega but instead severely damaged Panama's economy. The sanctions hit the Panamanian population hard and caused the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) to decline almost 25% between 1987–1989 (see Acosta n.p.). \n\nOn February 5, 1988, General Manuel Antonio Noriega was accused of drug trafficking by federal juries in Tampa and Miami.\n\nIn April 1988, the U.S. President Ronald Reagan invoked the International Emergency Economic Powers Act, freezing Panamanian government assets in all U.S. organizations. In May 1989 Panamanians voted overwhelmingly for the anti-Noriega candidates. The Noriega regime promptly annulled the election and embarked on a new round of repression.\n\nU.S. invasion (1989)\n\nThe United States government said Operation Just Cause, which commenced on December 20, 1989, was necessary to safeguard the lives of U.S. citizens in Panama, defend democracy and human rights, combat drug trafficking, and secure the neutrality of the Panama Canal as required by the Torrijos–Carter Treaties (New York Times, A Transcript of President Bush's Address n.p.). Human Rights Watch wrote in the 1989 report: \"Washington turned a blind eye to abuses in Panama for many years until concern over drug trafficking prompted indictments of the general [Noriega] by two grand juries in Florida in February 1988\". The U.S. reported 23 servicemen killed and 324 wounded, with Panamanian casualties estimated around 450. Described as a surgical maneuver, the action led to civilian deaths whose estimated numbers range from 400 to 4,000 during the two weeks of armed activities. This surgical maneuver represented the largest United States military operation to that date since the end of the Vietnam War (Cajar Páez 22) The United Nations put the Panamanian civilian death toll at 500, while other sources had higher statistics. The number of U.S. civilians (and their dependents), who had worked for the Panama Canal Commission and the U.S. Military, and were killed by the Panamanian Defense Forces, has never been fully disclosed.\n\nOn December 29, the UN General Assembly approved a resolution calling the intervention in Panama a \"flagrant violation of international law and of the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the States\". The resolution was vetoed by the United States, the United Kingdom, and France. \n\nThe urban population, with many living below the poverty level, was greatly affected by the 1989 intervention. As pointed out in 1995 by a UN Technical Assistance Mission to Panama, the bombardments during the invasion caused the displacement of 20,000 people. The most heavily affected district was impoverished El Chorrillo, where several blocks of apartments were completely destroyed. El Chorrillo had been built in days of Canal construction, a series of wooden barracks which easily caught fire under the United States attack. The economic damage caused by the intervention has been estimated to be between 1.5 and 2 billion dollars. n.p. Many Panamanians supported the intervention. \n\nPost-intervention era\n\nPanama's Electoral Tribunal moved quickly to restore the civilian constitutional government, reinstated the results of the May 1989 election on December 27, 1989, and confirmed the victory of President Guillermo Endara and Vice Presidents Guillermo Ford and Ricardo Arias Calderon.\n\nDuring its five-year term, the often-fractious government struggled to meet the public's high expectations. Its new police force was a major improvement over its predecessor but was not fully able to deter crime. Ernesto Pérez Balladares was sworn in as President on September 1, 1994, after an internationally monitored election campaign.\n\nPerez Balladares ran as the candidate for a three-party coalition dominated by the Democratic Revolutionary Party (PRD), the erstwhile political arm of military dictatorships. Perez Balladares worked skillfully during the campaign to rehabilitate the PRD's image, emphasizing the party's populist Torrijos roots rather than its association with Noriega. He won the election with only 33% of the vote when the major non-PRD forces splintered into competing factions. His administration carried out economic reforms and often worked closely with the U.S. on implementation of the Canal treaties.\n\nOn September 1, 1999, Mireya Moscoso, the widow of former President Arnulfo Arias Madrid, took office after defeating PRD candidate Martin Torrijos, son of Omar Torrijos, in a free and fair election. During her administration, Moscoso attempted to strengthen social programs, especially for child and youth development, protection, and general welfare. Moscoso's administration successfully handled the Panama Canal transfer and was effective in the administration of the Canal.\n \nThe PRD's Martin Torrijos won the presidency and a legislative majority in the National Assembly in 2004. Torrijos ran his campaign on a platform of, among other pledges, a \"zero tolerance\" for corruption, a problem endemic to the Moscoso and Perez Balladares administrations. After taking office, Torrijos passed a number of laws which made the government more transparent. He formed a National Anti-Corruption Council whose members represented the highest levels of government and civil society, labor organizations, and religious leadership. In addition, many of his closest Cabinet ministers were non-political technocrats known for their support for the Torrijos government's anti-corruption aims. Despite the Torrijos administration's public stance on corruption, many high-profile cases, particularly involving political or business elites, were never acted upon.\n\nConservative supermarket magnate Ricardo Martinelli was elected to succeed Martin Torrijos with a landslide victory in the May 2009 presidential election. Mr. Martinelli's business credentials drew voters worried by slowing growth due to the world financial crisis. Standing for the four-party opposition Alliance for Change, Mr. Martinelli gained 60% of the vote, against 37% for the candidate of the governing left-wing Democratic Revolutionary Party.\n\nOn May 4, 2014, Juan Carlos Varela won the 2014 presidential election with over 39% of the votes, against the party of his former political partner Ricardo Martinelli, Cambio Democrático, and their candidate José Domingo Arias. He was sworn in on 1 July 2014.\n\nGeography\n\nPanama is located in Central America, bordering both the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, between Colombia and Costa Rica. It mostly lies between latitudes 7° and 10°N, and longitudes 77° and 83°W (a small area lies west of 83°).\n\nIts location on the Isthmus of Panama is strategic. By 2000, Panama controlled the Panama Canal which connects the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea to the North of the Pacific Ocean. Panama's total area is 74,177.3 km2.\n\nThe dominant feature of Panama's geography is the central spine of mountains and hills that forms the continental divide. The divide does not form part of the great mountain chains of North America, and only near the Colombian border are there highlands related to the Andean system of South America. The spine that forms the divide is the highly eroded arch of an uplift from the sea bottom, in which peaks were formed by volcanic intrusions.\n\nThe mountain range of the divide is called the Cordillera de Talamanca near the Costa Rican border. Farther east it becomes the Serranía de Tabasará, and the portion of it closer to the lower saddle of the isthmus, where the Panama Canal is located, is often called the Sierra de Veraguas. As a whole, the range between Costa Rica and the canal is generally referred to by geographers as the Cordillera Central.\n\nThe highest point in the country is the Volcán Barú, which rises to 3,475 metres (11,401 ft). A nearly impenetrable jungle forms the Darién Gap between Panama and Colombia where Colombian guerrilla and drug dealers are operating with hostage-taking. This and forest protection movements create a break in the Pan-American Highway, which otherwise forms a complete road from Alaska to Patagonia.\n\nPanama's wildlife holds the most diversity of all the countries in Central America. It is home to many South American species as well as North American wildlife.\n\nWaterways\n\nNearly 500 rivers lace Panama's rugged landscape. Mostly unnavigable, many originate as swift highland streams, meander in valleys, and form coastal deltas. However, the Río Chagres (Rio Chagres), located in central Panama, is one of the few wide rivers and a source of enormous hydroelectric power. The central part of the river is dammed by the Gatun Dam and forms Gatun Lake, an artificial lake that constitutes part of the Panama Canal. The lake was created between 1907 and 1913 by the building of the Gatun Dam across the Chagres River. When it was created, Gatun Lake was the largest man-made lake in the world, and the dam was the largest earth dam. The river drains northwest into the Caribbean. The Kampia and Madden Lakes (also filled from the Río Chagres) provide hydroelectricity for the area of the former Canal Zone.\n\nThe Río Chepo, another source of hydroelectric power, is one of the more than 300 rivers emptying into the Pacific. These Pacific-oriented rivers are longer and slower running than those of the Caribbean side. Their basins are also more extensive. One of the longest is the Río Tuira, which flows into the Golfo de San Miguel and is the nation's only river navigable by larger vessels.\n\nHarbors\n\nThe Caribbean coastline is marked by several good natural harbors. However, Cristóbal, at the Caribbean terminus of the canal, had the only important port facilities in the late 1980s. The numerous islands of the Archipiélago de Bocas del Toro, near the Beaches of Costa Rica, provide an extensive natural roadstead and shield the banana port of Almirante. The over 350 San Blas Islands, near Colombia, are strung out for more than 160 km along the sheltered Caribbean coastline.\n\nCurrently, the terminal ports located at each end of the Panama Canal, namely the Port of Cristobal and the Port of Balboa, are ranked second and third respectively in Latin America in terms of numbers of containers units (TEU) handled. The Port of Balboa covers 182 hectares and contains four berths for containers and two multi-purpose berths. In total, the berths are over 2,400 meters long with alongside depth of 15 meters. The Port of Balboa has 18 super post-Panamax and Panamax quay cranes and 44 gantry cranes. The Port of Balboa also contains 2,100 square meters of warehouse space. \n\nThe Ports of Cristobal (encompassing the container terminals of Panama Ports Cristobal, Manzanillo International Terminal and Colon Container Terminal) handled 2,210,720 TEU in 2009, second only to the Port of Santos, Brazil, in Latin America.\n\nExcellent deep water ports capable of accommodating large VLCC (Very Large Crude Oil Carriers) are located at Charco Azul, Chiriquí (Pacific) and Chiriquí Grande, Bocas del Toro (Atlantic) near Panama's western border with Costa Rica. The Trans-Panama pipeline, running across the isthmus with a length of 131 km, has been operating between Charco Azul and Chiriquí Grande since 1979. \n\nClimate\n\nPanama has a tropical climate. Temperatures are uniformly high—as is the relative humidity—and there is little seasonal variation. Diurnal ranges are low; on a typical dry-season day in the capital city, the early morning minimum may be 24 °C and the afternoon maximum 30 °C. The temperature seldom exceeds 32 °C for more than a short time. Temperatures on the Pacific side of the isthmus are somewhat lower than on the Caribbean, and breezes tend to rise after dusk in most parts of the country. Temperatures are markedly cooler in the higher parts of the mountain ranges, and frosts occur in the Cordillera de Talamanca in western Panama.\n\nClimatic regions are determined less on the basis of temperature than on rainfall, which varies regionally from less than 1300 mm to more than 3000 mm per year. Almost all of the rain falls during the rainy season, which is usually from April to December, but varies in length from seven to nine months. In general, rainfall is much heavier on the Caribbean than on the Pacific side of the continental divide. The annual average in Panama City is little more than half of that in Colón. Although rainy-season thunderstorms are common, the country is outside the hurricane belt.\n\nPanama's tropical environment supports an abundance of plants. Forests dominate, interrupted in places by grasslands, scrub, and crops. Although nearly 40% of Panama is still wooded, deforestation is a continuing threat to the rain-drenched woodlands. Tree cover has been reduced by more than 50% since the 1940s. Subsistence farming, widely practiced from the northeastern jungles to the southwestern grasslands, consists largely of corn, bean, and tuber plots. Mangrove swamps occur along parts of both coasts, with banana plantations occupying deltas near Costa Rica. In many places, a multi-canopied rain forest abuts the swamp on one side of the country and extends to the lower reaches of slopes in the other.\n\nPolitics\n\nPanama's politics take place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Panama is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.\n\nFor all people national elections are universal and mandatory for all citizens 18 years and older. National elections for the executive and legislative branches take place every five years. Members of the judicial branch (justices) are appointed by the head of state. Panama's National Assembly is elected by proportional representation in fixed electoral districts, so many smaller parties are represented. Presidential elections do not require a simple majority; out of the four last presidents only one, incumbent president Ricardo Martinelli, was elected with over 50% of the popular vote. \n\nPolitical culture\n\nIn December 1989 the United States invaded Panama to depose the dictator Manuel Noriega. Since the U.S. invasion, and resulting end to the 21-year military dictatorship, Panama has successfully completed four peaceful transfers of power to opposing political factions. The political landscape is dominated by two major parties and many smaller parties, many of which are driven by individual leaders more than ideologies. Former President Martin Torrijos is the son of dictator Omar Torrijos. He succeeded Mireya Moscoso, the widow of Arnulfo Arias. Panama's most recent national elections occurred on May 4, 2014 with Incumbent Vice-President Juan Carlos Varela declared the victor.\n\nForeign relations\n\nThe United States cooperates with the Panamanian government in promoting economic, political, security, and social development through U.S. and international agencies. Cultural ties between the two countries are strong, and many Panamanians come to the United States for higher education and advanced training.\n\nMilitary\n\nThe Panamanian Public Forces are the national security forces of Panama. Panama is the second country in Latin America (the other being Costa Rica) to permanently abolish standing armies. Panama maintains armed police and security forces, and small air and maritime forces. They are tasked with law enforcement and can perform limited military actions.\n\nAdministrative divisions\n\nPanama is divided into ten provinces with their respective local authorities (governors), which are divided into districts and corregimientos (townships) and has a total of ten cities. Also, there are five Comarcas (literally: \"Shires\") populated by a variety of indigenous groups.\n\n;Provinces\n* Bocas del Toro\n* Chiriquí\n* Coclé\n* Colón\n* Darién\n* Herrera\n* Los Santos\n* Panamá\n* West Panamá\n* Veraguas\n \n;Regions\n* Emberá\n* Guna Yala\n* Ngöbe-Buglé Comarca\n* Kuna de Madugandí\n* Kuna de Wargandí\n\nEconomy\n\nAccording to the CIA World Factbook, Panama had an unemployment rate of 2.7%. A food surplus was registered in August 2008. On the Human Development Index, Panama ranked 60th in 2015. In recent years, Panama's economy has experienced a boom, with growth in real gross domestic product (GDP) averaging over 10.4% in the 2006–2008 period. Panama's economy has been among the fastest growing and best managed in Latin America. The Latin Business Chronicle predicted that Panama would be the fastest growing economy in Latin America during the five years period 2010–14, matching Brazil's 10% rate. \n\nThe expansion project on the Panama Canal and the free trade agreement with the United States are expected to boost and extend economic expansion for some time.\n\nDespite Panama's upper-middle per capita GDP, it remains a country of stark contrasts. Perpetuated by dramatic educational disparities, over 25% of Panama's population lived in national poverty in 2013 and 3% of the population lives in extreme poverty, according to latest reports by the World Bank. \n\nEconomic sectors\n\nPanama's economy, because of its key geographic location, is mainly based on a well developed service sector especially commerce, tourism, and trading. The handover of the Canal and military installations by the United States has given rise to large construction projects.\n\nA project to build of a third set of locks for the Panama Canal A was overwhelmingly approved in referendum (with low voter turnout, however) on October 22, 2006. The official estimated cost of the project is US$5.25 billion. The canal is of major economic importance because it provides millions of dollars of toll revenue to the national economy and provides massive employment. Transfer of control of the Canal to the Panamanian government completed in 1999, after being controlled by the US for 85 years.\n\nCopper and gold deposits are being developed by foreign investors, to the dismay of some environmental groups, as all of the projects are located within protected areas. \n\nPanama as a tax haven \n\nSince the early 20th century, Panama has gained a reputation worldwide for being a tax haven. In 2016, the release of the Panama Papers caused a huge global financial scandal.\n\nTransportation\n\nPanama is home to Tocumen International Airport, Central America's largest airport. Additionally there are more than 20 smaller airfields in the country. See list of airports in Panama.\n\nPanama's roads, traffic and transportation systems are generally safe, though night driving is difficult and in many cases, restricted by local authorities. This usually occurs in informal settlements.[http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_994.html \"Panama: Country-specific information\"]. U.S. Department of State (March 18, 2009). Traffic in Panama moves on the right, and Panamanian law requires that drivers and passengers wear seat belts. Highways are generally well-developed for a Latin American country.\n\nCurrently, Panama has modern buses known as Metrobuses, along with a Metro line. Formerly, the system was dominated by colorfully painted diablos rojos, with some remaining. A ' is usually \"customized\" or painted with bright colors, usually depicting famous actors, politicians or singers. Panama City's streets experience frequent traffic jams due to poor planning for the now extensive private vehicle fleet.\n\nTourism\n\nTourism in Panama is rapidly growing. It has maintained its growth over the past five years due to government tax and price discounts to foreign guests and retirees. These economic incentives have caused Panama to be regarded as a relatively good place to retire in the world. Real estate developers in Panama have increased the number of tourism destinations in the past five years because of the interest for these visitor incentives. 2,200,000 tourists arrived in 2012.\n\nThe number of tourists from Europe grew by 23.1% during the first nine months of 2008. According to the Tourism Authority of Panama (ATP), from January to September, 71,154 tourists from Europe entered Panama, which is 13,373 more than figures for same period the previous year. Most of the European tourists were Spaniards (14,820), followed by Italians (13,216), French (10,174) and British (8,833). There were 6997 from Germany, the most populous country in the European Union. Europe has become one of the key markets to promote Panama as a tourist destination.\n\nIn 2012, 4.345.5 million entered into the Panamanian economy as a result of tourism. This accounted for 9.5% of gross domestic product in the country, surpassing other productive sectors.\n\nPanama enacted Law No. 80 in 2012 for the promotion of foreign investment in tourism. Law 80 replaced an older Law 8 of 1994. Law 80 provides 100% exemption from income tax and real estate taxes for 15 years, duty-free imports for construction materials and equipment for five years, and capital gains tax exemption for five years. \n\nCurrency\n\nThe Panamanian currency is officially the balboa, fixed at a rate of 1:1 with the United States dollar since Panamanian independence in 1903. In practice Panama is dollarized: US dollars are legal tender and used for all paper currency, while Panama has its own coinage. Because of the tie to US dollars, Panama has traditionally had low inflation. According to the Economic Commission for Latin American and the Caribbean, Panama's inflation in 2006 was 2.0% as measured by weight Consumer Price Index (CPI). \n\nThe balboa replaced the Colombian peso in 1904 after Panama's independence. Balboa banknotes were printed in 1941 by President Arnulfo Arias. They were recalled several days later, giving them the name \"The Seven Day Dollar\". The notes were burned after the seven days but occasionally balboa notes can be found in collections. These were the only banknotes ever issued by Panama and U.S. notes have circulated both before and since.\n\nInternational trade\n\nThe high levels of Panamanian trade are in large part from the Colón Free Trade Zone, the largest free trade zone in the Western Hemisphere. Last year the zone accounted for 92% of Panama's exports and 64% of its imports, according to an analysis of figures from the Colon zone management and estimates of Panama's trade by the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean. Panama's economy is also very much supported by the trade and export of coffee and other agricultural products.\n\nThe Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) between the governments of the United States and Panama was signed on October 27, 1982. The treaty protects US investment and assists Panama in its efforts to develop its economy by creating conditions more favorable for US private investment and thereby strengthening the development of its private sector. The BIT was the first such treaty signed by the US in the Western Hemisphere. A Panama - United States Trade Promotion Agreement (TPA) was signed in 2007, approved by Panama on July 11, 2007 and by US President Obama on October 21, 2011, and the agreement entered into force on October 31, 2012. \n\nSociety\n\nDemographics\n\nPanama recorded a population of 3,405,813 in its 2010 census. The proportion of the population aged below 15 in 2010 was 29%. 64.5% of the population were aged between 15 and 65, with 6.6% of the population being 65 years or older. \n\nMore than half the population lives in the Panama City–Colón metropolitan corridor, which spans several cities. Panama's urban population exceeds 70%, making Panama's population the most urbanized in Central America. \n\nEthnic groups\n\nIn 2010 the population was 65% Mestizo (mixed white, Native American), 12.3% Native Americans, 9.2% Black/mulattoes and 6.7% White.\n\nEthnic groups in Panama include Mestizo people, who are a mix of European and native ancestry. Black, or Afro-Panamanians account for 15-20% of the population. Most Afro-Panamanians live on the Panama-Colón metropolitan area, the Darien Province, La Palma, and Bocas Del Toro. Neighborhoods in Panama City that have large black populations include; Curundu, El Chorrillo, Rio Abajo, San Joaquín, El Marañón, San Miguelito, Colón, and Santa Ana. Black Panamanians are descendents of African slaves brought to the Americas on the 1500 Atlantic Slave Trade. The second wave of black people brought to Panama came from the Caribbean during the construction of the Panama Canal. Panama also has a considerable Chinese and Indian (India) population. They were brought to work on the canal during its construction. Most Chinese-Panamanians reside in the province of Chiriquí. Europeans and white-Panamanians are a minority in Panama. They are descendents of the people who colonized Panama, worked on the canal, and who moved to the country. Panama is also home to a small Arab community that have Mosques to practice Islam.\n\nThe Amerindian population includes seven ethnic groups: the Ngäbe, Kuna (Guna), Emberá, Buglé, Wounaan, Naso Tjerdi (Teribe), and Bri Bri. \n\nLanguages\n\nSpanish is the official and dominant language. The Spanish spoken in Panama is known as Panamanian Spanish. About 93% of the population speak Spanish as their first language, though many citizens who hold jobs at international levels, or who are a part of business corporations speak both English and Spanish. Native languages, such as Ngäbere are spoken throughout the country, mostly in their native grounds. Over 400,000 Panamanians hold their native languages and customs. Some new statistics show that as second language, English is spoken by 8%, French by 4% and Arabic by 1%.\n\nLargest cities\n\nThese are the 10 largest Panamanian cities and towns. Most of Panama's largest cities are part of the Panama City Metropolitan Area.\n\nReligion\n\nThe government of Panama does not collect statistics on the religious affiliation of citizens, but various sources estimate that 75% to 85% of the population identifies itself as Roman Catholic and 15%–25% as Protestant. The Bahá'í Faith community of Panama is estimated at 2.00% of the national population, or about 60,000 including about 10% of the Guaymí population. \n\nThe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) claim more than 40,000 members. Smaller religious groups include Seventh-day Adventists, Jehovah's Witnesses, Episcopalians with between 7,000 and 10,000 members, Jewish and Muslim communities with approximately 10,000 members each, Hindus, Buddhists, and other Christians. Indigenous religions include Ibeorgun (among Kuna) and Mamatata (among Ngobe). There are also a small number of Rastafarians.\n\nEducation\n\nOriginally, during the 16th century, education in Panama was provided by Jesuit priests. Public education, as a national and governmental institution, began in 1903. The principles underlying this early education system were that children should receive different types of education in accordance with their social class and therefore the position they were expected to occupy in society.\n\nPublic education began in Panama soon after the separation from Colombia in 1903. The first efforts were guided by an extremely paternalistic view of the goals of education, as evidenced in comments made in a 1913 meeting of the First Panamanian Educational Assembly, \"The cultural heritage given to the child should be determined by the social position he will or should occupy. For this reason education should be different in accordance with the social class to which the student should be related.\" This elitist focus changed rapidly under United States influence.\n\nIn 2010, it was estimated that 94.1% of the population was literate (94.7% of males and 93.5% of females). Education in Panama is compulsory for the children of age group between 6 and 18. In recent decades, school enrollment at all levels, but especially at upper levels, has increased significantly. Panama used to participate in the PISA exams but due to debts and unsatisfactory exam results is postponing participation until 2018. \n\nCulture\n\nThe culture of Panama derived from European music, art and traditions brought over by the Spanish to Panama. Hegemonic forces have created hybrid forms of this by blending African and Native American culture with European culture. For example, the tamborito is a Spanish dance that was blended with African rhythms, themes and dance moves. \n\nDance is a symbol of the diverse cultures that have coupled in Panama. The local folklore can be experienced through a multitude of festivals, dances and traditions that have been handed down from generation to generation. Local cities host live reggae en español, reggaeton, haitiano (compas), jazz, blues, salsa, reggae, and rock music performances.\n\nHandicraft\n\nOutside Panama City, regional festivals take place throughout the year featuring local musicians and dancers. Panama's blended culture is reflected in traditional products, such as woodcarvings, ceremonial masks and pottery, as well as in Panama's architecture, cuisine and festivals. In earlier times, baskets were woven for utilitarian uses, but now many villages rely almost exclusively on the baskets they produce for tourists.\n\nAn example of undisturbed, unique culture in Panama is that of the Guna who are known for molas. Mola is the Guna word for blouse, but the term mola has come to mean the elaborate embroidered panels made by Guna women, that make up the front and back of a Guna woman's blouse. They are several layers of cloth, varying in color, that are loosely stitched together, made using a reverse appliqué process.\n\nHolidays and festivities\n\nThe Christmas parade, known as El desfile de Navidad, is celebrated in the capital, Panama City. This holiday is celebrated on December 25. The floats in the parade are decorated with the Panamanian colors, and the women dress in dresses called Pollera while the men dress in the traditional Montuno. In addition, the marching band in the parade, consisting of drummers, keeps the crowds entertained. In the city, a big Christmas tree is lit with Christmas lights, and everybody surrounds the tree and sings Christmas carols. \n\nTraditional cuisine\n\nPanamanian Cuisine is a mix of African, Spanish, and Native American techniques, dishes, and ingredients, reflecting its diverse population. Since Panama is a land bridge between two continents, it has a large variety of tropical fruits, vegetables and herbs that are used in native cooking.\n\nTypical Panamanian foods are mild-flavored, without the pungency of some of Panama's Latin American and Caribbean neighbors. Common ingredients are maize, rice, wheat flour, plantains, yuca (cassava), beef, chicken, pork and seafood.\n\nTraditional clothing\n\nPanamanian men's traditional clothing consists of white cotton shirts, trousers and woven straw hat.\n\nThe traditional women's clothing is the pollera. It originated in Spain in the 16th century, and by the early 1800s it was a typical in Panama, worn by women servants, especially wet nurses (De Zarate 5). Later, it was adopted by upper-class women.\n\nA pollera is made of \"cambric\" or \"fine linen\" (Baker 177). It is white, and is usually about 13 yards of material.\n\nThe original pollera consists of a ruffled blouse worn off the shoulders and a skirt is on the waistline with gold buttons. The skirt is also ruffled, so that when it is lifted up, it looks like a peacock's tail or a mantilla fan. The designs on the skirt and blouse are usually flowers or birds. Two large matching pom poms (mota) are on the front and back, four ribbons hang from the front and back on the waist line, five gold chains (caberstrillos) hang from the neck to the waist, a gold cross or medallion on a black ribbon is worn as a choker, and a silk purse is worn on the waistline. Earrings (zaricillos) are usually gold or coral. Slippers usually match the color of the pollera. Hair is usually worn in a bun, held by three large gold combs that have pearls (tembleques) worn like a crown. Quality pollera can cost up to $10,000, and may take a year to complete.\n\nToday, there are different types of polleras; the pollera de gala consists of a short-sleeved ruffle skirt blouse, two full-length skirts and a petticoat. Girls wear tembleques in their hair. Gold coins and jewelry are added to the outfit. The pollera montuna is a daily dress, with a blouse, a skirt with a solid color, a single gold chain, and pendant earrings and a natural flower in the hair. Instead of an off-the-shoulder blouse is a fitted white jacket with, shoulder pleats, and a flared hem. \n\nTraditional clothing in Panama can be worn in parades, where the females and males do a traditional dance. Females do a gentle sway and twirl their skirts, while the men hold their hats in their hands and dance behind the females.\n\nLiterature\n\nAccording to Professor Rodrigo Miró, the first story about Panama was written by Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés and published as part of the Historia General y Natural de Las Indias in 1535. Some poets and novelists born in Panamá are:\n\nSports\n\nThe U.S. influence in Panama can be seen in the country's sports. Baseball is Panama's national sport and the country has regional teams and a national team that represents it in international events. At least 140 Panamanian players have played professional baseball in the United States, more than any other Central American country. Notable players include Bruce Chen, Rod Carew, Mariano Rivera, Carlos Lee, Manny Sanguillén, and Carlos Ruiz.\n\nIn boxing, four Panamanians are in the International Boxing Hall of Fame: Roberto Durán, Eusebio Pedroza, Ismael Laguna and Panama Al Brown. Panama presently has two reigning world boxing champions: Guillermo Jones and Anselmo Moreno.\n\nSince the finals of the 20th century, Soccer is becoming a popular sport for Panamanians, the progress of the national league and the national team are notorious, with legendary players as Luis Ernesto Tapia, Rommel Fernández, the Dely Valdes Brothers: Armando, Julio and Jorge; and recent players as Jaime Penedo, Felipe Baloy, Luis Tejada, Blas Perez, Roman Torres and Harold Cummings.\n\nBasketball is popular in Panama. There are regional teams as well as a squad that competes internationally. Two of Panama's prominent basketball players are Rolando Blackman, a four-time NBA All-Star, and Kevin Daley, a 10-year captain and showman of the Harlem Globetrotters.\n\nOther popular sports include volleyball, taekwondo, golf, and tennis. A long-distance hiking trail called the [http://www.transpanama.org/ TransPanama Trail] is being built from Colombia to Costa Rica.\n\nOther non-traditional sports in the country have had great importance such as the triathlon that has captured the attention of many athletes nationwide and the country has hosted international competitions. Flag football has also been growing in popularity in both men and women and with international participation in world of this discipline being among the best teams in the world, the sport was introduced by Americans residing in the Canal Zone for veterans and retirees who even had a festival called the Turkey Ball. Other popular sports are American football, rugby, hockey, softball and other amateur sports including skateboarding, BMX and surfing, because the many beaches of Panama such as Santa Catalina and Venao that have hosted events the likes of ISA World Surfing Games.\n\nLong jumper Irving Saladino became the first Panamanian Olympic gold medalist in 2008. In 2012 eight different athletes represented Panama in the London 2012 Olympics: Irving Saladino in the long jump, Alonso Edward and Andrea Ferris in track and field, Diego Castillo in swimming, and the youngest on the team, Carolena Carstens who was 16 competing in taekwondo. She was the first representative to compete for Panama in that sport.\n\nClimate change \n\nPanama was one of the few countries that didn't enter an INDC at COP21." ] }

{ "description": [ "... Panama became its own country, and the United States ... to allow the US to build a canal. The treaty granted ... Panama Canal over to Panama. US ...", "... Panama to control canal ... The Panama Canal Treaty also ... agreement was reached between the United States and Panama in 1977. Signed on ..." ], "filename": [ "64/64_2767.txt", "6/6_2770.txt" ], "rank": [ 5, 8 ], "title": [ "Panama Canal - The Hacking Family", "Panama to control canal - Sep 07, 1977 - HISTORY.com" ], "url": [ "http://www.hackingfamily.com/Chris/School/panama_canal_control.htm", "http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/panama-to-control-canal" ], "search_context": [ "Panama Canal\nOn December 31, 1999, the Panama Canal became operated entirely by Panama for the first time in history, though over the proceeding 20 years, the United States had been slowly turning it over to them. The canal has long been a cause of conflict between Panama and the US. The changeover was very controversial, and the question is raised: Should the Panama Canal have remained in the control of the US? First off, it is necessary to have some understanding of the canal�s history. The US built the canal and maintained it well for 85 years after construction. However, Panama never actually allowed the Canal Zone to become part of the US, and although a fee was paid to the Panamanian government for the use of the canal, the government receives far more from the actual ownership. On the other hand, the people of Colon and Panama City, which benefited directly and indirectly from US presence, did not want the US to leave. Furthermore, there is the question of whether the US or Panama operate this important resource better. \nThe French were the first to try and build a canal across South America, starting in 1882. Before they could start work, they needed to secure a concession from the Columbian government, which controlled Panama at that time. However, their project failed, thousands of workers died (mainly from disease,) and the company went bankrupt six years later, in 1888. A Frenchman named Philippe Bunau-Varilla managed to keep the effort from collapsing entirely, and looked for another party to take up the concession. The United States, which was also interested in building a canal, negotiated to buy the concession from the French. However, Columbia refused the sale.\nMeanwhile, nationalism was stirring in Panama. An agreement was made with the US government that if the US would help Panama gain their independence, they would allow the canal to be built. In 1903, Panama became its own country, and the United States immediately recognized the new government. Columbia sent troops to reclaim Panama, but US warships prevented them from landing.\nAfter the United States helped Panama win its independence, a treaty was immediately negotiated to allow the US to build a canal. The treaty granted considerably more to the US then the failed agreement with Columbia had, including rights to use military within Panama and US control of the Canal Zone in perpetuity. In essence, the Canal Zone would be part of the US in all but name. However, the man who signed for the Panamanians, the Frenchman Bunau-Varilla, was not part of the official delegation from the new Panamanian government, and some Panamanians felt that the rights granted to the US in the treaty were excessive.\nConstruction of the current Panama Canal began in 1904. Casualties among the workers were much lower due to extensive projects to control yellow fever and malaria, and the canal was completed in ten years, three years ahead of schedule. However, the cost was a phenomenal $350 million, the most expensive operation the US government had ever undertaken. In addition, Panama was paid ten million dollars, plus another quarter million each year, for use of the territory. This was a very large amount of money at the time, and the fees would be raised in 1936 and again in 1955. During construction, the US also established stores, schools, and military bases around the canal.\nAs agreed in the 1903 treaty, the United States Military had been allowed to take action within Panama to ensure the safety of the canal. However, this meant that Panamanians had no military of the own, and sometimes felt that the US interfered with Panamanian interests. In 1936, a new treaty was signed that increased the amount paid the Panamanian government for the use of the land, and limited the area in which the US could use its military to within the Canal Zone.\nThis increased Panamanian independence and caused the growth of their armed forces. However, in 1941, the National Police, Panama�s closest thing to a military at the time, overthrew the republican government and took over. They made the police more like a military, and renamed it the National Guard. In 1968, the government was overthrown again, and a military junta was created. They dissolved the National Assembly, suspended the constitution, censored the press, and used the National Guard to suppress opposition. On the other hand, they started massive modernization projects in Panama, especially Panama City. Although this caused a large national debt, it won much popular support.\nDespite the 1936 and 1955 treaty modifications, Panama still chafed over the United States controlling the canal. Rioting and conflicts with US personnel caused major problems for relations between the two countries. In 1977, a new treaty was proposed which would phase out US control, and turn the Panama Canal over to Panama. US workers would train Panamanian replacements, Panama would have a hand in the government of the canal, and Panama would gain control of more than half of the land of the Canal Zone. The rest, renamed the Panama Canal Area, would remain under the US until the changeover was completed at the end of 1999. However, it would be subject to the Panamanian legal system. The treaty was modified in 1978, to maintain permission for the US to use its military in defense of the canal. However, over the next two decades, military bases in the Canal Zone and all US duties for the canal would come under Panamanian control. This new treaty finally went into effect in 1979.\nTwo years after the treaty was signed, the leader of the Panamanian military junta was killed in a plane crash. The Panamanian government then came under the effectively complete control of Manuel Noriega. Noriega, a former informer for the CIA, acted as the power behind the throne in Panama for a while, selecting and removing presidents. During this time, Panamanian relations with the US became worse and worse. Noriega was found to be involved in drug deals, organized crime, and possible dealings with Cuba. When he was indicted in 1988, the US insisted that he be removed. Trade sanctions were imposed, and the US stopped its payments for the canal, which had reached ten million dollars per year plus a share of all fees collected after the two treaty modifications. Although the current president in Panama tried to have Noriega removed, Noriega dismissed him instead. When the 1989 elections went strongly against Noriega�s candidate, however, he declared them null and void and made himself president. He immediately declared that Panama was at war with the US, and an unarmed US soldier was killed by Panamanian troops the next day.\nThe United States response, termed Operation Just Cause, was quick and effective. A mere five days after Noriega�s declaration, the US invaded Panama City. More than 27,000 troops were involved including about 13,000 already stationed in Panama. They removed Noriega from power, captured him, and sent him to Florida to stand trial. Within a month of his becoming President, Noriega was in jail. However, considerable damage was done to Panama City, and despite the name, many people worldwide felt that Operation Just Cause was a misuse of the US armed forces, and an unjustified attack on a smaller country.\nAfter the invasion, the winner of the 1989 elections became president for Panama. However, he never achieved much real power, and although Panama began to recover from its time under military rule, the United States had effective control of the government. The military was turned back into a civilian police force, and a massive aid project (nearly one billion dollars) was set up for Panama. Surprisingly, in the next elections, the winner was the candidate supported by Noriega�s former party. A banker trained in the US, he brought much wealth and foreign investment to Panama. At the same time, the Panama Canal was slowly transferring to Panamanian control, and most of the Americans were leaving.\nIn 1999, Panama�s first woman president and current leader was elected. At the end of the year, control over the Canal Zone transferred entirely to Panama, which for the first time in 95 years controlled all of its territory. Although some US workers remained on the canal (part of the treaty was that no workers would lose their jobs), Panama had complete control over the canal and collected all money from it.\nThe interesting thing is that the people of Colon and Panama City (the country�s two largest cities) did not want the United States to leave. When the canal was operated by the US, the Canal Zone and the areas around it were like a small part of the US. US schools were available to the children of Panamanians. US jobs were available to Panamanians, who could make far more working on the canal than an equivalently skilled job elsewhere in Panama, and they could have job security and benefits too. The people who lived alongside the Canal Zone were glad of the US influence.\nThe US influence was not all good for Panama, however. The US claimed extensive amounts of land, limiting the expansion of Panama City and Colon, both of which would likely have expanded well into the area the US claimed. Panamanians were paid well by their standards, but the US citizens working on the canal often made much more. Workers of other nationalities and cultures, such as West Indians and African Americans, descended from those who had helped build the canal, changed Panamanian culture and took jobs that might otherwise have gone to Panamanians. The disadvantages of US culture, such as leftover segregation from early in the century, were also present in the Canal Zone.\nThe fact remains that although much of Panama, and certainly the Panamanian government, wanted the canal under Panamanian control and the United States out of the Canal Zone, the people who lived and worked there felt differently. However, this is not necessarily an indication that the US should take back complete control. Historically, the Panamanian students and workers around the canal felt that Panamanians should control the canal. What changed their minds?\nThe other question is: Who managed the canal better? It is too soon to be sure, and accurate statistics are difficult to find. However, people who have worked in small jobs on the canal under both administrations supported the US by an overwhelming majority. They pointed to how well the canal ran in the years before the US left, and said that the canal was at its best then.\nPanama is blamed for many things that go wrong on the canal, such as delays, increase in fees, and accidents and collisions, though the same things sometimes happened under the US. For example, while transit prices have been steeply increasing, they increased under the US as well. Some problems, however, are likely a result of policy changes. The US put yachts and other small boats through the canal together, not making them share locks with large ships. This severely reduced the risk of damage to such small craft, but meant that the canal collected less money when the smaller boats went through.\nThe use of the budget is another contended point. Although the US made sure that all of the workers currently employed at the time of the changeover would keep their jobs and pay, there have been almost no new workers hired, and few raises for current workers. Working on the canal is still a good job for a Panamanian, but it is more difficult to get such a job than it was under the US. Panama tried to hire new workers at Panamanian wages, but the current workers threatened to strike if any employees were not paid US wages. Panama is also spending an immense amount of money to purchase new guidance vehicles for large ships, despite the fact that the canal has plenty of them at this time. Beyond that, the canal, which is non-profit, sends about 200 million dollars to the Panamanian government each year. Many of the canal workers feel that more of the money should be spent to hire more workers. They also claim that most of the money that goes to the government is not used in a way that helps the Panamanian people.\nOf course, the money the government makes from the canal now is far more than what the US was paying. Panama�s economy was very weak for a long time, and although it started recovering after Noriega was removed, more money is certainly welcome. The canal is a constant source of income, located right on Panamanian land.\nWho has the better claim on the canal? The canal is located within Panama, on Panamanian territory. However, Panamanians could not have built the canal themselves, and Panama might have taken much longer to achieve independence without the help of the US. The US invested an immense amount of money and effort into building and defending the canal. However, even with the payments sent to Panama, the canal has long since paid back what it cost. The US maintained and operated the canal for many years, and when the US left, many of the workers wished they hadn�t. On the other hand, just a few decades earlier, they had all been trying to get Panama to take over the canal. \nIt seems that the best time for the Panama Canal was when both the US and Panama operated it together. Both governments made money from the canal, and while most of the workforce was Panamanian, they were treated like US workers. Relations between the US and Panama were on the rise for the first time in many years, and many of the advantages of living in the US were available to Panamanians near the canal. Unlike throughout much of Panamanian history, there was very little complaining from the Panamanians around the canal. The only thing that would have made them change their minds in recent years is that, during the time between 1979 and 1999, the US and Panama jointly operated the canal. Living in the Canal Zone was like living in a small part of the US and working on the canal was like having a job in the US, but Panama was responsible for a lot of the canal�s operation and made a lot of money from it. In other words, it was the best of both options.", "Panama to control canal - Sep 07, 1977 - HISTORY.com\nPanama to control canal\nPublisher\nA+E Networks\nIn Washington, President Jimmy Carter and Panamanian dictator Omar Torrijos sign a treaty agreeing to transfer control of the Panama Canal from the United States to Panama at the end of the 20th century. The Panama Canal Treaty also authorized the immediate abolishment of the Canal Zone, a 10-mile-wide, 40-mile-long U.S.-controlled area that bisected the Republic of Panama. Many in Congress opposed giving up control of the Panama Canal–an enduring symbol of U.S. power and technological prowess–but America’s colonial-type administration of the strategic waterway had long irritated Panamanians and other Latin Americans.\nThe rush of settlers to California and Oregon in the mid 19th century was the initial impetus of the U.S. desire to build an artificial waterway across Central America. In 1855, the United States completed a railroad across the Isthmus of Panama (then part of Colombia), prompting various parties to propose canal-building plans. Ultimately, Colombia awarded the rights to build the canal to Ferdinand de Lesseps, the French entrepreneur who had completed the Suez Canal in 1869. Construction on a sea-level canal began in 1881, but inadequate planning, disease among the workers, and financial problems drove Lesseps’ company into bankruptcy in 1889. Three years later, Philippe-Jean Bunau-Varilla, a former chief engineer of the canal works and a French citizen, acquired the assets of the defunct French company.\nBy the turn of the century, sole possession of the proposed canal became a military and economic imperative to the United States, which had acquired an overseas empire at the end of the Spanish-American War and sought the ability to move warships and commerce quickly between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. In 1902, the U.S. Congress authorized purchase of the French canal company (pending a treaty with Colombia) and allocated funding for the canal’s construction. In 1903, the Hay-Herran Treaty was signed with Columbia, granting the United States use of the territory in exchange for financial compensation. The U.S. Senate ratified the treaty, but the Colombian Senate, fearing a loss of sovereignty, refused.\nIn response, President Theodore Roosevelt gave tacit approval to a Panamanian independence movement, which was engineered in large part by Philippe-Jean Bunau-Varilla and his canal company. On November 3, 1903, a faction of Panamanians issued a declaration of independence from Colombia. The U.S.-administered railroad removed its trains from the northern terminus of ColÓn, thus stranding Colombian troops sent to crush the rebellion. Other Colombian forces were discouraged from marching on Panama by the arrival of the U.S. warship Nashville.\nOn November 6, the United States recognized the Republic of Panama, and on November 18 the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty was signed with Panama, granting the United States exclusive and permanent possession of the Panama Canal Zone. In exchange, Panama received $10 million and an annuity of $250,000 beginning nine years later. The treaty was negotiated by U.S. Secretary of State John Hay and Bunau-Varilla, who had been given plenipotentiary powers to negotiate on behalf of Panama. Almost immediately, the treaty was condemned by many Panamanians as an infringement on their country’s new national sovereignty.\nIn 1906, American engineers decided on the construction of a lock canal, and the next three years were spent developing construction facilities and eradicating tropical diseases in the area. In 1909, construction proper began. In one of the largest construction projects of all time, U.S. engineers moved nearly 240 million cubic yards of earth and spent close to $400 million in constructing the 40-mile-long canal (or 51 miles long, if the deepened seabed on both ends of the canal is taken into account). On August 15, 1914, the Panama Canal was inaugurated with the passage of the U.S. vessel Ancon, a cargo and passenger ship.\nDuring the next seven decades, the United States made a series of concessions to Panama, including regular increases in annual payments, the building of a $20 million bridge across the canal, and equal pay and working conditions for Panamanian and U.S. workers in the Canal Zone. The basic provisions of the 1903 treaty, specifically the right of the United States to control and operate the canal, remained unchanged until the late 1970s. In the 1960s, Panamanians repeatedly rioted in the Canal Zone over the refusal of U.S. authorities to fly the Panamanian flag and other nationalist issues. After U.S. troops crushed one such riot in 1964, Panama temporarily broke off diplomatic relations with the United States.\nAfter years of negotiations for a new Panama Canal treaty, agreement was reached between the United States and Panama in 1977. Signed on September 7, 1977, the treaty recognized Panama as the territorial sovereign in the Canal Zone but gave the United States the right to continue operating the canal until December 31, 1999. Despite considerable opposition in the U.S. Senate, the treaty was approved by a one-vote margin in September 1978. It went into effect in October 1979, and the canal came under the control of the Panama Canal Commission, an agency of five Americans and four Panamanians.\nOn September 7, 1977, President Carter had also signed the Neutrality Treaty with Torrijos, which guaranteed the permanent neutrality of the canal and gave the United States the right to use military force, if necessary, to keep the canal open. This treaty was used as rationale for the 1989 U.S. invasion of Panama, which the saw the overthrow of Panamanian dictator Manuel Noriega, who had threatened to prematurely seize control of the canal after being indicted in the United States on drug charges.\nDemocratic rule was restored in Panama in the 1990s, and at noon on December 31, 1999, the Panama Canal was peacefully turned over to Panama. In order to avoid conflict with end-of-the-millennium celebrations, formal ceremonies marking the event were held on December 14. Former president Jimmy Carter represented the United States at the ceremony. After exchanging diplomatic notes with Panamanian President Mireya Moscoso, Carter simply told her, “It’s yours.”\nRelated Videos" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Prince_(musician).txt" ], "title": [ "Prince (musician)" ], "wiki_context": [ "Prince Rogers Nelson (June 7, 1958 – April 21, 2016) was an American singer, songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, record producer, and actor. He was a musical innovator and known for his eclectic work, flamboyant stage presence, extravagant dress and makeup, and wide vocal range. His music integrates a wide variety of styles, including funk, rock, R&B, new wave, soul, psychedelia, and pop. He has sold over 100 million records worldwide, making him one of the best-selling artists of all time. He won seven Grammy Awards, a Golden Globe Award, and an Academy Award for the film Purple Rain. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2004, the first year of his eligibility. Rolling Stone ranked Prince at number 27 on its list of 100 Greatest Artists—\"the most influential artists of the rock & roll era\". \n\nPrince was born in Minneapolis and developed an interest in music as a young child. He signed a recording contract with Warner Bros. at the age of 18, and released his debut album For You in 1978. His 1979 album Prince went platinum, and his next three records—Dirty Mind (1980), Controversy (1981), and 1999 (1982)—continued his success, showcasing Prince's prominently sexual lyrics and blending of funk, dance, and rock music. In 1984, he began referring to his backup band as the Revolution and released Purple Rain, which served as the soundtrack to his eponymous 1984 film debut and was met with widespread acclaim. After releasing the albums Around the World in a Day (1985) and Parade (1986), The Revolution disbanded, and Prince released the double album Sign o' the Times (1987) as a solo artist. He released three more solo albums before debuting the New Power Generation band in 1991.\n\nIn 1993, while in a contractual dispute with Warner Bros., he changed his stage name to , an unpronounceable symbol also known as the \"Love Symbol\", and began releasing new albums at a faster pace to remove himself from contractual obligations. He released five records between 1994 and 1996 before signing with Arista Records in 1998. In 2000, he began referring to himself as \"Prince\" again. He released 16 albums after that, including The Rainbow Children (2001). His final album, Hit n Run Phase Two, was first released on the Tidal streaming service on December 12, 2015. Prince died from a fentanyl overdose at his Paisley Park recording studio and home in Chanhassen, Minnesota, on April 21, 2016, at the age of 57.\n\nEarly life \n\nPrince Rogers Nelson was born in Minneapolis, the son of Mattie Della (née Shaw; 1933–2002) and John Lewis Nelson (1916–2001). His parents were both African-American and his family ancestry is centered in Louisiana; all four of his grandparents came from that state. Prince's father was a pianist and songwriter, and his mother was a jazz singer. Prince was named after his father, whose stage name was Prince Rogers, and who performed with a jazz group called the Prince Rogers Trio. In a 1991 interview with A Current Affair, Prince's father said, \"I named my son Prince because I wanted him to do everything I wanted to do\". Prince's childhood nickname was Skipper. Prince has said he was \"born epileptic\" and \"used to have seizures\" when he was young. He also said: \"My mother told me one day I walked in to her and said, 'Mom, I'm not going to be sick anymore,' and she said, 'Why?' and I said, 'Because an angel told me so'.\" \n\nPrince's sister Tika Evene (usually called Tyka) was born in 1960. Both siblings developed a keen interest in music, and this was encouraged by their father. Prince wrote his first tune, \"Funk Machine\", on his father's piano when he was seven. When Prince was 10, his parents separated. Prince subsequently repeatedly switched homes, sometimes living with his father and sometimes with his mother and stepfather. He then moved into the home of neighbors named Anderson and befriended their son Andre Anderson, who later became known as André Cymone. \n\nPrince attended Minneapolis' Bryant Junior High and then Central High School, where he played football, basketball, and baseball. He played on Central's junior varsity basketball team, and continued to play basketball recreationally as an adult. Prince met Jimmy Jam in 1973 in junior high, and impressed him during music class with his musical talent, his early mastery of a wide range of instruments, and his work ethic. \n\nCareer\n\n1975–84: Beginnings and breakthrough\n\nIn 1975, Pepe Willie, the husband of Prince's cousin, Shauntel, formed the band 94 East with Marcy Ingvoldstad and Kristie Lazenberry, hiring André Cymone and Prince to record tracks. Willie wrote the songs, and Prince contributed guitar tracks, and Prince and Willie co-wrote the 94 East song, \"Just Another Sucker\". The band recorded tracks which later became the album Minneapolis Genius – The Historic 1977 Recordings.\n\nIn 1976, Prince created a demo tape with producer Chris Moon, in Moon's Minneapolis studio. Unable to secure a recording contract, Moon brought the tape to Owen Husney, a Minneapolis businessman, who signed Prince, age 17, to a management contract, and helped him create a demo at Sound 80 Studios in Minneapolis (with producer/engineer David Z). The demo recording, along with a press kit produced at Husney's ad agency, resulted in interest from several record companies including Warner Bros. Records, A&M Records, and Columbia Records. \n\nWith the help of Husney, Prince signed a recording contract with Warner Bros. The record company agreed to give Prince creative control for three albums and ownership of the publishing rights. Husney and Prince then left Minneapolis and moved to Sausalito, California, where Prince's first album, For You, was recorded at Record Plant Studios. The album was mixed in Los Angeles and released on April 7, 1978. According to the For You album notes, Prince wrote, produced, arranged, composed, and played all 27 instruments on the recording, except for the song \"Soft and Wet\", whose lyrics were co-written by Moon. The cost of recording the album was twice Prince's initial advance. Prince used the Prince's Music Co. to publish his songs. \"Soft and Wet\" reached No. 12 on the Hot Soul Singles chart and No. 92 on the Billboard Hot 100. The song \"Just as Long as We're Together\" reached No. 91 on the Hot Soul Singles chart.\n\nIn 1979, Prince created a band with André Cymone on bass, Dez Dickerson on guitar, Gayle Chapman and Doctor Fink on keyboards, and Bobby Z. on drums. Their first show was at the Capri Theater on January 5, 1979. Warner Bros. executives attended the show but decided that Prince and the band needed more time to develop his music. In October 1979, Prince released the album, Prince, which was No. 4 on the Billboard Top R&B/Black Albums charts and No. 22 on the Billboard 200, and went platinum. It contained two R&B hits: \"Why You Wanna Treat Me So Bad?\" and \"I Wanna Be Your Lover\". \"I Wanna Be Your Lover\" sold over a million copies, and reached No. 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 and No. 1 for two weeks on the Hot Soul Singles chart. Prince performed both these songs on January 26, 1980, on American Bandstand. On this album, Prince used Ecnirp Music – BMI. \n\nIn 1980, Prince released the album Dirty Mind, which contained sexually explicit material, including the title song, \"Head\", and the song \"Sister\", and was described by Stephen Thomas Erlewine as a \"stunning, audacious amalgam of funk, new wave, R&B, and pop, fueled by grinningly salacious sex and the desire to shock.\" Recorded in Prince's own studio, this album was certified gold, and the single \"Uptown\" reached No. 5 on the Billboard Dance chart and No. 5 on the Hot Soul Singles charts. Prince was also the opening act for Rick James' 1980 Fire It Up tour.\n\nIn February 1981, Prince made his first appearance on Saturday Night Live, performing \"Partyup\". In October 1981, Prince released the album, Controversy. He played several dates in support of it, at first as one of the opening acts for the Rolling Stones, on their US tour. He began 1982 with a small tour of college towns where he was the headlining act. The songs on Controversy were published by Controversy Music  – ASCAP, a practice he continued until the Emancipation album in 1996. By 2002, MTV News noted that \"[n]ow all of his titles, liner notes and Web postings are written in his own shorthand spelling, as seen on 1999's Rave Un2 the Joy Fantastic, which featured 'Hot Wit U.'\" \n\nIn 1981, Prince formed a side project band called the Time. The band released four albums between 1981 and 1990, with Prince writing and performing most of the instrumentation and backing vocals (sometimes credited under the pseudonyms \"Jamie Starr\" or \"The Starr Company\"), with lead vocals by Morris Day. In late 1982, Prince released a double album, 1999, which sold over three million copies. The title track was a protest against nuclear proliferation and became Prince's first top 10 hit in countries outside the US. Prince's \"Little Red Corvette\" was one of the first two videos by black artists (along with Michael Jackson's \"Billie Jean\") played in heavy rotation on MTV, which had been perceived as against \"black music\" until CBS President Walter Yetnikoff threatened to pull all CBS videos. The song \"Delirious\" also placed in the top ten on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. \"International Lover\" earned Prince his first Grammy Award nomination at the 26th Annual Grammy Awards.\n\n1984–87: The Revolution, Purple Rain, and subsequent releases\n\nDuring this period Prince referred to his band as the Revolution. The band's name was also printed, in reverse, on the cover of 1999 inside the letter \"I\" of the word \"Prince\". The band consisted of Lisa Coleman and Doctor Fink on keyboards, Bobby Z. on drums, Brown Mark on bass, and Dez Dickerson on guitar. Jill Jones, a backing singer, was also part of the lineup for the 1999 album and tour. Following the 1999 Tour, Dickerson left the group for religious reasons. In the book Possessed: The Rise and Fall of Prince (2003), author Alex Hahn says that Dickerson was reluctant to sign a three-year contract and wanted to pursue other musical ventures. Dickerson was replaced by Coleman's friend Wendy Melvoin. At first the band was used sparsely in the studio, but this gradually changed during the mid-1980s.\n\nAccording to his former manager Bob Cavallo, in the early 1980s Prince required his management to obtain a deal for him to star in a major motion picture, despite the fact that his exposure at that point was limited to several pop music hits and music videos. This resulted in the hit film Purple Rain (1984), which starred Prince and was loosely autobiographical, and the eponymous studio album, which was also the soundtrack to the film. The Purple Rain album sold more than 13 million copies in the US and spent 24 consecutive weeks at No. 1 on the Billboard 200 chart. The film won Prince an Academy Award for Best Original Song Score and grossed over $68 million in the US. Songs from the film were hits on pop charts around the world; \"When Doves Cry\" and \"Let's Go Crazy\" reached No. 1, and the title track reached No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100. At one point in 1984, Prince simultaneously had the No. 1 album, single, and film in the US; it was the first time a singer had achieved this feat. The Purple Rain album is ranked 72nd in Rolling Stones 500 Greatest Albums of All Time; it is also included on the list of Time magazine's All-Time 100 Albums. The album also produced two of Prince's first three Grammy Awards earned at the 27th Annual Grammy Awards—Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal and Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media.\n\nAfter Tipper Gore heard her 11-year-old daughter Karenna listening to Prince's song \"Darling Nikki\" (which gained wide notoriety for its sexual lyrics and a reference to masturbation), she founded the Parents Music Resource Center. The center advocates the mandatory use of a warning label (\"Parental Advisory: Explicit Lyrics\") on the covers of records that have been judged to contain language or lyrical content unsuitable for minors. The recording industry later voluntarily complied with this request. \n\nIn 1985, Prince announced that he would discontinue live performances and music videos after the release of his next album. His subsequent recording, Around the World in a Day (1985), held the No. 1 spot on the Billboard 200 for three weeks. From that album, the single \"Raspberry Beret\" reached No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100, and \"Pop Life\" reached No. 7.\n\nIn 1986, his album Parade reached No. 3 on the Billboard 200 and No. 2 on the R&B charts. The first single, \"Kiss\", with the video choreographed by Louis Falco, reached No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100. (The song was originally written for a side project called Mazarati.) In the same year, the song \"Manic Monday\", written by Prince and recorded by The Bangles, reached No. 2 on the Hot 100 chart. The album Parade served as the soundtrack for Prince's second film, Under the Cherry Moon (1986). Prince directed and starred in the movie, which also featured Kristin Scott Thomas. Although the Parade album went platinum, Under the Cherry Moon received a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Picture (tied with Howard the Duck), and Prince received Golden Raspberry Awards for Worst Director, Worst Actor, and Worst Original Song (for the song \"Love or Money\"). \n\nIn 1986, Prince began a series of live performances called the Hit n Run – Parade Tour. After the tour Prince disbanded The Revolution and fired Wendy & Lisa. Brown Mark quit the band; keyboardist Doctor Fink remained. Prince recruited new band members Miko Weaver on guitar, Atlanta Bliss on trumpet, and Eric Leeds on saxophone.\n\n1987–91: Solo again, Sign o' the Times\n\nPrior to the disbanding of The Revolution, Prince was working on two separate projects, The Revolution album Dream Factory and a solo effort, Camille. Unlike the three previous band albums, Dream Factory included input from the band members and featured songs with lead vocals by Wendy & Lisa. The Camille project saw Prince create a new persona primarily singing in a speeded-up, female-sounding voice. With the dismissal of The Revolution, Prince consolidated material from both shelved albums, along with some new songs, into a three-LP album to be titled Crystal Ball. Warner Bros. forced Prince to trim the triple album to a double album, and Sign o' the Times was released on March 31, 1987. \n\nThe album peaked at No. 6 on the Billboard 200 albums chart. The first single, \"Sign o' the Times\", charted at No. 3 on the Hot 100. The follow-up single, \"If I Was Your Girlfriend\", charted at No. 67 on the Hot 100 but went to No. 12 on R&B chart. The third single, a duet with Sheena Easton, \"U Got the Look\", charted at No. 2 on the Hot 100 and No. 11 on the R&B chart, and the final single, \"I Could Never Take the Place of Your Man\", finished at No. 10 on Hot 100 and No. 14 on the R&B chart.\n\nIt was named the top album of the year by the Pazz & Jop critics' poll and sold 3.2 million copies. In Europe it performed well, and Prince promoted the album overseas with a lengthy tour. Putting together a new backing band from the remnants of The Revolution, Prince added bassist Levi Seacer, Jr., keyboardist Boni Boyer, and dancer/choreographer Cat Glover to go with new drummer Sheila E. and holdovers Miko Weaver, Doctor Fink, Eric Leeds, Atlanta Bliss, and the Bodyguards (Jerome, Wally Safford, and Greg Brooks) for the Sign o' the Times Tour.\n\nThe Sign o' the Times tour was a success overseas, and Warner Bros. and Prince's managers wanted to bring it to the US to promote sales of the album; Prince balked at a full US tour, as he was ready to produce a new album. As a compromise, the last two nights of the tour were filmed for release in movie theaters. The film quality was deemed subpar, and reshoots were performed at Prince's Paisley Park studios. The film Sign o' the Times was released on November 20, 1987. The film got better reviews than Under the Cherry Moon, but its box-office receipts were minimal, and it quickly left theaters.\n\nThe next album intended for release was The Black Album. More instrumental and funk and R&B themed than recent releases, The Black Album also saw Prince experiment with hip hop music on the songs \"Bob George\" and \"Dead on It\". Prince was set to release the album with a monochromatic black cover with only the catalog number printed, but after 500,000 copies had been pressed, Prince had a spiritual epiphany that the album was evil and had it recalled. It was later released by Warner Bros. as a limited edition album in 1994.\n\nPrince went back in the studio for eight weeks and recorded Lovesexy. Released on May 10, 1988, Lovesexy serves as a spiritual opposite to the dark The Black Album. Every song is a solo effort by Prince, except \"Eye No\", which was recorded with his backing band at the time. Lovesexy reached No. 11 on the Billboard 200 and No. 5 on the R&B albums chart. The lead single, \"Alphabet St.\", peaked at No. 8 on the Hot 100 and No. 3 on the R&B chart; it sold 750,000 copies.\n\nPrince again took his post-Revolution backing band (minus the Bodyguards) on a three leg, 84-show Lovesexy World Tour; although the shows were well received by huge crowds, they lost money due to the expensive sets and props.\n\nIn 1989, Prince appeared on Madonna's studio album Like a Prayer, co-writing and singing the duet \"Love Song\" and playing electric guitar (uncredited) on the songs \"Like a Prayer\", \"Keep It Together\", and \"Act of Contrition\". He also began work on several musical projects, including Rave Unto the Joy Fantastic and early drafts of his Graffiti Bridge film, but both were put on hold when he was asked by Batman (1989) director Tim Burton to record several songs for the upcoming live-action adaptation. Prince went into the studio and produced an entire nine-track album that Warner Bros. released on June 20, 1989. Batman peaked at No. 1 on the Billboard 200, selling 4.3 million copies. The single \"Batdance\" topped the Billboard and R&B charts.\n\nThe single, \"The Arms of Orion\" with Sheena Easton, charted at No. 36, and \"Partyman\" (also featuring the vocals of Prince's then-girlfriend, nicknamed Anna Fantastic) charted at No. 18 on the Hot 100 and at No. 5 on the R&B chart, and the love ballad \"Scandalous!\" went to No. 5 on the R&B chart. Prince had to sign away all publishing rights to the songs on the album to Warner Bros. as part of the deal to do the soundtrack.\n\nIn 1990, Prince went back on tour with a revamped band for his back-to-basics Nude Tour. With the departures of Boni Boyer, Sheila E., the horns, and Cat, Prince brought in keyboardist Rosie Gaines, drummer Michael Bland, and dancing trio The Game Boyz (Tony M., Kirky J., and Damon Dickson). The European and Japanese tour was a financial success with a short, greatest hits setlist. As the year progressed, Prince finished production on his fourth film, Graffiti Bridge (1990), and the 1990 album of the same name. Initially, Warner Bros. was reluctant to fund the film, but with Prince's assurances it would be a sequel to Purple Rain as well as the involvement of the original members of The Time, the studio greenlit the project. Released on August 20, 1990, the album reached No. 6 on the Billboard 200 and R&B albums chart. The single \"Thieves in the Temple\" reached No. 6 on the Hot 100 and No. 1 on the R&B chart; \"Round and Round\" placed at No. 12 on the US charts and No. 2 on the R&B charts. The song featured the teenage Tevin Campbell (who also had a role in the film) on lead vocals. The film, released on November 20, 1990, was a box-office flop, grossing $4.2 million. After the release of the film and album, the last remaining members of The Revolution, Miko Weaver and Doctor Fink, left Prince's band.\n\n1991–94: The New Power Generation, Diamonds and Pearls, and name change\n\n1991 marked the debut of Prince's new band, the New Power Generation. With guitarist Miko Weaver and long-time keyboardist Doctor Fink gone, Prince added bass player Sonny T., Tommy Barbarella on keyboards, and a brass section known as the Hornheads to go along with Levi Seacer (taking over on guitar), Rosie Gaines, Michael Bland, and the Game Boyz. With significant input from his band members, Diamonds and Pearls was released on October 1, 1991. Reaching No. 3 on the Billboard 200 album chart, Diamonds and Pearls saw four hit singles released in the United States. \"Gett Off\" peaked at No. 21 on the Hot 100 and No. 6 on the R&B charts, followed by \"Cream\", which gave Prince his fifth US No. 1 single. The title track \"Diamonds and Pearls\" became the album's third single, reaching No. 3 on the Hot 100 and the top spot on the R&B charts. \"Money Don't Matter 2 Night\" peaked at No. 23 and No. 14 on the Hot 100 and R&B charts respectively. \n\nIn 1992, Prince and The New Power Generation released his 12th album, Love Symbol Album, bearing only an unpronounceable symbol on the cover (later copyrighted as Love Symbol #2). The album peaked at No. 5 on the Billboard 200. The label wanted \"7\" to be the first single, but Prince fought to place \"My Name Is Prince\" in that slot, as he \"felt that the song's more hip-hoppery would appeal to the same audience\" that had purchased the previous album. Prince got his way, but \"My Name Is Prince\" reached No. 36 on the Billboard Hot 100 and No. 23 on the R&B chart. The follow-up single \"Sexy MF\" charted at No. 66 on the Hot 100 and No. 76 on the R&B chart. The label's preferred lead single choice \"7\" reached No. 7. 'Love Symbol Album' went on to sell 2.8 million copies worldwide.\n\nAfter two failed attempts in 1990 and 1991, Warner Bros. released a greatest hits compilation with the three-disc The Hits/The B-Sides in 1993. The first two discs were also sold separately as The Hits 1 and The Hits 2. The collection features the majority of Prince's hit singles (with the exception of \"Batdance\" and other songs that appeared on the Batman soundtrack), and several previously hard-to-find recordings, including B-sides spanning the majority of Prince's career, as well as some previously unreleased tracks such as the Revolution-recorded \"Power Fantastic\" and a live recording of \"Nothing Compares 2 U\" with Rosie Gaines. Two new songs, \"Pink Cashmere\" and \"Peach\", were chosen as promotional singles to accompany the compilation album.\n\nIn 1993, in rebellion against Warner Bros., which refused to release Prince's enormous backlog of music at a steady pace, he changed his name to , which was explained as a combination of the symbols for male (♂) and female (♀). In order to use the symbol in print media, Warner Bros. had to organize a mass mailing of floppy disks with a custom font. The symbol was soon dubbed \"The Love Symbol\", and until 2000, Prince was referred to as \"The Artist Formerly Known as Prince\" or simply \"The Artist\".\n\n1994–2000: Increased output and The Gold Experience\n\nIn 1994, Prince began to release albums in quick succession as a means of releasing himself from his contractual obligations to Warner Bros. The label, he believed, was intent on limiting his artistic freedom by insisting that he release albums more sporadically. He also blamed Warner Bros. for the poor commercial performance of the Love Symbol Album, claiming they had marketed it insufficiently. It was out of these developments that the aborted The Black Album was officially released, seven years after its initial recording. The \"new\" release was already in wide circulation as a bootleg. Warner Bros. then succumbed to Prince's wishes to release an album of new material, to be entitled Come.\n\nPrince pushed to have his next album The Gold Experience released simultaneously with Love Symbol-era material. Warner Bros. allowed the single \"The Most Beautiful Girl in the World\" to be released via a small, independent distributor, Bellmark Records, in February 1994. The release reached No. 3 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and No. 1 in many other countries, but it did not prove to be a model for subsequent releases. Warner Bros. still resisted releasing The Gold Experience, fearing poor sales and citing \"market saturation\" as a defense. When released in September 1995, The Gold Experience reached the top 10 of the Billboard 200 initially. The album is now out of print.\n\nChaos and Disorder, released in 1996, was Prince's final album of new material for Warner Bros., as well as one of his least commercially successful releases. Prince attempted a major comeback later that year when, free of any further contractual obligations to Warner Bros., he released Emancipation, a 36-song, 3-CD set (each disc was exactly 60 minutes long). The album was released via his own NPG Records with distribution through EMI. To publish his songs on Emancipation, Prince did not use Controversy Music – ASCAP, which he had used for all his records since 1981, but rather used Emancipated Music Inc.  – ASCAP.\n\nCertified Platinum by the RIAA, Emancipation is the first record featuring covers by Prince of songs of other artists: Joan Osborne's top ten hit song of 1995 \"One of Us\"; \"Betcha by Golly Wow!\" (written by Thomas Randolf Bell and Linda Creed); \"I Can't Make You Love Me\" (written by James Allen Shamblin II and Michael Barry Reid); and \"La-La (Means I Love You)\" (written by Thomas Randolf Bell and William Hart). \n\nPrince released Crystal Ball, a five-CD collection of unreleased material, in 1998. The distribution of this album was disorderly, with some fans pre-ordering the album on his website up to a year before it was shipped; these pre-orders were delivered months after the record had gone on sale in retail stores. The retail edition has only four discs, as it is missing the Kamasutra disc. There are also two different packaging editions for retail; one is a four-disc sized jewel case with a white cover and the Love Symbol in a colored circle while the other contains all four discs in a round translucent snap jewel case. The discs are the same, as is the CD jacket. The Newpower Soul album was released three months later. His collaborations on Chaka Khan's Come 2 My House and Larry Graham's GCS2000, both released on the NPG Records label around the same time as Newpower Soul, were promoted by live appearances on Vibe with Sinbad and the NBC Today show's Summer Concert Series.\n\nIn 1999, Prince once again signed with a major label, Arista Records, to release a new record, Rave Un2 the Joy Fantastic. In an attempt to make his new album a success, Prince gave more interviews than at any other point in his career, appearing on MTV's Total Request Live (with his album cover on the front of the Virgin Megastore, in the background on TRL throughout the whole show), Larry King Live (with Larry Graham) and other media outlets. A few months earlier, Warner Bros. had also released The Vault: Old Friends 4 Sale, a collection of unreleased material recorded by Prince throughout his career.\n\nThe pay-per-view concert, Rave Un2 the Year 2000, was broadcast on December 31, 1999 and consisted of footage from the December 17 and 18 concerts of his 1999 tour. The concert featured appearances by guest musicians including Lenny Kravitz, George Clinton, Jimmy Russell, and The Time. It was released to home video the following year.\n\n2000–07: Turnaround, Musicology, label change, and 3121\n\nOn May 16, 2000, Prince stopped using the Love Symbol moniker and returned to using \"Prince\", after his publishing contract with Warner/Chappell expired. In a press conference, he stated that, after being freed from undesirable relationships associated with the name \"Prince\", he would revert to using his real name. Prince continued to use the symbol as a logo and on album artwork and to play a Love Symbol-shaped guitar. For several years following the release of Rave Un2 the Joy Fantastic, Prince primarily released new music through his Internet subscription service, NPGOnlineLtd.com (later NPGMusicClub.com). \n\nIn 2002, Prince released his first live album, One Nite Alone... Live!, which features performances from the One Nite Alone...Tour. The 3-CD box set also includes a disc of \"aftershow\" music entitled It Ain't Over!. During this time, Prince sought to engage more effectively with his fan base via the NPG Music Club, pre-concert sound checks, and at yearly \"celebrations\" at Paisley Park, his music studios. Fans were invited into the studio for tours, interviews, discussions and music-listening sessions. Some of these fan discussions were filmed for an unreleased documentary, directed by Kevin Smith.\n\nOn February 8, 2004, Prince appeared at the 46th Annual Grammy Awards with Beyoncé. In a performance that opened the show, they performed a medley of \"Purple Rain\", \"Let's Go Crazy\", \"Baby I'm a Star\", and Beyoncé's \"Crazy in Love\". The following month, Prince was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. The award was presented to him by Alicia Keys along with Big Boi and André 3000 of OutKast. As well as performing a trio of his own hits during the ceremony, Prince also participated in a tribute to fellow inductee George Harrison in a rendering of Harrison's \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\", playing a two-minute guitar solo that ended the song. He also performed the song \"Red House\" as \"Purple House\" on the album Power of Soul: A Tribute to Jimi Hendrix. \n\nIn April 2004, Prince released Musicology through a one-album agreement with Columbia Records. The album rose as high as the top five on some international charts (including the US, UK, Germany, and Australia). The US chart success was assisted by the CDs being included as part of the concert ticket purchase, thereby qualifying each CD (as chart rules then stood) to count toward US chart placement. Three months later, Spin named him the greatest frontman of all time. \nThat same year, Rolling Stone magazine named Prince as the highest-earning musician in the world, with an annual income of $56.5 million, largely due to his Musicology Tour, which Pollstar named as the top concert draw among musicians in US. He played 96 concerts; the average ticket price for a show was US$61. Musicology went on to receive two Grammy wins, for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance for \"Call My Name\" and Best Traditional R&B Vocal Performance for the title track. Musicology was also nominated for Best R&B Song and Best R&B Album, and \"Cinnamon Girl\" was nominated for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance. Rolling Stone magazine has ranked Prince No. 27 on their list of 100 Greatest Artists of All Time.\n\nIn April 2005, Prince played guitar (along with En Vogue singing backing vocals) on Stevie Wonder's single \"So What the Fuss\", Wonder's first since 1999. \n\nIn late 2005, Prince signed with Universal Records to release his album, 3121, on March 21, 2006. The first single was \"Te Amo Corazón\", the video for which was directed by actress Salma Hayek and filmed in Marrakech, Morocco, featuring Argentine actress and singer Mía Maestro. The video for the second single, \"Black Sweat\", was nominated at the MTV VMAs for Best Cinematography. The immediate success of 3121 gave Prince his first No. 1 debut on the Billboard 200 with the album.\nTo promote the new album, Prince was the musical guest on Saturday Night Live on February 4, 2006, 17 years after his last SNL appearance on the 15th anniversary special, and nearly 25 years since his first appearance on a regular episode in 1981. \n\nAt the 2006 Webby Awards on June 12, Prince received a Webby Lifetime Achievement Award in recognition of his \"visionary use of the Internet to distribute music and connect with audiences\", exemplified by his decision to release his album Crystal Ball (1997) exclusively online. \n\nIn July 2006, weeks after winning a Webby Award, Prince shut down his NPG Music Club website, after more than five years of operation. On the day of the music club's shutdown, a lawsuit was filed against Prince by the British company HM Publishing (owners of the Nature Publishing Group, also NPG). Despite these events' occurring on the same day, Prince's attorney stated that the site did not close due to the trademark dispute.\n\nPrince appeared at multiple award ceremonies in 2006: on February 15, he performed at the 2006 Brit Awards, along with Wendy & Lisa and Sheila E., and on June 27, Prince appeared at the 2006 BET Awards, where he was awarded Best Male R&B Artist. Prince performed a medley of Chaka Khan songs for Khan's BET Lifetime Achievement Award. \n\nIn November 2006, Prince was inducted into the UK Music Hall of Fame; he appeared to collect his award but did not perform. Also in November 2006, Prince opened a nightclub called 3121, in Las Vegas at the Rio All Suite Hotel and Casino. He performed weekly on Friday and Saturday nights until April 2007, when his contract with the Rio ended. On August 22, 2006, Prince released Ultimate Prince. The double disc set contains one CD of previous hits, and another of extended versions and mixes of material that had largely only previously been available on vinyl record B-sides. That same year, Prince wrote and performed a song for the hit animated film Happy Feet (2006). The song, \"The Song of the Heart\", appears on the film's soundtrack, which also features a cover of Prince's earlier hit \"Kiss\", sung by Nicole Kidman and Hugh Jackman. In January 2007, \"The Song of the Heart\" won a Golden Globe for Best Original Song. \n\n2007–10: Super Bowl XLI, Planet Earth, and Lotusflower\n\nOn February 2, 2007, Prince played at the Super Bowl XLI press conference. Prince performed at the Super Bowl XLI Halftime Show in Miami, Florida on February 4, 2007, on a large stage shaped like his symbol. The event was carried to 140 million television viewers, his biggest ever audience. In 2015, Billboard.com ranked the performance as the greatest Super Bowl performance ever. \n\nPrince played 21 concerts in London during mid-2007. The Earth Tour included 21 nights at the 20,000 capacity O2 Arena, with Maceo Parker in his band. Tickets for the O2 Arena were capped by Prince at £31.21 ($48.66). The residency at the O2 Arena was increased to 15 nights after all 140,000 tickets for the original seven sold out in 20 minutes. It was then further extended to 21 nights. \n\nPrince performed with Sheila E. at the 2007 ALMA Awards. On June 28, 2007, the Mail on Sunday stated that it had made a deal to give Prince's new album, Planet Earth, away for free with the paper, making it the first place in the world to get the album. This move sparked controversy among music distributors and also led the UK arm of Prince's distributor, Sony BMG, to withdraw from distributing the album in UK stores. The UK's largest high street music retailer, HMV, stocked the paper on release day due to the giveaway. On July 7, 2007, Prince returned to Minneapolis to perform three shows. He performed concerts at the Macy's Auditorium (to promote his new perfume \"3121\") on Nicollet Mall, the Target Center arena, and First Avenue. It was the first time he had played at First Avenue (the club appeared in the film Purple Rain) since 1987. \n\nFrom 2008, Prince was managed by UK-based Kiran Sharma. On April 25, 2008, Prince performed on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, where he debuted a new song, \"Turn Me Loose\". Days after, he headlined the 2008 Coachella Festival. Prince was paid more than $5 million for his performance at Coachella, according to Reuters. \nPrince cancelled a concert, planned at Dublin's Croke Park on June 16, 2008, at 10 days' notice. In October 2009 promoters MCD Productions went to court to sue him for €1.6 million to refund 55,126 tickets. Prince settled the case out of court in February 2010 for $2.95 million. During the trial, it was said that Prince had been offered $22 million for seven concerts as part of a proposed 2008 European tour. In October 2008, Prince released a live album entitled Indigo Nights, a collection of songs performed live at aftershows in the IndigO2.\n\nOn December 18, 2008, Prince premiered four songs from his new album on LA's Indie rock radio station Indie 103.1. The radio station's programmers Max Tolkoff and Mark Sovel had been invited to Prince's home to hear the new rock-oriented music. Prince gave them a CD with four songs to premiere on their radio station. The music debuted the next day on Jonesy's Jukebox, hosted by former Sex Pistol Steve Jones. \n\nOn January 3, 2009, the new website LotusFlow3r.com was launched, streaming and selling some of the recently aired material and concert tickets. On January 31, Prince released two more songs on LotusFlow3r.com: \"Disco Jellyfish\", and \"Another Boy\". \"Chocolate Box\", \"Colonized Mind\", and \"All This Love\" were later released on the website. Prince released a triple album set containing Lotusflower, MPLSoUND, and an album credited to Bria Valente, called Elixer, on March 24, 2009, followed by a physical release on March 29.\n\nOn July 18, 2009, Prince performed two shows at the Montreux Jazz Festival, backed by The New Power Generation including Rhonda Smith, Renato Neto and John Blackwell. On October 11, 2009, he gave two surprise concerts at the Grand Palais. On October 12, he gave another surprise performance at La Cigale. On October 24, Prince played a concert at Paisley Park. \n\n2010–12: 20Ten and Welcome 2 Tours\n\nIn January 2010, Prince wrote a new song, \"Purple and Gold\", inspired by his visit to a Minnesota Vikings football game against the Dallas Cowboys. The following month, Prince let Minneapolis-area public radio station 89.3 The Current premiere his new song \"Cause and Effect\" as a gesture in support of independent radio. \n\nIn 2010, Prince was listed in Time magazine's annual ranking of the \"100 Most Influential People in the World\". \n\nPrince released a new single on Minneapolis radio station 89.3 The Current called \"Hot Summer\" on June 7, his 52nd birthday. Also in June, Prince appeared on the cover of the July 2010 issue of Ebony, and he received the Lifetime Achievement Award at the 2010 BET Awards. \n\nPrince released his album 20Ten in July 2010 as a free covermount with publications in the UK, Belgium, Germany, and France. He refused album access to digital download services and closed LotusFlow3r.com.\n\nOn July 4, 2010, Prince began his 20Ten Tour, a concert tour in two legs with shows in Europe. The second leg began on October 15 and ended with a concert following the Abu Dhabi Grand Prix on November 14. The second half of the tour had a new band, John Blackwell, Ida Kristine Nielsen, and Sheila E. Prince let Europe 1 debut the snippet of his new song \"Rich Friends\" from the new album 20Ten Deluxe on October 8, 2010. Prince started the Welcome 2 Tour on December 15, 2010. \n\nPrince was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame on December 7, 2010. \n\nOn February 12, 2011, Prince presented Barbra Streisand with an award and donated $1.5 million to charities. On the same day, it was reported that he had not authorized the television show Glee to cover his hit \"Kiss\", in an episode that had already been filmed. \n\nPrince headlined the Hop Farm Festival on July 3, 2011, marking his first UK show since 2007 and his first ever UK festival appearance. \n\nDespite having previously rejected the Internet for music distribution, on November 24, 2011, Prince released a reworked version of the previously unreleased song \"Extraloveable\" through both iTunes and Spotify. Purple Music, a Switzerland-based record label, released a CD single \"Dance 4 Me\" on December 12, 2011, as part of a club remixes package including Bria Valente CD single \"2 Nite\" released on February 23, 2012. The CD features club remixes by Jamie Lewis and David Alexander, produced by Prince. \n\n2013–16: 3rdeyegirl and return to Warner Bros.\n\nIn January 2013, Prince released a lyric video for a new song called \"Screwdriver\". In April 2013, Prince announced a West Coast tour titled Live Out Loud Tour with 3rdeyegirl as his backing band. The final two dates of the first leg of the tour were in Minneapolis where former Revolution drummer Bobby Z. sat in as guest drummer on both shows. In May, Prince announced a deal with Kobalt Music to market and distribute his music. \n\nOn August 14, 2013, Prince released a new solo single for download through the 3rdeyegirl.com website. The single \"Breakfast Can Wait\" had cover art featuring comedian Dave Chappelle's impersonation of the singer in a sketch on the 2000s Comedy Central series Chappelle's Show. \n\nIn February 2014, Prince performed concerts with 3rdeyegirl in London titled the Hit and Run Tour. Beginning with intimate shows, the first was held at the London home of singer Lianne La Havas, followed by two performances of what Prince described as a \"sound check\" at the Electric Ballroom in Camden, and another at Shepherds Bush Empire. \nOn April 18, 2014, Prince released a new single entitled \"The Breakdown\". He re-signed with his former label, Warner Bros. Records after an 18-year split. Warner announced that Prince would release a remastered deluxe edition of his 1984 album Purple Rain in 2014 to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the album. In return, Warner gave Prince ownership of the master recordings of his Warner recordings. \n\nIn May 2015, following the death of Freddie Gray and the subsequent riots, Prince released a song entitled \"Baltimore\" in tribute to Gray and in support of the protesters in Baltimore. He also held a tribute concert for Gray at his Paisley Park estate called \"Dance Rally 4 Peace\" in which he encouraged fans to wear the color gray in honor of Freddie Gray. \n\nPrince's penultimate album, Hit n Run Phase One, was first made available on September 7, 2015, on the music streaming service Tidal before being released on CD and download on September 14. His last album, Hit n Run Phase Two, was meant as a continuation of this one, and was released on Tidal for streaming and download on December 12, 2015. \n\nArtistry\n\nMusic and image\n\nThe Los Angeles Times called Prince \"our first post-everything pop star, defying easy categories of race, genre and commercial appeal.\" Jon Pareles of The New York Times described him as \"a master architect of funk, rock, R&B and pop\", and highlighted his ability to defy labels. Los Angeles Times writer Randall Roberts called Prince \"among the most versatile and restlessly experimental pop artists of our time,\" writing that his \"early work connected disco and synthetic funk [while his] fruitful mid-period merged rock, soul, R&B and synth-pop.\" Simon Reynolds called him a \"pop polymath, flitting between funkadelia, acid rock, deep soul, schmaltz—often within the same song\". AllMusic wrote that, \"With each album he released, Prince showed remarkable stylistic growth and musical diversity, constantly experimenting with different sounds, textures, and genres [...] no other contemporary artist blended so many diverse styles into a cohesive whole.\" \n\nAs a performer, he was known for his flamboyant style and showmanship. He came to be regarded as a sex symbol for his androgynous, amorphous sexuality, play with signifiers of gender, and defiance of racial stereotypes. His \"audacious, idiosyncratic\" fashion sense made use of \"ubiquitous purple, alluring makeup and frilled garments.\" His androgynous look has been compared to that of Little Richard and David Bowie.\n\nPrince was known for the strong female presence in his bands and his support for women in the music industry throughout his career. Slate said he worked with an \"astounding range of female stars\" and \"promised a world where men and women looked and acted like each other.\" \n\nInfluences and musicianship\n\nPrince's music synthesized a wide variety of influences, and drew inspiration from a range of musicians, including James Brown, George Clinton, Joni Mitchell, Duke Ellington, Jimi Hendrix, The Beatles, Chuck Berry, David Bowie, Earth, Wind & Fire, Mick Jagger, Rick James, Jerry Lee Lewis, Little Richard, Curtis Mayfield, Elvis Presley, Todd Rundgren, Carlos Santana, Sly Stone, Jackie Wilson, and Stevie Wonder. Prince has been compared with jazz great Miles Davis in regard to the artistic changes throughout his career; Davis himself regarded Prince as an uncanny blend of Brown, Hendrix, Marvin Gaye, Stone, Little Richard, Ellington, and Charlie Chaplin. \n\nJournalist Nik Cohn described him as \"rock's greatest ever natural talent\". His singing abilities encompassed a wide range from falsetto to baritone and rapid, seemingly effortless shifts of register. Prince was also renowned as a multi-instrumentalist. He was considered a guitar virtuoso and a master of drums, percussion, bass, keyboards, and synthesizer. On his first five albums, he played nearly all the instruments, including 27 instruments on his debut album, among them various types of bass, keyboards and synthesizers. Prince was also quick to embrace technology in his music, making pioneering use of drum machines like the Linn LM-1 on his early '80s albums and employing a wide range of studio effects. The LA Times also noted his \"harnessing [of] new-generation synthesizer sounds in service of the groove,\" laying the foundations for post-'70s funk music. Prince was also known for his prolific and perfectionist tendencies, which resulted in him recording large amounts of unreleased material. \n\nLegal issues\n\nPseudonyms\n\nIn 1993, during negotiations regarding the release of The Gold Experience, a legal battle ensued between Warner Bros. and Prince over the artistic and financial control of his musical output. During the lawsuit, Prince appeared in public with the word \"slave\" written on his cheek. He explained that he had changed his name to an unpronounceable symbol to emancipate himself from his contract with Warner Bros., and that he had done it out of frustration because he felt his own name now belonged to the company. \n\nPrince sometimes used pseudonyms to separate himself from the music he had written, produced, or recorded, and at one point stated that his ownership and achievement were strengthened by the act of giving away ideas. Pseudonyms he adopted, at various times, include: Jamie Starr and The Starr Company (for the songs he wrote for The Time and many other artists from 1981 to 1984), Joey Coco (for many unreleased Prince songs in the late 1980s, as well as songs written for Sheena Easton and Kenny Rogers), Alexander Nevermind (for writing the song \"Sugar Walls\" (1984) by Sheena Easton), and Christopher (used for his song writing credit of \"Manic Monday\" (1986) for the Bangles). \n\nCopyright issues\n\nOn September 14, 2007, Prince announced that he was going to sue YouTube and eBay, because they hosted his copyrighted material, and he hired the international Internet policing company Web Sheriff. In October, Stephanie Lenz filed a lawsuit against Universal Music Publishing Group claiming that they were abusing copyright law after the music publisher had YouTube take down Lenz's home movie in which the Prince song \"Let's Go Crazy\" played faintly in the background. On November 5, several Prince fan sites formed \"Prince Fans United\" to fight back against legal requests which, they claim, Prince made to prevent all use of photographs, images, lyrics, album covers, and anything linked to his likeness. Prince's lawyers claimed that this constituted copyright infringement; the Prince Fans United said that the legal actions were \"attempts to stifle all critical commentary about Prince\". Prince's promoter AEG stated that the only offending items on the three fansites were live shots from Prince's 21 nights in London at the O2 Arena earlier in the year. \n\nOn November 8, Prince Fans United received a song named \"PFUnk\", providing a kind of \"unofficial answer\" to their movement. The song originally debuted on the PFU main site, was retitled \"F.U.N.K.\", and is available on iTunes. On November 14, the satirical website b3ta.com pulled their \"image challenge of the week\" devoted to Prince after legal threats from the star under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA). \n\nAt the 2008 Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival (\"Coachella Festival\"), Prince performed a cover of Radiohead's \"Creep\", but immediately afterward he forced YouTube and other sites to remove footage that fans had taken of the performance, despite Radiohead's request to leave it on the website. Days later, YouTube reinstated the videos, as Radiohead claimed: \"it's our song, let people hear it.\" In 2009, Prince put the video of the Coachella performance on his official website (LotusFlow3r.com).\n\nIn 2010 he declared \"the internet is completely over\", elaborating five years later that \"the internet was over for anyone who wants to get paid, tell me a musician who's got rich off digital sales\".\n\nIn 2013, the Electronic Frontier Foundation granted to Prince the inaugural \"Raspberry Beret Lifetime Aggrievement Award\" for what they said was abuse of the DMCA takedown process. \n\nIn January 2014, Prince filed a lawsuit titled Prince v. Chodera against 22 online users for direct copyright infringement, unauthorized fixation, contributory copyright infringement, and bootlegging. Several of the users were fans who had shared links to bootlegged versions of Prince concerts through social media websites like Facebook. In the same month, he dismissed the entire action without prejudice. \n\nPrince was one of a handful of musicians to consistently deny \"Weird Al\" Yankovic permission to parody his music. \n\nPersonal life\n\nOver the years Prince was romantically linked with many celebrities, including Kim Basinger, Madonna, Vanity, Sheila E., Carmen Electra, Susanna Hoffs, Anna Fantastic, Sherilyn Fenn, and Susan Moonsie of Vanity 6 and Apollonia 6. Prince was engaged to Susannah Melvoin in 1985. When he was 37, he married his 22-year-old backup singer and dancer Mayte Garcia, on Valentine's Day 1996. They had a son named Ahmir Gregory on October 16, 1996; he was born with Pfeiffer syndrome and died a week later. Prince and Mayte divorced in 1999. In 2001, Prince married Manuela Testolini in a private ceremony; she filed for divorce in May 2006. \n\nPrince was an animal rights activist who followed a vegan diet for part of his life, but later described himself as vegetarian. The liner notes for his album Rave Un2 the Joy Fantastic (1999) featured a message about the cruelty involved in wool production. \n\nPrince joined the Jehovah's Witnesses in 2001, following a two-year debate with friend and fellow Jehovah's Witness musician Larry Graham. Prince said that he did not consider it a conversion, but a \"realization\". \"It's like Morpheus and Neo in The Matrix\", he explained. Prince attended meetings at a local Kingdom Hall and occasionally knocked on people's doors to discuss his faith. Prince had needed double hip-replacement surgery since 2005. A false rumor was spread by the tabloids that he would not undergo the operation because of his refusal to have blood transfusions. However, the Star Tribune reported that Larry Graham, Prince's mentor and Bible teacher, \"denied claims that Prince couldn't have hip surgery because his faith prohibited blood transfusions,\" putting the false rumor to rest, as hip surgery does not require blood transfusions. According to Morris Day, Prince in fact had the hip surgery in 2008. The condition was reportedly caused by repeated onstage dancing in high-heeled boots. Prince had been using canes as part of his outfit from the early 1990s onwards; towards the end of his life he regularly walked with a cane in public engagements, which led to speculation that it resulted from his not having undergone the surgery. \n\nAs a Jehovah's Witness, Prince did not speak publicly about his charitable endeavors; the extent of his activism, philanthropy, and charity was publicized posthumously. In 2001, Prince donated $12,000 anonymously to the Louisville Free Public Library system to keep the historic Western Branch Library, the first full service library for African Americans in the country, from closure. Also in 2001, he anonymously paid off the medical bills of drummer Clyde Stubblefield, who was undergoing cancer treatment. In 2015, he conceived and launched YesWeCode, paying for many hackathons outright and performing at some of them. He also helped fund Green for All.\n\nIn late March 2016, Prince told an audience he was writing a memoir, tentatively titled The Beautiful Ones. \n\nIllness and death\n\nPrince saw Dr. Michael T. Schulenberg, a Twin Cities specialist in family medicine, on April 7, 2016, and again on April 20. On April 7, Prince postponed two performances at the Fox Theatre in Atlanta from his Piano & A Microphone Tour; the venue released a statement saying he had influenza. Prince rescheduled and performed the show on April 14, even though he still was not feeling well. While flying back to Minneapolis early the next morning, he became unresponsive, and his private jet made an emergency landing at Quad City International Airport in Moline, Illinois, where he was hospitalized and received Narcan, but he left against medical advice. Representatives said he suffered from \"bad dehydration\" and had had influenza for several weeks. Prince was seen bicycling the next day in his hometown of Chanhassen, Minnesota. He shopped that evening at the Electric Fetus in Minneapolis for Record Store Day and made a brief appearance at an impromptu dance party at his Paisley Park recording studio complex, stating that he was feeling fine. On April 19, he attended a performance by singer Lizz Wright at the Dakota Jazz Club. \n\nOn April 20, Prince's representatives called Dr. Howard Kornfeld, a California specialist in addiction medicine and pain management, seeking medical help for Prince. Kornfeld scheduled to meet with Prince on April 22, and he contacted a local physician who cleared his schedule for April 21, for an exam and to check on Prince's condition. and \n\nOn April 21, at 9:43 a.m., the Carver County Sheriff's Office received a 9-1-1 call requesting that an ambulance be sent to Prince's home at Paisley Park. The caller initially told the dispatcher that an unidentified person at the home was unconscious, then moments later said he was dead, and finally identified the person as Prince. The caller was Dr. Kornfeld's son, who had flown in with buprenorphine that morning to devise a treatment plan for opioid addiction. Emergency responders found Prince unresponsive in an elevator and performed CPR, but a paramedic said he had been dead for about six hours, and they were unable to revive him. They pronounced him dead at 10:07 a.m., 19 minutes after their arrival. There were no sign of suicide or foul play; Prince had died of an accidental fentanyl overdose. He was 57 years old.\n\nFollowing an autopsy, his remains were cremated, and their final disposition remains private. On April 26, 2016, Prince's sister and only full sibling Tyka Nelson filed court documents in Carver County, Minnesota, to open a probate case, stating that no will had been found. Prince's five half-siblings also have a claim to his estate. As of three weeks after his death, 700 people claimed to be half-siblings or descendants. Bremer Trust was given temporary control of his estate, had his vault drilled, and was authorized to obtain a blood sample for genetic testing. A sealed search warrant was issued for his estate, and another, unsealed, warrant was issued for the local Walgreens. \n\nRemembrances\n\nNumerous musicians and cultural figures reacted to Prince's death. President Barack Obama mourned him, and the United States Senate passed a resolution praising his achievements \"as a musician, composer, innovator, and cultural icon\". Cities across the US held tributes and vigils, and lit buildings, bridges, and other venues in purple. In the first five hours after the media reported his death, \"Prince\" was the top trending term on Twitter, and Facebook had 61 million Prince-related interactions. MTV interrupted its programming to air a marathon of Prince music videos and Purple Rain. AMC Theatres and Carmike Cinemas screened Purple Rain in select theaters over the following week. Saturday Night Live aired an episode in his honor titled \"Goodnight, Sweet Prince,\" featuring his performances from the show. \n\nNielsen Music reported an initial sales spike of 42,000 percent. Prince's catalog sold 4.41 million albums and songs from April 21 to 28, with five albums simultaneously in the top ten of the Billboard 200, a first in the chart's history. \n\nDiscography\n\n* For You (1978)\n* Prince (1979)\n* Dirty Mind (1980)\n* Controversy (1981)\n* 1999 (1982)\n* Purple Rain (1984)\n* Around the World in a Day (1985)\n* Parade (1986)\n* Sign o' the Times (1987)\n* Lovesexy (1988)\n* Batman (1989)\n* Graffiti Bridge (1990)\n* Diamonds and Pearls (1991)\n* (Love Symbol Album) (1992)\n* Come (1994)\n* The Black Album (1994)\n* The Gold Experience (1995)\n* Chaos and Disorder (1996)\n* Emancipation (1996)\n* Crystal Ball (1998)\n* The Truth (1998)\n* The Vault: Old Friends 4 Sale (1999)\n* Rave Un2 the Joy Fantastic (1999)\n* The Rainbow Children (2001)\n* One Nite Alone... (2002)\n* Xpectation (2003)\n* N·E·W·S (2003)\n* Musicology (2004)\n* The Chocolate Invasion (2004)\n* The Slaughterhouse (2004)\n* 3121 (2006)\n* Planet Earth (2007)\n* Lotusflower (2009)\n* MPLSound (2009)\n* 20Ten (2010)\n* Plectrumelectrum (2014)\n* Art Official Age (2014)\n* HITnRUN Phase One (2015)\n* HITnRUN Phase Two (2015)\n\nFilmography\n\nTours\n\n* Prince Tour (1979–80)\n* Dirty Mind Tour (1980–81)\n* Controversy Tour (1981–82)\n* 1999 Tour (1982–83)\n* Purple Rain Tour (1984–85)\n* Parade Tour (1986)\n* Sign o' the Times Tour (1987)\n* Lovesexy Tour (1988–89)\n* Nude Tour (1990)\n* Diamonds and Pearls Tour (1992)\n* Act I and II (1993)\n* Interactive Tour (1994)\n* The Ultimate Live Experience (1995)\n* Gold Tour (1996)\n* Love 4 One Another Charities Tour (1997)\n* Jam of the Year Tour (1997–98)\n* New Power Soul Tour/Festival (1998)\n* Hit n Run Tour (2000–01)\n* A Celebration (2001)\n* One Nite Alone... Tour (2002)\n* 2003–2004 World Tour (2003–04)\n* Musicology Live 2004ever (2004)\n* Per4ming Live 3121 (2006–07)\n* 21 Nights in London: The Earth Tour (2007)\n* 20Ten Tour (2010)\n* Welcome 2 (2010–12)\n* Live Out Loud Tour (2013)\n* Hit and Run Tour (2014–15)\n* Piano & A Microphone Tour (2016)\n\nAwards and nominations" ] }

{ "description": [ "... with five of those going all the way to No. 1. ... With Prince gracing Billboard's cover this week and set to ... Want to get an idea of what the late '80s were ...", "Prince became one of the biggest pop stars of the 1980s releasing most of his ... Prince closed out the decade of the 80s with a string of ..." ], "filename": [ "112/112_2810.txt", "117/117_2816.txt" ], "rank": [ 2, 9 ], "title": [ "Prince's 20 Biggest Billboard Hits | Billboard", "Biography of Prince - About.com Entertainment" ], "url": [ "http://www.billboard.com/articles/list/1495342/princes-20-biggest-billboard-hits", "http://top40.about.com/od/artistsls/p/prince.htm" ], "search_context": [ "Prince's 20 Biggest Billboard Hits | Billboard\nPrince's 20 Biggest Billboard Hits\nCOMMENTS\nPrince's Biggest Billboard Hits\nPrince's catalog of Hot 100 hits, which includes huge smashes like \"Purple Rain,\" \"Kiss\" and \"When Doves Cry,\" is staggering. The Purple One has claimed 47 entries on the Billboard Hot 100, including 19 top 10s -- with five of those going all the way to No. 1. In the 20 year span between 1980 and the end of 1999, Prince charted more Hot 100 entries (44) than any other act.\nWith his classic album and film 'Purple Rain' turning 30 this week , we're celebrating his amazing career with an exclusive countdown of his top 20 Billboard Hot 100 hits.\nThe ranking is based on actual performance on the weekly Billboard Hot 100 chart. Songs are ranked based on an inverse point system, with weeks at No. 1 earning the greatest value and weeks at No. 100 earning the least. To ensure equitable representation of the biggest hits from each era, certain time frames were weighted to account for the difference between turnover rates from those years.\n20\n\"1999\" Prince\nHot 100 Peak: 12, Peak Date: July 23, 1983\nMore than a decade before the millennium, Prince envisioned the year 2000 as a plum-colored apocalypse. \"The sky was all purple,\" he sings on the single from the album of the same name. \"There were people runnin' everywhere. Tryin 2 run from the destruction. U know I didn't even care.\" Why? Because he was ready to go out with a bang! With blaring synths and an irresistible beat, he rocks out like he never will again. The song holds the honor of being Prince's longest-charting Hot 100 hit, having spent 28 weeks on the weekly tally in three separate chart runs.\n1999\n\"I Could Never Take The Place of Your Man\" Prince\nHot 100 Peak: 10, Peak Date: February 6, 1988\nCautious of a lonely woman he met on a summer night, Prince warns her that he's got no intention of replacing her ex. The tune, from Prince's 1987 double album \"Sign 'O' The Times,\" notched a top 10 spot on the Hot 100 early the following year.\n18\n\"Alphabet St.\" Prince\nHot 100 Peak: 8, Peak Date: June 25, 1988\nPrince picks up a cutie in his daddy's Thunderbird and what follows is a funky, rap-laden dialogue between the two that hit the top 10 in 1988.\n17\n\"7\" Prince and The New Power Generation\nHot 100 Peak: 7, Peak Date: February 27, 1993\nOver soft guitar strums and a whipping bass line Prince leads an army of the cool and the intelligent to battle against those with hate in their hearts. \"They stand in the way of love and we will smoke them all,\" he sings. Fittingly, the title of the track predicted its Hot 100 peak, lucky No. 7.\n16\n\"I Would Die 4 U\" Prince and The Revolution\nHot 100 Peak: 8, Peak Date: February 2, 1985\nOn top on bouncing keys, Prince professes his undying love for someone who might not even deserve it. Though his love is a sinner, he still sings that he'd make the ultimate sacrifice for that person.\n15\n\"Delirious\" Prince\nHot 100 Peak: 8, Peak Date: October 22, 1983\nWhen Prince's lover holds his hand, he sings on this song, his \"body gets so weak.\" The up-tempo third single from the \"1999\" album kept up a streak of top 10 hits Prince scored in 1983.\n14\n\"Pop Life\" Prince and The Revolution\nHot 100 Peak: 7, Peak Date: September 21, 1985\nThis mid-tempo single followed \"Raspberry Beret\" on Prince and the Revolution's 1985 \"Around the World in a Day\" album. On it he sings to those living lives with no real thrills. Some are snorting and addicted. Others are just clueless and bored. Really, they just need positivity.\n13\n\"Thieves in the Temple\" Prince\nHot 100 Peak: 6, Peak Date: September 22, 1990\nOn this single from his 1990 \"Graffiti Bridge\" soundtrack, Prince is in terrible need to make sure he protects his love. With villains amongst him, kicking and beating, it's a battle he won't win unless love saves the day.\n12\n\"Diamonds And Pearls\" Prince and the N.P.G.\nHot 100 Peak: 3, Peak Date: February 15, 1992\nPrince promises his love that he's here to stay in this ballad from the 1991 album of the same name. \"This will be the day that you will hear me say that I will never run away,\" he sings with assurance. He may not have a treasure chest's worth of jewels to give, but his he does have his love to offer.\n11\n\"Little Red Corvette\" Prince\nHot 100 Peak: 6, Peak Date: May 21, 1983\nPrince warns a girl she's \"movin' too fast,\" but she's got a body \"on the verge of being obscene\" and it's a Saturday, so he grabs the keys and goes for a ride anyway.\n10\n\"Sign 'O' The Times\" Prince\nHot 100 Peak: 3, Peak Date: April 25, 1987\nOften lauded for his songs about love and lust, Prince deserves more credit for capturing ideas outside of those dynamics. Here he gets topical, singing of drug addicts, gang members, the families and communities around them, and much more. Want to get an idea of what the late '80s were like in America? This song features a five minute portrait some of the nation's uglier realities.\n9\n\"The Most Beautiful Girl In The World\" Prince\nHot 100 Peak: 3, Peak Date: April 30, 1994\nThis sweet, falsetto-filled single dedicated to cherishing the gorgeous woman in his life was one of Prince's best Hot 100 showings of the '90s.  \"When the day turns into the last day of all time,\" he sings. \"I can say I hope you are in these arms of mine.\"\n \n\"Purple Rain\" Prince and the Revolution\nHot 100 Peak: 2, Peak Date: November 17, 1984\nPrince's definitive power ballad, featuring one of the best guitar solos ever, was the title track from his 1984 film of the same name. The epic, emotional, 7-minute-long heartbreak hit follows a friendship that began innocently, transformed into something deeper, then crashed\n7\n\"U Got The Look\" Prince\nHot 100 Peak: 2, Peak Date: October 17, 1987\nA cute girl with a mean look turns Prince's boring night at the club into something crazy upon arrival in this single from 1987's \"Sign 'O' The Times.\" Once he sees her, the chase is on. \"You walked in,\" he sings to her. \"I woke up.\" Fans sent the track, on which Sheena Easton also appears, to No. 3 in 1987.\n6\n\"Raspberry Beret\" Prince and the Revolution\nHot 100 Peak: 2, Peak Date: July 20, 1985\nThis 1985 No. 2 is the tale of \"working part time in a five-and-dime\" and meeting a hottie who wore a thrift shop hat and often not much else. And though their first time wasn't amazing, he swears he \"wouldn't change a stroke\" about it.\n5\n\"Batdance\" (from \"Batman\") Prince\nHot 100 Peak: 1, Peak Date: August 5, 1989\nPrince ended the '80s on a high note with this 1989 track, which was the key song from that summer's blockbuster \"Batman\" film. The unconventional hit showcased trippy transitions from rock to funk to hip-hop and sound snippets from Batman and The Joker heard over the beats -- a winning combination that sent the song all the way to No. 1.\n4\n\"Cream\" Prince and the N.P.G.\nHot 100 Peak: 1, Peak Date: November 9, 1991\nWith naughty lyrics like \"You've got the horn so why don't you blow it?\" and a breathy lyrical delivery, Prince and the New Power Generation's sexy mid-tempo song from 1991's \"Diamonds and Pearls\" album earned two weeks at No. 1 on the Hot 100.\n3\n\"Let's Go Crazy\" Prince and the Revolution\nHot 100 Peak: 1, Peak Date: September 29, 1984\nOpening with a solemn \"dearly beloved\" and heavenly organ chords, and blasting into an even more heavenly guitar riff, Prince got us \"gathered here today to get through this thing called life\" in this raucous, glass-half-full 1984 rocker. \"Are we going to let the elevator bring us down?\" he asks. \"Oh, no!\" This \"Purple Rain\" single spent two weeks at No. 1.\n2\n\"Kiss\" Prince and the Revolution\nHot 100 Peak: 1, Peak Date: April 19, 1986\nOn this inspired hit from 1986's \"Parade,\" Prince lists what's needed to rule his world. Financial wealth and dirty talk aren't necessary. Maturity and availability are, though. The smooth, funk-influenced track about the \"women not girls\" he's looking for perched at the top of the Hot 100 for two weeks.\n1\n\"When Doves Cry\" Prince and the Revolution\nHot 100 Peak: 1, Peak Date: July 7, 1984\nPrince's landmark 1984 jam blended a two-part storyline involving a rough parental dynamic and a dangerously passionate relationship with a new love atop a crescendoing, guitar-laden groove. A standout track among many standouts from the soundtrack of his \"Purple Rain\" film, Prince's \"When Doves Cry\" ruled the Hot 100's top spot for for five weeks. It rules as his longest-running No. 1.", "Biography of Prince\nPrince Rogers Nelson - June 7, 1958 in Minneapolis, Minnesota.\n \nApril 21, 2016 in Chanhassen, Minnesota.\n \nGrowing Up and Early Career\nPrince grew up as the son of an accomplished Jazz musician. By his early teen years, he formed his first band, Grand Central, and included friends Andre Cymone and Morris Day. The band changed its name to Champagne but fell apart before releasing any recordings. At the age of 19, Prince was signed to Warner Bros. and released his first album For You in 1978. \"Soft and Wet,\" a single from the album, was a minor R&B hit.\n \nFirst Success\n1979's Prince was a significant success placing the single \"I Wanna Be Your Lover\" inside the pop top 20. The sexual frankness of his next album Dirty Mind turned off some pop audiences but the sheer eclecticism of the music impressed critics and is considered one of the best albums of his career. 1981's Controversy, Prince's 4th album in 4 years, included the #1 dance hit title single.\ncontinue reading below our video\nCelebrity Breakups of 2015 We Didn't See Coming\nLeading into his next album, Prince was a favorite of critics but had not yet reached wide pop success.\n \nQuote from Prince\nFrom MTV interview in 1986:\n\" James Brown played a big influence in my style. When I was about 10 years old, my stepdad put me on stage with him, and I danced a little bit until the bodyguard took me off.\"\n \nPop Star\nPrince became one of the biggest pop stars of the 1980s releasing most of his biggest hits during the decade. At the end of 1982 Prince previewed his most adventurous project yet with the single \"1999.\" It was followed by a 2 disc collection that included the top 10 pop hits \"Little Red Corvette\" and \"Delirious.\" In 1984 the world gave in to Prince's Purple Rain project. It was a boxoffice hit, but the music was bigger, spending an incredible 24 weeks at #1 on the album chart and including 2 #1 hit singles, \"When Doves Cry\" and \"Let's Go Crazy.\"\n \n\"The Most Beautiful Girl In the World\" \n \nThe End of the 80s for Prince\nAfter Purple Rain, Prince closed out the decade of the 80s with a string of groundbreaking pop hits. \"Raspberry Beret\" rode a wave of pop psychedelia to #2. Another double album Sign O' the Times included the massive hits \"Sign O' the Times\" and \"U Got the Look.\" Prince finished the decade with the soundtrack to the movie Batman including the #1 pop hit \"Batdance.\"\n \nTrivia Fact About Prince\nUsing the pseudonym Alexander Nevermind, Prince wrote the hits \"Manic Monday\" for the Bangles and \"Sugar Walls\" for Sheena Easton .\n \nThe 1990s\nThe 1990's were a difficult decade for Prince filled with legal battles with his record label Warner Bros. For a period of time he claimed that Prince had retired and he performed with an unpronouncable symbol as a name. In 1996 Prince's contractual obligations with Warner Bros. finally came to an end, and he released the 3-disc Emancipation in celebration. Prince was once again in control of his own work, but he had sacrificed his commercial success.\n \nA New Century and Rebirth for Prince\nWith the release of the 2001 album The Rainbow Children, Prince's commercial clout had fallen so far that his album did not even reach the top 100 of the pop album chart. However, that all changed in 2004. Prince launched a world concert tour and a new album titled Musicology. The album was given away free to those who attended the concerts. With the giveaways being counted as sales, Musicology reached #3 on the pop albums chart and eventually over 6 million copies were distributed worldwide. In early 2006 Prince released the single \"Black Sweat\" in advance of a new album 3121.\nFinal Hit Albums and Death\nIn 2014 Prince finally made peace once again with the Warner Bros. record label after 18 years of estrangement. In celebration he released two albums simultaneously. Plectrumelectrum was a collaboration with his new touring band 3rdeyegirl. The other Art Official Age was a solo album. Both reached the top 10 on the album chart.\nOn the morning of April 21, 2016, Prince was found dead at his home in Minnesota. He was 57 years old." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Man_in_the_Mirror.txt" ], "title": [ "Man in the Mirror" ], "wiki_context": [ "\"Man in the Mirror\" is a song made popular by Michael Jackson and written by Glen Ballard and Siedah Garrett. Jackson's recording was produced by Quincy Jones and co-produced by Jackson. It peaked at number 1 in the United States when released in January 1988 as the fourth single from his seventh solo album, Bad. It is one of Jackson's most critically acclaimed songs and it was nominated for Record of the Year at the Grammy Awards. The song topped the Billboard Hot 100 for 2 weeks. The song peaked at number 21 in the UK Singles Charts in 1988, but in 2009, following the news of Jackson's death, the song peaked at number 2, having re-entered the chart at 11 the previous week as his top song on the singles chart. It also became the number 1 single in iTunes downloads in the US and the UK, having sold over 1.3 million digital copies in the former alone. \n\nThe song was remixed for the soundtrack of Jackson's tribute tour Immortal.\n\nComposition\n\n\"Man in the Mirror\" was composed by Glen Ballard and Siedah Garrett. Jackson added background vocals from Garrett, The Winans and the Andrae Crouch Choir, which gave the song its distinctive sound. The song is said to have been one of his favorite songs. Arranged with a gospel choir, Jackson would use a gospel choir again several years later on his hit \"Will You Be There\". Siedah Garrett also sang Jackson's duet \"I Just Can't Stop Loving You\" in summer 1987. The song is played in the key of G Major at a tempo of 100bpm. The vocal range is Ab3-C6. \n\nThe single sleeve for \"Man in the Mirror\" contained a dedication to Yoshiaki Ogiwara, a five-year-old boy from Takasaki, Gunma, Japan who was kidnapped for ransom and subsequently murdered in September 1987. The killing was highly traumatic to the Japanese public and to Jackson himself, who was touring Japan at the time and subsequently dedicated concerts in Osaka and Yokohama to the boy's memory. \n\nCritical response\n\n\"Man in the Mirror\" is one of Michael Jackson's most critically acclaimed songs. When Ed Hogan reviewed the song, he called it \"gentle.\" Robert Christgau wrote: \"He's against burglary, speeding, and sex in favor of harmonic convergence and changing the world by changing the man in the mirror.\" Jon Pareles of The New York Times noted that this song has \"gospelly lift.\" Rolling Stone's Davitt Sigerson thought that \"Man in the Mirror\" stands among the half dozen best things Jackson has done, and he continued: \"On \"Man in the Mirror,\" a song he did not write, Jackson goes a step further and offers a straightforward homily of personal commitment: \"I'm starting with the man in the mirror/I'm asking him to change his ways/And no message could have been any clearer/If you wanna make the world a better place/Take a look at yourself and then make a change.\" \n\nMusic video\n\nOne of the videos is a notable departure from Jackson's other videos mainly because Jackson himself does not appear in the video (aside from a brief clip toward the end of the video in which he can be seen donning a red jacket and standing in a large crowd). Instead, it featured a montage of footage from various major news events such as the nuclear explosion of Operation Crossroads, the Civil Rights March on Washington, John F. Kennedy and Robert Kennedy's assassinations, the Vietnam War, the Kent State shootings, the Iranian hostage crisis, Cesar Chavez, Solidarity's birth and growth, The Troubles, Ethiopian famine, increases in U.S. homelessness, Live Aid, the first Farm Aid with Willie Nelson, Jessica McClure's rescue, Salvadoran Civil War, Camp David Accords (with Anwar El Sadat, Menachem Begin and Jimmy Carter), INF Treaty signing (with Mikhail Gorbachev and Ronald Reagan), and other notable people including Martin Luther King, John Lennon, Lech Wałęsa, Mother Teresa, Desmond Tutu, Mahatma Gandhi, Rosa Parks, Nelson Mandela, Pieter Willem Botha, Muammar al-Gaddafi, the Ku Klux Klan, and Adolf Hitler. \n\nThe PCM Stereo music video version of this song was included on Number Ones, Michael Jackson's Vision, the Target version DVD of Bad 25, and the song's video that released on VHS in 1989.\n\nAn alternate live video was used as the opening song in Jackson's film Moonwalker with live audio and footage from several live performances of the song during the Bad World Tour.\n\nChart performance\n\n\"Man In The Mirror\" was the 4th consecutive number-one single for Jackson's Bad in the United States. The single debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 48 on February 6, 1988, and reached number 1 by its 8th week on the chart, on March 26, 1988, where it remained for 2 weeks.\n\nThe song originally peaked at number 21 in the United Kingdom in 1988. However, following Jackson's death on June 25, 2009, \"Man in the Mirror\" re-entered the UK Singles Chart at number 11, and the following week the song peaked at number 2, held off by Cascada's \"Evacuate the Dancefloor\". The chart had also contained over 12 Michael Jackson songs in the Top 40. This song had been at top 100 for 15 consecutive weeks in this chart. In Australia the song originally charted at number 39. After the singer's death, the song re-entered the chart and peaked at number 8, much higher than its original release. It was also the top single in iTunes downloads in the US and the UK. It has sold 567,280 copies in the UK as of January 2016. \n\nCharts\n\nWeekly charts\n\nYear-end charts\n\nLive performances\n\nJackson performed a live, extended version of the song at the 1988 Grammy Awards. He also performed the song as the ending of the concert during the Bad World Tour's second leg, and regularly during the Dangerous World Tour. Live versions of the song are available on the DVDs Live at Wembley July 16, 1988 and Live in Bucharest: The Dangerous Tour. On July 16, 1996, Jackson also performed \"Man in the Mirror\" at the Royal Concert Brunei for the last time prior to the United We Stand benefit concert.\n\nThe instrumental introduction to the song was played at the end of Jackson's memorial service, while his casket was being carried out; followed by the appearance of a spotlight shining on a microphone on an empty stage. After a closing prayer that incorporated themes from the song, the spotlight remained shining on the lone microphone. The song is also featured as the final number in Michael Jackson's This Is It." ] }

{ "description": [ "Listen to songs from the album The Essential Michael Jackson, ... Jean” and “Man in the Mirror”—capture Jackson at ... Jackson first rose to stardom in ...", "Music video by Michael Jackson performing Man In The Mirror. © 1987 MJJ Productions Inc.", "Man In The Mirror by Michael Jackson. ... It was one of just two songs on the Bad album that Jackson didn ... we met with Michael and Quincy first at Westlake's ...", "... and download songs from the album Bad, ... Man In the Mirror: Michael Jackson: 5:18: $1.29: ... each of their first four singles went to number one and they ...", "Find album reviews, ... credits and award information for Bad - Michael Jackson on AllMusic ... (the saccharine \"Man in the Mirror,\" the misogynistic \"Dirty Diana\").", "Wow Michael Jackson bad album was written ... BAD THE WAY YOU MAKE ME FEEL MAN IN THE MIRROR DIRTY ... This was the first cd I ever bought for Michael Jackson ...", "... Past, Present and Future, Book I - Michael Jackson on AllMusic ... \"HIStory Continues\" is easily the most personal album Jackson has recorded. ... Man in the Mirror.", "Bad is the seventh album by Michael Jackson. ... Bad is the first, and currently only album ever to feature five Billboard Hot 100 #1 singles. ... Man in the Mirror: Buy." ], "filename": [ "81/81_2857.txt", "18/18_2859.txt", "161/161_2860.txt", "50/50_2861.txt", "122/122_2862.txt", "65/65_2863.txt", "199/199_2864.txt", "92/92_2865.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 ], "title": [ "The Essential Michael Jackson by Michael Jackson ... - Apple", "Michael Jackson - Man In The Mirror - YouTube", "Man In The Mirror by Michael Jackson Songfacts", "Man In the Mirror - Michael Jackson - iTunes", "Bad - Michael Jackson | Songs, Reviews, Credits | AllMusic", "Michael Jackson - Bad CD Album at CD Universe", "HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I - Michael ...", "Bad - Michael Jackson — Listen and discover music at Last.fm" ], "url": [ "https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/essential-michael-jackson/id159292399", "http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PivWY9wn5ps", "http://www.songfacts.com/detail.php?id=10034", "https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/bad/id559334659", "http://www.allmusic.com/album/bad-mw0000650293", "http://www.cduniverse.com/productinfo.asp?pid=9556010", "http://www.allmusic.com/album/history-past-present-and-future-book-i-mw0000123992", "http://www.last.fm/music/Michael+Jackson/Bad" ], "search_context": [ "The Essential Michael Jackson by Michael Jackson on Apple Music\n38 Songs\niTunes Review\nThis 2005 retrospective of career-spanning singles lives up to its name. After offering a few of Michael’s initial hits with his brothers (“I Want You Back” and “ABC”) and nascent singles as a solo artist, the compilation gains altitude with self-assured pop hits like “Don’t Stop ‘Til You Get Enough” and “Off the Wall.” The tracks taken from Thriller and Bad—especially “Billie Jean” and “Man in the Mirror”—capture Jackson at his popular apex, swerving effortlessly from honeyed balladry to sweat-drenched dance tracks. The New Jack Swing-ing “In the Closet” and the inspirational “Heal the World” find his talent transcending the scrutiny of his superstardom. Spinning to a close with \"You Rock My World,\" from his tenth and final studio album, Invincible, this well-selected anthology is a concise single-volume primer on Jackson’s singular career.\nCustomer Reviews\nBest way to get all jackson's hits!!!!\n     \nby pandmmac\nIf you're looking for a way to get all of michael jackson's classics, this is the album for you! And it's a fantastic price for all the songs that you get. When trying to purchase his top rated songs, its very frustrating, because many of the songs are not available for download in the USA. I was about ready to give up on adding him to my ipod when I found this. So I was thrilled when I came across this album! After listening to all the songs on this album, these are the classic versions of the songs, not fake or imitation versions.\nLOVE\n     \nby reva.\neveryone loves him. no matter what they say. everyone knows his songs and sings them in the shower\nMichael, gone too soon... but your legend lives on...\n     \nby phyllisa\n...even though for many years now, you've been derided and neglected. It's so sad that it takes your death for people to start remembering the greatness of your music. Nevertheless, dedicated fans (myself included!) will continue to believe in you and your art. Thank you for sharing your genius with us for so many years, for being such a big part of our lives - we believe you've now found the long-deserved peace you've been fighting for. We miss you greatly. This compilation is a comprehensive collection of Michael's work over the years, and shows off how he shattered barriers of all kinds through his music and the belief he held for it, and for the world. For those who are not really familiar with Michael's songs (i.e., those who don't own many of his albums), this is a great place to start. For those looking out for lesser known songs, another great album to own is \"Michael Jackson - The Ultimate Collection\". Let's keep his music alive and help people to know and remember why he will always be the incomparable and unsurpassable King of Pop!\nBiography\nBorn: August 29, 1958 in Gary, IN\nGenre: Pop\nYears Active: '60s, '70s, '80s, '90s, '00s\nMichael Jackson wasn't merely the biggest pop star of his era, shaping the sound and style of the '70s and '80s; he was one of the defining stars of the 20th century, a musician who changed the contours of American culture. A preternaturally gifted singer and dancer, Jackson first rose to stardom in 1969 as the 11-year-old frontman for his family's band, the Jackson 5. As remarkable a run as the Jackson 5 had -- at the dawn of the '70s, each of their first four singles went to number one and they...\nTop Albums and Songs by Michael Jackson\n1.", "Michael Jackson - Man In The Mirror (Official Video) - YouTube\nMichael Jackson - Man In The Mirror (Official Video)\nWant to watch this again later?\nSign in to add this video to a playlist.\nNeed to report the video?\nSign in to report inappropriate content.\nRating is available when the video has been rented.\nThis feature is not available right now. Please try again later.\nUploaded on Oct 2, 2009\nIn keeping with the lyrical message of \"Man in the Mirror,\" which was strongly identified with Michael Jackson and reflective of his own philosophies, the short film features powerful images of events and leaders whose work embodies the song's message to\"make that change.\" Rolling Stone praised the short film in 2014 as \"a powerful statement to deliver to personality-driven MTV.\"\nBuy/Listen to Bad 25:\nWritten by Siedah Garrett and Glen Ballard\nProduced by Quincy Jones for Quincy Jones Productions\nCo-Produced by Michael Jackson for MJJ Productions, Inc.\nFrom the album Bad, released August 31, 1987\nReleased as a single January 16, 1988\nTHE SHORT FILM\nDirector: Don Wilson\nMichael Jackson's short film for \"Man in the Mirror\" was the third of nine short films produced for recordings from Bad, one of the best selling albums of all time. The \"Man in the Mirror\" single hit No. 1 in four countries in 1988, topping the charts in the United States, Italy, Belgium and Poland and reaching Top 5 in Canada, Ireland and New Zealand. In the U.S., \"Man in the Mirror\" was the fourth of five consecutive No. 1 singles from one album on the Billboard Hot 100-making Michael the first artist to achieve this milestone.\n\"Man in the Mirror,\" written by Siedah Garrett (Michael's duet partner on \"I Just Can't Stop Loving You\") and Glen Ballard, is one of only two songs on Bad not written by Michael Jackson and, even though it wasn't a song he wrote himself, it was a message that was strongly identified with him and reflective of his own philosophies, as demonstrated through his actions and expressed in some of his own lyrics. \"'Man in the Mirror' has a great message,\" he wrote in his 1988 memoir Moonwalk. \"I love that song. ..Start with yourself. Don't be looking at all the other things. Start with you. That's the truth.\" A review of Bad in Rolling Stone in 1987 called the song \"among the half dozen best things Jackson has done.\"\nIn contrast to Michael's other short films of the Bad era, \"Man of the Mirror\"tells a story not through performance, but through powerful images of oppression, homelessness, hunger, police brutality and other ills of the world, as well as events and leaders of the 20th century whose work is reflective of the song's message to \"make that change.\"\nFollow the Official Michael Jackson Accounts:", "Man In The Mirror by Michael Jackson Songfacts\nMan In The Mirror by Michael Jackson Songfacts\nSongfacts\nThis song is about making a change and realizing that it has to start with you. It was one of just two songs on the Bad album that Jackson didn't write. The song was written by Siedah Garrett and Glen Ballard, and Garret also sang backup on the track. Ballard went on to write and produce for Alanis Morissette and Dave Matthews. Garrett also sang on Jackson's \" I Just Can't Stop Loving You \" and later joined the Brand New Heavies.\nJackson and his producer Quincy Jones chose this song for the album after looking for \"an anthem\" that as Jones said would spread some \"sunshine on the world.\" He invited some songwriters from his publishing company to present songs, and they chose this one.\nThis was the fourth of five US #1 hits from the Bad album.\nThe Andrae Crouch Gospel Choir sang on this. They also appeared on Madonna's \" Like A Prayer \" and Rick Astley's \" Cry For Help .\"\nIn the first UK singles chart after the death of Michael Jackson, this re-entered at #11, the highest position of Jackson's sixteen entries in the top 75. This was a surprise because it only reached #21 on its original release. The following week it climbed to #2, the highest of Jackson's record breaking 27 songs in the UK Top 75, (including several with the Jackson 5/The Jacksons).\nThe song's lyricist, Siedah Garrett, was a member of the Quincy Jones-produced five-piece, Deco, when she penned this tune. She had never written a song before when Jones invited her along to a meeting with other songwriters at the producer's home to come up with material for Jackson's next album. The appointment was for 11am, but as Garrett explained to author Adam White, she arrived an hour late. \"I got lost,\" she explained. Once she eventually arrived Jones told the assembled company. \"I just want hits, that's all I want.\"\nGarrett took the commission to her writing partner, the then little known Glen Ballard, who later achieved enormous success as a co-writer and producer with Alanis Morrisette on her first albums. \"I sat down and started playing a figure on the keyboard and Siedah opened up her notebook,\" Ballard recalled to SongTalk magazine. Garrett caught Ballard's attention with some lyrics about a man looking in the mirror. She told SongTalk that she had been holding onto the title \"for about a year. I have a book and when I hear things that I like, I write it down. I keep a pad in my car at all times.\"\nBy the end of the week the pair had completed a demo, with Garrett's guide vocal. Garrett recalled to SongTalk the rest of the song's story: \"We had the demo of the song done on a Friday evening. Knowing that Quincy Jones' offices were going to be closed until Monday, I called [Quincy] and said, 'I can't wait until Monday.' He told me to bring the tape over. I did. Four hours later – four hours! – he called me. He said, 'Baby, the song is great. It's really good. But– ' I said, 'But what?' And he said, 'I don't know. I've been playing songs for Michael for two years. And he has yet to accept an outside song.'\nThree days later I got a call from Quincy and he told me that Michael loved the song and wanted to cut it. I screamed! Couldn't believe it.\nThen he said that Michael had a great idea for the background; he's gonna have the Winans and Andre Crouch an a choir. Then he said, 'and I might be able to squeeze you in on that.' I said, 'Q Babe! Thanks!' [Laughs]\nA few days before the session I got a call from Quincy. He told me Michael wanted to extend the bridge and needed some new lyrics for it. And he was trying to tell me the message that should be in these new lyrics. He would say, 'Michael wants so-and-so,' and then, in the background I would hear, [softly and high-pitched] 'Mmmrrrmmrr…' And it was Michael, you know?\nThis went on for a little while, with Quincy translating for Michael. Finally, Quincy says, 'Hold on,' and puts Michael Jackson on the phone, right? I'm home cooking dinner, right? And inside I'm like 'OMIGOD!! It's MICHAEL JACKSON!!' But on the phone I'm like [softly and coolly], 'Yes, Michael?' Really cool, you know?\nHe said, 'I love your song and I think you have a great voice.'\nI said, 'Wow. Thanks! Thanks for doing it, dude!' [Laughs]\nSo Michael tells me what he wants and I take off to find the answer to his dilemma in the bridge. I came up with three different ideas for the part. But then the song turned out to be long anyway, that they never used it. So it's pretty much as it was in demo form with the exception of the key change.\"\nJackson was so impressed by the soulful beauty of Garrett's voice on the demo that he immediately enlisted her to sing a duet with him on \"I Just Can't Stop Loving You.\"\nGarrett explained to SongTalk how she asked God for some divine inspiration for this song: \"I said, 'I want to write a song for Michael Jackson.' Since I wanted Michael to know who I was, I was thinking in my mind, 'What can I say to him that he wouldn't be afraid to say to the rest of the world?' And this song came through. [Claps hands and laughs.]\"\nWhen Jackson asked Garrett where she got the idea for the song, she replied that she asked God for it. Said Garrett: \"My answer to him was that 'I asked for it.' I didn't mention God because I didn't know where he was as far as religion goes. But he knewwho I was talking about. I didn't ask my neighbor George for it!\"\nAndrae Crouch helped Michael Jackson arrange the song. The gospel star also arranged music for the 1985 film The Color Purple, which earned him an Academy Award nomination.\nCrouch was dyslexic and for help him create this song he drew a mirror with an image in it. \"I memorized everything through sight, the shape of the word,\" he told The Associated Press.\n\"Some things that I write, you'll see a page with cartoon pictures or a drawing of a car - like a Ford - or a flag. I still do it on an occasion when a word is strange to me,\" Crouch added. \"So when I finish a song, I thank God for bringing me through. You have to press on and know your calling. That's what I've been doing for all my life. I just went forward.\"\nThe music video, directed by Donald Wilson, was almost entirely a compilation of raw news footage, covering everything from homelessness to racial violence. Wilson explained the idea to Rolling Stone: \"Larry [Stossel, Epic exec] told me Michael wanted to do something real heart-wrenching and tell a story, and could I go meet with him. This was the day after Thanksgiving. We met in the attic of [Jackson manager] Frank DiLeo's home in Encino – even just the attic was a palace. So, Michael and I sat down and just started making a list of things that we could think of. I had two or three hand-written pages of ideas. Michael wasn't the kind of guy who told you what to do, he would inspire you to go do it with his backing.\nI went to all these places that have archival news footage and say, 'Give me all your worst stuff.' And by the end of the day, I'd looked at dead bodies and massacres and famine. After a while, I would go to a bar – immediately. It was brutal.\nI probably had 200 hours of footage. My goal kind of was, if you could take the video and play it in reverse, it starts from the planet out in space and then a child in an incubator and then young children; and by the time you get to the end of the video, all hell's broken loose. It's just sort of man's laziness about doing things. I'm gonna make this thing out of 80 percent news footage that people have already seen and they change the channel because it's too hard to watch, or it's too boring. I'm gonna use the same stuff and make them go, 'Wow, I've never seen that before.' Oh yeah, you have.\nBefore Michael passed we were actually thinking about doing an updated version. I would have hated to do it and not be better, which is kinda the reason I didn't go for it. That thing was so magical in a weird kind of way.\"", "Bad by Michael Jackson on iTunes\n11 Songs\niTunes Review\nBad may not have all the timeless prestige of its predecessor, Thriller, but it’s just as full of heart and purpose. Over rockier rhythms, Jackson sounds gleeful and impassioned, whether he’s making a profound humanitarian plea (“Man in the Mirror”), raging with lust (“Dirty Diana”), or narrating a suave play-by-play (“Smooth Criminal”). And when he’s slaying the dance floor, his voice is spine-tingling—his nuanced falsetto goes from subtle to ferocious in the space of a single line—once again proving that Jackson is pop's one true master of ceremony.\nCustomer Reviews\nWere iTunes reviews always this way?\n     \nby Dan CBD\nSince when were iTunes' album \"reviews\" based on opinions? For the longest, these reviews were basically overviews. They basically told a brief explanation or history of the album to give listeners an idea of its background. They were never really personal thoughts and opinions on the album itself, were they? If so, I don't remember that. Anyway, my point is that the review currently on this page is completely biased. It wouldn't matter if I liked the album or not - anyone can see that that review is completely biased. Instead of explaining the process/production of the album as a follow-up to Thriller, it completely bashes it and Michael Jackson's work seemingly solely based on the fact that it was the follow-up to the greatest selling album of all-time. It looks at the album as inferior to Thriller, and iTunes reviews should never do that. I'm shocked that this album was reviewed as such, because it does not give credit to everything Jackson did well whatsoever.\nSeriously\n     \nby Heath4544\nThe editor notes says the jackson proclaimed himself the King of Pop thats not true at all. Elizabeth Taylor said that at an award show an everyone started calling him that. You would think a company like apple would hire competent people who get the accurate information. Do the research before you broadcast things to the masses its embarrassing that your an editor. The album is classic by the way.\nBiography\nBorn: August 29, 1958 in Gary, IN\nGenre: Pop\nYears Active: '60s, '70s, '80s, '90s, '00s\nMichael Jackson wasn't merely the biggest pop star of his era, shaping the sound and style of the '70s and '80s; he was one of the defining stars of the 20th century, a musician who changed the contours of American culture. A preternaturally gifted singer and dancer, Jackson first rose to stardom in 1969 as the 11-year-old frontman for his family's band, the Jackson 5. As remarkable a run as the Jackson 5 had -- at the dawn of the '70s, each of their first four singles went to number one and they...\nTop Albums and Songs by Michael Jackson\n1.", "Bad - Michael Jackson | Songs, Reviews, Credits | AllMusic\nMichael Jackson\ngoogle+\nAllMusic Review by Stephen Thomas Erlewine\nThe downside to a success like Thriller is that it's nearly impossible to follow, but Michael Jackson approached Bad much the same way he approached Thriller -- take the basic formula of the predecessor, expand it slightly, and move it outward. This meant that he moved deeper into hard rock, deeper into schmaltzy adult contemporary, deeper into hard dance -- essentially taking each portion of Thriller to an extreme, while increasing the quotient of immaculate studiocraft. He wound up with a sleeker, slicker Thriller , which isn't a bad thing, but it's not a rousing success, either. For one thing, the material just isn't as good. Look at the singles: only three can stand alongside album tracks from its predecessor (\"Bad,\" \"The Way You Make Me Feel,\" \"I Just Can't Stop Loving You\"), another is simply OK (\"Smooth Criminal\"), with the other two showcasing Jackson at his worst (the saccharine \"Man in the Mirror,\" the misogynistic \"Dirty Diana\"). Then, there are the album tracks themselves, something that virtually didn't exist on Thriller but bog down Bad not just because they're bad, but because they reveal that Jackson 's state of the art is not hip. And they constitute a near-fatal dead spot on the record -- songs three through six, from \"Speed Demon\" to \"Another Part of Me,\" a sequence that's utterly faceless, lacking memorable hooks and melodies, even when Stevie Wonder steps in for \"Just Good Friends,\" relying on nothing but studiocraft. Part of the joy of Off the Wall and Thriller was that craft was enhanced with tremendous songs, performances, and fresh, vivacious beats. For this dreadful stretch, everything is mechanical, and while the album rebounds with songs that prove mechanical can be tolerable if delivered with hooks and panache, it still makes Bad feel like an artifact of its time instead a piece of music that transcends it.\nTrack Listing", "Michael Jackson - Bad CD Album\nMichael Jackson\n>\nBad CD music Product Description\nBad album for sale by Michael Jackson was released Jan 16, 2015 on the Epic label. Personnel includes: Michael Jackson (vocals); Stevie Wonder (vocals, keyboards); The Winans (vocals); David Williams, Eric Gale, Steve Stevens, Bill Bottrell, Dann Huff, Michael Landau, Paul Jackson Jr. (guitar); Larry Williams (saxophone, keyboards, programming); Kim Hutchcroft (saxophone); Gary Grant, Jerry Hey (trumpet); John Barnes (piano, keyboards); Kevin Maloney (piano); Jimmy Smith (Hammond organ); Christopher Currell, Michael Boddicker, David Paich, Greg Phillinganes, Rhett Lawrence, Glen Ballard, Randy Kerber, Denny Jaeger (keyboards); Nathan East (bass); Ollie E.   ... See Full Description\nBad buy CD music Product Reviews\nQ (Magazine) (p.126) - \"[W]ith Jackson still intent on pushing the limits, from the pulsating title track to 'Man In The Mirror''s baroque gospel finale....Compelling...'\nMichael Jackson - Bad Album Track Listing\nTrk\nThe Way You Make Me Feel \n \nJust Good Friends Featuring Stevie Wonder \nwith Stevie Wonder \nI Just Can't Stop Loving You Featuring Siedah Garrett \nwith Siedah Garrett \nBad album for sale Customer Reviews\nAverage Rating:\n(0)\nhey there readers mysterious\nWow Michael Jackson bad album was written very well as a statement to have written thirty three songs almost every song that wrote made ?the album I would put this next to the thriller album my favorites are don't be messing around street walker Al Capone free abortion papers bad smooth criminal another part of Me just good friends and loving you not be confused with I just can't stop loving you I love this album I m ??thanks for reading my review god - you Michael Jackson love you bless you all Mysterious.\nBy mysterious (albny)\n(4)\nMichael takes his music to the streets...\nBuy it. This is the type of album which will strech your immagination to the limit with its Swahili scented 'Liberian Girl' and its Gangster styled 'Smooth Criminal'.\nBy a reviewer (Oxford, England, UK)\nReview is for a different format .\n(13)\ncdu4asppid music 9556010 cdu4pidall cdu4pls7 ver260cdu cdu4all 1/18/2017 12:01:32 PM\n�\nPreRip Terms and Conditions\nPreRip is a free option on select CD's displaying the PreRip icon. This option allows you to download the MP3 version of that CD immediately after your purchase. The physical CD will still be shipped to you.\nIf you agree to accept your PreRip MP3s, please be aware that the corresponding CD will be non-refundable and cannot be canceled from your order. This protects us against customers taking the free MP3 and then canceling the CD.\nPreRip availability may change at any time, so we recommend that you download as soon as possible.\nShould the CD you receive be defective, we will exchange it for a new one. PreRip is only available to customers in the United States. This is a limitation placed on us by the record labels.", "HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I - Michael Jackson | Songs, Reviews, Credits | AllMusic\nHIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I\nAllMusic Rating\ngoogle+\nAllMusic Review by Stephen Thomas Erlewine\nMichael Jackson 's double-disc HIStory: Past, Present, and Future, Book I is a monumental achievement of ego. Titled \"HIStory Begins,\" the first disc is a collection of his post-Motown hits, featuring some of the greatest music in pop history, including \"Billie Jean,\" \"Don't Stop 'Til You Get Enough,\" \"Beat It,\" and \"Rock with You.\" It leaves some hits out -- including the number ones \"Say Say Say\" and \"Dirty Diana\" -- yet it's filled with enough prime material to be thoroughly intoxicating. That can't be said for the second disc, called \"HIStory Continues\" and consisting entirely of new material -- which also happens to be the first material he released since being accused of child molestation. \"HIStory Continues\" is easily the most personal album Jackson has recorded. References to the scandal permeate almost every song, creating a thick atmosphere of paranoia. If Jackson 's music had been the equal of Thriller or Bad , the nervous, vindictive lyrics wouldn't have been quite as overbearing. However, \"HIStory Continues\" reiterates musical ideas Jackson had been exploring since Bad . Jackson certainly tries to stay contemporary, yet he has a tendency to smooth out all of his rougher musical edges with show-biz schmaltz. Occasionally, Jackson produces some well-crafted pop that ranks with his best material: R. Kelly 's \"You Are Not Alone\" is seductive, \"Scream\" improves on the slamming beats of his earlier single \"Jam,\" and \"Stranger in Moscow\" is one of his most haunting ballads. Nevertheless, \"HIStory Continues\" stands as his weakest album since the mid-'70s.\nTrack Listing - Disc 1", "Bad - Michael Jackson — Listen and discover music at Last.fm\nBad\nking of pop\nBad is the seventh album by Michael Jackson. It was released on August 31, 1987 by Epic/CBS Records. The record was released nearly five years after his last studio album Thriller. 20 years after its release, the album has sold over 30 million copies worldwide, and shipped 8 million units in the United States. Bad is the first, and currently only album ever to feature five Billboard Hot 100 #1 singles.\nJackson began recording demos for the anticipated follow-up… read more\nDon't want to see ads? Subscribe now\nTracklist" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Korean_War.txt" ], "title": [ "Korean War" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Korean War (in South Korean , \"Korean War\"; in North Korean , \"Fatherland Liberation War\"; 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953) began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, came to the aid of South Korea. China, with assistance from the Soviet Union, came to the aid of North Korea. The war arose from the division of Korea at the end of World War II and from the global tensions of the Cold War that developed immediately afterwards.\n\nKorea was ruled by Japan from 1910 until the closing days of World War II. In August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, as a result of an agreement with the United States, and liberated Korea north of the 38th parallel. U.S. forces subsequently moved into the south. By 1948, as a product of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Korea was split into two regions, with separate governments. Both governments claimed to be the legitimate government of Korea, and neither side accepted the border as permanent. The civil war escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces—supported by the Soviet Union and China—moved to the south to unite the country on 25 June 1950. On that day, the United Nations Security Council recognized this North Korean act as invasion and called for an immediate ceasefire. On 27 June, the Security Council adopted S/RES/83: Complaint of aggression upon the Republic of Korea and decided the formation and dispatch of the UN Forces in Korea. Twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the defense of South Korea, with the United States providing 88% of the UN's military personnel.\n\nAfter the first two months of the conflict, South Korean forces were on the point of defeat, forced back to the Pusan Perimeter. In September 1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Inchon, and cut off many of the North Korean troops. Those that escaped envelopment and capture were rapidly forced back north all the way to the border with China at the Yalu River, or into the mountainous interior. At this point, in October 1950, Chinese forces crossed the Yalu and entered the war. Chinese intervention triggered a retreat of UN forces which continued until mid-1951. After these dramatic reversals of fortune, which saw Seoul change hands four times, the last two years of conflict became a war of attrition, with the front line close to the 38th parallel. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate. North Korea was subject to a massive bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in air-to-air combat for the first time in history, and Soviet pilots covertly flew in defense of their communist allies.\n\nThe fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when an armistice was signed. The agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no peace treaty has been signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war. Periodic clashes, many of which were deadly, have continued to the present.\n\nNames\n\nIn the U.S., the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a \"police action\" as it was an undeclared military action, conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. It has been referred to in the Anglosphere as \"The Forgotten War\" or \"The Unknown War\" because of the lack of public attention it received both during and after the war, and in relation to the global scale of World War II, which preceded it, and the subsequent angst of the Vietnam War, which succeeded it.\n\nIn South Korea, the war is usually referred to as \"625\" or the \"6–2–5 Upheaval\" ( (), yook-i-o dongnan), reflecting the date of its commencement on 25 June.\n\nIn North Korea, the war is officially referred to as the \"Fatherland Liberation War\" (Choguk haebang chǒnjaeng) or alternatively the \"Chosǒn [Korean] War\" (, Chosǒn chǒnjaeng).\n\nIn China, the war is officially called the \"War to Resist U.S. Aggression and Aid Korea\" (), although the term \"Chaoxian (Korean) War\" () is also used in unofficial contexts, along with the term \"Korean Conflict\" () more commonly used in regions such as Hong Kong and Macau.\n\nBackground\n\nImperial Japanese rule (1910–45)\n\nJapan destroyed the influence of China over Korea in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–95), ushering in the short-lived Korean Empire. A decade later, after defeating Imperial Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05), Japan made Korea its protectorate with the Eulsa Treaty in 1905, then annexed it with the Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty in 1910.\n\nMany Korean nationalists fled the country. A Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea was founded in 1919 in Nationalist China. It failed to achieve international recognition, failed to unite nationalist groups, and had a fractious relationship with its American-based founding President, Syngman Rhee. From 1919 to 1925 and beyond, Korean communists led internal and external warfare against the Japanese.\n\nKorea was considered to be part of the Empire of Japan as an industrialized colony along with Taiwan, and both were part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. In 1937, the colonial Governor-General, General Jirō Minami, commanded the attempted cultural assimilation of Korea's 23.5 million people by banning the use and study of Korean language, literature, and culture, to be replaced with that of mandatory use and study of their Japanese counterparts. Starting in 1939, the populace was required to use Japanese names under the Sōshi-kaimei policy. Conscription of Koreans for labor in war industries began in 1939, with as many as 2 million Koreans conscripted into either the Japanese Army or into the Japanese labor force. \n\nIn China, the Nationalist National Revolutionary Army and the communist People's Liberation Army helped organize Korean refugees against the Japanese military, which had also occupied parts of China. The Nationalist-backed Koreans, led by Yi Pom-Sok, fought in the Burma Campaign (December 1941 – August 1945). The communists, led by Kim Il-sung among others, fought the Japanese in Korea and Manchuria.\n\nDuring World War II, Japan used Korea's food, livestock, and metals for their war effort. Japanese forces in Korea increased from 46,000 soldiers in 1941 to 300,000 in 1945. Japanese Korea conscripted 2.6 million forced laborers controlled with a collaborationist Korean police force; some 723,000 people were sent to work in the overseas empire and in metropolitan Japan. By 1942, Korean men were being conscripted into the Imperial Japanese Army. By January 1945, Koreans made up 32% of Japan's labor force. At the end of the war, other world powers did not recognize Japanese rule in Korea and Taiwan.\n\nAt the Cairo Conference in November 1943, China, the United Kingdom, and United States all decided \"in due course Korea shall become free and independent\".\n\nSoviet-Japanese War (1945)\n\nAt the Tehran Conference in November 1943 and the Yalta Conference in February 1945, the Soviet Union promised to join its allies in the Pacific War within three months of the victory in Europe. Accordingly, it declared war on Japan on 9 August 1945. By 10 August, the Red Army had begun to occupy the northern part of the Korean peninsula.\n\nOn the night of 10 August in Washington, American Colonels Dean Rusk and Charles H. Bonesteel III were tasked with dividing the Korean Peninsula into Soviet and U.S. occupation zones and proposed the 38th parallel. This was incorporated into America's General Order No. 1 which responded to the Japanese surrender on 15 August. Explaining the choice of the 38th parallel, Rusk observed, \"even though it was further north than could be realistically reached by U.S. forces, in the event of Soviet disagreement...we felt it important to include the capital of Korea in the area of responsibility of American troops\". He noted that he was \"faced with the scarcity of US forces immediately available, and time and space factors, which would make it difficult to reach very far north, before Soviet troops could enter the area\". As Rusk's comments indicate, the Americans doubted whether the Soviet government would agree to this. Stalin, however, maintained his wartime policy of co-operation, and on 16 August the Red Army halted at the 38th parallel for three weeks to await the arrival of U.S. forces in the south.\n\nKorea divided (1945–49)\n\nOn 8 September 1945, U.S. Lt. Gen. John R. Hodge arrived in Incheon to accept the Japanese surrender south of the 38th parallel. Appointed as military governor, General Hodge directly controlled South Korea as head of the United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK 1945–48). He attempted to establish control by restoring Japanese colonial administrators to power, but in the face of Korean protests he quickly reversed this decision. The USAMGIK refused to recognize the provisional government of the short-lived People's Republic of Korea (PRK) due to its suspected Communist sympathies.\n\nIn December 1945, Korea was administered by a U.S.-Soviet Union Joint Commission, as agreed at the Moscow Conference, with the aim of granting independence after a five-year trusteeship. The idea was not popular among Koreans and riots broke out. To contain them, the USAMGIK banned strikes on 8 December 1945 and outlawed the PRK Revolutionary Government and the PRK People's Committees on 12 December 1945.\n\nThe right-wing Representative Democratic Council, led by Syngman Rhee, who had arrived with the U.S. military, opposed the trusteeship, arguing that Korea had already suffered from foreign occupation far too long. General Hodge began to distance himself from the proposal, even though it had originated with his government.\n\nOn 23 September 1946, an 8,000-strong railroad worker strike began in Pusan. Civil disorder spread throughout the country in what became known as the Autumn uprising. On 1 October 1946, Korean police killed three students in the Daegu Uprising; protesters counter-attacked, killing 38 policemen. On 3 October, some 10,000 people attacked the Yeongcheon police station, killing three policemen and injuring some 40 more; elsewhere, some 20 landlords and pro-Japanese South Korean officials were killed. The USAMGIK declared martial law.\n\nCiting the inability of the Joint Commission to make progress, the U.S. government decided to hold an election under United Nations auspices with the aim of creating an independent Korea. The Soviet authorities and the Korean Communists refused to co-operate on the grounds it would not be fair, and many South Korean politicians boycotted it. A general election was held in the South on 10 May 1948. It was marred by political violence and sabotage resulting in 600 deaths. North Korea held parliamentary elections three months later on 25 August.\n\nThe resultant South Korean government promulgated a national political constitution on 17 July 1948, and elected Syngman Rhee as President on 20 July 1948. The Republic of Korea (South Korea) was established on 15 August 1948. In the Russian Korean Zone of Occupation, the Soviet Union established a communist government led by Kim Il-sung. President Rhee's régime excluded communists and leftists from southern politics. Disenfranchised, they headed for the hills, to prepare for guerrilla war against the US-sponsored ROK government.\n\nMeanwhile, on 3 April 1948, what began as a demonstration commemorating Korean resistance to Japanese rule ended with the Jeju uprising where between 14,000 and 60,000 people died. South Korean Army soldiers carried out large-scale atrocities during its suppression of the uprising. In October 1948, some South Korean soldiers mutinied against the clampdown in the Yeosu-Suncheon Rebellion.\n\nThe Soviet Union withdrew as agreed from Korea in 1948, and U.S. troops withdrew in 1949. On 24 December 1949, South Korean forces killed 86 to 88 people in the Mungyeong massacre and blamed the crime on marauding communist bands. By early 1950, Syngman Rhee had about 30,000 alleged communists in jails and about 300,000 suspected sympathizers enrolled in the Bodo League re-education movement. \n\nChinese Civil War (1945–1949)\n\nWith the end of the war with Japan, the Chinese Civil War resumed between the Chinese Communists and the Chinese Nationalists. While the Communists were struggling for supremacy in Manchuria, they were supported by the North Korean government with matériel and manpower. According to Chinese sources, the North Koreans donated 2,000 railway cars worth of matériel while thousands of Koreans served in the Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA) during the war. North Korea also provided the Chinese Communists in Manchuria with a safe refuge for non-combatants and communications with the rest of China.\n\nThe North Korean contributions to the Chinese Communist victory were not forgotten after the creation of the People's Republic of China in 1949. As a token of gratitude, between 50,000 and 70,000 Korean veterans that served in the PLA were sent back along with their weapons, and they later played a significant role in the initial invasion of South Korea. China promised to support the North Koreans in the event of a war against South Korea. The Chinese support created a deep division between the Korean Communists, and Kim Il-sung's authority within the Communist party was challenged by the Chinese faction led by Pak Il-yu, who was later purged by Kim.\n\nAfter the formation of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the Chinese government named the Western nations, led by the United States, as the biggest threat to its national security. Basing this judgment on China's century of humiliation beginning in the early 19th century, American support for the Nationalists during the Chinese Civil War, and the ideological struggles between revolutionaries and reactionaries, the Chinese leadership believed that China would become a critical battleground in the United States' crusade against Communism. As a countermeasure and to elevate China's standing among the worldwide Communist movements, the Chinese leadership adopted a foreign policy that actively promoted Communist revolutions throughout territories on China's periphery.\n\nCourse of the war\n\nOutbreak of war (1950)\n\nBy 1949, South Korean forces had reduced the active number of communist guerrillas in the South from 5,000 to 1,000. However, Kim Il-sung believed that the guerrillas had weakened the South Korean military and that a North Korean invasion would be welcomed by much of the South Korean population. Kim began seeking Stalin's support for an invasion in March 1949, travelling to Moscow to attempt to persuade Stalin.\n\nInitially, Stalin did not think the time was right for a war in Korea. Chinese Communist forces were still fighting in China. American forces were still stationed in South Korea (they would complete their withdrawal in June 1949) and Stalin did not want the Soviet Union to become embroiled in a war with the United States.\n\nBy spring 1950, Stalin believed the strategic situation had changed. The Soviets had detonated their first nuclear bomb in September 1949; American soldiers had fully withdrawn from Korea; the Americans had not intervened to stop the communist victory in China, and Stalin calculated that the Americans would be even less willing to fight in Korea—which had seemingly much less strategic significance. The Soviets had also cracked the codes used by the US to communicate with the US embassy in Moscow, and reading these dispatches convinced Stalin that Korea did not have the importance to the US that would warrant a nuclear confrontation. Stalin began a more aggressive strategy in Asia based on these developments, including promising economic and military aid to China through the Sino–Soviet Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance Treaty.\n\nThroughout 1949 and 1950 the Soviets continued to arm North Korea. After the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War, ethnic Korean units in the Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA) were released to North Korea. The combat veterans from China, the tanks, artillery and aircraft supplied by the Soviets, and rigorous training increased North Korea's military superiority over the South, which had been armed by the American military with mostly small arms and given no heavy weaponry such as tanks.\n\nIn April 1950, Stalin gave Kim permission to invade the South under the condition that Mao would agree to send reinforcements if they became needed. Stalin made it clear that Soviet forces would not openly engage in combat, to avoid a direct war with the Americans. Kim met with Mao in May 1950. Mao was concerned that the Americans would intervene but agreed to support the North Korean invasion. China desperately needed the economic and military aid promised by the Soviets. At that time, the Chinese were in the process of demobilizing half of the PLA's 5.6 million soldiers. However, Mao sent more ethnic Korean PLA veterans to Korea and promised to move an army closer to the Korean border. Once Mao's commitment was secured, preparations for war accelerated. \n\nSoviet generals with extensive combat experience from the Second World War were sent to North Korea as the Soviet Advisory Group. These generals completed the plans for the attack by May. The original plans called for a skirmish to be initiated in the Ongjin Peninsula on the west coast of Korea. The North Koreans would then launch a \"counterattack\" that would capture Seoul and encircle and destroy the South Korean army. The final stage would involve destroying South Korean government remnants, capturing the rest of South Korea, including the ports.\n\nOn 7 June 1950, Kim Il-sung called for a Korea-wide election on 5–8 August 1950 and a consultative conference in Haeju on 15–17 June 1950. On 11 June, the North sent three diplomats to the South, as a peace overture that Rhee rejected. On 21 June, Kim Il-Sung revised his war plan to involve general attack across the 38th parallel, rather than a limited operation in the Ongjin peninsula. Kim was concerned that South Korean agents had learned about the plans and South Korean forces were strengthening their defenses. Stalin agreed to this change of plan.\n\nWhile these preparations were underway in the North, there were frequent clashes along the 38th parallel, especially at Kaesong and Ongjin, many initiated by the South. The Republic of Korea Army (ROK Army) was being trained by the U.S. Korean Military Advisory Group (KMAG). On the eve of war, KMAG's commander General William Lynn Roberts voiced utmost confidence in the ROK Army and boasted that any North Korean invasion would merely provide \"target practice\". For his part, Syngman Rhee repeatedly expressed his desire to conquer the North, including when American diplomat John Foster Dulles visited Korea on 18 June.\n\nAlthough some South Korean and American intelligence officers were predicting an attack from the North, similar predictions had been made before and nothing had eventuated. The Central Intelligence Agency did note the southward movement by the Korean People's Army (KPA), but assessed this as a \"defensive measure\" and concluded an invasion was \"unlikely\". On 23 June, UN observers inspected the border and did not detect that war was imminent. \n\nAt dawn on Sunday, 25 June 1950, the Korean People's Army crossed the 38th parallel behind artillery fire. The KPA justified its assault with the claim that ROK troops had attacked first, and that they were aiming to arrest and execute the \"bandit traitor Syngman Rhee\". Fighting began on the strategic Ongjin peninsula in the west. There were initial South Korean claims that they had captured the city of Haeju, and this sequence of events has led some scholars to argue that the South Koreans actually fired first. \n\nWhoever fired the first shots in Ongjin, within an hour, North Korean forces attacked all along the 38th parallel. The North Koreans had a combined arms force including tanks supported by heavy artillery. The South Koreans did not have any tanks, anti-tank weapons, nor heavy artillery, that could stop such an attack. In addition, South Koreans committed their forces in a piecemeal fashion and these were routed within a few days.\n\nOn 27 June, Rhee evacuated from Seoul with some of the government. On 28 June, at 2 am, the South Korean Army blew up the highway bridge across the Han River in an attempt to stop the North Korean army. The bridge was detonated while 4,000 refugees were crossing the bridge, and hundreds were killed. Destroying the bridge also trapped many South Korean military units north of the Han River. In spite of such desperate measures, Seoul fell that same day. A number of South Korean National Assemblymen remained in Seoul when it fell, and forty-eight subsequently pledged allegiance to the North.\n\nOn 28 June, Rhee ordered the massacre of suspected political opponents in his own country. \n\nIn five days, the South Korean forces, which had 95,000 men on 25 June, was down to less than 22,000 men. In early July, when U.S. forces arrived, what was left of the South Korean forces were placed under U.S. operational command of the United Nations Command.\n\nFactors in US intervention\n\nThe Truman administration was unprepared for the invasion. Korea was not included in the strategic Asian Defense Perimeter outlined by Secretary of State Dean Acheson. Military strategists were more concerned with the security of Europe against the Soviet Union than East Asia. At the same time, the Administration was worried that a war in Korea could quickly widen into another world war should the Chinese or Soviets decide to get involved as well.\n\nOne facet of the changing attitude toward Korea and whether to get involved was Japan. Especially after the fall of China to the Communists, U.S. East Asian experts saw Japan as the critical counterweight to the Soviet Union and China in the region. While there was no United States policy that dealt with South Korea directly as a national interest, its proximity to Japan increased the importance of South Korea. Said Kim: \"The recognition that the security of Japan required a non-hostile Korea led directly to President Truman's decision to intervene... The essential point... is that the American response to the North Korean attack stemmed from considerations of US policy toward Japan.\"\n\nA major consideration was the possible Soviet reaction in the event that the US intervened. The Truman administration was fretful that a war in Korea was a diversionary assault that would escalate to a general war in Europe once the United States committed in Korea. At the same time, \"[t]here was no suggestion from anyone that the United Nations or the United States could back away from [the conflict]\". Yugoslavia–a possible Soviet target because of the Tito-Stalin Split—was vital to the defense of Italy and Greece, and the country was first on the list of the National Security Council's post-North Korea invasion list of \"chief danger spots\". Truman believed if aggression went unchecked a chain reaction would be initiated that would marginalize the United Nations and encourage Communist aggression elsewhere. The UN Security Council approved the use of force to help the South Koreans and the US immediately began using what air and naval forces that were in the area to that end. The Administration still refrained from committing on the ground because some advisers believed the North Koreans could be stopped by air and naval power alone.\n\nThe Truman administration was still uncertain if the attack was a ploy by the Soviet Union or just a test of U.S. resolve. The decision to commit ground troops became viable when a communiqué was received on 27 June indicating the Soviet Union would not move against U.S. forces in Korea. The Truman administration now believed it could intervene in Korea without undermining its commitments elsewhere.\n\nUnited Nations Security Council Resolutions\n\nOn 25 June 1950, the United Nations Security Council unanimously condemned the North Korean invasion of the Republic of Korea, with UN Security Council Resolution 82. The Soviet Union, a veto-wielding power, had boycotted the Council meetings since January 1950, protesting that the Republic of China (Taiwan), not the People's Republic of China, held a permanent seat in the UN Security Council. After debating the matter, the Security Council, on 27 June 1950, published Resolution 83 recommending member states provide military assistance to the Republic of Korea. On 27 June President Truman ordered U.S. air and sea forces to help the South Korean regime. On 4 July the Soviet Deputy Foreign Minister accused the United States of starting armed intervention on behalf of South Korea.\n\nThe Soviet Union challenged the legitimacy of the war for several reasons. The ROK Army intelligence upon which Resolution 83 was based came from U.S. Intelligence; North Korea was not invited as a sitting temporary member of the UN, which violated UN Charter Article 32; and the Korean conflict was beyond the UN Charter's scope, because the initial north–south border fighting was classed as a civil war. Because the Soviet Union was boycotting the Security Council at the time, legal scholars posited that deciding upon an action of this type required the unanimous vote of the five permanent members.\n\nComparison of military forces\n\nBy mid-1950, North Korean forces numbered between 150,000 and 200,000 troops, organized into 10 infantry divisions, one tank division, and one air force division, with 210 fighter planes and 280 tanks, who captured scheduled objectives and territory, among them Kaesong, Chuncheon, Uijeongbu, and Ongjin. Their forces included 274 T-34-85 tanks, 200 artillery pieces, 110 attack bombers, some 150 Yak fighter planes, 78 Yak trainers, and 35 reconnaissance aircraft. In addition to the invasion force, the North KPA had 114 fighters, 78 bombers, 105 T-34-85 tanks, and some 30,000 soldiers stationed in reserve in North Korea. Although each navy consisted of only several small warships, the North and South Korean navies fought in the war as sea-borne artillery for their in-country armies.\n\nIn contrast, the ROK Army defenders were relatively unprepared and ill-equipped. In South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu (1961), R.E. Appleman reports the ROK forces' low combat readiness as of 25 June 1950. The ROK Army had 98,000 soldiers (65,000 combat, 33,000 support), no tanks (they had been requested from the U.S. military, but requests were denied), and a 22-piece air force comprising 12 liaison-type and 10 AT6 advanced-trainer airplanes. There were no large foreign military garrisons in Korea at the time of the invasion, but there were large U.S. garrisons and air forces in Japan.\n\nWithin days of the invasion, masses of ROK Army soldiers—of dubious loyalty to the Syngman Rhee regime—were either retreating southwards or were defecting en masse to the northern side, the KPA.\n\nUnited Nations response (July – August 1950)\n\nOn Saturday, 24 June 1950, U.S. Secretary of State Dean Acheson informed President Truman that the North Koreans had invaded South Korea. Truman and Acheson discussed a U.S. invasion response and agreed that the United States was obligated to act, paralleling the North Korean invasion with Adolf Hitler's aggressions in the 1930s, with the conclusion being that the mistake of appeasement must not be repeated. Several U.S. industries were mobilized to supply materials, labor, capital, production facilities, and other services necessary to support the military objectives of the Korean War. However, President Truman later acknowledged that he believed fighting the invasion was essential to the American goal of the global containment of communism as outlined in the National Security Council Report 68 (NSC-68) (declassified in 1975):\n\nIn August 1950, the President and the Secretary of State obtained the consent of Congress to appropriate $12 billion for military action in Korea.\n\nAs an initial response, Truman called for a naval blockade of North Korea, and was shocked to learn that such a blockade could be imposed only 'on paper', since the U.S. Navy no longer had the warships with which to carry out his request. In fact, because of the extensive defense cuts and the emphasis placed on building a nuclear bomber force, none of the services were in a position to make a robust response with conventional military strength. General Omar Bradley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, was faced with re-organizing and deploying an American military force that was a shadow of its World War II counterpart. The impact of the Truman administration's defense budget cutbacks were now keenly felt, as American troops fought a series of costly rearguard actions. Lacking sufficient anti-tank weapons, artillery or armor, they were driven back down the Korean peninsula to Pusan. In a postwar analysis of the unpreparedness of U.S. Army forces deployed to Korea during the summer and fall of 1950, Army Major General Floyd L. Parks stated that \"Many who never lived to tell the tale had to fight the full range of ground warfare from offensive to delaying action, unit by unit, man by man ... [T]hat we were able to snatch victory from the jaws of defeat ... does not relieve us from the blame of having placed our own flesh and blood in such a predicament.\" \n\nActing on State Secretary Acheson's recommendation, President Truman ordered General MacArthur to transfer matériel to the Army of the Republic of Korea while giving air cover to the evacuation of U.S. nationals. The President disagreed with advisers who recommended unilateral U.S. bombing of the North Korean forces, and ordered the US Seventh Fleet to protect the Republic of China (Taiwan), whose government asked to fight in Korea. The United States denied ROC's request for combat, lest it provoke a communist Chinese retaliation. Because the United States had sent the Seventh Fleet to \"neutralize\" the Taiwan Strait, Chinese premier Zhou Enlai criticized both the UN and U.S. initiatives as \"armed aggression on Chinese territory.\"\n\nThe Battle of Osan, the first significant American engagement of the Korean War, involved the 540-soldier Task Force Smith, which was a small forward element of the 24th Infantry Division which had been flown in from Japan. On 5 July 1950, Task Force Smith attacked the North Koreans at Osan but without weapons capable of destroying the North Koreans' tanks. They were unsuccessful; the result was 180 dead, wounded, or taken prisoner. The KPA progressed southwards, pushing back the US force at Pyongtaek, Chonan, and Chochiwon, forcing the 24th Division's retreat to Taejeon, which the KPA captured in the Battle of Taejon; the 24th Division suffered 3,602 dead and wounded and 2,962 captured, including the Division's Commander, Major General William F. Dean.\n\nBy August, the KPA had pushed back the ROK Army and the Eighth United States Army to the vicinity of Pusan in southeast Korea. In their southward advance, the KPA purged the Republic of Korea's intelligentsia by killing civil servants and intellectuals. On 20 August, General MacArthur warned North Korean leader Kim Il-sung that he was responsible for the KPA's atrocities. By September, the UN Command controlled the Pusan perimeter, enclosing about 10% of Korea, in a line partially defined by the Nakdong River.\n\nAlthough Kim's early successes had led him to predict that he would end the war by the end of August, Chinese leaders were more pessimistic. To counter a possible U.S. deployment, Zhou Enlai secured a Soviet commitment to have the Soviet Union support Chinese forces with air cover, and deployed 260,000 soldiers along the Korean border, under the command of Gao Gang. Zhou commanded Chai Chengwen to conduct a topographical survey of Korea, and directed Lei Yingfu, Zhou's military advisor in Korea, to analyze the military situation in Korea. Lei concluded that MacArthur would most likely attempt a landing at Incheon. After conferring with Mao that this would be MacArthur's most likely strategy, Zhou briefed Soviet and North Korean advisers of Lei's findings, and issued orders to Chinese army commanders deployed on the Korean border to prepare for American naval activity in the Korea Strait.\n\nEscalation (August – September 1950)\n\nIn the resulting Battle of Pusan Perimeter (August–September 1950), the U.S. Army withstood KPA attacks meant to capture the city at the Naktong Bulge, P'ohang-dong, and Taegu. The United States Air Force (USAF) interrupted KPA logistics with 40 daily ground support sorties that destroyed 32 bridges, halting most daytime road and rail traffic. KPA forces were forced to hide in tunnels by day and move only at night. To deny matériel to the KPA, the USAF destroyed logistics depots, petroleum refineries, and harbors, while the U.S. Navy air forces attacked transport hubs. Consequently, the over-extended KPA could not be supplied throughout the south. On 27 August, 67th Fighter Squadron aircraft mistakenly attacked facilities in Chinese territory and the Soviet Union called the UN Security Council's attention to China's complaint about the incident. The US proposed that a commission of India and Sweden determine what the US should pay in compensation but the Soviets vetoed the US proposal. \n\nMeanwhile, U.S. garrisons in Japan continually dispatched soldiers and matériel to reinforce defenders in the Pusan Perimeter. Tank battalions deployed to Korea directly from the U.S. mainland from the port of San Francisco to the port of Pusan, the largest Korean port. By late August, the Pusan Perimeter had some 500 medium tanks battle-ready. In early September 1950, ROK Army and UN Command forces outnumbered the KPA 180,000 to 100,000 soldiers. The UN forces, once prepared, counterattacked and broke out of the Pusan Perimeter.\n\nBattle of Inchon (September 1950)\n\nAgainst the rested and re-armed Pusan Perimeter defenders and their reinforcements, the KPA were undermanned and poorly supplied; unlike the UN Command, they lacked naval and air support. To relieve the Pusan Perimeter, General MacArthur recommended an amphibious landing at Inchon (now known as Incheon), near Seoul and well over 100 mi behind the KPA lines. On 6 July, he ordered Major General Hobart R. Gay, Commander, 1st Cavalry Division, to plan the division's amphibious landing at Incheon; on 12–14 July, the 1st Cavalry Division embarked from Yokohama, Japan to reinforce the 24th Infantry Division inside the Pusan Perimeter.\n\nSoon after the war began, General MacArthur had begun planning a landing at Incheon, but the Pentagon opposed him. When authorized, he activated a combined U.S. Army and Marine Corps, and ROK Army force. The X Corps, led by General Edward Almond, Commander, consisted of 40,000 men of the 1st Marine Division, the 7th Infantry Division and around 8,600 ROK Army soldiers. By 15 September, the amphibious assault force faced few KPA defenders at Incheon: military intelligence, psychological warfare, guerrilla reconnaissance, and protracted bombardment facilitated a relatively light battle. However, the bombardment destroyed most of the city of Incheon.\n\nAfter the Incheon landing, the 1st Cavalry Division began its northward advance from the Pusan Perimeter. \"Task Force Lynch\" (after Lieutenant Colonel James H. Lynch), 3rd Battalion, 7th Cavalry Regiment, and two 70th Tank Battalion units (Charlie Company and the Intelligence–Reconnaissance Platoon) effected the \"Pusan Perimeter Breakout\" through of enemy territory to join the 7th Infantry Division at Osan. The X Corps rapidly defeated the KPA defenders around Seoul, thus threatening to trap the main KPA force in Southern Korea.\n\nOn 18 September, Stalin dispatched General H. M. Zakharov to Korea to advise Kim Il-sung to halt his offensive around the Pusan perimeter and to redeploy his forces to defend Seoul. Chinese commanders were not briefed on North Korean troop numbers or operational plans. As the overall commander of Chinese forces, Zhou Enlai suggested that the North Koreans should attempt to eliminate the enemy forces at Inchon only if they had reserves of at least 100,000 men; otherwise, he advised the North Koreans to withdraw their forces north.\n\nOn 25 September, Seoul was recaptured by South Korean forces. American air raids caused heavy damage to the KPA, destroying most of its tanks and much of its artillery. North Korean troops in the south, instead of effectively withdrawing north, rapidly disintegrated, leaving Pyongyang vulnerable. During the general retreat only 25,000 to 30,000 soldiers managed to rejoin the Northern KPA lines. On 27 September, Stalin convened an emergency session of the Politburo, in which he condemned the incompetence of the KPA command and held Soviet military advisers responsible for the defeat.\n\nUN forces cross partition line (September – October 1950)\n\nOn 27 September, MacArthur received the top secret National Security Council Memorandum 81/1 from Truman reminding him that operations north of the 38th parallel were authorized only if \"at the time of such operation there was no entry into North Korea by major Soviet or Chinese Communist forces, no announcements of intended entry, nor a threat to counter our operations militarily...\" On 29 September MacArthur restored the government of the Republic of Korea under Syngman Rhee. On 30 September, Defense Secretary George Marshall sent an eyes-only message to MacArthur: \"We want you to feel unhampered tactically and strategically to proceed north of the 38th parallel.\" During October, the ROK police executed people who were suspected to be sympathetic to North Korea, and similar massacres were carried out until early 1951.\n\nOn 30 September, Zhou Enlai warned the United States that China was prepared to intervene in Korea if the United States crossed the 38th parallel. Zhou attempted to advise North Korean commanders on how to conduct a general withdrawal by using the same tactics which had allowed Chinese communist forces to successfully escape Chiang Kai-shek's Encirclement Campaigns in the 1930s, but by some accounts North Korean commanders did not utilize these tactics effectively. Historian Bruce Cumings argues, however, the KPA's rapid withdrawal was strategic, with troops melting into the mountains from where they could launch guerrilla raids on the UN forces spread out on the coasts.\n\nBy 1 October 1950, the UN Command repelled the KPA northwards past the 38th parallel; the ROK Army crossed after them, into North Korea. MacArthur made a statement demanding the KPA's unconditional surrender. Six days later, on 7 October, with UN authorization, the UN Command forces followed the ROK forces northwards. The X Corps landed at Wonsan (in southeastern North Korea) and Riwon (in northeastern North Korea), already captured by ROK forces. The Eighth U.S. Army and the ROK Army drove up western Korea and captured Pyongyang city, the North Korean capital, on 19 October 1950. The 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team (\"Rakkasans\") made their first of two combat jumps during the Korean War on 20 October 1950 at Sunchon and Sukchon. The missions of the 187th were to cut the road north going to China, preventing North Korean leaders from escaping from Pyongyang; and to rescue American prisoners of war. At month's end, UN forces held 135,000 KPA prisoners of war. As they neared the Sino-Korean border, the UN forces in the west were divided from those in the east by 50–100 miles of mountainous terrain.\n\nTaking advantage of the UN Command's strategic momentum against the communists, General MacArthur believed it necessary to extend the Korean War into China to destroy depots supplying the North Korean war effort. President Truman disagreed, and ordered caution at the Sino-Korean border.\n\nChina intervenes (October – December 1950)\n\nOn 27 June 1950, two days after the KPA invaded and three months before the Chinese entered the war, President Truman dispatched the United States Seventh Fleet to the Taiwan Strait, to prevent hostilities between the Nationalist Republic of China (Taiwan) and the People's Republic of China (PRC). On 4 August 1950, with the PRC invasion of Taiwan aborted, Mao Zedong reported to the Politburo that he would intervene in Korea when the People's Liberation Army's (PLA) Taiwan invasion force was reorganized into the PLA North East Frontier Force. China justified its entry into the war as a response to \"American aggression in the guise of the UN\".\n\nOn 20 August 1950, Premier Zhou Enlai informed the UN that \"Korea is China's neighbor... The Chinese people cannot but be concerned about a solution of the Korean question\". Thus, through neutral-country diplomats, China warned that in safeguarding Chinese national security, they would intervene against the UN Command in Korea. President Truman interpreted the communication as \"a bald attempt to blackmail the UN\", and dismissed it.\n\n1 October 1950, the day that UN troops crossed the 38th parallel, was also the first anniversary of the founding of the People's Republic of China. On that day the Soviet ambassador forwarded a telegram from Stalin to Mao and Zhou requesting that China send five to six divisions into Korea, and Kim Il-sung sent frantic appeals to Mao for Chinese military intervention. At the same time, Stalin made it clear that Soviet forces themselves would not directly intervene.\n\nIn a series of emergency meetings that lasted from 2–5 October, Chinese leaders debated whether to send Chinese troops into Korea. There was considerable resistance among many leaders, including senior military leaders, to confronting the U.S. in Korea. Mao strongly supported intervention, and Zhou was one of the few Chinese leaders who firmly supported him. After Lin Biao politely refused Mao's offer to command Chinese forces in Korea (citing his upcoming medical treatment), Mao decided that Peng Dehuai would be the commander of the Chinese forces in Korea after Peng agreed to support Mao's position. Mao then asked Peng to speak in favor of intervention to the rest of the Chinese leaders. After Peng made the case that if U.S. troops conquered Korea and reached the Yalu they might cross it and invade China the Politburo agreed to intervene in Korea. Later, the Chinese claimed that US bombers had violated PRC national airspace on three separate occasions and attacked Chinese targets before China intervened. On 8 October 1950, Mao Zedong redesignated the PLA North East Frontier Force as the Chinese People's Volunteer Army (PVA).\n\nIn order to enlist Stalin's support, Zhou and a Chinese delegation left for Moscow on 8 October, arriving there on 10 October at which point they flew to Stalin's home at the Black Sea. There they conferred with the top Soviet leadership which included Joseph Stalin as well as Vyacheslav Molotov, Lavrentiy Beria and Georgi Malenkov. Stalin initially agreed to send military equipment and ammunition, but warned Zhou that the Soviet Union's air force would need two or three months to prepare any operations. In a subsequent meeting, Stalin told Zhou that he would only provide China with equipment on a credit basis, and that the Soviet air force would only operate over Chinese airspace, and only after an undisclosed period of time. Stalin did not agree to send either military equipment or air support until March 1951. Mao did not find Soviet air support especially useful, as the fighting was going to take place on the south side of the Yalu. Soviet shipments of matériel, when they did arrive, were limited to small quantities of trucks, grenades, machine guns, and the like.\n\nImmediately on his return to Beijing on 18 October 1950, Zhou met with Mao Zedong, Peng Dehuai, and Gao Gang, and the group ordered two hundred thousand Chinese troops to enter North Korea, which they did on 25 October. After consulting with Stalin, on 13 November, Mao appointed Zhou the overall commander and coordinator of the war effort, with Peng as field commander. Orders given by Zhou were delivered in the name of the Central Military Commission.\n\nUN aerial reconnaissance had difficulty sighting PVA units in daytime, because their march and bivouac discipline minimized aerial detection. The PVA marched \"dark-to-dark\" (19:00–03:00), and aerial camouflage (concealing soldiers, pack animals, and equipment) was deployed by 05:30. Meanwhile, daylight advance parties scouted for the next bivouac site. During daylight activity or marching, soldiers were to remain motionless if an aircraft appeared, until it flew away; PVA officers were under order to shoot security violators. Such battlefield discipline allowed a three-division army to march the 286 mi from An-tung, Manchuria, to the combat zone in some 19 days. Another division night-marched a circuitous mountain route, averaging 18 mi daily for 18 days.\n\nMeanwhile, on 10 October 1950, the 89th Tank Battalion was attached to the 1st Cavalry Division, increasing the armor available for the Northern Offensive. On 15 October, after moderate KPA resistance, the 7th Cavalry Regiment and Charlie Company, 70th Tank Battalion captured Namchonjam city. On 17 October, they flanked rightwards, away from the principal road (to Pyongyang), to capture Hwangju. Two days later, the 1st Cavalry Division captured Pyongyang, the North's capital city, on 19 October 1950. Kim Il Sung and his government temporarily moved its capital to Sinuiju – although as UNC forces approached, the government again moved – this time to Kanggye.\n\nOn 15 October 1950, President Truman and General MacArthur met at Wake Island in the mid-Pacific Ocean. This meeting was much publicized because of the General's discourteous refusal to meet the President on the continental United States. To President Truman, MacArthur speculated there was little risk of Chinese intervention in Korea, and that the PRC's opportunity for aiding the KPA had lapsed. He believed the PRC had some 300,000 soldiers in Manchuria, and some 100,000–125,000 soldiers at the Yalu River. He further concluded that, although half of those forces might cross south, \"if the Chinese tried to get down to Pyongyang, there would be the greatest slaughter\" without air force protection.\n\nAfter secretly crossing the Yalu River on 19 October, the PVA 13th Army Group launched the First Phase Offensive on 25 October, attacking the advancing UN forces near the Sino-Korean border. This military decision made solely by China changed the attitude of the Soviet Union. Twelve days after Chinese troops entered the war, Stalin allowed the Soviet Air Force to provide air cover, and supported more aid to China. After decimating the ROK II Corps at the Battle of Onjong, the first confrontation between Chinese and U.S. military occurred on 1 November 1950; deep in North Korea, thousands of soldiers from the PVA 39th Army encircled and attacked the U.S. 8th Cavalry Regiment with three-prong assaults—from the north, northwest, and west—and overran the defensive position flanks in the Battle of Unsan. The surprise assault resulted in the UN forces retreating back to the Ch'ongch'on River, while the Chinese unexpectedly disappeared into mountain hideouts following victory. It is unclear why the Chinese did not press the attack and follow up their victory.\n\nThe UN Command, however, were unconvinced that the Chinese had openly intervened because of the sudden Chinese withdrawal. On 24 November, the Home-by-Christmas Offensive was launched with the U.S. Eighth Army advancing in northwest Korea, while the US X Corps were attacking along the Korean east coast. But the Chinese were waiting in ambush with their Second Phase Offensive.\n\nOn 25 November at the Korean western front, the PVA 13th Army Group attacked and overran the ROK II Corps at the Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River, and then decimated the US 2nd Infantry Division on the UN forces' right flank. The UN Command retreated; the U.S. Eighth Army's retreat (the longest in US Army history) was made possible because of the Turkish Brigade's successful, but very costly, rear-guard delaying action near Kunuri that slowed the PVA attack for two days (27–29 November). On 27 November at the Korean eastern front, a U.S. 7th Infantry Division Regimental Combat Team (3,000 soldiers) and the U.S. 1st Marine Division (12,000–15,000 marines) were unprepared for the PVA 9th Army Group's three-pronged encirclement tactics at the Battle of Chosin Reservoir, but they managed to escape under Air Force and X Corps support fire—albeit with some 15,000 collective casualties.\n\nBy 30 November, the PVA 13th Army Group managed to expel the U.S. Eighth Army from northwest Korea. Retreating from the north faster than they had counter-invaded, the Eighth Army crossed the 38th parallel border in mid December. UN morale hit rock bottom when commanding General Walton Walker of the U.S. Eighth Army was killed on 23 December 1950 in an automobile accident. In northeast Korea by 11 December, the U.S. X Corps managed to cripple the PVA 9th Army Group while establishing a defensive perimeter at the port city of Hungnam. The X Corps were forced to evacuate by 24 December in order to reinforce the badly depleted U.S. Eighth Army to the south.\n\nDuring the Hungnam evacuation, about 193 shiploads of UN Command forces and matériel (approximately 105,000 soldiers, 98,000 civilians, 17,500 vehicles, and 350,000 tons of supplies) were evacuated to Pusan. The SS Meredith Victory was noted for evacuating 14,000 refugees, the largest rescue operation by a single ship, even though it was designed to hold 12 passengers. Before escaping, the UN Command forces razed most of Hungnam city, especially the port facilities; and on 16 December 1950, President Truman declared a national emergency with Presidential Proclamation No. 2914, 3 C.F.R. 99 (1953), which remained in force until 14 September 1978. The next day (17 December 1950) Kim Il-sung was deprived of the right of command of KPA by China. After that, the leading part of the war became the Chinese army.\n\nFighting around the 38th parallel (January – June 1951)\n\nWith Lieutenant-General Matthew Ridgway assuming the command of the U.S. Eighth Army on 26 December, the PVA and the KPA launched their Third Phase Offensive (also known as the \"Chinese New Year's Offensive\") on New Year's Eve of 1950. Utilizing night attacks in which UN Command fighting positions were encircled and then assaulted by numerically superior troops who had the element of surprise, the attacks were accompanied by loud trumpets and gongs, which fulfilled the double purpose of facilitating tactical communication and mentally disorienting the enemy. UN forces initially had no familiarity with this tactic, and as a result some soldiers panicked, abandoning their weapons and retreating to the south. The Chinese New Year's Offensive overwhelmed UN forces, allowing the PVA and KPA to conquer Seoul for the second time on 4 January 1951.\n\nThese setbacks prompted General MacArthur to consider using nuclear weapons against the Chinese or North Korean interiors, with the intention that radioactive fallout zones would interrupt the Chinese supply chains. However, upon the arrival of the charismatic General Ridgway, the esprit de corps of the bloodied Eighth Army immediately began to revive.\n\nUN forces retreated to Suwon in the west, Wonju in the center, and the territory north of Samcheok in the east, where the battlefront stabilized and held. The PVA had outrun its logistics capability and thus were unable to press on beyond Seoul as food, ammunition, and matériel were carried nightly, on foot and bicycle, from the border at the Yalu River to the three battle lines. In late January, upon finding that the PVA had abandoned their battle lines, General Ridgway ordered a reconnaissance-in-force, which became Operation Roundup (5 February 1951). A full-scale X Corps advance proceeded, which fully exploited the UN Command's air superiority, concluding with the UN reaching the Han River and recapturing Wonju.\n\nAfter cease-fire negotiations failed in January, the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 498 on 1 February, condemning PRC as an aggressor, and called upon its forces to withdraw from Korea. \n\nIn early February, the South Korean 11th Division ran the operation to destroy the guerrillas and their sympathizer citizens in Southern Korea. During the operation, the division and police conducted the Geochang massacre and Sancheong-Hamyang massacre. In mid-February, the PVA counterattacked with the Fourth Phase Offensive and achieved initial victory at Hoengseong. But the offensive was soon blunted by the IX Corps positions at Chipyong-ni in the center. Units of the U.S. 2nd Infantry Division and the French Battalion fought a short but desperate battle that broke the attack's momentum. The battle is sometimes known as the Gettysburg of the Korean War. The battle saw 5,600 Korean, American and French troops defeat a numerically superior Chinese force. Surrounded on all sides, the U.S. 2nd Infantry Division Warrior Division's 23rd Regimental Combat Team with an attached French Battalion was hemmed in by more than 25,000 Chinese Communist forces. United Nations forces had previously retreated in the face of large Communist forces instead of getting cut off, but this time they stood and fought at odds of roughly 15 to 1.\n\nIn the last two weeks of February 1951, Operation Roundup was followed by Operation Killer, carried out by the revitalized Eighth Army. It was a full-scale, battlefront-length attack staged for maximum exploitation of firepower to kill as many KPA and PVA troops as possible. Operation Killer concluded with I Corps re-occupying the territory south of the Han River, and IX Corps capturing Hoengseong. On 7 March 1951, the Eighth Army attacked with Operation Ripper, expelling the PVA and the KPA from Seoul on 14 March 1951. This was the city's fourth conquest in a years' time, leaving it a ruin; the 1.5 million pre-war population was down to 200,000, and people were suffering from severe food shortages.\n\nOn 1 March 1951 Mao sent a cable to Stalin, in which he emphasized the difficulties faced by Chinese forces and the urgent need for air cover, especially over supply lines. Apparently impressed by the Chinese war effort, Stalin finally agreed to supply two air force divisions, three anti-aircraft divisions, and six thousand trucks. PVA troops in Korea continued to suffer severe logistical problems throughout the war. In late April Peng Dehuai sent his deputy, Hong Xuezhi, to brief Zhou Enlai in Beijing. What Chinese soldiers feared, Hong said, was not the enemy, but that they had nothing to eat, no bullets to shoot, and no trucks to transport them to the rear when they were wounded. Zhou attempted to respond to the PVA's logistical concerns by increasing Chinese production and improving methods of supply, but these efforts were never completely sufficient. At the same time, large-scale air defense training programs were carried out, and the Chinese Air Force began to participate in the war from September 1951 onward.\n\nOn 11 April 1951, Commander-in-Chief Truman relieved the controversial General MacArthur, the Supreme Commander in Korea. There were several reasons for the dismissal. MacArthur had crossed the 38th parallel in the mistaken belief that the Chinese would not enter the war, leading to major allied losses. He believed that whether or not to use nuclear weapons should be his own decision, not the President's. MacArthur threatened to destroy China unless it surrendered. While MacArthur felt total victory was the only honorable outcome, Truman was more pessimistic about his chances once involved in a land war in Asia, and felt a truce and orderly withdrawal from Korea could be a valid solution. MacArthur was the subject of congressional hearings in May and June 1951, which determined that he had defied the orders of the President and thus had violated the U.S. Constitution. A popular criticism of MacArthur was that he never spent a night in Korea, and directed the war from the safety of Tokyo.\n\nGeneral Ridgway was appointed Supreme Commander, Korea; he regrouped the UN forces for successful counterattacks, while General James Van Fleet assumed command of the U.S. Eighth Army. Further attacks slowly depleted the PVA and KPA forces; Operations Courageous (23–28 March 1951) and Tomahawk (23 March 1951) were a joint ground and airborne infilltration meant to trap Chinese forces between Kaesong and Seoul. UN forces advanced to \"Line Kansas\", north of the 38th parallel. The 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team's (\"Rakkasans\") second of two combat jumps was on Easter Sunday, 1951, at Munsan-ni, South Korea, codenamed Operation Tomahawk. The mission was to get behind Chinese forces and block their movement north. The 60th Indian Parachute Field Ambulance provided the medical cover for the operations, dropping an ADS and a surgical team and treating over 400 battle casualties apart from the civilian casualties that formed the core of their objective as the unit was on a humanitarian mission.\n\nThe Chinese counterattacked in April 1951, with the Fifth Phase Offensive, also known as the Chinese Spring Offensive, with three field armies (approximately 700,000 men). The offensive's first thrust fell upon I Corps, which fiercely resisted in the Battle of the Imjin River (22–25 April 1951) and the Battle of Kapyong (22–25 April 1951), blunting the impetus of the offensive, which was halted at the \"No-name Line\" north of Seoul. On 15 May 1951, the Chinese commenced the second impulse of the Spring Offensive and attacked the ROK Army and the U.S. X Corps in the east at the Soyang River. After initial success, they were halted by 20 May. At month's end, the U.S. Eighth Army counterattacked and regained \"Line Kansas\", just north of the 38th parallel. The UN's \"Line Kansas\" halt and subsequent offensive action stand-down began the stalemate that lasted until the armistice of 1953.\n\nStalemate (July 1951 – July 1953)\n\nFor the remainder of the Korean War the UN Command and the PVA fought, but exchanged little territory; the stalemate held. Large-scale bombing of North Korea continued, and protracted armistice negotiations began 10 July 1951 at Kaesong. On the Chinese side, Zhou Enlai directed peace talks, and Li Kenong and Qiao Guanghua headed the negotiation team. Combat continued while the belligerents negotiated; the UN Command forces' goal was to recapture all of South Korea and to avoid losing territory. The PVA and the KPA attempted similar operations, and later effected military and psychological operations in order to test the UN Command's resolve to continue the war.\n\nThe principal battles of the stalemate include the Battle of Bloody Ridge (18 August–15 September 1951), the Battle of the Punchbowl (31 August-21 September 1951), the Battle of Heartbreak Ridge (13 September–15 October 1951), the Battle of Old Baldy (26 June–4 August 1952), the Battle of White Horse (6–15 October 1952), the Battle of Triangle Hill (14 October–25 November 1952), the Battle of Hill Eerie (21 March–21 June 1952), the sieges of Outpost Harry (10–18 June 1953), the Battle of the Hook (28–29 May 1953), the Battle of Pork Chop Hill (23 March–16 July 1953), and the Battle of Kumsong (13–27 July 1953).\n\nChinese troops suffered from deficient military equipment, serious logistical problems, overextended communication and supply lines, and the constant threat of UN bombers. All of these factors generally led to a rate of Chinese casualties that was far greater than the casualties suffered by UN troops. The situation became so serious that, on November 1951, Zhou Enlai called a conference in Shenyang to discuss the PVA's logistical problems. At the meeting it was decided to accelerate the construction of railways and airfields in the area, to increase the number of trucks available to the army, and to improve air defense by any means possible. These commitments did little to directly address the problems confronting PVA troops.\n\nIn the months after the Shenyang conference Peng Dehuai went to Beijing several times to brief Mao and Zhou about the heavy casualties suffered by Chinese troops and the increasing difficulty of keeping the front lines supplied with basic necessities. Peng was convinced that the war would be protracted, and that neither side would be able to achieve victory in the near future. On 24 February 1952, the Military Commission, presided over by Zhou, discussed the PVA's logistical problems with members of various government agencies involved in the war effort. After the government representatives emphasized their inability to meet the demands of the war, Peng, in an angry outburst, shouted: \"You have this and that problem... You should go to the front and see with your own eyes what food and clothing the soldiers have! Not to speak of the casualties! For what are they giving their lives? We have no aircraft. We have only a few guns. Transports are not protected. More and more soldiers are dying of starvation. Can't you overcome some of your difficulties?\" The atmosphere became so tense that Zhou was forced to adjourn the conference. Zhou subsequently called a series of meetings, where it was agreed that the PVA would be divided into three groups, to be dispatched to Korea in shifts; to accelerate the training of Chinese pilots; to provide more anti-aircraft guns to the front lines; to purchase more military equipment and ammunition from the Soviet Union; to provide the army with more food and clothing; and, to transfer the responsibility of logistics to the central government.\n\nArmistice (July 1953 – November 1954)\n\nThe on-again, off-again armistice negotiations continued for two years, first at Kaesong, on the border between North and South Korea, and then at the neighbouring village of Panmunjom. A major, problematic negotiation point was prisoner of war (POW) repatriation. The PVA, KPA, and UN Command could not agree on a system of repatriation because many PVA and KPA soldiers refused to be repatriated back to the north, which was unacceptable to the Chinese and North Koreans. In the final armistice agreement, signed on 27 July 1953, a Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission, under the chairman Indian General K. S. Thimayya, was set up to handle the matter.\n\nIn 1952, the United States elected a new president, and on 29 November 1952, the president-elect, Dwight D. Eisenhower, went to Korea to learn what might end the Korean War. With the United Nations' acceptance of India's proposed Korean War armistice, the KPA, the PVA, and the UN Command ceased fire with the battle line approximately at the 38th parallel. Upon agreeing to the armistice, the belligerents established the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), which has since been patrolled by the KPA and ROKA, United States, and Joint UN Commands.\n\nThe Demilitarized Zone runs northeast of the 38th parallel; to the south, it travels west. The old Korean capital city of Kaesong, site of the armistice negotiations, originally was in pre-war South Korea, but now is part of North Korea. The United Nations Command, supported by the United States, the North Korean People's Army, and the Chinese People's Volunteers, signed the Armistice Agreement on 27 July 1953 to end the fighting. The Armistice also called upon the governments of South Korea, North Korea, China and the United States to participate in continued peace talks. The war is considered to have ended at this point, even though there was no peace treaty. North Korea nevertheless claims that it won the Korean War.\n\nAfter the war, Operation Glory was conducted from July to November 1954, to allow combatant countries to exchange their dead. The remains of 4,167 U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps dead were exchanged for 13,528 KPA and PVA dead, and 546 civilians dead in UN prisoner-of-war camps were delivered to the South Korean government. After Operation Glory, 416 Korean War unknown soldiers were buried in the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific (The Punchbowl), on the island of Oahu, Hawaii. Defense Prisoner of War/Missing Personnel Office (DPMO) records indicate that the PRC and the DPRK transmitted 1,394 names, of which 858 were correct. From 4,167 containers of returned remains, forensic examination identified 4,219 individuals. Of these, 2,944 were identified as American, and all but 416 were identified by name. From 1996 to 2006, the DPRK recovered 220 remains near the Sino-Korean border.\n\nDivision of Korea (1954–present)\n\nThe Korean Armistice Agreement provided for monitoring by an international commission. Since 1953, the Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission (NNSC), composed of members from the Swiss and Swedish Armed Forces, has been stationed near the DMZ.\n\nIn April 1975, South Vietnam's capital was captured by the North Vietnamese army. Encouraged by the success of Communist revolution in Indochina, Kim Il-sung saw it as an opportunity to invade the South. Kim visited China in April of that year, and met with Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai to ask for military aid. Despite Pyongyang's expectations, however, Beijing refused to help North Korea for another war in Korea. \n\nSince the armistice, there have been numerous incursions and acts of aggression by North Korea. In 1976, the axe murder incident was widely publicized. Since 1974, four incursion tunnels leading to Seoul have been uncovered. In 2010, a North Korean submarine torpedoed and sank the South Korean corvette ROKS Cheonan, resulting in the deaths of 46 sailors. Again in 2010, North Korea fired artillery shells on Yeonpyeong island, killing two military personnel and two civilians.\n\nAfter a new wave of UN sanctions, on 11 March 2013, North Korea claimed that it had invalidated the 1953 armistice. On 13 March 2013, North Korea confirmed it ended the 1953 Armistice and declared North Korea \"is not restrained by the North-South declaration on non-aggression\". On 30 March 2013, North Korea stated that it had entered a \"state of war\" with South Korea and declared that \"The long-standing situation of the Korean peninsula being neither at peace nor at war is finally over\". Speaking on 4 April 2013, the U.S. Secretary of Defense, Chuck Hagel, informed the press that Pyongyang had \"formally informed\" the Pentagon that it had \"ratified\" the potential usage of a nuclear weapon against South Korea, Japan and the United States of America, including Guam and Hawaii. Hagel also stated that the United States would deploy the Terminal High Altitude Area Defense anti-ballistic missile system to Guam, because of a credible and realistic nuclear threat from North Korea. \n\nIn 2016, it was revealed that North Korea approached the United States about conducting formal peace talks to formally end the war. While the White House agreed to secret peace talks, the plan was rejected due to the country's refusal to discuss nuclear disarmament as part of the terms of the treaty. Any possibility of talks ended on 6 January when they conducted their fourth nuclear test. \n\nCharacteristics\n\nCasualties\n\nAccording to the data from the U.S. Department of Defense, the United States suffered 33,686 battle deaths, along with 2,830 non-battle deaths, during the Korean War. U.S. battle deaths were 8,516 up to their first engagement with the Chinese on 1 November 1950. South Korea reported some 373,599 civilian and 137,899 military deaths. Western sources estimate the PVA suffered about 400,000 killed and 486,000 wounded, while the KPA suffered 215,000 killed and 303,000 wounded.\n\nData from official Chinese sources, on the other hand, reported that the PVA had suffered 114,000 battle deaths, 34,000 non-battle deaths, 340,000 wounded, 7,600 missing and 21,400 captured during the war. Among those captured, about 14,000 defected to Taiwan, while the other 7,110 were repatriated to China. Chinese sources also reported that North Korea had suffered 290,000 casualties, 90,000 captured and a \"large\" number of civilian deaths.\n\nIn return, the Chinese and North Koreans estimated that about 390,000 soldiers from the United States, 660,000 soldiers from South Korea and 29,000 other UN soldiers were \"eliminated\" from the battlefield.\n\nRecent scholarship has put the full battle death toll on all sides at just over 1.2 million. \n\nArmored warfare\n\nThe initial assault by North Korean KPA forces was aided by the use of Soviet T-34-85 tanks. A North Korean tank corps equipped with about 120 T-34s spearheaded the invasion. These drove against a ROK Army with few anti-tank weapons adequate to deal with the Soviet T-34s. Additional Soviet armor was added as the offensive progressed. The North Korean tanks had a good deal of early successes against South Korean infantry, elements of the 24th Infantry Division, and the United States built M24 Chaffee light tanks that they encountered. Interdiction by ground attack aircraft was the only means of slowing the advancing Korean armor. The tide turned in favour of the United Nations forces in August 1950 when the North Koreans suffered major tank losses during a series of battles in which the UN forces brought heavier equipment to bear, including M4A3 Sherman medium tanks backed by U.S. M26 heavy tanks, along with British Centurion, Churchill, and Cromwell tanks.\n\nThe U.S. landings at Inchon on 15 September cut off the North Korean supply lines, causing their armored forces and infantry to run out of fuel, ammunition, and other supplies. As a result, the North Koreans had to retreat, and many of the T-34s and heavy weapons had to be abandoned. By the time the North Koreans withdrew from the South, a total of 239 T-34s and 74 SU-76s had been lost. After November 1950, North Korean armor was rarely encountered. \n\nFollowing the initial assault by the north, the Korean War saw limited use of the tank and featured no large-scale tank battles. The mountainous, forested terrain, especially in the Eastern Central Zone, was poor tank country, limiting their mobility. Through the last two years of the war in Korea, UN tanks served largely as infantry support and mobile artillery pieces.\n\nNaval warfare\n\nFurther information: List of U.S. Navy ships sunk or damaged in action during the Korean conflict\n\nBecause neither Korea had a significant navy, the Korean War featured few naval battles. A skirmish between North Korea and the UN Command occurred on 2 July 1950; the U.S. Navy cruiser , the Royal Navy cruiser , and the frigate fought four North Korean torpedo boats and two mortar gunboats, and sank them.\nUSS Juneau later sank several ammunition ships that had been present. The last sea battle of the Korean War occurred at Inchon, days before the Battle of Incheon; the ROK ship PC-703 sank a North Korean mine layer in the Battle of Haeju Island, near Inchon. Three other supply ships were sunk by PC-703 two days later in the Yellow Sea. Thereafter, vessels from the UN nations held undisputed control of the sea about Korea. The gun ships were used in shore bombardment, while the aircraft carriers provided air support to the ground forces.\n\nDuring most of the war, the UN navies patrolled the west and east coasts of North Korea, sinking supply and ammunition ships and denying the North Koreans the ability to resupply from the sea. Aside from very occasional gunfire from North Korean shore batteries, the main threat to United States and UN navy ships was from magnetic mines. During the war, five U.S. Navy ships were lost to mines: two minesweepers, two minesweeper escorts, and one ocean tug. Mines and gunfire from North Korean coastal artillery damaged another 87 U.S. warships, resulting in slight to moderate damage. \n\nAerial warfare\n\nThe Korean War was the first war in which jet aircraft played the central role in air combat. Once-formidable fighters such as the P-51 Mustang, F4U Corsair, and Hawker Sea Fury—all piston-engined, propeller-driven, and designed during World War II—relinquished their air-superiority roles to a new generation of faster, jet-powered fighters arriving in the theater. For the initial months of the war, the P-80 Shooting Star, F9F Panther, Gloster Meteor and other jets under the UN flag dominated North Korea's prop-driven air force of Soviet Yakovlev Yak-9 and Lavochkin La-9s.\n\nThe Chinese intervention in late October 1950 bolstered the Korean People's Air Force (KPAF) of North Korea with the MiG-15, one of the world's most advanced jet fighters. The heavily armed MiGs were faster than first-generation UN jets and so could reach and destroy U.S. B-29 Superfortress bomber flights despite their fighter escorts. With increasing B-29 losses, the Air Force was forced to switch from a daylight bombing campaign to a safer but less accurate nighttime bombing of targets. \n\nThe USAF countered the MiG-15 by sending over three squadrons of its most capable fighter, the F-86 Sabre. These arrived in December 1950. The MiG was designed as a bomber interceptor. It had a very high service ceiling—50000 ft and carried very heavy weaponry: one 37 mm cannon and two 23 mm cannons. They had a ceiling of 42000 ft and were armed with six .50 caliber (12.7 mm) machine guns, which were range adjusted by radar gunsights. If coming in at higher altitude the advantage of engaging or not went to the MiG. Once in a level flight dogfight, both swept-wing designs attained comparable maximum speeds of around 660 mi/h. The MiG climbed faster, but the Sabre turned and dived better.\n\nIn summer and autumn 1951, the outnumbered Sabres of the USAF's 4th Fighter Interceptor Wing—only 44 at one point—continued seeking battle in MiG Alley, where the Yalu River marks the Chinese border, against Chinese and North Korean air forces capable of deploying some 500 aircraft. Following Colonel Harrison Thyng's communication with the Pentagon, the 51st Fighter-Interceptor Wing finally reinforced the beleaguered 4th Wing in December 1951; for the next year-and-a-half stretch of the war, aerial warfare continued.\n\nUnlike the Vietnam War, in which the Soviet Union only officially sent \"advisers\", in the Korean aerial war Soviet forces participated via the 64th Airborne Corps. Fearful of confronting the United States directly, the Soviet Union denied involvement of their personnel in anything other than an advisory role, but air combat quickly resulted in Soviet pilots dropping their code signals and speaking over the wireless in Russian. This known direct Soviet participation was a casus belli that the UN Command deliberately overlooked, lest the war for the Korean peninsula expand to include the Soviet Union, and potentially escalate into atomic warfare. 1,106 enemy airplanes were officially downed by the Soviet pilots, 52 of whom got ace status. The Soviet system of confirming air kills erred on the conservative side; the pilot's words had to be corroborated and enemy aircraft falling into the sea were not counted, the number might exceed 1,106. \n\nAfter the war, and to the present day, the USAF reports an F-86 Sabre kill ratio in excess of 10:1, with 792 MiG-15s and 108 other aircraft shot down by Sabres, and 78 Sabres lost to enemy fire. The Soviet Air Force reported some 1,100 air-to-air victories and 335 MiG combat losses, while China's People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) reported 231 combat losses, mostly MiG-15s, and 168 other aircraft lost. The KPAF reported no data, but the UN Command estimates some 200 KPAF aircraft lost in the war's first stage, and 70 additional aircraft after the Chinese intervention. The USAF disputes Soviet and Chinese claims of 650 and 211 downed F-86s, respectively. However, one unconfirmed source claims that the U.S. Air Force has more recently cited 230 losses out of 674 F-86s deployed to Korea.\n\nThe Korean War marked a major milestone not only for fixed-wing aircraft, but also for rotorcraft, featuring the first large-scale deployment of helicopters for medical evacuation (medevac). In 1944–1945, during the Second World War, the YR-4 helicopter saw limited ambulance duty, but in Korea, where rough terrain trumped the jeep as a speedy medevac vehicle, helicopters like the Sikorsky H-19 helped reduce fatal casualties to a dramatic degree when combined with complementary medical innovations such as Mobile Army Surgical Hospitals. The limitations of jet aircraft for close air support highlighted the helicopter's potential in the role, leading to development of the AH-1 Cobra and other helicopter gunships used in the Vietnam War (1965–75).\n\nBombing North Korea\n\nThe first major U.S. strategic bombing campaign against North Korea, begun in late July 1950, was conceived much along the lines of the major offensives of World War II. On 12 August 1950, the U.S. Air Force dropped 625 tons of bombs on North Korea; two weeks later, the daily tonnage increased to some 800 tons. After the Chinese intervention in November, General MacArthur ordered the increased bombing campaign on North Korea, including incendiary attacks against their arsenals and communications centers and especially against the \"Korean end\" of all the bridges across the Yalu River. As with the aerial bombing campaigns over Germany and Japan in World War II, the nominal objective of the U.S. Air Force was to destroy North Korea's war infrastructure and shatter their morale. After MacArthur was removed as Supreme Commander in Korea in April 1951, his successors continued this policy and eventually extended it to all of North Korea. Overall, the U.S. dropped 635,000 tons of bombs—including 32,557 tons of napalm—on Korea, more than they did during the whole Pacific campaign of World War II. \n\nAs a result, almost every substantial building in North Korea was destroyed. The war's highest-ranking American POW, U.S. Major General William F. Dean, reported that most of the North Korean cities and villages he saw were either rubble or snow-covered wastelands. North Korean factories, schools, hospitals, and government offices were forced to move underground, and air defenses were \"virtually non-existent.\" In November 1950, the North Korean leadership instructed their population to build dugouts and mud huts, as well as dig underground tunnels, in order to solve the acute housing problem. U.S. Air Force General Curtis LeMay commented, \"we went over there and fought the war and eventually burned down every town in North Korea anyway, some way or another, and some in South Korea, too.\" Pyongyang, which saw 75 percent of its area destroyed, was so devastated that bombing was halted as there were no longer any worthy targets. On 28 November, Bomber Command reported on the campaign's progress: 95 percent of Manpojin was destroyed, along with 90 percent of Hoeryong, Namsi and Koindong, 85 percent of Chosan, 75 percent of both Sakchu and Huichon, and 20 percent of Uiju. According to USAF damage assessments, \"eighteen of twenty-two major cities in North Korea had been at least half obliterated.\" By the end of the campaign, US bombers had difficulty in finding targets and were reduced to bombing footbridges or jettisoning their bombs into the sea. \n\nAs well as conventional bombing, the Communist side claimed that the U.S. had used biological weapons. These claims have been disputed; Conrad Crane asserts that while the U.S. worked towards developing chemical and biological weapons, the American military \"possessed neither the ability, nor the will\", to use them in combat. \n\nU.S. threat of atomic warfare\n\nOn 5 November 1950, the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) issued orders for the retaliatory atomic bombing of Manchurian PRC military bases, if either their armies crossed into Korea or if PRC or KPA bombers attacked Korea from there. The President ordered the transfer of nine Mark 4 nuclear bombs \"to the Air Force's Ninth Bomb Group, the designated carrier of the weapons ... [and] signed an order to use them against Chinese and Korean targets\", which he never transmitted.\n\nMany American officials viewed the deployment of nuclear-capable (but not nuclear-armed) B-29 bombers to Britain as helping to resolve the Berlin Blockade of 1948–1949. Truman and Eisenhower both had military experience and viewed nuclear weapons as potentially usable components of their military. During Truman's first meeting to discuss the war on 25 June 1950, he ordered plans be prepared for attacking Soviet forces if they entered the war. By July, Truman approved another B-29 deployment to Britain, this time with bombs (but without their cores), to remind the Soviets of American offensive ability. Deployment of a similar fleet to Guam was leaked to The New York Times. As United Nations forces retreated to Pusan, and the CIA reported that mainland China was building up forces for a possible invasion of Taiwan, the Pentagon believed that Congress and the public would demand using nuclear weapons if the situation in Korea required them. \n\nAs Chinese forces pushed back the United States forces from the Yalu River, Truman stated during a 30 November 1950 press conference that using nuclear weapons had \"always been [under] active consideration\", with control under the local military commander. The Indian ambassador, K. Madhava Panikkar, reports \"that Truman announced that he was thinking of using the atom bomb in Korea. But the Chinese seemed totally unmoved by this threat ... The propaganda against American aggression was stepped up. The 'Aid Korea to resist America' campaign was made the slogan for increased production, greater national integration, and more rigid control over anti-national activities. One could not help feeling that Truman's threat came in very useful to the leaders of the Revolution, to enable them to keep up the tempo of their activities.\"\n\nAfter his statement caused concern in Europe, Truman met on 4 December 1950 with UK prime minister and Commonwealth spokesman Clement Attlee, French Premier René Pleven, and Foreign Minister Robert Schuman to discuss their worries about atomic warfare and its likely continental expansion. The United States' forgoing atomic warfare was not because of \"a disinclination by the Soviet Union and People's Republic of China to escalate\" the Korean War, but because UN allies—notably from the UK, the Commonwealth, and France—were concerned about a geopolitical imbalance rendering NATO defenseless while the United States fought China, who then might persuade the Soviet Union to conquer Western Europe. The Joint Chiefs of Staff advised Truman to tell Attlee that the United States would use nuclear weapons only if necessary to protect an evacuation of UN troops, or to prevent a \"major military disaster\".\n\nOn 6 December 1950, after the Chinese intervention repelled the UN Command armies from northern North Korea, General J. Lawton Collins (Army Chief of Staff), General MacArthur, Admiral C. Turner Joy, General George E. Stratemeyer, and staff officers Major General Doyle Hickey, Major General Charles A. Willoughby, and Major General Edwin K. Wright met in Tokyo to plan strategy countering the Chinese intervention; they considered three potential atomic warfare scenarios encompassing the next weeks and months of warfare.\n\n* In the first scenario: If the PVA continued attacking in full and the UN Command was forbidden to blockade and bomb China, and without ROC reinforcements, and without an increase in U.S. forces until April 1951 (four National Guard divisions were due to arrive), then atomic bombs might be used in North Korea.\n* In the second scenario: If the PVA continued full attacks and the UN Command had blockaded China and had effective aerial reconnaissance and bombing of the Chinese interior, and the ROC soldiers were maximally exploited, and tactical atomic bombing was to hand, then the UN forces could hold positions deep in North Korea.\n* In the third scenario: if China agreed to not cross the 38th parallel border, General MacArthur recommended UN acceptance of an armistice disallowing PVA and KPA troops south of the parallel, and requiring PVA and KPA guerrillas to withdraw northwards. The U.S. Eighth Army would remain to protect the Seoul–Incheon area, while X Corps would retreat to Pusan. A UN commission should supervise implementation of the armistice.\n\nBoth the Pentagon and the State Department were nonetheless cautious about using nuclear weapons because of the risk of general war with China and the diplomatic ramifications. Truman and his senior advisors agreed, and never seriously considered using them in early December 1950 despite the poor military situation in Korea.\n\nIn 1951, the U.S. escalated closest to atomic warfare in Korea. Because China had deployed new armies to the Sino-Korean frontier, pit crews at the Kadena Air Base, Okinawa, assembled atomic bombs for Korean warfare, \"lacking only the essential pit nuclear cores\". In October 1951, the United States effected Operation Hudson Harbor to establish a nuclear weapons capability. USAF B-29 bombers practised individual bombing runs from Okinawa to North Korea (using dummy nuclear or conventional bombs), coordinated from Yokota Air Base in east-central Japan. Hudson Harbor tested \"actual functioning of all activities which would be involved in an atomic strike, including weapons assembly and testing, leading, ground control of bomb aiming\". The bombing run data indicated that atomic bombs would be tactically ineffective against massed infantry, because the \"timely identification of large masses of enemy troops was extremely rare.\"\n\nRidgway was authorized to use nuclear weapons if a major air attack originated from outside Korea. An envoy was sent to Hong Kong to deliver a warning to China. The message likely caused Chinese leaders to be more cautious about potential American use of nuclear weapons, but whether they learned about the B-29 deployment is unclear and the failure of the two major Chinese offensives that month likely was what caused them to shift to a defensive strategy in Korea. The B-29s returned to the United States in June.\n\nDespite the greater destructive power deploying atomic weapons would bring to the war, their effects on determining the war's outcome would have likely been minimal. Tactically, given the dispersed nature of Chinese and North Korean forces, the relatively primitive infrastructure for staging and logistics centers, and the small number of bombs available (most would have been conserved for use against the Soviets), atomic attacks would have limited effects against the ability of China to mobilize and move forces. Strategically, attacking Chinese cities to destroy civilian industry and infrastructure would cause the immediate dispersion of the leadership away from such areas and give propaganda value for the communists to galvanize the support of Chinese civilians. Since the Soviets were not expected to intervene with their few primitive atomic weapons on China or North Korea's behalf if the U.S. used theirs first, factors such as little operational value and the lowering of the \"threshold\" for using atomic weapons against non-nuclear states in future conflicts played more of a role in not employing them than the threat of a possible nuclear exchange. \n\nWhen Eisenhower succeeded Truman in early 1953 he was similarly cautious about using nuclear weapons in Korea, including for diplomatic purposes to encourage progress in the ongoing truce discussions. The administration prepared contingency plans for using them against China, but like Truman, the new president feared that doing so would result in Soviet attacks on Japan. The war ended as it had begun, without American nuclear weapons deployed near battle.\n\nWar crimes\n\nCivilian deaths and massacres\n\nThere were numerous atrocities and massacres of civilians throughout the Korean war committed by both the North and South Koreans. Many of them started on the first days of the war. South Korean President Syngman Rhee ordered the Bodo League massacre on 28 June, beginning numerous killings of more than 100,000 suspected leftist sympathizers and their families by South Korean officials and right-wing groups. During the massacre, the British protested to their allies and saved some citizens.\n\nIn occupied areas, North Korean Army political officers purged South Korean society of its intelligentsia by executing every educated person—academic, governmental, religious—who might lead resistance against the North; the purges continued during the NPA retreat.\n\nR. J. Rummel estimated that the North Korean Army executed at least 500,000 civilians during the Korean War, with many dying in North Korea's drive to conscript South Koreans to contribute to their war effort. When the North Koreans retreated north in September 1950, they abducted tens of thousands of South Korean men. The reasons are not clear, but the intention might have been to acquire skilled professionals to the North.\n\nIn addition to conventional military operations, North Korean soldiers fought the UN forces by infiltrating guerrillas among refugees. These soldiers disguised as refugees would approach UN forces asking for food and help, then open fire and attack. U.S. troops acted under a \"shoot-first-ask-questions-later\" policy against any civilian refugee approaching U.S. battlefield positions, a policy that led U.S. soldiers to kill an estimated 400 civilians at No Gun Ri (26–29 July 1950) in central Korea because they believed some of the refugees to be North Korean soldiers in disguise. The South Korean Truth and Reconciliation Commission defended this policy as a \"military necessity\". \n\nBeginning in 2005, the South Korean Truth and Reconciliation Commission has investigated numerous atrocities committed by the Japanese colonial government, North Korean military, U.S. military, and the authoritarian South Korean government. It has investigated atrocities before, during and after the Korean War. \n\nThe Commission has verified over 14,000 civilians were killed in the Jeju uprising (1948–49) that involved South Korean military and paramilitary units against pro-North Korean guerrillas. Although most of the fighting had subsided by 1949, fighting continued until 1950. The Commission estimates 86% of the civilians were killed by South Korean forces. The Americans on the island documented the events, but never intervened.\n\nPrisoners of war\n\nDuring the first days of the war North Korean soldiers committed the Seoul National University Hospital massacre.\n\nThe United States reported that North Korea mistreated prisoners of war: soldiers were beaten, starved, put to forced labor, marched to death, and summarily executed.\n\nThe KPA killed POWs at the battles for Hill 312, Hill 303, the Pusan Perimeter, and Daejeon; these massacres were discovered afterwards by the UN forces. Later, a U.S. Congress war crimes investigation, the United States Senate Subcommittee on Korean War Atrocities of the Permanent Subcommittee of the Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations, reported that \"two-thirds of all American prisoners of war in Korea died as a result of war crimes\".\n\nAlthough the Chinese rarely executed prisoners like their North Korean counterparts, mass starvation and diseases swept through the Chinese-run POW camps during the winter of 1950–51. About 43 percent of all U.S. POWs died during this period. The Chinese defended their actions by stating that all Chinese soldiers during this period were suffering mass starvation and diseases due to logistical difficulties. The UN POWs pointed out that most of the Chinese camps were located near the easily supplied Sino-Korean border, and that the Chinese withheld food to force the prisoners to accept the communism indoctrination programs. According to the reports of China, over a thousand U.S. POWs died by the end of June 1951, while only a dozen British POWs died, and all Turkish POW survived. The reason was, according to Hastings, that while the British POWs could help each other, the Americans thought sorghum, corn, and pickle, which were also the main food for Chinese soldiers, were livestock feed, and many refused to eat, partially because of their depression, called as \"give-upitise\" by British POWs. U.S. POWs also threw sick comrades out of their room to freezing outside. Turkish POWs felt most comfortable, as some of them even thought the food was better than what they ate at home. \n\nChinese claimed that UN soldiers helped anti-Communism POWs to torture Chinese POWs, such as to put anti-Communism tattoos on their body by force, so that they would have to refuse to be repatriated back to the north. They even killed Communist POWs in public, to frighten the others. \n\nThe unpreparedness of U.S. POWs to resist heavy communist indoctrination during the Korean War led to the Code of the United States Fighting Force which governs how U.S. military personnel in combat should act when they must \"evade capture, resist while a prisoner or escape from the enemy\". \n\nNorth Korea may have detained up to 50,000 South Korean POWs after the ceasefire. Over 88,000 South Korean soldiers were missing and the Communists' themselves had claimed that they had captured 70,000 South Koreans. However, when ceasefire negotiations began in 1951, the Communists reported that they held only 8,000 South Koreans. The UN Command protested the discrepancies and alleged that the Communists were forcing South Korean POWs to join the KPA.\n\nThe Communist side denied such allegations. They claimed that their POW rosters were small because many POWs were killed in UN air raids and that they had released ROK soldiers at the front. They insisted that only volunteers were allowed to serve in the KPA. By early 1952, UN negotiators gave up trying to get back the missing South Koreans. The POW exchange proceeded without access to South Korean POWs not on the Communist rosters.\n\nNorth Korea continued to claim that any South Korean POW who stayed in the North did so voluntarily. However, since 1994, South Korean POWs have been escaping North Korea on their own after decades of captivity. As of 2010, the South Korean Ministry of Unification reported that 79 ROK POWs had escaped the North. The South Korean government estimates 500 South Korean POWs continue to be detained in North Korea. \n\nThe escaped POWs have testified about their treatment and written memoirs about their lives in North Korea. They report that they were not told about the POW exchange procedures, and were assigned to work in mines in the remote northeastern regions near the Chinese and Russian border. Declassified Soviet Foreign Ministry documents corroborate such testimony. \n\nIn 1997, the Geoje POW Camp in South Korea was turned into a memorial.\n\nStarvation\n\nIn December 1950, National Defense Corps was founded; the soldiers were 406,000 drafted citizens.\nIn the winter of 1951, 50,000 to 90,000 South Korean National Defense Corps soldiers starved to death while marching southward under the Chinese offensive when their commanding officers embezzled funds earmarked for their food. This event is called the National Defense Corps Incident. There is no evidence that Syngman Rhee was personally involved in or benefited from the corruption.\n\nRecreation\n\nIn 1950, Secretary of Defense George C. Marshall and Secretary of the Navy Francis P. Matthews called on the USO which was disbanded by 1947 to provide support for U.S. servicemen. By the end of the war, more than 113,000 American USO volunteers were working at home front and abroad. Many stars came to Korea to give their performances. Throughout the Korean War, UN Comfort Stations were operated by South Korean officials for UN soldiers. \n\nAftermath\n\nPostwar recovery was different in the two Koreas. South Korea stagnated in the first postwar decade. In 1953, South Korea and the United States concluded a Mutual Defense Treaty. In 1960, the April Revolution occurred and students joined an anti-Syngman Rhee demonstration; 142 were killed by police; in consequence Syngman Rhee resigned and left for exile in the United States. Park Chung-hee's May 16 coup enabled social stability. In the 1960s, prostitution and related services earned 25 percent of South Korean GNP. From 1965 to 1973, South Korea dispatched troops to Vietnam and received $235,560,000 allowance and military procurement from the United States. GNP increased fivefold during the Vietnam War. South Korea industrialized and modernized. Contemporary North Korea remains underdeveloped. South Korea had one of the world's fastest-growing economies from the early 1960s to the late 1990s. In 1957 South Korea had a lower per capita GDP than Ghana, and by 2010 it was ranked thirteenth in the world (Ghana was 86th).\n\nFollowing extensive USAF bombing, North Korea \"had been virtually destroyed as an industrial society.\" After the armistice, Kim Il-Sung requested Soviet economic and industrial assistance. In September 1953, the Soviet government agreed to \"cancel or postpone repayment for all ... outstanding debts\", and promised to grant North Korea one billion rubles in monetary aid, industrial equipment and consumer goods. Eastern European members of the Soviet Bloc also contributed with \"logistical support, technical aid, [and] medical supplies.\" China cancelled North Korea's war debts, provided 800 million yuan, promised trade cooperation, and sent in thousands of troops to rebuild damaged infrastructure.\n\nPostwar, about 100,000 North Koreans were executed in purges. According to Rummel, forced labor and concentration camps were responsible for over one million deaths in North Korea from 1945 to 1987; others have estimated 400,000 deaths in concentration camps alone. Estimates based on the most recent North Korean census suggest that 240,000 to 420,000 people died as a result of the 1990s North Korean famine and that there were 600,000 to 850,000 unnatural deaths in North Korea from 1993 to 2008. The North Korean government has been accused of \"crimes against humanity\" for its alleged culpability in creating and prolonging the 1990s famine. A study by South Korean anthropologists of North Korean children who had defected to China found that 18-year-old males were 5 inches shorter than South Koreans their age because of malnutrition. \n\nRacial integration efforts in the U.S. military began during the Korean War, where African Americans fought in integrated units for the first time. Among the 1.8 million American soldiers who fought in the Korean War there were more than 100,000 African Americans.\n\nSouth Korean anti-Americanism after the war was fueled by the presence and behavior of American military personnel (USFK) and U.S. support for the authoritarian regime, a fact still evident during the country's democratic transition in the 1980s. However, anti-Americanism has declined significantly in South Korea in recent years, from 46% favorable in 2003 to 74% favorable in 2011, making South Korea one of the most pro-American countries in the world. \n\nIn addition, a large number of mixed-race \"G.I. babies\" (offspring of American and other UN soldiers and Korean women) were filling up the country's orphanages. Korean traditional society places significant weight on paternal family ties, bloodlines, and purity of race. Children of mixed race or those without fathers are not easily accepted in South Korean society. International adoption of Korean children began in 1954. The U.S. Immigration Act of 1952 legalized the naturalization of non-whites as American citizens, and made possible the entry of military spouses and children from South Korea after the Korean War. With the passage of the Immigration Act of 1965, which substantially changed U.S. immigration policy toward non-Europeans, Koreans became one of the fastest-growing Asian groups in the United States.\n\nMao Zedong's decision to take on the United States in the Korean War was a direct attempt to confront what the Communist bloc viewed as the strongest anti-Communist power in the world, undertaken at a time when the Chinese Communist regime was still consolidating its own power after winning the Chinese Civil War. Mao supported intervention not to save North Korea, but because he believed that a military conflict with the United States was inevitable after the United States entered the Korean War, and also to appease the Soviet Union in order to secure military dispensation and achieve Mao's goal of making China a major world military power. Mao was equally ambitious in improving his own prestige inside the communist international community by demonstrating that his Marxist concerns were international. In his later years Mao believed that Stalin only gained a positive opinion of him after China's entrance into the Korean War. Inside Mainland China, the war improved the long-term prestige of Mao, Zhou, and Peng, allowing the Chinese Communist Party to increase its legitimacy while weakening anti-Communist dissent.\n\nThe Chinese government have encouraged the point of view that the war was initiated by the United States and South Korea, though ComIntern documents have shown that Mao sought approval from Joseph Stalin to enter the war. In Chinese media, the Chinese war effort is considered as an example of China's engaging the strongest power in the world with an under-equipped army, forcing it to retreat, and fighting it to a military stalemate. These successes were contrasted with China's historical humiliations by Japan and by Western powers over the previous hundred years, highlighting the abilities of the People's Liberation Army and the Chinese Communist Party. The most significant negative long-term consequence of the war (for China) was that it led the United States to guarantee the safety of Chiang Kai-shek's regime in Taiwan, effectively ensuring that Taiwan would remain outside of PRC control until the present day. Mao had also discovered the usefulness of large-scale mass movements in the war while implementing them among most of his ruling measures over PRC. Finally, anti-American sentiments, which were already a significant factor during the Chinese Civil War, was ingrained into Chinese culture during the Communist propaganda campaigns of the Korean War. \n\nThe Korean War affected other participant combatants. Turkey, for example, entered NATO in 1952 and the foundation was laid for bilateral diplomatic and trade relations with South Korea." ] }

{ "description": [ "The Korean War was the first major armed ... The Korean War still has much to teach us: ... of the U.S. Army’s role and achievements in the Korean ..." ], "filename": [ "102/102_2908.txt" ], "rank": [ 2 ], "title": [ "The Korean War: The Chinese Intervention - history.army.mil" ], "url": [ "http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/kw-chinter/chinter.htm" ], "search_context": [ "The Korean War: The Chinese Intervention\nIntroduction\nThe Korean War was the first major armed clash between Free World and Communist forces, as the so-called Cold War turned hot. The half-century that now separates us from that conflict, however, has dimmed our collective memory. Many Korean War veterans have considered themselves forgotten, their place in history sandwiched between the sheer size of World War II and the fierce controversies of the Vietnam War. The recently built Korean War Veterans Memorial on the National Mall and the upcoming fiftieth anniversary commemorative events should now provide well-deserved recognition. I hope that this series of brochures on the campaigns of the Korean War will have a similar effect.\nThe Korean War still has much to teach us: about military preparedness, about global strategy, about combined operations in a military alliance facing blatant aggression, and about the courage and perseverance of the individual soldier. The modern world still lives with the consequences of a divided Korea and with a militarily strong, economically weak, and unpredictable North Korea. The Korean War was waged on land, on sea, and in the air over and near the Korean peninsula. It lasted three years, the first of which was a seesaw struggle for control of the peninsula, followed by two years of positional warfare as a backdrop to extended cease-fire negotiations. The following essay is one of five accessible and readable studies designed to enhance understanding of the U.S. Army�s role and achievements in the Korean conflict.\nDuring the next several years the Army will be involved in many fiftieth anniversary activities, from public ceremonies and staff rides to professional development discussions and formal classroom training. The commemoration will be supported by the publication of various materials to help educate Americans about the war. These works will provide great opportunities to learn about this important period in the Army�s heritage of service to the nation.\nThis brochure was prepared in the U.S. Army Center of Military History by Richard W. Stewart. I hope this absorbing account, with its list of further readings, will stimulate further study and reflection. A complete listing of the Center of Military History�s available works on the Korean War is included in the Center�s online catalog: http://www.history.army.mil/catalog/index.html .\nJOHN S. BROWN\nThe Chinese Intervention\n3 November 1950-24 January 1951\nThey came out of the hills near Unsan, North Korea, blowing bugles in the dying light of day on 1 November 1950, throwing grenades and firing their \"burp\" guns at the surprised American soldiers of the 8th Cavalry Regiment, 1st Cavalry Division. Those who survived the initial assaults reported how shaken the spectacle of massed Chinese infantry had left them. Thousands of Chinese had attacked from the north, northwest, and west against scattered U.S. and South Korean (Republic of Korea or ROK) units moving deep into North Korea. The Chinese seemed to come out of nowhere as they swarmed around the flanks and over the defensive positions of the surprised United Nations (UN) troops. Within hours the ROK 15th Regiment on the 8th Cavalry�s right flank collapsed, while the 1st and 2d Battalions of the 8th Cavalry fell back in disarray into the city of Unsan. By morning, with their positions being overrun and their guns falling silent, the men of the 8th Cavalry tried to withdraw, but a Chinese roadblock to their rear forced them to abandon their artillery, and the men took to the hills in small groups. Only a few scattered survivors made it back to tell their story. The remaining battalion of the 8th Cavalry, the 3d, was hit early in the morning of 2 November with the same \"human wave\" assaults of bugle-blowing Chinese. In the confusion, one company-size Chinese element was mistaken for South Koreans and allowed to pass a critical bridge near the battalion command post (CP). Once over the bridge, the enemy commander blew his bugle, and the Chinese, throwing satchel charges and grenades, overran the CP.\nElements of the two other regiments of the 1st Cavalry Division, the 5th and 7th Cavalries, tried unsuccessfully to reach the isolated battalion. The 5th Cavalry, commanded by then Lt. Col. Harold K. Johnson, later to be Chief of Staff of the Army, led a two-battalion counterattack on the dug-in Chinese positions encircling the 8th Cavalry. However, with insufficient artillery support and a determined enemy, he and his men were unable to break the Chinese line. With daylight fading, the relief effort was broken off and the men of the 8th Cavalry were ordered to get out of the trap any way they could. Breaking into small elements, the soldiers moved out overland under cover of darkness. Most did not make it. In all, over eight hundred men of the 8th Cavalry were lost�almost one-third of the regiment�s strength�in the initial attacks by massive Chinese forces, forces that only recently had been considered as existing only in rumor.\n3\n4\nU.S. soldiers with tank make their way through the rubble-strewn streets of Hyesanjin in November 1950. (DA photograph)\nOther elements of the Eighth Army were also attacked in the ensuing days, and it fell back by 6 November to defensive positions along the Ch�ongch�on River. However, as quickly as they had appeared, the Chinese Communist Forces (CCF) disappeared. No additional attacks came. The Chinese units seemed to vanish back into the hills and valleys of the North Korean wastelands as if they had never been. By 6 November 1950, all was quiet again in Korea.\nStrategic Setting\nThe large-scale Chinese attacks came as a shock to the allied forces. After the breakout from the Pusan Perimeter and the Inch�on landings, the war seemed to have been won. The desperate defensive fighting of June was a distant memory, as were the bloody struggles to hold the Naktong River line in defense of Pusan in August and early September. General of the Army Douglas MacArthur, the Far Eastern Command Theater Commander, had triumphed against all the odds by landing the X Corps, consisting of the 1st Marine Division, the 7th Infantry Division, and elements of ROK Marines at the port of Inch�on\n5\nnear Seoul on 15 September. Breaking out from the Pusan Perimeter four days later, Eighth Army defeated and then pursued the remnants of the North Korean People�s Army (NKPA) up the peninsula by many of the same roads over which they had retreated a mere two months before. On 29 September Seoul was declared liberated.\nAs the victorious UN forces pursued the fleeing NKPA, MacArthur was authorized by President Harry S. Truman to go north of the pre-June boundary, the 38th Parallel, while enjoined to watch for any indications that the Soviets or Chinese might enter the war. Korea was seen by most at the time as just part of the overall struggle with world communism and perhaps as the first skirmish in what was to be World War III. MacArthur, convinced that he could reunify all of Korea, moved his forces north. Lt. Gen. Walton H. Walker�s Eighth Army advanced up the west coast of Korea to the Yalu River, while Maj. Gen. Edward M. \"Ned\" Almond�s independent X Corps conducted amphibious landings at Wonsan and Iwon on the east coast. Almond�s units moved up the coast and to the northeast and center of Korea to the border with China. Until the attacks by the CCF at Unsan, the war thus seemed on the verge of ending with the UN forces merely having to mop up NKPA remnants.\nIn retrospect the events on the battlefield in late October and early November 1950 were harbingers of disaster ahead. They had been foreshadowed by ominous \"signals\" from China, signals relayed to the United States through Indian diplomatic channels. The Chinese, it was reported, would not tolerate a U.S. presence so close to their borders and would send troops to Korea if any UN forces other than ROK elements crossed the 38th Parallel. With the United States seeking to isolate Communist China diplomatically, there were very few ways to verify these warnings. While aware of some of the dangers, U.S. diplomats and intelligence personnel, especially General MacArthur, discounted the risks. The best time for intervention was past, they said, and even if the Chinese decided to intervene, allied air power and firepower would cripple their ability to move or resupply their forces. The opinion of many military observers, some of whom had helped train the Chinese to fight against the Japanese in World War II, was that the huge infantry forces that could be put in the field would be poorly equipped, poorly led, and abysmally supplied. These \"experts\" failed to give full due to the revolutionary zeal and military experience of many of the Chinese soldiers that had been redeployed to the Korean border area. Many of the soldiers were confident veterans of the successful civil war against the Nationalist Chinese forces. Although these forces were indeed poorly supplied, they were highly motivated, battle hardened, and led by officers who were veterans, in some cases, of twenty years of nearly constant war.\n6\nPerhaps the most critical element in weighing the risks of Chinese intervention was the deference paid to the opinions of General MacArthur. America�s \"proconsul\" in the Far East, MacArthur was the American public�s \"hero\" of the gallant attempt to defend Bataan and Corregidor in the early days of World War II, the conqueror of the Japanese in the Southwestern Pacific, and the foreign \"Shogun\" of Japan during the occupation of that country. He was also the architect of the lightning stroke at Inch�on that almost overnight turned the tide of battle in Korea. When he stated categorically that the Chinese would not intervene in any large numbers, all other evidence of growing Chinese involvement tended to be discounted. MacArthur and his Far Eastern Command (FEC) intelligence chief, Maj. Gen. Charles A. Willoughby, continued to insist, despite the CCF attacks at Unsan and similar attacks against X Corps in northeastern Korea, that the Chinese would not intervene in force. On 6 November the FEC continued to list the total of Chinese troops in theater as only 34,500, whereas in reality over 300,000 CCF soldiers organized into thirty divisions had already moved into Korea. The mysterious disappearance of Chinese forces at that time seemed only to confirm the judgment that their forces were only token \"volunteers.\"\nThe overall situation in early November 1951 was unsettled, but UN forces were still optimistic. The North Korean Army had been thoroughly defeated, with only remnants fleeing into the mountains to conduct guerrilla warfare or retreating north toward sanctuary in China. Eighth Army positions along the Ch�ongch�on River, halfway between the 38th Parallel and the Yalu, were strong. The 1st Cavalry Division had admittedly taken a beating, but two regiments were still in good condition, while the 24th and 25th Infantry Divisions had generally recovered from their earlier trials. On the Eighth Army�s right flank, the 2d Infantry Division was in a position to backstop the vulnerable ROK 6th and 8th Divisions. In northeastern Korea, the units under X Corps were fresh and, in the case of the 1st Marine Division, at full strength. By the first week of November, despite the surprise attacks by what were still classed as small Chinese volunteer units, the United Nations forces as a whole were well positioned and looking forward to attacking north to the Yalu to end the war and being \"home by Christmas.\"\nOperations\nThe U.S.-led United Nations Command (UNC) had extensive forces at its disposal in Korea in November 1950. The major UNC\n7\nground combat strength consisted of Eighth Army headquarters, a ROK army headquarters, 6 corps headquarters (3 U.S., 3 ROK), 18 infantry division equivalents (10 ROK, 7 U.S. Army, and 1 U.S. Marine), 3 allied brigades, and a separate airborne regiment. The total combat ground forces were around 425,000 soldiers, including some 178,000 Americans. In addition, of course, the UNC had major air and naval components in support.\nForces opposing the UN in early November were organized under a combined headquarters staffed by North Korean and Chinese officers. Kim Il Sung, the leader of North Korea, was also commander of the North Korean Armed Forces based at Kanggye, deep in the mountains of north central Korea. On paper, the North Korean forces consisted of 8 corps, 30 divisions, and several brigades, but in fact only 2 corps totaling some 5 weak divisions and 2 depleted brigades were in active operations against UN forces. The IV Corps with one division and two brigades opposed the ROK I Corps in northeastern Korea, while the II Corps with 4 scattered and weakened divisions was engaged in guerrilla operations in the Taebaek Mountains both above and below the 38th Parallel. The remainder of the surviving North Korean Army elements were resting and refitting in the sanctuary of Manchuria or along the border in north central Korea, away from the main lines of UN advance along the east and west coasts of the peninsula. Most of the enemy striking power was contained in the 300,000-strong Chinese People�s Liberation Army (PLA). They had entered Korea during the last half of October, undetected by FEC intelligence assets. The stage was set for the near-destruction of Eighth Army and the abandonment of the military attempt to reunify Korea.\nConvincing himself and his Far Eastern Command staff that the Chinese would not intervene in force, General MacArthur was determined to reunify Korea and change the balance of power in Asia. The Joint Chiefs of Staff, impressed by MacArthur�s stunning triumph at Inch�on and the collapse of the NKPA during the following month, were in no position to argue. Despite some misgivings, they allowed MacArthur a generous, although not unrestrained, latitude to pursue his vision of winning the war before the year was out. Even President Truman, not a man to defer easily to anyone, apparently felt that MacArthur should be allowed to carry on the war and finish off the North Koreans.\nTo implement MacArthur�s objectives, General Walker drafted plans for his Eighth Army to advance quickly against the crumbling opposition all the way to the Yalu River on the Chinese frontier. Meanwhile, General Almond and his X Corps, separated from Eighth\n8\n9\nArmy by the virtually impassable Taebaek Mountains, planned a similar series of widely scattered offensive spearheads on the eastern side of the peninsula in order to beat Eighth Army to the Yalu. Beginning in mid-October, each major force sought to take as much terrain as possible. Eighth Army units occupied P�yongyang, the North Korean capital, about seventy-five miles north of the 38th Parallel, on 19 October. Almond�s X Corps came ashore at Wonsan on the other side of the peninsula on 25 October and moved quickly inland. Only the unforeseen incidents at Unsan, about sixty miles north of P�yongyang, at the end of October caused both forces to pause and reconsider the wisdom of such an all-out offensive.\nWith the cessation of Chinese attacks on 6 November, Walker and Almond began planning to resume the offensive. Elements of X Corps units even reached the Yalu River at Hyesanjin on 21 November and Singalp�ajin on the twenty-eighth. Although these were only minor \"reconnaissance-in-force\" elements, both Walker and Almond planned to follow through with major offensives of all their forces beginning on 24 and 27 November, respectively.\nIn the west, Eighth Army began its offensive north from its positions along the Ch�ongch�on River, some fifty miles north of P�yongyang, on 24 November. Its initial objective was to reestablish contact with any remnant North Korean forces or Chinese volunteer units. The I Corps (24th Infantry Division, ROK 1st Infantry Division, and British 27th Commonwealth Brigade) was on Eighth Army�s left, IX Corps (25th Infantry Division, 2d Infantry Division, and the Turkish Brigade) was in the center, while the ROK II Corps, with its 6th, 7th, and 8th Infantry Divisions, was on the eastern flank. The 1st Cavalry Division and the British 29th Infantry Brigade were in reserve, along with the U.S. 187th Regimental Combat Team (Airborne).\nThe I Corps attacked west and northwest toward Chongju and T�aech�on, while IX Corps headed north toward Unsan, Onjong, and Huich�on. The ROK II Corps began moving toward the northeast and into the Taebaek Mountains on the Eighth Army�s right flank that separated Eighth Army from X Corps. All advancing units generally received only scattered small-arms fire, and in most instances they moved unopposed toward their objectives. A few miles from Unsan, elements of the 25th Division discovered thirty U.S. soldiers missing since the 8th Cavalry�s battle with the Chinese weeks before. They had been captured and then released by the Chinese and suffered from wounds and frostbite, but they were alive. By 25 November all units were reporting that they had reached their objectives, although they\n10\nalso reported increasing enemy resistance and even some local counterattacks. However, optimism still prevailed. Eighth Army thus planned to resume its offensive in conjunction with the planned attack of X Corps in the east beginning on 27 November.\nThe Battles Along the Ch�ongch�on\nOn the night of 25 November the Chinese struck Eighth Army again. The first CCF attacks hit the 9th and 38th Infantries of the U.S. 2d Infantry Division about eighteen miles northeast of Kunu-ri along the Ch�ongch�on River. Charging to the sounds of bugles, the Chinese 40th Army found gaps between the units and struck their flanks. They hit units on both sides of the river just south of a low mountain called, ironically, Chinaman�s Hat. Infiltrators also attacked elements of the 23d Infantry just behind the 9th Infantry. The Chinese took heavy casualties and were forced to suspend their attack in the early morning hours, only to resume just before dawn. Vigorous U.S. counterattacks restored most of the main line positions. Attacks also were pressed against the U.S. 25th Infantry Division to the 2d Division�s left, prompting a now-alerted U.S. command to cancel the advance planned for 26 November. Suddenly on the defensive, U.S. soldiers dug in and consolidated their positions while waiting for new Chinese attacks.\nEighth Army�s situation was complicated by the fact that the Chinese broke through elements of the ROK II Corps on the army�s right wing. They penetrated the ROK front in several places, establishing roadblocks to the rear of ROK units, cutting them off and creating panic. By noon on the twenty-sixth the ROK II Corps front had folded, exposing Eighth Army�s entire flank.\nReacting quickly, Walker sent the 1st Cavalry Division, at that time guarding supply installations and routes in Eighth Army�s rear, and the Turkish Brigade, in IX Corps reserve, forward to protect possible Army lines of retreat. Farther west, Walker halted the 24th Division and prepared to conduct an active defense all along his lines. Although his intelligence officer (G�2) raised the estimate of Chinese troops in the area from 54,000 to 101,000, Walker still did not realize the size of the Chinese offensive. No one did. FEC headquarters merely reported to Washington that \"a slowing down of the UN offensive may result\" from these new attacks.\nLate on the twenty-sixth Chinese forces struck again on the Eighth Army�s right flank, with the goal of exploiting the collapse of the ROK II Corps while attempting to flank the entire Eighth Army from the east. Attacking heavily in the east and center sections of the UN line, the Chinese threw five field armies into the fight while sending another\n11\nagainst the 24th Division to the west on a holding mission. Attacks against the ROK 1st Division drove that unit back and soon exposed the flanks of both the U.S. 24th and 25th Divisions. Only a rapid readjustment of forces plugged this gap and stabilized the situation by early evening on 27 November. However, the situation was growing grim. By mid-afternoon on the twenty-eighth all U.S. and ROK units were in retreat. Attempts by the 2d Division to hold the line and by the 1st Cavalry Division and Turkish Brigade to restore Eighth Army�s right flank were in vain. Two Chinese Armies, the 42d and 38th, were pouring through the broken ROK lines to Eighth Army�s east and threatening to envelop the entire force. Walker�s only hope was to bring off a fighting withdrawal of his army deep behind the Ch�ongch�on River line, below the gathering Chinese thrust from the east.\nThe withdrawal of Eighth Army units was made more difficult by the thousands of fleeing Korean refugees who blocked the roads. In addition, the hordes of refugees gave excellent cover to Chinese and North Korean infiltrators, who often dressed in Korean clothing, went through U.S. checkpoints, and then turned and opened fire on the startled Americans. The tactics repeated those used by the North Koreans during the initial invasion of the South and were often equally effective. One 7th Cavalry company commander was killed and eight of his men wounded by enemy infiltrators throwing hand grenades. As in the summer, Eighth Army orders directed that refugees be diverted from main\n12\nroads, escorted by South Korean police, and routed around allied defensive lines, although the strictures were often difficult to enforce.\nThe brunt of the renewed enemy attacks fell on the exposed U.S. 2d Infantry Division. With his division almost cut off from the rest of the Army, Maj. Gen. Laurence B. \"Dutch\" Keiser relied upon the Turkish Brigade to protect his right flank as he prepared to withdraw from Kunu-ri. The Chinese, however, bypassed the Turks, who remained concentrated at Kaech�on, ten miles to the west of Kunu-ri, and established roadblocks on the 2d Division�s withdrawal route to the south. These roadblocks, combined with attacks against U.S. and ROK troops north and northeast of Kunu-ri, proved a lethal combination. As the 2d Division began its withdrawal under pressure on the morning of the thirtieth, it found itself literally \"running the gauntlet\" as its trucks and vehicles were trapped on a congested valley road under fire from Chinese positions on the high ground to the east and west. Air strikes helped but could not dislodge the Chinese troops as they poured rifle and machine-gun fire into the slow-moving American vehicles. Soldiers were often forced to crouch in the ditches as their vehicles were raked with enemy fire; while hundreds were killed or wounded, others were forced to proceed on foot down the long road to Sunch�on, almost twenty miles to the south of Kunu-ri. Chinese roadblocks halted the columns repeatedly as the casualties mounted. Some artillery units were even forced to abandon their guns. The 37th Field Artillery Battalion, for example, lost 35 men killed, wounded, or missing and abandoned 10 howitzers, 53 vehicles, and 39 trailers. As the road became clogged with abandoned vehicles, men were forced to leave the column and make their way south as best they could. Unit integrity in some places broke down under the murderous fire. Finally, late on 30 November, the last units closed on Sunch�on and the shattered Eighth Army established a hasty defensive line from Sukch�on to the west to Sinch�ang-ni in the east, some twenty-five miles south of their initial positions on the Ch�ongch�on River line.\nThe battles along the Ch�ongch�on River were a major defeat for the Eighth Army and a mortal blow to the hopes of MacArthur and others for the reunification of Korea by force of arms. The 2d Division alone took almost 4,500 battle casualties from 15 to 30 November, most occurring after the twenty-fifth. It lost almost a third of its strength, along with sixty-four artillery pieces, hundreds of trucks, and nearly all its engineer equipment. While the rest of Eighth Army had not been hit as hard, with the possible exception of the ROK units whose total losses will probably never be known, there was no doubt about the magnitude of the reverse. The U.S. 1st Cavalry, 24th and 25th\n13\nInfantry Divisions, and the ROK 1st Infantry Division were still relatively intact, but the U.S. 2d Infantry Division, the Turkish Brigade, and the ROK 6th, 7th, and 8th Infantry Divisions were shattered units that would need extensive rest and refitting to recover combat effectiveness. Although not closely pursued by the Chinese, Walker decided that his army was in no shape to hold the Sukch�on�Sinch�ang-ni line and\n14\nordered a retreat farther south before his forces could be enveloped by fresh Chinese attacks.\nX Corps\nThe Chinese offensive of late November destroyed Eighth Army plans to push all the way to the Yalu. They also stymied the other arm of the offensive: the attack of X Corps and the ROK I Corps up the eastern coast and center of the peninsula. General Almond, following the intent of General MacArthur to push vigorously against the retreating foe, had planned a multipronged operation using these two corps. The ROK I Corps, consisting of the ROK 3d and Capital Divisions, was to proceed up the coastal roads over 200 miles northeast to Ch�ongjin and then on to the Yalu, there to guard the X Corps right flank. The X Corps was to attack north and west of the Changjin Reservoir. Its 7th Infantry Division was to occupy the center of the X Corps front and push to the Yalu at Hyesanjin, about 160 miles north of Wonsan. On the left of the corps, the 1st Marine Division was to proceed up both sides of the Changjin (Chosin) Reservoir, about halfway to the border, tie in with the ROK II Corps of the Eighth Army to the west, and then push sixty more miles north towards the Yalu at Huch�angganggu and Singalp�ajin. However, despite the urgings of the X Corps commander for more speed, 1st Marine Division Commander Maj. Gen. Oliver P. Smith was leery about dispersing his division over too broad a front. He ordered his units to attack cautiously, maintaining unit integrity, and within generally supporting distances of each\n15\nother. The terrain in this part of Korea�narrow roads often cut by gullies and valleys with imposing ridgelines and mountains surrounding them�made it critical for units to stay together.\nRounding out X Corps was the newly arrived 3d Infantry Division, which landed at Wonsan between 7 and 15 November and was augmented by a ROK marine regiment. These units were to guard the corps rear, relieve the marines of any port protection duties, and prepare to conduct offensive operations in support of corps operations as needed. The 3d Division faced some challenges with making a fighting team out of its subordinate units. The 65th Infantry Regiment, filled out with hundreds of mobilized Puerto Rican National Guardsmen, had only recently been assigned to the division and had not worked with the division staff officers before. In addition, while training in Japan, the 3d Division�s 7th and 15th Regiments had been assigned thousands of minimally trained Korean augmentees, called KATUSAs (Korean Augmentees to the U.S. Army). Nonetheless, the division was fresh and constituted the major reserve available to X Corps.\nIn a seemingly minor change in plans, Almond ordered the 31st Regimental Combat Team (RCT) of the 7th Division to relieve the 5th Marine Regiment on the east side of the Chosin Reservoir so the marines could concentrate their forces on the west, reorienting their drive to the north and west of the frozen reservoir. The 31st RCT, like most of the rest of the 7th Infantry Division, was widely scattered and arrived in its new area in bits and pieces. The roads were treacherous, trucks were in short supply, and the different battalions and artillery assets only slowly began to assemble east of the reservoir. Although the unit was called the 31st RCT, the 31st regimental commander, Col. Allan D. \"Mac\" MacLean, was to command the 1st Battalion of the 32d Infantry along with his 2d and 3d Battalions of the 31st Infantry.\nThe 1st Battalion, 32d Infantry, commanded by Lt. Col. Donald C. Faith, Jr., was first to reach the new positions, relieving the marines on 25 November. Faith�s battalion was alone on the east side of the reservoir for a full day before other elements of Task Force (TF) MacLean�the 3d of the 31st Infantry and two artillery batteries�arrived on the twenty-seventh. The 2d Battalion, 31st Infantry, the other artillery battery, and the 31st Tank Company were still missing. The tanks were on the road just outside the Marine perimeter at Hagaru-ri at the southern end of the reservoir, and the 2d of the 31st was still en route. Nevertheless, MacLean confidently prepared to launch his attack the next day.\nAlmond�s offensive was not to be. Late on 27 November the Chinese struck the U.S. forces on both sides of the Chosin Reservoir\n16\nnearly simultaneously. Two CCF Divisions, the 79th and 89th, attacked the marines west of the reservoir in the Yudam-ni area. The marines killed the Chinese by the hundreds but were in danger of being cut off from the division headquarters at Hagaru-ri, at the southern end of the reservoir. In a similar maneuver, the CCF 80th Division struck the spread-out positions of Task Force MacLean while simultaneously moving around its flank to cut it off from the marines at Hagaru-ri. Initially successful, the Chinese were finally stopped just before dawn.\nDuring the day on 28 November, General Almond and his aide, 1st Lt. Alexander Haig, helicoptered into the perimeter of TF MacLean. Despite all the evidence of massive Chinese intervention, Almond exhorted the soldiers to begin the offensive. \"We�re still attacking,\" he told the soldiers, \"and we�re going all the way to the Yalu.\" The corps\n17\ncommander then flew back to Hagaru-ri, convinced that TF MacLean was strong enough to begin its attack and deal with whatever \"remnants\" of CCF forces were in their way.\nThat evening the Chinese remnants struck again. The CCF 80th Division hit the dispersed U.S. units with waves of infantry. Despite the reassuring presence of tracked antiaircraft weapons (40-mm. killing machines), the sub-zero cold and the constant Chinese attacks began to take their toll. The fighting was often hand to hand. Convinced now that launching any kind of attack on the twenty-ninth was futile, Colonel MacLean abruptly ordered a pullback to form a more consolidated defense. That accomplished, he proposed waiting for the arrival of his missing third battalion before resuming any offensive operations. However, during the withdrawal operations his troops came under renewed enemy attack, and in the confusion MacLean was captured by the Chinese. With no hope of rescuing his commander, Colonel Faith took command of the task force. Colonel MacLean in fact died of wounds four days after his capture.\nThe epic struggle of Task Force MacLean�now called Task Force Faith�was drawing to a close. Its separated tank company, augmented by a pickup force of headquarters company soldiers and clerks, attempted twice to relieve the beleaguered force. However, the tanks foundered on the icy roads, and the attacks were further hindered by misdirected air strikes. The tanks withdrew into the safety of Hagaru-ri. Faith, unaware of this attempted rescue because of faulty communications, was running short of ammunition and had over four hundred wounded on his hands. General Smith, commander of the 1st Marine Division, was given operational control of the cut-off Army unit, but apparently had his hands full withdrawing his marines in an orderly fashion into Hagaru-ri. The 7th Division commander, Maj. Gen. David G. Barr, flew into the perimeter of TF Faith on the thirtieth, but had only bad news for Colonel Faith. The Marines could provide little more than air support. Continued Chinese attacks during the night of the thirtieth and into the morning of 1 December left TF Faith in a dangerous situation with no help in sight. Chinese assaults had almost destroyed the perimeter that night, and the number of wounded went up to nearly six hundred, virtually one-fourth of the entire formation. Believing that one more Chinese attack would destroy his force, Faith decided to withdraw and run the Chinese gauntlet down the frozen road along the east side of the reservoir in hopes of reaching the marines at Hagaru-ri.\nOn the morning of 1 December the exhausted men of TF Faith formed into a column with the wounded piled into about thirty overcrowded trucks. Taking a while to get organized, the column began\n18\nto pull out in the early afternoon just as their Marine air cover arrived. Tragically, the lead plane dropped its napalm short, and the thick, jellied gasoline exploded near the head of the column, badly burning over a dozen soldiers. Many of the men ran for cover, destroying what little order the column had left. Colonel Faith rallied the men and got them moving again, but near-panic had set in and the men began to gather in leaderless groups. The CCF, noting the withdrawal, began to pour in fire from the high ground to the east of the column. As it advanced, the column encountered a destroyed bridge on the road. Bypassing the bridge was possible, but only one vehicle at a time could be winched up the steep slope on the other side. The CCF clustered along the column, directing fire into the exposed trucks.\nFarther south, the column was stopped by a Chinese roadblock near Hill 1221. Some brave soldiers under the command of a few officers stormed up the slopes and, despite severe casualties, managed to take most of the hill, gaining valuable time for the column. It was getting dark, and the lights of Hagaru-ri could be seen in the distance over the ice-covered reservoir. However, the Chinese roadblock stood between the column and safety. Desperately, Colonel Faith gathered a few men and charged the Chinese defenses. Seizing the position, the American soldiers managed to disperse the enemy, but Faith was mortally wounded. Although his men managed to prop him up on the hood of his jeep and the convoy began moving again, the retreating force began to give up hope. Despite the desperate attempts of the few remaining leaders, the convoy began to come apart. Just miles from safety, the column hit another blown bridge. The few unwounded men began moving out over the ice, thick enough for foot travel but not for vehicles, leaving the stranded convoy behind. By dark Task Force Faith thus ceased to exist. As the CCF fire intensified with heavy machine guns and grenades, the remaining able soldiers abandoned their trucks and fled to Hagaru-ri over the ice. Colonel Faith, later awarded the Medal of Honor posthumously, remained behind with his men to die in the cold.\nAll during the night of 1�2 December, shattered remnant of Task Force Faith trickled into the Marine positions at Hagaru-ri. A few were rescued by Marine jeeps racing out over the ice to pick up dazed, frostbitten survivors. Some 319 Americans were rescued in this manner by individual marines. Many of the worst wounded were airlifted to safety. Of the 2,500 men of Task Force Faith, 1,000 were killed, wounded, captured, or left to die of wounds. After the air evacuation, about 500 7th Infantry Division soldiers were left to accompany the 1st Marine Division as it began its withdrawal from Hagaru-ri to the port of Hungnam, fifty miles southeast, and evacuation by sea.\n19\nThe men of Task Force Faith did not die in vain. They had virtually destroyed an entire Chinese division and prevented any possible attack south by the Chinese for four critical days. If they had not been able to hold out as long as they had, the 80th Division might have hit the 1st Marine Division perimeter at Hagaru-ri in force before the 5th and 7th Marines could have withdrawn. Those units might then have faced dug-in Chinese roadblocks in their rear instead of a safe perimeter and a reasonably open road to the south. The entire fate of X Corps may well have been different, if not for the bravery and stubborn defense of the area east of the Chosin Reservoir by the men of Task Force Faith.\nFaced with the renewed Chinese attacks on X Corps and Eighth Army, General MacArthur finally admitted that the Chinese intervention had changed everything, announcing, \"We face an entirely new war.\" Summoning both Walker and Almond to Japan even as their units were fighting off the massive Chinese attacks, MacArthur grappled with ideas to save his units. He considered establishing a defensive line, or perhaps two enclaves along the coast, to prevent the destruction of Eighth Army and X Corps and the loss of all that had been gained since September. Another plan had the 3d Infantry Division attacking directly east from Wonsan into the Chinese flank, but the units involved considered it far too risky and besides, the terrain made it nearly impossible. MacArthur next asked Washington for augmentation by troops of Chiang Kai-shek, the defeated ruler of China now in exile with some of his army on the island of Taiwan. Viewing this scheme as a dangerous escalation of the war, Washington would have nothing to do with it. Sensing disaster, MacArthur began imagining the total destruction of his forces in Korea or an evacuation of the mainland.\nRetreat from North Korea\nAfter the defeat at the Ch�ongch�on River, General Walker realized that it was necessary to withdraw his Eighth Army from its positions before the Chinese could move around its still-open right flank. He ordered an immediate retreat to create an enclave around P�yongyang. However, even as troops occupied their new positions, he realized that he lacked the forces to maintain a cohesive defensive line. Three of his ROK divisions (6th, 7th, and 8th Infantry Divisions) had disintegrated; the U.S. 2d Infantry Division was in shambles; and all the other units had taken heavy loses in men, materiel, and morale. Faced with these problems, Walker decided to abandon P�yongyang. He needed time to regroup and refit his units. He ordered the with-\n20\nU.S. combat engineers place satchel charges on a railroad bridge near P'yongyang, preparing to destroy it to slow the Communist advance. (DA photograph)\ndrawal of the army to a line along the Imjin River, about ninety-five miles to the south near the prewar border. He further ordered that all supplies that could not be moved or any installations that could be of use to the enemy be destroyed.\nMoving slowly down the few good roads in Korea, Eighth Army units began pulling back from their positions near P�yongyang on 2 December and retreated over the course of three weeks to a line along the Imjin River, from Munsan-ni on the western coast to just south of the Hwach�on Reservoir across the peninsula. Caught wrong-footed by\n21\nU.S. soldiers retreat from P'yongyang in December 1950, carrying their equipment on traditional Korean \"A\" frames. (DA photograph)\nthis quick withdrawal, and needing time of their own to refit and resupply their troops, the Chinese did not immediately pursue. By 23 December the U.S. I and IX Corps and the ROK III and II Corps, west to east, were in place along the line. The ROK I Corps began to arrive after its evacuation from northeast Korea, to be placed on the far right of the line, anchoring the line to the eastern coast. It was not a strong defensive position, but it had the advantage of leaving no flanks in the air. It also maintained UN control of Seoul.\nIn northeast Korea, with the consolidation of the 1st Marine Division at Hagaru-ri along with the remnants of TF Faith, the situation in the X Corps area was improved, but hardly reassuring. There was only one narrow road leading from Hagaru-ri to the port of Hungnam, over fifty tough miles to the southeast. At Hungnam, Almond planned to establish a perimeter and begin the slow process of withdrawal. Early in the process he had ruled out a \"Dunkirk\" situation, where the men would be extracted while leaving their equipment and supplies behind. Such a blow to allied pride and troop morale was\n22\ntoo grievous to contemplate. The challenge was first to safely withdraw the Marine and Army units from the Chosin Reservoir area down to Hungnam, then to establish a strong defensive perimeter, and finally to begin shrinking that perimeter under enemy pressure while loading up all the supplies and equipment possible. It would be a race between the Chinese forces and U.S. tactical and logistical skills.\nThe first challenge�withdrawing the Marine and Army units from Hagaru-ri to Hungnam intact�was potentially the most dangerous. If\n23\nthe Chinese in the area could cut the road between Hagaru-ri and Hungnam with a strong enough force, the entire 1st Marine Division could be lost. Such a disaster would seriously undercut the entire UN position in Korea. The effect on the American public would be tremendous. Their failure to rescue TF MacLean/Faith, fresh in their minds, the Marine and X Corps staffs began working together to coordinate their movements and fires to prevent any chance of a reoccurrence of such a tragedy. Their planning, coupled with massive American firepower and airpower and the sheer persistence and courage of the marines and soldiers at hand, would turn the tide and snatch victory from the jaws of defeat.\nThe 1st Marine Division plan was relatively clear and straightforward, although still difficult to execute. The division with its attached Army units would move all its men and equipment down the road to Hungnam, while combat units would systematically take and clear the ridgelines dominating the road. There was to be no repetition of the Kunu-ri gauntlet of the 2d Infantry Division. Combat power would clear the ridges, while air support and artillery would destroy any roadblocks or major concentrations of Chinese forces. Meanwhile, X Corps would send a special task force from the relatively fresh 3d Infantry Division�code-named Task Force Dog�about thirty miles north up the road from Hungnam through Hamhung to just south of the Funchilin Pass near Kot�o-ri. Task Force Dog, with its powerful attached artillery units, would keep the road south of the pass open all the way to the port.\nLeading the way south some eight miles to Kot�o-ri on 6 December were the 7th Marines and the ad hoc Army battalion formed from the remnants of Task Force Faith/MacLean. With artillery support carefully planned and around-the-clock air cover, the force quickly met and overcame enemy resistance at various strong points. The rest followed, and a Marine rear guard was out of Hagaru-ri by midmorning of the following day. During the fight south to Kot�o-ri, some 103 marines lost their lives, with almost 500 wounded.\nOnce at Kot�o-ri, the Marine and Army force faced a major obstacle: a sixteen-foot gap in the road near the Funchilin Pass. A steep chasm prevented any hope of bypassing the gap. The staff of X Corps coordinated an airdrop on 7 December of eight 2 1/4-ton treadway bridge sections to cross the gap. In a series of air operations, all eight sections were dropped by parachute near the pass, with one falling inside Chinese lines and another damaged in the drop. However, the remaining sections bridged the gap and, despite some tense moments when trucks almost slid off the narrow bridge, the way was clear.\n24\nA U.S. infantryman with a 75-mm recoilless rifle (rocket launcher) guards a pass south of the Chosin Reservoir. (DA photograph)\nFollowed by hundreds of fleeing Korean refugees, the Marine and Army forces made their way south against continuing Chinese flank attacks. Finally, early in the morning of 10 December, the first linkup occurred between the lead elements of the northern force and Task Force Dog. Over the next two days the rest of the Marine and Army elements withdrew through the covering elements of TF Dog to safety in Hungnam. Again, the withdrawal came at a price. The Chinese managed to cut the road near Sudong, about ten miles south of Kot�o-ri, late on 10 December, but a composite Marine force led by two Army officers beat back the enemy. In the process one of the leaders of the force, Army Lt. Col. John U. D. Page, was killed in action and later received the Medal of Honor posthumously. Despite the attacks of two Chinese armies, the withdrawal from the Chosin area of over eleven thousand Marines and one thousand soldiers was successful.\nOn 8 December MacArthur ordered X Corps to evacuate through the port of Hungnam and redeploy to South Korea as part of Eighth Army. Given the size of the force and the near presence of the Chinese, the withdrawal had to be a carefully orchestrated event. Setting up a special Evacuation Control Group, Almond directed the\n25\nThe USS Begor lies off the port of Hungnam as demolition charges destroy the dock facilities on 24 December 1950. (U.S. Navy photograph)\nbattle-weary 1st Marine Division to be evacuated first, from 9�15 December. It was followed by the ROK I Corps from 15�17 December, the 7th Infantry Division from 18�21 December, and the 3d Infantry Division from 21�24 December. All this occurred while coordinating shipping with the Navy�s Task Force 90, uploading thousands of tons of supplies, and maintaining a secure perimeter.\nThe withdrawal from Hungnam was accomplished successfully, despite all the potential dangers. The X Corps arranged for the withdrawal of over 105,000 troops; 18,422 vehicles; 350,000 tons of bulk cargo; and as a bonus some 98,100 refugees. Naval gunfire support assisted in pulling off the maneuver with minimal enemy interference. The Navy and Army worked together as well to coordinate a massive demolitions plan to destroy any cargo too bulky or dangerous (like frozen dynamite) to move, along with the docks and port facilities. The X Corps outloaded all its elements on a strict timetable and moved them by sea to Ulsan, just north of Pusan in South Korea, for refitting and redeployment to the front to help Eighth Army hold the line. The last soldiers from the 3d Infantry Division embarked on their landing craft to the waiting ships on Christmas Eve 1950. As they left,\n26\nthe docks erupted behind them in a series of huge explosions. The attempt to reunify Korea by force was over.\nRidgway Takes Command\nGeneral Walker was an indirect casualty of the Chinese attacks. On the morning of 23 December, with the redeployment of Eighth Army to new lines in the south complete and the first elements of the evacuated X Corps on the way, the Eighth Army commander left Seoul by jeep on an inspection trip. Ten miles north of the capital, his vehicle zoomed north past several U.S. trucks halted on the opposite side of the road. Suddenly, a Korean truck driver pulled out of his lane, heading south, and tried to bypass the trucks. In doing so, he pulled into the northbound lane and collided with Walker�s jeep. The commander was knocked unconscious and later pronounced dead from multiple head injuries.\nThe man selected to replace General Walker as Eighth Army commander was Lt. Gen. Matthew B. Ridgway. At the time Ridgway was serving on the Army staff in the Pentagon as deputy chief of staff for operations and administration. A famed airborne commander from World War II, Ridgway was knowledgeable about conditions in Korea and the Far East and had a strong and dynamic personality. He would need both for the task ahead. His success in turning Eighth Army�s morale around, using little more than a magnetic personality and bold leadership, is still a model for the Army, showing how the power of leadership can dramatically change a situation.\nRidgway landed in Tokyo on Christmas Day 1950 to discuss the situation with MacArthur. The latter assured the new commander of his full support to direct Eighth Army operations as he saw fit. Ridgway was encouraged to retire to successive defensive positions, as currently under way, and hold Seoul as long as he could, but not if it meant that Eighth Army would be isolated in an enclave around the city. In a foreshadowing of his aggressive nature, Ridgway asked specifically that if he found the combat situation \"to my liking\" whether MacArthur would have any objection to \"my attacking\"? MacArthur answered, \"Eighth Army is yours, Matt. Do what you think best.\"\nGeneral Ridgway knew that one of his first jobs was to restore the Eighth Army soldiers� confidence in themselves. To accomplish this he had to be aggressive, despite the hard knocks of November and December, and find other leaders in Eighth Army who were not defeatist or defensive oriented. In practice he proved quick to reward commanders who shared his sentiments and just as quick to relieve those officers at any level who did not. During one of his first brief-\n27\nings in Korea at I Corps, Ridgway sat through an extensive discussion of various defensive plans and contingencies. At the end he asked the startled staff where their attack plans were. The corps G�3 (operations officer) responded that he had no such plans. Within days I Corps had a new operations officer. The message went out: Ridgway was interested in taking the offensive. To aid in this perception he also established a plan to rotate out those division commanders who had been in action for six difficult months and replace them with fresh leaders who would be more interested in attack and less in retreat. In addition, he sent out guidance to commanders at all levels to spend more time at the front lines and less in their command posts in the rear. The men had to see their commanders if they were to have confidence that they had not been forgotten. All these positive leadership steps would have a dramatic effect almost from the first. Eighth Army was in Korea to stay.\nRidgway, despite his aggressive intent, was also enough of a realist to know that the Chinese were still capable of launching major attacks. He also knew that his Eighth Army still needed time to refit and reorganize. Thus, he immediately began planning to strengthen the defensive lines around Seoul while bringing up X Corps as quickly as possible to strengthen the Wonju sector in the center of the line. Almond�s X Corps was no longer independent, but would be just another corps of the Eighth Army, tied into a new defensive line that stretched unbroken from one side of the peninsula to the other.\nBefore Ridgway�s changes could be instituted, however, the Chinese attacked again. Beginning on 26 December, the CCF struck hard at UN units on the western approaches to Seoul. Supporting attacks occurred as well in the central and eastern parts of the line. The Chinese hit the ROK units hard, and again several units broke. Two out of three regiments of the ROK 2d Division fled the battlefield, leaving their valiant 17th Regiment to fight alone and hold its position for hours despite heavy losses. Ridgway reluctantly ordered a general, but orderly, withdrawal, with units instructed to maintain contact with the enemy during their retreat, rather than simply giving up real estate without inflicting losses on the enemy.\nInitially, Eighth Army pulled back thirty miles to a defensive line along the Han River to protect Seoul. By 2 January both I and IX Corps had successfully concluded the new withdrawal and, with extensive firepower at their command, their chances of holding the city were good. However, there was a distinct danger that the two corps could be outflanked to the east and forced to defend Seoul with their backs to the sea. Ridgway, unwilling to risk the loss or isolation of so much of\n28\nhis combat power, reluctantly ordered the retreat of both corps to \"Line C,\" just south of the Han. For the third time in the war so far, Seoul was to change hands.\nFollowed by hordes of refugees hauling their loved ones or a few personal treasures on their backs or on oxcarts, I and IX Corps began withdrawing from Seoul on 3 January. The loss of the capital was again a bitter pill for everyone to swallow. The cold froze refugee and soldier alike as the long UN columns snaked southward again. As the Han River began to freeze solid, refugees braved the treacherous ice to reach the temporary safety of UN lines. However, the freezing of the river threatened the entire UN position, since the same ice that held refugees could hold Chinese infantry intent on heading off the American withdrawal. Before such attacks could occur, however, the movement south was completed.\nOn the whole, the allies accomplished the evacuation of Seoul with minimal casualties. However, one of the units, the attached 27th Commonwealth Brigade, had been forced into hand-to-hand combat to rescue one of its cut-off battalions and had suffered heavy casualties. Finally, on the morning of 4 January, despite the continuing stream of desperate refugees, Eighth Army engineers blew the three ponton bridges and the main railway bridge over the Han to prevent their use by the pursuing Chinese. The withdrawal to Line C was complete. However, even as units were moving into position on this defensive line, plans were being executed to withdraw some thirty-five miles farther south to Line D, running from P�yongt�aek in the west, northwestward through Wonju to Wonpo-ri.\nThe freezing of the Han River limited the defensive capabilities of UN troops scattered along Line C. In addition, the ROK III Corps in central Korea had virtually collapsed. Only the ROK 7th Division was in a position to help stabilize the line. The ROK 2d Division was down to less than a regiment. The ROK 5th and 8th Divisions were in complete retreat toward Wonju. To the east the ROK II Corps� 3d Division was also withdrawing to the south. As a result Ridgway ordered the U.S. X Corps, still recovering from its near-disaster in northeast Korea, to move up and take responsibility for some thirty-five miles in the center of Line C. Almond was to have control of the U.S. 2d and 7th Infantry Divisions and whatever remnants that he could gather of the ROK 2d, 5th, and 8th Divisions. To the right of X Corps, the ROK III and I Corps would extend Line C to the eastern coast. However, the staying power of this new defensive line was problematic.\nRidgway assessed the situation and, after the withdrawal from Seoul was completed, ordered the entire Eighth Army to withdraw\n29\nagain to Line D, which was somewhat redrawn to run straight east from Wonju to Samch�ok instead of northeastward to Wonpo-ri. Beginning on 5 January all five corps of Eighth Army pulled back to this line. Despite its losses, the Eighth Army situation was thus much improved from the last days of November, with better coordination between units and fewer open flanks.\n30\nThe enemy attacks, however, were not over. The rejuvenated NKPA opened a two-corps assault on X Corps positions near Wonju in the center of Line D on 7 January. The NKPA V Corps hit the 2d Division at Wonju with two divisions in a frontal attack, while a third division attacked from the northwest against the adjacent ROK 8th Division. They were assisted by one of the divisions of the NKPA II Corps, which also launched attacks against the neighboring ROK III Corps to the east. The North Koreans managed to force the 2d Division out of Wonju by the evening of 7 January, and all counterattacks failed to retake the city.\nThe North Korean success at Wonju and the dangerous penetration of the ROK III Corps by the NKPA II Corps threatened to unhinge the entire UN line. However, the harsh winter weather and logistical challenges, coupled with newly aggressive patrolling by UN soldiers, began to take their toll on the attackers� momentum. The defensive line was reestablished just south of Wonju, cutting off the weakened NKPA divisions that had penetrated the line. The 1st Marine Division was sent up from reserve to conduct a systematic antiguerrilla campaign against the scattered forces and in three weeks managed to destroy virtually one entire NKPA division. By the end of January a new defensive line had been established from the Han River, running just south of Wonju to Samch�ok on the eastern coast.\nWhile X Corps was dealing with the potentially disastrous penetration in the center, I and IX Corps were busy stabilizing their positions\n31\nU.S. military leaders in Korea visit the front linres north of Suwon on 28 January 1951. General MacArthur is at the right front. General Ridgeway is in the center, third from the left. (DA photograph)\nand instituting a series of aggressive reconnaissance-in-force patrols to their front. General Ridgway, dismayed by the continuing poor showing of his battle-weary units, demanded that unit commanders lead the way in restoring an aggressive spirit. To help rebuild the still shaky morale of Eighth Army, he ordered I Corps to plan a major reconnaissance-in-force in its sector to test the measure of Chinese resistance. Operation Wolfhound used troops from the U.S. 25th Infantry Division (especially the 27th Infantry Regiment, the \"Wolfhounds,\" from which the operation drew its name), the U.S. 3d Infantry Division, and the ROK 1st Division. Maj. Gen. Frank W. \"Shrimp\" Milburn, commander of I Corps, directed it along the Osan-Suwon axis, twelve to twenty miles to the north, supported by artillery and tanks.\nThe reconnaissance began on 15 January. The 3d Infantry Division units involved were quickly immobilized by enemy defensive positions, but the rest of the forces met little opposition until near Suwon. There, Chinese troops forced the Wolfhound units to turn back just south of their objective, but they were able to establish an advance corps outpost line along the Chinwi River, south of Osan, by\n32\nlate on 16 January, while inflicting some 1,380 enemy casualties at the cost of 3 killed and 7 wounded of their own. More important, they had showed both the Chinese and themselves that the Eighth Army continued to have an offensive spirit.\nAlmost immediately, two other reconnaissances-in-force sallied out from UN lines: another from I Corps and a one-day action in the IX Corps sector, both on 22 January. The reconnaissance in the IX Corps sector consisted of a tank-heavy formation called Task Force Johnson after its commander, Colonel Johnson. The immediate results of both operations were small, but the ground was being laid for a return to the offensive by the entire Eighth Army in the near future.\nAnalysis\nThe period from early November 1950 to late January 1951 was in many ways the most heartbreaking of the Korean War. During the previous summer the North Korean attack had been a total surprise, and the disastrous retreat to the Pusan Perimeter was painful in the extreme. However, the series of defeats could be explained by the necessarily haphazard and slow reinforcement of the outnumbered U.S. and South Korean forces. Moreover, these defeats were followed by elation as the Inch�on landings reversed the situation and the UN forces seemed on the verge not just of victory in South Korea but of total victory, including the liberation of North Korea and the reunification of the peninsula. All these dreams were swept away by the massive intervention of the Chinese Army in late November 1950. There would be no homecoming victory parade by Christmas.\nThe initial warning attacks and diplomatic hints by the Chinese were ignored by the overconfident Far Eastern Command under General MacArthur. MacArthur�s failure to comprehend the reality of the situation led the entire United Nations army to near disaster at the Ch�ongch�on River and the Chosin Reservoir. Only the grit and determination of the individual American soldiers and marines as they fought the three major enemies of cold, fear, and isolation held the UN line together during the retreats from North Korea. Once tied together into a coherent defensive line, under new and dynamic leadership, these same soldiers and marines showed their determination to continue the fight. Hard battles lay ahead, but the period of headlong retreats from an attacking, unsuspected foe, was finally over.\n33\nFurther Readings\nAppleman, Roy E. East of Chosin: Entrapment and Breakout in Korea, 1950. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1987.\n���. Escaping the Trap: The U.S. Army X Corps in Northeast Korea, 1950. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1990.\n���. South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu (June�November 1950). U.S. Army in Korea. Washington, U.S. Army Center of Military History, 1961.\nBlair, Clay. The Forgotten War: America in Korea 1950�53. New York: Doubleday, 1987.\nMarshall, S. L. A. The River and the Gauntlet: November 1950, the Defeat of Eighth Army. Nashville, Tenn.: Battery Press, 1987.\nMossman, Billy C. Ebb and Flow: November 1950�July 1951. U.S. Army in Korea. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Center of Military History, 1990.\nStanton, Shelby. America�s Tenth Legion: X Corps in Korea, 1950. Novato, Calif.: Presidio Press, 1989.\n35\nCMH Pub 19-8\nCover: U.S. 7th Infantry Division Soldiers pass through the outskirts of Hyesanjin in November 1950. (DA photograph)\nLast updated 3 October 2003" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Caribbean.txt" ], "title": [ "Caribbean" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Caribbean ( or; ; ; Caribbean Hindustani: कैरिबियन (Kairibiyana); or more commonly Antilles) is a region that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands (some surrounded by the Caribbean Sea and some bordering both the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean), and the surrounding coasts. The region is southeast of the Gulf of Mexico and the North American mainland, east of Central America, and north of South America.\n\nSituated largely on the Caribbean Plate, the region comprises more than 700 islands, islets, reefs, and cays. (See the list.) These islands generally form island arcs that delineate the eastern and northern edges of the Caribbean Sea. The Caribbean islands, consisting of the Greater Antilles on the north and the Lesser Antilles on the south and east (including the Leeward Antilles), are part of the somewhat larger West Indies grouping, which also includes the Lucayan Archipelago (comprising The Bahamas and Turks and Caicos Islands) north of the Greater Antilles and Caribbean Sea. In a wider sense, the mainland countries of Belize, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana are also included.\n\nGeopolitically, the Caribbean islands are usually regarded as a subregion of North America and are organized into 30 territories including sovereign states, overseas departments, and dependencies. From December 15, 1954, to October 10, 2010 there was a country known as the Netherlands Antilles composed of five states, all of which were Dutch dependencies. While from January 3, 1958, to May 31, 1962, there was also a short-lived country called the Federation of the West Indies composed of ten English-speaking Caribbean territories, all of which were then British dependencies. The West Indies cricket team continues to represent many of those nations.\n\nEtymology and pronunciation\n\nThe region takes its name from that of the Caribs, an ethnic group present in the Lesser Antilles and parts of adjacent South America at the time of the Spanish conquest. \n\nThe two most prevalent pronunciations of \"Caribbean\" are , with the primary accent on the third syllable, and , with the accent on the second. The former pronunciation is the older of the two, although the stressed-second-syllable variant has been established for over 75 years. It has been suggested that speakers of British English prefer while North American speakers more typically use , although not all sources agree. Usage is split within Caribbean English itself. \n\nDefinition\n\nThe word \"Caribbean\" has multiple uses. Its principal ones are geographical and political. The Caribbean can also be expanded to include territories with strong cultural and historical connections to slavery, European colonisation, and the plantation system.\n* The United Nations geoscheme for the Americas accords the Caribbean as a distinct region within The Americas.\n* Physiographically, the Caribbean region is mainly a chain of islands surrounding the Caribbean Sea. To the north, the region is bordered by the Gulf of Mexico, the Straits of Florida, and the Northern Atlantic Ocean, which lies to the east and northeast. To the south lies the coastline of the continent of South America.\n* Politically, the \"Caribbean\" may be centred on socio-economic groupings found in the region. For example, the bloc known as the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) contains the Co-operative Republic of Guyana, the Republic of Suriname in South America, and Belize in Central America as full members. Bermuda and the Turks and Caicos Islands, which are in the Atlantic Ocean, are associate members of the Caribbean Community. The Commonwealth of the Bahamas is also in the Atlantic and is a full member of the Caribbean Community.\n* Alternatively, the organisation called the Association of Caribbean States (ACS) consists of almost every nation in the surrounding regions that lie on the Caribbean, plus El Salvador, which lies solely on the Pacific Ocean. According to the ACS, the total population of its member states is 227 million people. \n\nGeography and geology\n\nThe geography and climate in the Caribbean region varies: Some islands in the region have relatively flat terrain of non-volcanic origin. These islands include Aruba (possessing only minor volcanic features), Barbados, Bonaire, the Cayman Islands, Saint Croix, the Bahamas, and Antigua. Others possess rugged towering mountain-ranges like the islands of Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Dominica, Montserrat, Saba, Saint Kitts, Saint Lucia, Saint Thomas, Saint John, Tortola, Grenada, Saint Vincent, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Trinidad & Tobago.\n\nDefinitions of the terms Greater Antilles and Lesser Antilles often vary. The Virgin Islands as part of the Puerto Rican bank are sometimes included with the Greater Antilles. The term Lesser Antilles is often used to define an island arc that includes Grenada but excludes Trinidad and Tobago and the Leeward Antilles.\n\nThe waters of the Caribbean Sea host large, migratory schools of fish, turtles, and coral reef formations. The Puerto Rico trench, located on the fringe of the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea just to the north of the island of Puerto Rico, is the deepest point in all of the Atlantic Ocean. \n\nThe region sits in the line of several major shipping routes with the Panama Canal connecting the western Caribbean Sea with the Pacific Ocean.\n\nClimate\n\nThe climate of the area is tropical to subtropical in Cuba, The Bahamas and Puerto Rico. Rainfall varies with elevation, size, and water currents (cool upwellings keep the ABC islands arid). Warm, moist tradewinds blow consistently from the east creating rainforest/semidesert divisions on mountainous islands. Occasional northwesterlies affect the northern islands in the winter. The region enjoys year-round sunshine, divided into 'dry' and 'wet' seasons, with the last six months of the year being wetter than the first half.\n\nHurricane Season is from June to November, but they occur more frequently in August and September and more common in the northern islands of the Caribbean.Hurricanes that sometimes batter the region usually strike northwards of Grenada and to the west of Barbados. The principal hurricane belt arcs to northwest of the island of Barbados in the Eastern Caribbean.\n\nWater temperatures vary from 31 °C (88 °F) to 22 °C (72 °F) all around the year. The air temperature is warm, in the 20s and 30s °C (70s, 80s, and 90s °F) during the year, only varies from winter to summer about 2–5 degrees on the southern islands and about 10–20 degrees difference can occur in the northern islands of the Caribbean. The northern islands, like the Bahamas, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and The Dominican Republic, may be influenced by continental masses during winter months, such as cold fronts.\n\nAruba: Latitude 12°N\n\nPuerto Rico: Latitude 18°N\n\nCuba: at Latitude 22°N\n\nIsland groups\n\nLucayan Archipelago\n* \n* (United Kingdom)\nGreater Antilles\n* (United Kingdom)\n* \n* Hispaniola\n** \n** \n* \n* (U.S. Commonwealth)\n\nLesser Antilles\n* Leeward Islands\n** (United States)\n*** Saint Croix\n*** Saint Thomas\n*** Saint John\n*** Water Island\n** (United Kingdom)\n*** Tortola\n*** Virgin Gorda\n*** Anegada\n*** Jost Van Dyke\n** (United Kingdom)\n** \n*** Antigua\n*** Barbuda\n*** Redonda\n** Saint Martin, politically divided between\n*** (France)\n*** (Kingdom of the Netherlands)\n** (BES islands, Netherlands)\n** (BES islands, Netherlands)\n** (French Antilles, France)\n** \n*** Saint Kitts\n*** Nevis\n** (United Kingdom)\n** (French Antilles, France) including\n*** Les Saintes\n*** Marie-Galante\n*** La Désirade\n* Windward Islands\n** \n** (French Antilles, France)\n** \n** \n*** Saint Vincent\n*** The Grenadines\n** \n*** Grenada\n*** Carriacou and Petite Martinique\n* \n* \n** Tobago\n** Trinidad\n* Leeward Antilles\n** (Kingdom of the Netherlands)\n** (Kingdom of the Netherlands)\n** (BES islands, Netherlands)\n\nHistorical groupings\n\nAll islands at some point were, and a few still are, colonies of European nations; a few are overseas or dependent territories:\n* British West Indies/Anglophone Caribbean – Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Bay Islands, Guyana, Belize, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, Montserrat, Saint Croix (briefly), Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago (from 1797) and the Turks and Caicos Islands\n* Danish West Indies – Possession of Denmark-Norway before 1814, then Denmark, present-day United States Virgin Islands\n* Dutch West Indies – Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, Saba, Sint Eustatius, Sint Maarten, Bay Islands (briefly), Saint Croix (briefly), Tobago, Surinam and Virgin Islands\n* French West Indies – Anguilla (briefly), Antigua and Barbuda (briefly), Dominica, Dominican Republic (briefly), Grenada, Haiti, Montserrat (briefly), Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Sint Eustatius (briefly), Sint Maarten, St. Kitts (briefly), Tobago (briefly), Saint Croix, the current French overseas départements of Martinique and Guadeloupe (including Marie-Galante, La Désirade and Les Saintes), the current French overseas collectivities of Saint Barthélemy and Saint Martin\n* Portuguese West Indies – present-day Barbados, known as ' in the 16th century when the Portuguese claimed the island en route to Brazil. The Portuguese left Barbados abandoned in 1533, nearly a century before the British arrived.\n* Spanish West Indies – Cuba, Hispaniola (present-day Dominican Republic, Haiti (until 1609 to France)), Puerto Rico, Jamaica (until 1655 to Great Britain), the Cayman Islands (until 1670 to Great Britain) Trinidad (until 1797 to Great Britain) and Bay Islands (until 1643 to Great Britain), coastal islands of Central America (minus Belize), and some Caribbean coastal islands of Panama, Colombia, Mexico, and Venezuela.\n* Swedish West Indies – present-day French Saint-Barthélemy, Guadeloupe (briefly) and Tobago (briefly).\n* Courlander West Indies – Tobago (until 1691)\n\nThe British West Indies were united by the United Kingdom into a West Indies Federation between 1958 and 1962. The independent countries formerly part of the B.W.I. still have a joint cricket team that competes in Test matches, One Day Internationals and Twenty20 Internationals. The West Indian cricket team includes the South American nation of Guyana, the only former British colony on the mainland of that continent.\n\nIn addition, these countries share the University of the West Indies as a regional entity. The university consists of three main campuses in Jamaica, Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago, a smaller campus in the Bahamas and Resident Tutors in other contributing territories such as Trinidad.\n\nModern-day island territories\n\n* (British overseas territory)\n* (Constitutional monarchy)\n* (Kingdom of the Netherlands)\n* (Constitutional monarchy)\n* (special municipality of the Netherlands)\n* (British overseas territory)\n* (British overseas territory)\n* (Republic)\n* (Kingdom of the Netherlands)\n* (Republic)\n* \n* (Constitutional monarchy)\n* (overseas department of France) including\n** les Saintes\n** Marie-Galante\n** la Désirade\n* (Republic)\n* (Constitutional monarchy)\n* (overseas department of France)\n* (British overseas territory)\n* (commonwealth of the United States)\n* (special municipality of the Netherlands)\n* (overseas collectivity of France)\n* (Constitutional monarchy)\n* (Constitutional monarchy)\n* (overseas collectivity of France)\n* (Constitutional monarchy)\n* (special municipality of the Netherlands)\n* (Kingdom of the Netherlands)\n* (Republic)\n* (territory of the United States)\n\nContinental countries with Caribbean coastlines and islands\n\n* \n** Ambergris Caye\n** Belize City\n** Big Creek\n** Caye Caulker\n** Glover's Reef\n** Dangriga\n** Hick's Cayes\n** Hopkins\n** Lighthouse Reef\n** Placencia\n** Punta Gorda\n** St. George's Caye\n** South Water Caye\n** Turneffe Atoll\n* \n** Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina\n** Rosario Islands\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n** Islas de la Bahía\n*** Cayos Cochinos\n*** Guanaja\n*** Roatán\n*** Swan Islands\n*** Útila\n* \n** Quintana Roo\n*** Cozumel\n*** Isla Contoy\n*** Isla Mujeres\n\n* \n** Corn Islands\n** Miskito Cays\n** Pearl Cays\n* \n** Panama City\n** Archipelago off Guna Yala coast (including the San Blas Islands)\n** Bocas del Toro Archipelago (approximately 300 islands)\n* \n* \n** Florida Keys\n** Puerto Rico (U.S. commonwealth)\n** U.S. Virgin Islands (U.S. territory)\n* \n** Blanquilla Island\n** Coche Island\n** Cubagua Island\n** Isla Aves\n** Islas Los Frailes\n** Isla Margarita\n** La Orchila\n** La Sola Island\n** La Tortuga Island\n** Las Aves archipelago\n** Los Hermanos Archipelago\n** Los Monjes Archipelago\n** Los Roques archipelago\n** Los Testigos Islands\n** Patos Island\n\nBiodiversity\n\nThe Caribbean islands are remarkable for the diversity of their animals, fungi and plants, and have been classified as one of Conservation International's biodiversity hotspots because of their exceptionally diverse terrestrial and marine ecosystems, ranging from montane cloud forests to cactus scrublands. The region also contains about 8% (by surface area) of the world's coral reefs along with extensive seagrass meadows, both of which are frequently found in the shallow marine waters bordering island and continental coasts off the region.\n\nFor the fungi, there is a modern checklist based on nearly 90,000 records derived from specimens in reference collections, published accounts and field observations. That checklist includes more than 11250 species of fungi recorded from the region. As its authors note, the work is far from exhaustive, and it is likely that the true total number of fungal species already known from the Caribbean is higher. The true total number of fungal species occurring in the Caribbean, including species not yet recorded, is likely far higher given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7% of all fungi worldwide have been discovered. Though the amount of available information is still small, a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to some Caribbean islands. For Cuba, 2200 species of fungi have been tentatively identified as possible endemics of the island; for Puerto Rico, the number is 789 species; for the Dominican Republic, the number is 699 species; for Trinidad and Tobago, the number is 407 species. \n\nMany of the ecosystems of the Caribbean islands have been devastated by deforestation, pollution, and human encroachment. The arrival of the first humans is correlated with extinction of giant owls and dwarf ground sloths. The hotspot contains dozens of highly threatened animals (ranging from birds, to mammals and reptiles), fungi and plants. Examples of threatened animals include the Puerto Rican amazon, two species of solenodon (giant shrews) in Cuba and the Hispaniola island, and the Cuban crocodile.\n\nThe region's coral reefs, which contain about 70 species of hard corals and between 500–700 species of reef-associated fishes have undergone rapid decline in ecosystem integrity in recent years, and are considered particularly vulnerable to global warming and ocean acidification. According to a UNEP report, the caribbean coral reefs might get extinct in next 20 years due to population explosion along the coast lines, overfishing, the pollution of coastal areas and global warming. \n\nSome Caribbean islands have terrain that Europeans found suitable for cultivation for agriculture. Tobacco was an important early crop during the colonial era, but was eventually overtaken by sugarcane production as the region's staple crop. Sugar was produced from sugarcane for export to Europe. Cuba and Barbados were historically the largest producers of sugar. The tropical plantation system thus came to dominate Caribbean settlement. Other islands were found to have terrain unsuited for agriculture, for example Dominica, which remains heavily forested. The islands in the southern Lesser Antilles, Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao, are extremely arid, making them unsuitable for agriculture. However, they have salt pans that were exploited by the Dutch. Sea water was pumped into shallow ponds, producing coarse salt when the water evaporated. \n\nThe natural environmental diversity of the Caribbean islands has led to recent growth in eco-tourism. This type of tourism is growing on islands lacking sandy beaches and dense human populations. \n\nPlants and animals of the Caribbean\n\nFile:Epiphytes (Dominica).jpg|Epiphytes (bromeliads, climbing palms) in the rainforest of Dominica.\nFile:Jumping frog.jpg|A green and black poison frog, Dendrobates auratus\nFile:Caesalpinia pulcherrima, Guadeloupe.jpg|Caesalpinia pulcherrima, Guadeloupe.\nFile:Costus speciosus Guadeloupe.JPG|Costus speciosus, a marsh plant, Guadeloupe.\nFile:Ocypode quadrata (Martinique).jpg|An Atlantic ghost crab (Ocypode quadrata) in Martinique.\nFile:Calebassier.jpg|Crescentia cujete, or calabash fruit, Martinique.\nFile:Thalassoma bifasciatum (Bluehead Wrasse) juvenile yellow stage over Bispira brunnea (Social Feather Duster Worms).jpg|Thalassoma bifasciatum (bluehead wrasse fish), over Bispira brunnea (social feather duster worms).\nFile:Stenopus hispidus (Banded cleaner shrimp).jpg|Two Stenopus hispidus (banded cleaner shrimp) on a Xestospongia muta (giant barrel sponge).\nFile:Cyphoma signata (Fingerprint Cowry) pair.jpg|A pair of Cyphoma signatum (fingerprint cowry), off coastal Haiti.\nFile:Extinctbirds1907 P18 Amazona martinicana0317.png|The Martinique amazon, Amazona martinicana, is an extinct species of parrot in the Psittacidae family.\nFile:Anastrepha suspensa 5193019.jpg|Anastrepha suspensa, a Caribbean fruit fly.\nFile:Hemidactylus mabouia (Dominica).jpg|Hemidactylus mabouia, a tropical gecko, in Dominica.\n\nDemographics\n\nAt the time of European contact, the dominant ethnic groups in the Caribbean included the Taíno of the Greater Antilles and northern Lesser Antilles, the Island Caribs of the southern Lesser Antilles, and smaller distinct groups such as the Guanajatabey of western Cuba and the Ciguayo of western Hispaniola. The population of the Caribbean is estimated to have been around 750,000 immediately before European contact, although lower and higher figures are given. After contact, social disruption and epidemic diseases such as smallpox and measles (to which they had no natural immunity) led to a decline in the Amerindian population. From 1500 to 1800 the population rose as slaves arrived from West Africa such as the Kongo, Igbo, Akan, Fon and Yoruba as well as military prisoners from Ireland, who were deported during the Cromwellian reign in England. Immigrants from Britain, Italy, France, Spain, the Netherlands, Portugal and Denmark also arrived, although the mortality rate was high for both groups. \n\nThe population is estimated to have reached 2.2 million by 1800. Immigrants from India, China, and other countries arrived in the 19th century. After the ending of the Atlantic slave trade, the population increased naturally. The total regional population was estimated at 37.5 million by 2000.Table A.2, [http://gisweb.ciat.cgiar.org/population/download/report.pdf Database documentation], Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) Population Database, version 3, International Center for Tropical Agriculture, 2005. Accessed on line February 20, 2008.\n\nThe majority of the Caribbean has populations of mainly Africans in the French Caribbean, Anglophone Caribbean and Dutch Caribbean, there are minorities of mixed-race and European people of Dutch, English, French, Italian and Portuguese ancestry. Asians, especially those of Chinese and Indian descent, form a significant minority in the region and also contribute to multiracial communities. All of their ancestors arrived in the 19th century as indentured laborers.\n\nThe Spanish-speaking Caribbean have primarily mixed race, African, or European majorities. Puerto Rico has a European majority with a mixture of European-African (mulatto), and a large West African minority. One third of Cuba's (largest Caribbean island) population is of African descent, with a sizable Mulatto (mixed African–European) population, and European majority. The Dominican Republic has the largest mixed race population, primarily descended from Europeans, West Africans, and Amerindians.\n\nLarger islands such as Jamaica, have a very large African majority, in addition to a significant mixed race, Chinese, Europeans, Indian, Lebanese, Latin American, and Syrian populations. This is a result of years of importation of slaves and indentured labourers, and migration. Most multi-racial Jamaicans refer to themselves as either mixed race or Brown. The situation is similar for the Caricom states of Belize, Guyana, Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago. Trinidad and Tobago has a multi-racial cosmopolitan society due to the arrival of the Africans, Indians, Chinese, Syrians, Lebanese, Native Amerindians and Europeans. This multi-racial mix has created sub-ethnicities that often straddle the boundaries of major ethnicities and include Chindian, Mulatto and Dougla.\n\nIndigenous groups\n\n* Arawak peoples\n** Igneri\n** Taíno\n* Caquetio people\n* Ciboney\n* Ciguayo\n* Garifuna\n* Kalina\n* Kalinago\n* Lucayan\n* Macorix\n* Raizal\n\nLanguage\n\nSpanish, English, French, Dutch, Haitian Creole, and Papiamento are the predominant official languages of various countries in the region, though a handful of unique creole languages or dialects can also be found from one country to another.\n\nReligion\n\nChristianity is the predominant religion in the Caribbean (84.7%). Other religious groups in the region are Hinduism, Islam, Buddhist, Rastafari, and Afro-American religions such as Santería and Vodou.\n\nPolitics\n\nRegionalism\n\nCaribbean societies are very different from other Western societies in terms of size, culture, and degree of mobility of their citizens. The current economic and political problems the states face individually are common to all Caribbean states. Regional development has contributed to attempts to subdue current problems and avoid projected problems. From a political and economic perspective, regionalism serves to make Caribbean states active participants in current international affairs through collective coalitions. In 1973, the first political regionalism in the Caribbean Basin was created by advances of the English-speaking Caribbean nations through the institution known as the Caribbean Common Market and Community (CARICOM) which is located in Guyana.\n\nCertain scholars have argued both for and against generalizing the political structures of the Caribbean. On the one hand the Caribbean states are politically diverse, ranging from communist systems such as Cuba toward more capitalist Westminster-style parliamentary systems as in the Commonwealth Caribbean. Other scholars argue that these differences are superficial, and that they tend to undermine commonalities in the various Caribbean states. Contemporary Caribbean systems seem to reflect a \"blending of traditional and modern patterns, yielding hybrid systems that exhibit significant structural variations and divergent constitutional traditions yet ultimately appear to function in similar ways.\" The political systems of the Caribbean states share similar practices.\n\nThe influence of regionalism in the Caribbean is often marginalized. Some scholars believe that regionalism cannot exist in the Caribbean because each small state is unique. On the other hand, scholars also suggest that there are commonalities amongst the Caribbean nations that suggest regionalism exists. \"Proximity as well as historical ties among the Caribbean nations has led to cooperation as well as a desire for collective action.\" These attempts at regionalization reflect the nations' desires to compete in the international economic system.\n\nFurthermore, a lack of interest from other major states promoted regionalism in the region. In recent years the Caribbean has suffered from a lack of U.S. interest. \"With the end of the Cold War, U.S. security and economic interests have been focused on other areas. As a result there has been a significant reduction in U.S. aid and investment to the Caribbean.\" The lack of international support for these small, relatively poor states, helped regionalism prosper.\n\nFollowing the Cold War another issue of importance in the Caribbean has been the reduced economic growth of some Caribbean States due to the United States and European Union's allegations of special treatment toward the region by each other. \n\nUnited States effects on regionalism\n\nThe United States under President Bill Clinton launched a challenge in the World Trade Organization against the EU over Europe's preferential program, known as the Lomé Convention, which allowed banana exports from the former colonies of the Group of African, Caribbean and Pacific states (ACP) to enter Europe cheaply. The World Trade Organization sided in the United States' favour and the beneficial elements of the convention to African, Caribbean and Pacific states has been partially dismantled and replaced by the Cotonou Agreement. \n\nDuring the US/EU dispute, the United States imposed large tariffs on European Union goods (up to 100%) to pressure Europe to change the agreement with the Caribbean nations in favour of the Cotonou Agreement. \n\nFarmers in the Caribbean have complained of falling profits and rising costs as the Lomé Convention weakens. Some farmers have faced increased pressure to turn towards the cultivation of illegal drugs, which has a higher profit margin and fills the sizable demand for these illegal drugs in North America and Europe. \n\nEuropean Union effects on regionalism\n\nCaribbean nations have also started to more closely cooperate in the Caribbean Financial Action Task Force and other instruments to add oversight of the offshore industry. One of the most important associations that deal with regionalism amongst the nations of the Caribbean Basin has been the Association of Caribbean States (ACS). Proposed by CARICOM in 1992, the ACS soon won the support of the other countries of the region. It was founded in July 1994. The ACS maintains regionalism within the Caribbean on issues unique to the Caribbean Basin. Through coalition building, like the ACS and CARICOM, regionalism has become an undeniable part of the politics and economics of the Caribbean. The successes of region-building initiatives are still debated by scholars, yet regionalism remains prevalent throughout the Caribbean.\n\nVenezuela's effects on regionalism\n\nThe President of Venezuela, Hugo Chavez launched an economic group called the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas (ALBA), which several eastern Caribbean islands joined. In 2012, the nation of Haiti, with 9 million people, became the largest CARICOM nation that sought to join the union. \n\nRegional institutions\n\nHere are some of the bodies that several islands share in collaboration:\n* Association of Caribbean States (ACS), Trinidad and Tobago\n* Caribbean Association of Industry and Commerce (CAIC), Trinidad and Tobago\n* Caribbean Association of National Telecommunication Organizations (CANTO), Trinidad and Tobago \n* Caribbean Community (CARICOM), Guyana\n* Caribbean Development Bank (CDB), Barbados\n* Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency (CDERA), Barbados\n* Caribbean Educators Network \n* Caribbean Electric Utility Services Corporation (CARILEC), Saint Lucia \n* Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC), Barbados and Jamaica\n* Caribbean Financial Action Task Force (CFATF), Trinidad and Tobago\n* Caribbean Food Crops Society, Puerto Rico\n* Caribbean Football Union (CFU), Jamaica\n* Caribbean Hotel & Tourism Association (CHTA), Florida and Puerto Rico \n* Caribbean Initiative (Initiative of the IUCN)\n* Caribbean Programme for Economic Competitiveness (CPEC), Saint Lucia\n* Caribbean Regional Environmental Programme (CREP), Barbados \n* Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM), Belize \n* Caribbean Regional Negotiating Machinery (CRNM), Barbados and Dominican Republic \n* Caribbean Telecommunications Union (CTU), Trinidad and Tobago\n* Caribbean Tourism Organization (CTO), Barbados\n* Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC)\n* Foundation for the Development of Caribbean Children, Barbados\n* Latin America and Caribbean Network Information Centre (LACNIC), Brazil and Uruguay\n* Latin American and the Caribbean Economic System, Venezuela\n* Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS), Saint Lucia\n* United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Chile and Trinidad and Tobago\n* University of the West Indies, Jamaica, Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago. In addition, the fourth campus, the Open Campus was formed in June 2008 as a result of an amalgamation of the Board for Non-Campus Countries and Distance Education, Schools of Continuing Studies, the UWI Distance Education Centres and Tertiary Level Units. The Open Campus has 42 physical sites in 16 Anglophone caribbean countries.\n* West Indies Cricket Board, Antigua and Barbuda \n\nCuisine\n\nFavorite or national dishes\n\n* Anguilla – rice and peas and fish\n* Antigua and Barbuda – fungee and pepperpot\n* Barbados – cou-cou and flying fish\n* Belize - stew chicken, rice and beans, fry jacks, johnny cake, hudut, lobster, crab soup, chicken escabeche, conch fritters, gibnut, chimole \"black dinner soup\", ceviche, cow foot soup, oxtails with rice, curry chicken, roti, ducunu, garnaches, salbutes, panades, tamales, callaloo and saltfish, pigtail and split peas soup, meats pies and sere.\n* British Virgin Islands – fish and fungee\n*Panamanians are known for their exquisite cuisine, characterized by strong flavors and bold dishes. Their food is based on the diversity of its people and the fusion of flavors, culinary techniques and presentations from across the world. Panamanian cuisine is without a doubt the most diverse and multicultural food in the world, including Caribbean nations, which is why Panamanian takes on classic Caribbean dishes feel at the same time unique and familiar. From ropa vieja, maduros, tamales and empanadas to ceviche.\n* Cayman Islands – turtle stew, turtle steak, grouper\n* Colombian Caribbean – rice with coconut milk, arroz con pollo, sancocho, Arab cuisine (due to the large Arab population)\n* Cuba – platillo Moros y Cristianos, ropa vieja, lechon, maduros, ajiaco\n* Dominica – mountain chicken, rice and peas, dumplings, saltfish (dried cod), dashin, plantain, bakes (fried dumplings), coconut confiture, breadfruit, curry goat, cassava farine, oxtail and various beef broths\n* Dominican Republic – arroz con pollo topped with stewed red kidney beans, pan fried or braised beef, and side dish of green salad or ensalada de coditos, shrimp, empanadas and/or tostones, or the ever popular Dominican dish known as mangú, which is mashed plantains. The ensemble is usually called bandera nacional, which means \"national flag,\" a term equivalent to the Venezuelan pabellón criollo.\n* Grenada – oil down\n* Guyana – pepperpot, cookup rice, roti and curry, methem\n* Haiti – griot (fried pork) served with du riz a pois or diri ak pwa (rice and beans)\n* Jamaica – ackee and saltfish, callaloo, jerk chicken, curry chicken\n* Montserrat – Goat water\n* Puerto Rico – yellow rice with green pigeon peas, saltfish stew, roasted pork shoulder, chicken fricassée, mofongo, tripe soup, alcapurria, coconut custard, rice pudding, guava turnovers, Mallorca bread\n* Saint Kitts and Nevis – coconut dumplings, spicy plantain, saltfish, breadfruit\n* Saint Lucia – callaloo, dal roti, dried and salted cod, green bananas, rice and beans\n* Saint Vincent and the Grenadines – roasted breadfruit and fried jackfish\n* Trinidad and Tobago – callaloo, doubles, roti, crab and dumpling, pelau \n* United States Virgin Islands – stewed goat, oxtail or beef, seafood, callaloo, fungee\n\nNotes" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Arnold_Schwarzenegger.txt" ], "title": [ "Arnold Schwarzenegger" ], "wiki_context": [ "Arnold Alois Schwarzenegger (;; born July 30, 1947) is an Austrian-American actor, filmmaker, businessman, investor, author, philanthropist, activist, and former professional bodybuilder and politician. He served two terms as the 38th Governor of California from 2003 until 2011.\n\nSchwarzenegger began weight training at the age of 15. He won the Mr. Universe title at age 20 and went on to win the Mr. Olympia contest seven times. Schwarzenegger has remained a prominent presence in bodybuilding and has written many books and articles on the sport. He is widely considered to be among the greatest bodybuilders of all times as well as its biggest icon. Schwarzenegger gained worldwide fame as a Hollywood action film icon. His breakthrough film was the sword-and-sorcery epic Conan the Barbarian in 1982, which was a box-office hit and resulted in a sequel.\n\nIn 1984, Schwarzenegger appeared in James Cameron's science-fiction thriller film The Terminator, which was a massive critical and box-office success. Schwarzenegger subsequently reprised the Terminator character in the franchise's later installments in 1991, 2003, and 2015. He appeared in a number of successful films, such as Commando (1985), The Running Man (1987), Predator (1987), Twins (1988), Total Recall (1990), Kindergarten Cop (1990) and True Lies (1994). He was nicknamed the \"Austrian Oak\" in his bodybuilding days, \"Arnie\" during his acting career, and \"The Governator\" (a combination of \"Governor\" and \"The Terminator\", one of his best-known movie roles) during his political career.\n\nAs a Republican, he was first elected on October 7, 2003, in a special recall election to replace then-Governor Gray Davis. Schwarzenegger was sworn in on November 17, to serve the remainder of Davis's term. Schwarzenegger was then re-elected on November 7, 2006, in the 2006 California gubernatorial election, to serve a full term as governor, defeating Democrat Phil Angelides, who was California State Treasurer at the time. Schwarzenegger was sworn in for his second term on January 5, 2007. In 2011, Schwarzenegger completed his second term as governor.\n\nEarly life \n\nSchwarzenegger was born in Thal, Styria, and christened Arnold Alois. His parents were Gustav Schwarzenegger (August 17, 1907 – December 13, 1972) and Aurelia Schwarzenegger (née Jadrny; July 29, 1922 – August 2, 1998). Gustav was the local chief of police, and had served in World War II as a Hauptfeldwebel after voluntarily joining the Nazi Party in 1938, though he was discharged in 1943 following a bout of malaria. He married Schwarzenegger's mother on October 20, 1945; he was 38, and she was 23. According to Schwarzenegger, both of his parents were very strict: \"Back then in Austria it was a very different world, if we did something bad or we disobeyed our parents, the rod was not spared.\" Schwarzenegger grew up in a Roman Catholic family who attended Mass every Sunday. \n\nGustav had a preference for his elder son, Meinhard (July 17, 1946 – May 20, 1971), over Arnold. His favoritism was \"strong and blatant\", which stemmed from unfounded suspicion that Arnold was not his biological child. Schwarzenegger has said his father had \"no patience for listening or understanding your problems\". He had a good relationship with his mother and kept in touch with her until her death. In later life, Schwarzenegger commissioned the Simon Wiesenthal Center to research his father's wartime record, which came up with no evidence of Gustav's being involved in atrocities, despite his membership in the Nazi Party and SA. Gustav's background received wide press attention during the 2003 California recall campaign. At school, Schwarzenegger was apparently in the middle but stood out for his \"cheerful, good-humored, and exuberant\" character. Money was a problem in their household; Schwarzenegger recalled that one of the highlights of his youth was when the family bought a refrigerator.\n\nAs a boy, Schwarzenegger played several sports, heavily influenced by his father. He picked up his first barbell in 1960, when his soccer coach took his team to a local gym. At the age of 14, he chose bodybuilding over soccer as a career. Schwarzenegger has responded to a question asking if he was 13 when he started weightlifting: \"I actually started weight training when I was 15, but I'd been participating in sports, like soccer, for years, so I felt that although I was slim, I was well-developed, at least enough so that I could start going to the gym and start Olympic lifting.\" However, his official website biography claims: \"At 14, he started an intensive training program with Dan Farmer, studied psychology at 15 (to learn more about the power of mind over body) and at 17, officially started his competitive career.\" During a speech in 2001, he said, \"My own plan formed when I was 14 years old. My father had wanted me to be a police officer like he was. My mother wanted me to go to trade school.\" \n\nSchwarzenegger took to visiting a gym in Graz, where he also frequented the local movie theaters to see bodybuilding idols such as Reg Park, Steve Reeves, and Johnny Weissmuller on the big screen. When Reeves died in 2000, Schwarzenegger fondly remembered him: \"As a teenager, I grew up with Steve Reeves. His remarkable accomplishments allowed me a sense of what was possible, when others around me didn't always understand my dreams. Steve Reeves has been part of everything I've ever been fortunate enough to achieve.\" In 1961, Schwarzenegger met former Mr. Austria Kurt Marnul, who invited him to train at the gym in Graz. He was so dedicated as a youngster that he broke into the local gym on weekends, when it was usually closed, so that he could train. \"It would make me sick to miss a workout... I knew I couldn't look at myself in the mirror the next morning if I didn't do it.\" When Schwarzenegger was asked about his first movie experience as a boy, he replied: \"I was very young, but I remember my father taking me to the Austrian theaters and seeing some newsreels. The first real movie I saw, that I distinctly remember, was a John Wayne movie.\" \n\nOn May 20, 1971, his brother, Meinhard, died in a car accident. Meinhard had been drinking and was killed instantly. Schwarzenegger did not attend his funeral. Meinhard was due to marry Erika Knapp, and the couple had a three-year-old son, Patrick. Schwarzenegger would pay for Patrick's education and help him to emigrate to the United States. Gustav died the following year from a stroke. In Pumping Iron, Schwarzenegger claimed that he did not attend his father's funeral because he was training for a bodybuilding contest. Later, he and the film's producer said this story was taken from another bodybuilder for the purpose of showing the extremes that some would go to for their sport and to make Schwarzenegger's image more cold and machine-like in order to fan controversy for the film. Barbara Baker, his first serious girlfriend, has said he informed her of his father's death without emotion and that he never spoke of his brother. Over time, he has given at least three versions of why he was absent from his father's funeral.\n\nIn an interview with Fortune in 2004, Schwarzenegger told how he suffered what \"would now be called child abuse\" at the hands of his father: \"My hair was pulled. I was hit with belts. So was the kid next door. It was just the way it was. Many of the children I've seen were broken by their parents, which was the German-Austrian mentality. They didn't want to create an individual. It was all about conforming. I was one who did not conform, and whose will could not be broken. Therefore, I became a rebel. Every time I got hit, and every time someone said, 'You can't do this,' I said, 'This is not going to be for much longer, because I'm going to move out of here. I want to be rich. I want to be somebody.'\"\n\nEarly adulthood \n\nSchwarzenegger served in the Austrian Army in 1965 to fulfill the one year of service required at the time of all 18-year-old Austrian males. During his army service, he won the Junior Mr. Europe contest. He went AWOL during basic training so he could take part in the competition and spent a week in military prison: \"Participating in the competition meant so much to me that I didn't carefully think through the consequences.\" He won another bodybuilding contest in Graz, at Steirer Hof Hotel (where he had placed second). He was voted best built man of Europe, which made him famous. \"The Mr. Universe title was my ticket to America – the land of opportunity, where I could become a star and get rich.\" Schwarzenegger made his first plane trip in 1966, attending the NABBA Mr. Universe competition in London. He would come in second in the Mr. Universe competition, not having the muscle definition of American winner Chester Yorton.\n\nCharles \"Wag\" Bennett, one of the judges at the 1966 competition, was impressed with Schwarzenegger and he offered to coach him. As Schwarzenegger had little money, Bennett invited him to stay in his crowded family home above one of his two gyms in Forest Gate, London, England. Yorton's leg definition had been judged superior, and Schwarzenegger, under a training program devised by Bennett, concentrated on improving the muscle definition and power in his legs. Staying in the East End of London helped Schwarzenegger improve his rudimentary grasp of the English language. Also in 1966, Schwarzenegger had the opportunity to meet childhood idol Reg Park, who became his friend and mentor. The training paid off and, in 1967, Schwarzenegger won the title for the first time, becoming the youngest ever Mr. Universe at the age of 20. He would go on to win the title a further three times. Schwarzenegger then flew back to Munich, training for four to six hours daily, attending business school and working in a health club (Rolf Putziger's gym where he worked and trained from 1966–1968), returning in 1968 to London to win his next Mr. Universe title. He frequently told Roger C. Field, his English coach and friend in Munich at that time, \"I'm going to become the greatest actor!\"\n\nMove to the U.S. \n\nSchwarzenegger, who dreamed of moving to the U.S. since the age of 10, and saw bodybuilding as the avenue through which to do so, realized his dream by moving to the United States in September 1968 at the age of 21, speaking little English. There he trained at Gold's Gym in Venice, Los Angeles, California, under Joe Weider. From 1970 to 1974, one of Schwarzenegger's weight training partners was Ric Drasin, a professional wrestler who designed the original Gold's Gym logo in 1973. Schwarzenegger also became good friends with professional wrestler Superstar Billy Graham. In 1970, at age 23, he captured his first Mr. Olympia title in New York, and would go on to win the title a total of seven times.\n\nThe immigration law firm Siskind & Susser has stated that Schwarzenegger may have been an illegal immigrant at some point in the late 1960s or early 1970s because of violations in the terms of his visa. LA Weekly would later say in 2002 that Schwarzenegger is the most famous immigrant in America, who \"overcame a thick Austrian accent and transcended the unlikely background of bodybuilding to become the biggest movie star in the world in the 1990s\".\n\nIn 1977, Schwarzenegger's autobiography/weight-training guide Arnold: The Education of a Bodybuilder was published and became a huge success. In 1977 he posed nude for the gay magazine After Dark. After taking English classes at Santa Monica College in California, he earned a BA by correspondence from the University of Wisconsin–Superior, where he graduated with a degree in international marketing of fitness and business administration in 1979. He got his American citizenship in 1983. \n\nHe tells that during this time he ran into a friend who told him that he was teaching Transcendental Meditation (TM), which prompted Schwarzenegger to reveal he had been struggling with anxiety for the first time in his life: \"Even today, I still benefit from [the year of TM] because I don't merge and bring things together and see everything as one big problem.\" \n\nBodybuilding career \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \nSchwarzenegger is considered among the most important figures in the history of bodybuilding, and his legacy is commemorated in the Arnold Classic annual bodybuilding competition. Schwarzenegger has remained a prominent face in the bodybuilding sport long after his retirement, in part because of his ownership of gyms and fitness magazines. He has presided over numerous contests and awards shows.\n\nFor many years, he wrote a monthly column for the bodybuilding magazines Muscle & Fitness and Flex. Shortly after being elected Governor, he was appointed executive editor of both magazines, in a largely symbolic capacity. The magazines agreed to donate $250,000 a year to the Governor's various physical fitness initiatives. When the deal, including the contract that gave Schwarzenegger at least $1 million a year, was made public in 2005, many criticized it as being a conflict of interest since the governor's office made decisions concerning regulation of dietary supplements in California. Consequently, Schwarzenegger relinquished the executive editor role in 2005. American Media Inc., which owns Muscle & Fitness and Flex, announced in March 2013 that Schwarzenegger had accepted their renewed offer to be executive editor of the magazines.\n\nThe magazine MuscleMag International has a monthly two-page article on him, and refers to him as \"The King\".\n\nOne of the first competitions he won was the Junior Mr. Europe contest in 1965. He won Mr. Europe the following year, at age 19. He would go on to compete in, and win, many bodybuilding contests. His bodybuilding victories included five Mr. Universe (4 – NABBA [England], 1 – IFBB [USA]) wins, and seven Mr. Olympia wins, a record which would stand until Lee Haney won his eighth consecutive Mr. Olympia title in 1991.\n\nSchwarzenegger continues to work out even today. When asked about his personal training during the 2011 Arnold Classic he said that he was still working out a half an hour with weights every day. \n* Competition Weight: 235 lb (top 250 lb (113 kg))\n* Off Season Weight: 255 lb (top 260 lb (118 kg))\n\nPowerlifting/weightlifting \n\nDuring Schwarzenegger's early years in bodybuilding, he also competed in several Olympic weightlifting and powerlifting contests. Schwarzenegger won two weightlifting contests in 1964 and 1965, as well as two powerlifting contests in 1966 and 1968.\n\nIn 1967, Schwarzenegger won the Munich stone-lifting contest, in which a stone weighing 508 German pounds (254 kg/560 lbs.) is lifted between the legs while standing on two foot rests.\n\nPersonal records \n\n* Clean and press – 264 lb\n* Snatch – 243 lb\n* Clean and jerk – 298 lb\n* Squat – 545 lb\n* Bench press – 520 lb \n* Deadlift – 710 lb\n\nMr. Olympia \n\nSchwarzenegger's goal was to become the greatest bodybuilder in the world, which meant becoming Mr. Olympia. His first attempt was in 1969, when he lost to three-time champion Sergio Oliva. However, Schwarzenegger came back in 1970 and won the competition, making him the youngest ever Mr. Olympia at the age of 23, a record he still holds to this day.\n\nHe continued his winning streak in the 1971–74 competitions. In 1975, Schwarzenegger was once again in top form, and won the title for the sixth consecutive time, beating Franco Columbu. After the 1975 Mr. Olympia contest, Schwarzenegger announced his retirement from professional bodybuilding.\n\nMonths before the 1975 Mr. Olympia contest, filmmakers George Butler and Robert Fiore persuaded Schwarzenegger to compete, in order to film his training in the bodybuilding documentary called Pumping Iron. Schwarzenegger had only three months to prepare for the competition, after losing significant weight to appear in the film Stay Hungry with Jeff Bridges. Lou Ferrigno proved not to be a threat, and a lighter-than-usual Schwarzenegger convincingly won the 1975 Mr. Olympia.\n\nSchwarzenegger came out of retirement, however, to compete in the 1980 Mr. Olympia. Schwarzenegger was training for his role in Conan, and he got into such good shape because of the running, horseback riding and sword training, that he decided he wanted to win the Mr. Olympia contest one last time. He kept this plan a secret, in the event that a training accident would prevent his entry and cause him to lose face. Schwarzenegger had been hired to provide color commentary for network television, when he announced at the eleventh hour that while he was there: \"Why not compete?\" Schwarzenegger ended up winning the event with only seven weeks of preparation. After being declared Mr. Olympia for a seventh time, Schwarzenegger then officially retired from competition.\n\nSteroid use \n\nSchwarzenegger has admitted to using performance-enhancing anabolic steroids while they were legal, writing in 1977 that \"steroids were helpful to me in maintaining muscle size while on a strict diet in preparation for a contest. I did not use them for muscle growth, but rather for muscle maintenance when cutting up.\" He has called the drugs \"tissue building\". \n\nIn 1999, Schwarzenegger sued Dr. Willi Heepe, a German doctor who publicly predicted his early death on the basis of a link between his steroid use and his later heart problems. As the doctor had never examined him personally, Schwarzenegger collected a US$10,000 libel judgment against him in a German court. In 1999, Schwarzenegger also sued and settled with the Globe, a U.S. tabloid which had made similar predictions about the bodybuilder's future health. \n\nList of competitions \n\nActing career \n\nEarly roles \n\nSchwarzenegger wanted to move from bodybuilding into acting, finally achieving it when he was chosen to play the role of Hercules in 1970's Hercules in New York. Credited under the name \"Arnold Strong,\" his accent in the film was so thick that his lines were dubbed after production. His second film appearance was as a deaf mute hit-man for the mob in director Robert Altman's The Long Goodbye (1973), which was followed by a much more significant part in the film Stay Hungry (1976), for which he was awarded a Golden Globe for New Male Star of the Year. Schwarzenegger has discussed his early struggles in developing his acting career. \"It was very difficult for me in the beginning – I was told by agents and casting people that my body was 'too weird', that I had a funny accent, and that my name was too long. You name it, and they told me I had to change it. Basically, everywhere I turned, I was told that I had no chance.\"\n\nSchwarzenegger drew attention and boosted his profile in the bodybuilding film Pumping Iron (1977), elements of which were dramatized; in 1991, he purchased the rights to the film, its outtakes, and associated still photography. In 1977, he also appeared in an episode of the ABC situation comedy The San Pedro Beach Bums. Schwarzenegger auditioned for the title role of The Incredible Hulk, but did not win the role because of his height. Later, Lou Ferrigno got the part of Dr. David Banner's alter ego. Schwarzenegger appeared with Kirk Douglas and Ann-Margret in the 1979 comedy The Villain. In 1980, he starred in a biographical film of the 1950s actress Jayne Mansfield as Mansfield's husband, Mickey Hargitay.\n\nAction superstar \n\nSchwarzenegger's breakthrough film was the sword-and-sorcery epic Conan the Barbarian in 1982, which was a box-office hit. This was followed by a sequel, Conan the Destroyer, in 1984, although it was not as successful as its predecessor. In 1983, Schwarzenegger starred in the promotional video, Carnival in Rio. In 1984, he made his first appearance as the eponymous character, and what some would say was his acting career's signature role, in James Cameron's science fiction thriller film The Terminator. Following this, Schwarzenegger made Red Sonja in 1985.\n\nDuring the 1980s, audiences had an appetite for action films, with both Schwarzenegger and Sylvester Stallone becoming international stars. Schwarzenegger's roles reflected his sense of humor, separating him from more serious action hero films, such as the alternative universe poster for Terminator 2: Judgment Day starring Stallone in the comedy thriller Last Action Hero. He made a number of successful films, such as Commando (1985), Raw Deal (1986), The Running Man (1987), Predator (1987), and Red Heat (1988).\n\nTwins (1988), a comedy with Danny DeVito, also proved successful. Total Recall (1990) netted Schwarzenegger $10 million and 15% of the film's gross. A science fiction script, the film was based on the Philip K. Dick short story \"We Can Remember It for You Wholesale\". Kindergarten Cop (1990) reunited him with director Ivan Reitman, who directed him in Twins. Schwarzenegger had a brief foray into directing, first with a 1990 episode of the TV series Tales from the Crypt, entitled \"The Switch\", and then with the 1992 telemovie Christmas in Connecticut. He has not directed since.\n\nSchwarzenegger's commercial peak was his return as the title character in 1991's Terminator 2: Judgment Day, which was the highest-grossing film of 1991. In 1993, the National Association of Theatre Owners named him the \"International Star of the Decade\". His next film project, the 1993 self-aware action comedy spoof Last Action Hero, was released opposite Jurassic Park, and did not do well at the box office. His next film, the comedy drama True Lies (1994), was a popular spy film, and saw Schwarzenegger reunited with James Cameron.\n\nThat same year, the comedy Junior was released, the last of Schwarzenegger's three collaborations with Ivan Reitman and again co-starring Danny DeVito. This film brought him his second Golden Globe nomination, this time for Best Actor – Musical or Comedy. It was followed by the action thriller Eraser (1996), the Christmas comedy Jingle All The Way (1996), and the comic book-based Batman & Robin (1997), in which he played the villain Mr. Freeze. This was his final film before taking time to recuperate from a back injury. Following the critical failure of Batman & Robin, his film career and box office prominence went into decline. He returned with the supernatural thriller End of Days (1999), later followed by the action films The 6th Day (2000) and Collateral Damage (2002), both of which failed to do well at the box office. In 2003, he made his third appearance as the title character in Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines, which went on to earn over $150 million domestically. \n\nIn tribute to Schwarzenegger in 2002, Forum Stadtpark, a local cultural association, proposed plans to build a 25-meter (82 ft) tall Terminator statue in a park in central Graz. Schwarzenegger reportedly said he was flattered, but thought the money would be better spent on social projects and the Special Olympics. \n\nRetirement \n\nHis film appearances after becoming Governor of California included a three-second cameo appearance in The Rundown, and the 2004 remake of Around the World in 80 Days. In 2005, he appeared as himself in the film The Kid & I. He voiced Baron von Steuben in the Liberty's Kids episode \"Valley Forge\". He had been rumored to be appearing in Terminator Salvation as the original T-800; he denied his involvement, but he ultimately did appear briefly via his image being inserted into the movie from stock footage of the first Terminator movie. Schwarzenegger appeared in Sylvester Stallone's The Expendables, where he made a cameo appearance.\n\nReturn to acting \n\nIn January 2011, just weeks after leaving office in California, Schwarzenegger announced that he was reading several new scripts for future films, one of them being the World War II action drama With Wings as Eagles, written by Randall Wallace, based on a true story. On March 6, 2011, at the Arnold Seminar of the Arnold Classic, Schwarzenegger revealed that he was being considered for several films, including sequels to The Terminator and remakes of Predator and The Running Man, and that he was \"packaging\" a comic book character. The character was later revealed to be the Governator, star of the comic book and animated series of the same name. Schwarzenegger inspired the character and co-developed it with Stan Lee, who would have produced the series. Schwarzenegger would have voiced the Governator. \n\nOn May 20, 2011, Schwarzenegger's entertainment counsel announced that all movie projects currently in development were being halted: \"Schwarzenegger is focusing on personal matters and is not willing to commit to any production schedules or timelines\". On July 11, 2011, it was announced that Schwarzenegger was considering a comeback film despite his legal problems. He appeared in The Expendables 2 (2012), and starred in The Last Stand (2013), his first leading role in 10 years, and Escape Plan (2013), his first co-starring role alongside Sylvester Stallone. He starred in Sabotage, released in March 2014, and appeared in The Expendables 3, released in August 2014. He starred in the fifth Terminator movie Terminator Genisys in 2015 and will reprise his role as Conan the Barbarian in The Legend of Conan. \n\nThe Celebrity Apprentice \n\nIn September 2015, it was announced Schwarzenegger would replace Donald Trump as host of The Celebrity Apprentice. This show, the 15th season of The Apprentice, will air in the 2016-2017 TV season.\n\nFilmography \n\nSelected notable roles:\n\n* Hercules in New York as Hercules (1970)\n* Stay Hungry as Joe Santo (1976)\n* Pumping Iron as himself (1977)\n* The Villain as Handsome Stranger (1979)\n* The Jayne Mansfield Story as Mickey Hargitay (1980)\n* Conan the Barbarian as Conan (1982)\n* Conan the Destroyer as Conan (1984)\n* The Terminator as The Terminator/T-800 Model 101 (1984)\n* Red Sonja as Kalidor (1985)\n* Commando as John Matrix (1985)\n* Raw Deal as Mark Kaminsky, a.k.a. Joseph P. Brenner (1986)\n* Predator as Major Alan \"Dutch\" Schaeffer (1987)\n* The Running Man as Ben Richards (1987)\n* Red Heat as Captain Ivan Danko (1988)\n* Twins as Julius Benedict (1988)\n* Total Recall as Douglas Quaid/Hauser (1990)\n* Kindergarten Cop as Detective John Kimble (1990)\n* Terminator 2: Judgment Day as The Terminator/T-800 Model 101 (1991)\n* Last Action Hero as Jack Slater / Himself (1993)\n* True Lies as Harry Tasker (1994)\n* Junior as Dr. Alex Hesse (1994)\n* Eraser as U.S. Marshal John Kruger (1996)\n* Jingle All the Way as Howard Langston (1996)\n* Batman and Robin as Mr. Freeze (1997)\n* End of Days as Jericho Cane (1999)\n* The 6th Day as Adam Gibson / Adam Gibson Clone (2000)\n* Collateral Damage as Gordy Brewer (2002)\n* Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines as The Terminator/T-850 Model 101 (2003)\n* Around the World in 80 Days as Prince Hapi (2004)\n* The Expendables as Trench (2010)\n* The Expendables 2 as Trench (2012)\n* The Last Stand as Sheriff Ray Owens (2013)\n* Escape Plan as Rottmayer (2013)\n* Sabotage as John 'Breacher' Wharton (2014)\n* The Expendables 3 as Trench (2014)\n* Maggie as Wade Vogel (2015)\n* Terminator Genisys as The Terminator/T-800 Model 101/ The Guardian (2015)\n* 478 as Victor (2016)\n\nPolitical career \n\nEarly politics \n\nSchwarzenegger has been a registered Republican for many years. As an actor, his political views were always well known as they contrasted with those of many other prominent Hollywood stars, who are generally considered to be a liberal and Democratic-leaning community. At the 2004 Republican National Convention, Schwarzenegger gave a speech and explained why he was a Republican: \n\nIn 1985, Schwarzenegger appeared in \"Stop the Madness\", an anti-drug music video sponsored by the Reagan administration. He first came to wide public notice as a Republican during the 1988 presidential election, accompanying then-Vice President George H.W. Bush at a campaign rally. \n\nSchwarzenegger's first political appointment was as chairman of the President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports, on which he served from 1990 to 1993. He was nominated by George H. W. Bush, who dubbed him \"Conan the Republican\". He later served as Chairman for the California Governor's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports under Governor Pete Wilson.\n\nBetween 1993 and 1994, Schwarzenegger was a Red Cross ambassador (a ceremonial role fulfilled by celebrities), recording several television/radio public service announcements to donate blood.\n\nIn an interview with Talk magazine in late 1999, Schwarzenegger was asked if he thought of running for office. He replied, \"I think about it many times. The possibility is there, because I feel it inside.\" The Hollywood Reporter claimed shortly after that Schwarzenegger sought to end speculation that he might run for governor of California. Following his initial comments, Schwarzenegger said, \"I'm in show business – I am in the middle of my career. Why would I go away from that and jump into something else?\"\n\nGovernor of California \n\nSchwarzenegger announced his candidacy in the 2003 California recall election for Governor of California on the August 6, 2003 episode of The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. Schwarzenegger had the most name recognition in a crowded field of candidates, but he had never held public office and his political views were unknown to most Californians. His candidacy immediately became national and international news, with media outlets dubbing him the \"Governator\" (referring to The Terminator movies, see above) and \"The Running Man\" (the name of another one of his films), and calling the recall election \"Total Recall\" (yet another movie starring Schwarzenegger). Schwarzenegger declined to participate in several debates with other recall replacement candidates, and appeared in only one debate on September 24, 2003. \n\nOn October 7, 2003, the recall election resulted in Governor Gray Davis being removed from office with 55.4% of the Yes vote in favor of a recall. Schwarzenegger was elected Governor of California under the second question on the ballot with 48.6% of the vote to choose a successor to Davis. Schwarzenegger defeated Democrat Cruz Bustamante, fellow Republican Tom McClintock, and others. His nearest rival, Bustamante, received 31% of the vote. In total, Schwarzenegger won the election by about 1.3 million votes. Under the regulations of the California Constitution, no runoff election was required. Schwarzenegger was the second foreign-born governor of California after Irish-born Governor John G. Downey in 1862.\n\nSchwarzenegger was entrenched in what he considered to be his mandate in cleaning up gridlock. Building on a catchphrase from the sketch \"Hans and Franz\" from Saturday Night Live (which partly parodied his bodybuilding career), Schwarzenegger called the Democratic State politicians \"girlie men\". \n\nSchwarzenegger's early victories included repealing an unpopular increase in the vehicle registration fee as well as preventing driver's licenses being given out to illegal immigrants, but later he began to feel the backlash when powerful state unions began to oppose his various initiatives. Key among his reckoning with political realities was a special election he called in November 2005, in which four ballot measures he sponsored were defeated. Schwarzenegger accepted personal responsibility for the defeats and vowed to continue to seek consensus for the people of California. He would later comment that \"no one could win if the opposition raised 160 million dollars to defeat you\". The U.S. Supreme Court later found the public employee unions' use of compulsory fundraising during the campaign had been illegal in Knox v. Service Employees International Union, Local 1000. \n\nSchwarzenegger then went against the advice of fellow Republican strategists and appointed a Democrat, Susan Kennedy, as his Chief of Staff. Schwarzenegger gradually moved towards a more politically moderate position, determined to build a winning legacy with only a short time to go until the next gubernatorial election.\n\nSchwarzenegger ran for re-election against Democrat Phil Angelides, the California State Treasurer, in the 2006 elections, held on November 7, 2006. Despite a poor year nationally for the Republican party, Schwarzenegger won re-election with 56.0% of the vote compared with 38.9% for Angelides, a margin of well over one million votes. In recent years, many commentators have seen Schwarzenegger as moving away from the right and towards the center of the political spectrum. After hearing a speech by Schwarzenegger at the 2006 Martin Luther King, Jr. breakfast, San Francisco mayor Gavin Newsom said that, \"[H]e's becoming a Democrat [… H]e's running back, not even to the center. I would say center-left\".\n\nIt was rumored that Schwarzenegger might run for the United States Senate in 2010, as his governorship would be term-limited by that time. This turned out to be false. \n\nWendy Leigh, who wrote an unofficial biography on Schwarzenegger, claims he plotted his political rise from an early age using the movie business and bodybuilding as building blocks to escape a depressing home. Leigh portrays Schwarzenegger as obsessed with power and quotes him as saying, \"I wanted to be part of the small percentage of people who were leaders, not the large mass of followers. I think it is because I saw leaders use 100% of their potential – I was always fascinated by people in control of other people.\" Schwarzenegger has said that it was never his intention to enter politics, but he says, \"I married into a political family. You get together with them and you hear about policy, about reaching out to help people. I was exposed to the idea of being a public servant and Eunice and Sargent Shriver became my heroes.\" Eunice Kennedy Shriver was sister of John F. Kennedy, and mother-in-law to Schwarzenegger; Sargent Shriver is husband to Eunice and father-in-law to Schwarzenegger. He cannot run for president as he is not a natural born citizen of the United States. In The Simpsons Movie (2007), he is portrayed as the president, and in the Sylvester Stallone movie, Demolition Man (1993, ten years before his first run for political office), it is revealed that a constitutional amendment passed which allowed Schwarzenegger to become president. \n\nSchwarzenegger is a dual Austrian/United States citizen. He holds Austrian citizenship by birth and has held U.S. citizenship since becoming naturalized in 1983. Being Austrian and thus European, he was able to win the 2007 European Voice campaigner of the year award for taking action against climate change with the California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 and plans to introduce an emissions trading scheme with other US states and possibly with the EU. \n\nBecause of his personal wealth from his acting career, Schwarzenegger did not accept his governor's salary of $175,000 per year. \n\nSchwarzenegger's endorsement in the Republican primary of the 2008 U.S. presidential election was highly sought; despite being good friends with candidates Rudy Giuliani and Senator John McCain, Schwarzenegger remained neutral throughout 2007 and early 2008. Giuliani dropped out of the presidential race on January 30, 2008, largely because of a poor showing in Florida, and endorsed McCain. Later that night, Schwarzenegger was in the audience at a Republican debate at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in California. The following day, he endorsed McCain, joking, \"It's Rudy's fault!\" (in reference to his friendships with both candidates and that he could not make up his mind). Schwarzenegger's endorsement was thought to be a boost for Senator McCain's campaign; both spoke about their concerns for the environment and economy. \n\nIn its April 2010 report, Progressive ethics watchdog group Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington named Schwarzenegger one of 11 \"worst governors\" in the United States because of various ethics issues throughout Schwarzenegger's term as governor. \n\nGovernor Schwarzenegger played a significant role in opposing Proposition 66, a proposed amendment of the Californian Three Strikes Law, in November 2004. This amendment would have required the third felony to be either violent or serious to mandate a 25-years-to-life sentence. In the last week before the ballot, Schwarzenegger launched an intensive campaign against Proposition 66. He stated that \"it would release 26,000 dangerous criminals and rapists\".\n\nAlthough he began his tenure as governor with record high approval ratings (as high as 89% in December 2003), he left office with a record low 23%, only one percent higher than that of Gray Davis's when he was recalled in October 2003.\n\nAllegations of sexual misconduct \n\nDuring his initial campaign for governor, allegations of sexual and personal misconduct were raised against Schwarzenegger, dubbed \"Gropegate\". Within the last five days before the election, news reports appeared in the Los Angeles Times recounting allegations of sexual misconduct from several individual women, six of whom eventually came forward with their personal stories. \n\nThree of the women claimed he had grabbed their breasts, a fourth said he placed his hand under her skirt on her buttock. A fifth woman claimed Schwarzenegger tried to take off her bathing suit in a hotel elevator, and the last said he pulled her onto his lap and asked her about a sex act.\n\nSchwarzenegger admitted that he has \"behaved badly sometimes\" and apologized, but also stated that \"a lot of [what] you see in the stories is not true\". This came after an interview in adult magazine Oui from 1977 surfaced, in which Schwarzenegger discussed attending sexual orgies and using substances such as marijuana. Schwarzenegger is shown smoking a marijuana joint after winning Mr. Olympia in the 1975 documentary film Pumping Iron. In an interview with GQ magazine in October 2007, Schwarzenegger said, \"[Marijuana] is not a drug. It's a leaf. My drug was pumping iron, trust me.\" His spokesperson later said the comment was meant to be a joke.\n\nBritish television personality Anna Richardson settled a libel lawsuit in August 2006 against Schwarzenegger, his top aide, Sean Walsh, and his publicist, Sheryl Main. A joint statement read: \"The parties are content to put this matter behind them and are pleased that this legal dispute has now been settled.\" Richardson claimed they tried to tarnish her reputation by dismissing her allegations that Schwarzenegger touched her breast during a press event for The 6th Day in London. She claimed Walsh and Main libeled her in a Los Angeles Times article when they contended she encouraged his behavior.\n\nCitizenship \n\nSchwarzenegger became a naturalized U.S. citizen on September 17, 1983. Shortly before he gained his citizenship, he asked the Austrian authorities for the right to keep his Austrian citizenship, as Austria does not usually allow dual citizenship. His request was granted, and he retained his Austrian citizenship. In 2005, Peter Pilz, a member of the Austrian Parliament from the Austrian Green Party, demanded that Parliament revoke Schwarzenegger's Austrian citizenship due to his decision not to prevent the executions of Donald Beardslee and Stanley Williams, causing damage of reputation to Austria, where the death penalty has been abolished since 1968. This demand was based on Article 33 of the Austrian Citizenship Act that states: \"A citizen, who is in the public service of a foreign country, shall be deprived of his citizenship, if he heavily damages the reputation or the interests of the Austrian Republic.\" Pilz claimed that Schwarzenegger's actions in support of the death penalty (prohibited in Austria under Protocol 13 of the European Convention on Human Rights) had indeed done damage to Austria's reputation. Schwarzenegger explained his actions by referring to the fact that his only duty as Governor of California was to prevent an error in the judicial system.\n\nEnvironmental record \n\nOn September 27, 2006 Schwarzenegger signed the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006, creating the nation's first cap on greenhouse gas emissions. The law set new regulations on the amount of emissions utilities, refineries and manufacturing plants are allowed to release into the atmosphere. Schwarzenegger also signed a second global warming bill that prohibits large utilities and corporations in California from making long-term contracts with suppliers who do not meet the state's greenhouse gas emission standards. The two bills are part of a plan to reduce California's emissions by 25 percent to 1990s levels by 2020. In 2005, Schwarzenegger issued an executive order calling to reduce greenhouse gases to 80 percent below 1990 levels by 2050. \n\nSchwarzenegger signed another executive order on October 17, 2006 allowing California to work with the Northeast's Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative. They plan to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by issuing a limited amount of carbon credits to each power plant in participating states. Any power plants that exceed emissions for the amount of carbon credits will have to purchase more credits to cover the difference. The plan took effect in 2009. In addition to using his political power to fight global warming, the governor has taken steps at his home to reduce his personal carbon footprint. Schwarzenegger has adapted one of his Hummers to run on hydrogen and another to run on biofuels. He has also installed solar panels to heat his home. \n\nIn respect of his contribution to the direction of the US motor industry, Schwarzenegger was invited to open the 2009 SAE World Congress in Detroit, on April 20, 2009. \n\nIn 2011, Schwarzenegger founded the R20 Regions of Climate Action to develop a sustainable, low carbon economy. \n\nElectoral history \n\nPresidential ambitions \n\nIn October 2013, the New York Post reported that Schwarzenegger was exploring a future run for president. The former California governor would face a constitutional hurdle; Article II, Section I, Clause V nominally prevents individuals who are not natural-born citizens of the United States from assuming the office. He has reportedly been lobbying legislators about a possible constitutional change, or filing a legal challenge to the provision. Columbia University law professor Michael Dorf observed that Schwarzenegger's possible lawsuit could ultimately win him the right to run for the office, noting, \"The law is very clear, but it’s not 100 percent clear that the courts would enforce that law rather than leave it to the political process.\" \n\nBusiness career \n\nSchwarzenegger has had a highly successful business career. Following his move to the United States, Schwarzenegger became a \"prolific goal setter\" and would write his objectives at the start of the year on index cards, like starting a mail order business or buying a new car – and succeed in doing so. By the age of 30, Schwarzenegger was a millionaire, well before his career in Hollywood. His financial independence came from his success as a budding entrepreneur with a series of successful business ventures and investments.\n\nBricklaying business \n\nIn 1968, Schwarzenegger and fellow bodybuilder Franco Columbu started a bricklaying business. The business flourished thanks to the pair's marketing savvy and an increased demand following the 1971 San Fernando earthquake. Schwarzenegger and Columbu used profits from their bricklaying venture to start a mail order business, selling bodybuilding and fitness-related equipment and instructional tapes.\n\nInvestments \n\nSchwarzenegger rolled profits from the mail order business and his bodybuilding competition winnings into his first real estate investment venture: an apartment building he purchased for $10,000. He would later go on to invest in a number of real estate holding companies. \n\nSchwarzenegger was a founding celebrity investor in the Planet Hollywood chain of international theme restaurants (modeled after the Hard Rock Cafe) along with Bruce Willis, Sylvester Stallone and Demi Moore. Schwarzenegger severed his financial ties with the business in early 2000. Schwarzenegger said the company had not had the success he had hoped for, claiming he wanted to focus his attention on \"new US global business ventures\" and his movie career.\n\nHe also invested in a shopping mall in Columbus, Ohio. He has talked about some of those who have helped him over the years in business: \"I couldn't have learned about business without a parade of teachers guiding me... from Milton Friedman to Donald Trump... and now, Les Wexner and Warren Buffett. I even learned a thing or two from Planet Hollywood, such as when to get out! And I did!\" He has significant ownership in Dimensional Fund Advisors, an investment firm. Schwarzenegger is also the owner of Arnold's Sports Festival, which he started in 1989 and is held annually in Columbus, Ohio. It is a festival that hosts thousands of international health and fitness professionals which has also expanded into a three-day expo. He also owns a movie production company called Oak Productions, Inc. and Fitness Publications, a joint publishing venture with Simon & Schuster. \n\nRestaurant \n\nIn 1992, Schwarzenegger and his wife opened a restaurant in Santa Monica called Schatzi On Main. Schatzi literally means \"little treasure,\" colloquial for \"honey\" or \"darling\" in German. In 1998, he sold his restaurant. \n\nWealth \n\nSchwarzenegger's net worth had been conservatively estimated at $100–$200 million. After separating from his wife, Maria Shriver, in 2011, it has been estimated that his net worth has been approximately $400 million, and even as high as $800 million, based on tax returns he filed in 2006. Over the years as an investor, he invested his bodybuilding and movie earnings in an array of stocks, bonds, privately controlled companies, and real estate holdings worldwide, making his net worth as an accurate estimation difficult to calculate, particularly in light of declining real estate values owing to economic recessions in the U.S. and Europe since the late 2000s. In June 1997, Schwarzenegger spent $38 million of his own money on a private Gulfstream jet. Schwarzenegger once said of his fortune, \"Money doesn't make you happy. I now have $50 million, but I was just as happy when I had $48 million.\" He has also stated, \"I've made many millions as a businessman many times over.\"\n\nPersonal life \n\nEarly relationships \n\nIn 1969, Schwarzenegger met Barbara Outland (later Barbara Outland Baker), an English teacher he lived with until 1974. Schwarzenegger talked about Barbara in his memoir in 1977: \"Basically it came down to this: she was a well-balanced woman who wanted an ordinary, solid life, and I was not a well-balanced man, and hated the very idea of ordinary life.\" Baker has described Schwarzenegger as \"[a] joyful personality, totally charismatic, adventurous, and athletic\" but claims towards the end of the relationship he became \"insufferable – classically conceited – the world revolved around him\". Baker published her memoir in 2006, entitled Arnold and Me: In the Shadow of the Austrian Oak. Although Baker, at times, painted an unflattering portrait of her former lover, Schwarzenegger actually contributed to the tell-all book with a foreword, and also met with Baker for three hours. Baker claims, for example, that she only learned of his being unfaithful after they split, and talks of a turbulent and passionate love life. Schwarzenegger has made it clear that their respective recollection of events can differ. The couple first met six to eight months after his arrival in the U.S – their first date was watching the first Apollo Moon landing on television. They shared an apartment in Santa Monica for three and a half years, and having little money, would visit the beach all day, or have barbecues in the back yard. Although Baker claims that when she first met him, he had \"little understanding of polite society\" and she found him a turn-off, she says, \"He's as much a self-made man as it's possible to be – he never got encouragement from his parents, his family, his brother. He just had this huge determination to prove himself, and that was very attractive … I'll go to my grave knowing Arnold loved me.\"\n\nSchwarzenegger met his next paramour, Sue Moray, a Beverly Hills hairdresser's assistant, on Venice Beach in July 1977. According to Moray, the couple led an open relationship: \"We were faithful when we were both in LA … but when he was out of town, we were free to do whatever we wanted.\" Schwarzenegger met Maria Shriver at the Robert F. Kennedy Tennis Tournament in August 1977, and went on to have a relationship with both women until August 1978, when Moray (who knew of his relationship with Shriver) issued an ultimatum.\n\nMarriage and family \n\nOn April 26, 1986, Schwarzenegger married television journalist Maria Shriver, niece of President John F. Kennedy, in Hyannis, Massachusetts. The Rev. John Baptist Riordan performed the ceremony at St. Francis Xavier Catholic Church. They have four children: Katherine Eunice Schwarzenegger (born December 13, 1989 in Los Angeles); Christina Maria Aurelia Schwarzenegger (born July 23, 1991 in Los Angeles); Patrick Arnold Shriver Schwarzenegger (born September 18, 1993 in Los Angeles); and Christopher Sargent Shriver Schwarzenegger (born September 27, 1997 in Los Angeles). Schwarzenegger lives in a 11000 sqft home in Brentwood. The divorcing couple currently own vacation homes in Sun Valley, Idaho and Hyannis Port, Massachusetts. They attended St. Monica's Catholic Church. Following their separation, it is reported that Schwarzenegger is dating physical therapist Heather Milligan. \n\nMarital separation \n\nOn May 9, 2011, Shriver and Schwarzenegger ended their relationship after 25 years of marriage, with Shriver moving out of the couple's Brentwood mansion. On May 16, 2011, the Los Angeles Times revealed that Schwarzenegger had fathered a son more than fourteen years earlier with an employee in their household, Mildred Patricia 'Patty' Baena. \"After leaving the governor's office I told my wife about this event, which occurred over a decade ago,\" Schwarzenegger said in a statement issued to The Times. In the statement, Schwarzenegger did not mention that he had confessed to his wife only after Shriver had confronted him with the information, which she had done after confirming with the housekeeper what she had suspected about the child. \n\nBaena is of Guatemalan origin, she was employed by the family for 20 years and retired in January 2011. The pregnant Baena was working in the home while Shriver was pregnant with the youngest of the couple’s four children. Baena's son with Schwarzenegger, Joseph, was born on October 2, 1997; Shriver gave birth to Christopher on September 27, 1997. Schwarzenegger says it took seven or eight years before he found out that he had fathered a child with his housekeeper. It wasn't until the boy \"started looking like me, that's when I kind of got it. I put things together,\" the action star and former California governor, told 60 Minutes. Schwarzenegger has taken financial responsibility for the child \"from the start and continued to provide support.\" KNX 1070 radio reported that in 2010 he bought a new four-bedroom house, with a pool, for Baena and their son in Bakersfield, about 112 mi north of Los Angeles. Baena separated from her husband, Rogelio, in 1997, a few months after Joseph's birth, and filed for divorce in 2008. Baena's ex-husband says that the child's birth certificate was falsified and that he plans to sue Schwarzenegger for engaging in conspiracy to falsify a public document, a serious crime in California. \n\nSchwarzenegger has consulted an attorney, Bob Kaufman. Kaufman has earlier handled divorce cases for celebrities such as Jennifer Aniston and Reese Witherspoon. Schwarzenegger will keep the Brentwood home as part of their divorce settlement and Shriver has purchased a new home nearby so that the children may travel easily between their parents' homes. They will share custody of the two minor children. Schwarzenegger came under fire after the initial petition did not include spousal support and a reimbursement of attorney's fees. However, he claims this was not intentional and that he signed the initial documents without having properly read them. Schwarzenegger has filed amended divorce papers remedying this. \n\nAfter the scandal, actress Brigitte Nielsen came forward and stated that she too had an affair with Schwarzenegger while he was in a relationship with Shriver, saying, \"Maybe I wouldn't have got into it if he said 'I'm going to marry Maria' and this is dead serious, but he didn't, and our affair carried on.\" When asked in 2014 \"Of all the things you are famous for … which are you least proud of?\", Schwarzenegger replied \"I'm least proud of the mistakes I made that caused my family pain and split us up\". \n\nAccidents and injuries \n\nSchwarzenegger was born with a bicuspid aortic valve, an aortic valve with only two leaflets (a normal aortic valve has three leaflets). Schwarzenegger opted in 1997 for a replacement heart valve made of his own transplanted tissue; medical experts predicted he would require heart valve replacement surgery in the following two to eight years as his valve would progressively degrade. Schwarzenegger apparently opted against a mechanical valve, the only permanent solution available at the time of his surgery, because it would have sharply limited his physical activity and capacity to exercise. \n\nOn December 9, 2001, he broke six ribs and was hospitalized for four days after a motorcycle crash in Los Angeles. \n\nSchwarzenegger saved a drowning man's life in 2004 while on vacation in Hawaii by swimming out and bringing him back to shore. \n\nOn January 8, 2006, while Schwarzenegger was riding his Harley Davidson motorcycle in Los Angeles, with his son Patrick in the sidecar, another driver backed into the street he was riding on, causing him and his son to collide with the car at a low speed. While his son and the other driver were unharmed, the governor sustained a minor injury to his lip, requiring 15 stitches. \"No citations were issued\", said Officer Jason Lee, a Los Angeles Police Department spokesman. Schwarzenegger did not obtain his motorcycle license until July 3, 2006. \n\nSchwarzenegger tripped over his ski pole and broke his right femur while skiing in Sun Valley, Idaho, with his family on December 23, 2006. On December 26, 2006, he underwent a 90-minute operation in which cables and screws were used to wire the broken bone back together. He was released from the St. John's Health Center on December 30, 2006. \n\nSchwarzenegger's private jet made an emergency landing at Van Nuys Airport on June 19, 2009, after the pilot reported smoke coming from the cockpit, according to a statement released by the governor's press secretary. No one was harmed in the incident. \n\nHeight \n\nSchwarzenegger's official height of 6'2\" (1.88 m) has been brought into question by several articles. In his bodybuilding days in the late 1960s, he was measured to be 6'1.5\" (1.87 m), a height confirmed by his fellow bodybuilders. However, in 1988 both the Daily Mail and Time Out magazine mentioned that Schwarzenegger appeared noticeably shorter. Prior to running for Governor, Schwarzenegger's height was once again questioned in an article by the Chicago Reader. As Governor, Schwarzenegger engaged in a light-hearted exchange with Assemblyman Herb Wesson over their heights. At one point, Wesson made an unsuccessful attempt to, in his own words, \"settle this once and for all and find out how tall he is\" by using a tailor's tape measure on the Governor. Schwarzenegger retaliated by placing a pillow stitched with the words \"Need a lift?\" on the five-foot-five inch (165 cm) Wesson's chair before a negotiating session in his office. Bob Mulholland also claimed Schwarzenegger was 5'10\" (1.78 m) and that he wore risers in his boots. In 1999, Men's Health magazine stated his height was 5'10\". \n\nAutobiography \n\nSchwarzenegger's autobiography, Total Recall, was released in October 2012. He devotes one chapter called \"The Secret\" to his extramarital affair. The majority of his book is about his successes in the three major chapters in his life: bodybuilder, actor, and Governor of California. \n\nVehicles \n\nSchwarzenegger was the first civilian to purchase a Humvee. He was so enamored by the vehicle that he lobbied the Humvee's manufacturer, AM General, to produce a street-legal, civilian version, which they did in 1992; the first two Hummers they sold were also purchased by Schwarzenegger. \n\nHe was in the news in 2014 for buying a rare Bugatti Veyron Grand Sport Vitesse. He was spotted and filmed in 2015 Summer in his car, silver painted with bright aluminium forged wheels. Schwarzenegger's Bugatti has its interior adorned in dark brown leather. \n\nActivism \n\nThe Hummers that Schwarzenegger bought 1992 are so large – each weighs 6300 lb and is 7 ft wide – that they are classified as large trucks, and U.S. fuel economy regulations do not apply to them. During the gubernatorial recall campaign he announced that he would convert one of his Hummers to burn hydrogen. The conversion was reported to have cost about US$21,000. After the election, he signed an executive order to jump-start the building of hydrogen refueling plants called the California Hydrogen Highway Network, and gained a U.S. Department of Energy grant to help pay for its projected US$91,000,000 cost. California took delivery of the first H2H (Hydrogen Hummer) in October 2004. \n\nArnold Schwarzenegger has been involved with the Special Olympics for many years after they were founded by his ex-mother-in-law, Eunice Kennedy Shriver. In 2007, Schwarzenegger was the official spokesperson for the Special Olympics which were held in Shanghai, China. Schwarzenegger believes that quality school opportunities should be made available to children who might not normally be able to access them. In 1995, he founded the Inner City Games Foundation (ICG) which provides cultural, educational and community enrichment programming to youth. ICG is active in 15 cities around the country and serves over 250,000 children in over 400 schools countrywide. He has also been involved with After-School All-Stars, and founded the Los Angeles branch in 2002. ASAS is an after school program provider, educating youth about health, fitness and nutrition.\n\nOn February 12, 2010, Schwarzenegger took part in the Vancouver Olympic Torch relay. He handed off the flame to the next runner, Sebastian Coe. \n\nSchwarzenegger is a lifelong supporter and \"friend of Israel\", and has participated in L.A.'s Pro-Israel rally among other similar events. \n\nIn 2012, Schwarzenegger helped to found the Schwarzenegger Institute for State and Global Policy, which is a part of the USC Sol Price School of Public Policy at the University of Southern California. The Institute's mission is to \"[advance] post-partisanship, where leaders put people over political parties and work together to find the best ideas and solutions to benefit the people they serve,\" and to \"seek to influence public policy and public debate in finding solutions to the serious challenges we face.\" Schwarzenegger serves as chairman of the Institute. \n\nAt a 2015 security conference, Arnold Schwarzenegger called climate change the issue of our time. \n\nFor the United States presidential election in 2016 Schwarzenegger endorsed fellow Republican John Kasich. However, he was seen in the audience of the 2016 Democratic National Convention on several evenings [Tuesday, July 26, 2016, and Wednesday, July 27, 2016]. (video record)\n\nAwards and honors \n\n* Seven-time Mr. Olympia winner\n* Four-time Mr. Universe winner\n* 1969 World Amateur Bodybuilding Champion\n* 1977 Golden Globe Award winner\n* Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame\n* International Sports Hall of Fame (class of 2012) \n* WWE Hall of Fame (class of 2015)\n* Schwarzenegger Institute for State and Global Policy (part of the USC Sol Price School of Public Policy at the University of Southern California) named in his honor.\n* Arnold's Run ski trail at Sun Valley Resort named in his honor. The trail is categorized as a black diamond, or most difficult, for its terrain.\n* \"A Day for Arnold\" on July 30, 2007 in Thal, Austria. For his 60th birthday the mayor sent Schwarzenegger the enameled address sign (Thal 145) of the house where Schwarzenegger was born, declaring \"This belongs to him. No one here will ever be assigned that number again\". \n\nBooks \n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*" ] }

{ "description": [ "Arnold Alois Schwarzenegger was born ... Arnold Schwarzenegger. Over roughly the next decade, ... 's character John Spartan about the Arnold Schwarzenegger ..." ], "filename": [ "16/16_3002.txt" ], "rank": [ 0 ], "title": [ "Arnold Schwarzenegger - Biography - IMDb" ], "url": [ "http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000216/bio" ], "search_context": [ "Arnold Schwarzenegger - Biography - IMDb\nArnold Schwarzenegger\nBiography\nShowing all 733 items\nJump to: Overview  (4) | Mini Bio  (1) | Spouse  (1) | Trade Mark  (9) | Trivia  (146) | Personal Quotes  (550) | Salary  (22)\nOverview (4)\n6' 2\" (1.88 m)\nMini Bio (1)\nWith an almost unpronounceable surname and a thick Austrian accent, who would have ever believed that a brash, quick talking bodybuilder from a small European village would become one of Hollywood's biggest stars, marry into the prestigious Kennedy family, amass a fortune via shrewd investments and one day be the Governor of California!?\nThe amazing story of megastar Arnold Schwarzenegger is a true \"rags to riches\" tale of a penniless immigrant making it in the land of opportunity, the United States of America. Arnold Alois Schwarzenegger was born July 30, 1947, in the town of Thal, Styria, Austria, to Aurelia (Jadrny) and Gustav Schwarzenegger, the local police chief. From a young age, he took a keen interest in physical fitness and bodybuilding, going on to compete in several minor contests in Europe. However, it was when he emigrated to the United States in 1968 at the tender age of 21 that his star began to rise.\nUp until the early 1970s, bodybuilding had been viewed as a rather oddball sport, or even a mis-understood \"freak show\" by the general public, however two entrepreneurial Canadian brothers Ben Weider and Joe Weider set about broadening the appeal of \"pumping iron\" and getting the sport respect, and what better poster boy could they have to lead the charge, then the incredible \"Austrian Oak\", Arnold Schwarzenegger. Over roughly the next decade, beginning in 1970, Schwarzenegger dominated the sport of competitive bodybuilding winning five Mr. Universe titles and seven Mr. Olympia titles and, with it, he made himself a major sports icon, he generated a new international audience for bodybuilding, gym memberships worldwide swelled by the tens of thousands and the Weider sports business empire flourished beyond belief and reached out to all corners of the globe. However, Schwarzenegger's horizons were bigger than just the landscape of bodybuilding and he debuted on screen as \"Arnold Strong\" in the low budget Hercules in New York (1970), then director Bob Rafelson cast Arnold in Stay Hungry (1976) alongside Jeff Bridges and Sally Field , for which Arnold won a Golden Globe Award for \"Best Acting Debut in a Motion Picture\". The mesmerizing Pumping Iron (1977) covering the 1975 Mr Olympia contest in South Africa has since gone on to become one of the key sports documentaries of the 20th century, plus Arnold landed other acting roles in the comedy The Villain (1979) opposite Kirk Douglas , and he portrayed Mickey Hargitay in the well- received TV movie The Jayne Mansfield Story (1980).\nWhat Arnold really needed was a super hero / warrior style role in a lavish production that utilized his chiseled physique, and gave him room to show off his growing acting talents and quirky humor. Conan the Barbarian (1982) was just that role. Inspired by the Robert E. Howard short stories of the \"Hyborean Age\" and directed by gung ho director John Milius , and with a largely unknown cast, save Max von Sydow and James Earl Jones , \"Conan\" was a smash hit worldwide and an inferior, although still enjoyable sequel titled Conan the Destroyer (1984) quickly followed. If \"Conan\" was the kick start to Arnold's movie career, then his next role was to put the pedal to the floor and accelerate his star status into overdrive. Director James Cameron had until that time only previously directed one earlier feature film titled Piranha Part Two: The Spawning (1981), which stank of rotten fish from start to finish. However, Cameron had penned a fast paced, science fiction themed film script that called for an actor to play an unstoppable, ruthless predator - The Terminator (1984). Made on a relatively modest budget, the high voltage action / science fiction thriller The Terminator (1984) was incredibly successful worldwide, and began one of the most profitable film franchises in history. The dead pan phrase \"I'll be back\" quickly became part of popular culture across the globe. Schwarzenegger was in vogue with action movie fans, and the next few years were to see Arnold reap box office gold in roles portraying tough, no-nonsense individuals who used their fists, guns and witty one-liners to get the job done. The testosterone laden Commando (1985), Raw Deal (1986), Predator (1987), The Running Man (1987) and Red Heat (1988) were all box office hits and Arnold could seemingly could no wrong when it came to picking winning scripts. The tongue-in-cheek comedy Twins (1988) with co-star Danny DeVito was a smash and won Arnold new fans who saw a more comedic side to the muscle- bound actor once described by Australian author / TV host Clive James as \"a condom stuffed with walnuts\". The spectacular Total Recall (1990) and \"feel good\" Kindergarten Cop (1990) were both solid box office performers for Arnold, plus he was about to return to familiar territory with director James Cameron in Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991). The second time around for the futuristic robot, the production budget had grown from the initial film's $6.5 million to an alleged $100 million for the sequel, and it clearly showed as the stunning sequel bristled with amazing special effects, bone-crunching chases & stunt sequences, plus state of the art computer-generated imagery. Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991) was arguably the zenith of Arnold's film career to date and he was voted \"International Star of the Decade\" by the National Association of Theatre Owners.\nRemarkably, his next film Last Action Hero (1993) brought Arnold back to Earth with a hard thud as the self-satirizing, but confusing plot line of a young boy entering into a mythical Hollywood action film confused movie fans even more and they stayed away in droves making the film an initial financial disaster. Arnold turned back to good friend, director James Cameron and the chemistry was definitely still there as the \"James Bond\" style spy thriller True Lies (1994) co-starring Jamie Lee Curtis and Tom Arnold was the surprise hit of 1994! Following the broad audience appeal of True Lies (1994), Schwarzenegger decided to lean towards more family-themed entertainment with Junior (1994) and Jingle All the Way (1996), but he still found time to satisfy his hard-core fan base with Eraser (1996), as the chilling \"Mr. Freeze\" in Batman & Robin (1997) and battling dark forces in the supernatural action of End of Days (1999). The science fiction / conspiracy tale The 6th Day (2000) played to only mediocre fan interest, and Collateral Damage (2002) had its theatrical release held over for nearly a year after the tragic events of Sept 11th 2001, but it still only received a lukewarm reception.\nIt was time again to resurrect Arnold's most successful franchise and, in 2003, Schwarzenegger pulled on the biker leathers for the third time for Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines (2003). Unfortunately, directorial duties passed from James Cameron to Jonathan Mostow and the deletion of the character of \"Sarah Connor\" aka Linda Hamilton and a change in the actor playing \"John Connor\" - Nick Stahl took over from Edward Furlong - making the third entry in the \"Terminator\" series the weakest to date.\nSchwarzenegger married TV journalist Maria Shriver in April, 1986 and the couple have four children.\nIn October of 2003 Schwarzenegger, running as a Republican, was elected Governor of California in a special recall election of then governor Gray Davis. The \"Governator,\" as Schwarzenegger came to be called, held the office until 2011. Upon leaving the Governor's mansion it was revealed that he had fathered a child with the family's live-in maid and Shriver filed for divorce.\n- IMDb Mini Biography By: David Montgomery < [email protected]> and [email protected]\nSpouse (1)\n( 26 April  1986 - present) (filed for divorce) (4 children)\nTrade Mark (9)\nFrequent movie line: \"I'll be back.\"\nOften has his character say comedic one-liners that punctuate the action\nMany of his films have his characters doing feats of strength to match his muscular look, e.g. Commando (1985) where he is first seen in the film carrying a whole tree trunk on his shoulder.\nFilms often have a chase sequence or action scene in a shopping mall. ( Commando (1985), Kindergarten Cop (1990), Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991), True Lies (1994) and Jingle All the Way (1996)).\nHis characters are often family men who are protecting their children and his other characters often smoke cigars.\nHeavy Austrian accent\nVery muscular physique\nTrivia (146)\nRanked #20 in Empire (UK) magazine's \"The Top 100 Movie Stars of All Time\" list. [October 1997]\nChildren with Maria Shriver : Katherine Schwarzenegger (b. December 13, 1989), Christina Maria Aurelia Schwarzenegger (b. July 23, 1991), Patrick Schwarzenegger (b. September 18, 1993) and Christopher Sargent Shriver Schwarzenegger (b. September 27, 1997). He is also the father of Joseph Baena (b. October 2, 1997) with Mildred Patricia Baena who was housekeeper in the family until 2011.\nUnderwent heart surgery to correct a congenital heart valve condition. [April 1997]\nCalled by the Guinness Book of World Records, \"the most perfectly developed man in the history of the world.\"\nNoted fan of cigar smoking.\nHis voice in Hercules in New York (1970) was dubbed.\nWas part-owner of Planet Hollywood and Schatzi restaurants.\nAdvocate for the Republican party.\nHe reprised his Terminator character for the theme park attraction T2 3-D: Battle Across Time (1996), a short film which uses an enhanced 3-D process that makes the film really appear to jump out at the audience.\nHis production company is Oak Productions.\n1983: Became a US citizen.\nHis wife Maria Shriver is a niece of the late President John F. Kennedy and Senators Robert F. Kennedy and Ted Kennedy .\nGraduated from University of Wisconsin-Superior with a major in international marketing of fitness and business administration. [1979]\nSold off his Planet Hollywood stock and is no longer a part owner of the chain. [2000]\nThe soccer stadium in Graz, Austria (his home town) is named after him.\nWas considered for the title role in the 1970s TV series The Incredible Hulk (1978), but was reportedly deemed not tall enough. His former bodybuilding competitor, Lou Ferrigno , ultimately won the part.\nAfter leaving Austria for the first time, he came to England to work, earning under £30 a week.\nReceived an Honorary Doctorate from his alma mater, the University of Wisconsin-Superior, in recognition of his charitable works. [1996]\nSon-in-law of Sargent Shriver and Eunice Kennedy Shriver .\nAt his bodybuilding peak his chest was 57\", waist 34\", biceps 22\", thighs 28½\", calves 20\", and his competition weight was 235 lbs (260 lbs off-season).\nHe and Warner Bros. agreed to postpone the release of Collateral Damage (2002) indefinitely in the wake of the September 11th terrorist attacks on America. The plot centers around a firefighter who lost his family in a terrorist bomb attack. [September 2001]\n9/7/01: Sues International Game Technology for the unauthorized use of his voice and likeness in slot machine games. His lawyer told the press he was seeking $20 million in damages, which is the amount he believes he would have received had he approved the use.\nChildhood friends stated that he often said his goals in life were to move to America, become an actor, and marry a Kennedy. He accomplished all three.\nUnderwent a genioplasty -- a procedure in which his jaw has been moved back so that it no longer juts out.\nWas the first private citizen in the U.S. to own a Humvee (High Mobility Multi-Purpose Wheeled Vehicle).\nLobbied to promote anti-juvenile delinquency initiative on California ballot that would commit the state to allocate $400 million for extracurricular activities and tutoring for students, kindergarten through ninth grade. [May 2002]\nReceived an honorary doctorate from Chapman University in Orange, CA. [June 2002]\nFranco Columbu was best man at Arnold's wedding.\n1/29/03: Underwent surgery for a torn rotator cuff as a result of an injury on the set of Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines (2003). Was in a sling for three to four weeks, but it was not expected to delay the completion of the movie.\nRanked #9 in Star TV's Top 10 Box Office Stars of the 1990s. [2003]\nThe character Rainier Wolfecastle in The Simpsons (1989) is based on him.\nWon Mr. Olympia title seven times (1970-1975, 1980).\nJames Cameron originally wanted him for the role of Kyle Reese in The Terminator (1984), but after reading the script, Arnold asked Cameron to let him play the part of the Machine. Cameron replied \"No, no! Reese is the star! He's the big hero! And the Terminator hardly has any lines!\" but Arnold asked him to \"trust me\".\n8/6/03: Announced his candidacy for the Governorship of California on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno (1992).\nSuffered a back injury (among other various assorted injuries) while filming Conan the Barbarian (1982) when the dogs who were chasing him jumped him from behind and he fell down the rock he was climbing to escape them.\nIn Demolition Man (1993), Sandra Bullock 's character Lenina Huxley is telling Sylvester Stallone 's character John Spartan about the Arnold Schwarzenegger Presidential Library, explaining that, based on the sheer popularity of Schwarzenegger's movies, a Constitutional amendment was passed in order for Schwarzenegger to run for President, which, according to Huxley, he did. In 2003, ten years after this film's release, Schwarzenegger ran for the office of Governor of California, and won the election on 7 October 2003. While Schwarzenegger is not eligible to run for the presidency by present laws (as a naturalized citizen, not a native-born citizen as required by the Constitution), most past presidents have been governors of their respective home states. Some members of Congress are currently considering an amendment to the Constitution to allow foreign-born US citizens to be allowed to run for the Presidency, specifically with Schwarzenegger in mind, although other members of Congress are strongly opposed to the idea.\nHad one elder brother, Meinhard (1946-1971).\nHis mother was Aurelia Jadrny (2 July 1922 - 2 August 1998) and his father was Gustav Schwarzenegger (Graz, 17 August 1907 - 1 December 1972), married in Murzsteg, 20 October 1945. His mother's surname is Czech.\n10/7/03: Was elected Governor of California as a Republican.\nTurned down the role of John McClane in Die Hard (1988). The role went to Bruce Willis instead. Ironically, Willis has a line in the film where he says that the terrorists \"have enough explosives to orbit Arnold Schwarzenegger\".\nTV Guide selected Arnold Schwarzenegger's announcement on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno (1992) to run for Governor of California as the greatest TV moment of 2003.\nSaid that filming the climatic fight at the end of Predator (1987) was made difficult by the fact that the late Kevin Peter Hall , who played the Predator, couldn't see through his mask.\nHas the record for winning the most major bodybuilding events in history, 13 (1 Mr. Junior Western Europe, 7 Mr. Olympias, and 5 Mr. Universes).\nAfter he had started lifting weights as a teenager, he noticed that his body was becoming disproportionate. His arms, shoulders and chest were developing nicely, but his calves and lower legs weren't coming along as he wanted. To motivate himself to work harder on his calves, he cut off all of his pants (trousers) at the knee. Walking around like that, people would look at (and maybe even laugh at) the big man with 'chicken' legs. It worked.\nHis father, Gustav Schwarzenegger, nicknamed him \"Cinderella\" as a child and his older brother, Meinhard, constantly picked on him growing up. Both men were killed while driving under the influence.\nOnly the second governor in California's history to be born in a foreign country. John Downey, the 7th Governor of California, was born in Ireland and served from 1860-1862.\nHas his look-alike puppet in the French show Les guignols de l'info (1988).\nWent AWOL from the Austrian army to enter his first bodybuilding contest.\nStumped for President George W. Bush the weekend before his re-election in Ohio, as Schwarzenegger has always had a strong relationship with Ohio.\nHe was voted the 53rd Greatest Movie Star of all time by Entertainment Weekly.\nHas played a character who died in only five of his films: The Terminator (1984), Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991), End of Days (1999) Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines (2003) and _Terminator: Genisys (2015)_ (the original T-800 who's chip was used to time travel to 2018. Arnold's primary T800 character, however, survived, being \"upgraded\" to T1000 status).\nWas considered for the role of the gentle giant Fezzik in the 1970s when William Goldman 's book \"The Princess Bride\" was first proposed to be made into a film ( The Princess Bride (1987)).\nHad his first romantic scene in a movie with actress Sandahl Bergman , in Conan the Barbarian (1982).\nIs good friends with fellow bodybuilder Sven-Ole Thorsen who, ironically, portrayed \"Thorgrim,\" one of his leading foes, in Conan the Barbarian (1982).\nTurned down a request to reprise his Conan character in Kull the Conqueror (1997) (originally titled \"Conan the Conqueror\"). Also, he was supposed to play Conan in Red Sonja (1985), though ultimately, a new character was created who was essentially Conan in everything but name.\nIs the only person to receive Razzie nominations for Worst Actor, Worst Supporting Actor and Worst Screen Couple (with himself cloned) in the same year. All for the same movie, The 6th Day (2000).\nHis life strangely mirrors the life of Conan from Conan the Barbarian (1982). Conan was born in a small village and grew up to be a physically powerful man, due to years of slavery. After winning great fame as a gladiator, he is given to wine and women, but later rejects this hedonistic lifestyle and goes on to perform great heroic feats and eventually is crowned king. Arnold was born in a small Austrian town and took up weightlifting as he got older. After achieving success as a bodybuilder, he indulged in drug abuse and womanizing, but he later rejected this and went on to become a vocal supporter of social causes, and was eventually elected governor of California.\nPerformed many of his own stunts in his films, owing largely to the fact that it was hard to find stunt doubles who matched his size. Billy D. Lucas , Joel Kramer and Peter Kent eventually became his personal stunt doubles and close friends.\nHis famous line \"I'll be back\", which originated from The Terminator (1984), was originally written as \"I'll come back\".\nInitially refused to star in Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines (2003) because James Cameron , who created the character and directed the first two films, would not be directing the third installment. Arnold tried to persuade Cameron to do the third film but Cameron declined and, feeling that the Terminator character was as much Arnold's as it was his own, Cameron advised Arnold to just do the third film and ask for a lot of money.\nWhile filming the behind the scenes documentary for the special edition DVD of Conan the Barbarian (1982), the microphone hit him in the head at the end of the interview, to which he immediately joked \"You see, I can't even do an interview about Conan without getting hurt\".\nAddressed the Republican National Convention. [2004]\nThe etymology for Arnold is \"Eagle Power.\"\nGrew up in a house that had no phone, no fridge and no toilet.\nWas the spokesperson for Japanese DirecTV, a competitor to Quentin Tarantino 's endorsed local satellite TV operator SkyperfecTV.\nWas considered for the title role in Flash Gordon (1980). The part eventually went to Sam J. Jones instead, because producer Dino De Laurentiis felt Schwarzenegger's German accent was ill-suited for this role. DeLaurentiis (in his heavy Italian accent) told Schwarzenegger, \"You have an accent! I cannot use you for Flash Gordon! No! Flash Gordon has no accent! I cannot use you! No!\" Ironically, Jones had to temporarily get rid of his own Texas accent for said role.\nWhile filming Predator (1987) he became close friends with co- star Jesse Ventura , who was also later elected a state governor (Minnesota).\nJohn Milius originally intended him to do the narration of Conan the Barbarian (1982) but the studio didn't trust his accent, so the narration was performed by Mako instead, who played the wizard.\nWithdrew from the city of Graz the right to use his name in association with its soccer stadium and returned his \"Ehrenring\" (ring of honor) after some politicians in the town had started a campaign against Schwarzenegger due to his refusal to stop the execution of convicted killer Stanley Tookie Williams (20 December 2005).\nThe Green Party of Austria has resolved to strip Schwarzenegger of his Austrian citizenship due to his support for the death penalty.\n12/12/05: As governor, he refused to grant clemency to convicted quadruple murderer and former gang leader Stanley Tookie Williams , who had been on Death Row for 24 years.\nHe was soundly defeated on all four propositions of his \"special election\", which cost the state of California an estimated $45 million. Schwarzenegger accepted personal responsibility for the defeat, and appointed a Democrat as his new Chief of Staff. [November 2005]\nSecond actor to be elected Governor of California. The first was Ronald Reagan .\nBroke six ribs in a motorcycle crash. [December 2001]\nHe and his 11-year-old son Patrick were injured in a traffic accident when a car ran into Arnold's motorcycle. Patrick was in a sidecar. Arnold received 15 stitches. [February 2005]\nHe has been nominated for a Razzie Award as Worst Actor eight times during his career, and in 2004 received a special award for being the \"Worst Razzie Loser of Our First 25 Years.\"\nHis performance as The Terminator in the \"Terminator\" films is ranked #40 on Premiere Magazine's 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time.\nWas asked to reprise his \"Dutch\" character from the first Predator (1987) film for the sequel, but he declined because he didn't like the script. He chose to do Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991) instead.\nChildren - Katherine Eunice (born December 13, 1989), Christina Maria Aurelia (born July 23, 1991), Patrick Arnold (born September 18, 1993) and Christopher Sargent Shriver (September 27, 1997).\nWas asked to appear in a sequel to his 1985 film Commando (1985) but declined.\nHe keeps the sword he used in Conan the Barbarian (1982) in the Governor's office in California.\nIs a huge fan of professional wrestling.\n11/7/06: Easily re-elected as Governor of California.\nHe is the first member of the Kennedy family to become a state Governor.\n12/23/06: Broke his right femur while skiing in Sun Valley, ID.\nAlthough German is his native language, all his movies have been dubbed into German by Thomas Danneberg for the German-speaking market because his strong Austrian accent doesn't fit with the type of roles he plays.\nHe joined President George Bush in New Hampshire and asked voters to \"send a message to Pat Buchanan : Hasta la vista, baby\". [1992]\nRelated to actor George Wyner , who is also a close friend.\nEarly in his career he appeared as a contestant on The Dating Game (1965).\nWas considered for the role of Judge Dredd in Judge Dredd (1995) in the early development stages. The part went to fellow Planet Hollywood founder Sylvester Stallone .\nIn his childhood considered John Wayne his idol and role model. As Governor of California, he issued a proclamation making 26 May 2007 \"John Wayne Day\" in the state.\nProducer Joel Silver wanted Schwarzenegger to play \"Doctor Manhattan\" in a film adaptation of Alan Moore 's graphic novel Watchmen (2009) at one point.\nActed with another future governor, Jesse Ventura , of Minnesota, in Predator (1987) and The Running Man (1987).\nHad stitches in his hand from the taking-off-airplane-to-tarmac stunt he performed for Commando (1985).\nLate October 2007: Personally flew to Malibu, CA, to survey the damage done by wildfires before any other politician, including the President.\nWas attached to do another film adaptation of the pulp hero Doc Savage (after the failed 1975 film) in the late 1990s, but the project never got off the ground.\nPublicly endorsed his close friend Senator John McCain 's bid to win the Republican nomination for the 2008 presidential election.\nHe ended his association with Planet Hollywood early in 2000, saying the investment had not had the level of success he had expected.\nHe saved a man's life while on vacation in Hawaii in 2004 by swimming into the sea to rescue him from drowning.\nConsidered for the role of \"Robert Neville\" in I Am Legend (2007) back in 1996, with Ridley Scott as the director.\nAs an environmentally conscious politician, always uses carbon credits when flying between his governor's office in Sacramento to his house in L.A., California.\nTurned down the role of Animal Mother in Full Metal Jacket (1987) and opted to do The Running Man (1987) instead.\nConsidered for the main role in Strange Days (1995) but the job went to Ralph Fiennes instead.\nWas the original choice to play the title character in RoboCop (1987).\nAttended the funeral of Ronald Reagan in 2004, whom he considered a great hero.\nDue to the dismal failure of Conan the Destroyer (1984), Schwarzenegger rarely ever did sequels to his own movies. He's turned down sequels to Commando (1985), Predator (1987), Total Recall (1990) and True Lies (1994), as well as the third \"Conan\" film which became Kull the Conqueror (1997). The only exceptions that he has made are Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991), Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines (2003), The Expendables 2 (2012), The Expendables 3 (2014) and Terminator Genisys (2015).\nHonored by the Congressional Award in Washington, DC on June 25, 2002 with the Horizon Award. The Horizon Award is a special recognition from the Joint Leadership of the United States Congress and the Congressional Award Board of Directors. The Horizon Award is presented to individuals from the private sectors who have contributed to expanding opportunities for all Americans through their own personal contributions, and who have set exceptional examples for young people through their successes in life.\nWas good friends with WWE Hall of Famer André the Giant .\nOther than Around the World in 80 Days (2004), in which he only appeared in a supporting role, has starred in three movies with the word \"Day\" in the title, and all three make a biblical reference: Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991), End of Days (1999) and The 6th Day (2000).\nHas been crucified in two movies: Conan the Barbarian (1982) and End of Days (1999), where he was tied to a cross.\nWas seriously considered for the role of \"Dr. Manhattan/Jon Osterman\" in one of the many failed attempts at adapting Alan Moore 's \"Watchmen\" into film. Ultimately, director Zack Snyder cast Billy Crudup for the 2009 adaptation.\nThe character \"Arnold the Pitbull\", featured on Tiny Toon Adventures (1990), voiced by Rob Paulsen , was a parody of him.\nWas considered for the role of Harry Stamper in Armageddon (1998).\nWas considered for the role of President James Mitchell in Air Force One (1997).\nLives in Los Angeles, California and Ketchum, Idaho.\nBefore he became a household name, Schwarzenegger appeared with bodybuilding buddies Franco Columbu and Frank Zane on the sleeve of Grand Funk Railroad 's 1974 album \"All the Girls in the World Beware!!!\" Band member faces were cleverly superimposed on their muscle-bound bodies.\nAppeared on the cover of GQ magazine three times: July '86, May '90 and June '93.\nTrophies won as athlete: 1965 Mr. Europe Jr.. Held in Germany. 1966 Best Builed Man of Europe/Mr. Europe/International Powerlifting-Championship/. All 3 events held in Germany. 1967 NABBA Mr. Universe Amateurs. Held in London. 1968 NABBA Mr. Universe Proffesional. Held in London. 1968 National Championship Weightlifting. Held in Germany. 1968 IFBB Mr. International. Held in Mexico. 1969 IFBB Mr. Universe Amateurs. Held in New York. 1969/1970 NABBA Mr. Universe Proffesional. Both times held in London. 1970 Mr. World. Held in Columbus, Ohio. 1970-1975 5 times in a row IFBB Mr. Olympia. Held in New York 1970/1973/1974, Paris 1971, Essen 1972, Pretoria 1975. 1980 For the 6th time IFBB Mr. Olympia. Held in Sydney, Australia.\nIn his body building days, he once bench pressed as much as 450 pounds.\nWhile in office as governor, a Burger King promotion poster for the triple whopper stated \"it's so big and beefy it just might run for governor\".\nParents feared he was gay when he was a teenager because he worshipped bodybuilders. His mother Aurelia phoned a doctor because she thought her son was 'turning south' due to all the pictures of oiled up males on his bedroom walls.\nIn 1968 Joe Weider brought Schwarzenegger to Los Angeles and gave him $100 a week to write articles for his magazines that endorsed Weider products. Weider died at age 93 in March 2013.\nInducted into the National Fitness Hall of Fame in 2005 (inaugural class).\nIs now the Republican Governor-elect of California [October 2003]\nSofia, Bulgaria: Filming The Expendables 2 (2012). [October 2011]\n(around Christmas) Broke his leg when skiing with his family in Sun Valley, Idaho, USA. [December 2006]\nRefused to take the salary for Governor of California. Uses private jet at his own expense. [December 2003]\nCopenhagen, Denmark: Giving out the Sustainia Award, which recognizes outstanding performance within the area of sustainability. Also attended a book signing for his new autobiography. [October 2012]\n(17 November 2003) Sworn in as Governor of California. [November 2003]\nReelected as Governor of California [November 2006]\nRunning for Governor of California on the Republican ticket. [August 2003]\nRelease of the book, \"Fantastic: The Life of Arnold Schwarzenegger\" by Laurence Leamer. [2006]\nFirst introduced to wife-to-be Maria Shriver by NBC's Tom Brokaw at a charity tennis tournament in 1977.\nHe passed on lead roles in The Rock (1996), The Saint (1997) Face/Off (1997) and The Count of Monte Cristo (2002). He later stated he regretted passing on the former role.\nAs of the release of The Last Stand (2013), he will have a total on-screen kill count of 509.\nWWE Hall of Famer.\nPersonal favorite of his own films is Kindergarten Cop (1990).\nFriend and Predator (1987) co-star Jesse Ventura each went on to become, coincidentally, the 38th Governors of California and Minnesota.\nIt was revealed in 2011 that he fathered an illegitimate son with the Schwarzenegger/Shriver family's housekeeper Mildred Patricia Baena. Schwarzenegger didn't know he fathered Baena's child until the child was a toddler and looked more and more like him. Joseph Baena was born only five days after Maria Shriver gave birth to her fourth child by Schwarzenegger, Christopher, therefore the children basically grew up alongside each other in the same home. Schwarzenegger revealed his illegitimate child to his wife during a marriage counseling sessions. The issue led to the couple's separation but as of 2016 they have yet to divorce.\nWas considered to play Doctor Octopus in James Cameron 's canceled Spider-Man movie.\nUnlike George Clooney and Chris O'Donnell , he does not regret taking the part of Mr. Freeze in Batman & Robin (1997). Joel Schumacher threatened not to direct the movie, if he did not play Mr. Freeze.\n(July 30, 2011) In his honor, the \"Arnold Schwarzenegger's Birth House Museum\" was officially opened in his hometown of Thal (Austria) in the actual house that had been home to him and his family. Some of the mementos on display include his childhood bed, motorcycle, replica of the desk he used as Governor of California, etc.\nInduced into the International Sports Hall of Fame in 2012 (inaugural class).\nWhen Schwarzenegger appeared on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson (1962) in 1979, he had long hair. He was growing it out to prepare for his role in Conan the Barbarian (1982).\nFormer family friend Sondra Locke branded Schwarzenegger and his wife Maria Shriver as cowards for refusing to publicly side with her during litigious matters with Clint Eastwood .\nWas mentioned in the song \"Jump Around\" by House of Payne.\nPersonal Quotes (550)\nI was always interested in proportion and perfection. When I was 15 I took off my clothes and looked in the mirror. When I stared at myself naked, I realized that to be perfectly proportioned I would need 20-inch arms to match the rest of me.\n[Interview in \"Starlog\" magazine in 1991, explaining his reluctance to do sequels to most of his successful films from the '80s] There's so little time to do all the things I want to do that I can't see any reason to get bogged down in sequels.\nEverything I have ever done in my life has always stayed. I've just added to it . . . but I will not change. Because when you are successful and you change, you are an idiot.\nI know that if you leave dishes in the sink, they get sticky and hard to wash the next day.\nI would rather be Governor of California than own Austria.\nI love the Hong Kong style of action movies, but that only looks good for small guys. The reason why the whole style was developed over there was because those guys were very puny guys - they're not powerful-looking guys, they're also not powerful guys. There's no weightlifting champion coming out of Hong Kong - maybe in the bantam division or the lightweight division or something like that, but normally you don't have really strong men coming out of there . . . they had to learn a technique that small people can do that are as effective as the big guy's strength. So that's where the martial arts came from.\nIn the beginning I was selfish. It was all about, \"How do I build Arnold? How can I win the most Mr. Universe and Mr. Olympic contests? How can I get into the movies and get into business?\" I was thinking about myself . . . As I've grown up, got older, maybe wiser, I think your life is judged not by how much you have taken but by how much you give back.\n[during his campaign for California governor, about his history of \"misbehavior\"] Where I did make mistakes, or maybe go overboard sometimes . . . I regret that. This is a different Arnold.\n[on his fight scenes with the female T-X in Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines (2003)] How many times do you get away with this - to take a woman, grab her upside down and bury her face in a toilet bowl? The thing is you can do it, because, in the end, I didn't do it to a woman - she's a machine. We could get away with it without being crucified by who knows what group.\n[on his decision to run for governor of California] It was the most difficult decision in my life - except the one in 1978 when I decided to get a bikini wax.\n[after being pelted with an egg at a political rally] This guy owes me bacon now . . . you can't have egg without bacon.\n[responding to criticism during a televised debate] I just realized I have the perfect part for you in \"Terminator 4.\"\n[victory speech after having won election as Governor of California] I will not fail, I will not disappoint you, I will not let you down.\nThe worst I can be is the same as everybody else. I hate that.\nThere's a lot of people who want me to get out of acting and want me to run for governor. I think it's mostly movie critics.\nYou have to remember something: Everybody pities the weak; jealousy you have to earn.\nI took more abuse in Predator (1987) than I did in Conan the Barbarian (1982). I fell down that waterfall [40 feet] and swam in this ice-cold water for days and for weeks was covered in mud. It was freezing in the Mexican jungle. They had these heat lamps on all the time, but they were no good. If you stayed in front of the lamps, the mud dried. Then, you had to take it off and put new mud on again. It was a no-win situation. The location was tough. Never on flat ground. Always on a hill. We stood all day long on a hill, one leg down, one leg up. It was terrible.\n[referring to Democrats at a political rally in Ontario, California, in 2004] If they don't have the guts to come up here in front of you and say, \"I don't want to represent you, I want to represent those special interests, the unions, the trial lawyers\" . . . if they don't have the guts, I call them girlie men.\n[at the 2004 Republican National Convention] Speaking of acting, one of my movies was called True Lies (1994). It's what the Democrats should have called their convention.\nPresident [ George Bush ] knows you can't reason with people that are blinded by hate. But let me tell you something: Their hate is no match for our decency, their hate is no match for the leadership and the resolve of George Bush.\n[Talking about his Conan the Barbarian (1982) director]: John Milius used to call himself the dog trainer. Guess who were the dogs?\n[From an interview about his reaction to reading the original The Terminator (1984) screenplay] I have read a lot of action adventure scripts, and this definitely was one of the best. I knew that I wanted to play the part of the Terminator as soon as I started reading.\n[About being taken seriously] I don't care. The important thing to me is that I'm doing work that people enjoy out there, that the movie makes good money, that the studio makes the money back, and that I'm having a great time at what I'm doing. I don't even consider myself serious. So how do I expect people to take me serious? I think this whole Hollywood thing has to be taken much looser . . . it's just entertainment.\n\"There were various stepping-stones in my career. One of them was Conan the Barbarian (1982), because it was the first time I did a film with that kind of budget and I had the title role. The next big stepping-stone was The Terminator (1984). With \"The Terminator\", I think people became aware of the fact that I didn't really have to take my shirt off or run around and expose my muscles in order to sell tickets. After I did \"The Terminator\" and we had seen it be more successful than the Conan films, people then sent me a variety of different kinds of scripts - all in the action-adventure genre, but they were not muscle movies or Viking movies or pirate movies or anything like that.\n[Talking about playing the Terminator] I had to act like a cyborg, which meant I couldn't show any kind of human fear or reaction to the fire, explosions, or gunfire that was going off around me. That can be difficult when you're walking through a door with its frame on fire, trying to reload a gun, and at the same time thinking in the back of your mind that people have accidents doing these kinds of stunts and that it might be my turn.\n[About more sequels to The Terminator (1984)] I don't necessarily want to leave the magic of the Terminator movies behind, and who says we have to? According to what we know about the future, there were hundreds of Terminators built. The story of the Terminator could go on forever.\n[From an interview expressing concern over making Conan the Destroyer (1984) less brutal than its predecessor, Conan the Barbarian (1982)] I think it's a mistake. I know Sylvester Stallone made an extra $20 million because he got a PG rating for Rocky III (1982), but it's a matter of how much you want to stay within the character's reality. Can you slaughter people and never see blood? Is it possible? You must have battles. That's part of life, war, and the world of Conan.\n[Talking about director Richard Fleischer ] The first day Fleischer came to see me work out, he told me, \"Arnold, could you put on some more muscles?\" I couldn't believe it! It turned out that Fleischer thought [ John Milius '] decision to keep Conan clothed throughout the first film was a mistake. Fleischer believes that people want to see my body much more often than they did the first time around, so they will. I spend most of my time in Conan the Destroyer (1984) fighting off people while I'm dressed in a loincloth.\n[About the dog accident while making Conan the Barbarian (1982)] One of them hit me too soon. It caught me off guard and I went right over the ledge. I fell ten feet and landed on my back. I was covered with scratches and bruises. It was probably a pretty good beginning for this movie, though. It set the tone for the whole time we were there. This was going to be fun . . . but dangerous.\n[Talking about director John Milius ] \"There never would have been a Conan movie without him.\n[on Warren Beatty ] There are some people who are close to him that say he is just starving for attention, and that's the way he gets attention. Other people said, \"Look, he's not working and he just feels like he should maybe get involved in politics\". Instead, I just think that maybe he is jealous that I did jump in. I find it silly, because I respect his work.\nWell, I think because a lot of people don't know why I'm a Republican, I came first of all from a socialistic country which is Austria and when I came over here in 1968 with the presidential elections coming up in November, I came over in October, I heard a lot of the press conferences from both of the candidates, [ Hubert H. Humphrey ] and [ Richard Nixon ], and Humphrey was talking about more government is the solution, protectionism, and everything he said about government involvement sounded to me more like Austrian socialism. Then when I heard Nixon talk about it, he said open up the borders, the consumers should be represented there ultimately and strengthen the military and get the government off our backs. I said to myself, \"What is this guy's party affiliation?\" I didn't know anything at that point. So I asked my friend, \"What is Nixon?\" He's a Republican. And I said, \"I am a Republican\". That's how I became a Republican.\"\n[on refusing to grant clemency to condemned killer Stanley Tookie Williams ] After studying the evidence, searching the history, listening to the arguments and wrestling with the profound consequences, I could find no justification for granting clemency. The facts do not justify overturning the jury's verdict, or the decisions of the courts in this case.\n[After undergoing heart surgery in 1997] We made, actually, history, because it was the first time ever that doctors could prove that a lifelong Republican has a heart.\nAs a kid - as a kid I saw socialist - the socialist country that Austria became after the Soviets left. Now don't misunderstand me: I love Austria and I love the Austrian people. But I always knew that America was the place for me. In school, when the teacher would talk about America, I would daydream about coming here. I would daydream about living here. I would sit there and watch for hours American movies, transfixed by my heroes, like John Wayne . Everything about America seemed so big to me, so open, so possible.\nI have no sexual standards in my head that say this is good or this is bad. Homosexual - that only means to me that he enjoys sex with a man and I enjoy sex with a woman. It's all legitimate to me.\nI didn't think about money. I thought about the fame, about just being the greatest. I was dreaming about being some dictator of a country or some savior like Jesus.\nI'm 6'2\". I've heard rumors that I'm really much shorter in real life\nlike 5'6\" or something like that - which is ridiculous. I can assure\nyou this is not the case. People look up to me, and not just because I do a lot of work in the community. I mean, most people really look up to me.\nCalifornia will not wait for our federal government to take strong action on global warming. We won't wait for the federal government. We will move forward because we know it's the right thing to do. We will lead on this issue and we will get other western states involved. I think there's not great leadership from the federal government when it comes to protecting the environment.\nMoney doesn't make you happy. I now have $50 million but I was just as happy when I had $48 million.\n[in a 1987 interview] I have to give the audiences what they enjoy seeing while I try to bring in a little something new, with different movies, different time periods and all those things. But what's important is to entertain the people -- everything else means nothing.\n[on his late friend and role model, body builder Reg Park]: Reg was a dear friend, an extraordinary mentor and a personal hero. Other than my parents, there may be no single person who had more to do with me becoming the person I am today than Reg. He was like a second father to me. It was Reg who impressed upon me how hard I would have to work if I wanted to achieve my dreams. I'll always remember him making me do calf-raises with 1,000 pounds at 5 o'clock in the morning.\n[on Terminator Salvation (2009)] I think it's cool to continue on with the franchise, in case I want to jump over again and get into the acting after I'm through here (as Governor of California).\nThere are such high standards and now there are always new standards being set for action. You see that with Iron Man (2008) and with The Dark Knight (2008) and that other film this summer, um, Wanted (2008). That was an excellent movie! There was this train coming down from a bridge, falling, and they're fighting inside the train car. Jesus, that is unbelievable that you can do that. To have the imagination to write it and the talent to shoot it and make it real on the screen. It's a whole new dimension.\nWith Batman and Terminator, those big movies, there's a certain expectation and if you don't live up to it, if the movie is not a 10, then the business will be soft. If Terminator Salvation (2009) is pushing it forward, it will be breaking records all the time. If director McG has the T4 and the kind of shots that has the audience thinking, 'Now how did he do that?' -- then it is 'Terminator' and you can blow everyone away and every record at the box office.\n[on Terminator Salvation (2009)] I hope they do well, and I hope it is a huge hit. I do hope it creates a spectacle on the screen. That is what James Cameron created.\n[on watching Will Ferrell movies] In those you howl for two hours and you feel like you get a six-pack of ab muscles from all the laughs!\n[on Terminator Salvation (2009)] I wasn't sure who the Terminator was. I don't know if there is one or if he's the star or the hero. These are the things that determine the success and how strong the movie will be.\nI know California is supposed to be a place where dreams come true, but my life has gone way beyond the dream. My dream was to come to America, become the greatest bodybuilder of all time and do what Reg Park had done by going into Hercules movies. And if that worked out, I was going to build a gym business and then live happily ever after. Then all of a sudden I shot right by my dream. I stopped doing the strong man stuff, did the Terminator movies and became the highest-paid actor in Hollywood. I got $30 million for Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines (2003), you know.\n[on the death of Michael Jackson ] Michael was a pop phenomenon who never stopped pushing the envelope of creativity. Though there were serious questions about his personal life, Michael was undoubtedly a great entertainer and his popularity spanned generations and the globe.\n[on the death of Patrick Swayze ] Patrick Swayze was a talented and passionate artist who struck a memorable chord with audiences throughout the world. He played a wide range of characters both on stage and in movies and his celebrated performances made the hard work of acting look effortless - which I know from experience is not easy. As a fan and as an actor, I admired Patrick and I know that he will be dearly missed. On behalf of all Californians, Maria and I send our deepest condolences to Patrick's family, friends and fans.\nI am here to spend. I love to spend Hollywood's money! (June 1993).\n[on Sylvester Stallone in The Expendables (2010)] It is a great inspiration for people to see someone at his age still at the top of his game -- acting, writing, directing, doing his own stunts and fight scenes -- I mean, what an amazing talent. And for him to still be so athletic and be able to rip off his shirt and have a six-pack is just unbelievable.\n[on the death of Tony Curtis ] Tony Curtis was a Hollywood icon, a great performer and artist and devoted family man. I saw his extraordinary talent and ability to inspire generations of Americans firsthand on the set of Christmas in Connecticut (1992)' and will always remember our times together.\n[on a return to movies when his term as Governor of California ends] I have no idea. So it depends if someone comes with a great script or a great idea...you know, would I still have the patience to sit on the set and to do a movie for three months or six months? All of those things, I don't know, but I did have a meeting with James Cameron , we talked about some very important things.\nThe meaning of life is not simply to exist, to survive, but to move ahead, to go up, to achieve, to conquer.\n(On the power of visualizing your goals) When I was very young, I visualized myself being and having what it was that I wanted. The mind is really so incredible. Before I won my first Mr. Universe, I walked around the tournament like I owned it. The title was already mine. I had won it so many times in my mind that there was no doubt I would win it. Then, when I moved on to the movies, the same thing. I visualized myself being a successful actor and earning big money. I could feel and taste success. I just knew it would happen.\n[on the passing of Elaine Kaufman] Elaine was an early supporter of my acting career and would often call to let me know when an influential writer or producer came in so I could stop and schmooze.\n[on Terminator Salvation (2009)] The last one was awful. It tried hard, not that they didn't try, the acting and everything - it missed the boat.\n[on visiting Venice, California] This place is insane. You never have to smoke a joint. You just go on a bicycle ride in the morning, inhale, and you live off everyone else.\n[on Predator 2 (1990)] A predator in a city is a bad idea.\n[on his career as a bodybuilder] I had a very clear vision of where I wanted to go. You realize you have to pay no attention to the naysayers. When you learn those lessons in sports, you can apply those lessons for the rest of your life.\n[on his Governor's salary] I didn't take a penny of my salary during my terms. After all, it was petty cash compared to what you make in the movies.\nYou can't have a life full of successes. In bodybuilding, I tried bench-pressing 500lb many times and failed. That's how you get there. You have to be daring.\nThey're writing right now Terminator Genisys (2015). There have been some writers on it for the last year-and-a-half and they could not pull it off. We have told them over and over that they are going in the wrong direction, now they've finally got rid of those writers and they've got new really quality writers. Now they're going in the right direction. I think this year the script will be finished and we will be able to go into pre-production.\n[on the death of his mentor Joe Weider ] He advised me on my training, on my business ventures, and once, bizarrely, claimed I was a German Shakespearean actor to get me my first acting role in -- Hercules in New York (1970) even though I barely spoke English. He was there for me constantly throughout my life, and I will miss him dearly.\n[his father] A lot of sons would have been crippled by his demands, but instead the discipline rubbed off on me. I turned it into drive.\nTo this day, I'm more comfortable when there's someone to schmooze with until I fall asleep.\nWhen you grow up in a harsh environment, you never forget how to withstand physical punishment, even long after the hard times end.\nIf you wanted a girl, you had to make an effort to have a conversation, not just drool like a horny dog.\nI associate glasses with intellectuals.\nI came to America, won Mr. Universe, and now I'm in the movies.\nMost bodybuilders don't have very interesting insights or routines.\nIn America, unlike Europe, there weren't a million obstacles to starting a business.\nAfter coming to California, I posed in the heights above Malibu. Bodybuilders like this spot because the ridges in the distance seem little and your muscles look bigger than the mountains.\nThe applause of a crowd made me stronger.\nIf you get muscles, you can go to the beach and pick up girls.\nAmericans love foreign names.\nI wanted to be rich very quickly.\nMonstrous, futuristic, what I envisioned America as all about.\nSomething that seems impossible at the start can be achieved.\n[on sweat] It's a great way to lose body fat.\nNights without sleep don't mean you can't perform at a high level the next day and days without food don't mean you'll starve.\nI aimed to be a leader someday.\nIf you let ego show through, you're put in your place.\n[on journalists] They see everything from the outside.\nStaying on top of the hill is harder than climbing it.\nIts great to have someone to go home to.\nWhen you have a relationship in a foreign language, you have to be extra careful not to miscommunicate.\nI couldn't believe how difficult learning a new language could be. Pronunciations were especially dangerous.\n[Mr. Universe, Mr. World and Mr. Olympia] Winning all three would be like unifying the heavyweight title in boxing: it would make me the undisputed world champion. Mr World was by far the biggest bodybuilding event I'd ever seen.\nIn bodybuilding I was king of the mountain, but in everyday LA I was just another immigrant struggling to learn English and make a life. I was glad to be away living my own life.\nI always saw myself as a citizen of the world.\nThe more popular bodybuilding grew in prisons, the more guys would get the message to behave.\nWinning narrowly didn't make me feel good; I wanted my dominance to be clear.\n[after his father had a stroke] It was painful and upsetting to see a man who had been so smart and so strong lose his coordination and his ability to think. He died not long after.\n[his nephew Patrick] He became my pride and joy.\nReal estate was the place to invest. The math of real estate really spoke to me.\nI like to always wander in like a puppy.\nBodybuilders look in the mirror as they train. You need to be your own trainer.\nIf millions of people came to see my movies someday, it was important that they know where the muscles came from.\nI wanted to promote bodybuilding, both so that more people would take part and to benefit my career. If I wanted to promote bodybuilding to a new audience, I'd have to find my own way.\n[on bodybuilding] It needed fresh blood.\nI find joy in the gym because every rep and every set gets me one step closer to my goal.\nI liked getting swept up into a cloud of celebs.\n[on Jack Nicholson , 'Warren Beatty', and Roman Polanski ] They all had such enormous passion for their profession.\nHaving women in the gym made us train harder.\nI had no idea that reading from a script means you're supposed to act out the role.\n[personal motto] Presentation, presentation, presentation.\nWhen somebody sets the bar so low, you can't go wrong.\n[endorsing bodybuilding publicly] It was a boost for bodybuilding in America; suddenly the sport had a face and a personality.\nIn an entertainment interview, you could just make up stuff!\nIn bodybuilding, you try to suppress emotions and march forwards with determination; in acting its the opposite.\nTo live your life as an actor, you can't be afraid of someone stirring up your emotions.\nEurope was always far less puritanical than the United States.\nSometimes its hard to explain to your toddler what you do at the office.\nI've been retired from bodybuilding since 1980 but I'll always stay involved.\n[during his open-heart surgery] Maria (Shriver) put a brave face on a scary situation.\nI get goosebumps when Nelson Mandela talks about inclusion, tolerance and forgiveness.\n[on Maria Shriver ] If I hadn't been her style and she hadn't been mine, we never would have ended up together. Maria meshed with everything that I was, what I stood for, and what I was doing. I got addicted to her. Maria was such a forceful personality that she would just run over guys. She wanted to be unique and different.\nI was a self-made man.\nIn politics, when disputes arise and camps form, you have to grasp what's happening and move very quickly.\nI could go on for hours about what draws me to Maria (Shriver) but still never fully explain the magic.\nLove stories are built around people's idiosyncrasies.\n[on Conan the Barbarian] There was no stunt double because it would have been difficult to find someone with a body like mine.\nDino (De Laurentiis) had a reputation for getting things done. He was very powerful in that way, and people in Hollywood knew it and didn't mess with him.\n[on Conan the Barbarian (1982)] I'd never done a love scene on camera and found it really strange.\nMy character and his stolen Harley were a perfect combo of cyborg and machine in Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991).\nOur first major decision as a couple (he and Maria Shriver ) was to find a house and call it our place.\nWhen people come to me with a movie concept or a script, I always ask \"What is the poster? What is the image? What are we trying to sell here?\"\nDanny DeVito is a master of comedy, loves stogies, and cooks pasta on the set-no wonder he made such a great twin.\nIvan Reitman took a chance on me as a comic hero.\nSylvester Stallone , Bruce Willis and I had great fun opening Planet Hollywood restaurants around the world.\nTotal anonymity is almost impossible in Hollywood.\nThe outside world looked at our relationship (he and Maria Shriver) in a simple-minded way, as a juicy success story. According to this way of thinking, Maria becomes part of my trophy collection.\n[on Maria Shriver ] She brought a great foundation of knowledge and was a great partner to work with because we both grew.\nWhen you start out, its all about one to one contact.\nI'd always advanced by starting with a clear vision and working as hard as possible to achieve it.\nFor Maria (Shriver) to go out and be in front of the camera was a real declaration of independence.\n[on Maria Shriver ] She was the ideal woman for me.\nWriting something is different from saying it.\nI was Conan, and millions of dollars were being spent to make me shine. For the first time, I felt like the star.\n[on Oprah Winfrey ] She was talented and aggressive, and you could tell she believed in herself.\nAn aspect of being a Kennedy cousin (Maria Shriver) was that you were never completely free. Since there were so many cousins, the number of command performances were high.\nEvery one of the killings in Conan (the Barbarian) was well shot and extraordinary.\n[on Conan the Barbarian (1982)] A Star Wars: Episode IV - A New Hope (1977) set on Earth.\n(John) Milius always pushed the envelope. Conan (the Barbarian) has stunts that have since been outlawed from movies. The bloodshed in Conan seems tame by today's standards. At the time, the film introduced a whole new dimension of violence on screen. Actors had five quarts of blood strapped to their chests, the same amount in the human body. Whenever it was spilled, Milius shot it against a light background to get the full carnage.\nI was really annoyed by the way that powerful studio executives kowtowed to the members of the ratings board.\nI saw myself as a businessman first.\n[on Ronald Reagan] He was wonderful at painting ideas in ways that everyone could understand.\nMy definition of living is to have excitement always; that's the difference between living and existing.\nIf you want to fight prejudice you have to have tolerance centers everywhere.\nI was amazed to see how negative most of the people in Hollywood remained toward Reagan during his presidency. He represented the values that had brought me to America. The US was the greatest country with the best opportunities and now that it was my home, I wanted to keep it that way and make it even better. After the turmoil and gloom of the 1970s, Americans voted for Reagan because he reminded them of their strength.\n[the outrageous and conservative sides to his personality] I wanted to feel comfortable in both worlds.\nThere has to be investment in the public good.\nI'd have made more money if Jimmy Carter still occupied the White House.\nYou do a movie or a book, you promote the hell out of it, you travel the world as if its your marketplace, and in the meantime, you work out and take care of business and explore even more.\nWhen I learned about The Terminator (1984), I loved the idea that he was a machine that never had to sleep.\nFor me, the question was always how to fit in all the stuff I want to do. I seldom saw my life as hectic, the thought rarely crossed my mind.\nI'm not a religious person.\nI never like to cut things from my life; I only add.\nI'd felt like an American from the time I was 10 years old.\n[his first thought when he met James Cameron ] A skinny, intense guy.\nI never went to a competition to compete; I went to win.\nI wasn't sure I was free from prejudice; I'd made prejudiced comments.\nWhen you promote a movie, you want to win over everybody. If you give political speeches, you are bound to turn off somebody.\nI considered the US my permanent home.\nI kept quiet about politics whenever I visited Austria. I never wanted to be perceived as some wise guy coming back and telling people what to do.\nI always believed in shooting for the top, and to become an American is like becoming a member of the winning team.\n[his first thought about The Terminator (1984)] Strange name.\nPoses are the snapshots, and the routine is the movie.\nBodybuilding is a lot like politics; you go from town to town, hoping word will spread.\n[on bodybuilding competitions] You can't just pose on stage like a robot and then walk off; people will never get to know your personality.\nAt the top of the ladder, there was always room for one more. The more people who stay on the bottom, the more crowded it becomes.\nIf I can see it and believe it, then I can achieve it.\n[on James Cameron ] He seemed more real than the people I met from Hollywood.\n[on The Terminator (1984)] No thinking, no blinking, no thought, just action.\n[on restaurants] In Hollywood, the actor never pays.\nOnce I've locked in on a vision for myself, I always resist changing the plan.\nI'm a big believer in hard work, grinding it out, and not stopping until it's done.\n[on James Cameron ] The women he married, although a long list, were women you didn't want to mess with.\nI never left the house without $1000 in cash and a no-limit credit card.\nThe conventional wisdom in Hollywood is that playing a villain is career suicide.\nI think more like a businessman than like a typical actor.\nCompared to Conan the Barbarian (1982), Conan the Destroyer (1984) was a trip to Club Med.\n[on James Cameron ] A control freak, he has eyes in the back of his head. He knows the name of everyone on the set and no screwup gets past him; if you screw up he'll make a scene publicly and embarrass you.\nI always think the world of people who make a project their own and are on it 24 hours a day.\n[the Golden Raspberry Awards] A kind of Oscar in reverse for bad movies.\nYou should marry when you're set financially and the toughest struggles of your career are behind you. Most marriages break up over financial issues.\nI wasn't marrying her ( Maria Shriver ) because she came from wealth. What was Maria's was hers.\n[ Maria Shriver 's portrait in his art collection] Among these beautiful images, Maria's was the gem.\n[on Jacqueline Kennedy] She had an amazing ability to ask questions that would make you wonder \"how did she know that\"? She always made people feel welcome.\nGitte ( Brigitte Nielsen ) had a personality filled with laughter and fun mixed with a great hunger for attention.\nWhen you make a movie, you can never really predict what will turn out to be the most repeated line.\n[on The Terminator] The American public accepted me as both a hero and a villain.\nIn the mind of the public, the star is responsible for a movie's success.\n[on marriage] Just let me stumble into it; I don't want to be forewarned.\nYou can over-think anything. There are always negatives. The more you know, the less you tend to do something.\n[on marriage] I might not have done it if I'd known everything I'd have to go through.\nI'm always comparing life to a climb, not just because there's a struggle but also because I find at least as much joy in the climbing as in reaching the top. I pictured marriage as a whole mountain range of fantastic challenges.\n[on Grace Jones ] An interesting non-actor; talented and entertaining, she could not do anything low-key.\nHave at least ten good laughs a day.\nThe makeup trailer is the place on the set where everyone talks. If anybody's worried about anything, that's where you see it. It's the mother of all beauty salons. The makeup trailer is all about a soothing atmosphere, because you're getting ready for a scene.\nActresses have more problems than the average housewife.\n[on his wedding day] I loved watching Maria (Shriver) coming up the aisle. She looked so regal but at the same time, she radiated warmth and happiness.\nI was riding the great wave of action movies. They became as important to the 1980s as Westerns were in the 1950s.\nAction movies are always more of an ordeal than a pleasure to make.\n[on John McTiernan ] If a director of his caliber had done the sequel to Predator (1987), the movie could have become a major franchise on a par with The Terminator (1984) or Die Hard (1988).\nIt's always easy to be smart in hindsight.\nStallone and I were the leading forces in the genre. We created work for up and coming action stars like Chuck Norris , Jean-Claude Van Damme , Dolph Lundgren and Bruce Willis . Clint Eastwood began to show more muscle as a result. The body was key. The era had arrived where muscular men were viewed as attractive. Looking physically heroic had become the aesthetic.\nEarly in my movie career, the hardest thing was giving up control. In bodybuilding, everything had been up to me. In movies, you depend on others right from the start.\n[on the opening scene] You have one idea and then sit down and cook up the rest.\nWhenever I finished filming a movie, my job was only half done. Every film had to be nurtured in the marketplace. Some of the greatest artists never sold much because they didn't know how. No matter what I did in life, I was aware that you had to sell it.\nListening made me a more effective promoter. You have to cultivate your audience and expand it with each new film. Nurturing a movie means paying attention to the distributors. You do the things they feel are important because they go all out in pushing the theatres.\nWhen I had a good director, my movies went through the roof because I was directed well. If I had a director who was confused with no compelling vision for the movie, it would fizzle. I didn't make The Terminator the success that it was; it was James Cameron 's vision that made the movie great.\nEverything in life has a funny side. I'd always been the perfect target for jokes; there was so much material to work from.\nMeeting comedians helped me to understand comedy. I really liked being around people who are funny.\n[on Total Recall (1990)] Working with Sharon Stone will always be a challenge. She was a sweetie off the set but needed tons of attention on-set. There are just some actors who need more attention. People just have their hang-ups and insecurities and acting definitely brings that out.\nIn acting you take criticism so much more personally. You get upset, but every job has its downside.\n[on Paul Verhoeven and Total Recall (1990)] So many things he said were brilliant. He had a masterful vision. He had enthusiasm, and did a great job. I was proud my interest and passion helped to bring about the movie. But the experience also proves how important marketing is - how important it is to tell the people what this is about; really blow up their skirt and make them say, \"I have to go see this movie.\"\nA Special Achievement Oscar is how the Motion Picture Academy honors an accomplishment for which there is no set category.\nI grew up in a culture where you respect the elders.\nWhen I see a great performer, I always start to dream. Maybe its the Leo in me, the perpetual performer who always wants to be the center of attention.\nStarting with something disarming and funny is a good way to stand out. You become more likable, and people receive your information much better. Whenever I watched a comedy, I always thought \"I could have done that!\" But if I was going to branch into comedies, I would need someone to be my cheerleader.\n[on Total Recall (1990)] For me, it connected with the sense I had sometimes that my life was too good to be true.\nIt wouldn't matter if you watched Total Recall (1990) 20 years from now, you could still enjoy it. There's just something very appealing about futuristic movies if they have great action and believable characters.\nA change in studio management can sink a movie.\nOnce you pick a director, you have to have total faith in him and go with his judgment.\n[on The Running Man (1987)] It was totally screwed up by hiring a first-time director and not giving him time to prepare.\n[his first impression of Paul Verhoeven on Total Recall (1990)] A skinny, intense-looking Dutch guy.\nEvery director wants to pee on the script and make his mark.\n[on Danny DeVito ] He's the opposite of a crazy Hollywood personality and the Milton Berle of comic acting.\nCompared to an action hero, it was easier being a comic star.\n[his singing ability] I'm no Frank Sinatra . The only time I sing in real life is at the end of a party when I want the guests to leave.\n[on George Bush ] He had tremendous strength of character and will. This was our next President, the real American hero. He had a casual approach to campaigning; not everything had to be perfect.\nI belonged to the NRA because I believed in the constitutional right to bear arms.\nI am a patriotic American. I saw Ronald Reagan and George Bush take an economy that looked like Pee-wee Herman and make it look like Superman.\nEisenhower and Kennedy championed fitness as a way for America to stand strong against the Soviets.\nFitness is important for all Americans, not just athletes. A lot of schools have great athletic programs but not great fitness programs.\nI'd never seen a director fine-tune a movie as methodically as Ivan Reitman .\nI was on a crusade around the world to promote health and fitness to young people.\nGovernments don't want to be told they're doing something wrong.\nI'd always felt we lacked real men in movies.\n[when his first child was born] Fuck! This is my first baby. You can be so overwhelmed by something that billions of people in history have done. And from that moment on, your life as a couple has changed. But as long as you love the baby, you'll figure it out, just like with everything you love doing. Caring for babies is hardwired into the brain.\nI was addicted to public service.\nHumour was what made me stand out from other action leads. It opened up the (action) movie and made it appealing to more people.\n[on The Terminator (1984), Commando (1985), Predator (1987) and Total Recall (1990)] They all focused on the universal theme of good vs evil.\nIf the press sees you coming out of the Oval Office with the President, you'll win respect.\nFitness is fun. I felt very strongly that I had to carry to all 50 states the message that fitness was a national priority.\nI love being on the road and meeting people. That's what I do best.\nThe Great American Workout was from 7 to 9 o'clock in the morning.\nWhen in Austria, I often put on traditional clothes and do as the Austrians do.\nHiking in the Alps I'd sometimes wear loud obnoxious Hawaiian shorts just to get a rise out of the Lederhosen traditionalists.\n[on James Cameron ] [He] is a big believer in surprising the audience. His knowledge of science and the world of the future went way beyond the ordinary.\n[on Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991)] It was typical James Cameron genius to have character development in a machine.\nMy friendship with the President (George Bush Sr) quickly became a very big part of my life. It was warm from the time we first met during the Reagan years.\n[on the Gulfstream III jet] The perfect vehicle for visiting the States.\nAfter being the fitness czar, running for Governor of California felt like deja vu.\nMy talent is fitness and this is something I can give back.\nYou can't have people just like your movie, you need them to be passionate. Word of mouth is what makes movies big, because while you can put in millions to promote the movie on the first weekend, you can't afford to do that every week.\nIts embarrassing to fail at the box office.\nWhen you feel embarrassed, you assume the whole world is focused on your failure.\n[on George Bush ] If you had talent and did him a favour or he liked you, he would push you forward whether it made sense or not. He was a different breed, a sweetheart of a guy. The fact he put such trust in me had a powerful effect. I felt there would never, ever be a time, no matter what happened, when I would violate that trust or let the man down.\nA person's muscles don't care where the resistance comes from.\nAmerica wouldn't be the land of the free if it wasn't the home of the brave. When you see the work they do and the risks they take, you realize what we owe our military.\n1991 was golden for me.\n[on Planet Hollywood] A glitzy new moneymaking machine. It was not just an event; it was the beginning of an empire.\nI came to America because it's the greatest place in the world, and I'm going to do everything I can to keep it the greatest place.\nI've always felt appreciative of the armed forces because I've benefited from the American dream, and their courage and determination is what safeguards it.\n[during Conan the Destroyer (1984)] I'm finally getting paid a million dollars for a movie, but now Sylvester Stallone 's making 3 million, I feel like I'm standing still.\nIf I heard an idea or saw a script that was exceptionally good and triggered something in me, I wanted to make that movie.\nI loved the idea of new challenges, along with new dangers of failure.\nClint (Eastwood) was one of the few Hollywood personalities who had his head screwed on straight.\n(Richard) Nixon was very good at paying attention to you. We need more leaders like him.\nNobody in Hollywood wins all the time. At some point, you're bound to get a beating.\nAmerica can be powerful only if you have a strong military.\nI figured that the idea of eventually ending up in politics was not that far fetched when someone like (Richard) Nixon suggested it.\nI love factories, and whenever I'm passionate about a product, I want to see it being made.\nCubans are geniuses. They have the best climate, they have the best soil, and they have the tradition: generations of people who are passionate about rolling cigars and who are always looking for ways to make the cigars ever more perfect. When you look at a cigar and it has those thick veins in it, it's either a cheaper cigar or someone wasn't paying attention. As with everything, it's important to have a great-looking label. Cuban cigars truly are as good as people say. You can sniff out the fakes ones within seconds.\nI always like to be called up for a speech without any prior notice.\nNo-one expects you to blow people up in a comedy.\nWhen you feel good about someone and you know specifically why, it's not difficult at all to speak from the heart.\nI'm like a little kid who loves to show off and share things that I have experienced.\nI thought I was the poster boy for the American dream. I came to the US virtually broke, worked hard, kept focused on my goal, and made it. This really was the land of opportunity. If a kid like me could do it, anybody could. I had a fire inside of me to succeed. Anything is possible, but you have to do your end of the work. Making money was never my only goal, but money opened the door to interesting investments.\nIn the mid-1990s the Internet was just an odd new idea.\nThe most important thing was not how much you make, but how much you invest, how much you keep. I never wanted to join the long list of famous entertainers and athletes who wiped out financially. My goal was to get rich and stay rich.\nI never like business relationships that are purely work.\n[his personal motto] Take one dollar and turn it into two.\nI wanted big investments that were interesting, creative and different. Conservative bets didn't interest me. I was proud to pay taxes on the money I earned. I could tolerate big risks in exchange for big returns, but I'm always open to new ideas.\nSingapore Airlines had the best reputation in the airline business. The Boeing 747 was the ballsiest airliner.\nStan Winston 's special effects studio was torture; on The Terminator, it took 30 minutes for the cement to dry when designing the prosthetics to cover my face. The first time I went through it I got very anxious and thought of pleasant memories to endure it. My heart surgery reminded me of all that.\nThe more you promote yourself as the ultimate action hero, the more people form a larger than life perception of you.\n[after heart surgery] I felt as vigorous as Hercules.\nPlanet Hollywood opened in Moscow, Sydney, Helsinki, London, San Antonio Texas (drawing 100,000 spectators) and Paris. Planet Hollywood was like The Beatles .\nSometimes when you look at a deal, you see less danger and you're too willing to take the plunge. The more risky things are, the more upside there is.\nI'd hear guys bragging about their new Gulfstream IV or IV-SP and I'd get to say, \"That's great guys. Let me talk about my 747...\" It was a great conversation stopper.\nGod is the one who made the science possible.\n[on heart surgery] Big risk, big reward.\n[on Maria Shriver ] She had a tendency to blow things up into high drama, even things that weren't life and death, whereas I would play everything down. I'm a person who does not like to talk about things over and over. I make quick decisions, I don't ask opinions, and I don't think over the same things. I want to move on. She's an outward processor, while I keep things bottled up.\nThere's a moment going into surgery that I really hate. The moment when the anesthesia takes hold, when you know you're going out, losing consciousness and don't know if you'll ever wake up from it.\n[after heart surgery] I got a second or third lease on life.\non [Planet Hollywood] I'd love to do it again, only to have it managed better. Whoopi (Goldberg), Bruce (Willis), Sly (Stallone) and all the other big-name participants would tell you that Planet Hollywood was fun. With the huge parties, openings, premieres, we met people all over the world and had the time of our lives.\nShe ( Maria Shriver ) is a very good writer, with an unbelievable vocabulary and grace with words.\nHolidays become more meaningful when you have a family.\nTalking to kids in your second language is never easy to do.\nAfter I came to America, I learned to think a bit more about my family rather than just myself. With my mother I built a good relationship where she and I really communicated. I loved doing things for my mother. She deserved to be treated like a queen. She was buried next to my father because they were so connected.\nYou're just one person, and the country is much bigger, and it's what will live forever.\nBig-time celebrities don't like flying commercial.\nPromotion and merchandising were realms I truly understood.\n[on California] America's golden state.\nAmerica is my true home.\nI wasn't interested in symbols. I was interested in action.\nBig cats have always fascinated me.\nIndependent producers are the saviours in Hollywood because they'll take risks that the big studios won't.\nI love shooting at night because I have a lot of energy at night and I get lots of inspiration.\n[on heart surgery] It gave me energy beyond belief. I feel like a totally new person. And I no longer had to convince people that I still had a pulse.\n[on being governor] He can bring a vision to the state; you get blamed for everything and you get credit for everything. It's high risk, high reward. I felt tremendous loyalty and pride about California. I wanted America to stay the bastion of free enterprise and protect it from following Europe in the direction of bureaucracy and stagnation. You make a big mistake to lock in programs that require you to keep spending at boom-time levels.\nThe more I read up on California, the more it was like bad news piled on top of bad news. We can't continue this way. We need change.\nI was fiscally conservative, pro-business, against raising taxes, pro-choice, pro-gay, pro-lesbian, pro-environment, pro-reasonable gun control, pro-reasonable social safety net.\nWe needed to avoid trying to win over the press and instead play to the people. I was all about leadership and major projects and reforms that could attract massive public support.\nI pride myself on being able to juggle many tasks. I got a college education while bodybuilding, married Maria (Shriver) in the middle of filming Predator, and made Kindergarten Cop and Terminator 2 while launching Planet Hollywood.\nMost juvenile crime is committed between 3 and 6 o'clock in the afternoon.\nI would not go into a competition with a disadvantage.\nIf you don't get killed, you win.\nI thought I would never die.\n[winning the title of Mr Universe] It is my lifetime realized. I am very happy to be Mr Universe. I say it again, it sounds so good. I am very happy to be Mr Universe. My thanks to everyone in England who have helped me. They have been very kind to me. Thank you all.\nLos Angeles stood out because it was the only big city that had after-school programs in every one of its 90 elementary schools. State officials and lawmakers just didn't see after-school programs as important. After-school programs not only help the kids but also reduce the strain on the teachers. Young kids relate better to young people, especially after a whole day of teachers and school. They want counsellors in jeans and with spiky hair, who can serve as parent figures but who don't look like them - not that many retired teachers want to go back to work.\nThe reason I wanted to be healthy was that I never wanted to ask anyone for money. It was so against my grain.\nRaising cash from the set of a movie was a huge advantage.\nI had a track record of organizing summits across fifty states. I loved seeing wounded veterans and entertaining them and thanking them for their great work.\nI'd assumed that a recall would be just like a normal election.\nI never argued with people who underestimated me. If the accent and the muscles and the movies made people think I was stupid, it worked to my advantage.\nOur elected leaders will either act decisively, or we will act in their place.\n[governorship] I would give up my movie career for that.\nCalifornians love their cars.\nSpend no more than the state is taking in.\nIts hard for any governor to make the changes that were needed. I loved it when people say that something can't be done. That's when I really get motivated; I like to prove them wrong. And I liked the idea of working on something bigger than me.\n[California] It is the place in the world where everyone wants to go. It was wrapped in problems, but it was also heaven.\nThere is a disconnect between the people of California and the politicians of California. We the people are doing our job: work hard, pay taxes, raise our families. The politicians are not doing their job. They fiddle, they fumble, and they fail. These words resonated more strongly than any movie script I'd read.\n[Baghdad] The wild driving, the poverty, no money and a leadership vacuum - like California right now.\nI was not the least bit intimidated by the thought of a campaign. It was like every other major decision I'd faced. I thought about winning. I knew it would happen. I was locked in automatic pilot.\nAs every spouse knows, you have to pick the right moment to bring up a loaded subject.\nWhen I came here, California was a beacon.\n[why he wanted to become governor of California] I'm tired of this acting stuff. I need a new challenge.\nIn politics everybody knows everything. You're totally exposed.\nWhen I met Maria [Shriver], she was full of life, excitement, and hunger for the world. She wanted to be a rebel, not have a job on Capitol Hill.\nWhatever she [Maria Shriver] wanted to do, I would help her get there.\nOne side of Maria [Shriver] was ballsy and brave and wanted to be a strong partner.\nMaking a career decision had always been an incredible high. Making a career decision as a husband and a father was a whole different deal.\nDeclaring a candidacy was so loaded.\nCalifornia is more important than everyone's career.\nIs firefighting a macho enough profession for an action hero? The real life heroism at Ground Zero laid that question to rest.\nElected officials usually hate ballot initiatives because they reduce their power and make the state harder to govern.\nRepublicans and unions usually don't mix.\nI wanted to know what it really took to run for office, given that I wasn't a typical candidate.\nI remember marvelling at how ordinary citizens could limit the state's power.\nI took pride in my financial independence.\nLeave no stone unturned.\nI always paid close attention to focus groups and surveys and in politics, opinion research plays an even bigger role.\n[being governor of California] This was the best job I ever had.\nThere is no contradiction in being both a Republican and an environmentalist\nFor me, talking convincingly about the future was easy: all I had to do was point to what we'd achieved since I came into office.\nCalifornia politics was this big centrifuge that forced voters, policies and parties away from the center. I challenged Californians to stop yielding to the far left and the far right and return to the center. Centrist does not mean weak, or watered down or warmed over. It means well balanced and well grounded. The American people are instinctively centrist. So should be our government. America's political parties should return to the center, where the people are. The left and the right don't have a monopoly on conscience.\nWe are not waiting for politics, for our problems to get worse, or for the federal government. Because the future does not wait. Not only can we lead California into the future, we can show the nation and the world how to get there.\n[politics] You get so immersed in the job there are side effects on the people you love. Even if you succeed in protecting your wife and kids from the public spotlight, they feel they're sharing and losing you.\nTrying to reform health care had almost destroyed Bill Clinton 's presidency. I'd always thought it was a disgrace that the greatest country in the world didn't provide a health care system for all of its people, as many European countries do. Our health care reform became America's, and California led the way.\nAll the great ideas come from local governments.\nI am of the Reagan view that we should not go off the cliff with flags flying.\nThe California Republican Party should be a right of center party that occupies the broad middle of California.\nEven when acting in a movie, I would not shoot a stunt if I hadn't rehearsed it a minimum of ten times.\nPresident Bush (Jr) was always available to talk. If I raised only one issue at a time, I would get a fair hearing.\nIf you need to do something that's not in the manual, throw the manual out.\nNever bullshit.\nThe statistics in the wake of a disaster are always tragic.\nWhen the federal government meddles in markets, the states pay the price.\nWhen you're spending more money than you're taking in, you cut spending. Simple.\nAd-libbing can backfire when you're running for governor.\nI'm not really the crying type.\nIt's painful to have just endorsed things that you now have no money for. I felt like a schmuck backing out on commitments I wanted to make but could no longer afford. The consequences of cuts are not just dollars, but people. We're all getting screwed. I was forced to make unpopular decisions that nobody, least of all me, was happy about.\n[on his children] The drama of the presidential election interested them more than my job.\nI believe in sprinting through to the finish line.\nAll great movements in history start out on a grassroots level, not in places like Washington or Paris or Moscow or Beijing.\nI'm proud to say I found a way to cram 36 hours of work into a single day.\nBudget negotiations are no different than grueling five hour weight lifting sessions in the gym. The joy of working out is that with each painful rep you get a step closer to achieving your goal. I was deeply frustrated with party leaders and the press for not making plain the budget history.\nWhen I stepped up to the podium, I was overwhelmed to realize I was standing where John F. Kennedy , Nelson Mandela and Mikhail Gorbachev had all addressed the UN before me.\nUnlike regular politicians, I had nothing to lose.\nSix years of ups and downs forged me as a governor. I had more forward momentum than ever before. I felt more like a hungry eagle rather than a lame duck.\nThe key to real permanent reform is being in sync with the hearts and minds of the people. We had rattled so many cages on the left and the right with our reforms.\nOf all the things I've done with my life, nothing is seared in my memory more than looking into the eyes of someone who has just lost everything he loved in the world.\nBeing governor was more complex and challenging than I had imagined. That's the problem of presenting yourself as the Governator. You can do miracles but not the kind that require wearing a cape and being able to fly. As governor, you're neither a solitary champion nor a star. Compared to making a movie, when you accomplish something in government, the satisfaction is so much larger and long lasting. In a movie, you are entertaining people for a few hours in a dark theatre. In government, you are affecting entire lives; generations even.\nChange takes big balls.\nI've always idolized (Mikhail) Gorbachev because of the courage it took to dismantle the political system that he grew up under. For Gorbachev to have the guts to embrace change rather than further oppress his people or pick fights with the West has always amazed me.\nFitness promotes health and enhances the quality of life.\n[lying to Maria Shriver about his infidelity] Instead of doing the right thing, I'd just put the truth in a mental compartment and locked it up where I didn't deal with it every day.\n[on his illegitimate son] Politically, I didn't feel it was anybody's business because I hadn't campaigned on family values. If I was going to talk about bad behavior, I wanted to do it on my own timetable.\nAlthough Maria (Shriver) and I remain separated, I still try to treat everyone as if we are together. Maria has a right to be bitterly disappointed and never look at me the same way again.\nWhat had made my career fun for more than 30 years was sharing it with Maria (Shriver). We'd done everything together and now there was no one to come home to.\nA green global economy is desirable, necessary, and within reach.\nYou start reading scripts and visualizing the scene and how to direct it, how to choreograph the stunt, and then you get into it and then you look forward to doing it.\nNormally an action star keeps to himself on the set.\nThere's a difference between being 35 and almost 65.\n[University of Southern California] It prides itself on being neither conservative nor liberal but open minded. It operates by promoting discussion to draw the best ideas from the brightest minds across the political spectrum.\nThe great leaders always talk about things that are much bigger than themselves. They say working for a cause that will outlive us is what brings meaning and joy. The more I'm able to accomplish in the world, the more I agree.\nI always wanted to be an inspiration for people, but I never set out to be a role model in everything. It's never been my goal to set an example in everything I do.\nI don't believe that violence on-screen creates violence on the street or in the home. Otherwise there would have been no murders before movies were invented, and the Bible is full of them.\nI prefer being way out there, shocking people. Rebelliousness is part of what drove me from Austria. Being outrageous is a way to succeed. No one could put me in a mold. Being different was right up my alley.\nLife is richer when we embrace the multitudes we all contain.\nImpossible was a word I loved to ignore when I was governor. The only way to make the possible possible is to try the impossible. If you fail, so what? That's what everybody expects. But if you succeed, you make the world a much better place.\nNever follow the crowd. Go where it's empty. It's easier to stand out when you aim straight for the top.\nNo matter what you do in life, selling is part of it.\nYou can do the finest work and if people don't know, you have nothing! The most important thing is to make people aware.\n[on Muhammad Ali ] I always admired him because he was a champion, had a great personality, and he was generous and always thoughtful toward others. If all athletes could be like him, the world would be better off.\nDon't overthink. If you think all the time, the mind cannot relax. Part of us needs to go through life instinctively. Turning off your mind is an art. Knowledge is extremely important for making decisions. The more knowledge you have, the more you're free to rely on your instincts. The more you know, the more you hesitate. When you are not confident of your decision-making process, it will slow you down. Overthinking is why people can't sleep at night: it cripples you.\nMany movie deals are made under pressure, and if you freeze, you lose.\nTo test yourself and grow, you have to operate without a safety net. Forget Plan B. If there is no Plan B, then Plan A has to work.\nYou can use outrageous humour to settle a score.\nWhat are the odds for an Austrian farm boy to come to America and become the greatest bodybuilding champion of all time, to get in the movie business, marry a Kennedy, and then get elected governor of the biggest state in the United States?\nIf government is not taking in enough revenue because of an economic slowdown, then everyone should chip in and sacrifice.\nWriting out my goals became second nature, and so did the conviction that there are no shortcuts. It took hundreds and even thousands of repetitions for me to learn to hit a great three-quarter back pose, deliver a punchline, dance the tango in True Lies (1994), paint a beautiful birthday card, and say \"I'll be back\" just the right way.\nI have come to feel great affection for the peoples of the world, because they have always been so welcoming to me, whether as a bodybuilder, a movie star, a private citizen, or as governor of the great state of California.\nDon't blame your parents. They've done their best for you, and if they've left you with problems, those problems are now yours to solve. I could channel my upbringing in a positive way rather than complain. I could use it to have a vision, set goals, find joy. I don't have to lick my wounds. Sometimes you have to appreciate the very people and circumstances that traumatized you. Today I hail the strictness of my upbringing, and the fact I didn't have anything I wanted in Austria, because those were the very factors that made me hungry; it put fuel on the fire in my belly. It drove and motivated me.\nThere are a thousand keys to success.\n[on his infidelity] It was one of those stupid things that I promised myself never to do. A lot of people, no matter how successful or unsuccessful in life, make stupid choices involving sex.\nSecrecy is just part of me. I keep things to myself no matter what. I'm not a person who was brought up to talk.\nBodybuilders who are blind to themselves or deaf to others usually fall behind.\n[on Mr. Universe] I wanted to win it so decisively that people would forget I'd ever lost.\nTake care of your body and your mind. Focusing on the body was no problem for me. I realized that the mind is a muscle and we should train it too. If world leaders have time to work out, so do you.\n[Gorbachev dismantling the USSR] I'm amazed by the courage it took to not go for immediate gratification but to look for the best direction for the country in the long run. To me Gorbachev is a hero, at the same level as Nelson Mandela, who overcame the anger and despair of 27 years in prison. When given the power to shake the world, both of them chose to build rather than destroy.\n[on Pope John Paul II balancing his duties with an exercise regime] If that guy can do it, I've got to get up even earlier!\nBe hungry for success, hungry to make your mark, hungry to be seen and to be heard and to have an effect. And as you move up and become successful, make sure also to be hungry for helping others. Don't rest on your laurels. Too many former athletes spend their lives talking about how great they were 20 years ago. So many accomplished people just coast. They wish they could still be somebody and not just talk about the past. There is much more to life than being the greatest at one thing. We learn so much when we're successful, so why not use what you've learned, use your connections and do more with them? If you have a talent or skill that makes you happy, use it to improve your neighborhood. And if you feel a desire to do more, then go all out. You'll have plenty of time to rest when you're in the grave. Live a risky and spicy life and like Eleanor Roosevelt said, \"every day do something that scares you.\" We should all stay hungry!\nMemoirs are about looking back, but I've lived my life by the opposite principle. At home I have a hundred photo albums starting with my childhood in Austria, and I never look at them. I'd rather do another project or make another movie and learn from looking forward!\n[on his autobiography, Total Recall] Digging up and piecing together memories proved to be as difficult as I imagined, and yet what made the work unexpectedly enjoyable was the help I got from others. I found myself swapping stories with old friends from the worlds of bodybuilding, business, sports, Hollywood and politics - a large cast of characters. I'm grateful to all of them for helping me recreate the past and for making it immediate and friendly. Finally, I thank my family. They were generous in helping me make sure this memoir delivers on its name. And thanks especially to Maria (Shriver), for her patience with the project and for remaining as always the person I could go to whenever I got stuck.\nIf I accomplished and solidified my position in the bodybuilding world, from then on, I would be on a roll. Nobody would stop me.\nThere is no such thing as an Austrian Shakespearean actor. It doesn't exist.\nYou're not supposed to laugh on the (film) set.\nWhen you're not on camera, stay in character, act your part, giving it everything you have in order to draw the best out of the actor who is being filmed.\nIt was very difficult for me in the beginning - I was told by agents and casting people that my body was 'too weird', that I had a funny accent, and that my name was too long. You name it, and they told me I had to change it. Basically, everywhere I turned, I was told that I had no chance.\nA few months ago, I got rear-ended by this guy. He took off, and I chased him. I will admit I drove at a slightly excessive speed. I cut him off, and two guys jumped out of the car looking tough. But when they saw me, they just said, 'Oh shit! The Terminator!' They were nice, and gave me their information.\n[on Terminator Genisys (2015)] It will be challenging because it will be a new director, and it will be a really action-packed movie. And sometimes it does get more difficult when you're 66 years old and doing this kind of action, versus when you're in your 30s or 40s!\n[on his eighties rivalry with Sylvester Stallone ] We had a competition. And here's a perfect example of how competition is healthy, because he was trying to out-do me. But I was also trying to out-do him. So who benefited? The fans. I was training harder, he was training harder. It was a competition of who has more muscles, who has more cuts, who has the lower body fat, who uses the biggest guns, who kills the most people, who has the most creative killings, and this went on and on and on. So the movies became better and better because of it. And eventually, we grew up, right?\" he said. We were doing Planet Hollywood together and we were laughing about it on the plane when we flew around. We've become very good friends, and I'm a big supporter of Sly, because I really always thought I admired him, even though there was competition. He's a great director, he's a great writer, a great actor, a great producer and also a fantastic artist. His paintings are great. And he's a great family man. He has it all.\nI have a love interest in every one of my films: a gun.\nI would never exchange my life with anybody else's.\nIf my life was a movie, no one would believe it.\nNo matter the nationality, no matter the religion, no matter the ethnic background, America brings out the best in people.\nI went from being the Terminator to being the governator.\nI know a lot of athletes and models are written off as just bodies. I never felt used for my body.\nI just use my muscles as a conversation piece, like someone walking a cheetah down 42nd Street.\nI was striving to be the most muscular man, and it got me into the movies. It got me everything that I have.\nFailure is not an option. Everyone has to succeed.\nI am a big believer in education, because when I grew up in Austria - when I grew up in Austria I had a great education. I had great teachers.\nEven with my divorce and with everything, I don't need money.\nI don't suffer of anything that I've lost.\nI think that people are interested seeing me on the screen.\nYou know, nothing is more important than education, because nowhere are our stakes higher; our future depends on the quality of education of our children today.\nI have a private plane. But I fly commercial when I go to environmental conferences.\nMy friend James Cameron and I made three films together - True Lies (1994), The Terminator (1984) and Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991). Of course, that was during his early, low-budget, art-house period.\nThere is no place, no country, more compassionate more generous more accepting and more welcoming than the United States of America.\nStrength does not come from winning. Your struggles develop your strengths. When you go through hardships and decide not to surrender, that is strength.\nPeople need to be insured so when you have an accident out there, or when something catastrophic happens to you, that you're covered and there's not someone else has to pay for you. That is as simple as that.\nThe biggest problem that we have is that California is being run now by special interests. All of the politicians are not anymore making the moves for the people, but for special interests and we have to stop that.\nTo restore the trust of the people, we must reform the way the government operates.\nThe worst thing I can be is the same as everybody else. I hate that.\nI'm addicted to exercising and I have to do something every day.\nPolitical courage is not political suicide.\nI made my fair share of mistakes.\nIn our society, the women who break down barriers are those who ignore limits.\nPolitically there were failures. And also on the personal level, there were tremendous failures.\nStart wide, expand further, and never look back.\nEverything I have, my career, my success, my family, I owe to America.\nWhen the people become involved in their government, government becomes more accountable, and our society is stronger, more compassionate, and better prepared for the challenges of the future.\nI think that gay marriage should be between a man and a woman.\nHelp others and give something back. I guarantee you will discover that while public service improves the lives and the world around you, its greatest reward is the enrichment and new meaning it will bring your own life.\nOne of my movies was called True Lies (1994). It's what the Democrats should have called their convention.\n[He was being asked on what kind of Terminator he will be playing in Terminator Genisys (2015)] It's a character that has been programmed to protect them, to protect Sarah Connor, but I'm basically the same Terminator. I will destroy anything that's in front of me in order to save her.\nThe last three or four reps is what makes the muscle grow. This area of pain divides the champion from someone else who is not a champion. That's what most people lack, having the guts to go on and just say they'll go through the pain no matter what happens.\nFreedom is a right ultimately defended by the sacrifice of America's servicemen and women.\nAs you know, I'm an immigrant. I came over here as an immigrant, and what gave me the opportunities, what made me to be here today, is the open arms of Americans. I have been received. I have been adopted by America.\nWell, you know, I'm the forever optimist.\nI have plenty of money, unlike other Hollywood celebrities or athletes that have not invested well.\nAs president, Reagan worked very well with Democrats to do big things. It is true that he worked to reduce the size of government and cut federal taxes and he eliminated many regulations, but he also raised taxes when necessary.\nThe mind is the limit. As long as the mind can envision the fact that you can do something, you can do it, as long as you really believe 100 percent.\n[on what is like getting back into The Terminator character for Terminator Genisys (2015)] It's like you've been doing it your whole life, because I'm very passionate about the character. I think it's a great, interesting character. I think it's a great story. The whole concept that Cameron had way back in the early '80s, of creating a world where machines take over and things becoming a reality that no one could even think of in those days. It's really been great, because the whole team is really into going all out. It is fun to be in a movie like that. The studio is very enthusiastic about the Terminator movie - the producers, the director, they're very talented and great visionaries. You can tell, the stages - everything is really big and exciting. It's been a great experience.\nWell, I think that California has had a history of always spending more money than it takes in.\nGray Davis can run a dirty campaign better than anyone, but he can't run a state.\nWhat we face may look insurmountable. But I learned something from all those years of training and competing. I learned something from all those sets and reps when I didn't think I could lift another ounce of weight. What I learned is that we are always stronger than we know.\nI welcome and seek your ideas, but do not bring me small ideas; bring me big ideas to match our future.\nI'm not perfect.\nI believe with all my heart that America remains 'the great idea' that inspires the world. It is a privilege to be born here. It is an honor to become a citizen here. It is a gift to raise your family here, to vote here, and to live here.\nIf you work hard and play by the rules, this country is truly open to you. You can achieve anything.\nMy relationship to power and authority is that I'm all for it. People need somebody to watch over them. Ninety-five percent of the people in the world need to be told what to do and how to behave.\nYou can scream at me, call me for a shoot at midnight, keep me waiting for hours - as long as what ends up on the screen is perfect.\nI was born in Europe... and I've traveled all over the world. I can tell you that there is no place, no country, that is more compassionate, more generous, more accepting, and more welcoming than the United States of America.\nI am the most helpful and open up doors for everyone and I like to share.\n[He was being asked how long it takes to put on the prosthetics for Terminator Genisys (2015)] I think it was two and a half hours. But it's not every day. It depends which stage we're in the story. So this is getting now towards the end. It gets more and more severe.\nWomen are the engine driving the growth in California's economy. Women make California's economy unique.\nMilk is for babies. When you grow up you have to drink beer.\nI came to Hollywood and within a decade I was one of the biggest action stars of all time.\nGovernment's first duty and highest obligation is public safety.\nI feel good because I believe I have made progress in rebuilding the people's trust in their government.\nI do the same exercises I did 50 years ago and they still work. I eat the same food I ate 50 years ago and it still works.\nBodybuilding is much like any other sport. To be successful, you must dedicate yourself 100% to your training, diet and mental approach.\nMy own dreams fortunately came true in this great state. I became Mr. Universe; I became a successful businessman. And even though some people say I still speak with a slight accent, I have reached the top of the acting profession.\nMaria is the best reason to come home.\nFor 20 years, Simon & Schuster asked me, 'Why don't you write your autobiography?'\nIf it bleeds, we can kill it.\nThe resistance that you fight physically in the gym and the resistance that you fight in life can only build a strong character.\nTraining gives us an outlet for suppressed energies created by stress and thus tones the spirit just as exercise conditions the body.\nThe future is green energy, sustainability, renewable energy.\n[on if he feels protective of The Terminator franchise] Oh, no, we had very open discussions. After I got the first script, I had a lot of questions. Some of the things didn't make sense. They were tweaked; they didn't make sense to other people either. So it was fine-tuned. It was a process. There was a period of I think a few months. There were very talented people who went off and - and the great thing is that everyone was in sync. It wasn't like I was going off in one direction and David Ellison was thinking differently and then Alan was thinking differently. There was none of that. I think this is a very unique project because I think everyone is very protective - not just because of the art's sake, but I think also because of the business' sake. The studio sees this as, \"If we do well here, we can go with another few. We can entertain people. We can make money. We've done a good job bringing back the franchise.\" So everyone is in sync with that. That's why everyone is working around the clock here to make this a great movie.\nI can promise you that when I go to Sacramento, I will pump up Sacramento.\nLearned helplessness is the giving-up reaction, the quitting response that follows from the belief that whatever you do doesn't matter.\nIt's time to stop thinking of the Republican Party as an exclusive club where your ideological card is checked at the door, and start thinking about how we can attract more solution-based leaders like Nathan Fletcher and Anthony Adams.\nPeople should make up their own mind about what they think of me.\nI saw a woman wearing a sweatshirt with 'Guess' on it. I said, Thyroid problem?\nMy body is like breakfast, lunch, and dinner. I don't think about it, I just have it.\nAnd now, of course this is another thing I didn't count on, that now as the governor of the state of California, I am selling California worldwide. You see that? Selling.\nThe success I have achieved in bodybuilding, motion pictures, and business would not have been possible without the generosity of the American people and the freedom here to pursue your dreams.\nWe are a forward-looking people, and we must have a forward-looking government.\nAs long as I live, I will never forget that day 21 years ago when I raised my hand and took the oath of citizenship. Do you know how proud I was? I was so proud that I walked around with an American flag around my shoulders all day long.\n'I'll be back' always sounded a little girly to me.\nI didn't leave bodybuilding until I felt that I had gone as far as I could go. It will be the same with my film career. When I feel the time is right, I will then consider public service. I feel that the highest honor comes from serving people and your country.\nIf it's hard to remember, it'll be difficult to forget.\nWhat's fascinating is, people in Washington would rather spend time in Hollywood, and people in Hollywood would rather spend time in Washington.\nI'll be back.\nI think Americans are very patriotic.\nI have inhaled, exhaled everything.\nI knew I was a winner back in the late sixties. I knew I was destined for great things. People will say that kind of thinking is totally immodest. I agree. Modesty is not a word that applies to me in any way - I hope it never will.\nFor me life is continuously being hungry. The meaning of life is not simply to exist, to survive, but to move ahead, to go up, to achieve, to conquer.\nIt's simple, if it jiggles, it's fat.\nTeddy Roosevelt is still a hero among environmentalists for his conservationist policies.\nI told Warren if he mentions Prop. 13 one more time, he has to do 500 push-ups.\nI speak directly to the people, and I know that the people of California want to have better leadership. They want to have great leadership. They want to have somebody that will represent them. And it doesn't matter if you're a Democrat or a Republican, young or old.\nI'm not looking for sympathy at all.\nThe writing is important, but the way you say the line and the pause you give it, the facial expression - all of that is very important.\n(2012) The day is twenty-four hours. I sleep six hours. That leaves eighteen hours to do something.\n(2012) I would always write down my New Year's resolutions and mark them off the way I mark off sets and reps... On New Year's Eve, you can just blabber out: I want to lose twenty pounds and I'm gonna read more. But what does that mean? There's too many variables there. If you're really serious about it, then write down when you're gonna lose the twenty pounds by. Is it March 1? Is it June 1? Make a commitment.\n(2012) The power of influence is one of the most unique powers that you can have. It's not the power of controlling people. It's developing a certain skill of communicating what you want to accomplish so that people will follow you.\n(2012) It was one of my early goals to be a millionaire. In the beginning, I wanted to have a gold Rolex, a Rolls-Royce, a cheetah - just stupid things that you think of when you're a kid. Then time goes by. The Rolls-Royce thing went out the window, because when you get to the level where you can afford one, all of a sudden you say, \"It's a little bit over the top.\" A cheetah? I think in California they got rid of the law that says you can have wild animals. Having a cheetah is a stupid idea.\n(2012) I didn't get it at first. I'll be back. What the fuck is I'll? I will be back sounded much stronger in my mind. So I argued with Jim Cameron. And he said, \"Look, Arnold, I don't tell you how to act. Please don't tell me how to write.\" After I saw it in the movie, I was so thankful to Cameron. That was a good lesson to learn. If someone is a good writer, stick to the script.\n95% of the time you never know if a movie will be a huge success or that it will even be a sequel.\nI'm so happy I've been a part of some of the biggest and best action sequences.\n[The Terminator] James Cameron did an extraordinary job creating that character and whole phenomenon. I never thought we would do a sequel, catchphrases like \"I'll be back\" or \"Hasta la vista, baby\" would catch on and be repeated or think that 30yrs later I would be asked to come back to a franchise like this playing The Terminator, unlike Batman or James Bond.\n[The Terminator] It was a small movie. We really had to cut costs all the time. We shot it very quickly. We felt we had a good story and it would be successful. But we thought it would be for certain audiences only. No-one suspected it would be in Time magazine's top 10 movies of the year and that successful at the box-office and that people demanded a sequel that would be the highest grossing movie of that year.\n[the storm drain chase in Terminator 2] That's a fantastic scene.\nMost people are not comfortable with guns.\n[being Governor of California] I had my hands full.\n[James Cameron's movies] Extraordinary inspiration because it makes other directors online.\n[California] The seventh largest economy in the world.\n[James] Cameron has really stretched it beyond belief with visual effects in Judgment Day.\n[on becoming President of the United States]If I'd been born in America, I would've run.[October 2016]\nSalary (22)" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Thank_Heaven_for_Little_Girls.txt" ], "title": [ "Thank Heaven for Little Girls" ], "wiki_context": [ "\"Thank Heaven for Little Girls\" is a 1957 song written by Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe and often associated with performer Maurice Chevalier. It opened and closed the 1958 film Gigi. Alfred Drake performed the song in the 1973 Broadway stage production of Gigi, though in the 2015 revival, it was sung as a duet between Victoria Clark and Dee Hoty.\n\nThe Chevalier version is often regarded as the definitive version of the song; he recorded it in 1958. In 2004 it finished at #56 on AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs survey of top tunes in American cinema.\n\nIn the mid-'90s, a contemporary take on the song was recorded by the Seattle-based alternative band Ruby for a Mountain Dew commercial in the United States. This recording was later repurposed by PepsiCo for their Pepsi Max brand in the UK.\n\nIt has also been performed by Rosemary Clooney, Perry Como, Gérard Depardieu, Merle Haggard, Hugh Hefner, The King Brothers, Ed McMahon, and in his faux French accent, Peter Sellers." ] }

{ "description": [ "Thank heaven for little girls thank heaven for them ... Thank heaven for little girls! All lyrics are property and copyright of their ... Ceremony Music. Prelude ...", "Thank Heaven for the little girls. Thank Heaven for the little girls. Skip navigation Upload. Sign in. Search. Loading... Close. Yeah, keep it Undo Close." ], "filename": [ "78/78_3053.txt", "178/178_3060.txt" ], "rank": [ 1, 8 ], "title": [ "Maurice Chevalier - Thank Heaven for Little Girls (from ...", "Chevalier Gigi - YouTube" ], "url": [ "http://www.weddingvendors.com/music/lyrics/m/maurice-chevalier/thank-heaven-for-little-girls/", "http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fyBffCiGr8c" ], "search_context": [ "Maurice Chevalier - Thank Heaven for Little Girls (from Gigi) Lyrics\nMaurice Chevalier\nThank Heaven for Little Girls (from Gigi)\nMaurice Chevalier - Thank Heaven for Little Girls (from Gigi) Lyrics\nRated 2.72 out of 4 stars\n★\nThank heaven for little girls\nfor little girls get bigger every day!\nThank heaven for little girls\nthey grow up in the most delightful way!\nThose little eyes so helpless and appealing\none day will flash and send you crashin' thru the ceilin'\nThank heaven for little girls\nthank heaven for them all,\nno matter where no matter who\nfor without them, what would little boys do?\nThank heaven... thank heaven...\nThank heaven for little girls!\nAll lyrics are property and copyright of their owners. All lyrics provided for educational purposes only.", "Chevalier Gigi - YouTube\nChevalier Gigi\nWant to watch this again later?\nSign in to add this video to a playlist.\nNeed to report the video?\nSign in to report inappropriate content.\nRating is available when the video has been rented.\nThis feature is not available right now. Please try again later.\nUploaded on Sep 9, 2007\nThank Heaven for the little girls\nCategory" ] }

{ "aliases": [ "Gigi", "GiGi" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "gigi" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "gigi", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Gigi" }

{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Harbor.txt", "RMS_Queen_Elizabeth.txt" ], "title": [ "Harbor", "RMS Queen Elizabeth" ], "wiki_context": [ "A harbor or harbour (see spelling differences), or haven, is a body of water where ships, boats and barges seek shelter from stormy weather, or are stored for future use. Harbors and ports are often confused with each other. A port is a manmade facility built for loading and unloading vessels and dropping off and picking up passengers. Ports are often located in harbors.\n\nHarbors can be natural or artificial. An artificial harbor can have deliberately constructed breakwaters, sea walls, or jettys, or they can be constructed by dredging, which requires maintenance by further periodic dredging. An example of an artificial harbor is Long Beach Harbor, California, United States which was an array of salt marshes and tidal flats too shallow for modern merchant ships before it was first dredged in the early 20th century. \n\nIn contrast, a natural harbor is surrounded on several sides by prominences of land. Examples of natural harbors include Sydney Harbour, Australia and Trincomalee Harbour in Sri Lanka.\n\nArtificial harbors\n\nArtificial harbors are frequently built for use as ports. The oldest artificial harbor known is the Ancient Egyptian site at Wadi al-Jarf, on the Red Sea coast, which is at least 4500 years old (ca. 2600-2550 BC, reign of King Khufu). The largest artificially created harbor is Jebel Ali in Dubai. Other large and busy artificial harbors include: \n* Port of Rotterdam, Netherlands; \n* Port of Houston, Texas, United States;\n* Port of Savannah, Georgia, United States;\n* Port of Long Beach, California, United States; \n* Port of Los Angeles in San Pedro, California, United States.\n\nThe Ancient Carthaginians constructed fortified, artificial harbors called cothons.\n\nNatural harbors\n\nA natural harbor is a landform where a part of a body of water is protected and deep enough to furnish anchorage. Many such harbors are rias. Natural harbors have long been of great strategic naval and economic importance, and many great cities of the world are located on them. Having a protected harbor reduces or eliminates the need for breakwaters as it will result in calmer waves inside the harbor. Some examples are: \n* New York Harbor in the United States; \n* Poole Harbour in England, United Kingdom; \n* Kingston Harbour in Jamaica; \n* Grand Harbour in Malta; \n* Subic Bay in Zambales, the Philippines; \n* Scapa Flow in Scotland, United Kingdom;\n* Sydney Harbour in Australia; technically a ria\n* Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, United States; \n* Trincomalee Harbour in Sri Lanka; \n* San Francisco Bay in California; \n* Visakhapatnam Harbour in Andhra Pradesh, India; \n* Killybegs in County Donegal, Ireland; \n* Halifax Harbour in Nova Scotia, Canada;\n* Hamilton Harbour in Ontario, Canada;\n* Burrard Inlet in Vancouver, Canada;\n* Cork Harbour, Ireland;\n* Waitemata Harbour in Auckland, New Zealand.\n* Port of Tobruk in Tobruk, Libya.\n\nIce-free harbors\n\nFor harbors near the North and South Poles, being ice-free is an important advantage, especially when it is year-round. Examples of these include: \n* Murmansk, Russia; \n* Pechenga, Russia; \n* Liinakhamari, Russia; \n* Hammerfest, Norway; \n* Vardø, Norway; \n* Vostochny Port; \n* Nakhodka in Nakhodka Bay, Russia; \n* Prince Rupert Harbour, Canada. \nThe world's southmost harbor, located at Antarctica's Winter Quarters Bay (77° 50′ South), is potentially ice-free, depending on the summertime pack ice conditions. \n\nImportant harbors\n\nAlthough the world's busiest port is a hotly contested title, in 2006 the world's busiest harbor by cargo tonnage was the Port of Shanghai. \n\nThe following are large natural harbors:\n*Algeciras, Spain\n*Amsterdam, Port of Amsterdam, Netherlands\n*Antwerp, Port of Antwerp, Flanders, Belgium\n*Baltimore's Inner Harbor, Maryland, United States\n*Boston Harbor, Massachusetts, United States\n*Bremerhaven, Germany\n*Buenos Aires, Argentina\n*Burrard Inlet, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada\n*Busan, Korea\n*Cartagena, Colombia\n*Charleston, South Carolina, United States\n*Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India\n*Port of Chittagong, Chittagong City, Bangladesh\n*Cork Harbour, Ireland\n*Duluth–Superior harbor, Duluth, Minnesota, United States\n*Durban, South Africa\n*Falmouth, Cornwall, England, United Kingdom\n*Freetown Harbour, Sierra Leone\n*Golden Horn, Istanbul, Turkey\n*Gothenburg, Sweden\n*Grand Harbour, Malta\n*Gwangyang, Korea\n*Hai Phong Port, Haiphong, Vietnam\n*Halifax Harbour, Nova Scotia, Canada\n*Hamburg Harbour, Germany\n*Hampton Roads, Norfolk, Virginia, United States\n*Havana Harbor\n*Incheon, Korea\n*Izmir, Turkey\n*Port of Jakarta (Tanjung Priok), Jakarta, Indonesia\n*Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan\n*Kingston, Jamaica\n*Kobe Harbour, Kobe, Japan\n*Lisbon, Portugal\n*Lushunkou, Dalian, China\n*Mahón, Minorca, Spain\n*Manila Bay, Philippines\n*Maputo, Mozambique\n*Milford Haven, Wales, United Kingdom\n*Montevideo, Uruguay\n*Mumbai, India\n*Nassau, Bahamas\n*New York Harbor, United States\n*Oslofjord, Norway\n*Pearl Harbor, Honolulu, Hawaii, United States\n*Piraeus, Attiki, Greece\n*Plymouth Sound, Devon, England, United Kingdom\n*Poole Harbour, Dorset, England, United Kingdom\n*Port Jackson, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia\n*Port of Portland, Casco Bay, Maine, United States\n*Port of Sevastopol, Sevastopol, Ukraine\n*Port Phillip, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia\n*Provincetown Harbor, Provincetown, Massachusetts, United States\n*Punta del Este, Uruguay\n*Rio de Janeiro, Guanabara Bay, Brazil\n*Rotterdam, Port of Rotterdam, Netherlands\n*Salvador, All Saint's Bay, Brazil\n*San Antonio, Chile\n*San Diego Bay, San Diego, California, United States\n*San Francisco Bay, California, United States\n*Sankt Petersburg, Russia\n*Subic Bay, Zambales, Philippines\n*Tanger-Med, Tangier, Morocco\n*Tauranga Harbour, Tauranga, New Zealand\n*Tokyo Bay, Tokyo, Japan\n*Trincomalee, Sri Lanka\n*Tuticorin, Tamil Nadu, India\n*Port of Tyne, Tyne & Wear, United Kingdom\n*Ulsan, Korea\n*Victoria Harbour, Hong Kong\n*Victoria Harbour (British Columbia) & Esquimalt Harbour, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada\n*Visakhapatnam Port, Andhra Pradesh, India\n*Vizhinjam, Trivandrum, India\n*Waitemata Harbour, Auckland, New Zealand\n*Willemstad, Curaçao\n*Wellington Harbour, New Zealand\n\nOther notable harbors include:\n*Belém, Brazil\n*Port of Bruges-Zeebrugge, Flanders, Belgium\n*Port of Genoa, Italy\n*Port of Gdańsk, Poland\n*Kahului, Hawaii, United States\n*Kaipara Harbour, New Zealand\n*Kaohsiung, Taiwan\n*Keelung, Taiwan\n*Keppel Harbour, Singapore\n*Kilindini Harbour, Kenya\n*Manukau Harbour, Auckland, New Zealand\n*New Haven Harbor, Connecticut, United States\n*Portland Harbour, Dorset, England, United Kingdom\n*Rades, Tunisia\n*Rio Grande, Brazil\n*San Juan, Puerto Rico, United States\n*Scapa Flow, Orkney Islands, Scotland, United Kingdom\n*Sydney Harbour, Australia\n*Port of Szczecin, Poland\n*Trondheim, Norway\n*Valparaiso, Chile\n*Vladivostok, Russia", "RMS Queen Elizabeth was an ocean liner operated by the Cunard Line. With her sister ship ' she provided luxury liner service between Southampton, the United Kingdom, and New York City, the United States, via Cherbourg, France. She was also contracted for over 20 years to carry the Royal Mail as the second half of the two ships' weekly express service.\n\nWhile being constructed in the mid-1930s by John Brown and Company at Clydebank, Scotland, she was known as Hull 552 but when launched, on 27 September 1938, she was named in honour of Queen Elizabeth, who was then Queen Consort to King George VI and in 1952 became the Queen Mother. With a design that improved upon that of ', Queen Elizabeth was a slightly larger ship, the largest passenger liner ever built at that time and for 56 years thereafter. She also has the distinction of being the largest-ever riveted ship by gross tonnage. She first entered service in February 1940 as a troopship in World War II, and it was not until October 1946 that she served in her intended role as an ocean liner.\n\nWith the decline in the popularity of the transatlantic route, both ships were replaced by the smaller, more economical Queen Elizabeth 2 in 1969. Queen Mary was retired from service on 9 December 1967, and was sold to the city of Long Beach, California, US. Queen Elizabeth was sold to a succession of buyers, most of whom had adventurous and unsuccessful plans for her. Finally she was sold to a Hong Kong businessman, Tung Chao Yung, who intended to convert her into a floating university cruise ship. In 1972, while undergoing refurbishment in Hong Kong harbour, she caught fire under mysterious circumstances and was capsized by the water used to fight the fire. In 1973, her wreck was deemed an obstruction, and she was partially scrapped where she lay. \n\nBuilding and design\n\nOn the day RMS Queen Mary sailed on her maiden voyage, Cunard's chairman, Sir Percy Bates, informed his ship designers that it was time to start designing the planned second ship known as Hull 552. The official contract between Cunard and government financiers was signed on 6 October 1936.\n\nThe new ship improved upon the design of Queen MaryMaxtone-Graham, John. The Only Way to Cross. New York: Collier Books, 1972, p. 355 with sufficient changes, including a reduction in the number of boilers to twelve instead of Mary twenty-four, that the designers could discard one funnel and increase deck, cargo and passenger space. The two funnels were self-supporting and braced internally to give a cleaner looking appearance while the forward well deck was omitted, a more refined hull shape was achieved and a sharper, raked bow was added for a third bow-anchor point. She was to be eleven feet longer and 4,000 tons greater displacement than her older sister ship, Mary. \n\nQueen Elizabeth was built on slipway four at John Brown & Company in Clydebank, Scotland. During her construction she was more commonly known by her shipyard number, Hull 552. The interiors were designed by a team of artists headed by the architect George Grey Wornum. Cunard's plan was for the ship to be launched in September 1938, with fitting out intended to be complete for the ship to enter service in the spring of 1940. The Queen herself performed the launching ceremony on 27 September 1938 and the ship was sent for fitting out. It was announced that on 23 August 1939 the King and Queen were to visit the ship and tour the engine room and 24 April 1940 was to be the proposed date of her maiden voyage. Due to the outbreak of World War II, these two dates were postponed, and Cunard's plans were shattered.\n\nQueen Elizabeth sat at the fitting-out dock at the shipyard in her Cunard colours until 2 November 1939, when the Ministry of Shipping issued special licences to declare her seaworthy. On 29 December her engines were tested for the first time, running from 0900 to 1600 with the propellers disconnected to monitor her oil and steam operating temperatures and pressures. Two months later Cunard received a letter from Winston Churchill,Maxtone-Graham 1972, p. 358-60 then First Lord of the Admiralty, ordering the ship to leave Clydeside as soon as possible and \"to keep away from the British Isles as long as the order was in force\".\n\nMaiden voyage\n\nAt the start of World War II, it was decided that Queen Elizabeth was so vital to the war effort that she must not have her movements tracked by German spies operating in the Clydebank area. Therefore, an elaborate ruse was fabricated involving her sailing to Southampton to complete her fitting out. Another factor prompting Queen Elizabeths departure was the necessity to clear the fitting out berth at the shipyard for the battleship , which was in need of its final fitting-out. Only the berth at John Brown could accommodate the King George V-class battleship's needs.\n\nOne major factor that limited the ship's secret departure date was that there were only two spring tides that year that would see the water level high enough for Queen Elizabeth to leave the Clydebank shipyard, and German intelligence were aware of this fact. A minimal crew of four hundred were assigned for the trip; most were signed up for a short voyage to Southampton from . Parts were shipped to Southampton, and preparations were made to drydock the new liner when she arrived. The names of Brown's shipyard employees were booked to local hotels in Southampton to give a false trail of information and Captain John Townley was appointed as her first master. Townley had previously commanded Aquitania on one voyage, and several of Cunard's smaller vessels before that. Townley and his hastily signed-on crew of four hundred Cunard personnel were told by a Cunard representative before they left to pack for a voyage where they could be away from home for up to six months.Floating Palaces. (1996) A&E. TV Documentary. Narrated by Fritz Weaver\n\nBy the beginning of March 1940, Queen Elizabeth was ready for her secret voyage. Her Cunard colours were painted over with battleship grey, and on the morning of 3 March she quietly left her moorings in the Clyde. She proceeded out of the river and sailed further down the coast, where she was met by the King's Messenger, who presented sealed orders directly to the captain. Whilst waiting for the messenger the ship was refuelled; adjustments to the ship's compass and some final testing of equipment were also carried out before she sailed to her secret destination.\n\nCaptain Townley discovered that he was to take the untested vessel directly to New York without stopping, without dropping off the Southampton harbour pilot who had embarked on Queen Elizabeth from Clydebank, and to maintain strict radio silence. Later that day at the time when she was due to arrive at Southampton, the city was bombed by the Luftwaffe. After a crossing taking six days, Queen Elizabeth had zigzagged her way across the Atlantic at an average speed of 26 knots, avoiding Germany's U-boats; she arrived safely at New York and found herself moored alongside both Queen Mary and the French Line's . This would be the only time all three of the world's largest liners would be berthed together.\n\nCaptain Townley received two telegrams on his arrival in New York, one from his wife congratulating him and the other from the ship's namesake – Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth, who thanked him for safe delivery of the ship that was named for her. The ship was then moored for the first time alongside Queen Mary and was secured so that no one could board her without prior permission. This included port officials. Cunard later issued a statement that it had been decided that, due to the global circumstances, it was best that the new liner was moved to a neutral location and that during that voyage the ship had carried no passengers or cargo.\n\nWorld War II\n\nQueen Elizabeth left the port of New York on 13 November 1940 for Singapore to receive her troopship conversion. After two stops to refuel and replenish her stores in Trinidad and Cape Town, she arrived in Singapore's Naval Docks where she was fitted with anti-aircraft guns, and her hull repainted black, although her superstructure remained grey.\n\nAs a troopship, Queen Elizabeth left Singapore on 11 February, and initially she carried Australian troops to operating theatres in Asia and Africa. After 1942, the two Queens were relocated to the North Atlantic for the transportation of American troops to Europe.\n\nQueen Elizabeth and Queen Mary were used as troop transports during the war. Their high speeds allowed them to outrun hazards, principally German U-boats, usually allowing them to travel without a convoy. During her war service as a troopship Queen Elizabeth carried more than 750,000 troops, and she also sailed some . Her captains during this period were Townley, Ernest Fall, Cyril Gordon Illinsworth, Charles Ford, and James Bisset.\n\nPost-war career\n\nFollowing the end of World War II, her sister ship Queen Mary remained in her wartime role and grey appearance, except for her funnels, which were repainted in the company's colours. For another year she did military service, returning troops and G.I. brides to the United States. Queen Elizabeth, meanwhile, was refitted and furnished as an ocean liner at the Firth of Clyde Drydock in Greenock by the John Brown Shipyard. Six years of war service had never permitted the formal sea trials to take place, and these were now finally undertaken. Under the command of Commodore Sir James Bisset the ship travelled to the Isle of Arran and her trials were carried out. Onboard was the ship's namesake Queen Elizabeth and her two daughters, the princesses Elizabeth and Margaret. During the trials, her majesty Queen Elizabeth took the wheel for a brief time and the two young princesses recorded the two measured runs with stopwatches that they had been given for the occasion. Bisset was under strict instructions from Sir Percy Bates, who was also aboard the trials, that all that was required from the ship was two measured runs of no more than thirty knots and that she was not permitted to attempt to attain a higher speed record than Queen Mary. After her trials Queen Elizabeth finally entered Cunard White Star's two ship weekly service to New York. Despite similar specifications to her older sister ship Queen Mary, Elizabeth never held the Blue Riband, as Cunard White Star chairman Sir Percy Bates requested that the two ships not try to compete against one another.\n\nIn 1955 during an annual overhaul at Southampton, England, Queen Elizabeth was fitted with underwater fin stabilizers to smooth the ride in rough seas. Two fins were fitted on each side of the hull. The fins were retractable into the hull to save fuel in smooth seas and for docking. \n\nIn 1959, the ship made an appearance in the British satirical Eastman Color comedy film The Mouse That Roared starring Peter Sellers and Jean Seberg. While a troupe of invading men from a fictional European country cross the Atlantic to 'war' with the United States on a tow boat, they meet and pass the far larger Queen Elizabeth, and learn that New York City is closed due to an air raid drill. The men on the tow boat respond by loosing arrows at the two officers speaking from near the ocean liner's bridge.\n\nThe ship ran aground on a sandbank off Southampton on 14 April 1947, and was re-floated the following day. On 29 July 1959, she was in a collision with the American cargo ship American Hunter in foggy conditions in New York Harbour and was holed above the waterline.\n\nTogether with the Queen Mary, and in competition with , the Queen Elizabeth dominated the transatlantic passenger trade until their fortunes began to decline with the advent of the faster and more economical jet airliner in the late 1950s. As passenger numbers declined, the Queens became uneconomic to operate in the face of rising fuel and labour costs. For a short time, the Queen Elizabeth (now under the command of Commodore Geoffrey Trippleton Marr) attempted a dual role in order to become more profitable; when not plying her usual transatlantic route, which she now alternated in her sailings with the French Line's SS France, the ship cruised between New York and Nassau. For this new tropical purpose, the ship received a major refit in 1965, with a new lido deck added to her aft section, enhanced air conditioning, and an outdoor swimming pool. With these improvements, Cunard intended to keep the ship in operation until at least the middle 1970s. However, this strategy did not prove successful due to her high fuel costs, deep draught (which prevented her from entering various island ports), and great width, preventing her from using the Panama Canal.\n\nCunard retired both ships by 1969 and replaced them with a single, smaller ship, the more economical Queen Elizabeth 2.\n\nFinal years \n\nIn 1968, Queen Elizabeth was sold to a group of American businessmen from a company called The Queen Corporation (which was 85% owned by Cunard and 15% by them). The new company intended to operate the ship as a hotel and tourist attraction in Port Everglades, Florida, similar to the use of Queen Mary in Long Beach, California. Elizabeth, as she was now called, actually opened to tourists before Queen Mary (which opened in 1971) but it was not to last. The climate of southern Florida was much harder on Queen Elizabeth than the climate of southern California was on Queen Mary. Losing money and forced to close after being declared a fire hazard, the ship was sold at auction in 1970 to Hong Kong tycoon Tung Chao Yung.\n\nTung, head of the Orient Overseas Line, intended to convert the vessel into a university for the World Campus Afloat program (later reformed and renamed as Semester at Sea). Following the tradition of the Orient Overseas Line, the ship was renamed Seawise University, as a play on Tung's initials.\n\nNear the completion of the £5 million conversion, the vessel caught fire on 9 January 1972. There is some suspicion that the fires were set deliberately, as several blazes broke out simultaneously throughout the ship. The fact that C.Y. Tung had acquired the vessel for $3.5 million, and had insured it for $8 million, led some to speculate that the inferno was part of a fraud to collect on the insurance claim. Others speculated that the fires were the result of a conflict between Tung, a Chinese Nationalist, and Communist-dominated ship construction unions. \n\nThe ship was completely destroyed by the fire, and the water sprayed on her by fireboats caused the burnt wreck to capsize and sink in Hong Kong Victoria Harbour. The vessel was finally declared a shipping hazard and dismantled for scrap between 1974 and 1975. Portions of the hull that were not salvaged were left at the bottom of the bay. The keel and boilers remained at the bottom of the harbour and the area was marked as \"Foul\" on local sea charts warning ships not to try to anchor there. It is estimated that around 40–50% of the wreck was still on the seabed. In the late 1990s, the final remains of the wreck were buried during land reclamation for the construction of Container Terminal 9. Position of wreck: . Queen Elizabeth is surpassed only by Costa Concordia in 2012 as the largest passenger shipwreck.\n\nAfter the fire, Tung had one of the liner's anchors and the metal letters \"Q\" and \"E\" from the name on the bow placed in front of the office building at Del Amo Fashion Center in Torrance, California, US that was intended to be the headquarters of the Seawise University venture, where they remain to this day. Two of the ship's fire warning system brass plaques were recovered by a dredger and these are now on display at The Aberdeen Boat Club in Hong Kong within a display area about the ship. The charred remnants of her last ensign were cut from the flag pole and framed in 1972, and still adorn the wall of the officers' mess of marine police HQ in Hong Kong. Parker Pen Company produced a special edition of 5,000 pens made from material recovered from the wreck in a presentation box and these are highly collectable. \n\nFollowing the demise of Queen Elizabeth, the largest passenger ship in active service became , which was longer but had less tonnage than the Cunard liner.\n\nFictional appearances \n\nThe charred wreck was featured in the 1974 James Bond film The Man with the Golden Gun, as a covert headquarters for MI6. Q's labs are in the wreckage of this ship." ] }

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The ship was named after Queen Elizabeth, ..." ], "filename": [ "187/187_2592560.txt", "186/186_1789616.txt", "80/80_1789611.txt", "68/68_286582.txt", "3/3_1789607.txt", "159/159_1789609.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9 ], "title": [ "On This Day: The Queen Elizabeth Catches Fire in Hong Kong ...", "RMS Queen Elizabeth story and picture - rmhh.co.uk", "Fire breaks out on Queen Elizabeth - HISTORY.com", "Cruise ship Queen Elizabeth meets her docked predecessor ...", "The Wreck of RMS Queen Elizabeth - Vintage News", "History News - The Queen Elizabeth, Is Destryed By Fire" ], "url": [ "http://www.findingdulcinea.com/news/on-this-day/On-This-Day--The-Queen-Elizabeth-Mysteriously-Sinks-In-a-Hong-Kong-Harbor.html", "http://rmhh.co.uk/ships/pages/RMS%20Queen%20Elizabeth%201.html", "http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/fire-breaks-out-on-queen-elizabeth", "http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2292718/Cruise-ship-Queen-Elizabeth-meets-docked-predecessor-Queen-Mary-California.html", "https://www.thevintagenews.com/2015/11/24/37859/2/", "http://www.dotcomdotau.com.au/the-queen-elizabeth-is-destryed-by-fire.html" ], "search_context": [ "On This Day: The Queen Elizabeth Catches Fire in Hong Kong Harbor\nFireboats spray water in vain on the burning Queen Elizabeth, Jan. 9, 1972.\nOn This Day: The Queen Elizabeth Catches Fire in Hong Kong Harbor\nJanuary 09, 2011 06:00 AM\nby findingDulcinea Staff\nOn Jan. 9, 1972, the British ocean liner Queen Elizabeth burst into flames and sank in Victoria Harbour. Although the fires were determined to be the work of arsonists, no one has ever been charged with the crime.\nQueen Elizabeth Capsizes\nThe RMS Queen Elizabeth, a 83,000-ton ocean liner, was the largest ship in the world when it launched in 1938. It was retired 30 years later and subsequently purchased by Chinese shipping tycoon C.Y. Tung, who brought the ship to Hong Kong to be converted to a floating school called “Seawise University.”\nOn the morning of Sunday, Jan. 9, 1972, while the Queen Elizabeth was anchored in Hong Kong’s Victoria Harbour, a series of fires suddenly broke out aboard the ship , forcing hundreds of visiting shipyard workers and their families to evacuate the ship.\nJohn A. Hudson, an Englishman who had sailed his own boat into Hong Kong Harbor, describes watching the fire : “What caught our attention from a distance across the water was smoke coming from the ship's portholes; not just one or two portholes but from almost all of them from stem to stern on one side. … What had started as puffs of smoke from portholes turned into a raging inferno in the upper superstructure generating huge volumes of smoke. This, over only a three hour period.\nFirefighting boats tried to extinguish the fire for the next 24 hours, but they could not prevent the ship from capsizing. “Next day, with her upper decks collapsed and her massive steel hull buckled like so much soggy cardboard, the ship, still burning, keeled over,” wrote Time. “The Queen had died.”", "Image\nRMS Queen Elizabeth, 1940 to 1968\nAlongside in New York Harbour\nAs Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth arrived at the John Brown shipyards to launch the new Queen Elizabeth on September 27th 1938, a great war seemed inevitable. But before smashing the bottle against the bows and sending the new vessel into the water, the Queen chose to speak of peace instead of war. The launch was a success, and soon afterwards the Queen Elizabeth was towed to her fitting-out berth on the River Clyde. With war coming closer every day, work had to be suspended as many of the nation's naval vessels needed refurbishment. Then, on September 1st 1939, the first day of war came. Hitler marched into Poland, and thereby made enemies of Great Britain and her allies.\nAs the conflict grew, the Queen Elizabeth lay unfinished and waited for a decision to be made about her future. Many suggestions were made, and one of those quickly dismissed was that she would be sold for scrap. Some proposed to sell her to the United States or convert her into an aircraft carrier, but in the end it was decided that she would be put to best use as a troopship. Any action had to be taken fast. Being the great ship that she was, the Queen Elizabeth was a prime target for German Luftwaffe-pilots. To have this great ship sunk would have been a serious blow to the allied forces. However, conversion into a troopship could not be done in the UK, because of the threat of German bombers and saboteurs. The engines of the great liner were installed, and in February 1940, she left her berth and headed out to open waters. But with what destination? False rumours had been spread that Queen Elizabeth would go to Southampton to be fitted out as a trooper, but only the crew of the ship knew that it was not so. Some guessed that she would head for Halifax, but at this stage very few knew of her destination. Once out at sea, Captain John Townley opened his sealed orders that told him to head for New York, which he did at full speed with a crew of only 400. Later that day, a squadron of Nazi bombers were spotted over the Solent, where the Queen Elizabeth would have been travelling if she was going to Southampton. The deception of the enemy had worked.\nAfter a four-day combined maiden voyage and sea trials, the grey-painted Queen Elizabeth arrived in New York harbour, and was moored alongside her sister and the Normandie. For two weeks they lay together, the three largest vessels in the world. But on March 21st, the Queen Mary left New York bound for Sydney, Australia. There she would be transformed into a trooper, capable of carrying 5,000 soldiers. In the meantime, the Queen Elizabeth remained in New York to be fitted out with some basic equipment such as electric wiring and light fittings. The launch gear that had still been attached to her hull during the dramatic maiden voyage was removed and the bottom of the ship was refurbished as it had been in water for two whole years. After this, she too left for Sydney harbour. In February 1941, the Queen Elizabeth arrived in Sydney. The conversion into a trooper was soon underway, and when finished the Queen Elizabeth joined the Queen Mary in transporting troops between Sydney and Suez. Unfortunately, this route was in much warmer climate than the two ships were constructed for cold climates. With no air-conditioning and very little ventilation, the two Queens were not a very comfortable means for the soldiers to be shipped. In these harsh conditions, it was not uncommon that fights broke out among the troops. But by the end of 1941, an event occurred that would put the Queens back on the North Atlantic where they belonged.\nOn December 7th 1941, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbour. As the United States entered the war, great carrying capacity was needed to transport their forces. What could be better suited for this than the two mighty Cunarders? The two Queens were sent to America, where their carrying capacity was greatly increased from 5,000 to 15,000 people. Throughout the duration of the conflict, the Queens contributed to the war effort by transporting massive numbers of troops. Each ship usually carried a whole division, with the record set by the Queen Mary on July 25th, 1943 with 16,683 souls on board. During these voyages, the ships were carrying lifeboat accommodation for only 8,000 people. This was a serious matter, but it was also one that had to be overlooked - it was a true case of total war. In November 1942, the Nazis announced by radio that the German U-boat U-704 had torpedoed the Queen Elizabeth and sunk her. Naturally, this was all a propaganda ploy, but on many of these trooping voyages, rumours were circulating that one of the Queens had been sunk. But every time, this was proved to be false when the mighty vessels arrived at their destinations in their grey wartime livery. Soon, they were both nicknamed 'The Grey Ghost'.\nFinally, the day of victory came. On May 7th 1945, peace reigned in Europe, and four months later, on September 2nd, the Japanese forces surrendered. By now the merchant vessels of the world had transported a vast amount of people across the globe. The Queens alone had ferried more than two million to the war zone. During 1946, while the Queen Mary was busy shipping war brides and soldiers back to their homes, the Queen Elizabeth was put into dry dock at Southampton. There, 30 tons of paint was used to dress her in the Cunard livery which she had never worn before; Black hull, white superstructure and red funnels with black tops. Her wartime interiors were ripped out to be replaced with what she was intended for - comfortable and luxurious passenger amenities.\nOn October 16th 1946, the Queen Elizabeth finally set out from Southampton on her maiden voyage as a passenger liner. The crossing was booked solid, and several famous names could be found in the passenger list, for example Russia's foreign ministers Molotov and Vishinsky, travelling to the first session of the new United Nations. Commanding the ship was Commodore James Bisset, who 34 years earlier had been second officer on the Carpathia when she raced to rescue the survivors of the Titanic. By now Queen Mary was finished with her war bride crossings, and had been put into dry dock to be transformed into the great passenger liner she was supposed to be. The world that emerged after the war was a different one, and the two Queens had been modified to meet it according to the company's new slogan 'Getting there is half the fun'. Ballrooms had been turned into cinema theatres and new artwork had been incorporated in the interiors. Every space of the ships, it seemed, had been meticulously refurbished and on the Queen Mary, even the officer's quarters were completely renovated. On board the younger Queen, one could find art by many renowned artists such as Bainbridge Copnall, Dennis Dunlop and George Ramon to mention a few. It is also worth noting that artist Norman Wilkinson, who almost 40 years earlier had provided the two paintings 'Approach of the New World' and 'Plymouth Harbour' for the White Star liners Olympic and Titanic, had painted the two works 'Elsinore' and 'Dover Harbour' for the Queen Elizabeth's Promenade Deck smoking room.\nDuring the high season, on July 31st 1947, the Queen Mary left Southampton on her first peacetime commercial crossing. The following day Queen Elizabeth departed from New York harbour and thereby Cunard's old dream of a two-ship weekly transatlantic express service had at last become a reality. Now was a golden time for the old Cunard Line, since they were operating the two greatest ships on the route. The only worthy rival, the Normandie, had been destroyed by a fire in February 1942, and so the two Queens ruled the Atlantic waves alone. Not every arrival was an easy one though, since at times the tugboats were on strike, and docking had to be done without their assistance. Normally, a tug-assisted docking took about 35 minutes, but with no such help, it could take over two hours. Only once did a mishap occur, when the Queen Elizabeth was turning into the slip between piers 90 and 92 in New Your harbour when suddenly a strong wind caught hold of her and pushed her bow against the dockside bending a catwalk beyond recognition.\nAs the 1940s came to an end and before entering the 1950s, Cunard managed to erase their old rival's name from the company as Cunard White Star ceased to exist on December 31st 1949, and emerged as Cunard Steam Ship Co. Ltd. And so the only traces left of the once proud White Star Line were the Britannic and the Georgic, both in Cunard service, but still in White Star livery. The new decade continued to be a profitable one for the Cunard Line and their two Queens, and at first it seemed as if the next decade would be equally successful. But in 1952, the brand new United States, which took the Blue Riband from the Mary on her maiden voyage, gave them healthy competition. But that was equal competition.\nBy the end of the 1950s, the technology in air travel completely changed the situation. In 1954, one million people had crossed the Atlantic by sea and some 600,000 by air. When asked if this was worrying, a director of the Cunard Line responded 'Flying is but a fad. There will always be passengers to fill ships like the Queens'. But only three years later, the two ways of travel had one million passengers each and by 1961 the tables had turned completely with 750,000 going by ship and two million by plane. The world had evolved swiftly after the war, and with the demand of speed and economy, the airlines offered a crossing in a few hours that by sea took between three to five days, thereby making air the way to travel. As the situation worsened, the words of the confident Cunard director were proved wrong when on one crossing the Queen Elizabeth carried only 200 passengers and 1,200 crew. An intolerable situation indeed.\nIn 1965, the Cunard Line decided to build a new ship to replace the now thirty year-old Queen Mary. The new ship was at first planned to be one of traditional design and divided into three classes, but as this would have been financial suicide, Cunard decided to build a ship with almost no class distinction that would serve on the North Atlantic during the summer months and spend the off-season cruising in warmer waters. She would be the QE2. The Queen Elizabeth was dry docked and given a major refit. She was given a new lido deck and an outdoor swimming pool on the stern - all to make her capable of cruising. She was also fitted with complete air conditioning for the same reason. After the refit she began serving in her new role, as a combined transatlantic liner and cruise ship. But even in this guise she could not make profits. And in addition, the now ageing Queen Elizabeth was not suitable as a running mate to the new QE2. Therefore, Cunard Line revised their plans for the two old Queens. The Queen Mary would be retired in 1967, and her younger sister would stay in service for another year, while the new Queen Elizabeth 2 was being built.\nOn October 31st 1967, Queen Mary left Southampton on her 516th and last voyage. Sold to the city of Long Beach, California for $3,400,000, she would be turned into a dockside hotel. She arrived at her final port of call on December 9th, and was officially removed from the British registry and handed over to her new owners two days later. A year later, in October 1968, the time had come for the Queen Elizabeth to leave the Cunard fleet, when she left New York harbour dressed in flags. She had been sold for $7,750,000 for use as a floating hotel and museum in the Port Everglades, Florida. But as such she would never be used. As her new owners ran into financial difficulties, the Queen Elizabeth was not given enough attendance and started to suffer from the harsh climate. Two years later, when her owners could see no other way out, she was auctioned off to the highest bidder, namely the Taiwanese shipping tycoon C. Y. Tung. He wanted to turn her into a floating university that would tour the world but before he could do so, the ship had to be laid up in Florida to have her engines repaired, as they had been damaged when water had entered the deteriorating hull. Finally, she left Florida bound for Hong Kong, but during the voyage she had many problems with her machinery.\nOnce in Hong Kong, work started on turning her into a floating university. Renamed Seawise University, the old Queen Elizabeth was stripped down and then built back up. She was given new equipment in order to bring her up to modern safety standards, and her interior was given a new, more oriental look. Soon, she would set out on her maiden voyage in this new guise. On January 9th 1972, five mysterious fires broke out through the ship. The fire protection system was still not complete, and there was not much the workers could do to fight the raging blaze. The great superstructure eventually melted in the extreme heat and finally caved in on itself. Fireboats arrived at the scene and started pumping water onto the burning hulk, but as the water filled the vessel, she began listing over on her starboard side. As with the Normandie thirty years earlier, the sheer weight of the water had now spelled doom for the ship. As night fell over the now dying vessel, she was listing at a greater angle. By the next morning, she had rolled over and was now lying on her side on the bottom of the harbour. To salvage the devastated vessel would not be much use, and it was decided that she would be sold for scrap. But before that she would stand in the spotlights one last time.\nCourtesy Ian Coombe http://iancoombe.tripod.com/id32.html\nThis was taken in July 1972\nIn 1974, Queen Elizabeth briefly appeared in the James Bond-movie 'The Man with the Golden Gun', where she served as the secret Hong Kong headquarters of the MI6. Filmed in 1973, the Queen Elizabeth had already been removed from Hong Kong harbour by a Japanese scrap firm at the time of the film's premiere in late 1974. So ended the glorious days of the Queen Elizabeth, the largest passenger vessel for 57 years, not surpassed until the arrival of the Carnival cruise ship Destiny at 101,000 tons in 1997. She was also the ship on which my wife and I (Rodney Hall) honeymooned in 1966!\nLength: 1031Feet (314.9m)", "Fire breaks out on Queen Elizabeth - Jan 09, 1972 - HISTORY.com\nFire breaks out on Queen Elizabeth\nShare this:\nFire breaks out on Queen Elizabeth\nAuthor\nFire breaks out on Queen Elizabeth\nURL\nPublisher\nA+E Networks\nOn this day in 1972,, the ship Seawise University (formerly the RMS Queen Elizabeth) sinks in Hong Kong Harbor despite a massive firefighting effort over two days.\nThe Queen Elizabeth, named after the wife of King George VI, was launched on September 27, 1938; at the time, it was the largest passenger steamship ever constructed. When World War II began, the Queen Elizabeth was sent to New York to protect it from German bombs. There, it was docked next to the Normandie and the Queen Mary, the other two largest passenger ships of the time.\nLater, the Queen Elizabeth was called into service as a troop transport ship, carrying nearly 1 million soldiers during the war. Following the war, the ship returned to commercial service and became one of the dominant transatlantic carriers, hauling thousands of people back and forth between England and the United States. In 1968, the ship’s owner, the Cunard Steamship Company, sold the Queen Elizabeth to a company that sought to turn it into a tourist attraction and hotel in Philadelphia. However, the aging ship was deemed a fire hazard and two years later it was sold to Hong Kong businessman C.Y. Tung, who wanted to use the ship as a floating college. It was renamed Seawise University and sent to Hong Kong Harbor for refitting.\nOn January 8, fire broke out on the ship and virtually the entire Hong Kong firefighting force turned out to try to save it. Despite heroic efforts over two days, the old ship turned on its side and sank to the bottom of the harbor. Fortunately, no one was killed. Two years later, the wreck served as the backdrop for a key scene in The Man With the Golden Gun, a 1974 film starring Roger Moore as James Bond.\nFact Check We strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, contact us !\nGet This Day In History every morning in your inbox!", "Cruise ship Queen Elizabeth meets her docked predecessor Queen Mary in California | Daily Mail Online\ncomments\nTwo queens of the seas had a royal get together yesterday as Cunard's luxury cruise ship Queen Elizabeth sailed into California where one of her most famous predecessors, the grand old liner Queen Mary, is docked.\nFireworks lit up the sky above Long Beach harbour and foghorns were sounded as the state-of-the-art Queen Elizabeth past by the veteran Mary which is now a floating hotel, museum and conference centre.\nThe grand old dame Queen Mary, which launched in 1934, whisked passengers to-and-fro across the North Atlantic Ocean from 1936 right up until 1967, by which time the age of the airliner had begun.\nReunion: Luxury cruise ship Queen Elizabeth meets her docked  predecessor the famous liner Queen Mary for a family get together in Long Beach, California\nBuilt in Clydebank, Scotland, Queen Mary was the flagship of the Cunard Line for many years and held the Blue Riband for fastest Atlantic crossing from 1936 to 1937 and then from 1938 to 1952 when she was beaten by the new SS United States.\nRELATED ARTICLES\nShare this article\nShare\nFor three years after her maiden voyage, she was the grandest ocean liner in the world carrying Hollywood celebrities like Bob Hope and Clark Gable, royalty like the Duke and Duchess of Windsor, and dignitaries like Winston Churchill.\nDuring World War II she was converted into a troopship and carried American soldiers to the UK and brought them back home to New York in 1945.\nShe resumed passenger duties at the end of the war and was officially retired from service in 1967 when she set sail for the last time from Southampton to Long Beach.\nShe has now been restored to its former art deco glory, and guests can stay in one of 314 original staterooms and nine suites.\nGet together: Cunard Liner Queen Elizabeth sails past the Queen Mary into Long Beach Harbor, Los Angeles\nContrast: Once the undisputed Grand Dame of the North Atlantic the Queen Mary (left) is now a floating hotel and museum. The Elizabeth is a dedicated cruise ship capable of carrying up to 2,092 passengers\nWelcoming: Fireworks light up the sky above Long Beach harbour as the two great ships pass\nThe youngest Cunard Line ship, Queen Elizabeth, left, visits the Queen Mary, in Long Beach Harbor\nBy comparison The MS Queen Elizabeth is very much geared to cruises. Capable of carrying up to 2,092 passengers, she is the second largest ship to be constructed for Cunard.\nLaunched in 2010 she is 16-stories high and 964ft long and replaces the original Queen Elizabeth, which was destroyed in a fire in Hong Kong Harbour.\nThe £400million luxury liner was built in Italy, but its British owners said it would be used to pull in ‘dollars from American pockets’.\n1930's style decks\nCunard currently operates three liners since the retirement of QE2 in 2008 - Elizabeth, Victoria and Mary. They are fiercely proud of their royal connection and see themselves as the blue bloods of the cruising business, preferring to use the term 'voyage'.\nOn her way: The Queen Elizabeth, heads out of Long Beach Harbor after her brief visit yesterday. The Queen Mary, now permanently berthed, is a hotel and special events venue. The two ships exchanged whistle blows", "The Wreck of RMS Queen Elizabeth - Hong Kong Harbor - Page 2 of 2\nAgain, she became a movie star when she was featured as the hidden M16 headquarters for Eon Productions’ James Bond movie The Man With the Golden Gun starring Roger Moore, Christopher Lee and Britt Ekland.\nThe Man With the Golden Gun\n \nTo accommodate for the capsized liner’s continuous lean, the Secret Service apparently constructed new floors, ramps, staircases and bookshelves, making for excellent clashing wallpaper patterns, bizarrely distorted corridors,and staircases upon staircases.\nAfter lying in the harbor for two years, she was declared a shipping hazard and was dismantled. Parts of the ship that were not removed for scrap and remained on the seabed were the keel, boilers, and parts of the hull which caused the surrounding area to be declared “Foul” to warn other ships not to drop anchor.\n1973-05-005 “Seawise University” Photographed in Hong Kong in 1973 Photo Credit\n \n1972: The wreck of Seawise University, the former Queen Elizabeth.\nTung rescued an anchor and the letters Q and E from the ship’s nameplate and had them placed in front of the office building at Del Amo Fashion Center in Torrance, California. The Aberdeen Boat Club in Hong Kong also claimed two of the ship’s fire warning plaques and put them on display.\nThe Parker Pen Company offered a highly collectible special edition of 5,000 pens made from material recovered from the wreck that were sold in special presentation boxes.\nSeawise University/RMS Queen Elizabeth wreck Photo Credit\n1973-05-005 “Seawise University” Photographed in Hong Kong in 1973 Photo Credit", "History News - The Queen Elizabeth, Is Destryed By Fire\nYour are here : => Breaking News\nThe Queen Elizabeth, is Destryed by Fire\nSunday, January 9, 1972. :�� Former ocean liner, the Queen Elizabeth, is destroyed by fire in Hong Kong harbour.\n�\nThe ship was named after Queen Elizabeth, wife of King George VI of the UK and queen consort at the time it was built. It was launched in Scotland on 27 September 1938, and initially used as a transport vehicle during World War II. In 1946, the ship left Southampton, England, on its first run across the Atlantic as a luxurious ocean liner.\n�\nIt was retired from service in 1968. Queen Elizabeth was the largest passenger steamship ever constructed and held the record for the largest passenger ship of any kind until being surpassed in 1996 by the Carnival Destiny.\n�\nIn 1968, the Queen Elizabeth was sold to a group of US businessmen who planned to develop the ship into a hotel and tourist attraction.\n�\nGenerating huge debts and forced to close after being declared a fire hazard, it was sold in 1970 to C W Tung, a Taiwanese shipping tycoon, who intended to transform it into a mobile, floating university. Renamed the Seawise University, the ship was destroyed by fire on 9 January 1972, in Hong Kong harbour.\n�" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Dog.txt" ], "title": [ "Dog" ], "wiki_context": [ "The domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris or Canis familiaris) is a domesticated canid which has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviours, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes.\n\nAlthough initially thought to have originated as an artificial variant of an extant canid species (variously supposed as being the dhole, golden jackal, or gray wolf ), extensive genetic studies undertaken during the 2010s indicate that dogs diverged from an extinct wolf-like canid in Eurasia 40,000 years ago. Being the oldest domesticated animal, their long association with people has allowed dogs to be uniquely attuned to human behavior, as well as thrive on a starch-rich diet which would be inadequate for other canid species.\n\nDogs perform many roles for people, such as hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection, assisting police and military, companionship and, more recently, aiding handicapped individuals. This influence on human society has given them the sobriquet, \"man's best friend\".\n\nEtymology\n\nThe term \"domestic dog\" is generally used for both domesticated and feral varieties. The English word dog comes from Middle English dogge, from Old English docga, a \"powerful dog breed\". The term may possibly derive from Proto-Germanic *dukkōn, represented in Old English finger-docce (\"finger-muscle\"). The word also shows the familiar petname diminutive -ga also seen in frogga \"frog\", picga \"pig\", stagga \"stag\", wicga \"beetle, worm\", among others. The term dog may ultimately derive from the earliest layer of Proto-Indo-European vocabulary. \n\nIn 14th-century England, hound (from ) was the general word for all domestic canines, and dog referred to a subtype of hound, a group including the mastiff. It is believed this \"dog\" type was so common, it eventually became the prototype of the category \"hound\". By the 16th century, dog had become the general word, and hound had begun to refer only to types used for hunting. The word \"hound\" is ultimately derived from the Proto-Indo-European word *kwon- \"dog\". \n\nA male canine is referred to as a dog, while a female is called a bitch. The father of a litter is called the sire, and the mother is called the dam. (Middle English bicche, from Old English bicce, ultimately from Old Norse bikkja) The process of birth is whelping, from the Old English word hwelp. A litter refers to the multiple offspring at one birth which are called puppies or pups from the French poupée. \n\nTaxonomy\n\nThe dog is classified as Canis lupus familiaris under the Biological Species Concept and Canis familiaris under the Evolutionary Species Concept.Wang, Xiaoming; Tedford, Richard H.; Dogs: Their Fossil Relatives and Evolutionary History. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008\n\nIn 1758, the taxonomist Linnaeus published in Systema Naturae a categorization of species which included the Canis species. Canis is a Latin word meaning dog, and the list included the dog-like carnivores: the domestic dog, wolves, foxes and jackals. The dog was classified as Canis familiaris, which means \"Dog-family\" or the family dog. On the next page he recorded the wolf as Canis lupus, which means \"Dog-wolf\". In 1978, a review aimed at reducing the number of recognized Canis species proposed that \"Canis dingo is now generally regarded as a distinctive feral domestic dog. Canis familiaris is used for domestic dogs, although taxonomically it should probably be synonymous with Canis lupus.\" In 1982, the first edition of Mammal Species of the World listed Canis familiaris under Canis lupus with the comment: \"Probably ancestor of and conspecific with the domestic dog, familiaris. Canis familiaris has page priority over Canis lupus, but both were published simultaneously in Linnaeus (1758), and Canis lupus has been universally used for this species\", which avoided classifying the wolf as the family dog. The dog is now listed among the many other Latin-named subspecies of Canis lupus as Canis lupus familiaris.\n\nIn 2003, the ICZN ruled in its Opinion 2027 that if wild animals and their domesticated derivatives are regarded as one species, then the scientific name of that species is the scientific name of the wild animal. In 2005, the third edition of Mammal Species of the World upheld Opinion 2027 with the name Lupus and the note: \"Includes the domestic dog as a subspecies, with the dingo provisionally separate - artificial variants created by domestication and selective breeding\". However, Canis familiaris is sometimes used due to an ongoing nomenclature debate because wild and domestic animals are separately recognizable entities and that the ICZN allowed users a choice as to which name they could use, and a number of internationally recognized researchers prefer to use Canis familiaris. \n\nLater genetic studies strongly supported dogs and gray wolves forming two sister monophyletic clades within the one species, and that the common ancestor of dogs and extant wolves is extinct.\n\nOrigin\n\nThe origin of the domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris or Canis familiaris) is not clear. Whole genome sequencing indicates that the dog, the gray wolf and the extinct Taymyr wolf diverged at around the same time 27,000–40,000 years ago. These dates imply that the earliest dogs arose in the time of human hunter-gatherers and not agriculturists. Modern dogs are more closely related to ancient wolf fossils that have been found in Europe than they are to modern gray wolves. Nearly all dog breeds' genetic closeness to the gray wolf are due to admixture, except several Arctic dog breeds are close to the Taimyr wolf of North Asia due to admixture.\n\nBiology\n\nAnatomy\n\nDomestic dogs have been selectively bred for millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes. Modern dog breeds show more variation in size, appearance, and behavior than any other domestic animal. Dogs are predators and scavengers, and like many other predatory mammals, the dog has powerful muscles, fused wrist bones, a cardiovascular system that supports both sprinting and endurance, and teeth for catching and tearing.\n\nSize and weight\n\nDogs are highly variable in height and weight. The smallest known adult dog was a Yorkshire Terrier, that stood only at the shoulder, in length along the head-and-body, and weighed only 113 g. The largest known dog was an English Mastiff which weighed and was 250 cm from the snout to the tail. The tallest dog is a Great Dane that stands at the shoulder. \n\nSenses\n\nThe dog's senses include vision, hearing, sense of smell, sense of taste, touch and sensitivity to the earth's magnetic field.\n\nSee further: Dog anatomy-senses\n\nCoat\n\nThe coats of domestic dogs are of two varieties: \"double\" being common with dogs (as well as wolves) originating from colder climates, made up of a coarse guard hair and a soft down hair, or \"single\", with the topcoat only.\n\nDomestic dogs often display the remnants of countershading, a common natural camouflage pattern. A countershaded animal will have dark coloring on its upper surfaces and light coloring below, which reduces its general visibility. Thus, many breeds will have an occasional \"blaze\", stripe, or \"star\" of white fur on their chest or underside. \n\nTail\n\nThere are many different shapes for dog tails: straight, straight up, sickle, curled, or cork-screw. As with many canids, one of the primary functions of a dog's tail is to communicate their emotional state, which can be important in getting along with others. In some hunting dogs, however, the tail is traditionally docked to avoid injuries. In some breeds, such as the Braque du Bourbonnais, puppies can be born with a short tail or no tail at all. \n\nHealth\n\nThere are many household plants that are poisonous to dogs including begonia, Poinsettia and aloe vera. \n\nSome breeds of dogs are prone to certain genetic ailments such as elbow and hip dysplasia, blindness, deafness, pulmonic stenosis, cleft palate, and trick knees. Two serious medical conditions particularly affecting dogs are pyometra, affecting unspayed females of all types and ages, and bloat, which affects the larger breeds or deep-chested dogs. Both of these are acute conditions, and can kill rapidly. Dogs are also susceptible to parasites such as fleas, ticks, and mites, as well as hookworms, tapeworms, roundworms, and heartworms.\n\nA number of common human foods and household ingestibles are toxic to dogs, including chocolate solids (theobromine poisoning), onion and garlic (thiosulphate, sulfoxide or disulfide poisoning), grapes and raisins, macadamia nuts, xylitol, as well as various plants and other potentially ingested materials. The nicotine in tobacco can also be dangerous. Dogs can get it by scavenging in garbage or ashtrays; eating cigars and cigarettes. Signs can be vomiting of large amounts (e.g., from eating cigar butts) or diarrhea. Some other signs are abdominal pain, loss of coordination, collapse, or death. Dogs are highly susceptible to theobromine poisoning, typically from ingestion of chocolate. Theobromine is toxic to dogs because, although the dog's metabolism is capable of breaking down the chemical, the process is so slow that even small amounts of chocolate can be fatal, especially dark chocolate.\n\nDogs are also vulnerable to some of the same health conditions as humans, including diabetes, dental and heart disease, epilepsy, cancer, hypothyroidism, and arthritis. \n\nLifespan\n\nIn 2013, a study found that mixed breeds live on average 1.2 years longer than pure breeds, and that increasing body-weight was negatively correlated with longevity (i.e. the heavier the dog the shorter its lifespan). \n\nThe typical lifespan of dogs varies widely among breeds, but for most the median longevity, the age at which half the dogs in a population have died and half are still alive, ranges from 10 to 13 years. Individual dogs may live well beyond the median of their breed.\n\nThe breed with the shortest lifespan (among breeds for which there is a questionnaire survey with a reasonable sample size) is the Dogue de Bordeaux, with a median longevity of about 5.2 years, but several breeds, including Miniature Bull Terriers, Bloodhounds, and Irish Wolfhounds are nearly as short-lived, with median longevities of 6 to 7 years.\n\nThe longest-lived breeds, including Toy Poodles, Japanese Spitz, Border Terriers, and Tibetan Spaniels, have median longevities of 14 to 15 years. The median longevity of mixed-breed dogs, taken as an average of all sizes, is one or more years longer than that of purebred dogs when all breeds are averaged. The dog widely reported to be the longest-lived is \"Bluey\", who died in 1939 and was claimed to be 29.5 years old at the time of his death. On 5 December 2011, Pusuke, the world's oldest living dog recognized by Guinness Book of World Records, died aged 26 years and 9 months. \n\nReproduction\n\nIn domestic dogs, sexual maturity begins to happen around age six to twelve months for both males and females, although this can be delayed until up to two years old for some large breeds. This is the time at which female dogs will have their first estrous cycle. They will experience subsequent estrous cycles biannually, during which the body prepares for pregnancy. At the peak of the cycle, females will come into estrus, being mentally and physically receptive to copulation. Because the ova survive and are capable of being fertilized for a week after ovulation, it is possible for a female to mate with more than one male.\n\n2–5 days after conception fertilization occurs, 14–16 days later the embryo attaches to the uterus and after 22–23 days the heart beat is detectable. \n\nDogs bear their litters roughly 58 to 68 days after fertilization, with an average of 63 days, although the length of gestation can vary. An average litter consists of about six puppies, though this number may vary widely based on the breed of dog. In general, toy dogs produce from one to four puppies in each litter, while much larger breeds may average as many as twelve.\n\nSome dog breeds have acquired traits through selective breeding that interfere with reproduction. Male French Bulldogs, for instance, are incapable of mounting the female. For many dogs of this breed, the female must be artificially inseminated in order to reproduce. \n\nNeutering\n\nNeutering refers to the sterilization of animals, usually by removal of the male's testicles or the female's ovaries and uterus, in order to eliminate the ability to procreate and reduce sex drive. Because of the overpopulation of dogs in some countries, many animal control agencies, such as the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), advise that dogs not intended for further breeding should be neutered, so that they do not have undesired puppies that may have to later be euthanized. \n\nAccording to the Humane Society of the United States, 3–4 million dogs and cats are put down each year in the United States and many more are confined to cages in shelters because there are many more animals than there are homes. Spaying or castrating dogs helps keep overpopulation down. Local humane societies, SPCAs, and other animal protection organizations urge people to neuter their pets and to adopt animals from shelters instead of purchasing them.\n\nNeutering reduces problems caused by hypersexuality, especially in male dogs. Spayed female dogs are less likely to develop some forms of cancer, affecting mammary glands, ovaries, and other reproductive organs. However, neutering increases the risk of urinary incontinence in female dogs, and prostate cancer in males, as well as osteosarcoma, hemangiosarcoma, cruciate ligament rupture, obesity, and diabetes mellitus in either sex. \n\nInbreeding depression\n\nA common breeding practice for pet dogs is mating between close relatives (e.g. between half- and full siblings). In a study of seven different French breeds of dogs (Bernese mountain dog, basset hound, Cairn terrier, Epagneul Breton, German Shepard dog, Leonberger, and West Highland white terrier) it was found that inbreeding decreases litter size and survival . Another analysis of data on 42,855 dachshund litters, found that as the inbreeding coefficient increased, litter size decreased and the percentage of stillborn puppies increased, thus indicating inbreeding depression. \n\nAbout 22% of boxer puppies die before reaching 7 weeks of age. Stillbirth is the most frequent cause of death, followed by infection. Mortality due to infection was found to increase significantly with increases in inbreeding. Inbreeding depression is considered to be due largely to the expression of homozygous deleterious recessive mutations. Outcrossing between unrelated individuals, including dogs of different breeds, results in the beneficial masking of deleterious recessive mutations in progeny. \n\nIntelligence, behavior and communication\n\nIntelligence\n\nDog intelligence is the ability of the dog to perceive information and retain it as knowledge for applying to solve problems. Dogs have been shown to learn by inference. A study with Rico showed that he knew the labels of over 200 different items. He inferred the names of novel items by exclusion learning and correctly retrieved those novel items immediately and also 4 weeks after the initial exposure. Dogs have advanced memory skills. A study documented the learning and memory capabilities of a border collie, \"Chaser\", who had learned the names and could associate by verbal command over 1,000 words. Dogs are able to read and react appropriately to human body language such as gesturing and pointing, and to understand human voice commands. Dogs demonstrate a theory of mind by engaging in deception. A study showed compelling evidence that Australian dingos can outperform domestic dogs in non-social problem-solving experiment, indicating that domestic dogs may have lost much of their original problem-solving abilities once they joined humans. Another study indicated that after undergoing training to solve a simple manipulation task, dogs that are faced with an insoluble version of the same problem look at the human, while socialized wolves do not. Modern domestic dogs use humans to solve their problems for them. \n\nBehavior\n\nDog behavior is the internally coordinated responses (actions or inactions) of the domestic dog (individuals or groups) to internal and/or external stimuli. As the oldest domesticated species, with estimates ranging from 9,000–30,000 years BCE, the minds of dogs inevitably have been shaped by millennia of contact with humans. As a result of this physical and social evolution, dogs, more than any other species, have acquired the ability to understand and communicate with humans and they are uniquely attuned to our behaviors. Behavioral scientists have uncovered a surprising set of social-cognitive abilities in the otherwise humble domestic dog. These abilities are not possessed by the dog's closest canine\nrelatives nor by other highly intelligent mammals such as great apes. Rather, these skills parallel some of the social-cognitive skills of human children.\n\nCommunication\n\nDog communication is about how dogs \"speak\" to each other, how they understand messages that humans send to them, and how humans can translate the ideas that dogs are trying to transmit. These communication behaviors include eye gaze, facial expression, vocalization, body posture (including movements of bodies and limbs) and gustatory communication (scents, pheromones and taste). Humans communicate with dogs by using vocalization, hand signals and body posture.\n\nCompared to wolves\n\nPhysical characteristics\n\nDespite their close genetic relationship and the ability to inter-breed, there are a number of diagnostic features to distinguish the gray wolves from domestic dogs. Domesticated dogs are clearly distinguishable from wolves by starch gel electrophoresis of red blood cell acid phosphatase. The tympanic bullae are large, convex and almost spherical in gray wolves, while the bullae of dogs are smaller, compressed and slightly crumpled. Compared to equally sized wolves, dogs tend to have 20% smaller skulls and 30% smaller brains. The teeth of gray wolves are also proportionately larger than those of dogs. Compared to wolves, dogs have a more domed forehead. The temporalis muscle that closes the jaws is more robust in wolves. Wolves do not have dewclaws on their back legs, unless there has been admixture with dogs that had them. Dogs lack a functioning pre-caudal gland, and most enter estrus twice yearly, unlike gray wolves which only do so once a year. Dogs require fewer calories to function than wolves. The dog's limp ears may be the result of atrophy of the jaw muscles. The skin of domestic dogs tends to be thicker than that of wolves, with some Inuit tribes favoring the former for use as clothing due to its greater resistance to wear and tear in harsh weather. The paws of a dog are half the size of those of a wolf, and their tails tend to curl upwards, another trait not found in wolves The dog has developed into hundreds of varied breeds, and shows more behavioral and morphological variation than any other land mammal. For example, height measured to the withers ranges from a 6 in in the Chihuahua to in the Irish Wolfhound; color varies from white through grays (usually called \"blue\") to black, and browns from light (tan) to dark (\"red\" or \"chocolate\") in a wide variation of patterns; coats can be short or long, coarse-haired to wool-like, straight, curly, or smooth. It is common for most breeds to shed their coat.\n\nBehavioral differences\n\nSee also Behavior compared to other canids.\n\nUnlike other domestic species which were primarily selected for production-related traits, dogs were initially selected for their behaviors. In 2016, a study found that there were only 11 fixed genes that showed variation between wolves and dogs. These gene variations were unlikely to have been the result of natural evolution, and indicate selection on both morphology and behavior during dog domestication. These genes have been shown affect the catecholamine synthesis pathway, with the majority of the genes affecting the fight-or-flight response (i.e. selection for tameness), and emotional processing. Dogs generally show reduced fear and aggression compared to wolves. Some of these genes have been associated with aggression in some dog breeds, indicating their importance in both the initial domestication and then later in breed formation.\n\nEcology\n\nPopulation and habitat\n\nThe global dog population is estimated at 900 million and rising. Although it is said that the \"dog is man's best friend\" regarding 17–24% of dogs in developed countries, in the developing world they are feral, village or community dogs, with pet dogs uncommon. These live their lives as scavengers and have never been owned by humans, with one study showing their most common response when approached by strangers was to run away (52%) or respond with aggression (11%). We know little about these dogs, nor about the dogs that live in developed countries that are feral, stray or are in shelters, yet the great majority of modern research on dog cognition has focused on pet dogs living in human homes. \n\nCompetitors\n\nBeing the most abundant carnivore, feral and free-ranging dogs have the greatest potential to compete with wolves. A review of the studies in the competitive effects of dogs on sympatric carnivores did not mention any research on competition between dogs and wolves. Competition would favor the wolf that is known to kill dogs, however wolves tend to live in pairs or in small packs in areas where they are highly persecuted, giving them a disadvantage facing large dog groups.\n\nWolves kill dogs wherever the two canids occur. One survey claims that in Wisconsin in 1999 more compensation had been paid for dog losses than livestock, however in Wisconsin wolves will often kill hunting dogs, perhaps because they are in the wolf's territory. Some wolf pairs have been reported to prey on dogs by having one wolf lure the dog out into heavy brush where the second animal waits in ambush. In some instances, wolves have displayed an uncharacteristic fearlessness of humans and buildings when attacking dogs, to the extent that they have to be beaten off or killed. Although the numbers of dogs killed each year are relatively low, it induces a fear of wolves entering villages and farmyards to take dogs. In many cultures, there are strong social and emotional bonds between humans and their dogs that can be seen as family members or working team members. The loss of a dog can lead to strong emotional responses with demands for more liberal wolf hunting regulations.\n\nCoyotes and big cats have also been known to attack dogs. Leopards in particular are known to have a predilection for dogs, and have been recorded to kill and consume them regardless of the dog's size or ferocity. Tigers in Manchuria, Indochina, Indonesia, and Malaysia are reputed to kill dogs with the same vigor as leopards. Striped hyenas are major predators of village dogs in Turkmenistan, India, and the Caucasus. \n\nDiet\n\nDespite their descent from wolves and classification as Carnivora, dogs are variously described in scholarly and other writings as carnivores or omnivores. Unlike obligate carnivores, dogs can adapt to a wide-ranging diet, and are not dependent on meat-specific protein nor a very high level of protein in order to fulfill their basic dietary requirements. Dogs will healthily digest a variety of foods, including vegetables and grains, and can consume a large proportion of these in their diet, however all-meat diets are not recommended for dogs due to their lack of calcium and iron. Comparing dogs and wolves, dogs have adaptations in genes involved in starch digestion that contribute to an increased ability to thrive on a starch-rich diet.\n\nBreeds\n\nMost breeds of dog are at most a few hundred years old, having been artificially selected for particular morphologies and behaviors by people for specific functional roles. Through this selective breeding, the dog has developed into hundreds of varied breeds, and shows more behavioral and morphological variation than any other land mammal. For example, height measured to the withers ranges from in the Chihuahua to about 76 cm in the Irish Wolfhound; color varies from white through grays (usually called \"blue\") to black, and browns from light (tan) to dark (\"red\" or \"chocolate\") in a wide variation of patterns; coats can be short or long, coarse-haired to wool-like, straight, curly, or smooth. It is common for most breeds to shed this coat.\n\nWhile all dogs are genetically very similar, natural selection and selective breeding have reinforced certain characteristics in certain populations of dogs, giving rise to dog types and dog breeds. Dog types are broad categories based on function, genetics, or characteristics. \nDog breeds are groups of animals that possess a set of inherited characteristics that distinguishes them from other animals within the same species. Modern dog breeds are non-scientific classifications of dogs kept by modern kennel clubs.\n\nPurebred dogs of one breed are genetically distinguishable from purebred dogs of other breeds, but the means by which kennel clubs classify dogs is unsystematic. DNA microsatellite analyses of 85 dog breeds showed they fell into four major types of dogs that were statistically distinct. These include the \"old world dogs\" (e.g., Malamute and Shar Pei), \"Mastiff\"-type (e.g., English Mastiff), \"herding\"-type (e.g., Border Collie), and \"all others\" (also called \"modern\"- or \"hunting\"-type). \n\nRoles with humans\n\nDomestic dogs inherited complex behaviors, such as bite inhibition, from their wolf ancestors, which would have been pack hunters with complex body language. These sophisticated forms of social cognition and communication may account for their trainability, playfulness, and ability to fit into human households and social situations, and these attributes have given dogs a relationship with humans that has enabled them to become one of the most successful species on the planet today. \n\nThe dogs' value to early human hunter-gatherers led to them quickly becoming ubiquitous across world cultures. Dogs perform many roles for people, such as hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection, assisting police and military, companionship, and, more recently, aiding handicapped individuals. This influence on human society has given them the nickname \"man's best friend\" in the Western world. In some cultures, however, dogs are also a source of meat.\n\nEarly roles\n\nWolves, and their dog descendants, would have derived significant benefits from living in human camps—more safety, more reliable food, lesser caloric needs, and more chance to breed. They would have benefited from humans' upright gait that gives them larger range over which to see potential predators and prey, as well as color vision that, at least by day, gives humans better visual discrimination. Camp dogs would also have benefited from human tool use, as in bringing down larger prey and controlling fire for a range of purposes.\nThe dogs of Thibet are twice the size of those seen in India, with large heads and hairy bodies. They are powerful animals, and are said to be able to kill a tiger. During the day they are kept chained up, and are let loose at night to guard their masters' house. \nHumans would also have derived enormous benefit from the dogs associated with their camps. For instance, dogs would have improved sanitation by cleaning up food scraps. Dogs may have provided warmth, as referred to in the Australian Aboriginal expression \"three dog night\" (an exceptionally cold night), and they would have alerted the camp to the presence of predators or strangers, using their acute hearing to provide an early warning.\n\nAnthropologists believe the most significant benefit would have been the use of dogs' robust sense of smell to assist with the hunt. The relationship between the presence of a dog and success in the hunt is often mentioned as a primary reason for the domestication of the wolf, and a 2004 study of hunter groups with and without a dog gives quantitative support to the hypothesis that the benefits of cooperative hunting was an important factor in wolf domestication. \n\nThe cohabitation of dogs and humans would have greatly improved the chances of survival for early human groups, and the domestication of dogs may have been one of the key forces that led to human success. \n\nEmigrants from Siberia that walked across the Bering land bridge into North America may have had dogs in their company, and one writer suggests that the use of sled dogs may have been critical to the success of the waves that entered North America roughly 12,000 years ago, although the earliest archaeological evidence of dog-like canids in North America dates from about 9,400 years ago. Dogs were an important part of life for the Athabascan population in North America, and were their only domesticated animal. Dogs also carried much of the load in the migration of the Apache and Navajo tribes 1,400 years ago. Use of dogs as pack animals in these cultures often persisted after the introduction of the horse to North America. \n\nAs pets\n\nIt is estimated that three-quarters of the world's dog population lives in the developing world as feral, village, or community dogs, with pet dogs uncommon.\n\n\"The most widespread form of interspecies bonding occurs between humans and dogs\" and the keeping of dogs as companions, particularly by elites, has a long history. (As a possible example, at the Natufian culture site of Ain Mallaha in Israel, dated to 12,000 BC, the remains of an elderly human and a four-to-five-month-old puppy were found buried together). However, pet dog populations grew significantly after World War II as suburbanization increased. In the 1950s and 1960s, dogs were kept outside more often than they tend to be today (using the expression \"in the doghouse\" to describe exclusion from the group signifies the distance between the doghouse and the home) and were still primarily functional, acting as a guard, children's playmate, or walking companion. From the 1980s, there have been changes in the role of the pet dog, such as the increased role of dogs in the emotional support of their human guardians. People and dogs have become increasingly integrated and implicated in each other's lives, to the point where pet dogs actively shape the way a family and home are experienced. \n\nThere have been two major trends in the changing status of pet dogs. The first has been the 'commodification' of the dog, shaping it to conform to human expectations of personality and behaviour. The second has been the broadening of the concept of the family and the home to include dogs-as-dogs within everyday routines and practices.\n\nThere are a vast range of commodity forms available to transform a pet dog into an ideal companion. The list of goods, services and places available is enormous: from dog perfumes, couture, furniture and housing, to dog groomers, therapists, trainers and caretakers, dog cafes, spas, parks and beaches, and dog hotels, airlines and cemeteries. While dog training as an organized activity can be traced back to the 18th century, in the last decades of the 20th century it became a high profile issue as many normal dog behaviors such as barking, jumping up, digging, rolling in dung, fighting, and urine marking (which dogs do to establish territory through scent), became increasingly incompatible with the new role of a pet dog. Dog training books, classes and television programs proliferated as the process of commodifying the pet dog continued. \n\nThe majority of contemporary people with dogs describe their pet as part of the family, although some ambivalence about the relationship is evident in the popular reconceptualization of the dog–human family as a pack. A dominance model of dog–human relationships has been promoted by some dog trainers, such as on the television program Dog Whisperer. However it has been disputed that \"trying to achieve status\" is characteristic of dog–human interactions. Pet dogs play an active role in family life; for example, a study of conversations in dog–human families showed how family members use the dog as a resource, talking to the dog, or talking through the dog, to mediate their interactions with each other. \n\nIncreasingly, human family members are engaging in activities centered on the perceived needs and interests of the dog, or in which the dog is an integral partner, such as dog dancing and dog yoga.\n\nAccording to statistics published by the American Pet Products Manufacturers Association in the National Pet Owner Survey in 2009–2010, it is estimated there are 77.5 million people with pet dogs in the United States. The same survey shows nearly 40% of American households own at least one dog, of which 67% own just one dog, 25% two dogs and nearly 9% more than two dogs. There does not seem to be any gender preference among dogs as pets, as the statistical data reveal an equal number of female and male dog pets. Yet, although several programs are ongoing to promote pet adoption, less than a fifth of the owned dogs come from a shelter.\n\nThe latest study using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) comparing humans and dogs showed that dogs have same response to voices and use the same parts of the brain as humans do. This gives dogs the ability to recognize emotional human sounds, making them friendly social pets to humans. \n\nWork\n\nDogs have lived and worked with humans in so many roles that they have earned the unique nickname, \"man's best friend\", a phrase used in other languages as well. They have been bred for herding livestock, hunting (e.g. pointers and hounds), rodent control, guarding, helping fishermen with nets, detection dogs, and pulling loads, in addition to their roles as companions. In 1957, a husky-terrier mix named Laika became the first animal to orbit the Earth. \n\nService dogs such as guide dogs, utility dogs, assistance dogs, hearing dogs, and psychological therapy dogs provide assistance to individuals with physical or mental disabilities. Some dogs owned by epileptics have been shown to alert their handler when the handler shows signs of an impending seizure, sometimes well in advance of onset, allowing the guardian to seek safety, medication, or medical care. \n\nDogs included in human activities in terms of helping out humans are usually called working dogs.\n\nSports and shows\n\nPeople often enter their dogs in competitions such as breed-conformation shows or sports, including racing, sledding and agility competitions.\n\nIn conformation shows, also referred to as breed shows, a judge familiar with the specific dog breed evaluates individual purebred dogs for conformity with their established breed type as described in the breed standard. As the breed standard only deals with the externally observable qualities of the dog (such as appearance, movement, and temperament), separately tested qualities (such as ability or health) are not part of the judging in conformation shows.\n\nAs food\n\nIn China and South Vietnam dogs are a source of meat for humans. Dog meat is consumed in some East Asiann countries, including Korea, China, and Vietnam, a practice that dates back to antiquity. It is estimated that 13–16 million dogs are killed and consumed in Asia every year. Other cultures, such as Polynesia and pre-Columbian Mexico, also consumed dog meat in their history. However, Western, South Asian, African, and Middle Eastern cultures, in general, regard consumption of dog meat as taboo. In some places, however, such as in rural areas of Poland, dog fat is believed to have medicinal properties—being good for the lungs for instance. Dog meat is also consumed in some parts of Switzerland. Proponents of eating dog meat have argued that placing a distinction between livestock and dogs is western hypocrisy, and that there is no difference with eating the meat of different animals. \n\nIn Korea, the primary dog breed raised for meat, the nureongi (누렁이), differs from those breeds raised for pets that Koreans may keep in their homes. \n\nThe most popular Korean dog dish is gaejang-guk (also called bosintang), a spicy stew meant to balance the body's heat during the summer months; followers of the custom claim this is done to ensure good health by balancing one's gi, or vital energy of the body. A 19th century version of gaejang-guk explains that the dish is prepared by boiling dog meat with scallions and chili powder. Variations of the dish contain chicken and bamboo shoots. While the dishes are still popular in Korea with a segment of the population, dog is not as widely consumed as beef, chicken, and pork.\n\nHealth risks to humans\n\nIn 2005, the WHO reported that 55,000 people died in Asia and Africa from rabies, a disease for which dogs are the most important vector. \n\nCiting a 2008 study, the U.S. Center for Disease Control estimated in 2015 that 4.5 million people in the USA are bitten by dogs each year. A 2015 study estimated that 1.8% of the U.S. population is bitten each year. In the 1980s and 1990s the US averaged 17 fatalities per year, while in the 2000s this has increased to 26. 77% of dog bites are from the pet of family or friends, and 50% of attacks occur on the property of the dog's legal owner.\n\nA Colorado study found bites in children were less severe than bites in adults. The incidence of dog bites in the US is 12.9 per 10,000 inhabitants, but for boys aged 5 to 9, the incidence rate is 60.7 per 10,000. Moreover, children have a much higher chance to be bitten in the face or neck. Sharp claws with powerful muscles behind them can lacerate flesh in a scratch that can lead to serious infections. \n\nIn the UK between 2003 and 2004, there were 5,868 dog attacks on humans, resulting in 5,770 working days lost in sick leave. \n\nIn the United States, cats and dogs are a factor in more than 86,000 falls each year. It has been estimated around 2% of dog-related injuries treated in UK hospitals are domestic accidents. The same study found that while dog involvement in road traffic accidents was difficult to quantify, dog-associated road accidents involving injury more commonly involved two-wheeled vehicles. \n\nToxocara canis (dog roundworm) eggs in dog feces can cause toxocariasis. In the United States, about 10,000 cases of Toxocara infection are reported in humans each year, and almost 14% of the U.S. population is infected. In Great Britain, 24% of soil samples taken from public parks contained T. canis eggs. Untreated toxocariasis can cause retinal damage and decreased vision. Dog feces can also contain hookworms that cause cutaneous larva migrans in humans. \n\nHealth benefits for humans\n\nThe scientific evidence is mixed as to whether companionship of a dog can enhance human physical health and psychological wellbeing. Studies suggesting that there are benefits to physical health and psychological wellbeing have been criticised for being poorly controlled, and finding that \"[t]he health of elderly people is related to their health habits and social supports but not to their ownership of, or attachment to, a companion animal.\" Earlier studies have shown that people who keep pet dogs or cats exhibit better mental and physical health than those who do not, making fewer visits to the doctor and being less likely to be on medication than non-guardians. \n\nA 2005 paper states \"recent research has failed to support earlier findings that pet ownership is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, a reduced use of general practitioner services, or any psychological or physical benefits on health for community dwelling older people. Research has, however, pointed to significantly less absenteeism from school through sickness among children who live with pets.\" In one study, new guardians reported a highly significant reduction in minor health problems during the first month following pet acquisition, and this effect was sustained in those with dogs through to the end of the study. \n\nIn addition, people with pet dogs took considerably more physical exercise than those with cats and those without pets. The results provide evidence that keeping pets may have positive effects on human health and behaviour, and that for guardians of dogs these effects are relatively long-term. Pet guardianship has also been associated with increased coronary artery disease survival, with human guardians being significantly less likely to die within one year of an acute myocardial infarction than those who did not own dogs. \n\nThe health benefits of dogs can result from contact with dogs in general, and not solely from having dogs as pets. For example, when in the presence of a pet dog, people show reductions in cardiovascular, behavioral, and psychological indicators of anxiety. Other health benefits are gained from exposure to immune-stimulating microorganisms, which, according to the hygiene hypothesis, can protect against allergies and autoimmune diseases. The benefits of contact with a dog also include social support, as dogs are able to not only provide companionship and social support themselves, but also to act as facilitators of social interactions between humans. One study indicated that wheelchair users experience more positive social interactions with strangers when they are accompanied by a dog than when they are not. In 2015, a study found that pet owners were significantly more likely to get to know people in their neighborhood than non-pet owners. \n\nThe practice of using dogs and other animals as a part of therapy dates back to the late 18th century, when animals were introduced into mental institutions to help socialize patients with mental disorders. Animal-assisted intervention research has shown that animal-assisted therapy with a dog can increase social behaviors, such as smiling and laughing, among people with Alzheimer's disease. One study demonstrated that children with ADHD and conduct disorders who participated in an education program with dogs and other animals showed increased attendance, increased knowledge and skill objectives, and decreased antisocial and violent behavior compared to those who were not in an animal-assisted program. \n\nMedical detection dogs\n\nMedical detection dogs are capable of detecting diseases by sniffing a person directly or samples of urine or other specimens. Dogs can detect odour in one part per trillion, as their brain's olfactory cortex is (relative to total brain size) 40 times larger than humans. Dogs may have as many as 300 million odour receptors in their nose, while humans may have only 5 million. Each dog is trained specifically for the detection of single disease from the blood glucose level indicative to diabetes to cancer. To train a cancer dog requires 6 months. A Labrador Retriever called Daisy has detected 551 cancer patients with an accuracy of 93 percent and received the Blue Cross (for pets) Medal for her life-saving skills. \n\nShelters\n\nEvery year, between 6 and 8 million dogs and cats enter US animal shelters. The Humane Society of the United States (HSUS) estimates that approximately 3 to 4 million of those dogs and cats are euthanized yearly in the United States. However, the percentage of dogs in US animal shelters that are eventually adopted and removed from the shelters by their new legal owners has increased since the mid-1990s from around 25% to a 2012 average of 40% among reporting shelters (with many shelters reporting 60–75%). \n\nCultural depictions\n\nDogs have been viewed and represented in different manners by different cultures and religions, over the course of history.\n\nMythology\n\nIn mythology, dogs often serve as pets or as watchdogs. \n\nIn Greek mythology, Cerberus is a three-headed watchdog who guards the gates of Hades. In Norse mythology, a bloody, four-eyed dog called Garmr guards Helheim. In Persian mythology, two four-eyed dogs guard the Chinvat Bridge. In Philippine mythology, Kimat who is the pet of Tadaklan, god of thunder, is responsible for lightning. In Welsh mythology, Annwn is guarded by Cŵn Annwn.\n\nIn Hindu mythology, Yama, the god of death owns two watch dogs who have four eyes. They are said to watch over the gates of Naraka. Hunter god Muthappan from North Malabar region of Kerala has a hunting dog as his mount. Dogs are found in and out of the Muthappan Temple and offerings at the shrine take the form of bronze dog figurines. \n\nThe role of the dog in Chinese mythology includes a position as one of the twelve animals which cyclically represent years (the zodiacal dog).\n\nReligion and culture\n\nIn Homer's epic poem the Odyssey, when the disguised Odysseus returns home after 20 years he is recognized only by his faithful dog, Argos, who has been waiting for his return.\n\nIn Islam, dogs are viewed as unclean because they are viewed as scavengers. In 2015 city councillor Hasan Küçük of The Hague called for dog ownership to be made illegal in that city. Islamic activists in Lérida, Spain, lobbied for dogs to be kept out of Muslim neighborhoods, saying their presence violated Muslims' religious freedom. In Britain, police sniffer dogs are carefully used, and are not permitted to contact passengers, only their luggage. They are required to wear leather dog booties when searching mosques or Muslim homes.\n\nJewish law does not prohibit keeping dogs and other pets. Jewish law requires Jews to feed dogs (and other animals that they own) before themselves, and make arrangements for feeding them before obtaining them. In Christianity, dogs represent faithfulness.\n\nIn Asian countries such as China, Korea, and Japan, dogs are viewed as kind protectors.\n\nArt\n\nCultural depictions of dogs in art extend back thousands of years to when dogs were portrayed on the walls of caves. Representations of dogs became more elaborate as individual breeds evolved and the relationships between human and canine developed. Hunting scenes were popular in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Dogs were depicted to symbolize guidance, protection, loyalty, fidelity, faithfulness, watchfulness, and love." ] }

{ "description": [ "... Basset Hounds - Dog - COLUMBO ... Home > Index > Dogs > Breeds > Basset > Dog the dog : Basset ... Columbo's dog liked to eat ice cream, ..." ], "filename": [ "41/41_3102.txt" ], "rank": [ 0 ], "title": [ "Breeds> Basset Hounds > Dog the dog (Columbo) - TV Acres" ], "url": [ "http://www.tvacres.com/dogs_bassett_dog.htm" ], "search_context": [ "TV ACRES: Dogs > Breeds> Basset Hounds > Dog the dog (Columbo)\nBasset Hounds\nDog the dog - Basset hound seen on episodes of the police drama COLUMBO/NBC/1971-77/ABC/1989-91.\nDog was owned by Lt. Columbo (Peter Falk), a seemingly incompetent homicide detective who always got his man. The choice of a droopy-eared basset hound perfectly matched the disheveled police officer who wore a dirty raincoat, drove a disheveled Peugeot and smoked cigars.\nColumbo found Dog at the pound on the NBC MYSTERY MOVIE \"Etude in Black.\" Dog made further appearances in the COLUMBO movies Catch Me, Forgotten Ladu, Make Me A Perfect Murder, and Now You See Him.\nWhen it came to naming his pooch, the Lieutenant considered a number of names like Fido, Jet, Munich and Beethoven, but eventually, he just settled on \"Dog\" because as he once explained \"He's a dog so we call him Dog.\"\nColumbo's dog liked to eat ice cream, watch TV, swim in the neighbor's pool and visit the beach.\nWhen Columbo sent his dog to obedience school hoping to improve the canine (\"he just sits around the house and drools\"), he was expelled because \"he demoralizes the other students.\"\nRay Berwick owned and trained Dog who in real life was called Henry. Henry had also appeared on the medical drama EMERGENCY/NBC/1972-77 as the the mascot for Los Angeles County Squad 51 firehouse who just sat about and yawned.\nTRIVIA NOTE: On the NBC produced episodes, Columbo's dog was originally called Fang. The spin-off series KATE LOVES A MYSTERY (MRS. COLUMBO)/NBC/1979 featured the wife of Detective Columbo, Kate Columbo (Kate Mulgrew) who owned a lazy basset hound dog named Whitefang.\nDog (a.k.a. \"Higgins\") was also the name of the family pet on the sitcom PETTICOAT JUNCTION/CBS/1963-70.\nExternal Links" ] }

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{ "description": [ "... (often called \"the founding fathers of modern film ... it was the first narrative Western film with a storyline, ... Film History of the Pre-1920s Part ...", "Western films have also been called the ... Silent Westerns: The western was among the first film ... and became famous as the first western film hero ..." ], "filename": [ "114/114_71237.txt", "198/198_672940.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 1 ], "title": [ "Film History Before 1920 - Filmsite.org", "Westerns Films - The Best Movies in Cinematic History" ], "url": [ "http://www.filmsite.org/pre20sintro2.html", "https://www.filmsite.org/westernfilms.html" ], "search_context": [ "Film History Before 1920\n1970s | 1980s | 1990s | 2000s | 2010s\nThe Lumiere Brothers and the Cinematographe:\nThe innovative Lumiere brothers in France, Louis and Auguste (often called \"the founding fathers of modern film\"), who worked in a Lyons factory that manufactured photographic equipment and supplies, were inspired by Edison's work. They created their own combo movie camera and projector - a more portable, hand-held and lightweight device that could be cranked by hand and could project movie images to several spectators. It was dubbed the Cinematographe and patented in February, 1895. The multi-purpose device (combining camera, printer and projecting capabilities in the same housing) was more profitable because more than a single spectator could watch the film on a large screen. They used a film width of 35mm, and a speed of 16 frames per second - an industry norm until the talkies. By the advent of sound film in the late 1920s, 24 fps became the standard.\nThe first public test and demonstration of the Lumieres' camera-projector system (the Cinematographe) was made on March 22, 1895, in the Lumieres' basement. During the private screening to a scientific conference - a trial run for their public screening later at the end of the year (see below), they caused a sensation with their first film, Workers\nLeaving the Lumiere Factory (La Sortie des Ouviers de L'Usine Lumiere a Lyon), although it only consisted of an everyday outdoor image - factory workers leaving the Lumiere factory gate for home or for a lunch break.\nAs generally acknowledged, cinema (a word derived from Cinematographe) was born on December 28, 1895, in Paris, France. The Lumieres presented the first commercial and public exhibition of a projected motion picture to a paying public in the world's first movie theatre - in the Salon Indien, at the Grand Cafe on Paris' Boulevard des Capucines. [In 1897, a cinema building was built in Paris, solely for the purpose of showing films.] It has often been considered \"the birth of film\" or \"the First Cinema\" since the Cinematographe was the first advanced projector (not experimental) and the first to be offered for sale.\nThe 20-minute program included ten short films with twenty showings a day. These factual shorts (or mini-documentaries), termed actualities, with the mundane quality of home movies, included the following:\nLa Sortie des Ouviers de L'Usine Lumière à Lyon (1895) (Workers Leaving the Lumiere Factory) (46 seconds)\nLa Voltige (1895) (Horse Trick Riders) (46 seconds)\nLa Pêche aux Poissons Rouges (1895) (Fishing for Goldfish) (42 seconds)\nLe Débarquement du Congrès de Photographie à Lyon (1895) (The Disembarkment of the Congress of Photographers in Lyon) (48 seconds)\nLes Forgerons (1895) (Blacksmiths) (49 seconds)\nLe Jardinier (l'Arroseur Arrosé) (The Gardener or The Sprinkler Sprinkled) (1895) (49 seconds)\nLe Repas (de Bébé) (1895) (Baby's Meal) (41 seconds)\nLe Saut à la Couverture (1895) (Jumping onto the Blanket) (41 seconds)\nLa Place des Cordeliers à Lyon (1895) (Cordeliers Square in Lyon) (44 seconds)\nLa Mer (Baignade en Mer) (1895) (Bathing in the Sea) (38 seconds)\nThe ten shorts included the famous first comedy (# 6) of a gardener with a watering hose (aka The Sprinkler Sprinkled, Waterer and Watered, or L'Arrouseur Arrose), the factory worker short (# 1, see above), a sequence (# 9) of a horse-drawn carriage approaching toward the camera, and a scene (# 7) of the feeding of a baby. The Lumieres also became known for their 50-second short Arrivee d'un train en gare a La Ciotat (1895) (Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat), which some sources reported was shocking to its first unsophisticated viewing audience. By 1898, the Lumiere's company had produced a short film catalog with over 1,000 titles.\nOther Developments in Projecting Machines:\nTwo brothers in Berlin, Germany - inventors Emil and Max Skladanowsky - created their own film device for projecting films in November, 1895.\nAlso in 1895, American inventor Major Woodville Latham (who had been working with Eugene Lauste and W.K.L. Dickson) developed an unpopular projector called an Eidoloscope (or Panoptikon projector). In New York on Frankfort Street, it was demonstrated by Latham for the NY press on April 21, 1895. It was one of the first public exhibitions of motion pictures in the world. What was most innovative and long-lasting was its Latham Loop - a feature of movie projectors. It involved the addition of a slack-forming loop to the film path to restrain the inertia of the take-up reel, and prevent the tearing of sprocket holes. It also allowed for the use of films longer than three minutes. (This showing preceded the landmark exhibition of the Lumieres in Paris by about eight months. See above.) On June 1, 1895, Latham applied for a patent for his \"Projecting-Kinetoscope\" with the \"Latham Loop.\" It was granted and lasted until its expiration in 1913. By 1905, virtually all movie projectors used the Latham Loop. (The loop is still used in virtually all film cameras and projectors almost to this day.)\nAnd American inventors Thomas Armat and Charles Francis Jenkins developed the Phantascope in 1893, an improved device (with intermittent-motion mechanisms) for projecting films on a screen. In September-October, 1895, they debuted their projection device (projecting Kinetoscope films, but not using a Kinetoscope) at the Cotton States Exposition in Atlanta, Georgia, and then patented it.\nIn London in January of 1896, Birt Acres also developed a machine to project films, called a Kinetic Lantern.\nIn the same year of 1896, another Englishman Robert William Paul also developed and manufactured a popular projector which he called a Theatrograph. He became a pioneering film producer in Britain through his The Northern Photographic Works company.\nIn 1896, Edison's Company (because it was unable to produce a workable projector on its own) purchased an improved version of Thomas Armat's movie projection machine (the Phantascope, originally invented by C. Francis Jenkins in 1893), and renamed it the Vitascope. It was hailed as Edison's latest invention, although he had only commercialized the Phantascope. The Vitascope was the first commercially-successful celluloid motion picture projector in the US. On April 23, 1896, Thomas Edison presented the first publically-projected Vitascope motion picture (with hand-tinting) in the US to a paying American audience on a screen, at Koster and Bial's Music Hall in New York City (at 34th Street and Broadway), with his latest invention - the projecting kinetoscope or Vitascope. Customers watched the Edison Company's Vitascope project a ballet sequence in an amusement arcade during a vaudeville act. At the time, the Vitascope was showing films in only one location, this one in NYC, but that wouldn't last for long.\nThe \"Pathé-Frères\" Company was founded in 1896 in Paris by Charles and Emile Pathè. By the next decade, it would become the largest producer of films in the world. Around 1906-7, only one-third of the films released in the US were American-made. Pathé-Frères was responsible for over one-third of the films shown on US screens.\nBy 1897, the 35 mm film gauge became widely accepted as the standard gauge for motion pictures, although American Mutoscope and other film companies continued to use other gauges. In 1909, the 35 mm width with 4 perforations per frame became accepted as the international standard film gauge.\nMore Notable Films and Developments:\nThe Corbett-Fitzsimmons Fight (1897), another filmed boxing match, reported to be 100 minutes in length (the longest film ever to be released by that date), and shown by the Veriscope Company, had its debut on May 22, 1897 at the Academy of Music in New York City. Some consider it the world's first feature film. It included all fourteen 3-minute rounds of the bout, in addition to a 5-minute introduction, and non-stop filming during the one-minute rest period between rounds. Running commentary was provided by an expert sports announcer from the side of the ring - the first of its kind.\nOne of the earliest projects the Edison Studios created (probably in July of 1897) was the advertising film Admiral Cigarette (1897), promoting the slogan \"We All Smoke.\" The 28 second-long silent film was the first prototype commercial for the Admiral Cigarette company. Edison's film was the first advertising film, or commercial, to be submitted for copyright, on August 5, 1897.\nThe Spanish-American War in 1898 drew camera operators to Cuba, but they were shut out by the US Army. Since they could not capture the battles on film, many went into studios and created them using models and painted backdrops -- the start of scale-model effects.\nThe First Permanent Movie Theatres:\nFilms were increasingly being shown as part of vaudeville shows, variety shows, and at fairgrounds or carnivals. Audiences would soon need larger theaters to watch screens with projected images from Vitascopes after the turn of the century, using stage and opera houses and music halls. The earliest 'movie theatres' were converted churches or halls, showing one-reelers (a 10-12 minute reel of film - the projector's reel capacity at the time). The primitive films were usually more actualities and comedies.\nAfter showing films in a lakefront park, William \"Pop\" Rock and Walter Wainwright transformed a converted vacant store (at 623 Canal St.) in New Orleans, Louisiana into Vitascope Hall. On July 26, 1896, it became the first \"storefront theater\" in the US dedicated exclusively to showing motion pictures, although it screened films for only two months. The theatre accommodated 400 people, and had two shows per day, with admission 10 cents.\nThe world's first permanent movie theatre exclusively designed for showing motion pictures was the Edisonia Vitascope Hall, a 72 seat theatre which opened in downtown Buffalo, New York on Monday, October 19, 1896 in the Ellicott Square Building on Main Street. It was created by Buffalo-based entrepreneur Mitchell H. Mark, a supreme visionary of the future of motion picture theaters. It was likely that the opening night's showing including US premieres of the Lumiere films (see above), since Mark had contracted with the Lumieres (and Pathe Freres) in France to exhibit their films in the US. The Vitascope Theater in Buffalo remained open for nearly two years. With his brother Moe, Mitchell Mark would open other theaters in Buffalo, as well as New York City, Boston and elsewhere. They were responsible for one of history's earliest \"movie palaces,\" the 2800-seat Mark Strand Theater in NYC.\nEarly Jewish film pioneer Sigmund Lubin (aka Siegmund Lubszynski) constructed the first purposely-built movie theater in West Philadelphia, PA for the National Export Exposition, in 1899. Lubin's Cineograph Theatre was a small, modest portable theatre built on the esplanade or midway of the fair. It was possibly the world's first structure erected expressly for the presentation of motion pictures. For ten cents, patrons could view \"continuous shows\" of the Spanish-American War, reproductions of boxing matches, and several of Lubin's own home-made productions. The film billed as \"The Sensation of the Hour\" was The Dreyfus Court Martial Scene. It was evidence of Lubin's early work as a motion picture distributor and exhibitor, to showcase his projectors, cameras, and films.\nLater on in 1902 in downtown Los Angeles, Thomas L. Talley's storefront, 200-seat Electric Theater was another of the first permanent US theaters to exclusively exhibit movies - it charged patrons a dime, up from a nickel at the nickelodeons.\nAlice Guy (Blaché): The First Female Movie Director\nFrench-born Alice Guy (Blaché) started in the film business as a secretary for Léon Gaumont in 1894. In 1896, she joined Gaumont in his new company founded in Paris in 1895, the Gaumont Film Company, and began making primitive sound films when she was promoted to be the head of motion picture production at the studio. She is generally acknowledged as the world's first female director in the motion picture industry (with France's Gaumont Film Company). Her first film made in April of 1896 was the one-minute in length fictional film La Fée aux Choux (The Cabbage Fairy). Some historians consider it the first ever narrative fiction film. She became one of the key figures in the systematic development of the narrative film.\nGeorges Melies: French Cinematic Magician\nAside from technological achievements, another Frenchman who was a member of the Lumiere's viewing audience, Georges Melies, expanded development of film cinema with his own imaginative fantasy films. When the Lumiere brothers wouldn't sell him a Cinematographe, he developed his own camera (a version of the Kinetograph), and then set up Europe's first film studio in 1897. It was the first movie studio that used artificial illumination, a greenhouse-like structure that featured both a glazed roof and walls and a series of retractable blinds. It was an influential model on the development of future studios.\nParisian French film-maker Georges Méliès first film based on a trick of substitution (one of the earliest instances of trick photography with stop-action - an early special effect) was Escamotage d'une dame au théâtre Robert Houdin (1896) (aka The Conjuring of a Woman at the House of Robert Houdin). The roots of horror films (and vampire films in particular) may also be traced back to Georges Méliès' two-minute short film Le Manoir du Diable (1896) (aka Manor/House of the Devil, or The Devil's Castle, or The Haunted Castle), although it was meant to be an amusing, entertaining film.\nMelies became the film industry's first film-maker to use artificially-arranged scenes to construct and tell a narrative story, with his most popular and influential film to date, Cendrillon (1899) (aka Cinderella). He created about 500 films (one-reelers usually) over the next 15 years (few of which survived), and screened his own productions in his theatre. Melies wrote, designed, directed, and acted in hundreds of his own fairy tales and science fiction films, and developed techniques such as stop-motion photography, double and multiple-exposures, time-lapse photography, \"special effects\" such as disappearing objects (using stop-trick or substitution photography), and dissolves/fades. In late 1911, he contracted with French film company Pathe to finance and distribute his films, and then went out of business by 1913.\nAn illusionist and stage magician, and a wizard at special effects, Melies exploited the new medium with a pioneering, 14-minute science fiction work, Le Voyage Dans la Lune - A Trip to the Moon (1902) . It was his most popular and best-known work, with about 30 scenes called tableaux. He incorporated surrealistic special effects, including the memorable image of a rocketship landing and gouging out the eye of the 'man in the moon.' Melies also introduced the idea of narrative storylines, plots, character development, illusion, and fantasy into film, including trick photography (early special effects), hand-tinting, dissolves, wipes, 'magical' super-impositions and double exposures, the use of mirrors, trick sets, stop motion, slow-motion and fade-outs/fade-ins. Although his use of the camera was innovative, the camera remained stationary and recorded the staged production from one position only.\nFurther US Development:\nThe key years in the development of the cinema in the U.S. were in the late 1800s and early 1900s, when the Edison Company was competing with a few other burgeoning movie companies. The major pioneering movie production companies, mostly on the East Coast, that controlled most of the industry were these rivals:\nthe Edison Manufacturing Company - began producing films for the Kinetoscope in 1891, with headquarters and production facilities in West Orange, NJ (see above); formally became a company in 1894. Afterwards, Edison intensely fought for control of 'his' movie industry by harrassing, sue-ing, or buying patents from anyone he thought was threatening his company.\nthe Selig Polyscope Company (originally called The W.N. Selig Company), was founded in 1896, in Chicago, Illinois by \"Colonel\" William Selig. Initially, the company specialized in slapstick comedies, \"jungle\" films, historical subjects, serials, travel films, and the early westerns starring Tom Mix.\nthe American Vitagraph Company, formed by British-born Americans J. Stuart Blackton and Albert E. Smith in 1896. The company's first fictional film was The Burglar on the Roof, filmed and released in 1897. It soon became the largest film company, turning out 200 films a year.\nAmerican Mutoscope Company, founded in 1895 in New York City, NY by disenchanted Edison worker William K. L. Dickson, Herman Casler, Henry Marvin and pocket lighter inventor Elias Koopman. Their first motion picture machine was the Mutoscope - a peephole, flip-card device similar in size to a Kinetoscope. Instead of using film, a spinning set of photographs mounted on a drum inside the cabinet gave the impression of motion. This was followed by a projector - the Biograph Projector, that was first demonstrated in New York City in 1896. It was the first time projected images from an American film company were shown to an American movie theatre audience. They also devised a hand-cranked camera called the Mutograph (originally called the Biograph) that didn't use sprocket holes or perforations in the motion-picture film. The company released its first film in 1896, titled Empire State Express.\nSoon, the American Mutoscope Company became the most popular film company in America. They were formally renamed the American Mutoscope and Biograph Company in 1899 (and simply Biograph by 1909). They marketed their own films and their new Biograph projector, thus becoming the foremost motion picture company in the US. The American Mutoscope Company's The Haverstraw Tunnel (1897) became its most popular film - it was the first \"phantom ride\" film in which a camera was mounted on the front of a train, and recorded its passage into a tunnel.\nThey were also known for many firsts:\nthe early documentary Divers at Work on the Wreck of the Maine (1898) - the first film shot in Havana, Cuba at the location of the sunken warship\nW.L.K. Dickson's filming of Pope Leo XIII in Rome, M.H. Pope Leo in a Chair (1898) - Leo XIII was the first Pope captured on film at the Vatican\nthe first production company to be contracted by the White House, in 1899, and the first studio to record films of a living president, William McKinley\nin 1903, establishment of the first movie studio in the world (in NYC) to rely exclusively on artificial light\nmakers of the first western film shot and produced in the West, A California Hold Up (1906)\nin 1906, Biograph's Florence Lawrence was the world's first \"movie star\" -- dubbed: \"The Biograph Girl\"\nthe first major motion picture company in southern California to make an actual film in Los Angeles -- A Daring Hold-Up in Southern California (1906)\nmakers of the first film shot specifically in the village north of LA known as \"Hollywood\" - a \"Latino\" melodrama titled In Old California (1910)\nmakers of one of the first full-length feature films, D. W. Griffith's epic Judith of Bethulia (1914)\nEdison Vs. Mutoscope:\nIn May of 1898, Edison filed a patent-infringement suit against the American Mutoscope Company, claiming that the studio had infringed on his patent for the Kinetograph movie camera. [Edison’s competitors had developed other motion-picture devices, which became the Biograph and the Mutoscope.] After years of legal battles, in July of 1901, a U.S. Circuit Court in New York ruled that Biograph had infringed on Edison's patent claims. Biograph appealed the ruling, claiming it had a different camera design. The decision was reversed in March 1902 by a U.S. Court of Appeals. It ruled that Edison did not invent the motion-picture camera, but allowed that he had invented the sprocket system that moved perforated film through the camera. The new ruling essentially disallowed Edison from establishing a monopoly on motion picture apparatus - and ultimately on the making of films. By 1903, most studios made films using the 35mm format. (See more about the development of Biograph further below)\n\"Moving pictures\" were increasing in length, taking on fluid narrative forms, and being edited for the first time. Two of the earliest westerns (or cowboy-related) films were both Edison Manufacturing Company films made at Black Maria:\nthe one-shot (less than one minute short) Thomas Edison's Cripple Creek Bar Room Scene (1899) - with the 'first' western saloon setting\nPoker at Dawson City (1899)\nBreakthrough Films of Edwin S. Porter - the \"Father of the Story Film\":\nInventor and former projectionist Edwin S. Porter (1869-1941), who in 1898 had patented an improved Beadnell projector with a steadier and brighter image, was also using film cameras to record news events. Porter was one of the resident Kinetoscope operators and directors at the Edison Company Studios in the early 1900s, who worked in different film genres. Porter was hired at Edison's Company in late 1900 and began making short narrative films, such as the 10-minute long Jack and the Beanstalk (1902). He was responsible for directing the six-minute long The Life of an American Fireman (1903) - often alleged to be the first American documentary, docudrama, fictionalized biopic or realistic narrative film, with non-linear continuity. It combined re-enacted scenes, the dreamy thoughts of a sleeping fireman seen in a round iris or 'thought balloon', and documentary stock footage of actual fire scenes, and it was dramatically edited with inter-cutting (or jump-cutting) between the exterior and interior of a burning house. Edison was actually uncomfortable with Porter's editing techniques, including his use of close-ups to tell an entertaining story.\nThe Great Train Robbery (1903)\nWith the combination of film editing and the telling of narrative stories, Porter produced one of the most important and influential films of the time to reveal the possibility of fictional stories on film. The film was the one-reel, 14-scene, approximately 10-minute long The Great Train Robbery (1903) - it was based on a real-life train heist and was a loose adaptation of a popular stage production. His visual film, made in New Jersey and not particularly artistic by today's standards - set many milestones at the time:\nit was the first narrative Western film with a storyline, and included various western cliches (a shoot-out, a robbery, a chase, etc.) that would be used by all future westerns [Note: the same claim was made for the earlier 21-minute Kit Carson (1903)]\nit was a ground-breaking film - and one of the earliest films to be shot out of chronological sequence, using revolutionary parallel cross-cutting (or parallel action) between two simultaneous events or scenes; it did not use fades or dissolves between scenes or shots\nit effectively used rear projection in an early scene (the image of a train seen through a window), and two impressive panning shots\nit was the first 'true' western, but not the first actual western [Note: Edison's Cripple Creek Bar-Room Scene (1899) was probably the first western.]\nit was the first real motion picture smash hit, establishing the notion that film could be a commercially-viable medium\nit featured a future western film hero/star, Gilbert M. Anderson (aka \"Broncho Billy\")\nIn an effective, scary, full-screen closeup (placed at either the beginning or at the end of the film at the discretion of the exhibitor), a bandit shot his gun directly into the audience. The film also included exterior scenes, chases on horseback, actors that moved toward (and away from) the camera, a camera pan with the escaping bandits, and a camera mounted on a moving train. Porter also developed the process of film editing - a crucial film technique that would further the cinematic art. Most early films were not much more than short, filmed stage productions or records of live events. In the early days of film-making, actors were usually unidentified and not even trained actors. The earliest actors in movies, that were dubbed \"flickers,\" supplemented their stage incomes by acting in moving pictures.\nNickelodeons: Expanded Film Exhibition\nIn the early 1900s, motion pictures (\"flickers\") were no longer innovative experiments. They soon became an escapist entertainment medium for the working-class masses, and one could spend an evening at the cinema for a cheap entry fee. Kinetoscope parlors, lecture halls, and storefronts were often converted into nickelodeons, the first real movie theatres. The normal admission charge was a nickel (sometimes a dime). Nickel- was attached to the Greek word for theater -- \"odeon.\" Hence the name nickelodeon. They usually remained open from early morning to midnight.\nThe first nickelodeon, a small storefront theater or dance hall converted to view films, was opened in Pittsburgh by Harry Davis and John Harris in June of 1905, showing The Great Train Robbery . Urban, foreign-born, working-class, immigrant audiences loved the cheap form of entertainment and were the predominent cinema-goers. One-reel shorts, silent films, melodramas, comedies, or novelty pieces were usually accompanied with piano playing, sing-along songs, illustrated lectures, other kinds of 'magic lantern' slide shows, skits, penny arcades, or vaudeville-type acts. Standing-room only shows lasted between ten minutes and an hour. The demand for more and more films increased the volume of films being produced and raised profits for their producers.\nBut newspaper critics soon denounced their sensational programs (involving seduction, crime, sex and infidelity) as morally objectionable and as the cause of social unrest and criminal behavior - and they called for censorship. They also criticized the unsanitary and unsafe conditions in the often makeshift nickelodeons. By the early 20th century, nickelodeons were being transformed into more lavish movie palaces (see more below) in metropolitan areas. By 1908, there were approximately 8,000 neighborhood theatres.\nThe First Feature-Length Films:\nIn the early years of cinema, film producers were worried that the American public could not last through a film that was an hour long, thereby delaying the advent of feature films (60-90 minutes in length) in the US. According to most sources, the first continuous, full-length narrative feature film (defined as a commercially-made film at least an hour in length) was writer/director Charles Tait's five-reel biopic of a notorious outback folk hero and bushranger, The Story of the Kelly Gang (1906, Australia), with a running time of between 60-70 minutes. Only fragments of the film survive to this day. Australia was the only country set up to regularly produce feature-length films prior to 1911.\n[The film was remade many times, notably as director Tony Richardson's Ned Kelly (1970) with rock star Mick Jagger in the lead role, and as Ned Kelly (2003) with Heath Ledger, Orlando Bloom, Geoffrey Rush and Naomi Watts.]\nThe first US documentary re-creation, Sigmund Lubin's one-reel film The Unwritten Law (1907) (subtitled \"A Thrilling Drama Based on the Thaw-White Case/Tragedy\") dramatized the true-life murder -- on June 25, 1906 -- of prominent architect Stanford White by mentally unstable and jealous millionaire Harry Kendall Thaw over the affections of model/showgirl Evelyn Nesbit (who appeared as herself), Thaw's wife. The film was considered quite controversial for its sensational and scandalous story of murder and sex. [Alluring chorine Nesbit would become a brief sensation, and the basis for Richard Fleischer's biopic film The Girl in the Red Velvet Swing (1955), portrayed by Joan Collins, and E.L. Doctorow's musical and film Ragtime (1981), portrayed by an Oscar-nominated Elizabeth McGovern.]\nThe first feature-length film made in Europe was from France - Michel Carre's L'Enfant Prodigue (1907, Fr.), an adaptation of a stage play, that premiered in Paris on June 20, 1907. The first feature-length film produced in the US was Vitagraph's Les Miserables (1909) (each reel of the four-reel production was released separately). A second feature film, Stuart Blackton's Vitagraph five-reel production titled The Life of Moses (1909) was also released in separate installments.\nThe first feature-length film to be released in its entirety in the US was the 69-minute epic Dante's Inferno (1911, It.) (aka L’Inferno), inspired by Dante's 14th century poem The Divine Comedy. It opened in New York on December 10, 1911 at Gane’s Manhattan Theatre. It was made by three directors Francesco Bertolini, Giuseppe de Liguoro, and Adolfo Padovan, took two years to make, and cost over $180,000.\nThe first US feature film to be shown in its entirety was H. A. Spanuth's five-reel production of Oliver Twist (1912). The four-reel silent costume drama Queen Elizabeth (1912, Fr.) (aka Les Amours de la Reine Élisabeth) (starring Sarah Bernhardt) was the third film to be shown whole, in its US premiere in July at the Lyceum Theatre in NYC. The five-reel Richard III (1912) is thought to be the earliest surviving complete feature film made in the US. Although US production and exhibition of feature films started slowly in 1912, the next few years demonstrated tremendous growth when foreign competition (with often superior products) encouraged development.\nFilm History of the Pre-1920s", "Westerns Films\nWesterns Films\nPart 1 | Part 2 | Part 3 | Part 4 | Part 5 | Examples\nWesterns are the major defining genre of the American film industry, a nostalgic eulogy to the early days of the expansive, untamed American frontier (the borderline between civilization and the wilderness). They are one of the oldest, most enduring and flexible genres and one of the most characteristically American genres in their mythic origins.\n[The popularity of westerns has waxed and waned over the years. Their most prolific era was in the 1930s to the 1960s, and most recently in the 90s, there was a resurgence of the genre. They appear to be making an invigorating comeback (both on the TV screen and in theatres). Modern movie remakes, such as 3:10 To Yuma (2007) and the Coen Brothers' True Grit (2010) have also paid homage to their mid-20th century predecessors.]\nSee all Greatest Westerns Title Screens\nThis indigenous American art form focuses on the frontier West that existed in North America. Westerns are often set on the American frontier during the last part of the 19th century (1865-1900) following the Civil War, in a geographically western (trans-Mississippi) setting with romantic, sweeping frontier landscapes or rugged rural terrain. However, Westerns may extend back to the time of America's colonial period or forward to the mid-20th century, or as far geographically as Mexico. A number of westerns use the Civil War, the Battle of the Alamo (1836) or the Mexican Revolution (1910) as a backdrop.\nThe western film genre often portrays the conquest of the wilderness and the subordination of nature, in the name of civilization, or the confiscation of the territorial rights of the original inhabitants of the frontier. Specific settings include lonely isolated forts, ranch houses, the isolated homestead, the saloon, the jail, the livery stable, the small-town main street, or small frontier towns that are forming at the edges of civilization. They may even include Native American sites or villages. Other iconic elements in westerns include the hanging tree, stetsons and spurs, saddles, lassos and Colt .45's, bandannas and buckskins, canteens, stagecoaches, gamblers, long-horned cattle and cattle drives, prostitutes (or madams) with a heart of gold, and more. Very often, the cowboy has a favored horse (or 'faithful steed'), for example, Roy Rogers' Trigger, Gene Autry's Champion, William Boyd's (Hopalong Cassidy) Topper, the Lone Ranger's Silver and Tonto's Scout.\nWestern films have also been called the horse opera, the oater (quickly-made, short western films which became as commonplace as oats for horses), or the cowboy picture. The western film genre has portrayed much about America's past, glorifying the past-fading values and aspirations of the mythical by-gone age of the West. Over time, westerns have been re-defined, re-invented and expanded, dismissed, re-discovered, and spoofed. In the late 60s and early 70s (and in subsequent years), 'revisionistic' Westerns that questioned the themes and elements of traditional/classic westerns appeared (such as Sam Peckinpah's The Wild Bunch (1969) , Arthur Penn's Little Big Man (1970), Robert Altman's McCabe & Mrs. Miller (1971), and later Clint Eastwood's Unforgiven (1992) ).\nWesterns Film Plots:\nUsually, the central plot of the western film is the classic, simple goal of maintaining law and order on the frontier in a fast-paced action story. It is normally rooted in archetypal conflict - good vs. bad, virtue vs. evil, white hat vs. black hat, man vs. man, new arrivals vs. Native Americans (inhumanely portrayed as savage Indians), settlers vs. Indians, humanity vs. nature, civilization vs. wilderness or lawlessness, schoolteachers vs. saloon dance-hall girls, villains vs. heroes, lawman or sheriff vs. gunslinger, social law and order vs. anarchy, the rugged individualist vs. the community, the cultivated East vs. West, settler vs. nomad, and farmer vs. industrialist to name a few. Often the hero of a western meets his opposite \"double,\" a mirror of his own evil side that he has to destroy.\nTypical elements in westerns include hostile elements (often Native Americans), guns and gun fights (sometimes on horseback), violence and human massacres, horses, trains (and train robberies), bank robberies and holdups, runaway stagecoachs, shoot-outs and showdowns, outlaws and sheriffs, cattle drives and cattle rustling, stampedes, posses in pursuit, barroom brawls, 'search and destroy' plots, breathtaking settings and open landscapes (the Tetons and Monument Valley, to name only a few), and distinctive western clothing (denim, jeans, boots, etc.).\nWestern heroes are often local lawmen or enforcement officers, ranchers, army officers, cowboys, territorial marshals, or a skilled, fast-draw gunfighter. They are normally masculine persons of integrity and principle - courageous, moral, tough, solid and self-sufficient, maverick characters (often with trusty sidekicks), possessing an independent and honorable attitude (but often characterized as slow-talking). The Western hero could usually stand alone and face danger on his own, against the forces of lawlessness (outlaws or other antagonists), with an expert display of his physical skills (roping, gun-play, horse-handling, pioneering abilities, etc.).\nSubgenres of Westerns:\nThere are many subgenres of the typical or traditional western, to name a few:\nthe epic Western (i.e., The Big Country (1958))\nthe 'singing cowboy' Western (films of Gene Autry and Roy Rogers, see below)\nthe \"spaghetti\" Western (the \"Man With No Name\" trilogy of films by Sergio Leone)\nthe \"noir\" Western (i.e., Pursued (1947))\nthe \"contemporary\" Western (i.e., Hud (1963))\nthe \"revisionistic\" Western (i.e., Little Big Man (1970), Dances With Wolves (1990))\nthe \"comedy\" Western (i.e., Cat Ballou (1965), Blazing Saddles (1974) )\nthe \"post-apocalyptic\" Western (i.e., Mad Max 2: The Road Warrior (1981-2), The Postman (1997))\nthe \"science-fiction\" or \"space\" Western (i.e., Outland (1981))\nInfluences on the Western:\nIn many ways, the cowboy of the Old West was the American version of the Japanese samurai warrior, or the Arthurian knight of medieval times. [No wonder that westerns were inspired by samurai and Arthurian legends, i.e., Kurosawa's Yojimbo (1961) served as the prototype for Clint Eastwood's A Fistful of Dollars (1964), and Kurosawa's The Seven Samurai (1954) was remade as John Sturges' The Magnificent Seven (1960). Le Mort D'Arthur by Sir Thomas Malory also inspired much of\nShane (1953) - a film with a mythical western hero acting like a noble knight in shining leather in its tale of good vs. evil.] They were all bound by legal codes of behavior, ethics, justice, courage, honor and chivalry.\nWestern Film Roots:\nThe roots of the film western are found in many disparate sources, often of literary origins:\nfolk music of the colonial period\nJames Fenimore Cooper's novels such as his 1826 story The Last of the Mohicans (re-made as a feature film at least three times - Clarence Brown's 1920 version, a 1932 version starring Harry Carey, and George Seitz' 1936 version with Randolph Scott, and most recently as the popular film The Last of the Mohicans (1992) starring Daniel Day Lewis as the heroic white frontiersman scout named Hawkeye, raised as a Mohican)\nFrancis Parkman's The Oregon Trail (1849)\nSamuel Clemens' (Mark Twain) Roughing It (1872)\nBret Harte's short stories\ndime novels about Western heroes\nOwen Wister's influential The Virginian, published in 1902, the first modern western novel\nprolific Zane Grey's (1875-1939) 60+ novels that inspired dozens of films, including his best-known western Riders of the Purple Sage (1918, 1925, 1931, 1941); also The Rainbow Trail (1918, 1925), George Seitz's The Vanishing American (1925) - the first film made in Monument Valley, Rangle River (1937), The Mysterious Rider (1933, 1938), Lone Star Ranger (1942), Nevada (1927, 1936, 1944), Western Union (1941), Gunfighters (1947), and Red Canyon (1949)\nother mythologies (tales of Davy Crockett, Daniel Boone, Jim Bowie, Gen. George A. Custer, Wild Bill Hickok, Buffalo Bill Cody, Calamity Jane, Wyatt Earp, Doc Holliday, Bat Masterson), and outlaws (such as the James Brothers, the original Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid, and Billy the Kid)\nscreen cowboy Gene Autry's \"Cowboy Code\" (or Cowboy Commandments) written in the late 1940s - a collection of moralistic principles and values that cowboys reportedly live by, including such tenets as: the cowboy never shoots first or takes unfair advantage, always tells the truth, must help people in distress, and is a patriot\nThe most often-portrayed western heroes on screen have been (in descending order): William Frederick Cody (\"Buffalo Bill\"), William Bonney (\"Billy the Kid\"), Jesse James, Wild Bill Hickok, Gen. George A. Custer, and Wyatt Earp.\nSilent Westerns:\nThe western was among the first film genres, growing in status alongside the development of Hollywood's studio production system. There were only a few great silent westerns, although the best ones established some of the archetypes that are part of the genre even today. The earliest westerns (silent films without the sound of gunfire, horse's hoofbeats, and the cattle trail) are gems of American history. A few of the earliest western-like films were two shorts from Thomas Edison's Manufacturing Company:\nthe less-than 1 minute-long Cripple Creek Bar Room Scene (1899) (with its prototypical western bar-room scene, and a barmaid played by a man)\nPoker at Dawson City (1899) (set during the Alaska Gold Rush, about a crooked poker game with flagrant cheating that led to a fight)\nEdwin S. Porter's Pioneering Western:\nBut the 'first real movie' or commercially narrative film that gave birth to the genre was Edwin S. Porter's pioneering western The Great Train Robbery (1903) . Porter (named 'the father of the story film') was responsible for the one-reel, 10-minute long film, shot - curiously - on the East Coast (New Jersey and Delaware) rather than the Western setting of Wyoming. [The first westerns were shot, until 1906, on the East Coast.] Porter had also directed and filmed Edison's short publicity western-themed film A Romance of the Rail (1903).\nAlmost all the essential elements or conventions of typical westerns were included: good guys vs. bad guys, a robbery or wrong-doing, a chase or pursuit, and a final showdown, all in a natural setting. The film ended (or began) with a stunning close-up (the first!) of a gunman (George Barnes) firing directly into the camera - and audience. It was the most commercially successful film of the pre-nickelodeon era.\nPorter's film was a milestone in film-making for its storyboarding of the script, the first use of title cards, an ellipsis, and a panning shot, and for its cross-cutting editing techniques. One of its stars with multiple roles, Gilbert M. Anderson (Max Aronson), later took the name \"Broncho Billy\" Anderson and became famous as the first western film hero - the genre's first cowboy. As in other genres, westerns quickly became character-driven and stars began to be developed.\nPorter's other film in the same year was a non-Western, Life of An American Fireman (1903) featuring more overlapping action and cross-cut editing, and a last-minute rescue of a mother and child in a burning building. And Edison's A Race for Millions (1907) also featured typical western plot elements - a high-noon shootout, and claim-jumping. In fact, a number of major film studios were making westerns as early as 1907, and by the end of the first decade of the century, about twenty percent of all of Hollywood's films were westerns.\nOther Early Westerns and Their Directors/Producers:\nThe American Mutoscope and Biograph Co. claimed to have made the first western one year before Porter's The Great Train Robbery (1903) . A few early westerns copyrighted by Biograph were the 21-minute long Kit Carson (1903) and the 15-minute The Pioneers (1903). The first western produced in the West was Biograph's A California Hold Up (1906). Note: The first sagebrush sagas were either shot on soundstages or made on the East Coast, until the wide expanse of the West opened up for on-location shoots.\nD. W. Griffith dabbled in silent westerns at Biograph Studios between 1908 and 1913, producing such pictures as:\nIn Old California (1910), Griffith's first western-filmed western, followed by The Twisted Trail (1910) with Mary Pickford\nThe Last Drop of Water (1911), with the western's first characteristic scenes of a wagon train siege and a cavalry rescue\nthe innovatively-filmed Fighting Blood (1911) about conflict between white settlers and Sioux Indians in the Dakota territory of 1899\nand Griffith's last major Biograph western filmed in S. California, titled The Battle of Elderbush Gulch (1914), a two-reel pre-cursor to his most (in)famous landmark film,\nBirth of a Nation (1915) , with Lillian Gish and Mae Marsh\nThe first feature-length western was Lawrence B. McGill's six-reel Arizona (1913). The first film to feature an all-Native American cast was Hiawatha (1913), made by the Colonial Motion Picture Corporation and based on Longfellow's poem.\nYoung Cecil B. De Mille's first motion picture was The Squaw Man (1914), usually credited as the first feature filmed entirely in Hollywood. [De Mille remade the film in 1918 and 1931.] Even in the early days of the film industry, some real-life cowboys and legendary western figures appeared in films:\nWyatt Earp in The Half-Breed (1919)\nBuffalo Bill Cody in The Adventures of Buffalo Bill (1917)\nThomas Ince (1882-1924), known for inventing the studio system, was the first studio executive who embraced the western in the teen years. He arrived in California in 1911, where he produced detailed scripts with new situations and characters for a vast number of classic westerns. In 1912, his Bison Company production studios (known as Inceville) purchased the Miller Brothers 101 Ranch and the Wild West Show to use their props and performers for his assembly-line, mass-produced films. In the early 1910s, famed director John Ford's older brother Francis was directing and starring in westerns in California for producer Ince, before joining Universal and Carl Laemmle in 1913.\nThe First Westerns Super-Star of the Silent Era: William S. Hart\nInce was responsible for discovering and bringing Shakespearean actor William S. Hart (1870-1946) to prominent stardom by signing him up in his New York Motion Picture Company. Hart served as both actor and director after moving to Hollywood, and was often portrayed as a \"good bad man\" on the screen (with his Pinto pony named Fritz). He emerged as one of the greatest Western heroes in the mid-1910s, until the release of his last film in 1925:\nThe Disciple (1915)\nThe Taking of Jim McLane (1915)\nDevil's Double (1916)\nThe Return of Draw Egan (1916)\nTruthful Tulliver (1916)\nThe Narrow Trail (1917), Hart's first feature production for Paramount\nBranding Broadway (1918), set in modern-day New York City!\nRiddle Gawne (1918)\nSand (1920), reportedly Pres. Woodrow Wilson's favorite Hart film\nThe Testing Block (1920)\nThe Toll Gate (1920), Hart's first film with his own production company\nThe Three Word Brand (1921), with Hart playing three roles\nWhite Oak (1921)\nWild Bill Hickok (1923)\nSinger Jim McKee (1924)\nTumbleweeds (1925), Hart's best-known and greatest western, by director King Baggot and from UA - about the Cherokee Strip (Oklahoma) Gold Rush; the film's title referred to a breed of roaming cowboys" ] }

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{ "description": [ "People born on exactly the same day ... (born June 22, 1949) is an American actress who ... http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lindsay_Wagner. Also born on this ...", "... who would be considered the best living actress ... was a supporting actress and didn't exactly carry ... Lindsay Wagner was born on the same day as ...", "... to this day, Angela Lansbury has never forgiven Warner. The Oscar-winning song \"Beauty and the Beast\" almost wasn't sung by Angela Lansbury. ... they are born." ], "filename": [ "186/186_3149.txt", "64/64_3151.txt", "17/17_3156.txt" ], "rank": [ 2, 4, 9 ], "title": [ "#219 Meryl Streep / Alan Osmond / Lindsay Wagner – 22 June ...", "If Meryl was never born, who would be considered the best ...", "Angela Lansbury - Biography - IMDb" ], "url": [ "https://bornonthesameday.wordpress.com/2011/01/29/219-meryl-streep-alan-osmond-lindsay-wagner-%e2%80%93-22-june-1949/", "https://www.datalounge.com/thread/16981814-if-meryl-was-never-born-who-would-be-considered-the-best-living-actress-alive-", "http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0001450/bio" ], "search_context": [ "#219 Meryl Streep / Alan Osmond / Lindsay Wagner – 22 June 1949 | Born On The Same Day\nBorn On The Same Day\nPosted on January 29, 2011 by Born On The Same Day\nMeryl Streep\nMary Louise “Meryl” Streep (born June 22, 1949) is an American actress who has worked in theatre, television and film. She is widely regarded as one of the most talented and respected actors of the modern era. Streep has received 16 Academy Award nominations, winning two, and 25 Golden Globe nominations, winning seven, more nominations than any other actor in the history of either award. Her work has also earned her two Emmy Awards, two Screen Actors Guild Awards, a Cannes Film Festival award, four New York Film Critics Circle Awards, five Grammy Award nominations, a BAFTA award, an Australian Film Institute Award and a Tony Award nomination, amongst others. She was awarded the American Film Institute’s Lifetime Achievement Award in 2004.\nAlan Osmond\nAlan Ralph Osmond (born on June 22, 1949 in Ogden, Utah, United States) was a member of the family musical group The Osmonds. He was the oldest of the seven siblings who could sing, as the two oldest brothers, Virl and Tom, are hearing impaired. During much of the Osmonds’ career, Alan was the leader of the group. Today he performs only rarely because he has multiple sclerosis.\nLindsay Wagner\nLindsay Jean Wagner (born June 22, 1949) is an American actress. She is probably most widely known for her portrayal of Jaime Sommers in the 1970s television series The Bionic Woman (for which she won an Emmy award).\nLinks:", "If Meryl was never born, who would be considered the best living actress alive?\nFollow DL on\nIf Meryl was never born, who would be considered the best living actress alive?\nSadly no American - either an Aussie like Cate Blanchett, or British dames: Judi Dench and Helen Mirren.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 225\nOP, when you say \"best living actress alive,\" do you mean she can't be dead?\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 1\nThe world would be a much better place\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 2\n05/27/2016\nR1 Damn, I meant to either type 'best actress alive' or 'best living actress'. I blame my agent. Anyway, carry on boys!\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 3\n05/27/2016\nCate Blanchett is the star of our times: fine actress on film and stage, great-looking, fun and smart.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 5\n05/27/2016\nBetter question is: who would have landed the most coveted roles that made Meryl iconic: KRAMER VS KRAMER, SOPHIE'S CHOICE, SILKWOOD, THE DEVIL WEARS PRADA, OUT OF AFRICA, THE DEER HUNTER, THE FRENCH LIEUTENANT'S WOMAN, DOUBT?\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 6\nCate Blanchett turned into a caricature of herself faster than any other actress ever has.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 7\nR6 Weaver, Lange, or Close (yes) would have made Silkwood watchable.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 8\nSophie's Choice would have starred Barbra Streisand.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 9\nR9 And she would have won her first Oscar for that.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 10\nThe Devil Wears Prada would have starred Bette Midler.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 11\nMama Mia would have starred Liza Minnelli.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 12\n05/27/2016\nWrong, Cate Blanchett is the only star we have today (then there's Julia Roberts for the masses). Helen Mirren is also a star, but of a different generation.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 13\n05/27/2016\nM ruined Doubt (the elaborate camerawork also contributed). Judi Dench would have been far better in the role.\nThe \"gossip\" speech might be PSH's finest work.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 14\nMeryl's Third Oscar would have gone to Viola Davis.\nMeryl's Second Oscar would have gone to Jessica Lange.\nMeryl's First Oscar would have gone to Candice Bergen.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 15\n05/27/2016\nGena Rowlands, or maybe Ellen Burstyn.\nBlanchett wouldn't exist if Meryl was never born because she mimics Meryl every chance she gets. Or Rowlands if she's feeling adventurous.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 16\n05/27/2016\nWhat happened to Ellen Burstyn? Haven't seen her in any movies since Requiem for a Dream.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 17\nR15 \"Meryl's First Oscar would have gone to Candice Bergen.\"\nWhat? Explain, Lucy!\nCandice is a terrible actress! Ok I've only seen her in Murphy Brown. But still\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 18\n05/27/2016\nI can't think of a single Meryl role in which I wouldn't have preferred another actress. Not that impressed apparently.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 19\nR11 Midler would have killed that role.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 20\nGood \"killed\" or bad, R20?\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 21\n05/27/2016\nR20 Disagree. I think she wouldn't have brought the vulnerability to the role that Meryl as Miranda had. She would have gone full Broadway and camp, whereas the role needed gravity not to turn into a caricature of Anne Wintour.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 22\n05/27/2016\nBarbra Streisand has 4 Best Actress Oscars! More than Meryl.\nBarbra would've won for Klute and Cabaret, in addition to Funny Girl and TWWW, had she not turned them down first. We should acknowledge this and call her a 4-time Best Actress Oscar winner.\nThat makes Streisand the best living actress.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 23\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 24\n05/27/2016\nWho is Jesdica? Also, why does that boy cry every time he wins an award? Is it because he is too short?\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 26\n05/27/2016\nJane Fonda was once a good actress, at least for a few years. Same with Faye, Diane Keaton, Jodi Foster, and Frances McDormand.\nHonestly, I think Meryl would be in the same category as they are, except that she got incredibly lucky with a comeback of sorts in 2002 with Adaptation and The Hours, which kept her viable enough for The Devil Wears Prada and everything since then. If it hadn't been for her good year in 2002, she'd have been doing low-budget indies and stage work from 1996 on.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 27\n05/27/2016\nCate Blanchett is NOT in the best of all time Catagory. She got some spetacular moment and but she's done now.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 28\n05/27/2016\nR28 Her career is at its peak. I can see her winning third Oscar in next 5-8 years.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 29\n05/28/2016\nI can't believe no one has yet mentioned Vanessa Redgrave. Even with Meryl in the mix I consider Vanessa to be the greatest living actress.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 30\nI've never said Cate Blanchett was the best of all time. She is the best now.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 34\nI actually love Lynn Redgrave.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 35\n05/28/2016\nMaggie Smith. Meryl Streep is a film actress who has spent the majority of her career avoiding working with great writers and directors. For someone supposedly the greatest actress alive, she has certainly avoided playing the great female parts. Where is her Mary Tyrone? Clytemnestra? Lady Macbeth?\nSince the late 80s she has shown such little curiosity and inspiration. I think she secretly wants to be Diane Keaton.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 36\n05/28/2016\nI'm always surprised that people think Streep is so great. She's made a career of playing mediocre characters in (for the most part) mediocre movies.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 37\n05/28/2016\nNot true. People would not spend all their time here talking about her if that was true. And people spend a LOT of time here talking about Meryl Streep.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 38\nJessica Lange surpasses Streep. Lange is the best.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 39\n05/28/2016\nThere is no such thing as the best. Jess is good but her TV work is hammy.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 40\n05/28/2016\nCan someone please explain all the acclaim for Helen Mirren? The overwhelming majority of her career has been in British television series, most notably Prime Suspect. That hardly qualifies her as one of the great film actresses. And yes, she was great in The Queen, but other than that, what are her greatest acting triumphs? In what other great and memorable films has she starred? According to IMDb, she was also nominated for Oscars for The Last Station, a move no one saw, as well as Gosford Park, a great film but she was a supporting actress and didn't exactly carry the film, and The Madness of King George, a fine film that few people remember, and of those people even fewer remember her in it.\nSo what exactly is the big deal with this mostly TV actress? Is it because she's British?\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 41\nHelen has done a lot of stage work and has magnificent titties\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 42\n05/28/2016\nIf Meryl was never born, someone else in the 80's may have taken off but we will never know. Streep managed to be popular in every decade, with a few bumps in the road. Most actresses are lucky to have a 5 year run and then it's downhill at 40, no matter how good they are. Maybe Susan Sarandon would have soared. Definitely not Jess. She was never a good movie lead and audiences did not care for her movies.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 43\nJulia Roberts. Julian Moore. Jessica Lang. Juliette Lewis (j/k, she fucks dogs.)\nJJJJ, ya hear?\nJulia Roberts is the greatest actress alive. Meryl dead or alive doesn't come close to Julia.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 46\nR46 Are you posting from 90s? It's all about J Law now.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 47\n05/28/2016\nr47 fuck off, you nasty pig. Julia is a legend, global icon, only female superstar after Liz Taylor. J-Law is just the current flavor going to be forgotten soon like Meg Ryan\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 48\n05/28/2016\nI wonder how many casting couches Meryl has been on. She has talent, no doubt, but come on.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 49\n05/28/2016\nJulia Roberts is not a good actress. Box office in the 90's but never a good actress. Now she is pushing 50 and over.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 50\nR49 Contrary to your wild fantasies, not every actress has slept for roles.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 51\n05/28/2016\nMeryl is so talented that even if she wasn't born she would still be better than 99% of the actresses out there today.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 52\nR51, no, I wasn't talking about all of them, just Meryl \"Couch surfer\" Streep.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 53\nIf Meryl were born black, which actress would she be? I say Lena Horne\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 54\n05/28/2016\nIsabelle Huppert is already the best living actress. But Meryl is a close third (Jeanne Moreau is still alive).\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 55\n05/28/2016\nIsabelle Huppert is not the best living actress. She is fascinating and makes interesting and bold choices career-wise, but as far as acting ability goes, is very limited.\nDenis Lavant (male) is someone who'll make you realise you've never seen someone live out the words before. Saw him at a reading (a reading!!), it was mind-blowing. All the rest are amateurs.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 56\n05/29/2016\nMaggie Smith, hands down. Me and my partner were watching The Lady in the Van, which is not even really a great film, and I asked: \"What is it about Maggie Smith that makes her compelling in anything she does?\" The answer came immediately: \"She is an exceptional actor.\"\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 57\nR57 Maggie Smith only knows how to play a sour-faced, dryly sarcastic English dame.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 58\nI would agree R58. Her range is extremely limited. And she can't do accents.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 59\nIs that even a question? Julianne Moore.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 60\nR62 Like Harry Potter type range ? LOL\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 63\nYou need to see more movies, R63.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 64\nR64 She did Harry Potter. That should automatically disqualify her.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 65\n05/30/2016\nJean Brodie was when she was still trying to be to Vanessa Redgrave like, how do I put this delicately, like G is to me.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 66\n05/30/2016\nOP Cate Blanchett is half American. Her father was from Texas. That being said she does some weird US regional accents for someone whose father was American. In essence, she makes some typical mistakes foreign actors who have no American parents make! Shame on her....\nShe tells a cute story about her American roots and Halloween in Australia on Kimmel though.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 67\nAnd here's a nice picture\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 68\n05/31/2016\nThere's a lot of actresses that could make the list, but only jumped the shark by heading into genres they were shit at.\nAngela Bassett, Halle Berry, Stockard Channing, Kathleen Turner, come immediately to mind...\ngiven time and more work Emma Watson could jump forward.\nbut on the more practical side, I suppose Mary-Louise Parker... even if all her characters look like a deer trapped in the headlights.\nand while personally, I'm about as much of a fan of Patti LuPone as I am of Meryl Streep, not even Sarah Brightman with her nails on chalkboard shrill voice and those decades of straddling Webber's horsecock could wrestle broadway, off broadway, off off broadway from LuPone.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 69\n05/31/2016\nR69 Your post was okay till you mentioned Emma Watson. She has no talent, neither charisma.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 70\n05/31/2016\n[quote]Isabelle Huppert is not the best living actress. She is fascinating and makes interesting and bold choices career-wise, but as far as acting ability goes, is very limited.\nBollocks. Isabelle Huppert can emote any human expression. She can read me the phone book any day of the week and she'll have you on the brink of tears.\nToni Colette is/was exceptional too.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 71\nBlanchette is terribly overrated, Judi Dench acted circles around her in Notes of a Scandal.\nBoth Blanchette and Streep are mainstream actresses for the masses. Blah\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 72\n05/31/2016\nR70 I think you're describing her personality rather than her acting ability.\nr71 Toni Colette, I think.. falls into a category with Tilda Swinton... something beyond mere actresses... putting them in the category of Meryl, is like putting them in the same category as The Rock\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 73\n05/31/2016\nR71, Huppert may well be able to express any number of expressions, she still plays the same character over and over and over again.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 74\n05/31/2016\nR73 What 'acting abilities'? You truly believe she's a gifted actress? Have you seen her movies?\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 75\n05/31/2016\nCate Blanchett is our most versatile, beautiful and eminently watchable leading lady! I adore her feline beauty.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 76\n05/31/2016\nAlso Noomi Rapace, Lupita N'yongo and Charlize Theron. Love them, too.\nCannot stand Emma Watson, Keira Knightly (so wooden), Gwyneth Paltrow and Blythe Danner (hippy-dippy smug) nor Lens Dunham, for what its worth.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 77\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 81\n05/31/2016\nr75 compared to other lasses in her age range, and given her looks, her charms and yes, having more skill. I think she could fall into a Ally Sheedy/Winona Ryder/Jena Malone category. . . she fulfills a certain niche, if she was a stock, I'd be investing in her. I see long term powerbitch in her future. I think the primary reason the crowd is against her is because of the he for she shit, that was just more a naive balancing act to the current media trends than the insufferable shit that ms. dunham exploits (and others) that revved everyone up into a frenzy to paint them as all one in the same.\nOr maybe that she's less likely to be\n\"Well, see, the trouble with you is you're not giving me anything. You know, if you want something from the tabs, you gotta give 'em something back. You're just kinda flatlining nice and sweet, are you? And they want a little bit of a heartbeat. They don't wanna know your mum's your best friend, do they? They want it to be some one-armed, lesbian assailant seeker! They want the full cellulite shots! They want a forty-in-the-bed party with your Harry Potter mates! They want your main lining, arm-jacking, smack-crack nightmare, darling! They want you fileted all over the butcher's block so they can photograph all your organs for \"Heat\" magazine! I mean, frankly, for once, I would like to see you foaming at the mouth, stinking of piss in the gutter with this little thumb stuck up Matthew Lewis's ass and you wearing nothing but a Gucci belt! \"\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 82\n05/31/2016\nThe actress who lost the most with the ascendance of Streep was Annette O'Toole. They were visually similar when young and both had critical support. But they were sort of twins and Steeep probably had more ambition.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 83\n05/31/2016\nR81...LOVE Juliette Binoche. She is indeed amazing. She doesn't seem to have the discipline of the English stage actresses, but she is so alive onscreen. When I think of Meryl Streep's career and find it wanting, it's because I've compared her to Maggie Smith/Judi Dench/Vanessa Redgrave/Helen Mirren...who besides working in film also committed themselves to the stage and tackled some of THE great roles. Meryl just hasn't done that. She has not thrown down her Mary Tyrone, her Blanche DuBois, her Antigone, her Nora, her Cleopatra.\nBut I also think of Juliette Binoche, who has largely forsaken Hollywood and has worked with the great directors of our time. She has shown courage in a way that Meryl Streep hasn't. Meryl has been considered one of the greatest actresses alive for 30+ years. She could work with anyone she wanted. In any medium. And yet, time after time she chooses to work with mediocre talent in mediocre films. But, hey, she keeps getting nominated and winning Oscars...\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 84\n05/31/2016\nLindsay Wagner was born on the same day as Meryl, and is Meryl's spiritual twin.\nIf Meryl hadn't been born, the cosmos would have gifted all of M's talent's to Lindsay, and she would have (at least) 2 Oscars - one for her Supporting turn in \"The Paper Chase\" and the 2nd for \"The Taking of Flight 847: The Uli Derickson Story\" - yes, I know that was made for TV, but it would have been a film with Lindsey's clout as Best Living Actress.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 85\nAnd yet people talk about Meryl incessantly.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 86\nR85, I would have loved to have seen M as The Bionic Woman.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 87\n05/31/2016\nI get the sense Streep is interested in creating her own characters. I also think it would be great if Scorsese, Spielberg, etc. did more movies about women. It's easy to second guess her choices but clearly she is an ongoing DL obsession.\nI forgot about Lindsay Wagner. I loved that show.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 88\n05/31/2016\nI like r6's game. Who'd have got the roles if there was no Meryl?\nKramer Versus Kramer-maybe Jobeth Williams. Meryl auditioned for that smaller role in the film first but then when Kate Jackson was unavailable she moved up to the bigger part. Maybe Jobeth would have too.\nSophie's Choice-that Polish actress who was second choice\nSilkwood-Diane Keaton - she was branching out from Woody Allen and Warren Beatty around then so she could have had it-----or maybe Debra Winger\nOut of Africa- Kate Nelligan\nDevil Wears Prada-hard to think of another actress that age who was big at the time. (Glenn and Jess were sort of low profile in films in 2006) Maybe Cate or Catherine Zeta-Jones or even Mrs. Gwyneth if any of them had been willing to look older.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 90\nr23, Barbra Streisand did not win an Oscar for TWWW.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 91\n05/31/2016\nThe well-known fact that she \"chooses to work with mediocre talent in mediocre films\" plays a large role in my not being a fan of M. When she does a shitfest like Mamma Mia, knowing full well what the????? I'm off the boat. And it's been that way for the past 20 years or so.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 92\nMama Mia was her biggest box office hit ever.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 93\n05/31/2016\nCherry Jones should have been offered the role in the film 'Doubt' not Streep. She did win the Tony award...\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 94\n05/31/2016\nI remember that Susan Lucci wanted her \"Out of Africa.\" That movie would have been better with Meryl and Timothy Dalton. I did like Meryl with Klaus. A Kate Mulgrew would be good.\nI am not convinced Kramer would have worked with Kate Jackson. Maybe Lindsay Wagner.\nSharon Stone would be fun for Prada.\nThey could remake Sophie with Saoirse.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 95\n05/31/2016\nThe Kramer character was totally different when Kate Jackson was attached. She was just spoiled rich girl who wanted to play tennis and thought child care was boring.\nThe writers and directors let Meryl make her more sympathetic and troubled.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 96\nThe weird thing about Kramer Versus Kramer is no one ever thinks of joint custody.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 97\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 101\n06/01/2016\nPeople seem to be taking Momma Mia! way too seriously. It made millions of people happy, just like Grease.\nDoes anyone think Jennifer Lawrence will be as successful, or is Cate Blanchett the heir apparent?\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 102\n06/01/2016\nKate Winslet has had some rocky years. How could she not given the heights her career climbed, but I'll say it now, she's a far more gifted actress than Blanchett.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 103\n06/01/2016\nSharon Stone in Prada? Yeah and it would premiere on encore 4yrs after it filmed and the Anne role would have been played by Bijou Phillips or some shit. Busy Phillips lol\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 104\nI agree that Toni Collette is a gifted actress. Japanese Story..\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 105\nI would cast Kirsten Dunst in some of Meryl's earlier roles.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 106\nSpeaking of which, la Julianne is hilarious in Maggie's Plan.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 107\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 108\n06/01/2016\nIf Meryl was never born does that mean that Mr. Potter would have taken over all of Bedford Falls and turned it into Pottersville?\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 109\n06/01/2016\nIt's highly subjective but my short list of contenders would be Judy Davis, Tilda Swinton, Julianne Moore, Catherine Deneuve and Vanessa Redgrave.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 110\n06/01/2016\nIn the past 10 years, Meryl has worked with Robert Altman, Jonathan Demme and Stephen Frears. Such mediocre talent.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 111\nNo one comes close to Julia Roberts. No one.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 112\n06/01/2016\nR90 I like your suggestions but remind me, who was the Polish actress who was considered the second choice?\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 113\n06/01/2016\nR82 You are delusional. Brie Larson, Alicia Vikander, Saoirse Ronan, JLaw, Emma Stone - all who are in Emma Watson's age range - are far more talented, skilled and charismatic than basic Emma Watson.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 114\n06/01/2016\nYeah Emma Watson sucks and she's not cute, or sexy, or intelligent, or damaged... She's nothing on screen basically\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 115\n06/01/2016\nFuck Cate Blanchett- Arch, Dykish, Arrogant, so pleased with herself. She isn't half the gifted, spirited actress that Kate Winslet can be. And frankly I'm sick of people saying Blanchett is everything when I can barely stomach her in most of what she does, sometimes she's bizarrely fascinating, but NEVER likable. I'd really like to see more from these younger, gifted actresses. Michelle Williams, Brie Larson, Abbie Cornish or Kiki Dunst after what they did in Bright Star and Melancholia. Jlaw ravaged by Aronofsky's lens. Fuck that smug elvish bitch Ham Blanchett\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 116\n06/01/2016\nR115 You described yourself there. Emma is young, pretty talented and I'm sure she's going to be a big actress.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 117\nCan Cate Blanchett be Queen if she is Australian? I thought the rules prevent felons.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 118\n06/01/2016\nSusan Lucci also publically stated that she wanted M's role in Bridges of Madison County, r95.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 119\nBrie Larson wants to be a big player.\nJennifer Lawrence wants to be ?\nI still am waiting for Sandra to follow up and pivot. She has so much carte Blanche but seems stuck.\nCharlize could be great but will probably end up on TV.\nEmma's are good.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 120\n06/02/2016\nI agree that Winslet is better than Blanchett when she takes risks. God knows what she/her agents have been doing for the last few years. I'm completely burned out on Lawrence at the moment.\nWe'd probably be talking of somebody like Maggie Smith or Judy Davis as the greatest living actress if Meryl wasn't around.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 121\n06/03/2016\nI know the Julia fans are trolling, but I actually think Julia out-acted Meryl in August Osage County. Seriously.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 122\n06/03/2016\nMeryl would fold like a tent if she had to do stage. There is a reason she stays away from theater.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 123\n06/03/2016\n[R122] She did. I don't always feel that the criticism that you can always see Streep 'acting' is entirely warranted, but in A:OC it really was.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 124\n06/03/2016\nI love Meryl, but her performance in August: Osage was TERRIBLE. It's laughable that she got an Oscar nod. I'm sure there were more deserving actresses for that slot--I can't think of who right now though.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 125\nI loved her in AOC but I love hammy Streep.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 126\nJESSICA LANGE. Oh wait, she's already the world's best living actress.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 127\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 128\n06/03/2016\nI wish these actresses had the longevity/relevance of Meryl and would like to play the re-casting game with y'all.\nJessica Lange in August Osage County Debra Winger in Ricki + the Flash Judi Dench (someone already mentioned this, if we cast someone other than Cherry Jones) in Doubt Judy Davis in The Devil Wears Prada Judy Davis in The Manchurian Candidate Bernadette Peters (duh!) in Into the Woods\nLesley Manville in any of the above.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 129\n06/03/2016\nLange in Osage County would've been an event. I so wish she'd do that next on Broadway.\nI also wish they'd film and release this production of Long Day's Journey into Night.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 130\nOf course there's only one answer. And the answer is Patty Duke.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 132\n06/03/2016\nJessica came back on TV but she is no Meryl. Her early promise on screen fizzled out fast.\nMy feeling is that many of Meryl's roles will be remade in the future since she was often offered the best roles.\nWhat about Glenn? Too manly?\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 133\n06/03/2016\nR117 Emma Watson is none of the above. She had a role in My Week with Marilyn, compare Watson to the choices Williams made in the film. You CAN'T. Watson absolutely didn't register. And there are no small parts only small actors. A more talented young lady would have registered as SOMEthing- that's the goal. Supporting actresses have often stolen films. Maybe you deeply love Harry Potter, I'm sure you do, lover, but the little chick can't act. She wasn't believeable in The Perks of Being a Wallflower either, she read as a plain virgin and that wasn't the role.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 134\n06/03/2016\nDebra Winger is talented. Look at the gravity she gave her bit part in Rachel Getting Married.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 135\nAgree Winger could have gone further but she was her own worst enemy\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 136\nSorry, R132, Patty's just a little too dead.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 137\n06/03/2016\nI know it's commonly accepted on DL to hate Meryl and worship Jessica. One of the biggest criticisms I hear on DL about Meryl is that she's never been in a memorable film or a blockbuster. I would dispute that, but that's another topic. To all the Jessica worshippers, what are her memorable, lasting films? Her resume is even less impressive than Meryl's based on that criteria. DLers often mention her performance in Frances, but I would say that Frances is even more forgotten than Sophie's Choice. Tootsie? Sure, but she was supporting cast. That was Hoffman's film. What else? There's not much there if you really look. So she's done Broadway, but except for her current Long Day's Journey Into Night, not an otherwise impressive Broadway resume. The only thing she has over Meryl is television, so I guess she and Glenn can fight it over over who is the reigning Failed Movie Queen Who Tried Their Luck At Television. Meryl has no dog in that fight, except for the Emmy and Golden Globe awards she's got for the few times she's crossed over to the small screen.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 138\n06/04/2016\nIf Meryl was never born, her parts might have been taken by Blythe Danner, who got similarly great reviews early in her career. The big critics, Kael, Simon, Kauffman, Champlin, Canby all thought she'd be the next big thing. Kael compared her to DeNiro and Simon said how unfair it was that she'd been doing brilliant work for years yet is immediately usurped by Streep.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 139\nJessica Lange looks like a really mean old lady\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 140\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 141\n06/04/2016\nSusan Lucci advancing would have been fascinating. I totally dug her as Erica Caine. Hollywood is so elusive.\nSo Brad let a decorator blow him for connections? Sounds right\nBrie is very competitive with an ego\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 142\nIt's obviously Jessica Lange. Meryl never won a Tony, right?\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 143\nJessica, the latest Triple Crown champ.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 144\nThink outside the box, boys.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 145\n06/13/2016\nThe woman who was proclaimed by Arthur Miller and Tennessee Williams as the greatest actor of their time: Vanessa Redgrave.\nAs narcissistic as Donald Trump but at least she had talent. Crazy interview where she plays games with the guy, telling him she never said stuff she clearly said - and he called her on it ha ha.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 146\nR123 I saw Meryl on stage in Mother Courage. She was phenomenal.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 147\nR146, She sounds like a real chore to deal with. Ick.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 148\n06/14/2016\nR123, Meryl periodically does limited run stints of Joe Papp Public Theater/Shakespeare in the Park, usually to glowing reviews. She hasn't done Broadway since the 1970s, probably because of the grueling schedule and season long commitment. A girl gets bored having to act out the same scenes 7 days a week for 4 to 6 months, particularly if you're a technical actor like Meryl. Jessica is an emotional actor who feeds off the energy of her surroundings. Since the energy is likely to be different each night, each performance may be fresh and different from the night before. Of course, this approach isn't always reliable and can lead to an actor surrendering entirely to his emotions and veering off into OTT territory.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 149\n06/14/2016\nMeryl's Deer Hunter role would have been long-forgotten.\nThe Kramer vs. Kramer role would have stayed as initially written, and whoever played it largely forgotten. Instead of winning best picture, it would have been a Dustin Hoffman vehicle about father's and father's rights.\nSophie's Choice would have gone to a European actress. Maybe Jessica Lange, Mia Farrow, or, don't laugh, Goldie Hawn.\nSissy Spacek or Debra Winger would have played Karen Silkwood.\nSissy Spacek, Holly Hunter, or an English actress would have played the mother in A Cry in the Dark.\nMaybe Jessica Lange for The Bridges of Madison County.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 150\n06/15/2016\nGrammar trolls don't seem to care much about M one way or the other, and quite right they are. Shouldn't it say \"If M had never been born...\"?\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 151\n06/16/2016\nI find Janet McTeer and more interesting actress than Meryl. r35 I miss Lynn Redgrave too, brilliant comedian.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 152\nAs much as it sounds ironic, Glenn Close.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 156\nWhat? I'm sorry, you lost me at \"If Meryl was never born...\"\nThat's just crazy talk...word salad.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 157\nUm, I remember Pia Zadora was really good.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 158\nWhat was I? Chopped Liver?\nSure, I'm dead now...but you had about 60 years to appreciate my craft.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 159\n07/30/2016\nThe half American Cate Blanchett still doesn't do American accents that convincingly! She is not really bright and tries to act above her station.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 160\nDame Emma Thompson you commoner rubbish of course.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 161\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 168\n07/30/2016\nDiane Keaton, because she managed to even outshine the brilliant Sissy Spacek & Jessica Lange in \"Crimes of the Heart.\" Although all 3 of them were MAGIC in that oft-overlooked gem of a film.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 169\n07/30/2016\nR169 yeah but it was Sissy who got the Oscar nod in that film, not Diane\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 170\nOscars so white. . .Charro. Coochie Coochie\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 171\n07/30/2016\nFor crying out loud, I like a lot of actors and I do not want to see Meryl Streep in every role. She should not have been in Bridges of Madison County and Eastwood was not right either.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 172\n07/30/2016\n[quote]She should not have been in Bridges of Madison County and Eastwood was not right either.\nI agree. She was all wrong for the part. And so was that old geezer.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 173\n07/30/2016\nIf Meryl was never born? Well, she was born and she is still here. Now, the question is how do we get rid of her? And who here is willing to help me?\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 174\n07/31/2016\n[quote][R123], Meryl periodically does limited run stints of Joe Papp Public Theater/Shakespeare in the Park, usually to glowing reviews.\nThey weren't all so glowing...\n[quote]But then she did MOTHER COURAGE in Central Park wherein she groveled in the mud (on a rainy night’s performance) and practically impersonated all Three Stooges in her Brechtian exertions, and MAMMA MIA, in which, in an effort to act agelessly young and full of life, she made Betty Hutton at her most manic seem like Duse as her most reposed.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 175\n07/31/2016\nLange would have been a disaster as an Italian war bride. She can't do accents and is cold as a fish. She is only effective as a bitch or lunatic (or both).\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 176\n07/31/2016\nEastwood was right because you are still talking about the movie. He didn't want Lange because he knew she would stink up the screen. Jess was box office poison and is still dreary on film. The camp of AHS was perfect for her histrionics.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 177\n07/31/2016\nWithout Streep, nobody else would have garnered a consensus they were the best. Streep's reputation derives from her fondness for accents and her alleged chameleon quality. The other major stars of her generation didn't go for that so much, but were more about emotional truth and power.\nWith Streep, it's usually evident that she is \"acting,\" but most critics somehow either don't notice or don't care. Her contemporaries are most of them a lot less technical.\nR176, Streep is the epitome of cold and uninvolving, except in comedy and in roles where Streeps own aloofness or coolness meshes with the character's. No major actress of our time has less ability to elicit deep emotion, no one is less able to bring an audience to tears or make them feel on the edge of their seats.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 178\n07/31/2016\nIf M had never been born, Julie Andrews would have won the Oscar for [italic]Victor/Victoria[/italic], and then she'd finally have an Oscar for a performance that deserved it.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 179\n[/italic]It's because of the slash, isn't it?\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 180\n07/31/2016\nMore DL bullshit. Streep is constantly discussed here. If she were cold or uninvolving, she never would have become a movie legend.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 181\n07/31/2016\nPeople who claim Streep is cold should watch her Oscar worthy scene in Devil Wears Prada when Miranda strips down emotionally to AnnE, reveals her fears and passions. No ' tick tick tock' with her there.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 182\nLet's play [R6]'s game.\nKramer Versus Kramer- Diane Keaton\nSophie's Choice- Juliette Binoche\nOut of Africa- Susan Sarandon\nDevil Wears Prada- Sharon Stone\n+ Doubt- Cherry Jones\nThe Iron Lady- Imelda Staunton\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 183\n07/31/2016\n[quote]More DL bullshit. Streep is constantly discussed here. If she were cold or uninvolving, she never would have become a movie legend.\nThat depends how you define a legend. If a legend is someone who stars in legendary, classic movies, then no, Streep is not a legend. She continues to have no classics where she plays lead (and no, I'm not interested in arguing ths point, because it's a fact that her movies fail to make the critics' Great Film lists). I don't always agree with what's on these lists and what's left off, but it is true that her movies tend to be left off.\nAnd none of her movies were hits that relied on her star power to sell them when she was young. they were strictly critical hits, they didn't draw the masses at all. They didn't make money unless they had a big name A list male costar like Dustin Hoffman or Robert Redford. In her late middle age she did become a bona fide draw, but mostly in comedies like Julie and Julia and The Devil Wears Prada, the latter of which calls on her to play a cold, aloof, chilly woman.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 184\n07/31/2016\n[quote]People who claim Streep is cold should watch her Oscar worthy scene in Devil Wears Prada when Miranda strips down emotionally to AnnE, reveals her fears and passions. No ' tick tick tock' with her there.\nIf that's the best example you can give, I rest my case. The performance was genuinely entertaining, but hardly moving or sympathy generating. I felt nothing for her character and she certainly never humanized that woman to any great degree, certainly not when you compare it to what Sigourney Weaver did with a similar character (the abusive boss from hell) in Working Girl. Weaver really does generate real sympathy for her character, her final humiliation is disturbing to watch, despite never letting you forget what a bully and manipulative bitch she is. Weavers performance is far superior to Streep's, as good as Streep is.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 185\n07/31/2016\nWow, you are a major cunt.\nI get it that YOU don't care for her, but she is popular all over the world. I also disagree with your dismissal of her films, because many are well regarded and have been widely seen over the past 5 decades. There seems to be an irrational desire to erase her from cinema, which is not going to happen.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 186\n07/31/2016\nFuck off R186.\nPeople dismiss actresses ' performances all the time here, whether generally acclaimed or not. I don't give a fuck if you dislike what I say. Tough shit. It's a discussion board. Several prior posts harshly criticized Jessica Lange's acting skills, and in far more insulting terms than I criticized Streep, but you didn't complain about that did you? This is because you're an entitled fanboy cunt who thinks it's just fine to lambast Lange or any other actress, but woe betide anyone who dares to attack the sacred cow Streep. Double standards much?\nI was responding to a prior post claiming Lange could not have starred in Bridges of Madison County because she is \"cold\" in everything. I stand by my charge that Streep has a colder screen presence than Lange except when she does comedy.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 187\nOh, so your feelings got hurt about the limitations of crazy Jessica Lange? Poor baby!\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 188\n07/31/2016\n[quote]I get it that YOU don't care for her, but she is popular all over the world. I also disagree with your dismissal of her films, because many are well regarded and have been widely seen over the past 5 decades. There seems to be an irrational desire to erase her from cinema, which is not going to happen.\nErase her from cinema? Do you know how hysterical you sound? She has no movies that are generally considered classics or masterpieces where she's the star. That is inarguable. I've consulted many, many, many different Greatest Films lists over the years to help me fill in the gaps in my knowledge and her movies don't appear on any of them, except ones like Manhattan where she has very little screentime. This has nothing to do with my personal biases, it's an objective fact. I don't always agree with the choices and some movies that are always there I think are overrated and movies I think belong may be absent. That's irrelevant. I am stating what the reality is.\nYou might see something like Out of Africa listed at #992 or something. But these movies are so low ranked they're always falling off the lists when they get updated.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 189\n07/31/2016\nBut people know and talk about her movies all the time. Especially here. From Kramer to Angels in America to Silkwood to The Devil Wears Prada. Have a nice day.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 190\n07/31/2016\nFurthermore, other living actresses do have movies that make these lists regularly. You may not like the idea of mixing Hollywood with foreign language films, but that's what these lists do, so someone like Liv Ullmann has numerous titles high up on these lists where she has starring roles, not just a cameo like Streep in Manhattan. Shirley MacLaine has The Apartment and Being There. Sissy Spacek, Julianne Moore, and Sigourney Weaver have titles. There are others.\n[quote]But people know and talk about her movies all the time. Especially here. From Kramer to Angels in America to Silkwood to The Devil Wears Prada. Have a nice day.\nNo they don't. Nobody talks about those movies the way they talk about Casablanca or GoodFellas or Lawrence of Arabia or even The Last Picture Show or Silence of the Lambs. If you were to talk about Dustin Hoffman, for example, The Graduate, Midnight Cowboy, All the Presidents Men, Tootsie, and Rain Man, all get discussed and remembered far more than KvK.\nPeople talk about her all the time if the are Oscar trivia buffs and awards obsessives. That has little to do with how critics, academics, and filmmakers evaluate her movies as overall achievements. They may think they are good movies, but not enough to consider them worthy of inclusion in the film canon.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 191\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 192\n07/31/2016\nCompared to KvK, yes, it gets talked about more. I'm not particularly a fan but people talk about the movie and performance more (and it's always one of the first movies people mention if they want to defend Tom Cruise from the charge he can't act).\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 193\n07/31/2016\nNot in my world. My sense is Streep will be remembered as a great actress and her films will be discussed for decades. Her work depicts a variety of fully fleshed out female characters. They already are in the film canon. My 2 cents.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 194\nStreep is only talked about among gays and fraus.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 195\n07/31/2016\nNo they aren't., R194. They may be in your personal pantheon, which is fine, but they aren't in the pantheon of the real world out there, as opposed to the world of your imagination. Like I said, I don't always agree with the choices that are in the canon or how they get ranked (I would not put Citizen Kane #1 no matter how technically brilliant it is), but that is the reality.\nAnd how can you claim her films will be discussed for decades when they already aren't discussed that much now? They may discuss them endlessly on fan forums and Oscar prediction sites, but serious film scholars and aspiring young directors don't often turn to them for inspiration. Nor do many young actors seem to be much influenced by her.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 196\n07/31/2016\nMeryl Streep will win her fourth Oscar and there's nothing you can do to prevent this.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 197\nI won't be impressed until she wins five...\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 198\nJessica Lange, Judi Dench. Sigourney Weaver. Toni Collette.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 199\nDeidre Hall, Susan Lucci, Erika Slezak, Victoria Wyndham, Kim Zimmer, Robin Strasser, et al.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 200\nSigourney Weaver or Susan Sarandon\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 201\n07/31/2016\nEveryone from Alicia Vikander to Jennifer Lawrence has cited Streep as an influence. You are underestimating her influence because you are jealous of her success!\nJess already had a go at the movies and failed. Debra Winger crashed and burned. Sue is mediocre. Very hard to duplicate a legend.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 202\n08/01/2016\nThe only one who rivals Streep is Maggie Smith but she's too old to play Hollywood game and too British.\nFace it, M is a mega movie star. She can open a movie on her name alone. How many 50+ actresses can do that?\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 203\n08/01/2016\n[quote]Everyone from Alicia Vikander to Jennifer Lawrence has cited Streep as an influence. You are underestimating her influence because you are jealous of her success.\nThat's just playing the PR game and status signalling. If anyone disliked Streep's acting, they would never say so because the one thing you never ever do in Hollywood is badmouth a big star. That's sacrilege. Saying you admire Streep is shorthand to indicate you're a serious actress and want to be offered the great roles. The only acceptable attitude to Streep in Hollywood is to gush over her alleged genius.\nMeanwhile, if you observe what Jennifer Lawrence DOES instead of what she SAYS, she was obviously busy stealing ideas and mannerisms from Gena Rowlands for American Hustle. Not Streep. When interviewers set aside their preconceptions and allow actors to answer freely, stop trying to force feed Streep, the answers are different. Rachel McAdams turns out to be a huge fan of Elizabeth Taylor. Sarah Paulson turns out to adore Jessica Lange. Jessica Lange turns out to have idolized Kim Stanley and doesn't even have a favorite Streep performance. Jessica Chastain turns out to be sick and tired of seeing Streep in everything and would rather see other people get cast. Gena Rowlands turns out to be one of those hidden influences that was much more impactful on the acting community than on the general public. And so forth.\nYou can tell when someone is sincere and when they're just status signalling. McAdams on Taylor, Paulson on Lange, Lange on Stanley, that's where you see who they really love and who their real favorites are. Just as you can tell who directors truly admire and want to collaborate with by who they pursue for their passion projects, not by who they say nice things about in the press. Often, however, studios will only green light their movies if they cast who the studio wants and requests.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 204\nM must have kicked r204 in the vagina bone.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 205\n08/01/2016\nR204 Good post but how does Jessica Chastain have career after she practically slammed and badmouthed Meryl?\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 206\n08/01/2016\nShe didn't badmouth Meryl R206. She did the fake air kissy gushing thing they all do, saying I Love Meryl over and over before segueing into her real point, that Meryl gets cast in everything and wouldn't it be nice to spread the wealth and the other actresses of Streeps generation get to play some of those parts. She made sure her plea to spread the wealth wouldn't sound like a diss, but that didn't stop crazy Meryl fans from attacking her in the comments section below the article.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 207\n08/01/2016\nYou are talking out of your ass. Everyone has different influences. You know right that Sarah is a loon and makes fun of Jessica behind her back? Get over yourself.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 208\n08/01/2016\nYes, everyone has different influences, and for most of today's stars, except a few like Blanchett, Streep is not a significant one.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 209\nThey can't touch Streep and they know it.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 210\n08/01/2016\nWhat could have been, going with her contemporaries:\nClose, Lange Bening, and Holly Hunter might have had bigger careers (Lange, who I love was out of it till AHS).\nMary Kay Place, Christine Lahti, Bonnie Bedelia, Judy Davis, Sissy Spacek, Amy Madigan, Mercedes Ruehl, Blair Brown, and Tess Harper wouldn't have virtually disappeared after the 80s. I include Harper, though she was a pretty limited actress, and I'm not including Kim Griest, who could have been in this company but never broke in.\nActresses of about a decade younger who would be starting to get Meryl's scripts, Mary McDonnell, Melissa Leo, Laila Robbins, Laura Dern.\nThe criminally under-used Dale Dickey would be a household name.\nDebra Winger would still be in oblivion. As another poster said, her own worst enemy.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 215\nAlfre Woodard, who has been criminally underused in films.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 216\n08/01/2016\nThat's a whole other issue besides, R216. Didn't really change till maybe the last 5 years.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 217\n08/01/2016\nStreep is gifted and was cast a lot, but the idea that all of these various actresses would have done better without her around is really dubious.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 218\nWoodard has a gorgeous daughter, too.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 219\n08/01/2016\nIt would not have changed much. Streep was dominant from 1980-1990, then Julia Roberts and other younger stars took over. All of Meryl's contemporaries from the 80's ran out of steam on their own accord. Over 40 was not supported then. It's kind of more supported now.\nby The Ghost of Geraldine Pag\nreply 220", "Angela Lansbury - Biography - IMDb\nAngela Lansbury\nBiography\nShowing all 101 items\nJump to: Overview  (4) | Mini Bio  (1) | Spouse  (2) | Trade Mark  (3) | Trivia  (70) | Personal Quotes  (18) | Salary  (3)\nOverview (4)\n5' 8\" (1.73 m)\nMini Bio (1)\nBritish character actress, long in the United States. The daughter of an actress and the granddaughter of a high-ranking politician, Lansbury studied acting from her youth, departing for the United States as the Second World War began. She was contracted by MGM while still a teenager and nominated for an Academy Award for her first film, Gaslight (1944). Two pictures later, she was again nominated for Best Supporting Actress, this time for The Picture of Dorian Gray (1945). Now established as a supporting player of quality, she began a long career, often as \"the other woman\" in major productions and as the leading lady in lesser films. Her features, while not at all old-appearing, gave her an air of maturity that allowed her to pass as much older than she actually was, and she began playing mother roles, often to players of her own age, while yet in her thirties. She concentrated more and more on stage work, achieving notable success in a number of Broadway plays and musicals, winning four Tony Awards in sixteen years. Although active in television since the early 1950s, she obtained her greatest fame in the 1980s by starring in the light mystery program Murder, She Wrote (1984). As Jessica Fletcher, she became known and loved by millions for well over a decade. She also became known for the odd fact of almost annual Emmy Award nominations for the role without ever winning for it. An institution in American theatre and television, she is also an inspiration for the graciousness of her personality, which is often exploited and always admired.\n- IMDb Mini Biography By: Jim Beaver <[email protected]>\nSpouse (2)\nDeep sultry voice.\nTrivia (70)\nDaughter of actress Moyna MacGill , who appeared with her in The Picture of Dorian Gray (1945) and Kind Lady (1951).\nGranddaughter of George Lansbury, British Labour Party leader in 1930s.\nSister of Edgar Lansbury and Bruce Lansbury , and half-sister of Isolde Denham.\nWearing just conventional makeup (i.e., not studio made-up to look \"old\"), she was most chilling and unforgettable (and convincing!) as the manipulating mother of Laurence Harvey in The Manchurian Candidate (1962), while in real life being scarcely three years Harvey's senior.\nShe, her mother Moyna MacGill and her twin younger brothers were in the last boatload of family members evacuated from London to America during World War II.\nA recent authorized biography, \"Balancing Act\", states that her first husband, Richard Cromwell was gay, a fact she didn't know until after their separation.\nShe was awarded the CBE (Commander of the Order of the British Empire) in the 1994 Queen's Birthday Honours List for her services to drama.\nHer daughter was a follower of Charles Manson 's gang. After the Sharon Tate murders, she thought it best to get her out of the country. She took her to Ireland to help her with his drug problems.\nAunt of David Lansbury , who is married to Ally Sheedy .\n2000: She was the recipient of the John F. Kennedy Center Honors in 2000 for her services to the arts.\nAs for 2012, Ms. Lansbury holds the record for the most Emmy nominations without a single win among performers with 18 unsuccessful nominations.\nShe has one half-sister, Isolde, from her mother's first marriage to Reginald Denham . Isolde was married to Peter Ustinov , with whom she had one daughter, Tamara Ustinov , Lansbury's niece.\nCousin of Oliver Postgate , the producer and voice behind the classic BBC Television series The Clangers (1969) and such series such as Ivor the Engine (1975).\nShe and Mildred Natwick were both in The Court Jester (1955) and were reunited in the Murder, She Wrote (1984) episode, Murder, She Wrote: Murder in the Electric Cathedral (1986), 30 years later.\nShe was reunited with her Death on the Nile (1978) co-star, Olivia Hussey , in the Murder, She Wrote (1984) episode, Murder, She Wrote: Sing a Song of Murder (1985), seven years after that film. Olivia played Rosalie Otterbourne in the movie and she was the daughter of Salome Otterbourne, played by Lansbury.\nShe was reunited with her The Court Jester (1955) co-star, Glynis Johns , in the Murder, She Wrote (1984) episode, Murder, She Wrote: Sing a Song of Murder (1985), 29 years after that film.\nShe was longtime friends with the late Bob Hope and gave a speech at his memorial service on August 27, 2003. She and Hope appeared on Bob Hope: The First 90 Years (1993), and she sang with him.\nJuly 21, 2000: She withdrew from a Broadway musical, \"The Visit\", due to her husband's impending heart surgery.\nShe was among the special guests who were invited to the Grand Opening of the first Disney Park in Europe (Disneyland Resort Paris, formerly known as EuroDisney Resort), where she impressed her hand prints.\nShe trained at the Webber Douglas Academy of Dramatic Arts in London, England whose alumni include Terence Stamp , Elizabeth Knowelden , Hugh Bonneville , Rupert Friend , Antony Sher , Matthew Goode , Sue Johnston , Minnie Driver and Julian Fellowes .\nShe has been nominated 12 times for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series on Murder, She Wrote (1984), plus four more before, during and after the series, but didn't win.\nShe was one of the last guest stars on the situation comedy Newhart (1982).\nOn the last episode of Murder, She Wrote (1984), she didn't work on the final day of production as there was too much emotion going on.\n11/25/75: Her mother, Moyna MacGill , died.\n1951: Became a United States citizen.\nHer twin brothers are both film producers.\nShe had performed with the Mormon Tabernacle Choir in their annual public Christmas concerts at Temple Square in Salt Lake City, Utah.\nShe was offered the role of Nurse Ratchet in One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1975) but turned it down because she didn't think she could handle the role.\n1985: She accepted the Oscar for \"Best Actress in a Supporting Role\" on behalf of Peggy Ashcroft , who wasn't present at the awards ceremony.\nJuly 14, 2005: She had knee replacement surgery.\nWhile filming Death on the Nile (1978), aboard ship, no one was allowed his or her own dressing room, so she shared a dressing room with Bette Davis and Maggie Smith .\nShe has been the co-recipient of 3 Grammy Awards for the Broadway stage shows, \"Mame\" (1966) and \"Sweeney Todd\" (1979) in which she played the female lead.\n2006: To date, she has hosted (or co-hosted) more Tony Awards telecasts than any other individual: (1968, 1971, 1987, 1988 and 1989).\n1997: She was awarded the American National Medal of the Arts by the National Endowment of the Arts in Washington, D.C.\nHer performance as Mrs. John Iselin in The Manchurian Candidate (1962) is ranked #91 on Premiere Magazine's 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time.\nShe was one of the speakers at Jerry Orbach 's memorial service.\nThough she's not hailed for her singing voice often, she has won 4 Tony Awards for Best Actress in a Musical, and is best known for being in musicals.\nHer singing voice was dubbed in the romantic musical The Harvey Girls (1946).\nBefore becoming a professional performer she went by her middle name Brigid. MGM wanted her to take the name Angela Marlowe but she refused.\nHer performance as Mrs. John Iselin in The Manchurian Candidate (1962) is ranked #21 in AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes and Villains for villains.\nEx-stepmother-in-law of Catherine Bach .\n2nd cousin, via cousin Coral Lansbury, to Australian Prime Minister (since September 2015), Malcolm Turnbull.\nCousin to Coral Lansbury, (died 4/4/1991), Rutgers University Camden Campus Dean of the Graduate School of English and mother to Australian Liberal Party leader, Malcolm Turnbull.\nGrandmother, via son Anthony Pullen Shaw , of Ian Lansbury .\nShe was nominated for the 2007 Tony Award (New York City) for Actress in a Drama for \"Deuce\".\nShe was considered for the role of Miss Caswell in All About Eve (1950), but Marilyn Monroe was cast in the role instead.\nWith her 2009 Tony Award for Actress in a Featured Role in a Play on June 7, 2009, she and Julie Harris are the only two actresses to win five Tony Awards. In 2012, Audra McDonald became the third actress to win five Tony Awards. Additionally, Lansbury once was the only actress and the third performer ever to be nominated for all four performance awards at the Tony Awards. She won Best Actress in a Musical for \"Mame\" (1966), \"Dear World\" (1969), \"Gypsy\" (1975) and \"Sweeney Todd\" (1979). She was nominated for Best Actress in a Play for Deuce in 2007. She won Best Featured Actress in a Play for \"Blithe Spirit\" in 2009. She was nominated for Featured Actress in a Musical for \"A Little Night Music\" in 2010. In 2014, McDonald won her sixth Tony and is the single record holder since. Additionally, McDonald is also the only performer ever to win Tonys in all four possible acting categories: Best Leading Performance in both a play and a musical and Best Supporting Performance in both a play and a musical.\nShe was awarded the 2009 Tony Award for Actress in a Featured Role in a Play for her performance in \"Blithe Spirit\" on Broadway in New York City.\nAs for February 2010, she holds the record for youngest actress to get two Oscar nominations (by the age of 20). Was tied with Meryl Streep , Jack Nicholson and Alan Alda for the most Golden Globe Award wins: six, until Streep's seventh win on January 17, 2010.\nHas played Elvis Presley 's mother in Blue Hawaii (1961), despite only being 10 years older than him.\nBest known by the public for her starring role as Jessica Fletcher on Murder, She Wrote (1984).\nAngela Lansbury recreated the role of Mrs. Pollifax in the 1999 television movie who was originally in the movie was played by Rosalind Russell . She also recreated Miss Russell's title role in Auntie Mame (1958) in the original Broadway cast of the musical \"Mame\".\nIs a member of St. David's Anglican Church in North Hollywood, California.\nShe created the role of Mame Dennis in Jerry Herman 's \"Mame\". When Jack L. Warner decided to make the movie, he refused to cast Angela Lansbury (despite intense pressure from Jerry Herman to do so) because she wasn't a big enough star. He cast Lucille Ball , instead. The film was a flop and, to this day, Angela Lansbury has never forgiven Warner.\nThe Oscar-winning song \"Beauty and the Beast\" almost wasn't sung by Angela Lansbury. Because it was a slow, romantic ballad, something she wasn't used to singing, Angela suggested that another character should sing it. The filmmakers asked her to try it just once, and Angela nailed the song in that one take. It is that take that you hear in the film.\nAlongside Norman Lloyd , William Daniels , Christopher Lee , Dick Van Dyke , Ernest Borgnine , Mickey Rooney , Betty White , Edward Asner , Adam West , Marla Gibbs , William Shatner , Larry Hagman , Florence Henderson , Shirley Jones and Alan Alda , Lansbury is one of the few actors in Hollywood who lived into their 80s and/or 90s without ever either retiring from acting or having stopped getting work.\nIs the only actress to appear in all 264 episodes of Murder, She Wrote (1984).\nIn the late 1940s, MGM planned to cast her as the female lead in a film entitled \"Angel's Flight\" with Clark Gable but the project never came to reality for Gable disliked the storyline, so the studio liquidated the entire project.\nIs a staunch Democrat and a solid supporter of Barack Obama .\nShe was awarded 2 Stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for Motion Pictures at 6623 Hollywood Boulevard; and for Television at 6259 Holywood Boulevard in Hollywood, California.\nIn November 2013, it was announced that NBC would reboot Murder, She Wrote (1984) with Octavia Spencer in the role of Jessica Fletcher. Lansbury was unhappy about the idea, but was relieved when, in January 2014, the network decided not to go forward with the project.\nShe was awarded the DBE (Dame Commander of Order of the British Empire) in the 2014 Queen's New Year Honours List for services to drama and for charitable and philanthropic services.\nGave birth to her 2nd child at age 27, a daughter Deirdre Angela Shaw on April 26, 1953. Child's father was her 2nd husband, Peter Shaw .\nGave birth to her 1st child at age 26, a son Anthony Pullen Shaw on January 7, 1952. Child's father was her 2nd husband, Peter Shaw .\nShe is known to be a very private person.\nAfter being created a CBE, she was promoted to Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire for services to drama and to charitable work and philanthropy under her married name Angela Brigid, Mrs Lansbury Shaw, CBE.\nShe created the role of Mame Dennis in Jerry Herman 's Mame. When Jack L. Warner decided to make the movie _Mame_ he refused to cast Lansbury (despite intense pressure from Herman to do so) because she wasn't then a big enough star. He cast Lucille Ball instead. The film was a flop and Lansbury never forgave Warner.\nAfter a forty year absence triumphantly returned to London's West End stage in her Tony winning role as Madam Arcati in Sir Noel Coward's 'Blithe Spirit'. She won her only Laurence Olivier award for best supporting actress in 2015.\nAs of 2016 she is the 2nd earliest surviving recipient of a Best Supporting Actress Oscar nomination, behind only Olivia de Havilland . She was nominated in 1944 for Gaslight (1944).\nPersonal Quotes (18)\nActors are not made, they are born.\nI've had an incredible relationship with my husband, with my family. I know they've had problems of their own, but we have never wavered in our closeness as a family. I've had a hell of a life.\nI just stopped playing bitches on wheels and peoples' mothers. I have only a few more years to kick up my heels!\n[on working with the choir, the first time] I felt extremely nervous. I felt I was working with a group of people who are so wonderfully integrated among themselves to produce wonderful sound, music, singing\ntheir voices are so pure, so clear. I've listened so much to them in\nthe past to be singing down with them, I was very nervous.\nI'm never left behind. I'm the bionic woman.\nProviding I can put one foot in front of the other, I will continue to act.\nIt has been erroneously reported that I am a Republican! I am not a Republican. It's all over the Internet and It's bizarre. I'm a huge Obama fan. I've already voted for him by absentee ballot. I am Democrat from the ground up.\n[on handling the early success and Oscar nominations while still being in her teens] I was a very serious teenager at that time and I considered the work to be the most important thing and I concentrated on that. I was a bit goody goody. I didn't fool around at all, which is a bit of a shame, I think. I've missed on a lot of fun, but I've made up for it later [laughs].\n[Advice to aspiring actors] I really can't honestly give any tips beyond hang on to your dream. Hang on to what you want, what you feel you want to achieve and go for it. We are all the victims of our own talent and our own shortcomings sometimes, and we have to be aware of those things because they will trip us up and stop us from achieving what our aims are.\nWork in the theatre just keeps revitalizing me, it keeps giving me the excitement and the fun of something new coming up and that's a great gift.\n[2013] I absolutely do not have a retirement age... I'm only 87 - which today is nothing. It's just like 60 a few years back. I believe age should not stop you from keeping on.\n[on the desire to perform until the very end] My son said to me \"Mom, honestly, the best thing for you would be to keep working and just go out on stage.\" and I think that's a good thing to aim for.\n[on what make her going at the age of 87] I rest, I take a nap, I don't eat stupidly, I take care of the bod and that's very, very important when you get to a certain age. I'm the bionic woman; I've got knees, hips, everything is new and that has made a tremendous difference to me; replacements are high on my list of goodies.\n[on the Murder, She Wrote (1984) remake] I think it's a mistake to call it Murder, She Wrote (1984), because Murder, She Wrote (1984) will always be about a Cabot Cove and this wonderful little group of people who told those lovely stories and enjoyed a piece of that place, and also enjoyed Jessica Fletcher, who is a rare and very individual kind of person. So I'm sorry that they have to use the title Murder, She Wrote (1984), even though they have access to it and it's their right.\n[on being awarded British Damehood] I'm joining a marvelous group of women I greatly admire like Judi Dench and Maggie Smith . It's a lovely thing to be given that nod of approval by your own country and I really cherish it.\nChildren in our business suffer from exposure. Mine did because I was Broadway star. And my children's generation was the first to be confused by reality, The Sixties was a bad time to find yourself.\n[on Bette Davis ] She is an original. There has never been anyone, before or since, who could touch her.\n[speaking in 2015 about reprising her Murder, She Wrote (1984) character Jessica Fletcher] I think it would be a downer. In some way, we'd have to show her as a much older woman, and I think it's better to maintain that picture we have in our mind's eye of her as a vigorous person. I'm still pretty vigorous, especially in the garden ... but if I wanted to transform myself back into the woman I looked like then, it would be ridiculous. And I can't do that.\nSalary (3)" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe", "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Constitutional_amendment.txt", "Constitution.txt", "Prohibition.txt", "Prohibition_in_the_United_States.txt" ], "title": [ "Constitutional amendment", "Constitution", "Prohibition", "Prohibition in the United States" ], "wiki_context": [ "A constitutional amendment refers to the modification of the constitution of a nation or state. In many jurisdictions the text of the constitution itself is altered; in others the text is not changed, but the amendments change its effect. The method of modification is typically written into the constitution itself. All of the world's active national constitutions mention amendment procedures.\n\nMost constitutions require that amendments cannot be enacted unless they have passed a special procedure that is more stringent than that required of ordinary legislation. Examples of such special procedures include supermajorities in the legislature, or direct approval by the electorate in a referendum, or even a combination of two or more different special procedures. A referendum to amend the constitution may also be triggered in some jurisdictions by popular initiative.\n\nAustralia and Ireland provide examples of constitutions requiring that all amendments are first passed by the legislature before being submitted to the people; in the case of Ireland, a simple majority of those voting at the electorate is all that is required, whereas a more complex set of criteria must be met in Australia (a majority of voters in a majority of states is also necessary). Switzerland has procedure similar to that of Australia.\n\nThe special procedures for the amendment of some constitutions have proven to be so exacting that of proposed amendments either few (8 Amendments out of 44 proposed), as in Australia, or none, as in Japan, have been passed over a period of several decades. In contrast, the constitution of the U.S. state of Alabama has been amended over 800 times since 1901.\n\nForm of changes to the text\n\nThere are a number of formal differences, from one jurisdiction to another, in the manner in which constitutional amendments are both originally drafted and written down once they become law. In some jurisdictions, such as Ireland, Estonia, and Australia, constitutional amendments originate as bills and become laws in the form of acts of parliament. This may be the case notwithstanding the fact that a special procedure is required to bring an amendment into force. Thus, for example, in Ireland and Australia although amendments are drafted in the form of Acts of Parliament they cannot become law until they have been approved in a referendum. By contrast, in the United States a proposed amendment originates as a special joint resolution of Congress that does not require the President to sign and that the President can not veto.\n\nThe manner in which constitutional amendments are finally recorded takes two main forms. In most jurisdictions, amendments to a constitution take the form of revisions to the previous text. Thus, once an amendment has become law, portions of the original text may be deleted or new articles may be inserted among existing ones. The second, less common method, is for amendments to be appended to the end of the main text in the form of special articles of amendment, leaving the body of the original text intact. Although the wording of the original text is not altered, the doctrine of implied repeal applies. In other words, in the event of conflict, an article of amendment will usually take precedence over the provisions of the original text, or of an earlier amendment. Nonetheless, there may still be ambiguity whether an amendment is intended to supersede or to supplement an existing article in the text.\n\nAn article of amendment may, however, explicitly express itself as having the effect of repealing a specific existing article. The use of appended articles of amendment is most famous as a feature of the United States Constitution, but it is also the method of amendment in a number of other jurisdictions, such as Venezuela.\n\nUnder the 1919 German Weimar Constitution, the prevailing legal theory was that any law reaching the necessary supermajorities in both chambers of parliament was free to deviate from the terms of the constitution, without itself becoming part of the constitution. This very wide conception of \"amendment\" eased the rise of Adolf Hitler to power; it was consequently explicitly ruled out in the postwar 1949 constitution, which allows amendments only by explicitly changing the constitution's text.\n\nMethods of constitutional amendment\n\nEuropean Union\n\nThe Treaties of the European Union are a set of international treaties between member states that describe the constitutional basis of the European Union. Amendments must be ratified unanimously by the member states either by the national parliament or referendum.\n\nAustria\n\nThe Constitution of Austria is unusually liberal in terms of constitutional amendments. Any piece of parliamentary legislation can be designated as \"constitutional law\", i.e., as a part of the constitution if the required supermajority and other formalities for an amendment are met. An amendment may take the form of a change of the Bundes-Verfassungsgesetz, the centerpiece of the constitution, a change to another constitutional act, a new constitutional act, or of a section of constitutional law in a non-constitutional act. Furthermore, international treaties can be enacted as constitutional law, as happened in the case of the European Convention of Human Rights. Over the decades, frequent amendments and, in some cases, the intention to immunize pieces of legislation from judicial review, have led to much \"constitutional garbage\" consisting of hundreds of constitutional provisions spread all over the legal system. This has led to calls for reform.\n\nA majority of two-thirds in the National Council (parliament). Only in the case of a fundamental change (Gesamtänderung) of the constitution a confirmation by referendum is required. Since 1945, this has only happened once when Austria's accession to the European Union was approved by popular vote.\n\nIf a constitutional amendment limits the powers of the states, a two-thirds majority in the Federal Council of Austria is required as well. Depending on the matter on hand, two-thirds of the Federal Councilors present (attendance of one-half of all Councilors is required), or two-thirds of all Federal Councilors must approve. If the amendment would change articles 34 or 35, the majority of councilors of at least four of the nine states is an additional requirement.\n\nBelgium\n\nThe Constitution of Belgium can be amended by the federal legislative power, which consists of the King (in practice, the Federal Government) and the Federal Parliament. In order to amend the Constitution, the federal legislative power must declare the reasons to revise the Constitution in accordance with Article 195. This is done by means of two so-called Declarations of Revision of the Constitution, one adopted by the Chamber of Representatives and the Senate, and one signed by the King and the Federal Government.\n\nFollowing this declaration, the Federal Parliament is automatically dissolved and a new federal election must take place. This makes it impossible to amend the Constitution unless an election has intervened. Following the election, the new Federal Parliament can amend those articles that have been declared revisable. Neither Chamber can consider amendments to the Constitution unless at least two-thirds of its members are present and the Constitution can only be amended if at least two-thirds of the votes cast are in favour of the amendment.\n\nBulgaria\n\nUnder the current Constitution of Bulgaria (1991), there are two procedures for amendment, depending on the part of the constitution to be amended: \n* Normal amendment procedure (Articles 153–156): the Parliament can amend the Constitution for minor issues with a two-thirds majority. This shall be done in three successive readings.\n* Special amendment procedure (Articles 157–163): this procedure is the only way to revise the international borders of Bulgaria; change the form of government in the country; change the form in which the Constitution and international treaties are applied in Bulgaria (Article 5) or suspend citizens' rights. When such amendment is needed, the Constitution envisages an election for Great National Assembly, which consists of 400 deputies, with 200 elected by proportional vote and 200 elected by the first-past-the-post method. Then the amendments to the Constitution are passed by two-thirds majority in three successive readings.\nThis procedure is viewed by some critics as too slow and ineffective. There are voices in Bulgaria to remove the institution of Great National Assembly, which they view as an anachronism and to adopt a new procedure of constitutional amendment through popular vote.\n\nCzech Republic\n\nPassage of a constitutional act in the Czech Republic can only be accomplished through the agreement of three-fifths of all Deputies and Senators present at the time the proposed act is laid before each house of Parliament.Constitution of the Czech Republic, Art. 39 It is the only type of legislation that does not require the signature of the President to become law.Constitution of the Czech Republic, Art. 50 Furthermore, it is the only type of legislation the President cannot veto.Constitution of the Czech Republic, Art. 62\n\nDenmark\n\nThe Constitution of Denmark provides an example of multiple special procedures that must be followed. After an amendment has been approved by parliament, a general election must be held; the new parliament must then approve the amendment again before it is finally submitted to a referendum. There is also a requirement that at least 40% of eligible voters must vote at the referendum in order for an amendment to be validly passed.\n\nEstonia\n\nThe Constitution of Estonia can only be modified by three-fifths majority in two successive complements of Parliament, and a referendum for certain chapters. \n\nFrance\n\nAmendments to the Constitution of France must first be passed by both houses with identical terms, and then need approval either by a simple majority in a referendum or by a three-fifths majority of the two houses of the French parliament jointly convened in Congress.\n\nIreland\n\nThe Constitution of Ireland, can only be modified by referendum, following proposal approved by the lower and upper houses of the Oireachtas, amongst citizens entitled to vote for the President. The amendment succeeds by simple majority, and no quorum is required.\n\nItaly\n\nThe Constitution of Italy can be modified by the Parliament: a constitutional bill, approved by the simple majority of both the Houses, has to be newly approved by them at least 3 months later. If two thirds of the deputies and two thirds of senators vote in favor, the bill comes in effect. If the bill is approved only by the majority of the members of the Houses, a referendum can take place, if 500,000 people, or one fifth of the members of a House, or 5 out of 20 regional legislatures require it in the three months after the approval. However, the proposal becomes law after the second approval. If it is rejected in the referendum, it is repealed. Each regional legislature or 50,000 people can propose bills to Parliament.\n\nConstitutional bill is required to amend the national Constitution, to amend the Constitutions of autonomous regions (Sardinia, Sicily, Aosta Valley/Vallée d'Aoste, Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol and Friuli-Venezia Giulia), to put into effect some provisions of the Constitution (e.g. the functioning of the Constitutional Court) and to pass a law that will be considered as a part of Constitution.\n\nA similar procedure is required to amend regional Constitutions of non-autonomous regions. In place of national Parliament approvals and referendums, regional legislatures approvals and regional referendums are required. Regional Constitution can not contrast with national Constitution, while Constitutions of autonomous regions are considered as a part of it.\n\nEach constitutional bill approved by Italian Parliament, has met the two third majority, except in 2001 and 2006, when referendums took place. The constitutional bill approved in 2001, that has increased the powers of the Regions, was the only one that has been approved by a referendum in Italy.\n\nUnited States\n\nFederal constitution\n\nArticle Five of the United States Constitution describes the process whereby the federal Constitution may be altered. Twenty-seven amendments have been added (appended as codicils) to the Constitution.\n\nAmendment proposals may be adopted and sent to the states for ratification by either:\n* A two-thirds (supermajority) vote of members present—assuming that a quorum exists—in both the Senate and the House of Representatives of the United States Congress; or\n* A two-thirds (supermajority) vote of a national convention called by Congress at the request of the legislatures of at least two-thirds (at present 34) of the states. (This method has never been used.)\n\nAll thirty-three amendment proposals that have been sent to the states for ratification since the establishment of the Constitution have come into being via the Congress. State legislatures have however, at various times, used their power to apply for a national convention in order to pressure Congress into proposing a desired amendment. For example, the movement to amend the Constitution to provide for the direct election of senators began to see such proposals regularly pass the House of Representatives only to die in the Senate from the early 1890s onward. As time went by, more and more state legislatures adopted resolutions demanding that a convention be called, thus pressuring the Senate to finally relent and approve what later became the Seventeenth Amendment for fear that such a convention—if permitted to assemble—might stray to include issues above and beyond just the direct election of senators.\n\nTo become an operative part of the Constitution, an amendment, whether proposed by Congress or a national constitutional convention, must be ratified by either:\n* The legislatures of three-fourths (at present 38) of the states; or\n* State ratifying conventions in three-fourths (at present 38) of the states.\n\nCongress has specified the state legislature ratification method for all but one amendment. The ratifying convention method was used for the Twenty-first Amendment, which became part of the Constitution in 1933.\n\nSince the turn of the 20th century, amendment proposals sent to the states for ratification have generally contained a seven year ratification deadline, either in the body of the amendment or in the resolving clause of the joint resolution proposing it. The Constitution does not expressly provide for a deadline on the state legislatures' or state ratifying conventions' consideration of proposed amendments. In Dillon v. Gloss (1921), the Supreme Court affirmed that Congress—if it so desires—could provide a deadline for ratification. An amendment with an attached deadline that is not ratified by the required number of states within the set time period is considered inoperative and rendered moot.\n\nAn amendment becomes operative as soon as it reaches the three-fourths of the states threshold. Then, once certified by the Archivist of the United States, it officially takes its place as an article of the Constitution.\n\nState constitutions\n\nState constitutions in the U.S. are amended on a regular basis.David R. Berman, State and Local Politics (7th ed.), M.E. Sharpe (2000), pp. 77-78 [https://books.google.com/books?id\nP11rQi0MhnUC&pgPA77&dq\neach+u.s.+state+has+a+different+process+for+constitutional+amendment&hlen&sa\nX&ei_yfTUqGbJdfdoATryYDQDw&ved\n0CCwQ6AEwADgK#vonepage&q\neach%20u.s.%20state%20has%20a%20different%20process%20for%20constitutional%20amendment&ffalse] In 19 states, the state constitutions have been amended at least 100 times.\n\nAmendments are often necessary because of the length of state constitutions, which are, on average, three times longer than the federal constitution, and because state constitutions typically contain extensive detail. In addition, state constitutions are often easier to amend than the federal constitution.\n\nIndividual states differ in the difficulty of constitutional amendments.George Alan Tarr, ed. Constitutional Politics in the States, Greenwood Publishing Group (1996), pp. 40-45 [https://books.google.com/books?id\nDJVIgRtDzgEC&pgPA44&dq\neach+u.s.+state+has+a+different+process+for+constitutional+amendment&hlen&sa\nX&eiECjTUum4EpfmoATG2IDgDA&ved\n0CEoQ6AEwBTgU#vonepage&q\neach%20u.s.%20state%20has%20a%20different%20process%20for%20constitutional%20amendment&ffalse] Some states allow for initiating the amendment process through action of the state legislature or by popular initiative.\n\nCalifornia\n\nThere are three methods for proposing an amendment to the California State Constitution: by the legislature, by constitutional convention, or by voter initiative. A proposed amendment must be approved by a majority of voters.\n\nWith the legislative method, a proposed amendment must be approved by an absolute supermajority of two-thirds of the membership of each house.\n\nWith the convention method, the legislature may, by a two-thirds absolute supermajority, submit to the voters at a general election the question whether to call a convention to revise the Constitution. If the majority of the voters vote yes on that question, within six months the Legislature shall provide for the convention. Delegates to a constitutional convention shall be voters elected from districts as nearly equal in population as may be practicable. The constitution does not provide many rules for the operation of the constitutional convention.\n\nWith the initiative method, an amendment is proposed by a petition signed by voters equal in number to 8% of the votes for all candidates for governor at the last gubernatorial election. The proposed amendment is then submitted to the voters at a general or special election.\n\nNew York\n\nThere are two methods of proposing amendments to the New York Constitution. All proposed amendments must be approved by a majority of voters in a referendum.\n\nWith the legislative method, an amendment proposal must published for three months, then approved by an absolute majority of the members of each of the two houses, and approved again in a succeeding term of the houses, with an election intervening. Finally, the amendment proposal must be submitted to the people, and for ratification must be approved by a simple majority.\n\nWith the convention method, a constitutional convention must be convened by a majority vote of voters in a general election (referendum) on the question.\n\nTennessee\n\nThere are two methods for proposing amendments to the Tennessee State Constitution: through the legislature and by constitutional convention. Proposed amendments must be approved by a majority of voters in a referendum.\n\nWith the legislative method, the Tennessee General Assembly passes a resolution calling for an amendment and stating its wording. This must pass in three separate readings on three separate days, with an absolute majority on all readings. It does not require the governor's approval. It must then be published at least six months before the next legislative election in newspapers of wide and general circulation. (This is done by precedent but is not required by law.) After the election, the proposed amendment must go through the same procedure (absolute majority on three separate readings). Then it is put on the ballot as a referendum in the next gubernatorial election. To be ratified it must again achieve an absolute majority of those voting in the gubernatorial election.\n\nWith the convention method, the legislature can put on any ballot the question of whether to call a constitutional convention. It must be stated whether the convention is limited or unlimited—that is, whether it can only amend the current constitution or totally abolish it and write a new one. If limited, the call must state which provisions of the current constitution are to be subject to amendment, and the subsequent convention, if approved, is limited to considering only amendments to the provisions specified in the call. The proposed amendments must then be submitted to the electorate and approved by a majority of those voting in the election. A constitutional convention cannot be held more frequently than once every six years.\n\nTexas\n\nThe only method for proposing an amendment to the Texas State Constitution is through the legislature, either in regular or special session. The governor may call a special session, and specify the agenda for the session. To become part of the constitution, proposed amendments must be approved by a majority of voters in a referendum. Texas has had six different constitutions and the current constitution, adopted in 1876, has been amended 474 times.\n\nA proposed amendment must be approved by an absolute supermajority of two-thirds of the elected membership of each house of the legislature. It is submitted to the voters in an election specified by the legislature. The wording of an explanatory statement that will appear on the ballot must be approved by the Texas Attorney General and printed in newspapers. The full text of the amendment must be posted by all county clerks for 30 days before the election.\n\nWashington\n\nThe only method for proposing an amendment to the Washington State Constitution is through the legislature and can originate in either branch. The proposal must be approved by a two-thirds majority of the legislature. The proposed amendment is placed on the ballot at the next general election, and must be approved by a majority of the electors.\n\nAustralia\n\nThe procedure for amending the Constitution of Australia is detailed in Section 128 of the Constitution.\n\nIt firstly requires that the proposal pass by absolute majority in the House of Representatives. This means that out of the 150 members of the House, at least 76 of them must agree to the proposal.\n\nIf this succeeds then the proposal is moved to the Senate where it again must achieve an absolute majority, This means that of the 76 members of the Senate, at least 39 of them must agree to the proposal.\n\nFollowing this, Australians then vote on the proposal. For a referendum to succeed both of the following must be achieved\n\n# A majority of states (New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, Western Australia, South Australia and Tasmania) must agree to the proposal.\n# A majority of the combined votes of all of Australia must agree to the proposal.\n\nThe double majority is a major factor in why since 1906 out of 44 referendums only 8 have been successful.\n\nSouth Africa\n\nThe Constitution of South Africa can be amended by an Act of Parliament, but special procedures and requirements apply to the passage of constitutional amendments. A bill amending the Constitution must be introduced in the National Assembly, and cannot contain any provisions other than constitutional amendments and directly related matters. \n\nAt least 30 days before a constitutional amendment bill is introduced in the National Assembly, the person or committee introducing the amendment must publish it for public comment, submit it to the provincial legislatures, and, if it does not have to be passed by the National Council of Provinces (NCOP), submit it to the NCOP for debate. When the bill is introduced, the comments received must be tabled in the National Assembly, and in the NCOP when appropriate.\n\nAll amendments must be passed by an absolute two-thirds supermajority in the National Assembly (the lower house); as the Assembly has 400 members this requires 267 members to vote for the amendment. Most amendments do not have to be considered by the NCOP (the upper house). Amendments of the Bill of Rights, and amendments affecting the role of the NCOP, the \"boundaries, powers, functions or institutions\" of the provinces or provisions \"dealing specifically with provincial matters\" must also be passed by the NCOP with a supermajority of at least six of the nine provinces. If an amendment affects a specific province, it must also be approved by the legislature of the province concerned. Section 1, which defines South Africa as \"one, sovereign, democratic state\" and lists its founding values, is a specially entrenched clause and can only be amended by a three-quarters supermajority in the National Assembly and six of the provinces in the NCOP.\n\nOnce an Act is passed by the National Assembly, and by the NCOP if necessary, it must be signed and assented to by the President. As with any other Act of Parliament, by default an amendment comes into effect when it is published in the Government Gazette, but the text of the amendment may specify some other date of commencement, or allow the President to specify one by notice in the Gazette. \n\nInadmissible amendments \n\nSome constitutions use entrenched clauses to restrict the kind of amendment to which they may be subject. This is usually to protect characteristics of the state considered sacrosanct, such as the democratic form of government or the protection of human rights. Amendments are often totally forbidden during a state of emergency or martial law.\n\n* Under Article 79 (3) of the German Basic Law, modification of the federal nature of the country or abolition or alteration of Article 1 (human dignity, human rights, immediate applicability of fundamental rights as law) or Article 20 (democracy, republicanism, rule of law, social nature of the state) is forbidden. This is supposed to prevent a recurrence of events like those during the Nazi Gleichschaltung, when Hitler used formally legal constitutional law to de facto abolish the constitution.\n* The final article of the Constitution of Italy (Article 139, Section 2, Title 6 of Part 2) holds the \"form of Republic\" above amendment.\n* Article 4 of Part 1 of the Constitution of Turkey states that the \"provision of Article 1 of the Constitution establishing the form of the state as a Republic, the provisions in Article 2 on the characteristics of the Republic, and the provision of Article 3 shall not be amended, nor shall their amendment be proposed\".\n* Article Five of the United States Constitution, ratified in 1788, prohibited any amendments before 1808 which would affect the foreign slave trade, the tax on the slave trade, or the direct taxation provisions of the constitution. The foreign slave trade was outlawed by an act of Congress rather than by a constitutional amendment shortly after that clause expired in 1808. Also, no amendment may affect the equal representation of states in the Senate without their own consent. If the Corwin Amendment had passed, any future amendment to the Constitution \"interfering with the domestic institutions of the state\" (i.e., slavery) would have been banned.\n* Chapter 6, Article 120, section c of the Constitution of Bahrain prohibits \"an amendment to Article 2 [State Religion, Shari'a, Official Language] of this Constitution, and it is not permissible under any circumstances to propose the amendment of the constitutional monarchy and the principle of inherited rule in Bahrain, as well as the bicameral system and the principles of freedom and equality established in this Constitution\".\n*Article 112 of the Constitution of Norway provides that amendments must not \"contradict the principles embodied in this Constitution, but solely relate to modifications of particular provisions which do not alter the spirit of the Constitution\".\n*Section 284 of Article 18 of the Alabama State Constitution states that legislative representation is based on population, and any amendments are precluded from changing that.\n*Part 4, Section, Article 288 of the Constitution of Portugal contains a list of 15 items that amendments \"must respect\"; Article 288 itself can, however, be amended.\n* The Supreme Court of India in the Kesavananda Bharati case held that no constitutional amendment can destroy the basic structure of the Constitution of India.\n* Article 60 of the current 1988 Constitution of Brazil forbids amendments that intend to abolish individual rights or to alter the fundamental framework of the State—the Separation of Powers and the Federal Republic.\n* Article 152 of the Constitution of Romania on the \"limits of revision\" prohibits amendments regarding the independence and territorial integrity of Romania, the independence of justice, the republican form of government, political pluralism, and the official language. It also forbids amendments which restrict civil rights and liberties. \n* Under Article 175 of the Constitution of Morocco as promulgated after a referendum in 2011, \"no revision may apply to the provisions concerning the Muslim religion, the monarchical form of the State, the democratic choice of the Nation or the established fundamental rights and liberties written in the present Constitution\". In particular no change may be brought to the articles naming Islam the state religion or to those detailing the functions of the King as Amir al-Mu'minin (Commander of the Faithful).", "A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed. These rules together make up, i.e. constitute, what the entity is. When these principles are written down into a single document or set of legal documents, those documents may be said to embody a written constitution; if they are written down in a single comprehensive document, it is said to embody a codified constitution. Some constitutions (such as the constitution of the United Kingdom) are uncodified, but written in numerous fundamental Acts of a legislature, court cases or treaties. \n\nConstitutions concern different levels of organizations, from sovereign states to companies and unincorporated associations. A treaty which establishes an international organization is also its constitution, in that it would define how that organization is constituted. Within states, a constitution defines the principles upon which the state is based, the procedure in which laws are made and by whom. Some constitutions, especially codified constitutions, also act as limiters of state power, by establishing lines which a state's rulers cannot cross, such as fundamental rights.\n\nThe Constitution of India is the longest written constitution of any sovereign country in the world, containing 444 articles in 22 parts, 12 schedules and 118 amendments, with 146,385 words in its English-language translation, while the Constitution of Monaco is the shortest written constitution, containing 10 chapters with 97 articles, and a total of 3,814 words. \n\nEtymology\n\nThe term constitution comes through French from the Latin word constitutio, used for regulations and orders, such as the imperial enactments (constitutiones principis: edicta, mandata, decreta, rescripta). Later, the term was widely used in canon law for an important determination, especially a decree issued by the Pope, now referred to as an apostolic constitution.\n\nGeneral features\n\nGenerally, every modern written constitution confers specific powers to an organization or institutional entity, established upon the primary condition that it abide by the said constitution's limitations. According to Scott Gordon, author of Controlling the State: Constitutionalism from Ancient Athens to Today a political organization is constitutional to the extent that it \"contain[s] institutionalized mechanisms of power control for the protection of the interests and liberties of the citizenry, including those that may be in the minority.\" \n\nThe Latin term ultra vires describes activities of officials within an organization or polity that fall outside the constitutional or statutory authority of those officials. For example, a students' union may be prohibited as an organization from engaging in activities not concerning students; if the union becomes involved in non-student activities these activities are considered ultra vires of the union's charter, and nobody would be compelled by the charter to follow them. An example from the constitutional law of sovereign states would be a provincial government in a federal state trying to legislate in an area exclusively enumerated to the federal government in the constitution, such as ratifying a treaty. Ultra vires gives a legal justification for the forced cessation of such action, which might be enforced by the people with the support of a decision of the judiciary, in a case of judicial review. A violation of rights by an official would be ultra vires because a (constitutional) right is a restriction on the powers of government, and therefore that official would be exercising powers they do not have.\n\nIn most but not all modern states the constitution has supremacy over ordinary Statutory law (see Uncodified constitution below); in such states when an official act is unconstitutional, i.e. it is not a power granted to the government by the constitution, that act is null and void, and the nullification is ab initio, that is, from inception, not from the date of the finding. It was never \"law\", even though, if it had been a statute or statutory provision, it might have been adopted according to the procedures for adopting legislation. Sometimes the problem is not that a statute is unconstitutional, but the application of it is, on a particular occasion, and a court may decide that while there are ways it could be applied that are constitutional, that instance was not allowed or legitimate. In such a case, only the application may be ruled unconstitutional. Historically, the remedy for such violations have been petitions for common law writs, such as quo warranto.\n\nHistory and development\n\nPre-modern constitutions\n\nAncient\n\nExcavations in modern-day Iraq by Ernest de Sarzec in 1877 found evidence of the earliest known code of justice, issued by the Sumerian king Urukagina of Lagash ca 2300 BC. Perhaps the earliest prototype for a law of government, this document itself has not yet been discovered; however it is known that it allowed some rights to his citizens. For example, it is known that it relieved tax for widows and orphans, and protected the poor from the usury of the rich.\n\nAfter that, many governments ruled by special codes of written laws. The oldest such document still known to exist seems to be the Code of Ur-Nammu of Ur (ca 2050 BC). Some of the better-known ancient law codes include the code of Lipit-Ishtar of Isin, the code of Hammurabi of Babylonia, the Hittite code, the Assyrian code and Mosaic law.\n\nIn 621 BC a scribe named Draco codified the cruel oral laws of the city-state of Athens; this code prescribed the death penalty for many offences (nowadays very severe rules are often called \"Draconian\"). In 594 BC Solon, the ruler of Athens, created the new Solonian Constitution. It eased the burden of the workers, and determined that membership of the ruling class was to be based on wealth (plutocracy), rather than by birth (aristocracy). Cleisthenes again reformed the Athenian constitution and set it on a democratic footing in 508 BC.\n\nAristotle (ca 350 BC) was the first to make a formal distinction between ordinary law and constitutional law, establishing ideas of constitution and constitutionalism, and attempting to classify different forms of constitutional government. The most basic definition he used to describe a constitution in general terms was \"the arrangement of the offices in a state\". In his works Constitution of Athens, Politics, and Nicomachean Ethics he explores different constitutions of his day, including those of Athens, Sparta, and Carthage. He classified both what he regarded as good and what he regarded as bad constitutions, and came to the conclusion that the best constitution was a mixed system, including monarchic, aristocratic, and democratic elements. He also distinguished between citizens, who had the right to participate in the state, and non-citizens and slaves, who did not.\n\nThe Romans first codified their constitution in 450 BC as the Twelve Tables. They operated under a series of laws that were added from time to time, but Roman law was never reorganised into a single code until the Codex Theodosianus (AD 438); later, in the Eastern Empire the Codex repetitæ prælectionis (534) was highly influential throughout Europe. This was followed in the east by the Ecloga of Leo III the Isaurian (740) and the Basilica of Basil I (878).\n\nThe Edicts of Ashoka established constitutional principles for the 3rd century BC Maurya king's rule in Ancient India. For constitutional principles almost lost to antiquity, see the code of Manu.\n\nMany of the Germanic people that filled the power vacuum left by the Western Roman Empire in the Early Middle Ages codified their laws. One of the first of these Germanic law codes to be written was the Visigothic Code of Euric (471). This was followed by the Lex Burgundionum, applying separate codes for Germans and for Romans; the Pactus Alamannorum; and the Salic Law of the Franks, all written soon after 500. In 506, the Breviarum or \"Lex Romana\" of Alaric II, king of the Visigoths, adopted and consolidated the Codex Theodosianus together with assorted earlier Roman laws. Systems that appeared somewhat later include the Edictum Rothari of the Lombards (643), the Lex Visigothorum (654), the Lex Alamannorum (730) and the Lex Frisionum (ca 785). These continental codes were all composed in Latin, while Anglo-Saxon was used for those of England, beginning with the Code of Æthelberht of Kent (602). In ca. 893, Alfred the Great combined this and two other earlier Saxon codes, with various Mosaic and Christian precepts, to produce the Doom book code of laws for England.\n\nDark ages and early Middle ages\n\nMany of the Germanic people that filled the power vacuum left by the Western Roman Empire in the Early Middle Ages codified their laws. One of the first of these Germanic law codes to be written was the Visigothic Code of Euric (471). This was followed by the Lex Burgundionum, applying separate codes for Germans and for Romans; the Pactus Alamannorum; and the Salic Law of the Franks, all written soon after 500. In 506, the Breviarum or \"Lex Romana\" of Alaric II, king of the Visigoths, adopted and consolidated the Codex Theodosianus together with assorted earlier Roman laws. Systems that appeared somewhat later include the Edictum Rothari of the Lombards (643), the Lex Visigothorum (654), the Lex Alamannorum (730) and the Lex Frisionum (ca 785). These continental codes were all composed in Latin, while Anglo-Saxon was used for those of England, beginning with the Code of Æthelberht of Kent (602). In ca. 893, Alfred the Great combined this and two other earlier Saxon codes, with various Mosaic and Christian precepts, to produce the Doom book code of laws for England.\n\nJapan's Seventeen-article constitution written in 604, reportedly by Prince Shōtoku, is an early example of a constitution in Asian political history. Influenced by Buddhist teachings, the document focuses more on social morality than institutions of government per se and remains a notable early attempt at a government constitution.\n\nThe Constitution of Medina (, Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīna), also known as the Charter of Medina, was drafted by the Islamic prophet Muhammad after his flight (hijra to Yathrib where he became political leader. It constituted a formal agreement between Muhammad and all of the significant tribes and families of Yathrib (later known as Medina), including Muslims, Jews, and pagans. The document was drawn up with the explicit concern of bringing to an end the bitter intertribal fighting between the clans of the Aws (Aus) and Khazraj within Medina. To this effect it instituted a number of rights and responsibilities for the Muslim, Jewish, and pagan communities of Medina bringing them within the fold of one community—the Ummah. \nThe precise dating of the Constitution of Medina remains debated but generally scholars agree it was written shortly after the Hijra (622). \n\nIn Wales, the Cyfraith Hywel was codified by Hywel Dda c. 942–950.\n\nMiddle ages after 1000\n\nThe Pravda Yaroslava, originally combined by Yaroslav the Wise the Grand Prince of Kyiv, was granted to Great Novgorod around 1017, and in 1054 was incorporated into the Ruska Pravda, that became the law for all of Kievan Rus. It survived only in later editions of the 15th century.\n\nIn England, Henry I's proclamation of the Charter of Liberties in 1100 bound the king for the first time in his treatment of the clergy and the nobility. This idea was extended and refined by the English barony when they forced King John to sign Magna Carta in 1215. The most important single article of the Magna Carta, related to \"habeas corpus\", provided that the king was not permitted to imprison, outlaw, exile or kill anyone at a whim—there must be due process of law first. This article, Article 39, of the Magna Carta read:\n\nNo free man shall be arrested, or imprisoned, or deprived of his property, or outlawed, or exiled, or in any way destroyed, nor shall we go against him or send against him, unless by legal judgement of his peers, or by the law of the land.\n\nThis provision became the cornerstone of English liberty after that point. The social contract in the original case was between the king and the nobility, but was gradually extended to all of the people. It led to the system of Constitutional Monarchy, with further reforms shifting the balance of power from the monarchy and nobility to the House of Commons.\n\nThe Nomocanon of Saint Sava () was the first Serbian constitution from 1219. This legal act was well developed. St. Sava's Nomocanon was the compilation of Civil law, based on Roman Law and Canon law, based on Ecumenical Councils and its basic purpose was to organize functioning of the young Serbian kingdom and the Serbian church. Saint Sava began the work on the Serbian Nomocanon in 1208 while being at Mount Athos, using The Nomocanon in Fourteen Titles, Synopsis of Stefan the Efesian, Nomocanon of John Scholasticus, Ecumenical Councils' documents, which he modified with the canonical commentaries of Aristinos and Joannes Zonaras, local church meetings, rules of the Holy Fathers, the law of Moses, translation of Prohiron and the Byzantine emperors' Novellae (most were taken from Justinian's Novellae). The Nomocanon was completely new compilation of civil and canonical regulations, taken from the Byzantine sources, but completed and reformed by St. Sava to function properly in Serbia. Beside decrees that organized the life of church, there are various norms regarding civil life, most of them were taken from Prohiron. Legal transplants of Roman-Byzantine law became the basis of the Serbian medieval law. The essence of Zakonopravilo was based on Corpus Iuris Civilis.\n\nStefan Dušan, Emperor of Serbs and Greeks, enacted Dušan's Code () in Serbia, in two state congresses: in 1349 in Skopje and in 1354 in Serres. It regulated all social spheres, so it was the second Serbian constitution, after St. Sava's Nomocanon (Zakonopravilo). The Code was based on Roman-Byzantine law. The legal transplanting is notable with the articles 171 and 172 of Dušan's Code, which regulated the juridical independence. They were taken from the Byzantine code Basilika (book VII, 1, 16–17).\n\nIn 1222, Hungarian King Andrew II issued the Golden Bull of 1222.\n\nBetween 1220 and 1230, a Saxon administrator, Eike von Repgow, composed the Sachsenspiegel, which became the supreme law used in parts of Germany as late as 1900.\n\nIn 1998, S. Kouyaté reconstructed from oral tradition what he claims is a 14th-century charter of the Mali Empire, called the Kouroukan Fouga. \n\nAround 1240, the Coptic Egyptian Christian writer, 'Abul Fada'il Ibn al-'Assal, wrote the Fetha Negest in Arabic. 'Ibn al-Assal took his laws partly from apostolic writings and Mosaic law, and partly from the former Byzantine codes. There are a few historical records claiming that this law code was translated into Ge'ez and entered Ethiopia around 1450 in the reign of Zara Yaqob. Even so, its first recorded use in the function of a constitution (supreme law of the land) is with Sarsa Dengel beginning in 1563. The Fetha Negest remained the supreme law in Ethiopia until 1931, when a modern-style Constitution was first granted by Emperor Haile Selassie I.\n\nThe Golden Bull of 1356 was a decree issued by a Reichstag in Nuremberg headed by Emperor Charles IV that fixed, for a period of more than four hundred years, an important aspect of the constitutional structure of the Holy Roman Empire.\n\nIn China, the Hongwu Emperor created and refined a document he called Ancestral Injunctions (first published in 1375, revised twice more before his death in 1398). These rules served in a very real sense as a constitution for the Ming Dynasty for the next 250 years.\n\nIn Catalonia, the Catalan constitutions were promulgated by the court from 1283 until 1716, when Philip V of Spain gave the Nueva Planta decrees, finishing with the historical laws of Catalonia. These Constitutions were usually made as a royal initiative, but required the favorable vote of the Catalan Courts, the medieval antecedent of the modern Parliaments. These laws had, as the other modern constitutions, preeminence over other laws, and they could not be contradicted by mere decrees or edicts of the king.\n\nThe oldest written document still governing a sovereign nation today is that of San Marino. The Leges Statutae Republicae Sancti Marini was written in Latin and consists of six books. The first book, with 62 articles, establishes councils, courts, various executive officers and the powers assigned to them. The remaining books cover criminal and civil law, judicial procedures and remedies. Written in 1600, the document was based upon the Statuti Comunali (Town Statute) of 1300, itself influenced by the Codex Justinianus, and it remains in force today.\n\nIn 1392 the Carta de Logu was legal code of the Giudicato of Arborea promulgated by the giudicessa Eleanor. It was in force in Sardinia until it was superseded by the code of Charles Felix in April 1827. The Carta was a work of great importance in Sardinian history. It was an organic, coherent, and systematic work of legislation encompassing the civil and penal law.\n\nIroquois \"Great Law of Peace\"\n\nThe Gayanashagowa, the oral constitution of the Iroquois nation also known as the Great Law of Peace, established a system of governance in which sachems (tribal chiefs) of the members of the Iroquois League made decisions on the basis of universal consensus of all chiefs following discussions that were initiated by a single tribe. The position of sachem descended through families, and were allocated by senior female relatives.\n\nHistorians including Donald Grinde, Bruce Johansen and others believe that the Iroquois constitution provided inspiration for the United States Constitution and in 1988 was recognised by a resolution in Congress. The thesis is not considered credible by some scholars. Stanford University historian Jack N. Rakove stated that \"The voluminous records we have for the constitutional debates of the late 1780s contain no significant references to the Iroquois\" and stated that there are ample European precedents to the democratic institutions of the United States. Francis Jennings noted that the statement made by Benjamin Franklin frequently quoted by proponents of the thesis does not support this idea as it is advocating for a union against these \"ignorant savages\" and called the idea \"absurd\". Bruce Johansen contends Jennings, Tooker etc. have \"humorlessly missed the ironic nature of Franklin's statement\" and persist in \"ignoring the relevant sources\". Anthropologist Dean Snow stated that though Franklin's Albany Plan may have drawn some inspiration from the Iroquois League, there is little evidence that either the Plan or the Constitution drew substantially from this source and argues that \"...such claims muddle and denigrate the subtle and remarkable features of Iroquois government. The two forms of government are distinctive and individually remarkable in conception.\" \n\nModern constitutions\n\nIn 1639, the Colony of Connecticut adopted the Fundamental Orders, which was the first North American constitution, and is the basis for every new Connecticut constitution since, and is also the reason for Connecticut's nickname, \"the Constitution State\".\n\nThe English Protectorate that was set up by Oliver Cromwell after the English Civil War promulgated the first detailed written constitution adopted by a modern state; it was called the Instrument of Government. This formed the basis of government for the short lived republic from 1653 to 1657 by providing a legal rationale for the increasing power of Cromwell, after Parliament consistently failed to govern effectively. Most of the concepts and ideas embedded into modern constitutional theory, especially bicameralism, separation of powers, the written constitution, and judicial review, can be traced back to the experiments of that period.\n \n\nDrafted by Major-General John Lambert in 1653, the Instrument of Government included elements incorporated from an earlier document \"Heads of Proposals\", which had been agreed to by the Army Council in 1647, as a set of propositions intended to be a basis for a constitutional settlement after King Charles I was defeated in the First English Civil War. Charles had rejected the propositions, but before the start of the Second Civil War, the Grandees of the New Model Army had presented the Heads of Proposals as their alternative to the more radical Agreement of the People presented by the Agitators and their civilian supporters at the Putney Debates.\n\nOn January 4, 1649 the Rump Parliament declared \"that the people are, under God, the original of all just power; that the Commons of England, being chosen by and representing the people, have the supreme power in this nation\".Fritze, Ronald H. & Robison, William B. (1996). Historical dictionary of Stuart England, 1603–1689, Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 0-313-28391-5 [https://books.google.com/books?id\n8goko0Lpr5sC&pgPA118&f\nfalse p. 228]\n\nThe Instrument of Government was adopted by Parliament on December 15, 1653 and Oliver Cromwell was installed as Lord Protector on the following day. The constitution set up a state council consisting of 21 members while executive authority was vested in the office of \"Lord Protector of the Commonwealth\"; this position was designated as a non-hereditary life appointment. It also required the calling of triennial Parliaments, with each sitting for at least five months.\n\nThe Instrument of Government was replaced in May 1657 by England's second, and last, codified constitution, the Humble Petition and Advice, proposed by Sir Christopher Packe. The Petition offered hereditary monarchy to Oliver Cromwell, asserted Parliament's control over issuing new taxation, provided an independent council to advise the king and safeguarded 'Triennial' meetings of Parliament. A modified version of the Humble Petition with the clause on kingship removed was ratified on 25 May. This finally met its demise in conjunction with the death of Cromwell and the Restoration of the monarchy.\n\nAgreements and Constitutions of Laws and Freedoms of the Zaporizian Host was written in 1710 by Pylyp Orlyk, hetman of the Zaporozhian Host. It was written to establish a free Zaporozhian-Ukrainian Republic, with the support of Charles XII of Sweden. It is notable in that it established a democratic standard for the separation of powers in government between the legislative, executive, and judiciary branches, well before the publication of Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws. This Constitution also limited the executive authority of the hetman, and established a democratically elected Cossack parliament called the General Council. However, Orlyk's project for an independent Ukrainian State never materialized, and his constitution, written in exile, never went into effect.\n\nOther examples of European constitutions of this era were the Corsican Constitution of 1755 and the Swedish Constitution of 1772.\n\nAll of the British colonies in North America that were to become the 13 original United States, adopted their own constitutions in 1776 and 1777, during the American Revolution (and before the later Articles of Confederation and United States Constitution), with the exceptions of Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island. The Commonwealth of Massachusetts adopted its Constitution in 1780, the oldest still-functioning constitution of any U.S. state; while Connecticut and Rhode Island officially continued to operate under their old colonial charters, until they adopted their first state constitutions in 1818 and 1843, respectively.\n\nDemocratic constitutions\n\nWhat is sometimes called the \"enlightened constitution\" model was developed by philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment such as Thomas Hobbes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and John Locke. The model proposed that constitutional governments should be stable, adaptable, accountable, open and should represent the people (i.e., support democracy). \n\nThe United States Constitution, ratified June 21, 1788, was influenced by the writings of Polybius, Locke, Montesquieu, and others. The document became a benchmark for republicanism and codified constitutions written thereafter.\n\nThe Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Constitution was passed on May 3, 1791. Another landmark document was the French Constitution, ratified on September 3, 1791.\n\nOn March 19, the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was ratified by a parliament gathered in Cadiz, the only Spanish continental city which was safe from French occupation. The Spanish Constitution served as a model for other liberal constitutions of several South-European and Latin American nations like, for example, Portuguese Constitution of 1822, constitutions of various Italian states during Carbonari revolts (i.e., in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies), the Norwegian constitution of 1814, or the Mexican Constitution of 1824. \n\nIn Brazil, the Constitution of 1824 expressed the option for the monarchy as political system after Brazilian Independence. The leader of the national emancipation process was the Portuguese prince Pedro I, elder son of the king of Portugal. Pedro was crowned in 1822 as first emperor of Brazil. The country was ruled by Constitutional monarchy until 1889, when finally adopted the Republican model.\n\nIn Denmark, as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, the absolute monarchy lost its personal possession of Norway to another absolute monarchy, Sweden. However the Norwegians managed to infuse a radically democratic and liberal constitution in 1814, adopting many facets from the American constitution and the revolutionary French ones; but maintaining a hereditary monarch limited by the constitution, like the Spanish one.\n\nThe first Swiss Federal Constitution was put in force in September 1848 (with official revisions in 1878, 1891, (1949. 1971, 1982) and 1999).\n\nThe Serbian revolution initially led to a proclamation of a proto-constitution in 1811; the full-fledged Constitution of Serbia followed few decades later, in 1835. The first Serbian constitution ([http://sr.wikipedia.org/sr/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%9A%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2 Sretenjski ustav]) was adopted at the national assembly in Kragujevac on February 15 in 1835.\n\nThe Constitution of Canada came into force on July 1, 1867 as the British North America Act, an act of the British Parliament. Over a century later, the BNA Act was patriated to the Canadian Parliament and augmented with the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Apart from the Constitution Acts, 1867 to 1982, Canada's constitution also has unwritten elements based in common law and convention. \n\nPrinciples of constitutional design\n\nAfter tribal people first began to live in cities and establish nations, many of these functioned according to unwritten customs, while some developed autocratic, even tyrannical monarchs, who ruled by decree, or mere personal whim. Such rule led some thinkers to take the position that what mattered was not the design of governmental institutions and operations, as much as the character of the rulers. This view can be seen in Plato, who called for rule by \"philosopher-kings.\" Later writers, such as Aristotle, Cicero and Plutarch, would examine designs for government from a legal and historical standpoint.\n\nThe Renaissance brought a series of political philosophers who wrote implied criticisms of the practices of monarchs and sought to identify principles of constitutional design that would be likely to yield more effective and just governance from their viewpoints. This began with revival of the Roman law of nations concept and its application to the relations among nations, and they sought to establish customary \"laws of war and peace\" to ameliorate wars and make them less likely. This led to considerations of what authority monarchs or other officials have and don't have, from where that authority derives, and the remedies for the abuse of such authority. \n\nA seminal juncture in this line of discourse arose in England from the Civil War, the Cromwellian Protectorate, the writings of Thomas Hobbes, Samuel Rutherford, the Levellers, John Milton, and James Harrington, leading to the debate between Robert Filmer, arguing for the divine right of monarchs, on the one side, and on the other, Henry Neville, James Tyrrell, Algernon Sidney, and John Locke. What arose from the latter was a concept of government being erected on the foundations of first, a state of nature governed by natural laws, then a state of society, established by a social contract or compact, which bring underlying natural or social laws, before governments are formally established on them as foundations.\n\nAlong the way several writers examined how the design of government was important, even if the government were headed by a monarch. They also classified various historical examples of governmental designs, typically into democracies, aristocracies, or monarchies, and considered how just and effective each tended to be and why, and how the advantages of each might be obtained by combining elements of each into a more complex design that balanced competing tendencies. Some, such as Montesquieu, also examined how the functions of government, such as legislative, executive, and judicial, might appropriately be separated into branches. The prevailing theme among these writers was that the design of constitutions is not completely arbitrary or a matter of taste. They generally held that there are underlying principles of design that constrain all constitutions for every polity or organization. Each built on the ideas of those before concerning what those principles might be.\n\nThe later writings of Orestes Brownson would try to explain what constitutional designers were trying to do. According to Brownson there are, in a sense, three \"constitutions\" involved: The first the constitution of nature that includes all of what was called \"natural law.\" The second is the constitution of society, an unwritten and commonly understood set of rules for the society formed by a social contract before it establishes a government, by which it establishes the third, a constitution of government. The second would include such elements as the making of decisions by public conventions called by public notice and conducted by established rules of procedure. Each constitution must be consistent with, and derive its authority from, the ones before it, as well as from a historical act of society formation or constitutional ratification. Brownson argued that a state is a society with effective dominion over a well-defined territory, that consent to a well-designed constitution of government arises from presence on that territory, and that it is possible for provisions of a written constitution of government to be \"unconstitutional\" if they are inconsistent with the constitutions of nature or society. Brownson argued that it is not ratification alone that makes a written constitution of government legitimate, but that it must also be competently designed and applied.\n\nOther writers have argued that such considerations apply not only to all national constitutions of government, but also to the constitutions of private organizations, that it is not an accident that the constitutions that tend to satisfy their members contain certain elements, as a minimum, or that their provisions tend to become very similar as they are amended after experience with their use. Provisions that give rise to certain kinds of questions are seen to need additional provisions for how to resolve those questions, and provisions that offer no course of action may best be omitted and left to policy decisions. Provisions that conflict with what Brownson and others can discern are the underlying \"constitutions\" of nature and society tend to be difficult or impossible to execute, or to lead to unresolvable disputes.\n\nConstitutional design has been treated as a kind of metagame in which play consists of finding the best design and provisions for a written constitution that will be the rules for the game of government, and that will be most likely to optimize a balance of the utilities of justice, liberty, and security. An example is the metagame Nomic. \n\nGovernmental constitutions\n\nMost commonly, the term constitution refers to a set of rules and principles that define the nature and extent of government. Most constitutions seek to regulate the relationship between institutions of the state, in a basic sense the relationship between the executive, legislature and the judiciary, but also the relationship of institutions within those branches. For example, executive branches can be divided into a head of government, government departments/ministries, executive agencies and a civil service/administration. Most constitutions also attempt to define the relationship between individuals and the state, and to establish the broad rights of individual citizens. It is thus the most basic law of a territory from which all the other laws and rules are hierarchically derived; in some territories it is in fact called \"Basic Law\".\n\nKey features\n\nThe following are features of democratic constitutions that have been identified by political scientists to exist, in one form or another, in virtually all national constitutions.\n\nClassification\n\nCodification\n\nA fundamental classification is codification or lack of codification. A codified constitution is one that is contained in a single document, which is the single source of constitutional law in a state. An uncodified constitution is one that is not contained in a single document, consisting of several different sources, which may be written or unwritten; see constitutional convention.\n\nCodified constitution\n\nMost states in the world have codified constitutions.\n\nCodified constitutions are often the product of some dramatic political change, such as a revolution. The process by which a country adopts a constitution is closely tied to the historical and political context driving this fundamental change. The legitimacy (and often the longevity) of codified constitutions has often been tied to the process by which they are initially adopted and some scholars have [http://www.tnr.com/article/politics/75150/wiki-constitutionalism pointed out] that high constitutional turnover within a given country may itself be detrimental to separation of powers and the rule of law.\n\nStates that have codified constitutions normally give the constitution supremacy over ordinary statute law. That is, if there is any conflict between a legal statute and the codified constitution, all or part of the statute can be declared ultra vires by a court, and struck down as unconstitutional. In addition, exceptional procedures are often required to amend a constitution. These procedures may include: convocation of a special constituent assembly or constitutional convention, requiring a supermajority of legislators' votes, the consent of regional legislatures, a referendum process, and/or other procedures that make amending a constitution more difficult than passing a simple law.\n\nConstitutions may also provide that their most basic principles can never be abolished, even by amendment. In case a formally valid amendment of a constitution infringes these principles protected against any amendment, it may constitute a so-called unconstitutional constitutional law.\n\nCodified constitutions normally consist of a ceremonial preamble, which sets forth the goals of the state and the motivation for the constitution, and several articles containing the substantive provisions. The preamble, which is omitted in some constitutions, may contain a reference to God and/or to fundamental values of the state such as liberty, democracy or human rights. In ethnic nation-states such as Estonia, the mission of the state can be defined as preserving a specific nation, language and culture.\n\nUncodified constitution\n\n, only two sovereign states have uncodified constitutions, namely New Zealand and the United Kingdom. The Basic Laws of Israel are arguably its equivalent to a constitution.\n\nUncodified constitutions are the product of an \"evolution\" of laws and conventions over centuries. By contrast to codified constitutions (in the Westminster System that originated in England), uncodified constitutions include written sources: e.g. constitutional statutes enacted by the Parliament and also unwritten sources: constitutional conventions, observation of precedents, royal prerogatives, custom and tradition, such as always holding the General Election on Thursdays; together these constitute the British constitutional law.\n\nWritten versus unwritten; codified versus uncodified\n\nSome constitutions are largely, but not wholly, codified. For example, in the Constitution of Australia, most of its fundamental political principles and regulations concerning the relationship between branches of government, and concerning the government and the individual are codified in a single document, the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia. However, the presence of statutes with constitutional significance, namely the Statute of Westminster, as adopted by the Commonwealth in the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942, and the Australia Act 1986 means that Australia's constitution is not contained in a single constitutional document. It means the Constitution of Australia is uncodified, it also contain constitutional conventions, thus is partially unwritten.\n\nThe Constitution of Canada, which evolved from the British North America Acts until severed from nominal British control by the Canada Act 1982 (analogous to the Australia Act 1986), is a similar example. Canada's constitution consists of almost 30 different statutes.\n\nThe terms written constitution and codified constitution are often used interchangeably, as are unwritten constitution and uncodified constitution, although this usage is technically inaccurate. A codified constitution is a written constitution contained in a single document, states that do not have such a document have uncodified constitutions but not entirely unwritten constitutions since much of an uncodified constitution is usually written in laws, such as the Basic Laws of Israel or the Parliament Acts of the United Kingdom.\n\nEntrenchment\n\nThe presence or lack of entrenchment is a fundamental feature of constitutions. An entrenched constitution cannot be altered in any way by a legislature as part of its normal business concerning ordinary statutory laws, but can only be amended by a different and more onerous procedure. There may be a requirement for a special body to be set up, or the proportion of favourable votes of members of existing legislative bodies may be required to be higher to pass a constitutional amendment than for statutes. The entrenched clauses of a constitution can create different degrees of entrenchment, ranging from simply excluding constitutional amendment from the normal business of a legislature, to making certain amendments either more difficult than normal modifications, or forbidden under any circumstances.\n\nEntrenchment is an inherent feature in most codified constitutions. A codified constitution will incorporate the rules which must be followed for the constitution itself to be changed.\n\nThe US constitution is an example of an entrenched constitution, and the UK constitution is an example of a constitution that is not entrenched (or codified). In some states the text of the constitution may be changed; in others the original text is not changed, and amendments are passed which add to and may override the original text and earlier amendments.\n\nProcedures for constitutional amendment vary between states. In a nation with a federal system of government the approval of a majority of state or provincial legislatures may be required. Alternatively, a national referendum may be required. Details are to be found in the articles on the constitutions of the various nations and federal states in the world.\n\nIn constitutions that are not entrenched, no special procedure is required for modification. Lack of entrenchment is a characteristic of uncodified constitutions; the constitution is not recognised with any higher legal status than ordinary statutes. In the UK, for example laws which modify written or unwritten provisions of the constitution are passed on a simple majority in Parliament. No special \"constitutional amendment\" procedure is required. The principle of parliamentary sovereignty holds that no sovereign parliament may be bound by the acts of its predecessors; and there is no higher authority that can create law which binds Parliament. The sovereign is nominally the head of state with important powers, such as the power to declare war; the uncodified and unwritten constitution removes all these powers in practice.\n\nIn practice democratic governments do not use the lack of entrenchment of the constitution to impose the will of the government or abolish all civil rights, as they could in theory do, but the distinction between constitutional and other law is still somewhat arbitrary, usually following historical principles embodied in important past legislation. For example, several British Acts of Parliament such as the Bill of Rights, Human Rights Act and, prior to the creation of Parliament, Magna Carta are regarded as granting fundamental rights and principles which are treated as almost constitutional. Several rights that in another state might be guaranteed by constitution have indeed been abolished or modified by the British parliament in the early 21st century, including the unconditional right to trial by jury, the right to silence without prejudicial inference, permissible detention before a charge is made extended from 24 hours to 42 days, and the right not to be tried twice for the same offence.\n\nAbsolutely unmodifiable articles\n\nThe strongest level of entrenchment exists in those constitutions that state that some of their most fundamental principles are absolute, i.e. certain articles may not be amended under any circumstances. An amendment of a constitution that is made consistently with that constitution, except that it violates the absolute non-modifiability, can be called an unconstitutional constitutional law. Ultimately it is always possible for a constitution to be overthrown by internal or external force, for example, a revolution (perhaps claiming to be justified by the right to revolution) or invasion.\nIn the Constitution of India, the Supreme Court has created the Doctrine of Basic Structure in Kesavananda Bharti's case (1973) stating that the essential features of the Basic structure cannot be amended by the Parliament. The Court has identified judicial review, independence of Judiciary, free and fair election, core of Fundamental Rights as a few of the essential features which are unamendable. However, the Supreme Court did not identify specific provisions which are in the category of absolute entrenchment. A critical analysis of the Doctrine of Basic Structure appears in Professor M.K. Bhandari's book Basic Structure of Indian Constitution - A Critical Reconsideration.\n\nAn example of absolute unmodifiability is found in the German constitution. Articles 1 and 20 protect human dignity, human rights, democracy, rule of law, federal and social state principles, and the people's right of resistance as a last resort against an attempt to abolish the constitutional order. Article 79, Section 3 states that these principles cannot be changed, even according to the methods of amendment defined elsewhere in the document, until a new constitution comes into effect.\n\nAnother example is the Constitution of Honduras, which has an article stating that the article itself and certain other articles cannot be changed in any circumstances. Article 374 of the Honduras Constitution asserts this unmodifiability, stating, \"It is not possible to reform, in any case, the preceding article, the present article, the constitutional articles referring to the form of government, to the national territory, to the presidential period, the prohibition to serve again as President of the Republic, the citizen who has performed under any title in consequence of which she/he cannot be President of the Republic in the subsequent period.\" This unmodifiability article played an important role in the 2009 Honduran constitutional crisis.\n\nDistribution of sovereignty\n\nConstitutions also establish where sovereignty is located in the state. There are three basic types of distribution of sovereignty according to the degree of centralisation of power: unitary, federal, and confederal. The distinction is not absolute.\n\nIn a unitary state, sovereignty resides in the state itself, and the constitution determines this. The territory of the state may be divided into regions, but they are not sovereign and are subordinate to the state. In the UK, the constitutional doctrine of Parliamentary sovereignty dictates than sovereignty is ultimately contained at the centre. Some powers have been devolved to Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales (but not England). Some unitary states (Spain is an example) devolve more and more power to sub-national governments until the state functions in practice much like a federal state.\n\nA federal state has a central structure with at most a small amount of territory mainly containing the institutions of the federal government, and several regions (called states, provinces, etc.) which compose the territory of the whole state. Sovereignty is divided between the centre and the constituent regions. The constitutions of Canada and the United States establish federal states, with power divided between the federal government and the provinces or states. Each of the regions may in turn have its own constitution (of unitary nature).\n\nA confederal state comprises again several regions, but the central structure has only limited coordinating power, and sovereignty is located in the regions. Confederal constitutions are rare, and there is often dispute to whether so-called \"confederal\" states are actually federal.\n\nTo some extent a group of states which do not constitute a federation as such may by treaties and accords give up parts of their sovereignty to a supranational entity. For example, the countries constituting the European Union have agreed to abide by some Union-wide measures which restrict their absolute sovereignty in some ways, e.g., the use of the metric system of measurement instead of national units previously used.\n\nSeparation of powers\n\nConstitutions usually explicitly divide power between various branches of government. The standard model, described by the Baron de Montesquieu, involves three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial. Some constitutions include additional branches, such as an auditory branch. Constitutions vary extensively as to the degree of separation of powers between these branches.\n\nLines of accountability\n\nIn presidential and semi-presidential systems of government, department secretaries/ministers are accountable to the president, who has patronage powers to appoint and dismiss ministers. The president is accountable to the people in an election.\n\nIn parliamentary systems, Cabinet Ministers are accountable to Parliament, but it is the prime minister who appoints and dismisses them. In the case of the United Kingdom and other countries with a Monarchy, it is the Monarch who appoints and dismisses ministers, on the advice of the Prime Minister. In turn the prime minister will resign if the government loses the confidence of the parliament (or a part of it). Confidence can be lost if the government loses a vote of no confidence or, depending on the country \n, loses a particularly important vote in parliament such as vote on the budget. When a government loses confidence it stays in office until a new government is formed; something which normally but not necessarily required the holding of a general election.\n\nState of emergency\n\nMany constitutions allow the declaration under exceptional circumstances of some form of state of emergency during which some rights and guarantees are suspended. This deliberate Manifestation can be and has been abused to allow a government to suppress dissent without regard for human rights—see the article on state of emergency.\n\nFacade constitutions\n\nItalian political theorist Giovanni Sartori noted the existence of national constitutions which are a facade for authoritarian sources of power. While such documents may express respect for human rights or establish an independent judiciary, they may be ignored when the government feels threatened, or never put into practice. An extreme example was the Constitution of the Soviet Union that on paper supported freedom of assembly and freedom of speech; however, citizens who transgressed unwritten limits were summarily imprisoned. The example demonstrates that the protections and benefits of a constitution are ultimately provided not through its written terms but through deference by government and society to its principles. A constitution may change from being real to a facade and back again as democratic and autocratic governments succeed each other.\n\nConstitutional courts\n\nConstitutions are often, but by no means always, protected by a legal body whose job it is to interpret those constitutions and, where applicable, declare void executive and legislative acts which infringe the constitution. In some countries, such as Germany, this function is carried out by a dedicated constitutional court which performs this (and only this) function. In other countries, such as Ireland, the ordinary courts may perform this function in addition to their other responsibilities. While elsewhere, like in the United Kingdom, the concept of declaring an act to be unconstitutional does not exist.\n\nA constitutional violation is an action or legislative act that is judged by a constitutional court to be contrary to the constitution, that is, unconstitutional. An example of constitutional violation by the executive could be a public office holder who acts outside the powers granted to that office by a constitution. An example of constitutional violation by the legislature is an attempt to pass a law that would contradict the constitution, without first going through the proper constitutional amendment process.\n\nSome countries, mainly those with uncodified constitutions, have no such courts at all. For example, the United Kingdom has traditionally operated under the principle of parliamentary sovereignty under which the laws passed by United Kingdom Parliament could not be questioned by the courts.", "Prohibition is the act of prohibiting the manufacturing, storage in barrels or bottles, transportation, sale, possession, and consumption of alcohol including alcoholic beverages. The term can also apply to periods in the histories of countries during which the prohibition of alcohol was enforced.\n\nHistory\n\nThe earliest records of prohibition of alcohol date to the Xia Dynasty (ca. 2070 BC–ca. 1600 BC) in China. Yu the Great, the first ruler of the Xia Dynasty, prohibited alcohol throughout the kingdom. It was legalized again after his death, during the reign of his son Qi. \nAnother record was in the Code of Hammurabi (ca.1772 BCE) specifically banning the selling of beer for money. It could only be bartered for barley: \"If a beer seller do not receive barley as the price for beer, but if she receive money or make the beer a measure smaller than the barley measure received, they shall throw her into the water.\" (from Pearson textbook \"Arts and Culture, An Introduction to the Humanities\", Volume One, Fourth Edition, Benton & DiYanni, pg. 16).\n\nIn the early twentieth century, much of the impetus for the prohibition movement in the Nordic countries and North America came from moralistic convictions of pietistic Protestants. Prohibition movements in the West coincided with the advent of women's suffrage, with newly empowered women as part of the political process strongly supporting policies that curbed alcohol consumption. \n\nThe first half of the 20th century saw periods of prohibition of alcoholic beverages in several countries:\n* 1907 to 1948 in Prince Edward Island, and for shorter periods in other provinces in Canada\n* 1907 to 1992 in the Faroe Islands; limited private imports from Denmark were allowed from 1928\n* 1914 to 1925 in the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union\n* 1915 to 1933 in Iceland (beer was still prohibited until 1989) \n* 1916 to 1927 in Norway (fortified wine and beer were also prohibited from 1917 to 1923)\n* 1919 in the Hungarian Soviet Republic, March 21 to August 1; called szesztilalom\n* 1919 to 1932 in Finland (called kieltolaki, \"ban law\")\n* 1920 to 1933 in the United States\n\nAfter several years, prohibition failed in North America and elsewhere. Rum-running became widespread and organized crime took control of the distribution of alcohol. Distilleries and breweries in Canada, Mexico and the Caribbean flourished as their products were either consumed by visiting Americans or illegally exported to the United States. Chicago became notorious as a haven for prohibition dodgers during the time known as the Roaring Twenties. Prohibition generally came to an end in the late 1920s or early 1930s in most of North America and Europe, although a few locations continued prohibition for many more years.\n\nIn some countries where the dominant religion forbids the use of alcohol, the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic beverages is prohibited or restricted today. For example, in Saudi Arabia and Libya alcohol is banned; in Pakistan and Iran it is illegal with exceptions. \n\nAsia\n\nAfghanistan\n\nSale of alcohol is banned in Afghanistan.\n\nBangladesh\n\nIn Bangladesh, alcohol is generally prohibited due to its proscription in the Islamic faith. However, the purchase and consumption is allowed for non-Muslims in the country. The Garo tribe consume a type of rice beer, and Christians drink and purchase wine for their holy communion.\n\nBrunei\n\nIn Brunei, alcohol consumption in public and sale of alcohol is banned. Non-Muslims are allowed to purchase a limited amount of alcohol from their point of embarkation overseas for their own private consumption, and non-Muslims who are at least the age of 18 are allowed to bring in not more than two bottles of liquor (about two litres) and twelve cans of beer per person into the country.\n\nIndia\n\n In India alcohol is a state subject and individual states can legislate prohibition, but currently most states do not have prohibition. Prohibition is in force in the states of Gujarat, Bihar and Nagaland, parts of Manipur, and the union territory of Lakshadweep. The state of Kerala has placed some limitations on sale of alcohol. All other States and union territories of India permit the sale of alcohol.\n\nElection days and certain national holidays such as Gandhi Jayanti (birthdate of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi) are meant to be dry days when liquor sale is not permitted. The state of Andhra Pradesh had imposed Prohibition under the Chief Ministership of N. T. Rama Rao but this was thereafter lifted. Prohibition was also observed from 1996 to 1998 in Haryana. Some Indian states observe dry days on major religious festivals/occasions depending on the popularity of the festival in that region.\n\nIran\n\nSince the 1979 Islamic Revolution, the sale and consumption of alcohol is banned in Iran.\n\nIndonesia\n\nAlcohol is banned for people who use small shops and convenience stores. \n\nKuwait\n\nThe consumption, importation and brewing of, and trafficking in liquor is strictly against the law. \n\nMalaysia\n\nAlcohol is banned for Muslims in Malaysia due to its Islamic faith and sharia law. \n\nMaldives\n\nThe Maldives ban the import of alcohol, x-raying all baggage on arrival. Alcoholic beverages are available only to foreign tourists on resort islands and may not be taken off the resort.\n\nPakistan\n\nPakistan allowed the free sale and consumption of alcohol for three decades from 1947, but restrictions were introduced by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto just weeks before he was removed as prime minister in 1977. Since then, only members of non-Muslim minorities such as Hindus, Christians and Zoroastrians are allowed to apply for alcohol permits. The monthly quota is dependent upon one's income, but usually is about five bottles of liquor or 100 bottles of beer. In a country of 180 million, only about 60 outlets are allowed to sell alcohol. The Murree Brewery in Rawalpindi was once the only legal brewery, but today there are more. The ban officially is enforced by the country's Islamic Ideology Council, but it is not strictly policed. Members of religious minorities, however, often sell their liquor permits to Muslims as part of a continuing black market trade in alcohol. \n\nPhilippines\n\nThere are only restrictions during elections in the Philippines. Alcohol is prohibited to be bought two days prior to an election. The Commission on Elections may opt to extend the period of time of the liquor ban. In the 2010 elections, the liquor ban was on a minimum two days; in the 2013 elections, there was a proposal that it be extended to five days. This was overturned by the Supreme Court.\n\nOther than election-related prohibition, alcohol is freely sold to anyone above the legal drinking age.\n\nSaudi Arabia\n\nThe sale, consumption, importation and brewing of, and trafficking in liquor is strictly against the law. \n\nThailand\n\nAlcohol is prohibited from being sold during election time, from 6pm the day prior to voting, until the end of the day of voting itself. Alcohol is also prohibited on major Buddhist holy days, and sometimes on Royal Commemoration days, such as birthdays.\n\nThailand also enforces time-limited bans on alcohol on a daily basis. Alcohol can only be legally purchased in stores or restaurants between 11am-2pm and 5pm-midnight. This law is enforced by all major retailers (most notably 7-Eleven) and restaurants but is frequently ignored by the smaller 'mom and pop' stores. Hotels and resorts are exempt from the rules.\n\nThe consumption of alcohol is also banned at any time within 200 meters of a filling station (where sale of alcohol is also illegal), schools, temples or hospitals as well as on board any type of road vehicle regardless of whether it is being consumed by the driver or passenger.\n\nAt certain times of the year -- Thai New Year (Songkran) as an example -- the government may also enforce arbitrary bans on the sale and consumption of alcohol in specific public areas where large scale festivities are due to take place and large crowds are expected.\n\nYemen\n\nAlcohol is banned in Yemen.\n\nEurope\n\nCzech Republic\n\nOn 14 September 2012, the government of the Czech Republic banned all sales of liquor with more than 20% alcohol. From this date on it was illegal to sell such alcoholic beverages in shops, supermarkets, bars, restaurants, gas stations, e-shops etc. This measure was taken in response to the wave of methanol poisoning cases resulting in the deaths of 18 people in the Czech Republic. Since the beginning of the \"methanol affair\" the total number of deaths has increased to 25. The ban was to be valid until further notice, though restrictions were eased towards the end of September. The last bans on Czech alcohol with regard to the poisoning cases were lifted on 10 October 2012, when neighbouring Slovakia and Poland allowed its import once again. \n\nNordic countries\n\nThe Nordic countries, with the exception of Denmark, have had a strong temperance movement since the late 1800s, closely linked to the Christian revival movement of the late 19th century, but also to several worker organisations. As an example, in 1910 the temperance organisations in Sweden had some 330,000 members, which was about 16% of a population of 5.5 million. Naturally, this heavily influenced the decisions of Nordic politicians in the early 20th century. \n\nAlready in 1907, the Faroe Islands passed a law prohibiting all sale of alcohol, which was in force until 1992. However, very restricted private importation from Denmark was allowed from 1928.\n\nIn 1914, Sweden put in place a rationing system, the Bratt System, in force until 1955. However a referendum in 1922 rejected an attempt to enforce total prohibition.\n\nIn 1915, Iceland instituted total prohibition. The ban for wine and spirits was lifted in 1935, but beer remained prohibited until 1989.\n\nIn 1916, Norway prohibited distilled beverages, and in 1917 the prohibition was extended to also include fortified wine and beer. The wine and beer ban was lifted in 1923, and in 1927 the ban of distilled beverages was also lifted.\n\nIn 1919, Finland enacted prohibition, as one of the first acts after independence from the Russian Empire. Four previous attempts to institute prohibition in the early 20th century had failed due to opposition from the tsar. After a development similar to the one in the United States during its prohibition, with large-scale smuggling and increasing violence and crime rates, public opinion turned against the prohibition, and after a national referendum where 70% voted for a repeal of the law, prohibition was ended in early 1932. \n\nToday, all Nordic countries (with the exception of Denmark) continue to have strict controls on the sale of alcohol which is highly taxed (dutied) to the public. There are government monopolies in place for selling spirits, wine and stronger beers in Norway (Vinmonopolet), Sweden (Systembolaget), Iceland (Vínbúðin), the Faroe Islands (Rúsdrekkasøla Landsins) and Finland (Alko). Bars and restaurants may, however, import alcoholic beverages directly or through other companies.\n\nGreenland, which is part of the Kingdom of Denmark, does not share its easier controls on the sale of alcohol. Greenland has (like Denmark) sales in food shops, but prices are high. Private import when traveling from Denmark is only allowed in small quantities.\n\nRussian Empire and Soviet Union\n\nIn the Russian Empire, a limited version of a Dry Law was introduced in 1914. It continued through the turmoil of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the Russian Civil War into the period of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union until 1925.\n\nUnited Kingdom\n\nAlthough the sale or consumption of commercial alcohol has never been prohibited by law, historically various groups in the UK have campaigned for the prohibition of alcohol, including the Society of Friends (Quakers), The Methodist Church and other non-conformists, as well as temperance movements such as Band of Hope and temperance Chartist movements of the 19th century.\n\nFormed in 1853 and inspired by the Maine law in the USA, the United Kingdom Alliance aimed at promoting a similar law prohibiting the sale of alcohol in the UK. This hard-line group of prohibitionists was opposed by other temperance organisations who preferred moral persuasion to a legal ban. This division in the ranks limited the effectiveness of the temperance movement as a whole. The impotence of legislation in this field was demonstrated when the Sale of Beer Act 1854 which restricted Sunday opening hours had to be repealed, following widespread rioting. In 1859 a prototype prohibition bill was overwhelmingly defeated in the House of Commons. \n\nRepublic of Ireland\n\nThe sale of alcoholic beverages is prohibited in the Irish state on Christmas Day, and Good Friday. \nFurthermore, licensing hours in supermarkets and off-licences are between 10:30 and 22:00 daily.\n\nNorth America\n\nCanada\n\nAn official, but non-binding, federal referendum on prohibition was held in 1898. Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier's government chose not to introduce a federal bill on prohibition, mindful of the strong antipathy in Quebec. As a result, Canadian prohibition was instead enacted through laws passed by the provinces during the first twenty years of the 20th century. The provinces repealed their prohibition laws, mostly during the 1920s.\n\nMexico\n\nZapatista Communities often ban alcohol as part of a collective decision. This has been used by many villages as a way to decrease domestic violence and has generally been favored by women. However, this is not recognized by federal Mexican law as the Zapatista movement is strongly opposed by the federal government.\n\nThe sale and purchase of alcohol is prohibited on and the night before certain national holidays, such as Natalicio de Benito Juárez (birthdate of Benito Juárez) and Día de la Revolución, which are meant to be dry nationally. The same \"dry law\" applies to the days before presidential elections every six years.\n\nUnited States\n\nProhibition focused on the manufacture, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages; however, exceptions were made for medicinal and religious uses. Alcohol consumption was never illegal under federal law. Nationwide Prohibition did not begin in the United States until January 1920, when the Eighteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution went into effect, and was repealed in December, 1933, with the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment. \n \nConcern over excessive alcohol consumption began during the American colonial era, when fines were imposed for drunken behavior and for selling liquor without a license. In the eighteenth century, when drinking was a part of everyday American life, Protestant religious groups, especially the Methodists, and health reformers, including Benjamin Rush and others, urged Americans to curb their drinking habits for moral and health reasons. In particular, Benjamin Rush believed Americans were drinking hard spirits in excess, so he created \"A Moral and Physical Thermometer,\" displaying the progression of behaviors caused by the consumption of various alcohols. By the 1840s the temperance movement was actively encouraging individuals to reduce alcohol consumption. Music (a completely new genre) was composed and performed in support of the efforts, both in social contexts and in response to state legislation attempts to regulate alcohol. Many took a pledge of total abstinence (teetotalism) from drinking distilled liquor as well as beer and wine. Prohibition remained a major reform movement from the 1840s until the 1920s, when nationwide prohibition went into effect, and was supported by evangelical Protestant churches, especially the Methodists, Baptists, Presbyterians, Disciples of Christ, and Congregationalists. Kansas and Maine were early adopters of statewide prohibition. Following passage of the Maine law, Delaware, Ohio, Illinois, Rhode Island, Minnesota, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, and New York, among others, soon passed statewide prohibition legislation; however, a number of these laws were overturned.\n\nAs temperance groups continued to promote prohibition, other groups opposed increased alcohol restrictions. For example, Chicago's citizens fought against enforcing Sunday closings laws in the 1850s, which included mob violence. It was also during this time when patent medicines, many of which contained alcohol, gained popularity. During the American Civil War efforts at increasing federal revenue included imposition of taxes on liquor and beer. The liquor industry responded to the taxes by forming an industry lobby, the United States Brewers Association, that succeeded in reducing the tax rate on beer from $1 to 60 cents. The Women's Crusade of 1873 and the Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), founded in 1874, \"marked the formal entrance of women into the temperance movement.\" It was also the first time that women had organized and acted together politically, using their influence to fight against the drunken culture of the time. Organizations such as the Women's Christian Temperance Movement would set the stage for women to organize and demand political action as a group with common interests and common goals. The WCTU and the Prohibition Party, organized in 1869, remained major players in the temperance movement until the early twentieth century, when the Anti-Saloon League, formed in 1895, emerged as the movement's leader.\n\nBetween 1880 and 1890, although several states enacted local option laws that allowed counties or towns to go dry by referendum, only six states had statewide prohibition by state statute or constitutional amendment. The League, with the support of evangelical Protestant churches including the Episcopalians and Lutherans, and other Progressive-era reformers continued to press for prohibition legislation. Opposition to prohibition was strong in America's urban industrial centers, where a large, immigrant, working-class population generally opposed it, as did Jewish and Catholic religious groups. In the years leading up to World War I, nativism, American patriotism, distrust of immigrants, and anti-German sentiment became associated with the prohibition movement. Through the use of pressure politics on legislators, the League and other temperance reformers achieved the goal of nationwide prohibition by emphasizing the need to destroy the moral corruption of the saloons and the political power of the brewing industry, and to reduce domestic violence in the home. By 1913 nine states had stateside prohibition and thirty-one others had local option laws in effect, which included nearly fifty percent of the U.S. population. At that time the League and other reformers turned their efforts toward attaining a constitutional amendment and grassroots support for nationwide prohibition.\n\nIn December 1917, after two previous attempts had failed (one in 1913; the other in 1915), Congress approved a resolution to submit a constitutional amendment on nationwide prohibition to the states for ratification. The new constitutional amendment prohibited \"the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes\". On January 8, 1918, Mississippi became the first state to ratify the amendment, and on January 16, 1919, Nebraska became the thirty-sixth state to ratify it, assuring its passage into federal law. On October 28, 1919, Congress passed the National Prohibition Act, also known as the Volstead Act, which provided enabling legislation to implement the Eighteenth Amendment. When the National Prohibition Act was passed on October 28, 1919, thirty-three of the forty-eight states were already dry. Congress ratified the Eighteenth Amendment on January 16, 1920, and nationwide prohibition began on January 17, 1920.\n\nDuring the first years of Prohibition, the new federal law was enforced in regions such as the rural South and western states, where it had popular support; however, in large urban cities and in small industrial or mining towns, residents defied or ignored the law. The Ku Klux Klan was a major supporter of the Prohibition and once it was passed they helped with the enforcement of it. For example, in 1923, Klansmen traded pistol shots with bootleggers, burned down roadhouses, and whipped liquor sellers, and anybody else who broke the moral code. The Prohibition was effective in reducing per-capita consumption, and consumption remained lower for a quarter-century after Prohibition had been repealed. Sale of alcoholic beverages remained illegal during Prohibition, but alcoholic drinks were still available. Large quantities of alcohol were smuggled into the United States from Canada, over land, by sea routes along both ocean coasts, and through the Great Lakes. While the federal government cracked down on alcohol consumption on land within the United States, it was a different story along the U.S. coastlines, where vessels outside the 3-mile limit were exempt. In addition, home brewing was popular during Prohibition. Malt and hops stores popped up across the country and some former breweries turned to selling malt extract syrup, ostensibly for baking and beverage purposes.\n\nProhibition became increasingly unpopular during the Great Depression. Some believe that the demand for increased employment and tax revenues during this time brought an end to Prohibition. Others argue it was the result of the economic motivations of American businessmen as well as the stress and excesses of the era that kept it from surviving, even under optimal economic conditions.\n\nRepeal\n\nThe repeal movement was initiated and financed by the Association Against the Prohibition Amendment, who worked to elect Congressmen who agreed to support repeal. The group's wealthy supporters included John D. Rockefeller, Jr., S. S. Kresge, and the Du Pont family, among others, who had abandoned the dry cause. Pauline Sabin, a wealthy Republican who founded the Women's Organization for National Prohibition Reform (WONPR), argued that Prohibition should be repealed because it made the United States a nation of hypocrites and undermined its respect for the rule of law. This hypocrisy and the fact that women had initially led the prohibition movement convinced Sabin to establish the WONPR. Their efforts eventually led to the repeal of prohibition. \n\nWhen Sabin's fellow Republicans would not support her efforts, she went to the Democrats, who switched their support of the dry cause to endorse repeal under the leadership of liberal politicians such as Fiorello La Guardia and Franklin D. Roosevelt. Sabin and her supporters emphasized that repeal would generate enormous sums of much-needed tax revenue, and weaken the base of organized crime.\n\nRepeal of Prohibition was accomplished with the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment on December 5, 1933. Under its terms, states were allowed to set their own laws for the control of alcohol. Following repeal, public interest in an organized prohibition movement dwindled. However, it survived for a while in a few southern and border states. To this day, however, there are still counties and parishes within the US known as \"dry\", where the sale of liquor (whiskey, wine) -not beer- is prohibited; several such municipalities have adopted liquor-by-the-drink, however in order to expand tax revenue. \n\nAl Capone\n\nAl Capone was the most notorious gangster of his generation. Born on January 17, 1899 in Brooklyn, New York; Capone settled in Chicago to take over Johnny Torrio's business dealing with outlawed liquor. Within three years, Capone had nearly 700 men at his disposal. As the profits came in, Capone acquired finesse—particularly in the management of politicians. By the middle of the decade, he had gained control of the suburb of Cicero, and had installed his own mayor. Capone's rise to fame did not come without bloodshed. Rival gangs, such as the Gennas and the Aiellos, started wars with Capone, eventually leading to a rash of killings of proportions. In 1927, Capone and his gang were pulling in approximately $60 million per year- most of it from beer. Capone not only controlled the sale of liquor to over 10,000 speakeasies, but he also controlled the supply from Canada to Florida. Capone was imprisoned for tax violations and died January 25, 1947, from a heart attack, pneumonia, and syphilis. \n\nSouth America\n\nVenezuela\n\nIn Venezuela, twenty-one hours before every election, the government prohibits the sale and distribution of alcoholic beverages throughout the national territory, including the restriction to all dealers, liquor stores, supermarkets, restaurants, wineries, pubs, bars, public entertainment, clubs and any establishment that markets alcoholic beverages. This is done to prevent violent alcohol induced confrontations because of the high political polarization. The same is done during the holy week as a measure to reduce the alarming rate of road traffic accidents during these holidays. \n\nOceania\n\nAustralia\n\nThe Australian Capital Territory (then the Federal Capital Territory) was the first jurisdiction in Australia to have prohibition laws. In 1911, King O'Malley, then Minister of Home Affairs, shepherded laws through Parliament preventing new issue or transfer of licences to sell alcohol, to address unruly behaviour among workers building the new capital city. Prohibition was partial, since possession of alcohol purchased outside of the Territory remained legal and the few pubs that had existing licences could continue to operate. The Federal Parliament repealed the laws after residents of the Federal Capital Territory voted for the end of them in a 1928 plebiscite. \n\nSince then, some local councils have enacted local dry zones in which possession or consumption of alcohol is forbidden. Nearly all dry zones are only a district within a larger community. Notable among those remaining in existence is the Adelaide city centre. \n\nMore recently, alcohol has been prohibited in many remote indigenous communities. Penalties for transporting alcohol into these \"dry\" communities are severe and can result in confiscation of any vehicles involved; in dry areas within the Northern Territory, all vehicles used to transport alcohol are seized.\n\nNew Zealand\n\nIn New Zealand, prohibition was a moralistic reform movement begun in the mid-1880s by the Protestant evangelical and Nonconformist churches and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union and after 1890 by the Prohibition League. It assumed that individual virtue was all that was needed to carry the colony forward from a pioneering society to a more mature one, but it never achieved its goal of national prohibition. However, both the Church of England and the largely Irish Catholic Church rejected prohibition as an intrusion of government into the church's domain, while the growing labor movement saw capitalism rather than alcohol as the enemy. \n\nReformers hoped that the women's vote, in which New Zealand was a pioneer, would swing the balance, but the women were not as well organized as in other countries. Prohibition had a majority in a national referendum in 1911, but needed a 60% vote to pass. The movement kept trying in the 1920s, losing three more referenda by close votes; it managed to keep in place a 6pm closing hour for pubs and Sunday closing. The Depression and war years effectively ended the movement. but their 6pm closing hour remained until October 1967 when it was extended to 10pm.\n\nFor many years, referenda were held for individual towns or electorates, often coincident with general elections. The ballots determined whether these individual areas would be \"dry\" - that is, alcohol could not be purchased or consumed in public in these areas. One notable example was the southern city of Invercargill, which was dry from 1907 to 1943. People wanting alcohol usually travelled to places outside the city (such as the nearby township of Lorneville or the town of Winton) to drink in the local pubs or purchase alcohol to take back home. The last bastion of this 'dry' area remains in force in the form of a licensing trust which still to this day governs the sale of liquor in Invercargill. The city does not allow the sale of alcohol (beer and wine included) in supermarkets unlike the remainder of new Zealand, and all form of alcohol regardless of the sort can only be sold in bars and liquor stores.\n\nProhibition was of limited success in New Zealand as — like in other countries — it led to organised bootlegging. The most famous bootlegged alcohol in New Zealand was that produced in the Hokonui Hills close to the town of Gore (not coincidentally, the nearest large town to Invercargill). Even today, the term \"Hokonui\" conjures up images of illicit whisky to many New Zealanders. \n\nElections\n\nIn many countries in Latin America, the Philippines, Turkey and several US states, the sale but not the consumption of alcohol is prohibited before and during elections.", "Prohibition in the United States was a nationwide constitutional ban on the production, importation, transportation and sale of alcoholic beverages that remained in place from 1920 to 1933. It was promoted by the \"dry\" crusaders, a movement led by rural Protestants and social Progressives in the Prohibition, Democratic and Republican parties. It gained a national grass roots base through the Woman's Christian Temperance Union. After 1900 it was coordinated by the Anti-Saloon League. Prohibition was mandated state after state, then finally nationwide under the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1920. Enabling legislation, known as the Volstead Act, set down the rules for enforcing the ban and defined the types of alcoholic beverages that were prohibited. For example, religious uses of wine were allowed. Private ownership and consumption of alcohol were not made illegal under federal law; however, in many areas, local laws were stricter, with some states banning possession outright. In the 1920s the laws were widely disregarded, and tax revenues were lost. Their opposition mobilized and nationwide, Prohibition ended with the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment, which repealed the Eighteenth Amendment, on December 5, 1933. Some states continued statewide prohibition.\n\nProhibition marked one of the last stages of the Progressive Era. During the 19th century, alcoholism, family violence, and saloon-based political corruption led activists, led by pietistic Protestants, to end the liquor (and beer) trade to cure the ill society and weaken the political opposition. Among other things, this led many communities in the late 19th and early 20th century to introduce alcohol prohibition, with the subsequent enforcement in law becoming a hotly debated issue. Prohibition supporters, called drys, presented it as a victory for public morals and health. Anti-prohibitionists, known as wets, criticized the alcohol ban as an intrusion of mainly rural Protestant ideals on a central aspect of urban, immigrant, and Catholic life. Although popular opinion believes that Prohibition failed, it succeeded in cutting overall alcohol consumption in half during the 1920s, and consumption remained below pre-Prohibition levels until the 1940s, suggesting that Prohibition did socialize a significant proportion of the population in temperate habits, at least temporarily. Some researchers contend that its political failure is attributable more to a changing historical context than to characteristics of the law itself. Criticism remains that Prohibition led to unintended consequences such as the growth of urban crime organizations and a century of Prohibition-influenced legislation. As an experiment it lost supporters every year, and lost tax revenue that governments needed when the Great Depression began in 1929. \n\nHistory\n\nThe U.S. Senate proposed the Eighteenth Amendment on December 18, 1917. Upon being approved by a 36th state on January 16, 1919, the amendment was ratified as a part of the Constitution. By the terms of the amendment, the country went dry one year later, on January 17, 1920. \n\nOn November 18, 1918, prior to ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment, the U.S. Congress passed the temporary Wartime Prohibition Act, which banned the sale of alcoholic beverages having an alcohol content of greater than 2.75%. (This act, which had been intended to save grain for the war effort, was passed after the armistice ending World War I was signed on November 11, 1918.) The Wartime Prohibition Act took effect June 30, 1919, with July 1, 1919, becoming known as the \"Thirsty-First\". \n\nOn October 28, 1919, Congress passed the Volstead Act, the popular name for the National Prohibition Act, over President Woodrow Wilson's veto. The act established the legal definition of intoxicating liquors as well as penalties for producing them. Although the Volstead Act prohibited the sale of alcohol, the federal government lacked resources to enforce it. By 1925, in New York City alone, there were anywhere from 30,000 to 100,000 speakeasy clubs. \n\nWhile Prohibition was successful in reducing the amount of liquor consumed, it stimulated the proliferation of rampant underground, organized and widespread criminal activity. Many were astonished and disenchanted with the rise of spectacular gangland crimes (such as Chicago's Saint Valentine's Day Massacre in 1929), when prohibition was supposed to reduce crime. Prohibition lost its advocates one by one, while the wet opposition talked of personal liberty, new tax revenues from legal beer and liquor, and the scourge of organized crime. \n\nOn March 22, 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt signed into law the Cullen–Harrison Act, legalizing beer with an alcohol content of 3.2% (by weight) and wine of a similarly low alcohol content. On December 5, 1933, ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment repealed the Eighteenth Amendment. However, United States federal law still prohibits the manufacture of distilled spirits without meeting numerous licensing requirements that make it impractical to produce spirits for personal beverage use. \n\nOrigins\n\nConsumption of alcoholic beverages has been a contentious topic in America since the colonial period. In May 1657, the General Court of Massachusetts made the sale of strong liquor \"whether known by the name of rum, whisky, wine, brandy, etc.\" illegal. \n\nIn general, informal social controls in the home and community helped maintain the expectation that the abuse of alcohol was unacceptable. \"Drunkenness was condemned and punished, but only as an abuse of a God-given gift. Drink itself was not looked upon as culpable, any more than food deserved blame for the sin of gluttony. Excess was a personal indiscretion.\" When informal controls failed, there were legal options.\n\nShortly after the United States obtained independence, the Whiskey Rebellion took place in western Pennsylvania in protest of government-imposed taxes on whiskey. Although the taxes were primarily levied to help pay down the newly formed national debt, it also received support from some social reformers, who hoped a \"sin tax\" would raise public awareness about the harmful effects of alcohol. The whiskey tax was repealed after Thomas Jefferson's Democratic-Republican Party, which opposed the Federalist Party of Alexander Hamilton and George Washington, came to power in 1800. \n\nBenjamin Rush, one of the foremost physicians of the late eighteenth century, believed in moderation rather than prohibition. In his treatise, \"The Inquiry into the Effects of Ardent Spirits upon the Human Body and Mind\" (1784), Rush argued that the excessive use of alcohol was injurious to physical and psychological health, labeling drunkenness as a disease. Apparently influenced by Rush's widely discussed belief, about 200 farmers in a Connecticut community formed a temperance association in 1789. Similar associations were formed in Virginia in 1800 and New York in 1808. Within a decade, other temperance groups had formed in eight states, some of them being statewide organizations. The words of Rush and other early temperance reformers served to dichotomize the use of alcohol for men and women. While men enjoyed drinking and often considered it vital to their health, women who began to embrace the ideology of \"true motherhood\" refrained from consumption of alcohol. Middle-class women, who were considered the moral authorities of their households, consequently rejected the drinking of alcohol, which they believed to be a threat to the home. In 1830, on average, Americans consumed 1.7 bottles of hard liquor per week, three times the amount consumed in 2010.\n\nThe 1898 Congressional Record, when reporting on a proposed tax on distilled spirits (H.R. 10253), noted that the relationship between populations, tax on distilled spirits (made from things other than fruit), and consumption was thus: (The Aggregates are grouped by tax rate)\n\nDevelopment of the prohibition movement\n\nThe American Temperance Society (ATS), formed in 1826, helped initiate the first temperance movement and served as a foundation for many later groups. By 1835 the ATS had reached 1.5 million members, with women constituting 35% to 60% of its chapters. \n\nThe Prohibition movement, also known as the dry crusade, continued in the 1840s, spearheaded by pietistic religious denominations, especially the Methodists. The late nineteenth century saw the temperance movement broaden its focus from abstinence to include all behavior and institutions related to alcohol consumption. Preachers such as Reverend Mark A. Matthews linked liquor-dispensing saloons with political corruption. \n\nSome successes were achieved in the 1850s, including the Maine law, adopted in 1851, which banned the manufacture and sale of liquor. However, it was repealed in 1856. The temperance movement lost strength and was marginalized during the American Civil War (1861–1865).\n\nFollowing the war, the dry crusade was revived by the national Prohibition Party, founded in 1869, and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), founded in 1873. The WCTU advocated the prohibition of alcohol as a method for preventing, through education, abuse from alcoholic husbands. WCTU members believed that if their organization could reach children with its message, it could create a dry sentiment leading to prohibition. Frances Willard, the second president of the WCTU, held that the aims of the organization were to create a \"union of women from all denominations, for the purpose of educating the young, forming a better public sentiment, reforming the drinking classes, transforming by the power of Divine grace those who are enslaved by alcohol, and removing the dram-shop from our streets by law\". While still denied universal voting privileges, women in the WCTU followed Frances Willard's \"Do Everything\" doctrine and used temperance as a method of entering into politics and furthering other progressive issues such as prison reform and labor laws. \n\nIn 1881 Kansas became the first state to outlaw alcoholic beverages in its Constitution. Carrie Nation gained notoriety for enforcing the state's ban on alcohol consumption by walking into saloons, scolding customers, and using her hatchet to destroy bottles of liquor. Nation recruited ladies into the Carrie Nation Prohibition Group, which she also led. While Nation's vigilante techniques were rare, other activists enforced the dry cause by entering saloons, singing, praying, and urging saloonkeepers to stop selling alcohol. Other dry states, especially those in the South, enacted prohibition legislation, as did individual counties within a state.\n\nCourt cases also debated the subject of prohibition. While some cases ruled in opposition, the general tendency was toward support. In Mugler v. Kansas (1887), Justice Harlan commented: \"We cannot shut out of view the fact, within the knowledge of all, that the public health, the public morals, and the public safety, may be endangered by the general use of intoxicating drinks; nor the fact established by statistics accessible to every one, that the idleness, disorder, pauperism and crime existing in the country, are, in some degree...traceable to this evil.\" In support of prohibition, Crowley v. Christensen (1890), remarked: \"The statistics of every state show a greater amount of crime and misery attributable to the use of ardent spirits obtained at these retail liquor saloons than to any other source.\"\n\nProliferation of neighborhood saloons in the post-Civil War era became a phenomenon of an increasingly industrialized, urban workforce. Workingmen's bars were popular social gathering places from the workplace and home life. The brewing industry was actively involved in establishing saloons as a lucrative consumer base in their business chain. Saloons were more often than not linked to a specific brewery, where the saloonkeeper's operation was financed by a brewer and contractually obligated to sell the brewer's product to the exclusion of competing brands. A saloon's business model often included the offer of a free lunch, where the bill of fare commonly consisting of heavily salted food meant to induce thirst and the purchase of drink. During the Progressive Era (1890–1920), hostility toward saloons and their political influence became widespread, with the Anti-Saloon League superseding the Prohibition Party and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union as the most influential advocate of prohibition, after these latter two groups expanded their efforts to support other social reform issues, such as women's suffrage, onto their prohibition platform.\n\nProhibition was an important force in state and local politics from the 1840s through the 1930s. Numerous historical studies demonstrated that the political forces involved were ethnoreligious. Prohibition was supported by the dries, primarily pietistic Protestant denominations that included Methodists, Northern Baptists, Southern Baptists, New School Presbyterians, Disciples of Christ, Congregationalists, Quakers, and Scandinavian Lutherans, but also included the Catholic Total Abstinence Union of America and, to a certain extent, the Latter-day Saints. These religious groups identified saloons as politically corrupt and drinking as a personal sin. Other active organizations included the Women's Church Federation, the Women's Temperance Crusade, and the Department of Scientific Temperance Instruction. They were opposed by the wets, primarily liturgical Protestants (Episcopalians and German Lutherans) and Roman Catholics, who denounced the idea that the government should define morality. Even in the wet stronghold of New York City there was an active prohibition movement, led by Norwegian church groups and African-American labor activists who believed that prohibition would benefit workers, especially African Americans. Tea merchants and soda fountain manufacturers generally supported prohibition, believing a ban on alcohol would increase sales of their products. A particularly effective operator on the political front was Wayne Wheeler of the Anti-Saloon League, who made Prohibition a wedge issue and succeeded in getting many pro-prohibition candidates elected. Wheeler became known as the \"dry boss\" because of his influence and power. \n\nProhibition represented a conflict between urban and rural values emerging in the United States. Given the mass influx of migrants to the urban centers of the United States, many individuals within the prohibition movement associated the crime and morally corrupt behavior of American cities with their large, immigrant populations. Saloons frequented by immigrants in these cities were often frequented by politicians who wanted to obtain the immigrants' votes in exchange for favors such as job offers, legal assistance, and food baskets. Thus, saloons were seen as a breeding ground for political corruption. \n\nIn a backlash to the emerging reality of a changing American demographic, many prohibitionists subscribed to the doctrine of nativism, in which they endorsed the notion that America was made great as a result of its white Anglo-Saxon ancestry. This belief fostered resentments towards urban immigrant communities, who typically argued in favor of abolishing prohibition. Additionally, nativist sentiments were part of a larger process of Americanization taking place during the same time period. \n\nTwo other amendments to the Constitution were championed by dry crusaders to help their cause. One was granted in the Sixteenth Amendment (1913), which replaced alcohol taxes that funded the federal government with a federal income tax. The other was women's suffrage, which was granted after the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920; since women tended to support prohibition, temperance organizations tended to support women's suffrage.\n\nIn the presidential election of 1916, the Democratic incumbent, Woodrow Wilson, and the Republican candidate, Charles Evans Hughes, ignored the prohibition issue, as did both parties' political platforms. Democrats and Republicans had strong wet and dry factions, and the election was expected to be close, with neither candidate wanting to alienate any part of his political base.\n\nIn January 1917, the 65th Congress convened, in which the dries outnumbered the wets by 140 to 64 in the Democratic Party and 138 to 62 among Republicans. With America's declaration of war against Germany in April, German Americans, a major force against prohibition, were sidelined and their protests subsequently ignored. In addition, a new justification for prohibition arose: prohibiting the production of alcoholic beverages would allow more resources—especially grain that would otherwise be used to make alcohol—to be devoted to the war effort. While wartime prohibition was a spark for the movement, World War I ended before nationwide Prohibition was enacted.\n\nA resolution calling for a Constitutional amendment to accomplish nationwide Prohibition was introduced in Congress and passed by both houses in December 1917. By January 16, 1919, the Amendment had been ratified by 36 of the 48 states needed to assure it passage into law. Eventually, only two of those states—Connecticut and Rhode Island—opted out of ratifying it. On October 28, 1919, Congress passed enabling legislation, known as the Volstead Act, to enforce the Eighteenth Amendment when it went into effect in 1920.\n\nStart of national prohibition (January 1920)\n\nProhibition began on January 16, 1920, when the Eighteenth Amendment went into effect. A total of 1,520 Federal Prohibition agents (police) were tasked with enforcement.\n\nSupporters of the Amendment soon became confident that it would not be repealed. One of its creators, Senator Morris Sheppard, joked that \"there is as much chance of repealing the Eighteenth Amendment as there is for a humming-bird to fly to the planet Mars with the Washington Monument tied to its tail.\" \n\nAt the same time, songs emerged decrying the act. After Edward, Prince of Wales, returned to the United Kingdom following his tour of Canada in 1919, he recounted to his father, King George V, a ditty he had heard at a border town:\n\nProhibition became highly controversial among medical professionals, because alcohol was widely prescribed by the era's physicians for therapeutic purposes. Congress held hearings on the medicinal value of beer in 1921. Subsequently, physicians across the country lobbied for the repeal of Prohibition as it applied to medicinal liquors. From 1921 to 1930, doctors earned about $40 million for whiskey prescriptions. \n\nWhile the manufacture, importation, sale, and transport of alcohol was illegal in the United States, Section 29 of the Volstead Act allowed wine and cider to be made from fruit at home, but not beer. Up to 200 gallons of wine and cider per year could be made, and some vineyards grew grapes for home use. The Act did not prohibit consumption of alcohol. Many people stockpiled wines and liquors for their personal use in the latter part of 1919 before sales of alcoholic beverages became illegal in January 1920.\n\nSince alcohol was legal in neighboring countries, distilleries and breweries in Canada, Mexico, and the Caribbean flourished as their products were either consumed by visiting Americans or smuggled into the United States illegally. The Detroit River, which forms part of the U.S. border with Canada, was notoriously difficult to control, especially rum-running in Windsor, Canada. When the U.S. government complained to the British that American law was being undermined by officials in Nassau, Bahamas, the head of the British Colonial Office refused to intervene. Winston Churchill believed that Prohibition was \"an affront to the whole history of mankind\". \n \nThree federal agencies were assigned the task of enforcing the Volstead Act: the U.S. Coast Guard Office of Law Enforcement, the U.S. Treasury's IRS Bureau of Prohibition, and the U.S. Department of Justice Bureau of Prohibition. \n\nBootlegging and hoarding old supplies\n\nAs early as 1925, journalist H. L. Mencken believed that Prohibition was not working. \"Prohibition worked best when directed at its primary target: the working-class poor.\" Historian Lizabeth Cohen writes: \"A rich family could have a cellar-full of liquor and get by, it seemed, but if a poor family had one bottle of home-brew, there would be trouble.\" Working-class people were inflamed by the fact that their employers could dip into a private cache while they, the employees, could not. \n\nBefore the Eighteenth Amendment went into effect in January 1920, many of the upper classes stockpiled alcohol for legal home consumption after Prohibition began. They bought the inventories of liquor retailers and wholesalers, emptying out their warehouses, saloons, and club storerooms. President Woodrow Wilson moved his own supply of alcoholic beverages to his Washington residence after his term of office ended. His successor, Warren G. Harding, relocated his own large supply into the White House after inauguration. \n\nIn October 1930, just two weeks before the congressional midterm elections, bootlegger George Cassiday—\"the man in the green hat\"—came forward and told how he had bootlegged for ten years for members of Congress. One of the few bootleggers ever to tell his story, Cassiday wrote five front-page articles for The Washington Post, in which he estimated that 80% of congressmen and senators drank. The Democrats in the North were mostly wets, and in the 1932 election, they made major gains. The wets argued that prohibition was not stopping crime, and was actually causing the creation of large-scale, well-funded and well-armed criminal syndicates. As Prohibition became increasingly unpopular, especially in urban areas, its repeal was eagerly anticipated. \n\nWeak enforcement\n\nOne of the main reasons why Prohibition did not proceed smoothly was the inefficient means of enforcing it. From its inception, the Eighteenth Amendment lacked legitimacy in the eyes of the public who had previously been drinkers and law-abiding citizens. In some instances the public viewed Prohibition laws as \"arbitrary and unnecessary\", and therefore were willing to break them. Law enforcement found themselves overwhelmed by the rise in illegal, wide-scale alcohol distribution. The magnitude of their task was unexpected and law enforcement agencies lacked the necessary resources. Additionally, enforcement of the law under the Eighteenth Amendment lacked a centralized authority. Many attempts to impose Prohibition were deterred due to the lack of transparency between federal and state authorities. Clergymen were sometimes called upon to form vigilante groups to assist in the enforcement of Prohibition. Furthermore, American geography contributed to the difficulties in enforcing Prohibition. The varied terrain of valleys, mountains, lakes, and swamps, as well as the extensive seaways, ports, and borders which the United States shared with Canada and Mexico made it exceedingly difficult for Prohibition agents to stop bootleggers given their lack of resources. Ultimately it was recognized with its repeal that the means by which the law was to be enforced were not pragmatic, and in many cases the legislature did not match the general public opinion. \n\nThe second Ku Klux Klan talked a great deal about denouncing bootleggers and threatened private vigilante action against known offenders. Despite its large membership in the mid-1920s, it was poorly organized and seldom had an impact. Indeed, the disgrace of the Klan after 1925 helped disparage any enforcement of Prohibition. \n\nProhibition was a major blow to the alcoholic beverage industry and its repeal was a step toward the amelioration of one sector of the economy. An example of this is the case of St. Louis, one of the most important alcohol producers before prohibition started, who was ready to resume its position in the industry as soon as possible. Its major brewery had \"50,000 barrels\" of beer ready for distribution since March 22, 1933, and was the first alcohol producer to resupply the market; others soon followed. After repeal, stores obtained liquor licenses and restocked for business. After beer production resumed, thousands of workers found jobs in the industry again. \n\nProhibition created a black market that competed with the formal economy, which came under pressure when the Great Depression struck in 1929. State governments urgently needed the tax revenue alcohol sales had generated. Franklin Roosevelt was elected in 1932 based in part on his promise to end prohibition, which influenced his support for ratifying the Twenty-first Amendment to repeal Prohibition. \n\nRepeal\n\nEconomic urgency played no small part in accelerating the advocacy for repeal. The number of conservatives who pushed for prohibition in the beginning decreased. Many farmers who fought for prohibition now fought for repeal because of the negative effects it had on the agriculture business. Prior to the 1920 implementation of the Volstead Act, approximately 14% of federal, state, and local tax revenues were derived from alcohol commerce. When the Great Depression hit and tax revenues plunged, the governments needed this revenue stream. Millions could be made by taxing beer. There was controversy on whether the repeal should be a state or nationwide decision. On March 22, 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt signed an amendment to the Volstead Act, known as the Cullen–Harrison Act, allowing the manufacture and sale of 3.2% beer (3.2% alcohol by weight, approximately 4% alcohol by volume) and light wines. The Volstead Act previously defined an intoxicating beverage as one with greater than 0.5% alcohol. Upon signing the Cullen–Harrison Act, Roosevelt made his famous remark: \"I think this would be a good time for a beer.\" \n\nThe Eighteenth Amendment was repealed on December 5, 1933, with ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Despite the efforts of Heber J. Grant, president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, a Utah convention helped ratify the Twenty-first Amendment. \n\nPost-repeal\n\nThe Twenty-first Amendment does not prevent states from restricting or banning alcohol; instead, it prohibits \"transportation or importation\" of alcohol in \"any State, Territory, or Possession of the United States\" \"in violation of the laws thereof\", thus allowing state and local control of alcohol. There are still numerous dry counties and townships in the United States that restrict or prohibit liquor sales. \n\nAdditionally, many tribal governments prohibit alcohol on Indian reservations. Federal law also prohibits alcohol on Indian reservations, although this law is currently only enforced when there is a concomitant violation of local tribal liquor laws. \n\nAfter its repeal, some former supporters openly admitted failure. For example, John D. Rockefeller, Jr., explained his view in a 1932 letter: \n\nIt is not clear whether Prohibition reduced per-capita consumption of alcohol. Some historians claim that alcohol consumption in the United States did not exceed pre-Prohibition levels until the 1960s; others claim that alcohol consumption reached the pre-Prohibition levels several years after its enactment, and have continued to rise. Cirrhosis of the liver, a symptom of alcoholism, dropped nearly two-thirds during Prohibition. In the decades after Prohibition, any stigma that had been associated with alcohol consumption was erased; according to a Gallup Poll survey conducted almost every year since 1939, two-thirds of American adults age 18 and older drink alcohol. \n\nShortly after World War II, a national opinion survey found that \"About one-third of the people of the United States favor national prohibition.\" Upon repeal of national prohibition, 18 states continued prohibition at the state level. The last state finally dropped it in 1966. Almost two-thirds of all states adopted some form of local option which enabled residents in political subdivisions to vote for or against local prohibition. Therefore, despite the repeal of prohibition at the national level, 38% of the nation's population lived in areas with state or local prohibition.\n\nProtestant views\n\nProhibition in the early to mid-20th century was fueled by the Protestant denominations in the United States. Generally, Evangelical Protestant denominations encouraged prohibition, while the Mainline Protestant denominations disapproved of its introduction. However, there were exceptions such as the Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod (German Confessional Lutherans). Pietistic churches in the United States (especially Baptist churches, the Methodists, Presbyterians and Congregationalists) sought to end drinking and the saloon culture during the Third Party System. Liturgical (\"high\") churches (Roman Catholic, Episcopal, and German Lutheran) opposed prohibition laws because they did not want the government to reduce the definition of morality to a narrow standard or to criminalize the common liturgical practice of using wine. \n\nRevivalism during the Second Great Awakening and the Third Great Awakening in the mid-to-late 19th century set the stage for the bond between pietistic Protestantism and prohibition in the United States: \"The greater prevalence of revival religion within a population, the greater support for the Prohibition parties within that population.\" Historian Nancy Koester argued that Prohibition was a \"victory for progressives and social gospel activists battling poverty\". Prohibition also united progressives and revivalists. \n\nThe temperance movement had popularized the belief that alcohol was the major cause of most personal and social problems and prohibition was seen as the solution to the nation's poverty, crime, violence, and other ills. \nUpon ratification of the amendment, the famous evangelist Billy Sunday said that \"The slums will soon be only a memory. We will turn our prisons into factories and our jails into storehouses and corncribs.\" (Compare Christianity and alcohol.) Since alcohol was to be banned and since it was seen as the cause of most, if not all, crimes, some communities sold their jails. \n\nThe nation was highly optimistic and the leading prohibitionist in the United States Congress, Senator Morris Sheppard, confidently asserted that \"There is as much chance of repealing the Eighteenth Amendment as there is for a hummingbird to fly to the planet Mars with the Washington Monument tied to its tail.\" \n\nEffects of Prohibition\n\nMost economists during the early 20th century were in favor for the enactment of the Eighteenth Amendment. Simon Patten, one of the leading advocates for prohibition, predicted that prohibition would eventually happen in the United States for competitive and evolutionary reasons. Yale economics professor Irving Fisher, who was a dry, wrote extensively about prohibition, including a paper that made an economic case for prohibition. Fisher is credited with supplying the criteria against which future prohibitions, such as against marijuana, could be measured, in terms of crime, health, and productivity. For example, \"Blue Monday\" referred to the hangover workers experienced after a weekend of binge drinking, resulting in Mondays being a wasted productive day. But new research has discredited Fisher's research, which was based on uncontrolled experiments; regardless, his $6 billion figure for the annual gains of Prohibition to the United States continues to be cited. \n\nMaking moonshine was an industry in the American South before and after Prohibition. In the 1950s muscle cars became popular and various roads became known as \"Thunder Road\" for their use by moonshiners. A popular ballad was created and the legendary drivers, cars, and routes were depicted on film in Thunder Road. \n\nRates of consumption during Prohibition\n\nIllegal sales are not officially reported or measured, but there are indirect estimates using alcohol related deaths and cirrhosis, a liver disease specifically tied to ongoing alcohol consumption. Scholars estimate that consumption dropped to a low of about 60% of pre-prohibition levels around 1925, rising to almost 80% before the law was officially repealed. After the prohibition was implemented, alcohol continued to be consumed. However, how much compared to pre-Prohibition levels remains unclear. Studies examining the rates of cirrhosis deaths as a proxy for alcohol consumption estimated a decrease in consumption of 10–20%. However, the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism's studies show clear epidemiological evidence that \"overall cirrhosis mortality rates declined precipitously with the introduction of Prohibition,\" despite widespread flouting of the law. \nOne study reviewing city-level drunkenness arrests came to a similar result. And, yet another study examining \"mortality, mental health and crime statistics\" found that alcohol consumption fell, at first, to approximately 30 percent of its pre-Prohibition level; but, over the next several years, increased to about 60–70 percent of its pre-prohibition level. \n\nWithin a week after Prohibition went into effect, small portable stills were on sale throughout the country. \n\nOrganized crime\n\nOrganized crime received a major boost from Prohibition. Mafia groups limited their activities to prostitution, gambling, and theft until 1920, when organized bootlegging emerged in response to Prohibition. A profitable, often violent, black market for alcohol flourished. Prohibition provided a financial basis for organized crime to flourish. \n\nIn a study of more than 30 major U.S. cities during the Prohibition years of 1920 and 1921, the number of crimes increased by 24%. Additionally, theft and burglaries increased by 9%, homicides by 12.7%, assaults and battery rose by 13%, drug addiction by 44.6%, and police department costs rose by 11.4%. This was largely the result of \"black-market violence\" and the diversion of law enforcement resources elsewhere. Despite the Prohibition movement's hope that outlawing alcohol would reduce crime, the reality was that the Volstead Act led to higher crime rates than were experienced prior to Prohibition and the establishment of a black market dominated by criminal organizations. The Saint Valentine's Day Massacre produced seven deaths, considered one of the deadliest days of mob history. \n\nFurthermore, stronger liquor surged in popularity because its potency made it more profitable to smuggle. To prevent bootleggers from using industrial ethyl alcohol to produce illegal beverages, the federal government ordered the poisoning of industrial alcohols. In response, bootleggers hired chemists who successfully renatured the alcohol to make it drinkable. As a response, the Treasury Department required manufacturers to add more deadly poisons, including the particularly deadly methyl alcohol. New York City medical examiners prominently opposed these policies because of the danger to human life. As many as 10,000 people died from drinking denatured alcohol before Prohibition ended. New York City medical examiner Charles Norris believed the government took responsibility for murder when they knew the poison was not deterring people and they continued to poison industrial alcohol (which would be used in drinking alcohol) anyway. Norris remarked: \"The government knows it is not stopping drinking by putting poison in alcohol... [Y]et it continues its poisoning processes, heedless of the fact that people determined to drink are daily absorbing that poison. Knowing this to be true, the United States government must be charged with the moral responsibility for the deaths that poisoned liquor causes, although it cannot be held legally responsible.\"\n\nAnother lethal substance that was often substituted for alcohol was \"canned heat\", also commonly known as Sterno. Forcing the substance through a makeshift filter, such as a handkerchief, created a rough liquor substitute; however, the result was poisonous, though not often lethal. Many of those who were poisoned as a result united to sue the government for reparations after the end of Prohibition. \n\nMaking alcohol at home was very common during Prohibition. Stores sold grape concentrate with warning labels that listed the steps that should be avoided to prevent the juice from fermenting into wine. Some drugstores sold \"medical wine\" with around a 22% alcohol content. In order to justify the sale, the wine was given a medicinal taste. Home-distilled hard liquor was called bathtub gin in northern cities, and moonshine in rural areas of Virginia, Kentucky, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee. Homebrewing good hard liquor was easier than brewing good beer. Since selling privately distilled alcohol was illegal and bypassed government taxation, law enforcement officers relentlessly pursued manufacturers. In response, bootleggers modified their cars and trucks by enhancing the engines and suspensions to make faster vehicles that, they presumed, would improve their chances of outrunning and escaping agents of the Bureau of Prohibition, commonly called \"revenue agents\" or \"revenuers\". These cars became known as \"moonshine runners\" or shine runners\". Shops were also known to participate in the underground liquor market, by loading their stocks with ingredients for liquors, including bénédictine, vermouth, scotch mash, and even ethyl alcohol, which anyone could purchase legally. \n\nProhibition also had an effect on the music industry in the United States, specifically with jazz. Speakeasies became very popular, and the Great Depression's migratory effects led to the dispersal of jazz music, from New Orleans and went north through Chicago and to New York. This led to the development of different styles in different cities. Its popularity in speakeasies and the emergence of advanced recording technology, jazz's popularity skyrocketed. It was also at the forefront of the minimal integration efforts going on at the time, as it united mostly black musicians with mostly white audiences. \n\nAlong with other economic effects, the enactment and enforcement of Prohibition caused an increase in resource costs. During the 1920s the annual budget of the Bureau of Prohibition went from $4.4 million to $13.4 million. Additionally, the U.S. Coast Guard spent an average of $13 million annually on enforcement of prohibition laws. These numbers do not take into account the costs to local and state governments.\n\nWhen Prohibition was repealed in 1933, organized crime lost nearly all of its black market profits from alcohol in most states, because of competition with legal liquor stores selling alcohol at lower prices. (States still retained the right to enforce their own state laws concerning alcohol consumption.) Some crime syndicates moved their efforts into expanding their protection rackets to cover legal liquor sales. \n\nOther effects\n\nAs a result of Prohibition, the advancements of industrialization within the alcoholic beverage industry were essentially reversed. Large-scale alcohol producers were shut down, for the most part, and some individual citizens took it upon themselves to produce alcohol illegally, essentially reversing the efficiency of mass-producing and retailing alcoholic beverages. Closing the country's manufacturing plants and taverns also resulted in an economic downturn for the industry. While the Eighteenth Amendment did not have this effect on the industry due to its failure to define an \"intoxicating\" beverage, the Volstead Act's definition of 0.5% or more alcohol by volume shut down the brewers, who expected to continue to produce beer of moderate strength. \n\nAs saloons died out, public drinking lost much of its macho connotation, resulting in increased social acceptance of women drinking in the semi-public environment of the speakeasies. This new norm established women as a notable new target demographic for alcohol marketeers, who sought to expand their clientele. Women thus found their way into the bootlegging business, with some discovering that they could make a living by selling alcohol with a minimal likelihood of suspicion by law enforcement. Before prohibition, women who drank publicly in saloons or taverns, especially outside of urban centers like Chicago or New York, were seen as immoral or were likely to be prostitutes. \n\nIn 1930 the Prohibition Commissioner estimated that in 1919, the year before the Volstead Act became law, the average drinking American spent $17 per year on alcoholic beverages. By 1930, because enforcement diminished the supply, spending had increased to $35 per year (there was no inflation in this period). The result was an illegal alcohol beverage industry that made an average of $3 billion per year in illegal untaxed income. \n\nHeavy drinkers and alcoholics were among the most affected groups during Prohibition. Those who were determined to find liquor could still do so, but those who saw their drinking habits as destructive typically had difficulty in finding the help they sought. Self-help societies had withered away along with the alcohol industry. In 1935 a new self-help group called Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) was founded.\n\nProhibition had a notable effect on the alcohol brewing industry in the United States. Wine historians note that Prohibition destroyed what was a fledgling wine industry in the United States. Productive, wine-quality grapevines were replaced by lower-quality vines that grew thicker-skinned grapes, which could be more easily transported. Much of the institutional knowledge was also lost as winemakers either emigrated to other wine producing countries or left the business altogether. Distilled spirits became more popular during Prohibition. Because of its higher alcohol content in comparison to fermented wine and beer, it became common to mix and dilute the hard alcohol.\n\nWinemaking during Prohibition\n\nThe Volstead Act specifically allowed individual farmers to make certain wines \"on the legal fiction that it was a non-intoxicating fruit-juice for home consumption\", and many did so. Enterprising grape farmers produced liquid and semi-solid grape concentrates, often called \"wine bricks\" or \"wine blocks\". This demand led California grape growers to increase their land under cultivation by about 700% during the first five years of Prohibition. The grape concentrate was sold with a warning: \"After dissolving the brick in a gallon of water, do not place the liquid in a jug away in the cupboard for twenty days, because then it would turn into wine\".\n\nThe Volstead Act allowed the sale of sacramental wine to priests and ministers, and allowed rabbis to approve sales of sacramental wine to individuals for Sabbath and holiday use at home. Among Jews, four rabbinical groups were approved, which led to some competition for membership, since the supervision of sacramental licenses could be used to secure donations to support a religious institution. There were known abuses in this system, with imposters or unauthorized agents using loopholes to purchase wine." ] }

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(1920 to 1933) - About.com Education", "Toast the Constitution: Prohibition Resources - Bill of ...", "Encyclopedia of Cleveland History: PROHIBITION AMENDMENT", "On the 18th and 21st Amendments: Prohibition - History.com", "Prohibition: Unintended Consequences | PBS", "Why Prohibition? | Temperance & Prohibition" ], "url": [ "https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/politics-reform/resources/supreme-court-upholds-national-prohibition-1920", "http://www.history.com/topics/prohibition", "http://www.thefinertimes.com/20th-Century-Crime-Articles/prohibition-in-the-1920s.html", "http://prohibition.constitutioncenter.org/exhibition.html", "http://history1900s.about.com/od/1920s/p/prohibition.htm", "https://billofrightsinstitute.org/educate/educator-resources/lessons-plans/bill-rights-institute-curricula-resources/toast-the-constitution-prohibition-resources/", "https://ech.case.edu/cgi/article.pl?id=PA4", "http://www.history.com/topics/18th-and-21st-amendments", "http://www.pbs.org/kenburns/prohibition/unintended-consequences/", "http://prohibition.osu.edu/why-prohibition" ], "search_context": [ "The Supreme Court upholds national prohibition, 1920 | The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History\nThe Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History\nThe Supreme Court upholds national prohibition, 1920\nA primary source by Wayne B. Wheeler\nAfter more than a century of activism, the temperance movement achieved its signal victory with the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment to the US Constitution in 1919. The amendment abolished “the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors,” and provided for “concurrent” federal and state authority to enforce the ban. It was controversial from its inception: it did not define “intoxicating liquors,” it did not specifically forbid the purchase of alcohol, it established “concurrent” state and federal enforcement but did not provide any means for enforcement, and its constitutionality was in question.\nTo provide for enforcement of the amendment, a powerful lobbying group called the Anti-Saloon League, led by its top lawyer, Wayne B. Wheeler, devised the National Prohibition Act, also known as the Volstead Act. Though the law’s wording was confusing, it defined intoxicating liquors as anything over 0.5% alcohol by volume. It also laid the groundwork for federal and state responsibility to prosecute violators. President Woodrow Wilson’s veto of the law was swiftly overridden by Congress in October 1919. The constitutionality of the new law and the amendment itself were challenged in a series of legal cases that were brought before the US Supreme Court as the National Prohibition Cases (1920). In this document, Wheeler reviewed the meaning of the Court’s decision to uphold the law:\nThe decision will go down in history as one of the great judicial landmarks in the progress of our civilization. There will be an effort in Congress and in the State Legislatures to nullify the law, and we will meet the practical problem of law enforcement for years to come, but this decision will be the judicial foundation upon which prohibition will rest through the ages.\nThirteen years later, the Twenty-first Amendment was ratified, overturning the Eighteenth Amendment and ending national prohibition in 1933.\nView images of the entire document  here .\nQuestions for Discussion\nYou are seeing this page because you are not currently logged into our website. If you would like to access this page and you are not logged in, please  login  or  register  for a  gilderlehrman.org  account, and then visit the link that brought you to this notice. Thanks!", "Prohibition - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com\nGoogle\nOrigins of Prohibition\nIn the 1820s and ’30s, a wave of religious revivalism swept the United States, leading to increased calls for temperance, as well as other “perfectionist” movements such as the abolition of slavery. In 1838, the state of Massachusetts passed a temperance law banning the sale of spirits in less than 15-gallon quantities; though the law was repealed two years later, it set a precedent for such legislation. Maine passed the first state prohibition law in 1846, and a number of other states had followed suit by the time the Civil War began in 1861.\nDid You Know?\nIn 1932, Franklin D. Roosevelt defeated the incumbent President Herbert Hoover, who once called Prohibition \"the great social and economic experiment, noble in motive and far reaching in purpose.\" Some say FDR celebrated the repeal of Prohibition by enjoying a dirty martini, his preferred drink.\nBy the turn of the century, temperance societies were a common fixture in communities across the United States. Women played a strong role in the temperance movement, as alcohol was seen as a destructive force in families and marriages. In 1906, a new wave of attacks began on the sale of liquor, led by the Anti-Saloon League (established in 1893) and driven by a reaction to urban growth, as well as the rise of evangelical Protestantism and its view of saloon culture as corrupt and ungodly. In addition, many factory owners supported prohibition in their desire to prevent accidents and increase the efficiency of their workers in an era of increased industrial production and extended working hours.\nPassage of the Prohibition Amendment\nIn 1917, after the United States entered World War I , President Woodrow Wilson instituted a temporary wartime prohibition in order to save grain for producing food. That same year, Congress submitted the 18th Amendment, which banned the manufacture, transportation and sale of intoxicating liquors, for state ratification. Though Congress had stipulated a seven-year time limit for the process, the amendment received the support of the necessary three-quarters of U.S. states in just 11 months.\nRatified on January 29, 1919, the 18th Amendment went into effect a year later, by which time no fewer than 33 states had already enacted their own prohibition legislation. In October 1919, Congress passed the National Prohibition Act, which provided guidelines for the federal enforcement of Prohibition. Championed by Representative Andrew Volstead of Mississippi , the chairman of the House Judiciary Committee, the legislation was more commonly known as the Volstead Act.\nEnforcement of Prohibition\nBoth federal and local government struggled to enforce Prohibition over the course of the 1920s. Enforcement was initially assigned to the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), and was later transferred to the Justice Department. In general, Prohibition was enforced much more strongly in areas where the population was sympathetic to the legislation–mainly rural areas and small towns–and much more loosely in urban areas. Despite very early signs of success, including a decline in arrests for drunkenness and a reported 30 percent drop in alcohol consumption, those who wanted to keep drinking found ever-more inventive ways to do it. The illegal manufacturing and sale of liquor (known as “bootlegging”) went on throughout the decade, along with the operation of “speakeasies” (stores or nightclubs selling alcohol), the smuggling of alcohol across state lines and the informal production of liquor (“moonshine” or “bathtub gin”) in private homes.\nIn addition, the Prohibition era encouraged the rise of criminal activity associated with bootlegging. The most notorious example was the Chicago gangster Al Capone , who earned a staggering $60 million annually from bootleg operations and speakeasies. Such illegal operations fueled a corresponding rise in gang violence, including the St. Valentine’s Day Massacre in Chicago in 1929, in which several men dressed as policemen (and believed to be have associated with Capone) shot and killed a group of men in an enemy gang.\nProhibition Comes to an End\nThe high price of bootleg liquor meant that the nation’s working class and poor were far more restricted during Prohibition than middle or upper class Americans. Even as costs for law enforcement, jails and prisons spiraled upward, support for Prohibition was waning by the end of the 1920s. In addition, fundamentalist and nativist forces had gained more control over the temperance movement, alienating its more moderate members.\nWith the country mired in the Great Depression by 1932, creating jobs and revenue by legalizing the liquor industry had an undeniable appeal. Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt ran for president that year on a platform calling for Prohibition’s appeal, and easily won victory over the incumbent President Herbert Hoover . FDR’s victory meant the end for Prohibition, and in February 1933 Congress adopted a resolution proposing a 21st Amendment to the Constitution that would repeal the 18th. The amendment was submitted to the states, and in December 1933 Utah provided the 36th and final necessary vote for ratification. Though a few states continued to prohibit alcohol after Prohibition’s end, all had abandoned the ban by 1966.\nTags", "Prohibition in the 1920's | 20th Century Crime\nProhibition in the 1920's\nColumbine Massacre - A Horrible Crime Carried Out by Children\nIn 1917 the American Senate put forward a proposed Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution to ban the sale and manufacture of alcohol in the United States. This amendment was put forward because of the abuse of alcohol by a percentage of Americans during this post World War One period.\nThis period of the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution banning alcohol is seen as the Noble Experiment, but is officially the Prohibition in the United States.\nToday you will find out why the United States brought in prohibition, what happened during the prohibition period and why it stopped.\nProhibition agents destroying barrels of alcoholThroughout the 18th century and 19th century physicians and temperance movements talked about the illness of drunkenness and a likened it to physically and mental problems. With America being a very religious country the excesses of alcohol were also seen as an excess of the deadly sins too.\nThe prohibition movement started moving more quickly in 1869 when the Prohibition Party was set up and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union followed a few years later.\nBy 1881 Kansas outlawed alcoholic drinks as part of its constitution and by 1890 until the prohibition of the 1920’s the “dry” folk who wished for prohibition advanced their desire for prohibition. It was also during this time that many people starting turning against the saloons, not only from an anti-alcohol point of view but also because of the influence saloons carried in political circles.\nIn 1917 the 65th Congress was formed and of the 204 members 140 were people who favoured prohibition. It was also during this period a renewed case for prohibition was caused, the only people who countered it seemed to be the German-American immigrants whom many ignored because of the ongoing World War One which America had joined.\nBecause of this renewed case and the high percentage of pro-prohibition members of Congress the proposed Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution was put forward to ban alcohol. By the end of 1917 the new amendment was passed 36 states ratified the amendment.\nIn January 1920 the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution came into effect and it was then illegal to sell or manufacture alcohol. The name of the amendment was the National Prohibition Act otherwise known as the Volstead Act\nAlcohol consumption did reduce because of the act but there were further reaching consequences.\nOne of the interesting wording terms in the Volstead Act was that it was not illegal to drink alcohol and people were allowed to make alcohol at home for their own consumption as long as it was made of fruit. This meant many vineyards were started with the view to sell the fruit on to the public to make their own alcohol.\nIt was also found that many people simply bought massive quantities of alcohol prior to Prohibition and simply stored it at home so they still had a source of alcohol.\nThe Federal Law enforcement agencies were known not to actively enforce the new Volstead Act when they found persons selling alcohol illegally. This meant a new type of saloon sprang up called a Speakeasy; a term meaning the people within had to talk in a more quiet fashion (speakeasy) so not to draw attention to the premises.\nA police raid at Elk Lake, Ontario, 1925\nThe number of Speakeasy illegal saloons was huge and they sprang up at a rampant pace. In fact it is said that by 1925 there were at least 30,000 to as many as 100,000 of these illegal premises in New York alone.\nThe problem with these illegal saloons was that many were run by criminal gangs and underground criminals. Furthermore the people who made the illegal alcohol and shipped it for sale were clearly of a criminal nature. This meant the prohibition movement was generating more criminal activity.\nThe repeal of the prohibition in the 1920's\nThe first sign of people trying to repeal the Volstead Act actually came in the form of the medical community as they had many alcohol related medicines and the Act also made alcohol medicines illegal.\nCountries neighbouring America such as Mexico and Canada found their alcohol trade flourished as many came into neighbouring countries to purchase alcohol and take it into America; this was deemed to show that it was also affecting the American economy.\nBy the late 1920’s the trade of illegal alcohol became a source of criminal gangs gaining more and more power. This all came to a head in 1929 when two warring criminal gangs faced one another in Chicago on the 14th February and the resulting in the Saint Valentine's Day massacre where seven Irish criminal gang members were gunned down.\nThe criminal and economical issues along with the unrest among the everyday people of the large American cities forced the government to review the prohibition situation. By March 1933 the United States government decided to repeal the National Prohibition Act with President Franklin Roosevelt amending the Volstead Act to include the Cullen-Harrison Act which allowed the sale of alcohol that carried a percentage of up to 3.2%.\nBy December in 1933 the act was fully repealed and alcohol could be sold once again.\nRelated Articles", "American Spirits: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition\nMultimedia\nStep back in time to an era of flappers and suffragists, bootleggers and temperance workers, and real-life legends like Al Capone and Carrie Nation. Created by the National Constitution Center, American Spirits: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition is the first comprehensive exhibition about America’s most colorful and complex constitutional hiccup. Spanning from the dawn of the temperance movement, through the Roaring ’20s, to the unprecedented repeal of a constitutional amendment, this world-premiere exhibition brings the whole story of Prohibition vividly to life. American Spirits: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition is curated by Daniel Okrent, Pulitzer Prize finalist and author of Last Call: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition. Experience the Prohibition era through:\nOver 100 rare artifacts including flapper dresses, temperance propaganda, a 1929 Buick Marquette, and original ratification copies of the 18th and 21st Amendments\nA re-created speakeasy where you can learn to Charleston and explore the fashion, music, and culture of the Roaring ’20s\nFilms, music, photos, and multimedia exhibits including the dazzling Wayne Wheeler’s Amazing Amendment Machine, a 20-foot-long, carnival-inspired contraption that traces how the temperance movement culminated in the 18th Amendment\nA custom-built video game where you serve as a federal agent tracking down rumrunners\nAn engaging iPod audio-visual tour featuring curator Daniel Okrent along with filmmakers Ken Burns and Lynn Novick, who created the PBS documentary Prohibition\nAmerican Spirits: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition is curated by Daniel Okrent, Pulitzer Prize finalist and author of Last Call: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition. Read Daniel Okrent’s full biography.\n \nIntroduction\nOn January 17, 1920, a new day dawned.  As the 18th Amendment went into effect, Americans could no longer manufacture, sell, or transport intoxicating beverages.  Prohibition was now part of the Constitution, holding the same status as freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and the abolition of slavery.\nWhat did those who wanted America “dry” hope to achieve?  And how did the “wets” fight back? American Spirits: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition, a world premiere exhibition created by the National Constitution Center, explores those tumultuous years of 1920 to 1933, and why the country went dry in the first place.  Prohibition’s advocates said that they wanted to improve the nation’s moral and physical health, and in some ways they succeeded.  But the nation also endured a radical rise in crime, corruption, and cynicism.  By the time it ended with the ratification of the 21st Amendment in 1933, America had become a very different country.\n \n \nSECTION 1: AMERICA HAD A DRINKING PROBLEM\nAmerican colonists brought their thirst for alcohol with them to the New World.  The ship Arbella, which arrived in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630, had more than 10,000 gallons of wine in its hold for 700 settlers.  It also carried three times as much beer as water.\nBy 1830, the nation reached rock bottom.  On average, Americans over the age of 15 were guzzling seven gallons of pure alcohol each year.  This was the equivalent of 90 bottles of 80-proof liquor – or about four shots every day.  Three times greater than current levels, it remains the highest measured volume of consumption in U.S. history.  The consequences of this national binge would be severe.\nUpon entering American Spirits: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition, visitors can view a video, set on January 16, 1920, just as Prohibition was about to go into effect.  Guests also will see a volume display of glass bottles that demonstrate the drastic difference in the amount an average American adult currently drinks each year versus consumption in 1830.\nAlcohol Was Everywhere to a Devastating Effect\nBy the early 1800s, the country was swimming – and nearly drowning – in liquor.  A barrel of hard cider sat by the door of thousands of farmhouses, available to everyone in the family.  In many cities, the tolling of a bell at 11 a.m. and again at 4 p.m. marked “grog time,” when workers were granted an alcohol-soaked break.  And the wealthy might drink their evenings away in hotel dining rooms or at lavish dinner parties.\nIn rural areas, whiskey and hard cider were the drinks of choice.  Farmers used the grain they grew to make rye or corn whiskey.  They also used apples from trees like those that John Chapman – “Johnny Appleseed” – had planted throughout the Ohio Valley.  Some of these apples were specifically meant to be fermented into hard cider; a ceramic jug from 1895, like those used to carry hard cider, is on display.  Frequently, distilled liquor was added to cider to keep it from spoiling, making it stronger than beer with an alcoholic content of at least 10 percent.\nThe establishment that was seen as the most destructive force in American life by those advocating for reform was the saloon.  Between 1870 and 1900, as millions of immigrants flocked to the United States, it is estimated that the number of saloons nationwide increased from 100,000 to 300,000.  The saloon was a male-only institution, which served many different purposes. In cities, they were gathering places for working-class immigrants that often doubled as the headquarters for political organizations.  Out West, it was simultaneously a social hall, a place to pick up your mail or cash your check, and an entertainment venue.\nMany men gathered in saloons to escape their responsibilities on an ocean of beer and booze. A Growler-style pail from the 1890s, on display in this section of the exhibition, was used to carry beer home from the saloon. \nBy the early 1900s, saloons had become standardized due to the efforts of the large brewing companies, almost all of them owned by German immigrants.  Companies like Anheuser-Busch made exclusive agreements with saloon owners, who would sell nothing but Budweiser in exchange for the company providing glassware, furniture, and even the pictures adorning the walls.\nAnheuser-Busch artifacts in the exhibition depicting this type of branding include early 20th century drinking glasses and artwork commissioned by Anheuser-Busch to display in thousands of saloons across the country.  During this time period, the techniques for transporting beer greatly improved.  A quarter beer barrel like the one featured in the exhibition was used to ship beer from the Anheuser-Busch headquarters in St. Louis, Missouri, all across the country.  By 1901, this number reached over one million barrels a year.\nFor some members of the middle and upper classes, social drinking in the home was a sign of respectability and sophistication.  This section also features a decanter, wine glasses, and other glassware that might have been found in a middle or upper class home. \nMany respectable women consumed “home remedies” with high alcoholic content, which sometimes led to abuse. Also featured is a box and bottle of Lydia Pinkham’s Vegetable Compound, a successful patent medicine marketed to women as a remedy for “female complaints” that contained 20.6 percent alcohol in its 14-ounce bottle.\n                                \nThe Crusade for Temperance Begins\nEarly anti-alcohol campaigners preached “temperance” – a term meaning everything from moderation to total abstinence.  Absolute prohibition was not yet on their minds.  But if closing the saloons would help men to stop drinking, then closing the saloons was a worthwhile goal.\nThe shift in tactics began on Christmas Eve in 1873 when Eliza Thompson of Hillsboro, Ohio, led a group of women to each of the town’s saloons.  The group knelt outside in the snow and prayed.  Within days, nine of Hillsboro’s 13 drinking places had closed their doors.  Thompson’s crusade led directly to the founding of the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU).  Under the leadership of Francis Willard, the WCTU became a 250,000 women army.\nThe WCTU achieved their greatest victory by installing anti-alcohol curriculum in thousands of American schools.  But the women realized that without voting rights, their political power was limited.  Soon the campaign for universal suffrage became an essential element in the campaign for temperance.\nAt the first of two photo opportunities in the American Spirits exhibition, visitors can pose with life-size figures of a temperance worker and a suffragist.  The photo op features campaign sashes and banners with historical slogans from both movements.\nFeatured in this section of the exhibition is a wooden gavel with white ribbon used by Frances Willard to run WCTU meetings.  The white ribbon was the emblem of the WCTU symbolizing purity.  Other temperance artifacts include a letter written by Susan B. Anthony to Frances Willard in 1876 and Do Everything: A Handbook for the World’s White Ribboners,published in 1875.  Suffragist artifacts include a “Woman Suffrage Party” sash from 1910.\nThe Rise of the Anti-Saloon League\nEliza Thompson began the Crusade inspired by religious piety, and it was religion that continued to be the dominant influence in the temperance movement.  Baptists and Methodists – denominations that forbade alcohol consumption – led the attack, carrying their campaign into the nation’s political life.  And in 1893, in Oberlin, Ohio, the Anti-Saloon League (ASL) was born. Led entirely by Protestant ministers, the ASL would become the most effective political pressure group in American history.\nIn this section of American Spirits, visitors enter a semi-recreated church with white pews and a pulpit.  The sounds of well-known temperance hymns including “Tell Your Mother I’ll Vote Dry” and “When the Girls Can Vote” play on a loop.  Adorning the walls are large frames featuring photos of famous temperance figures including Howard Hyde Russell, the founder of the Anti-Saloon League, and the original bar room smasher Carrie Nation. \nCarrie Amelia Nation was six feet tall, with the biceps of a stevedore, the face of a prison warden, and the persistence of a toothache.  Using these assets to promote her cause, Nation became famous when she strode into a saloon in Topeka, Kansas, and pulled out a hatchet, smashing all the bottles and the mirror behind the bar.  Nation called her raids on saloons “hatchetations.”  Beneath Nation’s portrait, a glass case displays a hatchet made of oak and steel and a wall mirror smashed during one of her infamous bar raids. \nWilliam Jennings Bryan, also featured in this section of the exhibition, was among the most controversial figures of his time.  Bryan believed that Prohibition could improve the lives of ordinary Americans.  He also was a supporter of the amendments to establish the income tax, provide for the direct election of senators, and grant the vote to women.  Bryan ran for president three times on the Democratic ticket, but lost each time.  Buttons from his 1896, 1900, and 1908 presidential campaign bids are on display in this section of the exhibition.  Later, while serving as Secretary of State under Woodrow Wilson, he lived out his temperance beliefs by serving grape juice instead of wine at formal functions.\nHis portrait placed above the recreated wooden pulpit, Billy Sunday was America’s most famous evangelist.  Sunday believed that liquor was “God’s worst enemy” and “Hell’s best friend.”  A copy of his “booze” sermon with handwritten notes prepared by Sunday from 1916 is displayed under his portrait.\nTemperance organizations used every method at their disposal to persuade the American public to support their cause, often using moral arguments to pull at the heart strings.  Dr. Benjamin Rush, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, was among the first to recognize alcoholism as a disease and encourage drinking in moderation.  Rush’s “A Moral and Physical Thermometer,” from a copy of An Inquiry into the Effects of Spirituous Liquors published in 1790, is on display in this area of the exhibition.  It describes the effects of various alcoholic beverages on the mind and body, from cheerfulness-inducing wine to “murderous” rum.\nRecreations of temperance propaganda warning of the dangers of alcohol hang on the walls.  A hand-colored lithograph titled “The Drunkards Progress” from 1846 by Nathaniel Currier shows the presumed life-span of a drunkard, with his wife and child as the victims of his abuse.\nThe WCTU succeeded in getting every state in the country to require temperance education in public schools.  Its Department of Scientific Instruction produced textbooks and instruction manuals and asked teachers to fill out report cards on how they encouraged temperance in their classrooms.  A WCTU textbook, report card, and temperance lesson manual are on display.    \nIn this section of the exhibition, visitors will discover if they might have joined the “wets” or the “drys” by answering a series of questions about their gender, religion, political ideology, and geographic location.  The “Wet or Dry” interactive quiz is featured on iPad screens located in the wooden church pews.  At the wooden pulpit, another iPad interactive features famous temperance speeches.  After listening to samples, visitors can try their hand at delivering their own fiery speech. \n \n \nSECTION 2: AMENDMENT 18\nAfter decades of promoting temperance, the anti-liquor forces determined that only a constitutional amendment could make the country dry.  The man who made it happen was Wayne B. Wheeler. \nAs the chief lobbyist for the Anti-Saloon League, Wheeler became the ASL’s most effective weapon.  Taking advantage of an income tax amendment, the campaign for women’s suffrage, and a world war, Wheeler shepherded the 18th Amendment to its ratification on January 16, 1919.  A new era was about to arrive in America.\nThe dazzling Wayne Wheeler’s Amazing Amendment Machine gives visitors a visual demonstration of the amendment ratification process.  Measuring twenty-feet long and eight-feet tall, this carnival-inspired contraption follows the birth of Prohibition from 1913, when Wheeler began his campaign in earnest after the ratification of the income tax amendment, until 1919 when the 18th Amendment was ratified.\nAn original copy of the 18th Amendment congressional resolution and notification letter – sent to the state of Pennsylvania by Secretary of State Robert Lansing to consider for ratification – is displayed in this section of the exhibition.  Pennsylvania became the 45th state to ratify on February 25, 1919, one month after the proposed amendment had been ratified by the required 36 out of 48 states. \n \n \nSECTION 3: DRYS HAD THEIR AMENDMENT AND WETS HAD THEIR LIQUOR\nIt was said that two groups above all benefited from Prohibition: Bootleggers and Baptists.  Baptists, and those who agreed with them, had succeeded in passing a constitutional amendment.  The nation’s fifth largest industry (in terms of invested capital) was effectively put out of business overnight. \nBootleggers benefited from the unintended consequences of Prohibition.  In well-stocked speakeasies, men and women began drinking together in public.  Vast governmental corruption eroded the nation’s respect for law.  And rampant criminality, as well as some well-placed loopholes in the enforcement of laws, put illegal behavior on the front pages of newspapers daily.\nIn just 112 words, the 18th Amendment made the manufacture, sale, and transport of intoxicating liquors illegal.  But a law had to be enacted to determine how the amendment would be enforced.  Passed by Congress in 1919, the Volstead Act stipulated what precisely was illegal and what was not.\nThe Volstead Act provided three key exceptions for the legal manufacture, sale, and transport of alcoholic beverages – sacramental wine, medicinal alcohol, and the preservation of fruit by households through fermentation.  At an iPad interactive, visitors can test their Volstead knowhow by deciding “Is It Legal?” when different combinations of alcohol, its use, and its location are combined in a slot machine-style fashion. \nWhy the Twenties Roared\nMen and women mingling in a smoke-filled bar, martini glasses held artfully in hand: the generation that had come of age during the grim carnage of World War I now broke free from the past.  When the laws changed, so did American habits.\nJazz spread across the country from speakeasy to speakeasy, as did the era’s popular dance crazes, like the Charleston and the shimmy.  Prohibition had given birth to the modern American nightclub.  Inside American Spirits, the Center has recreated a 1920s speakeasy, complete with a wooden dance floor with the footsteps to four versions of the Charleston, and a bar where guests can learn about the evolution of the cocktail and “order a story” about the era.  A video projection plays black and white dance footage from the era.  Cocktail tables that surround the dance floor contain dinner plate graphics featuring 1920s slang.  Coaster graphics at the tables profile famous speakeasy patrons.\nThe mixed-gender speakeasy replaced the saloon, which had always been a male-only institution, and it now became acceptable for men and women to drink together in public.  As women joined men at the speakeasy, owners needed to find bathroom facilities for their new customers.  Broom closets and other tucked-away places were converted into bathrooms, but the tiny spaces could not accommodate more than a sink, mirror, and a toilet; it was the birth of something called the “powder room.”  Inside the Center’s recreated powder room, visitors can view artifacts including a cigarette case, lipstick, blush compact, face powder, and comb from the era.\nThe changing morals and habits of the speakeasy-era also sparked a revolution in modern fashion.  The trends reflected a youthful desire to break with the previous generation.  Independent women working in factories and offices wanted less formal and constricting clothing; bobbed hair, straight silhouettes, and shorter hemlines became the norm.  Two silk tunic-style dresses and an evening dress made of velvet represent women’s 1920s fashion in the exhibition.  Women’s accessories in this section include dress clips and a brooch, a tiara made of tortoiseshell and rhinestones, a fan made of ostrich feathers, and evening sandals.  Also featured, a silk cloche style hat, which became a trademark of the 1920s.  Men’s fashions featured in this section of the exhibition include a tailcoat and trousers with a top hat and oxford-style shoes, as well as the classic fedora that became synonymous with the gangsters of the era.  \nProduct Ingenuity\nWhen Prohibition shut down the alcoholic beverage industry, many entrepreneurs – both legal and illegal – rose up to fill the void for a thirsty nation.  Some who had been in the industry, like the vintners and brewers, had to reinvent themselves to stay in business.  Others took advantage of the numerous loopholes in the Volstead Act – or simply turned to illegal liquor to meet the steady demand.  A wide array of beverage-related products from this time period can be seen in the exhibition.\nSoft drinks first gained popularity in the 1800s, but once Prohibition arrived, business boomed.  Law-abiding Americans quenched their thirst with these sweet, carbonated beverages, while those skirting the law used them as mixers to hide the taste of low-quality alcohol.\nSoda-pop artifacts from this time period include Coca-Cola bottles and six-pack carton, and a Hires root beer dispenser along with an extract bottle and box.  Coca-Cola saw its sales triple during Prohibition.  Charles Hires, a Philadelphia pharmacist, developed a recipe for root beer from popular colonial brews in the 1800s.  Marketed as a wholesome temperance drink, Hires would grow to become one of the most popular brands of soda-pop. \nVintners were left with an abundance of grapes at the start of Prohibition.  But the Volstead Act had a key loophole that permitted families to preserve fruit through fermentation.  It did not take long for grapes to be “preserved by turning them into wine.”  \nDr. Thomas Bramwell Welch developed “Dr. Welch’s Unfermented Wine” in the 1860s.  After winning the Methodist Church’s approval to use it as a nonalcoholic communion wine, Welch’s Grape Juice set new sales records during Prohibition.  The exhibition features a Welch’s Grape Juice Bottle from 1925.\nUnable to make beer legally, many breweries were forced to shut their doors at the start of Prohibition.  The biggest breweries found ways to stay in business by reconfiguring their facilities to manufacture other products.  Pabst Brewing Company, for example, made Pabst-ett cheese, a carton of which can be seen in the exhibition.  Other brewers made ice cream or refrigerated trucks.  Breweries also kept their doors open by producing perfectly legal malt syrup.  The addition of water, yeast, and time yielded a foamy, alcohol-rich beer for those who wished to brew their own suds at home.  An Anheuser-Busch malt syrup can and yeast container can be seen in the exhibition.\nSome breweries went through the process of removing alcohol from beer.  This “near beer” grew in popularity as states passed dry laws, but demand quickly dropped in the 1920s as many drinkers preferred alcoholic homebrews or beer produced illegally by bootleggers.  Anheuser-Busch introduced the nonalcoholic “Bevo” in 1916, which is featured in the exhibition.\nCertain distilleries were granted licenses to manufacture liquor for the pharmaceutical trade.  Physicians sold prescriptions for a wide variety of ailments; patients could redeem one at the local pharmacy for a pint of liquor every 10 days.  Early on, medicinal alcohol was dispensed in dark, unmarked bottles; within a few years, well-known brands were available.  Bottles, like the Sam Thompson Old Monongahela Pure Rye Whiskey bottle featured in the exhibition, looked just like their pre-Prohibition versions, except for the words “For Medicinal Purposes Only” printed on the label.\nRumrunners and Bootleggers\nFrom hard cider to moonshine, making alcoholic beverages at home happened long before Prohibition.  While the Volstead Act permitted families to make a limited amount of “fruit beverages” like cider or wine, distilling spirits was not allowed.  This didn’t stop stills from popping up in basements, apartments, and backwoods across the country.  This section of the American Spirits exhibition features a still used in the early 1930s by a farmer in North Carolina who manufactured spirits from his excess corn during Prohibition.\nNetworks to transport illegal alcohol quickly spread across the country.  The Coast Guard, in response to the illegal importation of alcohol along the coasts, greatly expanded during Prohibition.  The Coast Guard’s efforts to stop this smuggling became the most effective element of federal Prohibition enforcement.\nTo demonstrate the efforts of the Coast Guard to stop illegal rum running, the Center created a custom two-player video game – complete with wooden boat wheels – where visitors play the role of the Coast Guard trolling the waters of Puget Sound off the coast of Washington state.  Puget Sound was the real-life stage of restless races between coast guards and rumrunners, who were smuggling alcohol from British Columbia to Washington State. \nThis area of the exhibition also showcases the many clever ways individuals disguised alcohol in the form of personal objects.  Flasks hidden in a fake book, camera flask, cigar case flask, and a cane with a hidden flask are on display.\nProhibition Enforcement\nBefore Prohibition, the Treasury Department had been responsible for collecting taxes on beer, wine, and liquor and chasing down those who failed to pay.  In 1919, the Volstead Act assigned Prohibition enforcement to a new unit tucked into the Treasury bureaucracy: the Bureau of Prohibition.\nProsecution of those arrested fell to a division of the Justice Department headed by Assistant Attorney General Mabel Walker Willebrandt.  Together, these two departments faced a monumental challenge.  The White House never gave them much support, and Congress, after passing the Volstead Act, never allocated enough money.  The atmosphere was perfect for official corruption on an unprecedented scale.\nFeatured in this section of American Spirits is a federal regulation book from the era given to Prohibition agents with guidelines and forms to implement the Volstead Act.  A search warrant from 1927 that was used to enter and search an alleged “saloon” operating in St. Louis, Missouri, is also on display.  At three filing cabinets, visitors can lean about various Prohibition agents and administrators like Eliot Ness, Isidore Einstein, and Daisy Simpson to gain insight into the challenges that these agents faced and the corruption that ran rampant.  Ness’ signed oath of office from 1926 also is featured in this section.  In addition, guests can view a former Prohibition Administrator Badge from 1931 belonging to former Navy Commander John Pennington, the Federal Prohibition Administrator for Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware from 1930 until 1933.\nTwo large-scale graphics also are featured in this section.  A map of the United States shows major bootlegging cities and networks crisscrossing the country, as well as the international imports and shipments that Prohibition agents were tasked with stopping.  On an enforcement organizational chart, visitors can learn more about the various federal agencies tasked with investigating and prosecuting Volstead violations and how well – or poorly – they did their jobs. \nReinterpreting the Fourth Amendment\nDuring Prohibition, the Supreme Court issued dozens of decisions relating to its enforcement.  Twenty cases involved the Fourth Amendment’s protection against unreasonable searches and seizures, dramatically reshaping the way the amendment was interpreted.\nOne of the most important Fourth Amendment cases arose after federal agents tapped Seattle bootlegger Roy Olmstead’s telephone without a warrant, which led to his conviction on a number of charges.  Olmstead was the youngest lieutenant on the Seattle police force and one of its most promising officers.  After leaving the force, he became the most successful bootlegger in the Pacific Northwest.\nThe candlestick telephone used by Olmstead to operate his bootlegging empire is featured in this section of the exhibition.  Olmstead appealed to the Supreme Court, arguing that the evidence of his telephone conversations used during his trial was inadmissible because its collection violated the Fourth Amendment.  The Supreme Court disagreed.  In Olmstead v. United States, the Court ruled that private telephone communications were no different from casual conversations overheard in a public place.  The legality of warrantless wiretapping was not overturned until Katz v. United States in 1967.\nOrganized Crime\nOrganized crime wasn’t a new phenomenon in the 1920s.  In most cities, gangs had long controlled such illegal enterprises as gambling, prostitution, and narcotics.  But these were strictly local businesses, often consolidated in a part of town known for its illegal ways.\nProhibition, though, required the shipment of large quantities of physical goods from one place to another.  Mobsters in one city suddenly needed partners in other places.  At the same time, competing gangs fought for control of those same markets.  Mob wars were rich material for the newspapers, which splashed pictures of slain mobsters across their front pages. This increase in violent crime contributed to the growing public opposition to Prohibition.\nIron knuckles from gangster Owen “Owney” Madden are on display in this section of the exhibition.  Madden made millions bootlegging, gambling, and on nightclub operations, including the infamous Cotton Club.  An intake card from Eastern State Penitentiary Historic Site shows a 24-years-inmate who was incarcerated for the manufacturing and sale of intoxicating liquor.  A reproduction M1921 Thompson “Tommy” Submachine gun on display was a popular weapon for bootleggers and law enforcement alike because of its compact design and ability to fire multiple rounds automatically. \nAlso featured, the guilty verdict for one of the most infamous gangsters of the era, Al Capone, who was convicted in Chicago in 1931and sentenced to 11 years in prison for not paying taxes on money earned from his illegal operations.  Capone also famously spent a year incarcerated at Eastern State Penitentiary Historical Site for a 1929 charge of gun possession.\nThe Birth of a National Crime Syndicate\nThe effort to coordinate bootlegging activities across regions produced one of Prohibition’s enduring legacies – the national crime syndicate.  Criminals from Chicago, Cleveland, Philadelphia, Newark, and New York City first met in Atlantic City in 1929 to divide up territories, fix prices, and make cross-territorial distribution deals. \nVisitors can view a mug shot wall featuring some of the notorious gangsters and criminals of the era, along with their criminal history.  Guests also can enter a lineup and have their mug shot taken alongside life-size figures of Al Capone, Lucky Luciano, and Meyer Lansky.  A great keepsake, the photos can then be emailed directly to visitors.\n \n \nSECTION 4: REPEAL THE 18th!\nAs late as 1930, getting rid of Prohibition was considered almost impossible.  No constitutional amendment had ever been repealed.  And few believed two-thirds of each house of Congress, as well as the legislatures of 36 of the 48 states, would be able to agree that Prohibition was a failure. \nBut the devastating effects of the Great Depression changed everything.  As unemployment rose, federal income tax revenues plummeted.  Taxes on capital gains evaporated altogether.  The Congress elected in 1930 became desperate for revenue.\nCongress saw hope in a tax – this time, the return of a federal tax on alcohol.  By the time Franklin Roosevelt came out for repeal during the 1932 campaign, it was clear that the 18th Amendment was doomed.\nRatifying the 21st\nIn this section of American Spirits, guests can view the official copy of the 21st Amendment congressional resolution and notification from the state of New Jersey.  While New Jersey was the last to ratify the 18th Amendment, it became the fifth state to ratify repeal on June 1, 1933.  Celebratory images of Americans enjoying the first legal glasses of beer in April 1933 and toasting repeal in December 1933 surround the resolution. \nAlso in this section, visitors can sit in a 1930s-style theater to view a newsreel created by the Center about repeal.  Set in April 1933, it celebrates the return of legal beer and features Michigan as the first state to vote for repeal, while looking forward to the eventual ratification of the 21st Amendment that would come later that year on December 5th.\nHappy Days Are Here Again!\nOn March 16, 1933, the new Congress amended the Volstead Act’s definition of “intoxicating” to make beer legal, raising the minimum standard from 0.5 to 3.2 percent alcohol by volume; President Roosevelt signed the “Beer Bill” almost immediately.\nOn April 7th, when the new law went into effect, the Budweiser Clydesdales made their debut.  They began a nationwide marketing tour, including the delivery of a commemorative case of beer to the White House. Visitors can view a Budweiser beer bottle and case from 1933, one of the first produced by Anheuser-Busch after Congress redefined “intoxicating liquors” to make beer legal.\nOther propaganda promoting repeal incudes a “Repeal the 18th Amendment, More Beer Less Taxes” handkerchief and a “No Beer, No Work” pin.  A “Happy Days Are Here Again” shot glass celebrates the popular theme song from Franklin Roosevelt’s 1932 campaign, which also was used to celebrate the repeal of Prohibition.\n \n \nSECTION 5: THE LEGACY OF PROHIBITION\nIn almost every respect imaginable, Prohibition was a failure.  It encouraged criminality and institutionalized hypocrisy.  It deprived the government of revenue, created a culture of official corruption, and imposed profound limitations on individual rights.\nBut in one critical respect Prohibition was a success: Americans drank less.  Even after repeal, Americans’ per capita alcohol consumption did not return to pre-Prohibition levels until 1973.\nThe repeal of Prohibition actually made it harder, not easier, to get alcohol.  Section 2 of the 21st Amendment returned the regulation of alcohol to the states, and states responded with new laws intended to prevent the lawlessness of Prohibition and the excesses of what came before.  Everywhere there were new restrictions on buying, selling, and consuming alcohol: closing times, age limits, Sunday blue laws, and the end of brewery-owned saloons. \nMany states were guided by the 1933 reporter Toward Liquor Control, which described two methods of regulating alcohol sales – one in which the state issues licenses to private sellers of alcohol, the other in which the state itself controlled alcohol sales.  After the repeal of Prohibition, 19 states chose “control,” while the rest chose to license private alcohol sellers. Here, a large United States map highlights Prohibition’s lasting effects in states across the country and how the laws regarding alcohol vary drastically state by state.\nAmerican Spirits: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition has been made possible in part by a major grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities: Exploring the human endeavor. Admission to American Spirits: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition is free on Sundays throughout the run of the exhibition.\nAmerican Spirits: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition is made possible in part by a major grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities: Exploring the human endeavor.", "What Was Prohibition? (1920 to 1933)\nBy Jennifer Rosenberg\nUpdated January 13, 2017.\nProhibition was a period of nearly 14 years of U.S. history (1920 to 1933) in which the manufacture, sale, and transportation of intoxicating liquor was made illegal. It was a time characterized by speakeasies, glamour, and gangsters and a period of time in which even the average citizen broke the law. Interestingly, Prohibition, sometimes referred to as the \"Noble Experiment,\" led to the first and only time an Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was repealed.\nTemperance Movements\nAfter the American Revolution , drinking was on the rise. To combat this, a number of societies were organized as part of a new Temperance movement, which attempted to dissuade people from becoming intoxicated. At first, these organizations pushed moderation, but after several decades, the movement's focus changed to complete prohibition of alcohol consumption.\nThe Temperance movement blamed alcohol for many of society's ills, especially crime and murder. Saloons, a social haven for men who lived in the still untamed West, were viewed by many, especially women, as a place of debauchery and evil.\ncontinue reading below our video\nHow Did Bootlegging Work During Prohibition?\nProhibition, members of the Temperance movement urged, would stop husbands from spending all the family income on alcohol and prevent accidents in the workplace caused by workers who drank during lunch.\nThe 18th Amendment Passes\nIn the beginning of the 20th century, there were Temperance organizations in nearly every state. By 1916, over half of the U.S. states already had statutes that prohibited alcohol. In 1919, the 18th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which prohibited the sale and manufacture of alcohol, was ratified. It went into effect on January 16, 1920—beginning the era known as Prohibition.\nThe Volstead Act\nWhile it was the 18th Amendment that established Prohibition, it was the Volstead Act (passed on October 28, 1919) that clarified the law.\nThe Volstead Act stated that \"beer, wine, or other intoxicating malt or vinous liquors\" meant any beverage that was more than 0.5% alcohol by volume. The Act also stated that owning any item designed to manufacture alcohol was illegal and it set specific fines and jail sentences for violating Prohibition.\nLoopholes\nThere were, however, several loopholes for people to legally drink during Prohibition. For instance, the 18th Amendment did not mention the actual drinking of liquor.\nAlso, since Prohibition went into effect a full year after the 18th Amendment's ratification, many people bought cases of then-legal alcohol and stored them for personal use.\nThe Volstead Act allowed alcohol consumption if it was prescribed by a doctor. Needless to say, large numbers of new prescriptions were written for alcohol.\nGangsters and Speakeasies\nFor people who didn't buy cases of alcohol in advance or know a \"good\" doctor, there were illegal ways to drink during Prohibition.\nA new breed of gangster arose during this period. These people took notice of the amazingly high level of demand for alcohol within society and the extremely limited avenues of supply to the average citizen. Within this imbalance of supply and demand, gangsters saw profit. Al Capone in Chicago is one of the most famous gangsters of this time period.\nThese gangsters would hire men to smuggle in rum from the Caribbean (rumrunners) or hijack whiskey from Canada and bring it into the U.S. Others would buy large quantities of liquor made in homemade stills. The gangsters would then open up secret bars (speakeasies) for people to come in, drink, and socialize.\nDuring this period, newly hired Prohibition agents were responsible for raiding speakeasies, finding stills, and arresting gangsters, but many of these agents were under-qualified and underpaid, leading to a high rate of bribery.\nAttempts to Repeal the 18th Amendment\nAlmost immediately after the ratification of the 18th Amendment, organizations formed to repeal it. As the perfect world promised by the Temperance movement failed to materialize, more people joined the fight to bring back liquor.\nThe anti-Prohibition movement gained strength as the 1920s progressed, often stating that the question of alcohol consumption was a local issue and not something that should be in the Constitution.\nAdditionally, the Stock Market Crash in 1929 and the beginning of the Great Depression started changing people's opinion. People needed jobs. The government needed money. Making alcohol legal again would open up many new jobs for citizens and additional sales taxes for the government.\nThe 21st Amendment Is Ratified\nOn December 5, 1933, the 21st Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was ratified. The 21st Amendment repealed the 18th Amendment, making alcohol once again legal. This was the first and only time in U.S. history that an Amendment has been repealed.", "Toast the Constitution: Prohibition Resources - Bill of Rights Institute\nBill of Rights Institute\nSign In / Register\nToast the Constitution: Prohibition Resources\nToast the Constitution!\nThe Rise and Fall of Prohibition Essay\nBeginning in 1920, the Eighteenth Amendment prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transport of alcohol, but the idea of controls on alcohol began more than a century earlier. Eventually, religious groups, politicians, and social organizations advocated for total abolition of alcohol, leading to Prohibition. The Eighteenth Amendment caused widespread disregard for the law and a surge in organized crime before it was eventually repealed in 1933. Why did some groups want a Prohibition amendment passed? How did Prohibition fit into the progressive movement? What were its effects, and why was it eventually repealed? Explore these questions with this full lesson plan .\nDinner Party Activity\nMany notable Americans played many roles during the Prohibition era, from government officials and social reformers to bootleggers and crime bosses. Each person had personal reasons for supporting or opposing Prohibition. What stances did these individuals take? What legal, moral, and ethical questions did they have to wrestle with? Why were their actions important? And how might a “dinner party” attended by them bring some of these questions to the surface? Download this activity and step back in time with these American icons.\nProhibition Pictionary Activity\nThe Eighteenth Amendment banned the manufacture, sale, and transport of alcoholic beverages and was in effect from 1920 to 1933. What impact did this amendment have on government power? What powers did the national government gain or lose? What powers did the state governments gain or lose? Who were the important players in the Prohibition amendments? What ideas, terms, and concepts were developed or came to the forefront during this period? Download this activity and explore these important questions.\n \n \nThese lessons were developed in partnership with the National Constitution Center in Philadelphia for their “American Spirits” exhibit. Resource distribution was made possible by the Center for Alcohol Policy.", "Encyclopedia of Cleveland History: PROHIBITION AMENDMENT\nECH Search\nPROHIBITION AMENDMENT - The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History\nThe PROHIBITION AMENDMENT, outlawing the manufacture, transport, and sale of alcoholic beverages, was enforced in Ohio 27 May 1919-23 Dec. 1933--nearly 8 months longer than the 18th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution and its enforcing Volstead Act. When state prohibition began in 1919, most Cleveland liquor dealers either sold or stored their stocks and closed, or sold nonalcoholic drinks. About 50 of 1,028 bars stayed open. However, liquor could be easily purchased in the Cleveland area in spite of federal, state, and local attempts to enforce the law. As initial stocks dwindled, forged permits to legal warehouses, bootlegging, and area stills provided new sources. Alcohol was brought to Cleveland from Canada across Lake Erie.\nAn estimated 30,000 Clevelanders were selling liquor in 1923, 10,000 stills were operating, and 100,000 were violating the law at home. Prohibition was never popular in Cleveland; the public resented liquor wars and raids, and in the late 1920s repeal sentiment grew as enforcement waned. Clevelander ROBT. J. BULKLEY † was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1930 on a platform calling for prohibition's repeal. After Franklin D. Roosevelt's 1932 presidential victory, Congress passed the 21st amendment repealing Prohibition, 20 Feb. 1933, and Ohio voters approved it 8 months later.\nLast Modified: 22 Jul 1997 10:53:47 AM\nRelated Article(s)", "18th and 21st Amendments - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com\n18th and 21st Amendments\nA+E Networks\nIntroduction\nBy the late 1800s, prohibition movements had sprung up across the United States, driven by religious groups who considered alcohol, specifically drunkenness, a threat to the nation. The movement reached its apex in 1920 when Congress ratified the 18th Amendment, prohibiting the manufacture, transportation and sale of intoxicating liquors. Prohibition proved difficult to enforce and failed to have the intended effect of eliminating crime and other social problems–to the contrary, it led to a rise in organized crime, as the bootlegging of alcohol became an ever-more lucrative operation. In 1933, widespread public disillusionment led Congress to ratify the 21st Amendment, which repealed Prohibition.\nGoogle\nOrigins of Temperance Movement\nA wave of intense religious revivalism that swept the U.S. during the 1820s and 30s led to the formation of a number of prohibition movements driven by religious groups who considered alcohol, specifically drunkenness, a “national curse.” (This revivalism also helped inspire the movement to end slavery.) The first temperance legislation appeared in 1838, in the form of a Massachusetts law prohibiting the sale of spirits in less than 15-gallon quantities. Though it was repealed two years later, Maine passed the first state prohibition law in 1846, and by the time the Civil War began, a number of other states had followed suit.\nDid You Know?\nProhibition was known as \"the noble experiment.\" The phrase was coined by President Herbert Hoover, who wrote to an Idaho senator in 1928: \"Our country has deliberately undertaken a great social and economic experiment, noble in motive and far-reaching in purpose.\"\nAs early as 1873, the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) of Ohio called for the abolition of the sale of alcohol. They were soon joined in the fight by the even more powerful Anti-Saloon League (ASL), founded in 1893 in Ohio but later expanded into a national organization that endorsed political candidates and lobbied for legislation against saloons. Beginning around 1906, the ASL led a renewed call for prohibition legislation at the state level. Through speeches, advertisements and public demonstrations at saloons and bars, prohibition advocates attempted to convince people that that eliminating alcohol from society would eliminate poverty and social vices, such as immoral behavior and physical violence. One prominent temperance advocate, Kentucky-born Carrie Amelia Moore Nation (she called herself “Carry A. Nation”), became known for particularly violent tactics against what she called “evil spirits.” In addition to making protest speeches, Nation was known for breaking saloon windows and mirrors and destroying kegs of beer or whiskey with a hatchet. She was arrested numerous times, and became a household name across the country for her “saloon-smashing” campaign.\nFrom State to Federal Prohibition Legislation\nBy 1916, 23 of 48 states had passed anti-saloon legislation. Many went further, prohibiting the manufacture of alcoholic beverages as well. After the congressional elections that year, “dry” members (as those who favored a national prohibition of alcohol became known) won a two-thirds majority over “wet” in the U.S. Congress. On January 29, 1919, Congress ratified the 18th Amendment, which prohibited the manufacturing, transportation and sale of alcohol within the United States; it would go into effect the following January.\nLater in 1919, the National Prohibition Act–popularly known as the Volstead Act, after its legislative sponsor, Representative Andrew J. Volstead of Minnesota–was enacted in order to provide the government with the means of enforcing Prohibition. Loopholes in this act–such as the fact that liquor used for medicinal, sacramental or industrial purposes remained legal, as did fruit or grape beverages prepared at home–as well as varying degrees of government support throughout the 1920s hampered the enforcement of Prohibition, and it would remain more of an ideal than a reality.\nUnexpected Events\nUnder Prohibition, the illegal manufacture and sale of liquor–known as “bootlegging”–occurred on a large scale across the United States. In urban areas, where the majority of the population opposed Prohibition, enforcement was generally much weaker than in rural areas and smaller towns. Perhaps the most dramatic consequence of Prohibition was the effect it had on organized crime in the United States: as the production and sale of alcohol went further underground, it began to be controlled by the Mafia and other gangs, who transformed themselves into sophisticated criminal enterprises that reaped huge profits from the illicit liquor trade.\nWhen it came to its booming bootleg business, the Mafia became skilled at bribing police and politicians to look the other way. Chicago’s Al Capone emerged as the most notorious example of this phenomenon, earning an estimated $60 million annually from the bootlegging and speakeasy operations he controlled. In addition to bootlegging, gambling and prostitution reached new heights during the 1920s as well. A growing number of Americans came to blame Prohibition for this widespread moral decay and disorder–despite the fact that the legislation had intended to do the opposite–and to condemn it as a dangerous infringement on the freedom of the individual.\nCalls for Prohibition’s Repeal\nIf public sentiment had turned against Prohibition by the late 1920s, the advent of the Great Depression only hastened its demise, as some argued that the ban on alcohol denied jobs to the unemployed and much-needed revenue to the government. The efforts of the nonpartisan group Americans Against Prohibition Association (AAPA) added to public disillusionment. In 1932, the platform of Democratic presidential candidate Franklin D. Roosevelt included a plank for repealing the 18th Amendment, and his victory that November marked a certain end to Prohibition.\nIn February 1933, Congress adopted a resolution proposing the 21st Amendment to the Constitution, which repealed both the 18th Amendment and the Volstead Act. The resolution required state conventions, rather than the state legislatures, to approve the amendment, effectively reducing the process to a one-state, one-vote referendum rather than a popular vote contest. That December, Utah became the 36th state to ratify the amendment, achieving the necessary majority for repeal. A few states continued statewide prohibition after 1933, but by 1966 all of them had abandoned it. Since then, liquor control in the United States has largely been determined at the local level.\nTags", "Prohibition: Unintended Consequences | PBS\nUnintended Consequences\ndetails\nAnti-Saloon League paper, The American Issue, with headline, \"U.S. Is Voted Dry\", Anti-Saloon League Museum\nWhen the Mayor of Berlin, Gustav Boess, visited New York City in the fall of 1929, one of the questions he had for his host, Mayor James J. Walker, was when Prohibition was to go into effect. The problem was that Prohibition has already been the law of the United States for nearly a decade. That Boess had to ask tells you plenty about how well it was working.\nThe Noble Experiment\nWhen the Prohibition era in the United States began on January 19, 1920, a few sage observers predicted it would not go well. Certainly, previous attempts to outlaw the use of alcohol in American history had fared poorly. When a Massachusetts town banned the sale of alcohol in 1844, an enterprising tavern owner took to charging patrons for the price of seeing a striped pig—the drinks came free with the price of admission. When Maine passed a strict prohibition law in 1851, the result was not temperance, but resentment among the city's working class and Irish immigrant population. A deadly riot in Portland in 1855 lead to the law's repeal. Now, Prohibition was being implemented on a national scale, and being enshrined in the Constitution no less. What followed was a litany of unintended consequences.\nThis should have come as no surprise with a venture as experimental as Prohibition. It is no mistake that President Herbert Hoover's 1928 description of Prohibition as \"a great social and economic experiment, noble in motive and far-reaching in purpose\" entered the popular lexicon as \"the noble experiment.\" It was unfortunate for the entire nation that the experiment failed as miserably as it did.\nThe Atlanta Constitution Cover: \"$100,000,000 For Government From Income Tax\", Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division\nEconomics of Prohibition\nProhibition's supporters were initially surprised by what did not come to pass during the dry era. When the law went into effect, they expected sales of clothing and household goods to skyrocket. Real estate developers and landlords expected rents to rise as saloons closed and neighborhoods improved. Chewing gum, grape juice, and soft drink companies all expected growth. Theater producers expected new crowds as Americans looked for new ways to entertain themselves without alcohol. None of it came to pass.\nInstead, the unintended consequences proved to be a decline in amusement and entertainment industries across the board. Restaurants failed, as they could no longer make a profit without legal liquor sales. Theater revenues declined rather than increase, and few of the other economic benefits that had been predicted came to pass.\nOn the whole, the initial economic effects of Prohibition were largely negative. The closing of breweries, distilleries and saloons led to the elimination of thousands of jobs, and in turn thousands more jobs were eliminated for barrel makers, truckers, waiters, and other related trades.\nThe unintended economic consequences of Prohibition didn't stop there. One of the most profound effects of Prohibition was on government tax revenues. Before Prohibition, many states relied heavily on excise taxes in liquor sales to fund their budgets. In New York, almost 75% of the state's revenue was derived from liquor taxes. With Prohibition in effect, that revenue was immediately lost. At the national level, Prohibition cost the federal government a total of $11 billion in lost tax revenue, while costing over $300 million to enforce. The most lasting consequence was that many states and the federal government would come to rely on income tax revenue to fund their budgets going forward.\nIRS Treasury official with confiscated still, Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division\n\"Cat and Mouse\"\nProhibition led to many more unintended consequences because of the cat and mouse nature of Prohibition enforcement. While the Eighteenth Amendment prohibited the manufacture, sale and transportation of intoxicating beverages, it did not outlaw the possession or consumption of alcohol in the United States. The Volstead Act, the federal law that provided for the enforcement of Prohibition, also left enough loopholes and quirks that it opened the door to myriad schemes to evade the dry mandate.\nOne of the legal exceptions to the Prohibition law was that pharmacists were allowed to dispense whiskey by prescription for any number of ailments, ranging from anxiety to influenza. Bootleggers quickly discovered that running a pharmacy was a perfect front for their trade. As a result, the number of registered pharmacists in New York State tripled during the Prohibition era.\nBecause Americans were also allowed to obtain wine for religious purposes, enrollments rose at churches and synagogues, and cities saw a large increase in the number of self-professed rabbis who could obtain wine for their congregations.\nThe law was unclear when it came to Americans making wine at home. With a wink and a nod, the American grape industry began selling kits of juice concentrate with warnings not to leave them sitting too long or else they could ferment and turn into wine. Home stills were technically illegal, but Americans found they could purchase them at many hardware stores, while instructions for distilling could be found in public libraries in pamphlets issued by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The law that was meant to stop Americans from drinking was instead turning many of them into experts on how to make it.\nThe trade in unregulated alcohol had serious consequences for public health. As the trade in illegal alcohol became more lucrative, the quality of alcohol on the black market declined. On average, 1000 Americans died every year during the Prohibition from the effects of drinking tainted liquor.\nA line of shamefaced bootleggers in a Detroit, Michigan police station, Photofest\nThe Greatest Consequence\nThe effects of Prohibition on law enforcement were also negative. The sums of money being exchanged during the dry era proved a corrupting influence in both the federal Bureau of Prohibition and at the state and local level. Police officers and Prohibition agents alike were frequently tempted by bribes or the lucrative opportunity to go into bootlegging themselves. Many stayed honest, but enough succumbed to the temptation that the stereotype of the corrupt Prohibition agent or local cop undermined public trust in law enforcement for the duration of the era.\nThe growth of the illegal liquor trade under Prohibition made criminals of millions of Americans. As the decade progressed, court rooms and jails overflowed, and the legal system failed to keep up. Many defendants in prohibition cases waited over a year to be brought to trial. As the backlog of cases increased, the judicial system turned to the \"plea bargain\" to clear hundreds of cases at a time, making a it common practice in American jurisprudence for the first time.\nThe greatest unintended consequence of Prohibition however, was the plainest to see. For over a decade, the law that was meant to foster temperance instead fostered intemperance and excess. The solution the United States had devised to address the problem of alcohol abuse had instead made the problem even worse. The statistics of the period are notoriously unreliable, but it is very clear that in many parts of the United States more people were drinking, and people were drinking more.\nThere is little doubt that Prohibition failed to achieve what it set out to do, and that its unintended consequences were far more far reaching than its few benefits. The ultimate lesson is two-fold. Watch out for solutions that end up worse than the problems they set out to solve, and remember that the Constitution is no place for experiments, noble or otherwise.\nBy Michael Lerner, historian", "Why Prohibition? | Temperance & Prohibition\nTemperance & Prohibition\nWhy Prohibition?\nWhy Prohibition?\nWhy did the United States have a prohibition movement, and enact prohibition? We offer some generalizations in answer to that question.\nProhibition in the United States was a measure designed to reduce drinking by eliminating the businesses that manufactured, distributed, and sold alcoholic beverages. The Eighteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution took away license to do business from the brewers, distillers, vintners, and the wholesale and retail sellers of alcoholic beverages. The leaders of the prohibition movement were alarmed at the drinking behavior of Americans, and they were concerned that there was a culture of drink among some sectors of the population that, with continuing immigration from Europe, was spreading.\nThe prohibition movement's strength grew, especially after the formation of the Anti-Saloon League in 1893. The League, and other organizations that supported prohibition such as the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, soon began to succeed in enacting local prohibition laws. Eventually the prohibition campaign was a national effort.\nDuring this time, the brewing industry was the most prosperous of the beverage alcohol industries. Because of the competitive nature of brewing, the brewers entered the retail business. Americans called retail businesses selling beer and whiskey by the glass saloons. To expand the sale of beer, brewers expanded the number of saloons. Saloons proliferated . It was not uncommon to find one saloon for every 150 or 200 Americans, including those who did not drink. Hard-pressed to earn profits, saloonkeepers sometimes introduced vices such as gambling and prostitution into their establishments in an attempt to earn profits. Many Americans considered saloons offensive, noxious institutions.\nThe prohibition leaders believed that once license to do business was removed from the liquor traffic, the churches and reform organizations would enjoy an opportunity to persuade Americans to give up drink. This opportunity would occur unchallenged by the drink businesses (\"the liquor traffic\") in whose interests it was to urge more Americans to drink, and to drink more beverage alcohol. The blight of saloons would disappear from the landscape, and saloonkeepers no longer allowed to encourage people, including children, to drink beverage alcohol.\nSome prohibition leaders looked forward to an educational campaign that would greatly expand once the drink businesses became illegal, and would eventually, in about thirty years, lead to a sober nation. Other prohibition leaders looked forward to vigorous enforcement of prohibition in order to eliminate supplies of beverage alcohol. After 1920, neither group of leaders was especially successful. The educators never received the support for the campaign that they dreamed about; and the law enforcers were never able to persuade government officials to mount a wholehearted enforcement campaign against illegal suppliers of beverage alcohol.\nThe best evidence available to historians shows that consumption of beverage alcohol declined dramatically under prohibition. In the early 1920s, consumption of beverage alcohol was about thirty per cent of the pre-prohibition level. Consumption grew somewhat in the last years of prohibition, as illegal supplies of liquor increased and as a new generation of Americans disregarded the law and rejected the attitude of self-sacrifice that was part of the bedrock of the prohibition movement. Nevertheless, it was a long time after repeal before consumption rates rose to their pre-prohibition levels. In that sense, prohibition \"worked.\"\nWe have included a table of data about alcohol consumption . We also present some data in graphic form, including the consumption of beer in gallons, the consumption of distilled spirits in gallons, and the consumption of absolute alcohol in gallons for beer and spirits, and, in total, for all beverage alcohol. We also have some separate data for malt beverage production (beer)." ] }

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{ "description": [ "Teapot Dome Scandal, also called Oil Reserves Scandal or Elk Hills Scandal, ... was elected president in 1924. ... Teapot Dome Scandal; United States History ...", "Graft and Oil: How Teapot Dome Became the Greatest Political Scandal of Its ... In 1924, in reaction to the Teapot Dome scandal, ... United States, Teapot Dome Scandal.", "Read the essential deatils about the Teapot Dome Scandal. ... 1924, Edward Doheny ... The oil industry of the United States is just now convalescing from the greatest ...", "The Teapot Dome Scandal. Juggernaut. This 1924 cartoon shows the dimensions ... Senate Investigates the \"Teapot Dome\" Scandal. ... The oil reserves had been set aside ...", "Digital History ID 3392 . ... was sent to prison for accepting $360,000 in bribes for transferring U.S. naval oil reserves in Wyoming to oil ... During the 1924 ...", "A summary of the Teapot Dome scandal from the ... investigation and prosecution of the Teapot Dome scandal. In 1924, ... See United States v. Mammoth Oil ..." ], "filename": [ "168/168_3290.txt", "18/18_3291.txt", "61/61_3292.txt", "41/41_3293.txt", "159/159_3298.txt", "133/133_3299.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 1, 2, 3, 8, 9 ], "title": [ "Teapot Dome Scandal | United States history | Britannica.com", "Graft and Oil: How Teapot Dome Became the Greatest ...", "Teapot Dome Scandal - Spartacus Educational", "Teapot Dome Scandal - Freedom School", "Digital History", "A summary of the Teapot Dome scandal from the Brookings ..." ], "url": [ "https://www.britannica.com/event/Teapot-Dome-Scandal", "http://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/roaring-twenties/essays/graft-and-oil-how-teapot-dome-became-greatest-political-scand", "http://spartacus-educational.com/USAteapot.htm", "http://freedom-school.com/history/teapot_dome_scandal.htm", "http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=3392", "http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/history/johnson/teapotdome.htm" ], "search_context": [ "Teapot Dome Scandal | United States history | Britannica.com\nUnited States history\nAlternative Titles: Elk Hills Scandal, Oil Reserves Scandal\nRelated Topics\npetroleum\nTeapot Dome Scandal, also called Oil Reserves Scandal or Elk Hills Scandal, in American history, scandal of the early 1920s surrounding the secret leasing of federal oil reserves by the secretary of the interior, Albert Bacon Fall . After Pres. Warren G. Harding transferred supervision of the naval oil-reserve lands from the navy to the Department of the Interior in 1921, Fall secretly granted to Harry F. Sinclair of the Mammoth Oil Company exclusive rights to the Teapot Dome (Wyoming) reserves (April 7, 1922). He granted similar rights to Edward L. Doheny of Pan American Petroleum Company for the Elk Hills and Buena Vista Hills reserves in California (1921–22).\nA 1924 cartoon depicting Washington officials racing down an oil-slicked road to the White House, …\nThe Granger Collection, New York\nAlbert Bacon Fall.\nHarris & Ewing Collection/Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (Digital File Number: LC-DIG-hec-17141)\nWhen these leases and contracts came under investigation by committees of the U.S. Senate, it was disclosed that shortly after the signing of the Teapot Dome lease, Fall and members of his family had received from an unknown source more than $200,000 in Liberty bonds under circumstances indicating that the bonds came from a company organized by Sinclair and others receiving benefits from the lease. Also, it appeared that prior to the execution of the Pan American contracts and leases, Doheny, at Fall’s request, sent $100,000 in currency to Fall as a “loan” that had not been repaid.\nWhen the affair became known, Congress directed President Harding to cancel the leases; the Supreme Court declared the leases fraudulent and ruled illegal Harding’s transfer of authority to Fall. Although the president himself was not implicated in the transactions that had followed the transfer, the revelations of his associates’ misconduct took a severe toll on his health; disillusioned and exhausted, he died before the full extent of the wrongdoing had been determined. Fall was convicted of accepting a bribe in the Elk Hills negotiations and imprisoned. Doheny and Sinclair were acquitted of charges of bribery and criminal conspiracy , but Sinclair spent 6 1/2 months in prison for contempt of court and contempt of the U.S. Senate. Although the secretary of the navy, Edwin Denby, had signed all the leases, he was cleared of all charges. While “Teapot Dome” entered the American political vocabulary as a synonym for governmental corruption, the scandal had little long-term effect on the Republican Party . Calvin Coolidge , a Republican , was elected president in 1924.\nPolitical cartoon depicting the Teapot Dome Scandal of the early 1920s.\nJT Vintage/age fotostock", "Graft and Oil: How Teapot Dome Became the Greatest Political Scandal of Its Time | The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History\nThe Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History\nGraft and Oil: How Teapot Dome Became the Greatest Political Scandal of Its Time\nby Robert W. Cherny\nIn the 1920s, Teapot Dome became synonymous with government corruption and the scandals arising out of the administration of President Warren G. Harding. Since then, it has sometimes been used to symbolize the power and influence of oil companies in American politics. In the days before Watergate, one historian called it “the greatest and most sensational scandal in the history of American politics.”\nTeapot Dome is a geological feature in Wyoming, named for nearby Teapot Rock, and the site of an oil field. In 1915, President Woodrow Wilson designated that oil deposit as Naval Oil Reserve Number 3 (reserves Number 1 and Number 2, in Elk Hills and Buena Vista Hills, California, respectively, had been similarly identified by President William Howard Taft in 1912). These reserves were created to guarantee that the Navy would have a sufficient supply of oil in wartime. However, their establishment was controversial—oil interests believed that the reserves were unnecessary and could be developed privately. In addition, private wells surrounded the naval reserve fields, siphoning off their underground deposits.\nThat was the situation facing Albert Fall, one of President Harding’s poker pals, when Harding appointed him as Secretary of the Interior in 1921. As a lawyer in New Mexico Territory, Fall had represented mining and timber companies and had invested in mining himself. As a US senator from New Mexico after 1912, he’d shown little interest in the conservation movement, and conservationists, led by Harry Slattery and Gifford Pinchot, viewed him as hostile to their ideas. When Fall tried to open Alaska’s oil, coal, and timber to extensive private development, the conservationists were quick to organize and defeat his plans. Similarly, when Fall tried to move the National Forests and federal Forestry Service under his control at the Department of the Interior, the conservationists blocked him. In their efforts, conservationists could count on help from a number of progressives in Congress, notably Senator Robert La Follette, a leader of the progressive wing of the Republican Party.\nStymied in his efforts to acquire more control over western natural resources and make them more easily available to developers, Fall turned to the naval oil reserves. He persuaded Secretary of the Navy Edwin Denby and President Harding to transfer the naval oil reserves to the Interior Department. He then secretly, and without competitive bidding, leased the Teapot Dome oil rights to Harry Sinclair’s Mammoth Oil Company and the Elk Hills oil rights to the Pan-American Petroleum Company, owned by Edward Doheny, a longtime friend of Fall’s. When the news became public in April 1922, conservationists and small oil producers in Wyoming, who objected to the secrecy and lack of competitive bidding, raised a storm of protest. La Follette called for a Senate investigation, and the Senate approved the resolution.\nFall argued that his actions were perfectly reasonable and beneficial to the Navy, since the reserves were threatened by privately owned oil wells that were draining the Navy’s oil. Granting a single lease to pump the reserved oil, Fall reasoned, was the most efficient means of saving it. The leases required Sinclair and Doheny to calculate royalties for the oil they pumped from the naval reserves, and use the royalties to construct and fill fuel storage facilities for the Navy in California, Pearl Harbor (Hawaii), and elsewhere. Sinclair was also to construct a pipeline from Wyoming to Kansas City, which would be available for other oil producers as well. Fall claimed that secrecy, and hence no competitive bidding, was necessary because the storage facilities could be targets in a war.\nWhen the Senate opened its investigation, Fall delivered a truckload of documents to the committee, snarling the investigators in a mass of paper. He then resigned from office in January 1923. The investigation, led by Senator Thomas Walsh, Democrat of Montana, with assistance from Slattery, finally got underway in October of that year. Though nothing seemed objectionable in the materials delivered by Fall, Walsh began to dig into reports of improvements to Fall’s ranch. In January 1924, testifying before the committee, Doheny revealed that he had loaned Fall $100,000, and that his son, Edward Doheny Jr., together with his son’s close friend Hugh Plunkett, had delivered the cash to Fall in a satchel. However, Doheny denied that the loan had any connection to the Elk Hills lease. Similarly, Sinclair acknowledged that he’d given Fall some livestock but denied any connection to Teapot Dome. Congress thereupon asked the President to take action to cancel the leases and name special counsel to investigate and prosecute those responsible for any wrongdoing.\nHarding’s sudden death in August 1923 released him from mounting an investigation of his scandal-plagued administration. He had appointed friends such as Fall to high positions in the government where many of them took bribes, embezzled government money, and committed fraud. He died before investigators could determine the full extent of his cronies’ corrupt activities.\nPresident Calvin Coolidge, who had become president when Harding died, announced he would appoint two special prosecutors, one Democrat and one Republican, to take over the investigation. Owen J. Roberts, a prominent lawyer and future Supreme Court Justice, was the Republican; Atlee Pomerene, a former US Senator from Ohio, was the Democrat. Under their leadership, the investigation discovered that one of Sinclair’s companies had transferred $233,000 in Liberty Bonds (bonds issued by the federal government during World War I) to Fall’s son-in-law, and that Sinclair had also contributed substantially to the Republican Party.\nAs the Teapot Dome scandal unfolded, Democrats gleefully planned a 1924 presidential campaign against Republican corruption. Teapot Dome was only the most dramatic example of corruption by Harding’s appointees. Other scandals had emerged in the Veterans Bureau and in the office of the Alien Property Custodian (responsible for the property of Germans and other enemy aliens during World War I). One scandal implicated Harding’s Attorney General, Harry Daugherty. Coolidge, however, provided the Republicans with an image of flinty integrity, and his actions in appointing the special prosecutors, in demanding the resignation of Daugherty and Denby, and in naming the highly regarded Harlan Fiske Stone as Daugherty’s successor seemed to demonstrate that he would not tolerate corruption in his administration and that his standards for Cabinet appointments were much higher than Harding’s had been.\nThe Democrats proved to have oil problems of their own. Doheny was a Democrat who had contributed to the Democratic Party; through his various business enterprises, he had hired a number of prominent Democrats at various times. During the Senate hearings, a Republican Senator led Doheny to reveal that four previous members of Woodrow Wilson’s Cabinet, all important leaders of the Democratic Party, had been on his payroll after leaving public office. Most significantly for the Democrats, Doheny had paid William Gibbs McAdoo $50,000 per year for several years as a legal retainer. McAdoo, the leading Democratic presidential prospect and well known as a progressive, was now tainted by oil money. Though a major problem, Doheny’s money was not the only problem with McAdoo’s campaign, and he failed to secure the nomination. Instead, the Democrats nominated John W. Davis, a conservative lawyer who specialized in representing corporations. As a result, most progressives in both parties supported the third-party candidacy of Robert La Follette. Coolidge won easily. In the end, though both Republicans and Democrats had tried to use Teapot Dome to embarrass their opponents, neither party drew much advantage from the events.\nBy the time Walsh’s investigation finally wound down, he had found only circumstantial evidence against Fall. Roberts and Pomerene, however, found additional evidence and filed a total of eight cases, two civil and six criminal. In 1929, Fall was convicted on charges of accepting a bribe from Doheny—the only guilty verdict in the Teapot Dome case. Fall, the first Cabinet member convicted of a crime committed while in office, was fined $100,000 and sentenced to a year in prison. Doheny, however, was acquitted of offering the same bribe to Fall; both men always insisted that the $100,000 was a loan, and Doheny eventually foreclosed on Fall’s ranch. With Fall now destitute, his fine was excused. After all appeals failed, he arrived at prison in 1931 but was released after nine months due to poor health. In 1929, Doheny’s son was murdered by Plunkett, who then committed suicide; Plunkett may have feared that he’d be sent to prison for helping to deliver the cash to Fall.\nLike Doheny, Sinclair was acquitted of bribing Fall but served several months in prison for contempt of Congress and contempt of court. Doheny and Sinclair remained wealthy and powerful until their deaths. Doheny is memorialized by Doheny State Beach in California, the Doheny Campus of Mount St. Mary’s College in southern California, the Doheny Library (a memorial to his son) at the University of Southern California, and the Doheny Eye Institute (created by his wife). Sinclair Oil Corporation remains a major supplier of oil and gasoline in twenty-two states.\nIn 1924, in reaction to the Teapot Dome scandal, President Coolidge set up the Federal Oil Conservation Board to encourage closer coordination in oil production between the federal government and the oil industry. Its activities laid the basis for a loose interstate oil cartel that set crude oil prices until 1973.\nWalsh’s work set important legal precedents for the power of Congressional investigating committees. Sinclair had refused to answer some questions before the Senate committee on the grounds that Congress had no jurisdiction over his private affairs. In Sinclair v. United States in 1929, the Supreme Court upheld the right of the Senate to investigate the effect of the laws it passed. Earlier, in a spin-off investigation from Teapot Dome, Attorney General Daugherty’s brother, Mally Daugherty, had been called before a Senate investigating committee but refused to appear. In McGrain v. Daugherty, decided in 1927, the Supreme Court recognized that Congress had significant power to investigate the lives and activities of private citizens in carrying out its Constitutional duty to legislate, even though the Constitution nowhere specifically grants an investigatory power to Congress. Thus, the Walsh hearings produced a significantly broader understanding of the role of Congress as an investigatory body.\nThe special prosecutors filed two civil cases to cancel the disputed oil leases. Both cases were appealed to the Supreme Court, which voided the disputed oil leases in 1927, on the grounds of corruption and actions without basis in law. Teapot Dome and Elk Hills were then shut down, although Elk Hills was opened during World War II. In 1976, in response to the Arab Oil Embargo of 1973–1974, Congress directed that the naval reserves be brought into full production. They were transferred to the Department of Energy in 1977. Production at Elk Hills made it one of the largest producing oil fields in North America. In 1995, President William Clinton proposed selling the Elk Hills reserve as part of his administration’s efforts to reduce the size of government and to privatize some federal functions. In 1996, Congress approved legislation that directed that Elk Hills be sold to the highest bidder. Occidental Petroleum Company took over operations there in 1998 in the largest single divestiture of federal property in the history of the US government. The Buena Vista Hills reserve was transferred to the Department of the Interior in 2005. The Department of Energy retains control of Teapot Dome, which currently produces a small amount of crude oil and natural gas and earns approximately $5 million per year for the federal government.\nRobert W. Cherny is a professor of history at San Francisco State University. His books include California Women and Politics: From the Gold Rush to the Great Depression (2011) with co-editors Mary Ann Irwin and Ann Marie Wilson; American Labor and the Cold War: Unions, Politics, and Postwar Political Culture (2004) with co-editors William Issel and Keiran Taylor; and American Politics in the Gilded Age, 1868–1900 (1997).\nMake Gilder Lehrman your Home for History\nAlready have an account?", "Teapot Dome Scandal\nTeapot Dome Scandal\n▼ Primary Sources ▼\nTeapot Dome Scandal\nIn the early part of the 20th century large oil reserves were discovered at Elk Hills, California and Teapot Dome, Wyoming. In 1912 President William Taft decided that this government owned land and its oil reserves should be set aside for the use of the United States Navy .\nOn 4th June, 1920, Congress passed a bill that stated that the Secretary of the Navy would have the power \"to conserve, develop, use and operate the same in his discretion, directly or by contract, lease, or otherwise, and to use, store, exchange, or sell the oil and gas products thereof, and those from all royalty oil from lands in the naval reserves, for the benefit of the United States.\"\nIn March 1921 President Warren Harding appointed Albert Fall as Secretary of the Interior. Soon afterwards he persuaded Edwin Denby , the Secretary of the Navy, that he should take over responsibility for the Naval Reserves at Elk Hills and Teapot Dome. Later that year Fall decided that two of his friends, Harry F. Sinclair (Mammoth Oil Corporation) and Edward L. Doheny (Pan-American Petroleum and Transport Company), should be allowed to lease part of these Naval Reserves.\nAttempts were made to keep this deal secret but rumours began to circulate when it became known that Albert Fall was spending large sums of money. On 14th April, 1922, the Wall Street Journal reported that Fall had leased Teapot Dome to Harry F. Sinclair . President Warren Harding defended Fall by claiming that \"the policy which has been adopted by the Secretary of the Navy and the Secretary of the Interior in dealing with these matters was submitted to me prior to the adoption thereof, and the policy decided upon and the subsequent acts have at all times had my entire approval.\"\nRobert La Follette and John B. Kendrick called for a Senate investigation into Albert Fall and the Naval Reserves. President Warren Harding died suddenly on 2nd August, 1923 and was replaced by his vice-president, Calvin Coolidge .\n(If you find this article useful, please feel free to share. You can follow John Simkin on Twitter , Google+ & Facebook or subscribe to our monthly newsletter )\nHearings on the Teapot Dome oil lease began on October 15, 1923 before the Senate Committee on Public Lands and Surveys. Senator Thomas J. Walsh , a Democrat from Montana, led the committee's investigation. Over the next few months, dozens of witnesses testified before the committee. On January 24, 1924, Edward Doheny admitted that he had lent Fall $100,000.\nSeven days later the Senate passed a resolution stating that the leases to the Mammoth Oil Company and the Pan American Petroleum Company \"were executed under circumstances indicating fraud and corruption\". Albert Fall and Edwin Denby were now both forced to resign from office.\nOn 17th October, 1927, Harry F. Sinclair appeared on trial charged with conspiracy to defraud the United States. The trial ended prematurely two weeks later when the government presented evidence that Sinclair had hired a detective agency to shadow the jury. The judge declared a mistrial. Sinclair was tried for criminal contempt of court. Found guilty and he was sentenced to six months in prison.\nAlbert Fall was now charged accepting a bribe from Doheny. On October 7, 1928 the trial began in the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia. Even though the trial concerned Fall accepting money from Doheny, the judge allowed M. T. Everhart's testimony showing the financial relationship between Sinclair and Fall. That testimony was used to show that Fall had lied to the Senate committee when he declared that he had not accepted any money from Sinclair. Fall was found guilty and sentenced to one year in prison and a $100,000 fine.\n▲ Main Article ▲\nPrimary Sources\n(1) (1) Robert La Follette explaining in the Senate why he was opposed to what Albert Fall had arranged with Harry F. Sinclair of the Mammoth Oil Corporation (13th May, 1922)\nFirst. Against the policy of the Secretary of the Interior and the Secretary of the Navy in opening the naval reserves at this time for exploitation.\nSecond. Against the method of leasing public lands without competitive bidding, as exemplified in the recent contract entered into between Secretary Fall of the Interior and Secretary Denby of the Navy and the Standard Oil-Sinclair-Doheny interest.\nThird. Against the policy of any department of the Government of the United States entering into a contract of any character whatsoever, whether competitive or not, which would tend to continue or perpetuate a monopolistic control of the oil industry of the United States or create a monopoly on the sale of fuel oil or refined oil to the Navy or any other department of the Government.\nFor the following reasons:\nThere exists no emergency or necessity which would warrant the opening of the naval reserves at this time for exploitation in order that the Navy might be supplied with the various grades of oil required by it, there being already above ground and in storage in the United States the greatest amount of oil that has been in storage in the history of all times.\nThe prices of fuel oil at the seaboard are lower than they have been in years, and there is an abundant supply.\nThe oil industry of the United States is just now convalescing from the greatest depression it has ever suffered, the daily production now being the largest in its history, and therefore, the turning over of Government lands to the large pipe-line interests for exploitation will have the direct result of depressing the price of crude oil without in any way relieving the people of the onerous and burdensome high prices of refined products.\n(2) Thomas J. Walsh , The True History of Teapot Dome, Forum Magazine (July, 1924)\nIn the spring of 1922 rumors reached parties interested that a lease had been or was about to be made of Naval Reserve No. 3 in the state of Wyoming, - popularly known, from its local designation, as the Teapot Dome. This was one of three great areas known to contain petroleum in great quantity which had been set aside for the use of the Navy - Naval Reserves No. 1 and No. 2 in California by President Taft in 1912, and No. 3 by President Wilson in 1915. The initial steps toward the creation of these reserves - the land being public, that is, owned by the government - were\ntaken by President Roosevelt, who caused to be instituted a study to ascertain the existence and location of eligible areas, as a result of which President Taft in 1909 withdrew the tracts in question from disposition under the public land laws. These areas were thus set apart with a view to keeping in the ground a great reserve of oil available at some time in the future, more or less remote, when an adequate supply for the Navy could not, by reason of the failure or depletion of the world store, or the exigencies possibly of war, be procured or could be procured only at excessive cost; in other words to ensure the Navy in any exigency the fuel necessary to its efficient operation.\nFrom the time of the original withdrawal order, private interests had persistently endeavored to assert or secure some right to exploit these rich reserves, the effort giving rise to a struggle lasting throughout the Wilson administration. Some feeble attempt was made by parties having no claim to any of the territory to secure a lease of all or a portion of the reserves, but in the main the controversy was waged by claimants asserting rights either legal or equitable in portions of the reserves antedating the withdrawal orders, on the one hand, and the Navy Department on the other. In that struggle Secretary Lane was accused of being unduly friendly to the private claimants, Secretary Daniels being too rigidly insistent on keeping the areas intact. President Wilson apparently supported Daniels in the main in the controversy which became acute and Lane retired from the cabinet, it is said, in consequence of the differences which had thus arisen.\nThe reserves were created, in the first place, in pursuance of the policy of conservation, the advocates of which, a militant body, active in the Ballinger affair, generally supported the attitude of Secretary Daniels and President Wilson.\nThey too became keen on the report of the impending lease of Teapot Dome. Failing to get any definite or reliable information at the departments, upon diligent inquiry, Senator Kendrick of Wyoming introduced and had passed by the Senate on April 16, 1922, a resolution calling on the secretary of the interior for information as to the existence of the lease which was the subject of the rumors, in response to which a letter was transmitted by the acting secretary of the interior on April 21, disclosing that a lease of the entire Reserve No. 3 was made two weeks before to the Mammoth Oil Company organized by Harry Sinclair, a spectacular oil operator. This was followed by the adoption by the Senate on April 29, 1922, of a resolution introduced by Senator LaFollette directing the Committee on Public Lands and Surveys to investigate the entire subject of leases of the naval oil reserves and calling on the secretary of the interior for all documents and full information in relation to the same.\nIn the month of June following, a cartload of documents said to have been furnished in compliance with the resolution was dumped in the committee rooms, and a letter from Secretary Fall to the President in justification of the lease of the Teapot Dome and of leases of limited areas on the other reserves was by him sent to the Senate. I was importuned by Senators LaFollette and Kendrick to assume charge of the investigation, the chairman of the committee and other majority members being believed to be unsympathetic, and assented the more readily because the Federal Trade\nCommission had just reported that, owing to conditions prevailing in the oil fields of Wyoming and Montana, the people of my state were paying prices for gasoline in excess of those prevailing anywhere else in the Union.\n(3) (3) George Norris , Fighting Liberal (1945)\nStill another impressive bit of evidence of national apathy presented itself in the Teapot Dome scandal. It had its origin in the early months of the Harding administration. It became the subject of common gossip in Washington, and yet no betrayal of public trust resisted exposure and punishment more tenaciously.\nTeapot Dome involved the conservation of the oil resources of the United States, especially those situated upon the public lands. The investigation of alleged irregularities had been in progress for some time, under the auspices of the Senate Committee on Public Lands and Surveys, when the decision was reached to institute court action to cancel the leases granted to private interests at Teapot Dome and Elk Hills.\nMy old friend Robert M. La Follette of Wisconsin, always alert and vigilant, had introduced and procured passage of the two resolutions - Senate Resolution 282, and Senate Resolution 294 - authorizing the Public Lands Committee to make the inquiry. Out of it came the evidence supporting the inescapable conviction that immense combinations of wealth, large corporations, under leases fraudulently obtained, were systematically robbing the government of the oil stored in the public lands by Nature. The evidence pointed straight to the guilt of a former colleague, A. B. Fall of New Mexico, who had become Secretary of the Interior.\n(4) Statement issued by President Calvin Coolidge on 27th January, 1924.\nIt is not for the President to determine criminal guilt or render judgment in civil causes. That is the function of the courts. It is not for him to prejudge. I shall do neither; but when facts are revealed to me that require action for the purpose of insuring the enforcement of either civil or criminal liability, such action will be taken. That is the province of the Executive.\nActing under my direction the Department of Justice has been observing the course of the evidence which has been revealed at the hearings conducted by the senatorial committee investigating certain oil leases made on naval reserves, which I believe warrants action for the purpose of enforcing the law and protecting the rights of the public. This is confirmed by reports made to me from the committee. If there has been any crime, it must be prosecuted. If there has been any property of the United States illegally transferred or leased, it must be recovered.\nI feel the public is entitled to know that in the conduct of such action no one is shielded for any party, political or other reason. As I understand, men are involved who belong to both political parties, and having been advised by the Department of Justice that it is in accord with the former precedents, I propose to employ special counsel of high rank drawn from both political parties to bring such action for the enforcement of the law. Counsel will be instructed to prosecute these cases in the courts so that if there is any guilt it will be punished; if there is civil liability it will be enforced; if there is any fraud it will be revealed; and if there are any contracts which are illegal they will be canceled.\n(5) Thomas J. Walsh , The True History of Teapot Dome, Forum Magazine (July, 1924)\nThe climax was reached when on January 24 Doheny voluntarily appeared to tell that on November 30, 1921, he had loaned $100,000 to Fall without security, moved by old friendship and commiseration for his business misfortunes, negotiations between them then pending eventuating in the contract awarded to Doheny on April 25, following, through which he secured, without competition, a contract giving him a preference right to a lease of a large part of Naval Re-\nserve No. 1, to be followed by the lease of the whole of it, as above recited.\nFollowed the appearance of Fall, forced by the Committee to come before it, after pleading inability on account of illness, to take refuge under his constitutional immunity, a broken man, the cynosure of the morbidly curious that crowded all approaches to the committee room and packed it to suffocation, vindicating the wisdom of the patriarch who proclaimed centuries ago that the way of the transgressor is hard.\n(6) Attlee Pomerene, Special Counsel in the Teapot Dome Scandal, letter to M. T. Everhart (24th September, 1924)\nOur contention is that in the bribery case evidence of similar transactions is competent for the purpose of showing the intent; in other words to characterize the end. It will be contended on the part of the defendant that the $100,000 was a loan. You and I feel confident that it was never intended that it should be repaid. Similarly, the Sinclair-Fall transaction in the form it took was a mere ruse.", "Teapot Dome Scandal\nJuggernaut. This 1924 cartoon shows the dimensions of the Teapot Dome scandal.\n\"Something timeless about the WHITE HOUSE sign.\"\nWORLD NEWSSTAND\nApril 15, 1922\nSenate Investigates the \"Teapot Dome\" Scandal\nRansacked offices, illegal wiretaps, disinformation campaigns, partisan conflict over the conduct of a Senate investigation. Sound familiar?\nTeapot Dome, the oil reserve scandal that began during the administration of President Harding. In 1921, by executive order of the President, control of naval oil reserves at Teapot Dome, Wyo., and at Elk Hills, Calif., was transferred from the Navy Department to the Department of the Interior. The oil reserves had been set aside for the navy by President Wilson. In 1922, Albert B. Fall, U.S. Secretary of the Interior, leased, without competitive bidding, the Teapot Dome fields to Harry F. Sinclair, an oil operator, and the field at Elk Hills, Calif., to Edward L. Doheny. These transactions became (1922�23) the subject of a Senate investigation conducted by Sen. Thomas J. Walsh\nOn April 15, 1922, Wyoming Democratic Senator John Kendrick introduced a resolution that set in motion one of the most significant investigations in Senate history. On the previous day, the Wall Street Journal had reported an unprecedented secret arrangement in which the Secretary of the Interior, without competitive bidding, had leased the U.S. naval petroleum reserve at Wyoming's Teapot Dome to a private oil company. Wisconsin Republican Senator Robert La Follette arranged for the Senate Committee on Public Lands to investigate the matter. His suspicions deepened after someone ransacked his Russell Building office.\nThe committee's leadership allowed the panel's most junior minority member, Montana Democrat Thomas Walsh, to lead what most expected to be a tedious and probably futile inquiry seeking answers to many questions, including \"How did Interior Secretary Albert Fall get so rich so quickly?\"\nEventually, the investigation uncovered Secretary Fall's shady dealings and Senator Walsh became a national hero; Fall would end up as the first former cabinet officer to go to prison. This and a subsequent Senate inquiry triggered several court cases testing the extent of the Senate's investigative powers. One of those cases resulted in the landmark 1927 Supreme Court decision McGrain v. Daugherty that, for the first time, explicitly established Congress' right to compel testimony.\nReference Items:\nDiner, Hasia. \"Teapot Dome, 1924,\" Included in Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr., and Roger Bruns, eds. Congress Investigates: A Documented History, 1792-1974. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1975.", "Digital History\nDigital History\nDigital History ID 3392\n \nThe expansion of government activities during World War I was reversed during the 1920s. Government efforts to break-up trusts and regulate business practices gave way to a new emphasis on partnerships between government and business.\nIn 1920, an Ohio political operator named Harry Daugherty offered a prediction about what would happen at that year's Republican presidential nominating convention:\nThe convention will be deadlocked, and after the other candidates have gone their limit, some 12 or 15 men, worn out and bleary eyed for lack of sleep, will sit down about 2 o'clock in the morning around a table in a smoke-filled room in some hotel and decide the nomination. When the time comes, [Warren] Harding will be nominated.\nDaugherty was right. In 1920, a divided Republican convention selected Harding, a U.S. Senator from Ohio, as its presidential nominee.\nHarding's presidency is best known for a series of scandals that marred his time in office. But he also had some genuine accomplishments. He pardoned the imprisoned Socialist party leader, Eugene Debs, and persuaded the steel industry to end the 12-hour day and replace it with an 8-hour day. Harding also called an international disarmament conference in Washington that slowed down the arms race. At the end of the conference, a treaty was signed. The treaty provided that, for every five battleships that the United States and Britain were each allowed to build, the Japanese could build three ships, and the Italians and the French could each build one-and-three-quarters ships.\nThe son of a poor Ohio farmer, Harding spent two years at a rural academy, Ohio Central College, and received a diploma at the age of 16. He taught school and sold insurance for several years before he bought a local newspaper. He guaranteed the newspaper’s success by mentioning every town resident in the paper at least twice a year. Harding described his editorial policy as \"inoffensivism.\" He later entered Republican politics, rising from lieutenant governor to U.S. Senator before being nominated for the presidency.\nHarding made few major pronouncements during the campaign. The Republican Party followed an associate's advice: \"Keep Warren at home. If he goes out on tour, somebody's sure to ask him questions, and Warren's just the sort of damned fool that will try to answer them.\" Harding largely confined his speeches to uncontroversial platitudes about the need to avoid moral crusades and return to \"normalcy\":\nAmerica's present need is not heroics but healing; not nostrums, but normalcy; not revolution, but restoration; not agitation, but adjustment; not surgery, but serenity....\nHarding had few illusions about his qualifications for the presidency. \"I am a man of limited talents from a small town,\" he said. He appointed a number of sleazy and corrupt officials to office. His administration was marred by scandals involving bribes and kickbacks at the Justice Department and the Veterans Bureau. After his sudden death from a stroke in 1923, his administration's biggest scandal, known as the Teapot Dome, was revealed. His Interior Secretary, Albert B. Fall, was sent to prison for accepting $360,000 in bribes for transferring U.S. naval oil reserves in Wyoming to oil operators in exchange for above ground petroleum storage. Private oil companies were also draining oil from federal lands.\nVice President Calvin Coolidge became president after Harding's death. Coolidge had come to national attention in 1919, when, as governor of Massachusetts, he broke the Boston police strike after declaring: \"there is no right to strike against the public interest, anytime, anywhere.\"\nCoolidge’s well-deserved nickname was \"Silent Cal.\" Some acquaintances wagered whether they could make him say more than two words. His answer: \"You lose.\" During the 1924 presidential race, reporters asked him whether he had any statement about the campaign. \"No,\" he replied. He was then asked whether he had anything to say about the world situation. \"No,\" he answered. Did he have anything to say about Prohibition? \"No.\" Then he told the reporters, \"Now remember, don't quote me.\" At the end of his presidency, he was asked whether he had a farewell message for the American people, he paused and said, \"Good-bye.\"\nCoolidge slept ten hours a night, napped every afternoon, and seldom worked more than four hours a day. He spoke out ardently on behalf of the nation's business culture. \"The man who builds a factory builds a temple,\" said Coolidge. \"The man who works there, worships there.\" The president was convinced that the formula for economic prosperity was simple: \"The chief business of the American people is business. If government kept its hands off the economy, business would prosper.â€�\nAmong the most notable acts of his presidency were vetoes of bills to assist farmers in developing government power plants along the Tennessee River. The best known accomplishment of his presidency was the Kellogg-Briand Pact, an international agreement outlawing the use of force to settle international disputes. Embodying the anti-war sentiment of the 1920s, this agreement lacked any methods of enforcement.", "A summary of the Teapot Dome scandal from the Brookings Institution\nU.S. v. Doheny and Doheny\n    B. Roberts Seeks to Resign\n    C. Special Counsel Face Financial Difficulties\nIV. The Trail Ends\nPRESIDENTIAL APPOINTMENT OF SPECIAL COUNSEL:\nTHE TEAPOT DOME MODEL\n     If Congress considers alternatives to a system of temporary, court appointed independent counsel, history provides an important model--the investigation and prosecution of the Teapot Dome scandal. In 1924, President Coolidge nominated two special counsel, one a Republican and one a Democrat, to investigate and pursue the civil and criminal cases arising from allegations that members of President Harding's cabinet had corruptly leased naval oil reserves to private oil firms. His appointees, Democrat Atlee Pomerene and Republican Owen Roberts, were confirmed by the Senate.\n     Deep concerns over the integrity of then Attorney General Harry Daugherty mobilized Congress and the President to look outside the Department of Justice for counsel who could be trusted to vigorously pursue the case. Once such counsel were appointed, Congress continued to play a critical role, aggressively pursuing the facts through a Senate committee and working cooperatively with special counsel to further their efforts. The President, for his part, offered counsel his assistance but then withdrew to permit them the necessary independence to pursue the wrongdoers. The investigation was fraught with difficulty and high drama, consuming more than six years and culminating in significant victories in civil litigation and a mixed bag of results in the criminal prosecutions. Special counsel suffered intermittent shortages of funds and for one of them, frustration with the impact of the job on his ability to maintain his law practice.\n     Those difficulties notwithstanding, history has largely judged the Teapot Dome investigation a success. The tale of corruption was told, the fraudulent leases were set aside and the oil leases returned to the government, and at least some of the perpetrators were successfully prosecuted. Consequently, when allegations of high-level wrongdoing in the government again arose, Teapot Dome has served as a call to action. See, e.g., Watergate: Clean-Up Precedent , Chr. Sci. Monitor, reprinted in 119 Cong. Rec. 13721 (1973) (Watergate); Byron York, How Congress Can Break Through the Reno Stonewall , Wall St. J., Dec. 16, 1997, at A18 (Campaign finance).\n     Should the Teapot Dome model of presidentially appointed and Senate confirmed prosecutors be considered for any future investigation that has significant political implications?\n--Elaine W. Stone\n[TABLE OF CONTENTS]\n     It started with rumors that members of the Harding Administration had leased a rich naval oil reserve in Wyoming to private interests in return for bribes. It resulted in numerous investigations, the resignation of several cabinet members and civil and criminal prosecutions spanning more than six years. Teapot Dome became the nomenclature for what North Dakota Senator Gerald Nye called \"the slimiest of slimy trails beaten by privilege.\" S. Rep. No. 70-1326, Part 2, at 3 (1928) . Seventy-five years later, it remains an important chapter in the ongoing debate over how best to investigate and prosecute alleged criminal activity by high-level government officials. (1)\n     A. The Leases\n       [TABLE OF CONTENTS]\n     The naval oil reserves were three oil-rich tracts of land set aside by the Taft Administration to provide naval ships with fuel in case of a national emergency. Congress gave the Secretary of the Navy control over the reserves through the naval appropriation bill approved on June 4, 1920. It provided that the Secretary of the Navy would have the power \"to conserve, develop, use and operate the same in his discretion, directly or by contract, lease, or otherwise, and to use, store, exchange, or sell the oil and gas products thereof, and those from all royalty oil from lands in the naval reserves, for the benefit of the United States.\" 41 Stat. chap. 228 (1920) .\n     The reserves consisted of three pieces of property: Naval Reserve Number One, in Elk Hills, California; Naval Reserve Number Two, in Buena Vista, California; and Naval Reserve Number Three, in Salt Creek, Wyoming, better known as Teapot Dome because of the shape of a formation on the land.\n     The protection of the naval reserves was short-lived, however, as private interests found a receptive ear in members of the Harding administration. Soon after Albert B. Fall was appointed Secretary of the Interior, he sought to have jurisdiction over the naval reserve lands transferred to the Department of the Interior. Fall convinced Secretary of the Navy Edwin Denby that he should support transferring authority to Fall because he had more experience with such matters. President Harding agreed and with the signing of Executive Order 3474, authority over the lands shifted from the Secretary of the Navy to Secretary of the Interior. Executive Order No. 3474 . (2)\n     Critics were skeptical that Fall would adequately protect the resource, since his record favoring commercial development was well known from his participation on the Senate Public Lands and Surveys Committee. That skepticism was well founded.\n     The first of the oil reserves surrendered to private interests were in California. Edward L. Doheny was an \"old prospecting pal\" of Fall's and the owner of the Pan-American Petroleum and Transport Company. During 1921 Fall and Doheny began making preliminary arrangements for a lease of part of the Navy's oil reserves.\n     In November of that year, Doheny made what he and Fall would later characterize as a loan to Fall. Doheny had his son draw $100,000 in cash from the son's account, wrap the bills up in paper, put them in a little black bag and bring the bag to Fall in Fall's apartment. In later testimony some thought implausible, Doheny claimed that he had received a note from Fall for the money, eventually producing a note whose signature had been torn off. Busch, Enemies of the State at 112-13.\n     During 1922, Doheny's company leased portions of California Naval Reserve Number One (Elk Hills) and Number Two (Buena Vista). Doheny was obliged to build storage tanks at Pearl Harbor, fill them with oil, erect a refinery in California and build a pipe line from the naval reserves to the refinery. In return, Doheny received exclusive rights to exploit about 30,000 acres of proven oil lands, with a profit estimated by him at one hundred million dollars. Two other companies had expressed interest but had insisted that Congress approve the proposed contract before it was executed, a condition rejected by Fall and Navy officers. Werner and Starr, Teapot Dome, at 42, 54-57, 84-86.\n     During the same period, Fall was secretly negotiating away Wyoming's Teapot Dome, believed to be the richest of the remaining oil reserves. See 62 Cong. Rec. 6042 (1922) . Harry F. Sinclair was head of the Mammoth Oil Company. In December, 1921, Fall entertained Sinclair, his attorney, Colonel J.W. Zevely, their wives, and several others at his ranch at Three Rivers, New Mexico: \"[i]n the evenings, Sinclair and Zevely sat before Fall's ranch-house fire and discussed a lease to Sinclair of the entire naval reserve at Teapot Dome.\" Werner and Starr, Teapot Dome at 56. They also discussed Fall's cattle needs. After Sinclair returned home, Fall received six heifers, a yearling bull, two six-months-old boars, four sows and for his foreman, an English thoroughbred horse. Id. at 57.\n     On February 3, 1922, Sinclair, Fall, Admiral John Robison (Chief of the Navy's Bureau of Engineering and at one time in charge of the administration of the Naval Petroleum Reserves), and others met in Fall's office to outline the terms of an agreement. Teapot Dome would be leased in its entirety, Sinclair would build a pipe line with adequate capacity from the Teapot Dome oil fields, and the proceeds from the Navy's share of oil from the reserve were to be used by Sinclair to build storage tanks on the Atlantic coast and fill them with fuel oil. Under their arrangement, the Navy would not receive any cash, as cash would have to be turned over to the United States Treasury and the Navy could then only benefit in the ordinary way, through congressional appropriations. Id. at 59.\n     During these discussions, the participants considered whether they should obtain an opinion from Attorney General Daugherty on the legality of the exchange, but Fall rejected the idea:\n[W]hen questioned later about his failure . . . [to ask Daugherty for a legal opinion] he said that he himself had been a lawyer for many years and neither needed nor wanted outside legal opinions. In this way, Fall protected himself from cutting Daugherty in on his profit and Daugherty was glad to be able to say later, when he was in trouble for shady deals of his own, that at least he had had nothing to do with Teapot Dome.\nId. at 60-61. Fall, (Secretary of the Navy) Denby and Sinclair secretly signed a lease for the entire tract on April 7, 1922, and Fall locked it in his desk drawer.\n     One month later (after a Senate inquiry into the leases had already begun), Fall sent his son-in-law, M.T. Everhart, to see Sinclair in Sinclair's private railroad car. Sinclair gave Everhart $198,000 in Liberty Bonds. Shortly thereafter, Sinclair gave Everhart another $35,000 worth of the same issue of bonds. Everhart in turn gave Sinclair a check for $1100, to pay for the livestock shipped from Sinclair's farm to Fall (presumably because congressmen were now asking questions about those gifts), and then advised Sinclair that Fall would like a loan. Sinclair obliged with $36,000 in cash. Id. at 69-70.\n     As one historian wrote: \"By the time he was finished leasing the navy's reserves, Fall had given his two benefactors reserves which each of them estimated roughly to be worth $100,000,000, and he had collected from them $409,000 in cash and bonds.\" Id. at 86. With respect to Teapot Dome, an oil man would later testify that it was so valuable that the government could have easily gotten \"a bonus of at least $10,000,000, and possibly as much as $50,000,000, over and above the royalties Sinclair was obligated to pay, if the lease had been awarded after competitive bidding instead of in the privacy of Fall's ranch house.\" Id. at 79.\nB. Disclosure\n       [TABLE OF CONTENTS]\n     Despite Fall's efforts to keep the Teapot Dome lease secret, the news began to spread: \"[s]ome men in New Mexico became suspicious when they noticed Fall buying more land and improving his property there, and oil men in Wyoming and Colorado began to wire their Congressmen in protest and for information.\" Werner and Starr, Teapot Dome at 64. On April 14, 1922, the front page of the Wall Street Journal reported that Fall had leased Teapot Dome to Sinclair. Noggle, Teapot Dome: Oil and Politics in the 1920's, at 36.\n     On April 15, 1922 the Senate passed Resolution 277, requesting the Secretary of the Navy and the Secretary of the Interior to inform the Senate whether negotiations were in fact pending to lease naval oil reserves and if so, the parties involved, the terms and conditions of any such proposed agreements and \"whether opportunity will be given the public for competitive bidding for the operation of these lands . . . .\" See Senate Resolution 277 (3) and S. Res. 277, 67th Cong. (1922) (enacted) .\n     Responding to Senate Resolution 277, the first defenders of the lease were Denby and since Fall was out of town, Acting Secretary of the Interior Edward Finney. Denby and Finney provided the Senate with a copy of the lease. See S. Doc. No. 67-196 (1922) . They rationalized in a letter to the Senate that the lease had been executed in the public interest because crude oil in the reserves was unsuitable as fuel for naval ships so it was necessary to exchange it for fuel oil and provide for the construction of storage tanks to minimize evaporation. S. Doc. No. 67-191, at 1 (1922) .\n     They also argued that drilling was necessary because millions of barrels of oil had already been lost from the California reserves due to drilling from adjacent lands and that Teapot Dome faced a similar fate. Id. at 1-2. Finally, they asserted that the lease did not contradict the administration's policies as \"[t]he Interior Department and the Navy Department have been in close cooperation and have been endeavoring, as they saw it, to carry out the purposes for which these naval reserves were created, i.e., not the sale of oil for commercial or other purposes but the securing of a reserve of fuel oil for Navy purposes.\" Id. at 3.\n     After the Senate received a copy of the lease, it unanimously passed Senate Resolution 282 on April 29, 1922, providing for the Committee of Public Lands and Surveys to conduct an investigation. Senate Resolution 282 (draft version) (4) and S. Res. 282, 67th Cong. (1922) (enacted) . Senator Miles Poindexter, a Republican from Washington, defined the two issues needing resolution:\nIn the first place, was it necessary for the Government to sink wells or to have wells sunk upon its reserve in order to meet an attack upon the oil underneath its own property by which it was being drained? In the second place, are the means which have been adopted by the Government for doing that the proper ones, the best ones, to the greatest advantage of the Government, which could be obtained?\n62 Cong. Rec. 6048 (1922) .\n     In response to Senate Resolution 282, Harding sent a presidential message to the Senate, asserting that \"the policy which has been adopted by the Secretary of the Navy and the Secretary of the Interior in dealing with these matters was submitted to me prior to the adoption thereof, and the policy decided upon and the subsequent acts have at all times had my entire approval.\" S. Doc. No. 67-210, 67th Cong., 2d Sess. , at III (1922). The message included a report from Fall, but Harding made clear that Fall's explanation \"[was] not to be construed as a defense of either specific acts or the general policies followed in dealing with the problems incident to the handling of the naval reserves.\" Id. at 3.\n     Fall too declared that the report was not \"written in the slightest degree as an attempt at defense of actions or of policies\" since \"[t]he writer recognizes no necessity for such defense.\" Id. at 26. Closely following the President's message, Fall, in a letter to the Senate, again insisted that he was in compliance with President Harding's Executive Order of May 31, 1921, giving him permission to administer the naval reserves for the Secretary of the Navy and thus, the lease was proper. H.R. Rep. No. 67-1079, at 9 (1922) . Fall also insisted that he had discussed the Teapot Dome lease with Denby. In his words, \"[t]he Secretary of the Interior has proceeded under this order in constant communication and consultation and cooperation with the Secretary of the Navy, and is so continuing at the present time.\" Id.\n     In the face of continuing reports that Fall's personal fortunes had mysteriously improved, these assurances were not enough to quell growing suspicion of wrongdoing. Members of the oil industry expressed their outrage to Wisconsin Republican Senator Robert La Follette, who presented their point by point letter of protest on the Senate floor on May 13, 1922:\n    First. Against the policy of the Secretary of the Interior and the Secretary of the Navy in opening the naval reserves at this time for exploitation.\n    Second. Against the method of leasing public lands without competitive bidding, as exemplified in the recent contract entered into between Secretary Fall of the Interior and Secretary Denby of the Navy and the Standard Oil-Sinclair-Doheny interest.\n    Third. Against the policy of any department of the Government of the United States entering into a contract of any character whatsoever, whether competitive or not, which would tend to continue or perpetuate a monopolistic control of the oil industry of the United States or create a monopoly on the sale of fuel oil or refined oil to the Navy or any other department of the Government.\n    For the following reasons:\n    There exists no emergency or necessity which would warrant the opening of the naval reserves at this time for exploitation in order that the Navy might be supplied with the various grades of oil required by it, there being already above ground and in storage in the United States the greatest amount of oil that has been in storage in the history of all times.\n    The prices of fuel oil at the seaboard are lower than they have been in years, and there is an abundant supply.\n    The oil industry of the United States is just now convalescing from the greatest depression it has ever suffered, the daily production now being the largest in its history, and therefore, the turning over of Government lands to the large pipe-line interests for exploitation will have the direct result of depressing the price of crude oil without in any way relieving the people of the onerous and burdensome high prices of refined products.\n62 Cong. Rec. 6893 (1922) .\n     News of the scandal was not only gaining the attention of Congress and the press, but also weighed heavily on the mind of President Harding, who commented while traveling across the country: \"I have no trouble with my enemies, I can take care of them. It is my . . . friends that are giving me trouble.\" Noggle, supra at 56. Harding died suddenly on August 2, 1922 while he was in San Francisco. Calvin Coolidge assumed the presidency the next day.\nII. The Trail Widens: Congress Investigates\nthe Teapot Dome Lease\n[TABLE OF CONTENTS]\n     Hearings on the Teapot Dome oil lease began on October 15, 1923 before the Senate Committee on Public Lands and Surveys. Only three members were in attendance at the first meeting. Since they lacked a quorum, the meeting was adjourned until the following week. Senate Public Lands and Surveys Committee, 67th Congress 3rd Session - 68th Congress, 1st Session: Minutes (October 15, 1923 and October 22, 1923) . (5) That would be the first and only time the Senate Committee on Public Lands and Surveys adjourned for want of a quorum during these Teapot Dome hearings.\n     As the steady stream of witnesses appeared before the committee, starting on October 23, 1923 and continuing through May 14, 1924, each name was penned in a small green notebook now housed at the National Archives. Id. (October 23-25, 1923). Senator Thomas Walsh, a Democrat from Montana, led the committee's investigation. The committee's first witness was former Secretary of the Interior Fall, who had resigned from his post effective March 4, 1923. Id. (October 23, 1923). Fall was followed on the witness stand by Secretary of the Navy Denby. Id. (October 25, 1923).\n     Over the next few months, dozens of witnesses testified before the committee. As the weeks passed, however, the investigation appeared to lose momentum and was largely forgotten by the public. That changed in January 1924, when a tortured account of Fall's finances began to emerge. On January 24, 1924, Edward Doheny conceded in a statement that he read to the Senate committee that he had lent Fall $100,000, and Doheny's son had carried the cash to Fall. Walsh's next step was to call for appointment of special counsel.\nA.  A Call for Special Counsel\n       [TABLE OF CONTENTS]\n     At an executive session of the Public Lands Committee on January 26, 1924, a Saturday, Walsh proposed that he introduce on Monday a Senate Resolution calling on President Coolidge to annul the leases of Teapot Dome and Elk Hills and to appoint a special counsel to investigate and prosecute those involved. The Committee unanimously agreed. Before Walsh could present the resolution to the full Senate, however, Coolidge beat him to the punch. Coolidge issued a statement at midnight that appeared in the newspaper the next day, on Sunday, announcing his intention to nominate two special counsel:\n    It is not for the President to determine criminal guilt or render judgment in civil causes. That is the function of the courts. It is not for him to prejudge. I shall do neither; but when facts are revealed to me that require action for the purpose of insuring the enforcement of either civil or criminal liability, such action will be taken. That is the province of the Executive.\n    Acting under my direction the Department of Justice has been observing the course of the evidence which has been revealed at the hearings conducted by the senatorial committee investigating certain oil leases made on naval reserves, which I believe warrants action for the purpose of enforcing the law and protecting the rights of the public. This is confirmed by reports made to me from the committee. If there has been any crime, it must be prosecuted. If there has been any property of the United States illegally transferred or leased, it must be recovered.\n    I feel the public is entitled to know that in the conduct of such action no one is shielded for any party, political or other reason. As I understand, men are involved who belong to both political parties, and having been advised by the Department of Justice that it is in accord with the former precedents, I propose to employ special counsel of high rank drawn from both political parties to bring such action for the enforcement of the law. Counsel will be instructed to prosecute these cases in the courts so that if there is any guilt it will be punished; if there is civil liability it will be enforced; if there is any fraud it will be revealed; and if there are any contracts which are illegal they will be canceled.\n65 Cong. Rec. 1520 (1924) (as reported by The New York Herald, January 27, 1924).\n     At the last minute, Attorney General Harry Daugherty, who had theretofore demonstrated little interest in the matter, positioned himself as supportive of the appointments. Daugherty's 11:25 p.m. telegram to Coolidge read:\nMay I again urge the desirability you immediately appoint two outstanding lawyers who as such shall at once take up all phases of the oil leases under investigation of the Senate or others and advise you as to the facts and law justifying legal proceedings of any kind. As you know, I do not desire to evade any responsibility in this or other matters; but considering that Mr. Fall and I served in the Cabinet together, this would be fair to you, to Mr. Fall, and the American people, as well as to the Attorney General, the Department of Justice, and my associates and assistants therein. I do not desire to be consulted as to whom you shall appoint. The only suggestion I have to make in that regard is that those appointed shall be lawyers whom the public will at once recognize as worthy of confidence and who will command the respect of the people by not practicing politics or permitting others to do so in connection with this important public business. Their work can be done with or without the cooperation of the Department of Justice or anybody connected therewith as you and they may desire. The Department of Justice is at all times in this or any other matters at your service and at the service of your appointees in this connection.\n65 Cong. Rec. at 1537-1538 .\n     The Washington Post on Monday ran a statement by Senator Walsh, recounting his intention to present a resolution to the Senate \"authorizing and directing the President to institute suit to annul the leases and to employ special counsel who should have charge of the litigation.\" 65 Cong. Rec. at 1520 . Walsh, skeptical of the coincidence that the committee would unanimously call for the appointment of special counsel and the same day the President would announce the same desire, related his belief that his plan was leaked to Coolidge. \"It was agreed that the action of the committee should be regarded as confidential. But in the view of the statement from the White House, to which so obviously the information was conveyed, I give you this statement.\" Id.\n     In the Senate on Monday, offense was taken at Coolidge's observation that special counsel from each party was needed because members of both parties were involved. Representative Hatton Sumners, a Texas Democrat, protested:\nThis reservation of the American Nation against the day of its need was surrendered by a Republican Secretary of the Navy; it was bartered away by a Republican Secretary of the Interior. The transfer and the lease were approved by a Republican Cabinet. I do not prejudge. But why try to dodge responsibility and talk about parties? There happens to be but one party involved and some dastardly thieves who ought to be in the penitentiary. But, gentlemen, it does not make any difference whether it were the Republican or Democratic Party. It is the business of the party in power to face the American Nation, stand responsible for the conduct of its administration, and to give the people of this Nation a prosecution in this case that will restore the confidence of the people not in the party in power merely, or any party, but in their Government, in the integrity of their public officials.\n65 Cong. Rec. at 1582 . Tennessee Representative Finis Garrett, a Democrat, said \"we upon this side of the aisle are not objecting to the employment of special counsel\" but he vehemently objected to what he saw as the President's politicization of the scandal:\n[W]hy did the President of the United States, the President of the whole people, for the first time, so far as I know anywhere, any place, that this matter has been considered or discussed, suggest the idea of political parties in connection therewith. You know, of course, that it was an effort to try to stem the tide of suspicion running against so large a part of this administration.\nId.\n     The idea of appointing two special counsel was well received by Congress, in part because there were serious doubts as to whether the Department of Justice and Attorney General Daugherty should conduct the investigation.\n     Senator William King, a Utah Democrat, was among those who questioned whether \"the President long before had decided that he had no confidence in the Attorney General or in any of the officials of the Department of Justice, and therefore, he felt that somebody outside of the department ought to be selected?\" 65 Cong. Rec. at 1537 . Representative Garrett suggested that the President was not the only one who had lost confidence in the Department of Justice:\n[I]n view of the fact that we can not confide in the Department of Justice, in view of the fact that the public can not confide in the Department of Justice, in view of the fact that the President can not confide in his own Department of Justice, we feel that the time has come to give him special counsel.\n65 Cong. Rec. at 1582 .\n     Accordingly, the Senate unanimously passed Joint Resolution 54 on January 31, 1924, stating that the leases to the Mammoth Oil Company and the Pan American Petroleum Company \"were executed under circumstances indicating fraud and corruption\" and \"were entered into without authority\" and \"in violation of the laws of Congress.\" 65 Cong. Rec. 1728-1729 (1924) . It directed the President to institute suit to cancel the leases \"and to prosecute such other actions or proceedings, civil and criminal, as may be warranted by the facts in relation to the making of said leases and contract.\" Id. at 1729. The President was authorized \"to appoint, by and with the consent of the Senate, special counsel who shall have charge and control of the prosecution of such litigation, anything in the statutes touching the powers of the Attorney General of the Department of Justice to the contrary notwithstanding.\" Id. The joint resolution authorizing special counsel was signed into law on February 8, 1924. 43 Stat. chap. 16 (1924) . The funding mechanism, a joint resolution for $100,000 to cover the special counsel's expenses, was approved by the President on February 27, 1924. 43 Stat. chap. 42 (1924) .\nB. The Appointment of Atlee Pomerene and Owen Roberts\n       [TABLE OF CONTENTS]\n     The Senate was acutely aware that public attention had focused on the scandal and that the best legal talent was needed to prosecute the case. Washington's Senator Clarence Dill, a Democrat, spoke:\nThey think a great national scandal has been unearthed. The case demands the biggest men that the country has in its legal profession.\n. . . May I pause for a moment to remind Senators of the kind of a case that is. It is a big case. Nobody knows the exact value of the properties involved. It is estimated at probably a billion dollars. Mr. Doheny, Mr. Sinclair, and Mr. Fall will have the best attorneys their millions can employ. The United States Government needs the biggest and best prosecutors that can be had to meet those attorneys in the courtroom and carry the criminal prosecution to conviction.\n65 Cong. Rec. 2548 (1924) .\n     The President's first two nominees, Republican Silas Strawn and Democrat Thomas Gregory, both had connections with the oil industry. Their nominations were withdrawn when it became clear that the Senate would not approve their appointment.\n     Pennsylvania's Republican Senator, George Pepper, thought a Republican attorney from Philadelphia, Owen Roberts, would make an excellent candidate, and he suggested Roberts' name to Coolidge. Pepper then summoned Roberts to Washington. Before meeting Coolidge, Pepper asked Roberts if he would be interested in \"a very delicate piece of business—one which might make him a national figure, and one which might ruin him because he would be stepping on the toes of some mighty big people.\" Werner and Starr, Teapot Dome at 153.\n     Roberts responded \"that he had never been overly impressed by some mighty big people and asked what his friend had in mind.\" Id. Pepper revealed that \"he had recommended him to President Coolidge as one of the two special counsels to try the oil cases and that they had an appointment with the President for that afternoon at 2:30.\" Id. An historian described the meeting among Coolidge, Roberts and Pepper this way:\nAfter Roberts and Senator Pepper entered the President's office, Coolidge waited until they were seated and then said, \"I understand you're a farmer, Mr. Roberts.\" He got up from his desk and pointed out a picture of his own farm in Vermont. Roberts, who operated a farm at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, in which he took some pride, said \"Guernseys are my money crop, and I've never shown a loss.\"\n    Coolidge considered this statement gravely for a moment and then abruptly launched into the reason for the visit. He asked Roberts what he knew about public-land laws.\n    \"Nothing whatever,\" Roberts replied. Senator Pepper tried to explain away this frankness. The President turned to him and said, \"When I want an interpreter, I'll call on you.\" Roberts then went on to say that he had been a professor of the law of property at the University of Pennsylvania Law School for some years, and that he did not think that he would have much difficulty studying the public-land laws.\n    The President walked over to the window and stood gazing for a while out at the White House lawn. There was a rather long silence. \"Pepper,\" the President finally said, \"I can see no reason why I should not appoint this man.\" Then he turned to Roberts and said, \"If you are confirmed, there is one thing you must bear in mind. You will be working for the government of the United states—not for the Republican Party, and not for me. Let this fact guide you, no matter what ugly matters come to light. You may call on me for whatever assistance you may need. Don't hesitate to ask.\"\nId. at 153-54.\n     Even though Roberts thus had Coolidge's seal of approval, he needed Senate confirmation. Pepper highly recommended Roberts on the floor of the Senate:\n    For 25 years he has been engaged in the active practice of his profession at a bar which is not without men of ability. He has emerged from the struggles of the forum with a character unimpaired, a reputation unsmirched. He has stood the fire test of professional life. He is recognized by his entire community as a gentleman of integrity and honor.\n    Senators, the man is in the prime of life. He is 49 years of age and a tower of physical strength. He is a ceaseless and tireless worker. When he is not in court he will be found in his office early and late. He has recognized that the law is a jealous mistress and has given but little time to activities outside the scope of his profession.\n    . . . He began his experiences in active practice as an assistant district attorney in Philadelphia and for several years prosecuted with effect criminals at the bar of the courts. In the meantime he was building up a civil practice which has attained proportions second to none in our community. He has been in court continuously for 20 years. Day after day, week after week, term after term, he has tried all kinds of cases and has acquired equal facility in the trial of all of them. He is an admirable jury lawyer. He has the courage, the thoroughness of preparation, the resourcefulness, and the personality necessary for success in that difficult branch of professional work. And he has attained it.\n65 Cong. Rec. 2637-2638 (1924) .\n     Coolidge paired Roberts with former Senator Atlee Pomerene, an Ohio Democrat. Pomerene was highly recommended by the man who had taken his seat in the Senate in 1922, Republican Simeon Fess:\n    I simply desire to say this much about the man with whom I had a contest in Ohio. I have known him for many years professionally; I have known him politically, not much socially; but I know Atlee Pomerene as a man of unusual ability as a lawyer, which must have been clearly manifested in the remarkable manner in which he conducted the many investigations that were conducted by order of the Senate. I knew him as a witness once in one of the investigations. I recognized that no person who knows ability would question his ability and power as a cross-examiner. As a lawyer it would appear to me that he would fill the position and meet the requirements contemplated by the pending investigation.\n    I knew him very well politically. I do not believe that there is a more upstanding, honorable, and courageous man in either party in my State than Senator Atlee Pomerene.\n    . . . As a man of courage, I know no superior. As a man of probity, there certainly can be no question about him. With my knowledge of this former opponent of mine, I am free to say that I stated to the authorities here that it appeared to me that Mr. Pomerene would be a very good representative of one of the political parties to carry on the investigation. I have never known his Democracy to be questioned, and certainly I did not think it was questioned when I was in a contest with him two years ago.\n65 Cong. Rec. at 2553 .\n     However, some in the Senate, like Washington Democratic Senator Clarence Dill, believed the two nominees fell short of the mark:\n[I]n the appointment of Mr. Pomerene the President has chosen a man who has had no experience at all in public land law, a man who has had no practice in equity cases in the Federal courts, with the exception of one case, since he left the Senate. And this is the attorney who is to have charge of the prosecution of these cases as the attorney in chief.\n    Mr. Roberts, the other man suggested, so far as I can learn, is a reputable trial lawyer at the bar in Philadelphia, but he, too, knows nothing about public land law. He, too, has no national reputation. He is a stranger to the public mind. Thus the Senate is asked to confirm the nomination of two attorneys neither of whom has ever made a national reputation as lawyers, neither of whom is fitted to handle the cases as compared with the men whom they must necessarily oppose.\nId. at 2548 . Dill stressed the importance of the Senate's role:\nI recognize fully, I hope, that ordinarily the power of confirmation in the Senate is more or less a perfunctory power in most cases and seldom goes further than the consideration of the reputation and general ability and character of a man. The ordinary appointee of the President is selected to carry out his particular policies as his agent, and, as such, is purely an administrative officer; but in this case there is a vast difference. The attorneys in this case will not be the representatives of the President to carry out his administrative policy. These attorneys are not to act under the Attorney General; these attorneys are to represent not merely the President, but all the Senate and the American people.\nId. Senator David Walsh, a Democrat from Massachusetts, and Dill continued:\nMr. Walsh:\nI suppose the Senator will agree with me that these attorneys will become more or less the agents of the Chief Executive, that they will be in touch with him, and have to make reports to him from time to time; that their industry and their enthusiasm will be measured somewhat by his interest and enthusiasm in the successful prosecution of these cases. I suppose the Senator will agree with that. I ask this question, has the Senator, as a member of the committee, or has any other member of the committee, any reason to believe that for the sake of politics or for the sake of covering up the facts there is any disposition on the part of the Chief Executive or the executive branch of this Government not to prosecute these oil-scandal cases with enthusiasm and with zeal and with vigor to a successful completion?\nMr. Dill: Mr. President I do not want to go into the motives of the President of the United States. There may be justification for the suggestion of the Senator—\nMr. Walsh: I do not mean to make any suggestion. I have heard it suggested that the committee have received no cooperation whatever from the executive department—\nMr. Dill: Certainly not—\nMr. Walsh I want to know if the Senator is convinced, the resolution having been passed, the people of this country may reasonably expect that the executive departments, all of them, are going to get behind this prosecution and manifest an interest in the successful prosecution of these cases?\nMr. Dill: I can only say to the Senator that I hope the President is anxious and enthusiastic to prosecute these cases. There is a phase of that question which does require consideration for a moment, and that is that when the President picks men who are ordinary lawyers, considered from a national standpoint, and who have corporate connections of which the people are suspicious, there is a probability that the public will believe that the cases are not being prosecuted with the vigor with which they should be prosecuted, with which the Senate desires to have them prosecuted. The danger is that the people will think, because the President selects as attorneys men who are not the great outstanding members of the profession, that he is not desirous of having these cases prosecuted to their fullest success, and if the Senate permits this confirmation to go through the Senate must share the responsibility. As one Senator, I refuse to have any part in the responsibility. Such a selection will arouse suspicion in the public mind, and if the cases fail, as they may fail, it will cause a revulsion of feeling in this country that will endanger the very Government itself.\n    I want to say, Mr. President, that with the state of the public mind as it is to-day, this is no time to do things which encourage public suspicion. The American people everywhere are doubtful about the men here in Washington unearthing all the facts. They are questioning the sincerity of many of us and the selection of counsel who do not command public confidence when the counsel are so extremely important as they are in this case will but add to the public suspicion, already too great.\nId. at 2551-2552 .\n     Nonetheless, Pomerene was approved by a vote of 59 to 13 on February 16, 1924. Two days later, Roberts was approved by a vote of 68 to 8. That same day, Secretary of the Navy Edwin Denby sent his resignation to Coolidge.\n     One account states:\n    Offices were assigned to the special counsel in the Transportation Building at 17th and H Streets. On their first day of work, Roberts and Pomerene had an interview with Coolidge. Roberts reported to the President on his interview with Walsh and the senator's warning about the uselessness of the Department of Justice under the circumstances [see following section]. Coolidge listened to this account in silence and then decided that the only solution was to turn over to special counsel Treasury Department Secret Service men, who had a long tradition of quiet effectiveness and were known to be incorruptible. As they were leaving, the President reiterated his invitation to call upon him whenever help was needed, and he added that he had no doubt that they would need it. \"And stop by the way,\" Coolidge said to Roberts with a faint smile, \"stop back sometime and tell me more about those Guernseys.\"\nWerner and Starr, Teapot Dome at 160.\n     Within a month of the Senate's approval of Roberts and Pomerene as special counsel, the two sought indictments against Fall, Doheny, and Sinclair.\nC. Loss of Confidence in the Justice Department\n       [TABLE OF CONTENTS]\n     Shortly after his confirmation as special counsel, Roberts met with Senator Walsh who gave him this advice about Attorney General Daugherty:\nI wouldn't depend on the Justice Department for investigative purposes, nor would I approach the Attorney General's office for information if I were you. . .. It is my conviction that the man would go to any lengths to protect himself and his friends—and make no mistake about it, the people we are after are friends of the Attorney General. Harry Daugherty has had a hand in every dirty piece of business which has come out of the Harding administration. There is every reason to believe that, at the very least, Daugherty is one of the men who knows the whole sordid story of the oil leases—and there is enough evidence to warrant the suspicion that he himself might have profited from them. In addition, the Department of Justice and its Bureau of Investigation are hand-picked by Daugherty and rotten to the core.\nWerner & Starr, supra at 159.\n     The Senate immediately moved to address the acute loss of confidence in the Department of Justice that had necessitated the appointment of special counsel. Amid calls for Daugherty's resignation, Montana Senator Burton Wheeler, a Democrat, introduced Senate Resolution 157, providing for an investigation of the Department. Wheeler articulated the reasons for investigating Daugherty and the Department of Justice on the Senate floor:\n    Ever since the Attorney General has occupied the important position which he now holds various charges have been made against him in the newspapers and by individuals from one end of the country to the other. Recently when the oil scandal first developed it appears that the Attorney General's name was mixed in it. It appeared, if you please, that he was the friend of Ned McLean. Everybody knows that he was the friend of Sinclair. Everybody knows that he was the friend of Doheny. Everybody knows that those three men met in the apartment of the Attorney General from time to time . . . .\n    The newspapers in New York carried the details of how the Attorney General's former partner and friend, Mr. Felder, was collecting money for the purpose of selling offices, appointments, and for the dismissal of whisky (sic) cases in the city of New York. Everybody who knows anything about the history of the matter knows that other friends and confidential advisors of the Attorney General of the United States were collecting money and were giving as their reasons for collecting it that they could use influence with the Attorney General of the United States of America . . . .\n    Not only that, but when the startling testimony came out in the oil investigation that McLean had given money to Fall there was not any prosecution. Then when McLean subsequently testified that he did not give the money and when the testimony was produced that Mr. Fall got the money from Doheny, that the money was sent in a sack by Doheny's son, and taken in connection with the other testimony given by Doheny upon a subsequent occasion, what effort was made on the part of the Attorney General or the Department of Justice to arrest or prosecute Fall? On the contrary he was allowed to be at large. He was allowed to stay in the house of Sinclair's lawyer. Throughout the entire investigation not one scintilla of evidence has been offered to the committee by all or any of the investigators of the Department of Justice.\n65 Cong. Rec. at 2769-2770 . Wheeler would have gone further, but was persuaded to remove the following two clauses from his resolution:\n    Whereas it appears that said Harry M. Daugherty has lost the confidence of the President of the United States, as exemplified by the President's statement that he intends to employ, at great expense to the Government, special attorneys not connected officially with the Department of Justice, indicating that this department can not be trusted with the prosecution of the cases which have arisen by reason of the disclosures before the Senate Committee on Public Lands and Surveys and the United States Veteran's Bureau; and\n    Whereas said Harry M. Daugherty has lost the confidence of the Congress of the United States and of the people of the country, and the Department of Justice has fallen into disrepute.\nId. at 2769.\n     Daugherty responded to Wheeler's charges by writing a letter to Ohio Republican Senator Frank Willis:\n    It is interesting to remind you that before the introduction of this resolution I requested the President to relieve me of the responsibility of prosecuting Albert B. Fall, and those with whom he is alleged to have been acting in collusion, because of the fact that Mr. Fall had been a member of the Cabinet in which I also served, and that the country might be better satisfied to have the conduct of the prosecution in control of lawyers in no way connected with the Government. You know that the President, approving this suggestion, did place this whole matter in the hands of two of the ablest lawyers in this country, Hon. Atlee Pomerene and Hon. Owen J. Roberts, whose appointments have been confirmed by the Senate, and who are now in full charge of the particular matters referred to in this resolution.\n. . . .\n    . . . I desire to say further that since I have been Attorney General I have never acted upon any information received as Attorney General which resulted in my personal profit. I was not called upon by Secretary Fall or anyone else for an opinion, written or oral, in regard to the wisdom or legality of the oil leases, and I never volunteered an opinion either written or oral, to Secretary Fall or anyone else. I had no part of any kind of character, directly or indirectly, in the negotiations leading up to the execution of the oil leases; no information ever came to me in connection therewith, and the leases were executed without my knowledge and without any official requirement or opportunity on my part to know of their execution.\n65 Cong. Rec. 3307 (1924) .\n     Senate resolution 157, directing a Senate committee to investigate Daugherty's failure to prosecute, among others, the cases arising from the Teapot Dome scandal passed by a vote of 66 to 1. 65 Cong. Rec. at 3410 . The investigation also included \"numerous charges of illegality, graft, and influence-peddling in the Justice Department.\" Hasia Diner, Congress Investigates -- A Documented History 1792-1974 15 (1983).\n     After much pressure from Coolidge and under protestations of innocence, Daugherty resigned on March 28, 1924. Daugherty was replaced as Attorney General by Harlan Stone, who was succeeded by John Sargent when Stone was appointed to the Supreme Court in 1925.\n     With the change in Justice Department leadership, the need to maintain separation between the two special counsel and the Department evidently diminished. Roberts and Pomerene \"were 'specially retained' by the Attorney General of the United States, to serve as special assistants to the Attorney General,\" and in prosecuting Fall, worked with the U.S. Attorney for the District of Columbia and another counsel retained by the Attorney General. See United States v. Fall, 10 F.2d 648, 649 (D.C. Ct. App. 1925).\nIII. The Special Counsel Follow the Trail\n[TABLE OF CONTENTS]\n     Roberts and Pomerene began their investigation by studying the Senate record, briefing the law and drafting complaints against the Pan American and Mammoth Oil companies. Then they investigated the records of the Navy and Interior Departments and sent out private detectives to gather evidence in California, New Mexico, Texas and New York. Within six months, the two were managing a complicated and diverse web of civil and criminal cases that would reach witnesses in Canada, France and Cuba. A chronological list located in the Department of Justice Government Oil Case Files memorializes the intensity of their effort during the first three years of their investigation. Chronological Index of Activities of Special Counsel. (6)\n     Their investigation was not without dramatic incident. Secret Service Agent Thomas B. Foster was detailed to the investigation and proceeded to examine Fall's financial transactions. On his trail were both agents of the Department of Justice's Bureau of Investigation and private detectives, assigned to follow him and find out what he was discovering. On the trail in Colorado, he found his hotel room ransacked. Werner and Starr, Teapot Dome at 171-73.\n     Atlee Pomerene's notes from 1925 reveal his thoughts on the investigation:\nThe issues involved in the pending litigation are far-reaching . . . Can the Naval Oil Reserves of such great value be bargained away in secret by public officials to their favorites? Can millions of barrels of royalty crude oil be delivered to these same favorites, without competitive bidding, for the construction of steel tankage and for fuel oil? Can duel depots be thus established by the Secretary of the Interior and the Secretary of the Navy, when this power never was lodged in the Secretary of the Navy by the repeal legislation of 1913? Can the public business be thus transacted and in secret? Shall men be permitted to make alleged \"loans\", (not to use an uglier term), to public officials with whom they are dealing for the public domain? Shall these officials be justified in representing to the public that the Naval Oil Reserves are not to be leased while they are privately negotiating with and executing leases to others? Shall an Admiral's course be approved, when he says: \"It was the intention that the public and Congress should not get knowledge of what was being done until it had been in fact done\"? These questions are involved in the pending litigation.\nAP-TO dated 4/29/1925 . (7) Pomerene's questions would receive a variety of responses from the courts in the coming years.\nA. The Cases\n       [TABLE OF CONTENTS]\n     Pomerene and Roberts brought numerous civil and criminal actions against those involved in the fraudulent leasing of Teapot Dome and the Elk Hills reserves. Two civil trials and six criminal trials ensued. Ultimately, these cases restored the naval reserves to the United States, put Sinclair in jail for nine months for contempt of Congress, and landed Fall in prison. Francis Busch, an historian, writes:\n    Today these cases have a dual significance. For lawyers they record a highly complex and bitterly contested litigation in which both sides were represented by some of the most brilliant advocates of their generation. For laymen these cases demonstrate democracy's boast that no man, rich or poor, of high or low estate, is above the law.\nBusch, Enemies of the State 91. (8)\n     1. Civil litigation\n      [TABLE OF CONTENTS]\na. United States v. Pan American Petroleum and Transport Company, Pan American Petroleum Company: Elk Hills Leases Voided\n     A civil complaint was filed in the United States District Court for the Southern District of California in Los Angeles against the Pan American Petroleum and Transport Company and the Pan American Petroleum Company to cancel the two contracts and leases of the Elk Hills reserve. The bench trial opened October 21, 1924. Roberts and Pomerene represented the United States; Frank J. Hogan headed a team of nine lawyers for the Pan American companies. Neither Fall nor Denby took the stand; instead, their testimony and statements before the Senate Lands Committee were introduced into evidence. Busch, Enemies of the State, at 118-19. On May 28, 1925, Judge Paul J. McCormick ruled that the contracts and leases were void and ordered them canceled. See United States v. Pan American Petroleum and Transport Company, 6 F.2d 43 (D. Cal. 1925).\n     Both parties appealed that decision to the United States Circuit Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. In January 1926, the Ninth Circuit affirmed the cancellation of the leases and contracts and dealt a financial blow to Pan American. Instead of affirming the district court's decision to credit the company for the money spent on building storage containers pursuant to the contract, the appeals court held that the company was not entitled to any such credit. See Pan American Petroleum and Transport Company v. United States, 9 F.2d 761 (9th Cir. 1926). Pan American applied for a writ of certiorari that was granted on March 22, 1926, but on February 28, 1927 the Supreme Court affirmed the Court of Appeals' decision. See Pan American Petroleum and Transport Company v. United States, 273 U.S. 456 (1927).\nb. United States v. Mammoth Oil Company, the Sinclair Crude Oil Purchasing Company and the Sinclair Pipe Line Company: Teapot Dome Leases First Held Valid, then Voided On Appeal\n     On March 13, 1924, a civil complaint was filed in the United States District Court for Wyoming against Mammoth Oil, Sinclair Crude Oil Purchasing and Sinclair Pipe to cancel and annul the Teapot Dome lease. In March 1925, the trial got underway. It too was tried before a judge. Roberts and Pomerene again represented the United States. Martin W. Littleton led a group of eight lawyers who represented Sinclair's companies. Sinclair, Fall and Denby did not testify. Busch, Enemies of the State, at 119.\n     Special counsel faced considerable difficulty in obtaining the testimony of important witnesses. Evidence had emerged that a short-lived Canadian shell corporation had served as a vehicle to produce profits to oil interests in the form of United States Liberty bonds. Some of those bonds had eventually found their way from Sinclair to Fall. At this juncture, however, the government was unable to develop this evidence. Several participants who testified had failed memories. A key Canadian witness, H. F. Osler, refused to testify on grounds of the attorney-client privilege. The highest court in Canada would eventually rule against that claim, but not until the Wyoming trial was over. Two other witnesses, James O'Neil and Harry M. Blackmer fled for France before they could be served with a subpoena. Letters rogatory were served, but they refused to testify. Id. at 119-21.\n     Mahlon T. Everhart, Fall's son-in-law who had carried the Liberty bonds from Sinclair to Fall, refused to testify on the grounds of self-incrimination:\n    I have never been an employee of the United States Government. I have never been in any way connected officially with the Mammoth Oil Company or with Harry F. Sinclair. I had nothing at all to do with the transaction of the making of the lease of Teapot Dome. I decline to answer on the ground aforesaid whether if I had anything to do with any property for Mr. Fall I did it merely as his agent or his messenger.\n    I am asked the question \"If you had anything to do with any property for Mr. Fall you did it merely as his agent or messenger, did you not?\" My reply to that question is \"No.\" I desire to state to this court that I did have in my possession certain bonds, about which Government Counsel has interrogated me; I had them in my own right as a principal, and to give further evidence concerning same will, I believe, tend to incriminate me . . . .\nTranscript of Record U.S. v. Mammoth Oil Co., et al., 537 . (9)\n     The trial ended in March 1925. In June 1925, U.S. District Court Judge Kennedy ruled that the contract with Mammoth Oil was valid and dismissed the suit. See United States v. Mammoth Oil Company, the Sinclair Crude Oil Purchasing Company and the Sinclair Pipe Line Company, 5 F.2d 330 (D. Wyo. 1925). Kennedy's decision sparked considerable controversy. Letter from Albert D. Walton, United States Attorney, to Atlee Pomerene, Special Counsel, 1-2 (December 13, 1930) . (10)\n     The government appealed the decision. In September 1926, the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit unanimously reversed the district court and ordered it to cancel the lease and subsequent contracts. See United States v. Mammoth Oil Company, the Sinclair Crude Oil Purchasing Company and the Sinclair Pipe Line Company, 14 F.2d 705 (8th Cir. 1926). Pan American appealed to the Supreme Court. In October 1927, the Supreme Court affirmed the Court of Appeals' decision, holding that the lease and contracts should be declared void because of the conspiracy between Fall and Sinclair. See Mammoth Oil Company, the Sinclair Crude Oil Purchasing Company and the Sinclair Pipe Line Company v. United States, 275 U.S. 13 (1927).\n     2. Criminal prosecutions\n      [TABLE OF CONTENTS]\na. United States v. Harry F. Sinclair: Sinclair Convicted of Contempt of Congress\n     When the Senate Public Lands and Surveys Committee called upon Harry Sinclair to answer questions, he refused to testify, claiming that the committee lacked jurisdiction. On March 31, 1924, a grand jury of the District of Columbia returned a criminal indictment charging Sinclair with contempt of Congress.\n     The Supreme Court of the District of Columbia trial judge found Sinclair guilty of contempt. On appeal, the Supreme Court affirmed the conviction and held that Congress has the power to investigate and compel witnesses to testify. See Sinclair v. United States, 279 U.S. 263 (1929).\nb. United States v. Edward L. Doheny, Edward L. Doheny, Jr. and Albert B. Fall: Defendants Acquitted of Conspiracy to Defraud the United States\n     On June 30, 1924, a criminal indictment was filed in the District of Columbia charging Edward L. Doheny, his son Edward L. Doheny, Jr. and Secretary Fall with conspiracy to defraud the United States. On November 22, 1926, the trial began. After extensive testimony from witnesses, hundreds of exhibits and nineteen hours of deliberation, the jury found the defendants not guilty. Alabama Senator James Heflin, a Democrat, expressed his dismay at the result. Especially disturbing to him were reports that the jury broke into song before announcing the verdicts:\nMr. President, all law-abiding citizens will hang their heads in shame and humiliation as they read about this farcical court proceeding in the Capital of the Nation. God help us as the trusted representatives of the people to wake up to the dangers that threaten our country. Think of it; one of these men, Fall, occupied a place in a President's Cabinet. He held a high and responsible position in the controlling force of the greatest government of the globe; and now, after the testimony shows him to be guilty of betraying this trust and betraying his country, his criminal conduct is condoned and sanctioned by a rollicking, singing jury in the District of Columbia, here in the Capital of the Nation.\n68 Cong. Rec. 569 (1926) .\nc. United States v. Albert B. Fall and Harry F. Sinclair: Conspiracy to Defraud Case Ends in Mistrial and Sinclair Convicted of Criminal Contempt of Court\n     On June 30, 1924, a criminal indictment was filed in the District of Columbia charging Albert B. Fall and Harry F. Sinclair with conspiracy to defraud the United States. The trial began on October 17, 1927 but ended prematurely two weeks later when the government presented evidence that Sinclair had hired a detective agency to shadow the jury. The judge declared a mistrial. Sinclair was tried for criminal contempt of court. More than a hundred witnesses were called. The trial judge found Sinclair and his associates guilty. Sinclair was sentenced to six months.\nd. United States v. Harry F. Sinclair: Sinclair Acquitted of Conspiracy to Defraud\n     After several continuances necessitated by Fall's deteriorating health, special counsel chose to pursue the conspiracy to defraud charge against Sinclair alone. In April 1928, the conspiracy to defraud trial against Sinclair got underway in the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia. Much of the testimony was the same as was heard in the civil trial involving Sinclair and Fall, where Sinclair had refused to testify on grounds of self-incrimination. The notable exception was the testimony of M.T. Everhart, who for the first time gave details of how he had carried a package of bonds from Sinclair to Fall.\n     Obtaining Everhart's testimony was a coordinated effort by special counsel, the Department of Justice and Congress, spurred by a suggestion from Senator Alva Adams, a Colorado Democrat:\nI am not able to give you accurate information as to the motives which led Mr. Everhart to persist in refusing to testify, but am disposed to think from what I have heard that he has been impressed with the idea that having taken the position which he did in Cheyenne that it was his duty as a matter of loyalty and consistency to persist in the same course. His family and close associates feel greatly outraged that Secretary Fall should put Mr. Everhart in this position and apparently insist on him continuing in a course so damaging to him. Mr. Everhart reported on his return that he received the utmost consideration and courtesy from you and Mr. Roberts but that his treatment from those whom he was befriending and protecting was discourteous and a little short of shameful. I believe that Mr. Everhart will welcome the passage of legislation to force him to testify. The service of subpoena upon Mr. Everhart for his appearance at the next hearing should be made upon him at as early a date as possible. Such early service, I am permitted to say to you, will not be unwelcome and may be advisable.\nLetter from Alva Adams, Senator, to Atlee Pomerene, Special Counsel (November 14, 1927) . (11)\n     The strategy used to elicit Everhart's testimony was a change to the statute of limitations for fraud against the United States and its agencies. Several witnesses had used the then-existing six year limitation as a reason not to testify; still subject to prosecution, they claimed they would incriminate themselves. By reducing the limitation to three years, Everhart and others would not face charges. Pomerene requested that the Assistant to the Attorney General William Donovan consider the idea and \"have some of your experts draw this proposed amendment\" since they were \"most anxious to have some legislation bearing upon this subject.\" Letter from Atlee Pomerene, Special Counsel, to William Donovan, Assistant to the Attorney General (November 14, 1927) . (12)\n     Roberts was hesitant to support special legislation and suggested that the same goal could be accomplished by providing immunity for Everhart \"giving the right to the district attorney or prosecuting officer to insist upon the testimony, conditioned upon the statement that the witness shall not be prosecuted by reason of any matter or thing connected with his testimony.\" Letter from Owen Roberts, Special Counsel, to Atlee Pomerene, Special Counsel, 1-2 (December 8, 1927) . (13) Further, Roberts speculated that calling Everhart to the stand and having him refuse to answer the questions could be as effective as his actual testimony. After Everhart had refused to answer questions posed to him at the Sinclair trial, Roberts had heard that the jurors were of the opinion \"that in view of his performance there could be very little doubt that there was something radically wrong and crooked about the deal.\" Id. Nevertheless, Pomerene pursued the idea of reducing the statute of limitations.\n     An assistant to Attorney General Donovan had an amendment drafted that changed the six year limitation to three years. Letter from William Donovan, Assistant to the Attorney General, to Atlee Pomerene, Special Counsel, 1 (December 7, 1927) . (14) Pomerene then met with Senator Walsh who was \"rather disposed to favor the repeal of the section extending the statute of limitations to six years, so as to leave the old exemption stand at three years.\" Letter from Atlee Pomerene, Special Counsel, to Owen Roberts, Special Counsel, 1 (December 10, 1927) . (15) Roberts responded to Pomerene, with a measure of reserve:\nIt seems to me that you have acted promptly and taken all the steps that it is necessary special counsel should take in the premises. After all, it is not our business to press legislation affecting the cases in which we are concerned. It does seem to be our duty to call to the attention of the proper parties any situation where it may be deemed proper to get additional legislation. When this has been done we have done our duty as it seems to me, and perhaps we ought not to be in the position of pressing for legislation.\nLetter from Owen Roberts, Special Counsel, to Atlee Pomerene, Special Counsel (December 12, 1927) . (16)\n     Thereafter, when asked by the Attorney General for his opinion on whether the President should sign the legislation reducing the statute of limitations, Roberts expressed his support: \"[t]he old six year statute has stood greatly in our way in the oil prosecutions for the reasons that witnesses have been enabled to allege that they might be in some way connected with the oil transactions which constitute a fraud on the Government, and that therefore they are liable to self incrimination, and have therefore refused to testify.\" Letter from Owen Roberts, Special Counsel to John Sargent, Attorney General (December 23, 1927) . (17)\n     Everhart first tried to avoid testifying at Fall's trial. He called Senator Adams and asked \"what he could do in regard to a subpoena just served on him\" because he believed \"there [was] nothing which he can contribute to the present trial.\" Letter from Alva Adams, Senator, to Atlee Pomerene, Special Counsel (September 19, 1929) . (18) Adams suggested that Everhart \"communicate directly with [Pomerene].\" Id.\n     That same day, Everhart sent Pomerene a letter suggesting that he be \"relieve[d] . . . of making a trip to Washington at this time\" because of his livestock business. Everhart explained that he had no information regarding Doheny and Fall: \"inasmuch as I did not participate in any way in these transactions and have no knowledge whatever concerning them other than newspaper reports and hearsay, it has occurred to me that I will be unable to be of any benefit to the Special Counsel as a witness in the case.\" Letter from M.T. Everhart to Atlee Pomerene, Special Counsel (September 18, 1929) . (19)\n     Pomerene wrote back to Everhart, apologizing for the inconvenience but said it was \"impossible for us to excuse you\" because \"[t]he testimony which you have in the Sinclair case is competent in the present case.\" Letter from Atlee Pomerene, Special Counsel, to M.T. Everhart (September 24, 1929) . (20) In Pomerene's response to Senator Adams, written on the same day, he further illuminates the need for Everhart's testimony:\nOur contention is that in the bribery case evidence of similar transactions is competent for the purpose of showing the intent; in other words to characterize the end. It will be contended on the part of the defendant that the $100,000 was a loan. You and I feel confident that it was never intended that it should be repaid. Similarly, the Sinclair-Fall transaction in the form it took was a mere ruse.\n    Of course, we do not for a moment think that Mr. Everhart was in the real confidence of either of them.\n    I am writing you this confidentially.\n     Everhart's testimony at Fall's criminal trial did not disappoint. For the first time, the financial connection between Sinclair and Fall was confirmed. Everhart admitted that he had received the bonds from Sinclair in May 1922 and delivered them to Fall:\nQ:\nWhen you got to Mr. Sinclair's private car, what if anything, did Mr. Sinclair give you?\nA: He gave me a package of bonds.\nQ: A package of bonds.\nA: Yes.\nQ: What kind of bonds?\nA: They were three and one half percent Liberty Bonds.\nQ: Were they counted there in your presence, in his car?\nA: No, sir.\nQ: Did you open them?\nA: No, sir.\nQ: Where did you take them?\nA: I took them to the Wardman Park Hotel.\nQ: Who lived there?\nQ: To whom did you deliver them?\nA: To him.\nU.S. v. Fall, Trial Transcript, Vol. 8, at 818-819 (October 15, 1929) . (22)\n     Everhart's testimony would later prove pivotal to Fall's conviction, but here the jury found Sinclair not guilty. Pomerene speculated that \"if the oil cases could have been tried in other jurisdictions the result would have been different.\" Letter from Atlee Pomerene, Special Counsel, to George Norris, Senator (April 24, 1928) . (23)\ne. United States v. Albert B. Fall: Fall Convicted of Accepting a Bribe from Doheny\n     On June 30, 1924, a criminal indictment was filed in the District of Columbia charging Albert B. Fall with accepting a bribe from Doheny. On October 7, 1928 the trial got underway in the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia, despite Fall's deteriorating health. Even though the trial concerned Fall accepting money from Doheny, the judge allowed Everhart's testimony showing the financial relationship between Sinclair and Fall. That testimony was used to show that Fall had lied to the Senate committee when he declared that he had not accepted any money.\n     The trial transcript shows that on October 25, 1929, when the judge called the jurors by name to report their verdict they each said \"guilty.\" Perhaps responding to Fall's ill health, they then each asked for \"mercy of the Court.\" U.S. v. Fall, Trial Transcript, Vol. 16 (October 24, 25 1929) . (24) Fall moved for a new trial on the grounds that admitting the Everhart testimony was improper. That motion was overruled. Fall was sentenced to one year in prison and a $100,000 fine. Fall appealed the decision. On April 7, 1931, the Court of Appeals affirmed the conviction. The court identified Everhart's testimony as pivotal:\n[These are] evidentiary facts tending to establish the relations between Fall and Sinclair. Considering the close relation of the parties, that, in the handling of the bonds between Sinclair and Fall, Everhart had been the intermediate agent, we think that all these transactions were evidentially relevant to the general issue of conveying to the jury the full Sinclair-Fall transactions as evidence of the motive and intent that Fall had in receiving the money from Doheny in the present case.\nAlbert B. Fall v. United States, 49 F.2d. 506, 513 (D.C. Ct. App.) cert. denied, 283 U.S. 867 (1931). Fall's application for a writ of certiorari from the Supreme Court was denied on June 6, 1931. His application for an executive pardon likewise was refused. Fall was incarcerated at the New Mexico State Penitentiary in Santa Fe and served a little more than nine months.\nf. United States v. Edward L. Doheny and Edward L. Doheny, Jr.: Defendants Acquitted of Offering that Bribe to Fall\n     On June 30, 1924, a criminal indictment was filed in the District of Columbia charging Doheny and his son with offering a bribe to Fall -- the same bribe which Fall had been convicted of receiving from the Dohenys. The evidence \"was practically identical\" in the two cases, with \"one important difference -- [at the Dohenys' trial] no testimony was offered on Fall's financial transactions with Sinclair. Werner and Starr, Teapot Dome at 167. The Dohenys were acquitted by a jury.\nB. Roberts Seeks to Resign\n       [TABLE OF CONTENTS]\n     Roberts had a successful law practice before he became special counsel, one to which he attempted to return in the waning days of the prosecutions. However, it was Attorney General John Sargent's opinion that since Roberts was appointed by the President, with the \"advise and consent of the Senate\" that Roberts was an officer prohibited from practicing before different departments of the federal government. H.R. Rep. No. 70-1959, at 2-3 (1928) . He contended that Roberts' representation of a client before the Board of Tax Appeals, would violate the law that prohibited United States officers from representing parties against the United States.\n     Roberts grew increasingly frustrated with the limitations thus imposed on his practice. When Pomerene requested advice from Roberts concerning the case involving the Elk Hills tract, Roberts responded \"I note that you have advised the parties that you will not agree to anything without conferring with me. As I have heretofore advised you that I cannot take any part in this trial I think that you should do exactly what you want about the matter without any reference to me.\" Letter from Owen Roberts, Special Counsel to Atlee Pomerene, Special Counsel (September 20, 1928) . (25)\n     The following day Roberts again wrote to Pomerene distancing himself from the litigation and expressing his intention to resign:\nI am going to Washington next week to see the Attorney General and to ask him to permit me to formally resign from all of my appointments other than the appointment of President Coolidge in the oil cases. I am doing this preliminarily prior to going to the Treasury Department and trying to get straightened out the question of my right to practice before the Treasury. I have spoken to you about this matter before, that the Treasury's attitude up to date has been one that has caused me a great deal of inconvenience and loss.\nLetter from Owen Roberts, Special Counsel, to Atlee Pomerene, Special Counsel (September 21, 1928) . (26)\n     Senator Walsh then sent Roberts a letter disagreeing with the Attorney General's position and expressing his hope that Roberts would reconsider his decision:\nI notice by the press that you have apparently severed your connection with the work that devolved on you in connection with the lease of the oil reserves. I hope there is some mistake about this. I understood your employment was \"for the duration of the war,\" and if so I am sure you will feel, as I do that you ought to stay with the fight to the end.\n. . . .\n    The intimation has reached me in some way that you quit because of the loss to which you are subject in consequence of a supposed inability to represent clients before the departments or Government boards or commissions. I can not believe that you are subject to any such inhibition. The place you fill is one of employment, rather than an official situation, I would say without giving study to the subject.\nS. Rep. No. 70-1338, at 1 (1928) .\n     Walsh suggested that the matter be resolved by Congressional action and proposed to \"undertake to get through an appropriate joint resolution, relieving you from the operation of the law.\" Id. Roberts welcomed the suggestion and commented that President Coolidge had made a similar proposal. See id. at 2-3. As Roberts characterized it, the Attorney General's position forced him \"to sit here and twiddle my thumbs for 18 months or 2 years to come while the Senator and I finished up the few matters that remain in the oil cases and practically stay out of all business.\" Id. at 2.\n     The joint resolution met with little opposition in the Senate. There was one lone voice raised in opposition in the House, that of New York Republican Representative Fiorello La Guardia:\n    It simply singles out one man and sets aside wise, sound, and necessary provisions of the law in order to obtain the legal services of one particular lawyer . . . .\n    I do not believe and can not agree that there is only one man in the United States who can prepare the briefs and argue the particular case for the Government in this particular instance . . . .\n    But assuming that . . . a lawyer has the government, so to speak, by the throat, assuming that he is the only man who can prepare these briefs and argue the case, then I submit it is manifestly unfair for him to say, \"I will not continue. I will resign unless you amend the law especially for me so that I can come in and practice before the departments of the Government in matters against the United States, even though I am retained as special counsel for the same United States.\"\n70 Cong. Rec. 830 (1928) . La Guardia observed that the Teapot Dome investigation had become a sacred cow:\nWhen the oil cases are mentioned, it seems everybody is afraid to speak. . . . [i]f you are going to annul the law prohibiting a Government official from appearing against the Government, you are going to destroy a great protection for the government and Government resources.\n    I will state frankly that considerable pressure has been brought for the passage of this resolution. This matter was mentioned in the message from the President of the United States. He recommends the passage of the resolution. It has passed the Senate and the Committee on the Judiciary of the House has reported it out without a dissenting vote except my own; but if I am the only Member of this House to-day to take this position, I am going to take it and stand here and oppose it, because I conscientiously consider it unwise and dangerous.\nId. The resolution passed both the House and Senate and was signed by the President on December 21, 1928. See 45 Stat. chap. 45 (1928) .\nC. Special Counsel Face Financial Difficulties\n       [TABLE OF CONTENTS]\n     Congress made a number of $100,000 appropriations for the work of the special counsel. The first $100,000 appropriation was signed on February 27, 1924. See 43 Stat. chap. 42 (1924) .\n     Even though appropriations for expenses of the special counsel went smoothly from 1924-1927, problems arose in 1928. In a meeting with Coolidge, Pomerene told him that since February 3, 1928, no payments had been made for \"ourselves, or assistants, or clerks, or expenses.\" Memorandum from Atlee Pomerene In Re: Naval Oil Litigation - Special Counsel, Conferences with President and Attorney General, 1 (May 27, 1930) . (27)\n     On the same day, May 26, 1930, Pomerene so advised the Subcommittee of the House Committee on Appropriations. He explained that the special counsel had received no money for more than two years and asked for a reappropriation of $149,707.51, the balance of the appropriation that had been made the year prior. Pomerene suggested that \"[n]ot much of that appropriation has been expended, due perhaps to our negligence in presenting bills, I guess.\" Second Deficiency Appropriation Bill, 1930: Hearings Before the Subcomm. of House Committee on Appropriations, 71st Cong. 826 (1930) . (28) Pomerene explained, \"Mr. Roberts has paid the assistants in his office, and my firm of Squire, Sanders & Dempsey have paid my assistants. We have paid our own hotel and other expenses-except, of course, our railroad fares and Pullman fares were paid by travel vouchers, also telegraph and telephone charges were largely paid by the Government.\" Id. at 831. Pomerene told the committee \"all that money is subject to disbursement by the President.\" Id. By Executive Proclamation, the President extended the balance of the available appropriations to June 30, 1932 to enable Roberts and Pomerene to conclude their work.\nIV. The Trail Ends\n[TABLE OF CONTENTS]\n     In the wake of the Teapot Dome investigation tumbled the resignations of Secretary of the Interior Fall, Secretary of the Navy Denby and Attorney General Daugherty. The scandal would forever cast a shadow on the Harding administration. On February 25, 1928, the President returned the administration of the oil and gas naval reserves to the Secretary of the Navy. 45 Stat. chap. 104 (1928) . The \"slimy trail\" finally ended, as North Dakota Senator Gerald Nye observed:\nThe investigation has shown, let us hope, privilege at its worst. The trail is one of dishonesty, greed, violation of law, secrecy, concealment, evasion, falsehood, and cunning. It is a trail of betrayals by trusted and presumably honorable men--betrayals of a government, of certain business interests and the people who trusted and honored them; it is a trail showing a flagrant degree of the exercise of political power and influence, and the power and influence of great wealth upon individuals and political parties; it is the trail of despoilers and schemers, far more dangerous to the well-being of our Nation and our democracy than all those who have been deported from our shores in all time as undesirable citizens. And in the end the story is one of the crushing of brilliant careers when finally the light was played upon those who schemed those unhealthy schemes born in darkness.\nS. Rep. No. 70-1326, at 3 (1928) .\n     Owen Roberts ceased his work as special counsel when he was appointed as a Justice to the Supreme Court in 1930.\n     Atlee Pomerene saw the litigation to the end. Among his last acts as special counsel was to pursue compensation from companies that had bought Teapot Dome oil from Mammoth Oil Company when Mammoth's bankruptcy meant recovery was impossible. Pomerene recovered more than $26,000 from Sinclair Pipe Line Company and Midwest Refining Company. Pomerene was later appointed by President Hoover to head the Reconstructionist Finance Corporation but was replaced when Franklin Delano Roosevelt took office.\nThe two were widely praised, even though some of their prosecutions were unsuccessful:\n[They] left no stone unturned to win their case. No avenue of evidence was left unexplored, and no pains or expense were spared in preparing for trial. The government's side could not have been in more able hands. The skill with which the evidence was amassed and arranged, and the ability with which it was presented to the jury, left no possible room for adverse criticism. Messrs. Roberts and Pomerene adhered to the finest traditions of American jurisprudence throughout the preparatory and trial stages of this celebrated case; and no one who followed the case could doubt that if a verdict of guilty had been forthcoming it would have been due to the extraordinary efforts and ability of the government's counsel.\n \n \nNote: The views expressed in this piece are those of the author and should not be attributed to the staff, officers or trustees of the Brookings Institution.\nCopyright � 1999 The Brookings Institution" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Phil_Collins.txt", "Steven_Spielberg.txt", "Robin_Williams.txt" ], "title": [ "Phil Collins", "Steven Spielberg", "Robin Williams" ], "wiki_context": [ "Philip David Charles \"Phil\" Collins (born 30 January 1951) is an English singer, songwriter, instrumentalist, record producer and actor. He is known as the drummer and lead singer in the rock band Genesis and as a solo artist. Between 1983 and 1990, Collins scored three UK and seven US number-one singles in his solo career. When his work with Genesis, his work with other artists, as well as his solo career is totalled, Collins had more US top 40 singles than any other artist during the 1980s. His most successful singles from the period include \"In the Air Tonight\", \"Against All Odds\", \"Sussudio\" and \"Another Day in Paradise\".\n\nBorn and raised in west London, Collins played drums from the age of five and completed drama school training, which secured him various roles as a child actor. He then pursued a music career, joining Genesis in 1970 as their drummer and becoming lead singer in 1975 following the departure of Peter Gabriel. Collins began a solo career in the 1980s, initially inspired by his marital breakdown and love of soul music, releasing a series of successful albums, including Face Value (1981), No Jacket Required (1985), and ...But Seriously (1989). Collins became \"one of the most successful pop and adult contemporary singers of the '80s and beyond\". He also became known for a distinctive gated reverb drum sound on many of his recordings. After leaving Genesis in 1996, Collins pursued various solo projects before a return in 2007 for the Turn It On Again Tour. In 2011, he retired to focus on his family life, but continued to write songs. He announced his return to the music industry in 2015.\n\nCollins' discography includes eight studio albums that have sold 33.5 million certified units in the US and an estimated 150 million worldwide, making him one of the world's best-selling artists. He is one of three recording artists, along with Paul McCartney and Michael Jackson, who have sold over 100 million albums worldwide both as solo artists and separately as principal members of a band. He has won seven Grammy Awards, six Brit Awards, two Golden Globe Awards, an Academy Award, and a Disney Legend Award. In 1999, he received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame and was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2003, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Genesis in 2010, and the Modern Drummer Hall of Fame in 2012. Despite his commercial success and his status as a respected and influential drummer, music critics are divided in their opinion of his work and he has publicly received both criticism and praise from other prominent music artists.\n\nEarly life\n\nPhilip David Charles Collins was born on 30 January 1951 in Chiswick, the son of Winifred M. \"June\" (née Strange), a theatrical agent, and Greville Philip Austin Collins, an insurance agent. He was given a toy drum kit for Christmas when he was five. Later, his uncle made him a makeshift set that he used regularly. As Collins grew older, these were followed by more complete sets bought by his parents. He practiced by playing with music on the television and radio, but never learned to read and write conventional musical notation; instead, he used a system which he devised himself. According to Barbara Speake, founder of the eponymous stage school he later attended, Collins always had a rare ear for music: \"Phil was always special; aged five he entered a Butlins talent contest singing Davy Crockett, but he stopped the orchestra halfway through to tell them they were in the wrong key.\" \n\nCollins studied drum rudiments as a teenager, first learning basic rudiments under Lloyd Ryan and later studying further under Frank King. Collins would recall: \"Rudiments I found very, very helpful – much more helpful than anything else because they're used all the time. In any kind of funk or jazz drumming, the rudiments are always there.\" However, Collins regretted that he never mastered musical notation, saying: \"I never really came to grips with the music. I should have stuck with it. I've always felt that if I could hum it, I could play it. For me, that was good enough, but that attitude is bad.\" Lloyd Ryan recalled: \"Phil always had a problem with reading. That was always a big problem for him. That’s a shame because reading drum music isn’t that difficult.\" \n\nThe Beatles were a strong early musical influence on Collins, including their drummer Ringo Starr. He also followed the lesser-known London band the Action, whose drummer he would copy and whose work introduced him to the soul music of Motown and Stax Records. Collins was also influenced by the jazz and big band drummer Buddy Rich, whose opinion on the importance of the hi-hat prompted Collins to stop using two bass drums and start using the hi-hat. While attending Chiswick County School for Boys, Collins formed a band called the Real Thing and later joined the Freehold. With the latter group, he wrote his first song titled \"Lying Crying Dying\". His professional acting training began at age 14, at the Barbara Speake Stage School, a fee-paying but non-selective independent school in East Acton, whose talent agency had been established by his mother. \n\nCareer\n\n1963–1970: Early acting roles and Flaming Youth\n\nCollins began a career as a child actor while at the Barbara Speake Stage School and won his first major role as the Artful Dodger in the London stage production of Oliver! He was an extra in the the Beatles's film A Hard Day's Night (1964) among the screaming teenagers during the television concert sequence. This was followed by a role in Calamity the Cow (1967), produced by the Children's Film Foundation, and Chitty Chitty Bang Bang (1968) as one of the children who storm the castle at the end, but the scene was cut. Collins auditioned for the role of Romeo in Romeo and Juliet (1968) but this was won by Leonard Whiting. \n\nDespite the beginnings of an acting career, Collins continued to gravitate towards music. His first record deal came as drummer for Hickory with guitarists Ronnie Caryl and Gordon Smith and keyboardist Brian Chatton. After changing their name to Flaming Youth they recorded one album, Ark 2, released in October 1969 on Uni Records that premiered with a performance at the London Planetarium. A concept album inspired by the media attention surrounding the 1969 moon landing, Ark 2 featured each member sharing lead vocals. Though a commercial failure, it received some positive critical reviews; Melody Maker named it \"Pop Album of the Month\", describing it as \"adult music beautifully played with nice tight harmonies\". After a year of touring, the group disbanded in 1970. Collins went on to play percussion on \"Art of Dying\" by George Harrison for his album All Things Must Pass. Harrison acknowledged Collins's contribution in the remastered edition released in 2000.\n\n1970–1978: Joining Genesis\n\nIn mid-1970, rock band Genesis advertised for \"a drummer sensitive to acoustic music and 12-string acoustic guitarist\" following the departure of guitarist Anthony Phillips and drummer John Mayhew. Collins recognised Charisma Records owner Tony Stratton-Smith's name in the ad and applied to audition with Caryl. Auditions took place at the parents' home of singer Peter Gabriel in Chobham, Surrey. As they arrived early, Collins took a swim in the pool and memorised the pieces before his own audition. He recalled, \"They put on 'Trespass', and my initial impression was of a very soft and round music, not edgy, with vocal harmonies and I came away thinking Crosby, Stills and Nash\". In August 1970, Collins became Genesis's new drummer. Caryl's audition was unsuccessful; guitarist Mike Rutherford thought he was not a good fit for the group (they selected Steve Hackett in January 1971).\n\nFrom 1970 to 1975, Collins played the drums, percussion, and backing vocals on Genesis albums and live shows. His first album recorded with the band, Nursery Cryme, was recorded and released in 1971. \"For Absent Friends\", an acoustic track written by Collins and Hackett, is the first Genesis song with Collins on lead vocals. He sang \"More Fool Me\" on their 1973 album Selling England by the Pound. In 1974, during the recording of The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway, Collins played drums on Brian Eno's second album Taking Tiger Mountain after Eno had contributed electronic effects known as \"Enossification\" on \"In the Cage\" and \"Grand Parade of Lifeless Packaging\". \n\nIn August 1975, following the The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway tour, Gabriel left Genesis. Collins became lead vocalist during production of A Trick of the Tail after a lengthy search for Gabriel's replacement where he sang back-up with applicants that responded to a Melody Maker advert that attracted around 400 replies. A Trick of the Tail was a commercial and critical success for the band, reaching No. 3 in the UK and No. 31 in the U.S. Rolling Stone wrote, \"Genesis has managed to turn the possible catastrophe of Gabriel's departure into their first broad-based American success.\" For the album's 1976 tour, Collins accepted an offer from former Yes and King Crimson drummer Bill Bruford to play drums while Collins sang vocals. Wind & Wuthering is the last album recorded with Hackett before his 1977 departure. Bruford was replaced by Chester Thompson, who became a mainstay of the band's live line-up, as well as Collins's solo back-up band, through the following decades.\n\nIn 1977, Collins, Banks, and Rutherford decided to continue Genesis as a trio. As the decade closed, Genesis began to shift from their progressive rock roots to a more accessible, radio-friendly pop-rock sound. The 1978 album ...And Then There Were Three... featured their first UK Top 10 and U.S. Top 40 single, \"Follow You Follow Me\".\n\nIn 1975 Collins played with several artists. He played the drums and sang on Hackett's first solo album, Voyage of the Acolyte; performed on Eno's albums Another Green World, Before and After Science, and Music for Films; and replaced drummer Phil Spinelli of the jazz fusion group Brand X before recording their 1976 debut album, Unorthodox Behaviour. Collins credits Brand X as his first use of a drum machine as well as his first use of a home 8-track tape machine. He then sang on Phillips's solo album, The Geese and the Ghost, and the second Brand X album, Moroccan Roll.\n\n1978–1983: Start of solo career: Face Value and Hello, I Must Be Going!\n\nIn December 1978, Genesis began a period of inactivity as Collins's marriage was at risk of collapse after touring had made him frequently absent from his wife and children. Collins went to Vancouver, Canada to try and rebuild the family. He explained: \"I was never going to leave the band. It was just that if I was going to be living in Vancouver then we'd have had to organise ourselves differently.\" In April 1979, Collins returned to the UK after his attempt to save his marriage had failed. With time to spare before working on a new Genesis album, Collins played on the Brand X album Product and its accompanying tour, and started writing his first solo album, Face Value, at his home in Shalford, Surrey. After Banks and Rutherford rejoined with Collins, work began on Duke, released in 1980. The dominant theme running through Collins's early solo recordings, though never specifically mentioned, was the acrimonious breakdown of his first marriage. Two songs he wrote on Duke, \"Please Don't Ask\", and the U.S. top 20 hit \"Misunderstanding\", dealt with his failed relationships.\n\nFace Value was released in February 1981. It features a rework of \"Behind the Lines\" from Duke with a more funk and dance-oriented style. Collins cited his divorce as his main influence. Regarding Face Value, he says, \"I had a wife, two children, two dogs, and the next day I didn't have anything. So a lot of these songs were written because I was going through these emotional changes.\" Collins produced the album in collaboration with Hugh Padgham, with whom he had worked on Peter Gabriel's 1980 studio album. Collins played keyboards and drums on Face Value. \n\nUpon its release, Face Value was an international success, reaching No. 1 in seven countries worldwide and No. 7 in the U.S. where it went on to sell 5 million copies. \"In the Air Tonight\", the album's lead single, became a hit and reached No. 2 in the UK. The song is known for the gated reverb effect used on Collins's drums, a technique developed by producer Hugh Padgham when he worked as an engineer on Peter Gabriel's song \"Intruder\", which Collins played drums on. Following an invitation by record producer Martin Lewis, Collins made his debut live performance as a solo artist at the Amnesty International benefit show The Secret Policeman's Other Ball at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in London in September 1981. He performed \"In the Air Tonight\" and \"The Roof Is Leaking\" accompanied by Troy Street United.\n\nIn September 1981, Genesis released Abacab. This was followed by its 1981 supporting tour and a two-month tour in 1982 promoting the Genesis live album Three Sides Live. On 2 October 1982, Collins took part in a Genesis concert, 'Six of the Best' which featured Gabriel on lead vocals and Hackett on guitar.\n\nCollins's second solo album, Hello, I Must Be Going!, was released in November 1982. His marital problems continued to provide inspiration for his songs, including \"I Don't Care Anymore\" and \"Do You Know, Do You Care\". The album reached No. 2 in the UK and No. 8 in the U.S., where it sold 3 million copies. Its second single, a cover of \"You Can't Hurry Love\" by The Supremes, became Collins's first UK No. 1 single and went to No. 10 in the US. Collins supported the album with the Hello, I Must Be Going! tour of Europe and North America from November 1982 to February 1983.\n\nIn May 1983, Collins recorded Genesis with Banks and Rutherford. Its tour ended in February 1984.\n\n1984–1985: No Jacket Required\n\nCollins changed his musical style with \"Against All Odds\", the main theme song for the movie of the same name in 1984. The more pop-friendly and radio-accessible single became Collins's first solo single to reach No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 and gave him his first Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Performance, Male. Later that year, Collins contributed to production on Earth, Wind & Fire vocalist Philip Bailey's third solo album, Chinese Wall, collaborating with Bailey on the duet, \"Easy Lover\", which reached No. 1 in the UK.\n\nIn November 1984, Collins played drums and was part of the all-star choir for Band Aid's \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\", a song written by Bob Geldof and Midge Ure to raise funds for the victims of the 1983–1985 famine in Ethiopia, which became the UK Christmas #1 and the best-selling single in UK Singles Chart history, selling a million copies in the first week alone. \n\nCollins released his most successful album, the Diamond-certified No Jacket Required, in February 1985. It reached No. 1 in both the UK and U.S. It contained the U.S. number-one hits \"One More Night\" and \"Sussudio\" as well top ten hits \"Don't Lose My Number\" and \"Take Me Home\". It also contains the lesser known \"Who Said I Would\", and \"Only You Know and I Know\". The album featured contributions from The Police's vocalist, Sting, ex-bandmate Peter Gabriel, and Helen Terry as backing vocalists. He also recorded the successful song \"Separate Lives\", a duet with Marilyn Martin, and a U.S. #1, for the movie White Nights. Collins had three U.S. number-one songs in 1985, the most by any artist that year. No Jacket Required won three Grammy Awards including Album of the Year. \n\nNo Jacket Required was criticised for being \"too commercial\", despite favourable reviews from many music critics. A positive review by David Fricke of Rolling Stone ended, \"After years on the art-rock fringe, Collins has established himself firmly in the middle of the road. Perhaps he should consider testing himself and his new fans's expectations next time around.\" \"Sussudio\" attracted negative attention for sounding too similar to Prince's \"1999\", a charge that Collins did not deny, and its hook line (\"Su-su-su-sussudio\") has been named as the most widely disliked element of his career.\n\nIn 1985 Bob Geldof asked Collins to perform at the Live Aid charity event, a continuation of the fundraising effort for Ethiopia started by Band Aid. Collins had the distinction of being the only performer to appear at both the UK concert at Wembley Stadium and the U.S. concert at JFK Stadium in Philadelphia; he performed several songs, including \"Against All Odds (Take a Look at Me Now)\" and \"In the Air Tonight\". He accomplished this by performing early in the day at Wembley as both a solo artist and alongside Sting, then transferring to a Concorde flight to the U.S. enabling him to perform his solo material, and play drums with Led Zeppelin and Eric Clapton in Philadelphia. The Led Zeppelin reunion was poorly received and later disowned by the band. Guitarist Jimmy Page alleged that Collins \"hadn't learned\" his drum part. Page said: \"You can get away with that in a pop band but not with Led Zeppelin\". Collins responded that the band \"weren't very good\" and that he \"was made to feel a little uncomfortable by the dribbling Jimmy Page.\" To avoid negative attention, he persisted with the set rather than leave the stage. \n\nBesides his number-one duet with Marilyn Martin in 1985, Collins scored two more hits from movies with the singles, \"A Groovy Kind of Love\" (#1 UK and U.S.) and \"Two Hearts\" (#1 U.S., #6 UK), both from the soundtrack of his feature film, Buster. In 1986 Collins won the first two of his six Brit Awards for Best British Male and Best British Album for No Jacket Required. \n\nThe music press noted Collins's astronomical success as a solo artist had made him more popular than Genesis. Before the release of No Jacket Required, Collins insisted that he would not leave the band. \"The next one to leave the band will finish it,\" Collins told Rolling Stone magazine in May 1985. \"I feel happier with what we're doing now, because I feel it's closer to me. I won't be the one.\" Collins added, \"Poor old Genesis does get in the way sometimes. I still won't leave the group, but I imagine it will end by mutual consent.\"\n\n1985–1991: ...But Seriously\n\nIn October 1985, Collins reunited with Banks and Rutherford to record the next Genesis album, Invisible Touch. Its title track was released as a single and reached No. 1 in the US, the only Genesis song to do so. The group received a Grammy Award (their only one) and a nomination for the MTV Video Music Award for Video of the Year in 1987 for the single \"Land of Confusion\" which featured puppet caricatures created by the British satirical team Spitting Image. The video was directed by Jim Yukich. Reviews of Invisible Touch were mixed and many comparisons were made with Collins's solo work, but Rolling Stones J. D. Considine praised the album's commercial appeal, stating, \"every tune is carefully pruned so that each flourish delivers not an instrumental epiphany but a solid hook\". \n\nIn 1989 Collins worked on his fourth studio album ...But Seriously, and appeared on The Who Tour 1989, performing the role of young Tommy's wicked Uncle Ernie in a reprisal of the rock opera Tommy (a part originally played by their late drummer, Keith Moon). In November, Collins released ...But Seriously, which became another huge success, featuring as its lead single the anti-homelessness anthem \"Another Day in Paradise\", with David Crosby singing backing vocals. \"Another Day in Paradise\" reached No. 1 on the Billboard charts at the end of 1989, won Collins Best British Single at the Brit Awards in 1990, and the Grammy Award for Record of the Year in 1991; it was also one of Germany's most successful singles of all time. It became the final U.S. number-one single of the 1980s. Despite its success, the song was also heavily criticised. It also became linked to allegations of hypocrisy made against Collins.\n\n...But Seriously became the first number-one U.S. album of the 1990s and the best-selling album of 1990 in the UK. Other songs included \"Something Happened on the Way to Heaven\" (#4 U.S., #15 UK), \"Do You Remember?\" (not released in the UK, but #4 in the U.S.), and \"I Wish It Would Rain Down\" (the latter featuring Eric Clapton on guitar; #3 U.S., #7 UK). Songs about apartheid and homelessness demonstrated Collins's turn to political themes. A live album, Serious Hits... Live!, followed, which reached the top ten around the world. In September 1990 Collins performed \"Sussudio\" at the 1990 MTV Video Music Awards in Los Angeles. Collins also played drums on the 1989 Tears for Fears hit single, \"Woman in Chains\". \n\n1991–1997: Leaving Genesis, Both Sides and Dance into the Light\n\nAfter a hiatus of five years, Genesis reconvened for the 1991 album release We Can't Dance, Collins's last studio album with the group to date. It features the singles \"Jesus He Knows Me\", \"I Can't Dance\", \"No Son of Mine\", and \"Hold on My Heart\". Collins performed on their 1992 tour. At the 1993 American Music Awards, Genesis won the award for Favorite Pop/Rock Band, Duo, or Group. \n\nCollins's record sales began to drop with the 1993 release of Both Sides, a largely experimental album that, according to Collins, included songs that \"were becoming so personal, so private, I didn't want anyone else's input\". Featuring a less polished sound and fewer up-tempo songs than his previous albums, Both Sides was a significant departure. Collins used no backing musicians and he performed all the vocal and instrumental parts at his home studio, using rough vocal takes for the final product. The album was not as well received by radio. Its two biggest hits were \"Both Sides of the Story\" and \"Everyday\". In 1995, Collins turned down the chance to contribute to Tower of Song, an album of covers of Leonard Cohen songs, due to his touring commitments. \n\nCollins left Genesis in 1996 to focus on his solo career. He formed The Phil Collins Big Band with himself on drums. The band performed jazz renditions of songs from Genesis and his solo career. His sixth solo album, Dance into the Light, was released in October 1996. The album was received negatively by the music press and sold less than his previous albums. Entertainment Weekly reviewed by saying that \"even Phil Collins must know that we all grew weary of Phil Collins\". Singles from the album included the title track, which reached No. 9 in the UK, and The Beatles-inspired \"It's in Your Eyes\". The album achieved Gold certification in the United States. On 15 September 1997, Collins appeared at the Music for Montserrat concert at the Royal Albert Hall. \n\n1998–2006: Big Band Tour, work with Disney and Testify\n\nThe Phil Collins Big Band completed a world tour in 1998 that included a performance at the Montreux Jazz Festival. In 1999 they released the CD A Hot Night in Paris including big band versions of \"Invisible Touch\", \"Sussudio\", and \"The Los Endos Suite\" from A Trick of the Tail.\n\nA compilation album ...Hits was released in 1998 and sold well, returning Collins to multi-platinum status in the U.S. The album's one new track, a cover of the Cyndi Lauper hit \"True Colors\", received considerable airplay on U.S. Adult Contemporary stations while peaking at No. 2. \n\nIn 1999 Collins reunited with Genesis to re-record \"The Carpet Crawlers\" for the compilation album Turn It On Again: The Hits.\n\nCollins's next single, \"You'll Be in My Heart\", from the Disney animated movie Tarzan, spent 19 weeks at No. 1 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart—the longest time ever up to that point. The song won Collins an Academy Award and a Golden Globe Award both for Best Original Song. It was his third nomination in the songwriters's category, after being nominated in 1985 and 1989. Collins was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, on 16 June 1999. \n\nIn 2000 Collins suddenly developed a deafness in one ear, due to a viral infection.[http://www.theguardian.com/music/2016/feb/11/phil-collins-interview-take-a-look-at-me-now-remastered-albums-rerelease-2016?utm_source\nesp&utm_mediumEmail&utm_campaign\nGU+Today+USA+-+Version+CB+header&utm_term158329&subid\n9600366&CMP=ema_565] \"Phil Collins Returns\", The Guardian, 11 February 2016 He contemplated ending his musical career at that point; the combined partial deafness and growing criticism were wearing him down. However, when medical treatment cured his deafness, he continued his chosen path. In June 2002 he accepted an invitation to drum for the house band at the Party at the Palace event held at Buckingham Palace Garden, a concert celebrating Queen Elizabeth II's Golden Jubilee. \n\nIn November 2002 Collins released his seventh solo album, Testify. Metacritic's roundup of album reviews found this record to be the worst-reviewed album at the time of its release, though it has since been \"surpassed\" by three more recent releases. The album's single \"Can't Stop Loving You\" (a Leo Sayer cover) was a number-one Adult Contemporary hit. Testify only sold 140,000 copies in the U.S. by year's end. From June 2004 to November 2005, Collins performed his First Final Farewell Tour, a reference to the multiple farewell tours of other popular artists. In 2006, he worked with Disney on a musical production of Tarzan. \n\n2006–2015: Genesis reunion, Going Back, and retirement\n\nCollins reunited with Banks and Rutherford and announced Turn It On Again: The Tour on 7 November 2006, nearly 40 years after the band first formed. The tour took place during summer 2007, and played in twelve countries across Europe, followed by a second leg in North America. During the tour Genesis performed at the Live Earth concert at Wembley Stadium, London. In 2007 they were honoured at the second annual VH1 Rock Honors, performing \"Turn It On Again\", \"No Son of Mine\" and \"Los Endos\" at the ceremony in Las Vegas. \n\nIn October 2009, it was reported that Collins was to record a Motown covers album. He told a German newspaper, \"I want the songs to sound exactly like the originals\", and that the album would feature up to 30 songs. In January 2010, Chester Thompson said that the album had been completed and would be released some time soon. He also revealed that Collins managed to play the drums on the album despite a spinal operation. \n\nGoing Back was released on 13 September 2010, entering the UK charts at No. 4, rising to No. 1 the following week. In summer 2010, Collins played six concerts with the music from Going Back. These included a special programme, Phil Collins: One Night Only, aired ITV1 on 18 September 2010. Collins also promoted Going Back with his first and only appearance on the BBC's foremost music series Later... with Jools Holland, broadcast on 17 September 2010. \n\nIn March 2010, Collins was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Genesis at a ceremony in New York City. As of January 2011, Collins has spent 1,730 weeks in the German music charts—766 weeks of them with Genesis albums and singles and 964 weeks with solo releases. \n\nOn 4 March 2011, citing health problems and other concerns, Collins announced that he was taking time off from his career, prompting widespread reports of his retirement. On 7 March his UK representative told the press, \"He is not, has no intention of, retiring.\" However, later that day, Collins posted a message to his fans on his own website, confirming his intention to retire to focus on his family life. \n\nIn July 2012, Collins's greatest hits collection ...Hits re-entered the U.S. charts, reaching No. 6 on the Billboard 200. \n\nIn November 2013, Collins told German media that he was considering a return to music and speculated that this could mean further live shows with Genesis, stating: \"Everything is possible. We could tour in Australia and South America. We haven't been there yet.\" Speaking to reporters in Miami, Florida in December 2013 at an event promoting his charity work, Collins indicated that he was writing music once again and might tour again. \n\nOn 24 January 2014, Collins announced in an interview with Inside South Florida that he was writing new compositions with fellow English singer Adele. Collins said he had no idea who Adele was when he learned she wanted to collaborate with him. He said \"I wasn't actually too aware [of her]. I live in a cave.\" Collins agreed to join her in the studio after hearing her voice. He said, \"[She] achieved an incredible amount. I really love her voice. I love some of this stuff she's done, too.\" However, in September 2014, Collins revealed that the collaboration had ended and he said it had been \"a bit of a non-starter\". \n\nIn May 2014, Collins gave a live performance of \"In the Air Tonight\" and \"Land of Confusion\" with young student musicians at the Miami Country Day School in Miami, Florida. Collins was asked to perform there by his sons, who are students at the school. In August 2014, Collins was reported to have accepted an invitation to perform in December at a benefit concert in Miami in aid of his Little Dreams Foundation charity. He ultimately missed the concert due to illness. \n\n2015–present: Out of retirement\n\nIn May 2015 Collins signed a deal with Warner Music Group to remaster his eight solo albums with previously unreleased material. In October, he announced that he was no longer officially retired and is planning to tour and write a new album. Collins said that he plans to release an autobiography Not Dead Yet on 25 October 2016. \n\nDrumming and impact\n\nIn his book on the \"legends\" who defined progressive rock drumming, American drummer Rich Lackowski wrote: \"Phil Collins's grooves in early Genesis recordings paved the way for many talented drummers to come. His ability to make the drums bark with musicality and to communicate so convincingly in odd time signatures left many a drummer tossing on the headphones and playing along to Phil's lead.\" In 2014, readers of Rhythm voted Collins the fourth most influential progressive rock drummer for his work on the 1974 Genesis album The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway. MusicRadar named Collins one of the six pioneers of progressive rock drumming. In 2005, Planet Rock listeners voted Collins the fifth greatest rock drummer in history. Collins was ranked tenth in \"The Greatest Drummers of All Time\" list by Gigwise and number nine in a list of \"The 20 greatest drummers of the last 25 years\" by MusicRadar in 2010. \n\nFoo Fighters drummer Taylor Hawkins cites Collins as one of his drumming heroes. He said, \"Collins is an incredible drummer. Anyone who wants to be good on the drums should check him out – the man is a master.\" In the April 2001 issue of Modern Drummer, Dream Theater drummer Mike Portnoy named Collins in an interview when asked about drummers he was influenced by and had respect for. In another conversation in 2014, Portnoy lauded his \"amazing progressive drumming\" back in the early and mid-1970s. Rush drummer Neil Peart praised his \"beautiful drumming\" and \"lovely sound\" on the 1973 Genesis album Selling England by the Pound, which he called \"an enduring masterpiece of drumming\". Marco Minnemann, drummer for artists including Joe Satriani and Steven Wilson, described Collins as \"brilliant\" for the way \"he composes his parts, and the sounds he gets\". He said, \"Phil is almost like John Bonham to me. I hear his personality, his perspective.\" He singled out the drumming on \"In the Air Tonight\" as an example of \"ten notes that everybody knows\" and concluded \"Phil is a insanely talented drummer\". \n\nModern Drummer readers voted for Collins every year between 1987 and 1991 as Pop/Mainstream Rock drummer of the year. In 2000, he was voted as Big Band drummer of the year. In 2012, he was inducted into the Hall of Fame.\n\nEquipment\n\nCollins is a left-handed drummer, and uses Gretsch drums, Remo heads and Sabian cymbals. Past kits he used were made by Pearl and Premier.\n\nThe Gretsch Company drums: (all drums are single head concert toms except snare)\n* 14 x 20\" bass drum\n* 5.5 x 8\" rack tom\n* 6.5 x 10\" rack tom\n* 8 x 12\" rack tom\n* 12 x 15\" rack tom\n* 16 x 16\" floor tom\n* 18 x 18\" floor tom\n* 3.5 x 14\" snare drum\n\nSabian cymbals:\n*15\" Hi Hats\n*22\" HH China\n*16\" HH Medium Thin Crash\n*17\" HH Extra Thin Crash\n*21\" HH Raw Bell Dry Ride\n*20\" HH Medium Crash\n*20\" HH China\n\nOther instruments associated with Collins's sound (particularly in his post-1978 Genesis and subsequent solo career) include the Roland CR-78, Roland TR-808, Roland TR-909, the Simmons SDS-V electronic drum set, and the Linn LM-1 and LinnDrum drum machines; he also used a Sequential Circuits Prophet-5 synthesizer, the Yamaha CP-70 electric grand piano, the Yamaha DX7 synthesizer, Oberheim DMX drum machine (as heard on \"Sussudio\"), Korg Wavestation, Korg KARMA, Korg Trinity, \n\nRecord producer and guest musician\n\nFor his solo career and his career with Genesis, Collins produced or co-produced virtually all of his singles and albums, the notable exceptions being \"Against All Odds\" (produced by Arif Mardin), and his cover of \"True Colors\" (produced by Kenneth \"Babyface\" Edmonds). \n\nCollins also maintained a career as a producer for other artists throughout the 1980s, usually working on outside projects at the rate of one artist per year. His first outside work as a producer was the 1981 album Glorious Fool for John Martyn; in 1979 he had played drums and contributed backing vocals on Martyn's Grace and Danger. He followed that up by producing Anni-Frid \"Frida\" Lyngstad's (Frida Lyngstad of ABBA) 1982 album Something's Going On, which contained the international hit \"I Know There's Something Going On\". \n\nIn 1976 Collins was brought in to contribute some percussion to one or more tracks on Thin Lizzy's album Johnny The Fox, seemingly because he was a close friend of Phil Lynott. Brian Robertson later said, \"Collins was a mate of Phil's... I think Phil probably wanted to get him on the album to name-drop.\" Neither Brian Robertson nor Brian Downey has been able to remember exactly which songs Collins played on. \n\nCollins played drums on Robert Plant's first two solo albums, Pictures at Eleven and The Principle of Moments. \n\nIn 1983 Collins produced two tracks for Adam Ant, on which he also played drums, both of which hit the UK charts: \"Puss 'N' Boots\" and \"Strip\". \"Strip\" was a minor US hit as well. \n\nIn 1984 Collins produced Phillip Bailey's album Chinese Wall, which included the hit Bailey/Collins duet \"Easy Lover\". It also contained the Bailey hit \"Walking on the Chinese Wall\". \n\nIn 1985 Collins produced and played drums on several tracks on the Eric Clapton album Behind the Sun. The following year, he produced (in collaboration with Hugh Padgham) one track for Howard Jones, the international hit No One Is to Blame, on which he also played drums. \n\nCollins was one of the producers on Eric Clapton's 1987 album August, which included the UK top 20 single \"Behind the Mask\". \n\nIn 1988, Collins and Lamont Dozier collaborated as writers and producers of The Four Tops top 10 UK hit Loco in Acapulco, from the soundtrack of the film Buster, in which Collins starred.\n\nIn 1989, Collins played drums on one track, \"Bad Love,\" on Eric Clapton's Journeyman album. He also appeared in the music video for the song. \n\nCollins co-wrote, sang and played on the song \"Hero\" on David Crosby's 1993 album Thousand Roads. \n\nFilm, theatre, and television\n\nThe majority of Collins's film work has been through music. Four of his seven U.S. number-one songs came from film soundtracks, and his work on Disney's Tarzan earned him an Oscar. Collins also sang German, Italian, Spanish and French versions of the Tarzan soundtrack for the respective film versions. He also did the soundtrack to another Disney film Brother Bear in 2003. His acting career has been brief. As a child, he appeared in three films, although two of the films were for brief moments as an extra. \n\nCollins wrote and performed the title song to Against All Odds in 1984. The song became the first of his seven U.S. number-one songs, and received an Academy Award nomination for Best Song. Collins was not invited to perform the song at that year's presentation, although he was in the audience as the song's composer. Collins had arranged his U.S. tour to accommodate the possibility of appearing on the telecast in the event his song was nominated for an Oscar. It is believed that the producers of that year's Academy Awards show were not aware of his prominence as a musical performer. A note to Collins's label from telecast co-producer Larry Gelbart explaining the lack of invitation stated, \"Thank you for your note regarding Phil Cooper [sic]. I'm afraid the spots have already been filled\". Collins instead watched actress and dancer Ann Reinking perform his song. Reinking's performance was described by one critic as an \"absurdly inept rendition\" of the song. The Los Angeles Times said: \"Reinking did an incredible job of totally destroying a beautiful song. The best that can be said about her performance is that the stage set was nice.\" Collins would introduce it at subsequent concerts by saying: \"I'm sorry Miss Ann Reinking couldn't be here tonight; I guess I just have to sing my own song.\"\n\nAs a lead vocalist, Collins sang Stephen Bishop's composition \"Separate Lives\" for the film White Nights (1985) as a duet with Marilyn Martin. The single of the recording became another number-one hit for Collins. The song was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Song (a category that honours composers, not vocalists). Bishop's song had parallels to some of those on Collins's first two albums. Writer Stephen Bishop noted that he was inspired by a failed relationship and called \"Separate Lives\" \"a song about anger\". When the song was being nominated for an Academy Award, in interviews about the original snub by the Academy for \"Against All Odds\", Collins would jokingly say \"the hell with him – I'm going up too,\" should Bishop's song win the award.\n\nCollins's first film role since embarking on his career as a musician came in 1988 with the romantic comedy-drama Buster. He starred as Buster Edwards, a criminal convicted for his role in the Great Train Robbery, which took place in England in August 1963. Reviews for the film were mixed and controversy ensued over its subject matter, with Prince Charles and Princess Diana deciding to withdraw from attending the film's première after it was accused of glorifying crime. However, Collins's performance opposite Julie Walters received good reviews and he contributed four songs to the film's soundtrack. His slow ballad rendition of \"A Groovy Kind of Love\", originally a 1966 single by The Mindbenders, became his only single to reach No. 1 in both the U.S. and the UK. The film also spawned the hit single Two Hearts, which he co-wrote with legendary Motown songwriter Lamont Dozier; the two artists would go on to win a Golden Globe for Best Original Song and receive an Oscar nomination in the same category, the second such honour for Collins; \"Big Noise\", written by Phil Collins and Lamont Dozier, which included Collins on the lead vocals (although the song was not released as a single, an instrumental version of this song appeared as the B-side to the single version of \"A Groovy Kind of Love\"). The final song, \"Loco in Acapulco\", was another collaboration with Dozier, with the vocals performed by the legendary Motown group The Four Tops. Film critic Roger Ebert said the role of Buster was \"played with surprising effectiveness\" by Collins, although the film's soundtrack proved more successful than the film did. \n\nCollins had cameo appearances in Steven Spielberg's Hook (1991) and the AIDS docudrama And the Band Played On (1993). He starred in Frauds, which competed for the Palme d'Or at the 1993 Cannes Film Festival. He supplied voices to two animated features: Amblin's Balto (1995) and Disney's The Jungle Book 2 (2003). A long-discussed but never completed project was a film titled The Three Bears; originally meant to star Collins, Danny DeVito, and Bob Hoskins. He often mentioned the film, though an appropriate script never materialised. \n\nCollins performed the soundtrack to the animated film Tarzan (1999) for The Walt Disney Company. He won an Academy Award for You'll Be in My Heart, which he performed at that year's telecast as well as during a Disney-themed Super Bowl halftime show. The song, which he also recorded in Spanish among other languages, became his only appearance on the Billboard Hot Latin Tracks chart. Disney hired Collins and Tina Turner for the soundtrack to the 2003 animated film, Brother Bear, and had some airplay with the song \"Look Through My Eyes\". \n\nCollins's music is featured in the satirical black comedy film American Psycho, with psychotic lead character Patrick Bateman (played by Christian Bale) portrayed as an obsessive fan who reads deep meaning into his work, especially with Genesis, while describing his solo music as \"...more commercial and therefore more satisfying, in a narrower way.\" Bateman delivers a monologue praising Collins and Genesis during a sequence in which he engages the services of two prostitutes while playing \"In Too Deep\" and \"Sussudio\".\n\nCollins twice hosted the Billboard Music Awards on television, which were produced and directed by his longtime music video and TV special collaborators, Paul Flattery and Jim Yukich of FYI (Flattery Yukich Inc). He also appeared in an episode of the series Miami Vice, entitled \"Phil the Shill\", in which he plays a cheating con-man. He also appeared in several sketches with The Two Ronnies.\n\nIn 2001, Collins was one of several celebrities who were tricked into appearing in a controversial British comedy series, Brass Eye, shown on public service broadcaster Channel 4. In the episode, Collins endorsed a hoax anti-paedophile campaign wearing a T-shirt with the words \"Nonce Sense\" and warned children against speaking to suspicious people. Collins was reported by the BBC to have consulted lawyers regarding the programme, which was originally pulled from broadcast but eventually rescheduled. Collins said he had taken part in the programme \"in good faith for the public benefit\", believing it to be \"a public service programme that would be going around schools and colleges in a bid to stem child abduction and abuse\". Collins also accused the makers of the programme of \"some serious taste problems\" and warned it would prevent celebrities from supporting \"public spirited causes\" in the future. \n\nCollins appeared as himself in the 2006 PSP and PS2 video game Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories. Set in 1984, he appears in three missions in which the main character, Victor, must save him from a gang that is trying to kill him, the final mission occurring during his concert, where the player must defend the scaffolding against saboteurs while Collins is performing \"In the Air Tonight\". After this, the player is given the opportunity to watch this performance of \"In the Air Tonight\" for only 6,000 dollars in the game. \"In the Air Tonight\" was also featured in the soundtrack of Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories and it was also featured in the film Aqua Teen Hunger Force Colon Movie Film For Theaters, the 2009 movie The Hangover and the 2007 Gorilla commercial for Cadbury's Dairy Milk chocolate. The advertisement also helped the song re-enter the New Zealand RIANZ Singles Chart at No. 3 in July 2008, the following week reaching No. 1, beating its original 1981 No. 6 peak. \"In the Air Tonight\" was also sampled in the song \"I Can Feel It\" on Sean Kingston's self-titled debut album. \n\nCollins was portrayed in the cartoon South Park in the episode \"Timmy 2000\" holding his Oscar throughout, referring to his 1999 win for You'll Be in My Heart, which defeated \"Blame Canada\" from South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut. He was seen again in the episode \"Cartman's Silly Hate Crime 2000\". Collins appears briefly in the Finnish animated sitcom Pasila in the episode \"Phil Collins Hangover\". The music of this episode is a pastiche of Collins's Another Day in Paradise. Collins was mentioned in the Psych episode \"Disco Didn't Die. It Was Murdered!\" as resembling Shawn Spencer's father, Henry, portrayed by actor Corbin Bernsen. \n\nCriticism and praise\n\nCritical and public perceptions \n\nAccording to a 2000 BBC biography of Collins, \"critics sneer at him\" and \"bad publicity also caused problems\", which \"damaged his public profile\". Rock historian Martin C. Strong wrote that Collins \"truly polarised opinion from the start, his ubiquitous smugness and increasingly sterile pop making him a favourite target for critics\". During his recording career Collins would regularly place telephone calls to music writers to take issue with their written reviews. Over time, he came to be personally disliked; in 2009, journalist Mark Lawson told how Collins's media profile had shifted from \"pop's Mr. Nice Guy, patron saint of ordinary blokes\", to someone accused of \"blandness, tax exile and ending a marriage by sending a fax\". Collins has rejected accusations of tax avoidance, and, despite confirming that some of the divorce-related correspondence between him and second wife Jill Tavelman, was by fax (a message from Collins regarding access to their daughter was reproduced for the front cover of The Sun in 1993), he states that he did not terminate the marriage in that fashion. Nevertheless, the British media has often repeated the fax claim. Collins has been the victim of scathing remarks in regard to his alleged right-wing political leanings. Caroline Sullivan, a music critic of The Guardian, referred to his cumulative negative publicity in her 2007 article \"I wish I'd never heard of Phil Collins\", writing that it was difficult for her to hear his work \"without being riven by distaste for the man himself\". According to Jeff Shannon in The Seattle Times, Collins is the \"target of much South Park derision\". A New Musical Express writer also observed the series' \"endless lampooning\" of Collins. \n\nSeveral critics have commented on Collins's omnipresence, especially in the 1980s and early 1990s. Journalist Frank DiGiacomo wrote a 1999 piece for The New York Observer titled The Collins Menace; he said, \"Even when I sought to escape the sounds [of Collins] in my head by turning on the TV, there would be Mr. Collins...mugging for the cameras—intent on showing the world just how hard he would work to sell millions of records to millions of stupid people.\" In his 2010 article Love don't come easy: artists we love to hate, The Irish Times critic Kevin Courtney expressed similar sentiments. Naming Collins as one of the ten most disliked pop stars in the world, he wrote: \"[Collins] performed at Live Aid, playing first at Wembley, then flying over to Philadelphia via Concorde, just to make sure no one in the U.S. got off lightly. By the early 1990s, Phil phatigue [sic] had really set in.\" Appraising Collins's legacy in a 2013 review of the American Psycho musical (adapted from a 2000 film incorporating his music), The Guardian critic Tom Service described Collins as \"un-stomachable\" and his music as \"perfectly vacuous\". He also compared him unfavourably with pop contemporaries such as the Pet Shop Boys and The Human League, whose music he said had endured far more successfully. Service described Collins's most popular album No Jacket Required (1985) as \"unlistenable to today\", reserving particular criticism for \"Sussudio\". \n\nCollins received acerbic comments in the press following reports about his retirement in 2011. He was dubbed \"the most hated man in rock\" by The Daily Telegraph, and by FHM as \"the pop star that nobody likes\". Rolling Stone journalist John Dioso acknowledged \"the incredible, overwhelming popularity\" Collins and Genesis achieved, but said that he had become \"a negative figure in the music world\" and that the reaction to his legacy was strongly unfavourable. Tim Chester of the New Musical Express alluded to the widespread disdain for Collins in an article titled, \"Is It Time We All Stopped Hating Phil Collins?\" He described Collins as \"the go-to guy for ironic appreciation and guilty pleasures\" and stated he was responsible for \"some moments of true genius (often accompanied, it must be said, by some real stinkers)\". He also argued that \"Genesis turned shit at the precise point he jumped off the drum stool\" to replace the departing Peter Gabriel as frontman, and said of the unrelenting derision he has suffered, \"..a lot of it he brings on himself.\" He said that Collins was \"responsible for some of the cheesiest music ever committed to acetate\". Erik Hedegaard of Rolling Stone mentioned that Phil Collins hate sites had \"flourished\" online, and acknowledged that he had been called \"the sellout who took Peter Gabriel's Genesis, that paragon of prog-rock, and turned it into a lame-o pop act and went on to make all those supercheesy hits that really did define the 1980s\". \n\nCriticism from other artists\n\nWriting about Collins in a 2013 publication on 1980s popular music, Dylan Jones said that, along with the press, \"many of his peers despised him so\". Some fellow artists have criticised Collins publicly. Appearing on a 1989 edition of BBC programme Juke Box Jury, Collins applauded an upcoming single by British new wave band Sigue Sigue Sputnik; this prompted their singer, Martin Degville, to say directly to Collins's face: \"God! We must have really got it wrong if you like us!\" In 1990, former Pink Floyd frontman Roger Waters criticised Collins's \"ubiquitous nature\", including his involvement in The Who's 1989 reunion tour. David Bowie subsequently dismissed his own critically reviled 1980s output as his \"Phil Collins years/albums\". In addition to the song's negative press from music journalists, singer-songwriter and political activist Billy Bragg also criticised Collins for writing \"Another Day in Paradise\", stating: \"Phil Collins might write a song about the homeless, but if he doesn't have the action to go with it he's just exploiting that for a subject.\" \n\nOasis songwriter Noel Gallagher criticised Collins on multiple occasions, including the comment: \"Just because you sell lots of records, it doesn't mean to say you're any good. Look at Phil Collins.\" Collins said he has \"at times, been very down\" about Gallagher's criticisms. Gallagher's brother, Oasis singer Liam, recalled the \"boring\" Collins's chart dominance in the 1980s and stated that, by the 1990s, it was \"time for some real lads to get up there and take charge\". Appearing on television series Room 101 in 2005, Collins nominated the Gallaghers as entrants into the titular room. He described them as \"horrible\" and stated: \"They're rude and not as talented as they think they are. I won't mince words here, but they've had a go at me personally.\" On the closing track of their 2014 album What Have We Become?, titled \"When I Get Back to Blighty\", former Beautiful South collaborators Paul Heaton and Jacqui Abbott included the lyric: \"Everyone around us agrees that Phil Collins must die\". MusicOMH critic David Meller remarked that the line \"is delivered with willing, almost pleasurable conviction by Abbott\". \n\nCollins on criticism \n\nCollins acknowledged in 2010 that he had been \"omnipresent\". He said of his character: \"The persona on stage came out of insecurity...it seems embarrassing now. I recently started transferring all my VHS tapes onto DVD to create an archive, and everything I was watching, I thought, 'God, I'm annoying.' I appeared to be very cocky, and really I wasn't.\" Collins concedes his status as a figure of contempt for many people and has said that he believes this is a consequence of his music being overplayed. In 2011 Collins was quoted: \"The fact that people got so sick of me wasn't really my fault … It's hardly surprising that people grew to hate me. I'm sorry that it was all so successful. I honestly didn't mean it to happen like that!\" Collins has described criticism of his physical appearance over the years as \"a cheap shot\", but has acknowledged the \"very vocal element\" of Genesis fans who believe that the group sold out under his tenure as lead singer. \n\nRegarding criticism of his single \"Another Day in Paradise\", Collins stated: \"When I drive down the street, I see the same things everyone else sees. It's a misconception that if you have a lot of money you're somehow out of touch with reality.\" \n\nResponding to reports about his retirement in 2011, Collins dismissed the notion that his departure from the music industry was due to negative attention, and stated small parts of conversations had been made into headlines. He said: \"I have ended up sounding like a tormented weirdo who thinks he was at the Alamo in another life, who feels very sorry for himself, and is retiring hurt because of the bad press over the years. None of this is true.\"\n\nPraise\n\nPaul Lester of The Guardian wrote in 2013 that Collins is one of several pop acts that \"used to be a joke\" but are \"now being hailed as gods\". Despite the criticism he has received, Collins has become an iconic figure within U.S. urban music, influencing artists such as Kanye West, Alicia Keys and Beyoncé. His songs have been sampled by various hip-hop and contemporary R&B acts, and performers including Lil' Kim, Kelis and Wu-Tang Clan co-founder Ol' Dirty Bastard covered his work on the 2001 tribute album Urban Renewal. In 2004, indie rock musician Ben Gibbard praised Collins's singing, claiming he's a \"great vocalist\". Collins's music has been championed by his contemporary, the heavy metal singer Ozzy Osbourne, David Crosby has called him \"a dear friend\" who has helped him \"enormously\" and Robert Plant paid tribute to him as \"the most spirited and positive and really encouraging force\" when commencing his own solo career after the break-up of Led Zeppelin. Collins has been championed by modern artists in diverse genres, including indie rock groups The 1975, Generationals, Neon Indian, Yeasayer, St. Lucia and Sleigh Bells, electronica artist Lorde, and soul singer Diane Birch, who said in 2014, \"Collins walks a really fine line between being really cheesy and being really sophisticated. He can seem appalling, but at the same time, he has awesome production values and there's a particular richness to the sound. It's very proficient in the instrumentation and savvy about melodies.\" \n\nGenesis bandmate Mike Rutherford has praised Collins's personality, saying that \"he always had a bloke-next-door, happy-go-lucky demeanour about him: let's have a drink in the pub, crack a joke, smoke a cigarette or a joint\". He has been characterised by favourable critics as a \"rock god\", and an artist who has remained \"down to earth\". In The New Rolling Stone Album Guide, published in 2004, J. D. Considine wrote: \"For a time, Phil Collins was nearly inescapable on the radio, and enormously popular with the listening public—something that made him an obvious target for critics. Despite his lumpen-pop appeal, however, Collins is an incisive songwriter and resourceful musician.\" Creation Records founder Alan McGee wrote in 2009 that there was a \"non-ironic revival of Phil Collins\" happening. According to McGee: \"The kids don't care about 'indie cred' anymore. To them, a great pop song is just that: a great pop song. In this time of revivals, nothing is a sacred cow anymore, and that can only be a good thing for music.\" Commenting on Collins's popularity with hip-hop acts, he argued: \"It's not surprising. Collins is a world-class drummer whose songs immediately lend themselves to being sampled.\"\n\nIn 2010, Gary Mills of The Quietus made an impassioned defence of Collins: \"There can't be many figures in the world of pop who have inspired quite the same kind of hatred-bordering-on-civil-unrest as Collins, and there can't be too many who have shifted anything like the 150 million plus units that he's got through as a solo artist either...The disgrace of a career bogged entirely in the determined dross of No Jacket Required however is simply not justified, regardless of how Collins gained either his fortune, or his public image.\" David Sheppard wrote for the BBC in 2010: \"Granted, Collins has sometimes been guilty of painting the bull’s-eye on his own forehead (that self-aggrandising Live Aid Concorde business, the cringe-worthy lyrics to 'Another Day in Paradise', Buster, etc.), but nonetheless, the sometime Genesis frontman’s canon is so substantial and his hits so profuse that it feels myopic to dismiss him merely as a haughty purveyor of tortured, romantic ballads for the middle income world.\" \n\nRolling Stone journalist Erik Hedegaard has expressed disapproval of the widespread criticism which Collins has received, suggesting that he has been \"unfairly and inexplicably vilified\". Martin C. Strong stated in 2011 that \"the enigmatic and amiable Phil Collins has had his fair share of mockers and critics over the years, although one thing is sure, and that is his dexterity and undeniable talent\". In a piece the following year, titled \"10 Much-Mocked Artists It's Time We Forgave\", New Musical Express critic Anna Conrad said Collins had been portrayed as a \"villain\", and wrote: \"Was the bile really justified?...come on, admit it. You've air drummed to 'In the Air Tonight', and loved it.\" The Guardian journalist Dave Simpson wrote a complimentary article in 2013; while acknowledging \"few pop figures have become as successful and yet reviled as Phil Collins\", he argued \"it's about time we recognised Collins's vast influence as one of the godfathers of popular culture\".\n\nPersonal life\n\nFamily\n\nCollins has been married three times; each has ended in divorce. He married Andrea Bertorelli in 1975. They met as students in a London drama class. They had a son, Simon Collins, who became a vocalist and drummer with the band Sound of Contact. Collins adopted Bertorelli's daughter Joely, who became a Canadian actress and film producer. \n\nCollins met his second wife, U.S. citizen Jill Tavelman, in 1980. They were married from 1984 to 1996. They had one daughter, Lily Collins, born in 1989. \n\nCollins married his third wife, Orianne Cevey, a Swiss national, in 1999. They have two sons, Nicholas and Matthew. They bought Sir Jackie Stewart's former house located in Begnins, Switzerland, overlooking Lake Geneva. Announcing their separation on 16 March 2006, they were divorced on 17 August 2008. Collins continued to live in Switzerland at the time, residing in Féchy, while he also maintained homes in New York City and Dersingham, Norfolk. In 2008, after his wife left him, she and the boys moved to Miami, leaving Collins devastated. He recalled: \"I went through a few bits of darkness; drinking too much. I killed my hours watching TV and drinking, and it almost killed me.\" He revealed in 2015 that he hadn't consumed alcohol in three years. In 2015, Collins then moved to Miami (in a separate home, previously owned by Jennifer Lopez) to be closer to his family. In January 2016, Collins said he was back with his third wife and they were living together in the house he had bought in Miami. \n\nFrom 2007 to 2015, Collins dated CBS 2 WCBS-TV news reporter Dana Tyler. \n\nFortune\n\nCollins was estimated to have a fortune of £115 million in the Sunday Times Rich List of 2011, making him one of the 20 wealthiest people in the British music industry. In 2012 Collins was estimated to be the second wealthiest drummer in the world, beaten to first place by Ringo Starr. \n\nCourt case\n\nOn 29 March 2000, Collins launched a case against two former musicians from his band to recoup £500,000 ($780,000) in royalties that were overpaid. Louis Satterfield, 62, and Rahmlee Davis, 51, claimed their contract entitled them to 0.5 per cent of the royalties from Serious Hits... Live!, a live album recorded during Collins's Seriously, Live! World Tour in 1990. Their claim was they were an integral part of the whole album, but Collins responded the two should only receive royalties from the five tracks in which they were involved. Instead of asking for a return of what Collins considered overpayment, he sought to recoup the funds by withholding future royalties to Satterfield and Davis.\n\nOn 19 April 2000, the High Court ruled that the two musicians would receive no more royalty money from Phil Collins. The amount that Collins was seeking was halved, and Satterfield and Davis (who originally brought the suit forward in California) would not have to repay any of it. The judge agreed with Collins's argument that Satterfield and Davis should have been paid for only the five tracks on which they performed, including the hit \"Sussudio\". \n\nHealth problems\n\nCollins had reportedly lost hearing in his left ear in 2000 due to a viral infection; the condition was resolved after the infection was cured. In September 2009, it was reported that Collins could no longer play the drums, due to a recent operation to repair dislocated vertebrae in his neck. A statement from Collins on the Genesis band website said, \"There isn't any drama regarding my 'disability' and playing drums. Somehow during the last Genesis tour I dislocated some vertebrae in my upper neck and that affected my hands. After a successful operation on my neck, my hands still can't function normally. Maybe in a year or so it will change, but for now it is impossible for me to play drums or piano. I am not in any 'distressed' state; stuff happens in life.\" However, in 2010 Collins alluded to feelings of depression and low self-esteem in recent years, claiming in an interview that he had contemplated committing suicide, but he resisted for the sake of his children. \n\nIn October 2014, Collins told John Wilson on BBC Radio 4's Front Row that he still could not play the drums; he said the problem was not arthritis but an undiagnosed nerve problem where he was unable to \"grip the sticks\". He confirmed in a 2016 interview that he was still unable to drum with the left hand; however, he has also said that after a major back surgery, his doctor advised him that if he wanted to play the drums again, all he needed to do was practice as long as he took it step by step. \n\nHonorary degrees\n\nCollins has received several honorary degrees in recognition of his work in music and his personal interests. In 1987 he received an honorary doctorate of fine arts at Fairleigh Dickinson University. In 1991 he received an honorary doctorate of music at the Berklee College of Music. On 12 May 2012 he received an honorary doctorate of history at the McMurry University in Abilene, Texas, for his research and collection of Texas Revolution artefacts and documents (see other interests section).\n\nPolitics\n\nCollins has often been mentioned erroneously in the British media as being a supporter of the Conservative Party and an opponent of the Labour Party. This derives from the famous article in The Sun, printed on the day of the 1992 UK general election, titled \"If Kinnock wins today will the last person to leave Britain please turn out the lights\", which stated that Collins was among several celebrities who were planning to leave Britain in the event of a Labour victory. \n\nCollins is sometimes reported in the British press to have left the UK and moved to Switzerland in protest at the Labour Party's victory in the 1997 general election. Shortly before the 2005 election (when Collins was living in Switzerland), Labour supporter Noel Gallagher was quoted: \"Vote Labour. If you don't and the Tories get in, Phil Collins is threatening to come back and live here. And let's face it, none of us want that.\" However, Collins has since stated that although he did once claim many years earlier that he might leave Britain if most of his income was taken in tax, which was Labour Party policy at that time for top earners, he has never been a Conservative Party supporter and he left Britain for Switzerland in 1994 purely because he started a relationship with a woman who lived there. He said of Gallagher: \"I don't care if he likes my music or not. I do care if he starts telling people I'm a wanker because of my politics. It's an opinion based on an old misunderstood quote.\" \n\nDespite his statement that he did not leave Britain for tax purposes, Collins was one of several wealthy figures living in tax havens who were singled out for criticism in a 2008 report by the charity Christian Aid. The Independent included Collins as one of their \"ten celebrity tax exiles\", erroneously repeating that he had left the country when Labour won the 1997 general election and that he threatened to return if the Conservatives won in 2005. Referring to the 1997 general election in his article \"Famous men and their misunderstood politics\" for MSN, Hugh Wilson stated: \"Labour won it in a landslide, which just goes to show the influence pop stars really wield\". He also wrote that Collins's reported comments and subsequent move to Switzerland led to \"accusations of hypocrisy\" since he had \"bemoaned the plight of the homeless in the song 'Another Day in Paradise'\", making him \"an easy target when future elections came round\". The Paul Heaton and Jacqui Abbott song \"When I Get Back to Blighty\", from their 2014 album What Have We Become?, made reference to Collins as \"a prisoner to his tax returns\".\n\nQuestioned about his politics by Mark Lawson in an interview for the BBC, broadcast in 2009, Collins said: \"My father was Conservative but it wasn't quite the same, I don't think, when he was alive. Politics never loomed large in our family anyway. I think the politics of the country were very different then.\" In a 2016 interview in The Guardian, Collins stated that talking about politics to The Sun was one of his biggest regrets. When asked whether he had ever voted Conservative, he said: \"I didn’t vote, actually. And that’s not something I’m proud of. I was just so busy that I rarely was here.\" \n\nOther interests\n\nCollins has a long-standing interest in the Alamo. He has collected hundreds of artefacts related to the famous 1836 battle in San Antonio, Texas, narrated a light and sound show about the Alamo, and has spoken at related events. His passion for the Battle of the Alamo has also led him to write the book The Alamo and Beyond: A Collector's Journey, ISBN 978-1-933337-50-0, published in 2012. A short film was released in 2013 called Phil Collins and the Wild Frontier which captures Collins on a book tour in June 2012. On 26 June 2014, a press conference was held from The Alamo, where Collins spoke, announcing that he was donating his entire collection to The Alamo via the State of Texas. On 11 March 2015, in honour of his donation, Collins was named an honorary Texan by the state legislature. \n\nIn common with Rod Stewart and Eric Clapton, Collins is also a model railway enthusiast. \n\nActivism\n\nCollins was appointed a Lieutenant of the Royal Victorian Order (LVO) in 1994, in recognition of his work on behalf of the Prince's Trust. Collins has stated he is a supporter of animal rights and People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA). In 2005 he donated autographed drum sticks in support of PETA's campaign against Kentucky Fried Chicken. \n\nIn February 2000, Collins and his wife Orianne founded Little Dreams Foundation, a non-profit organisation that aims to \"...realise the dreams of children in the fields of sports and art\" by providing future prodigies aged 4 to 16 years with financial, material, and mentoring support with the help of experts in various fields. Collins took the action after receiving letters from children asking him how they could break into the music industry. Mentors to the students who have benefited from his foundation include Tina Turner and Natalie Cole. In 2013 he visited Miami Beach, Florida, to promote the expansion of his foundation. \n\nCollins supports the South African charity Topsy Foundation, which provides relief services to some of South Africa's most under-resourced rural communities through a multi-faceted approach to the consequences of HIV/AIDS and extreme poverty. He donates all the royalties earned from his music sales in South Africa to the organisation. \n\nAwards and nominations\n\nDiscography\n\n;Studio albums\n* Face Value (1981)\n* Hello, I Must Be Going! (1982)\n* No Jacket Required (1985)\n* ...But Seriously (1989)\n* Both Sides (1993)\n* Dance into the Light (1996)\n* Testify (2002)\n* Going Back (2010)\n\nFilmography", "Steven Allan Spielberg (born December 18, 1946) is an American director, producer, screenwriter, and editor. He is considered one of the founding pioneers of the New Hollywood era, as well as being viewed as one of the most popular directors and producers in film history. He is also one of the co-founders of DreamWorks Studios.\n\nIn a prolific career spanning more than four decades, Spielberg's films have spanned many themes and genres. Spielberg's early science-fiction and adventure films, such as Jaws (1975), Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977), Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981), and E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982), were seen as archetypes of modern Hollywood escapist filmmaking. In later years, his films began addressing humanistic issues such as the Holocaust, the transatlantic slave trade, civil rights, war, and terrorism in such films as The Color Purple (1985), Empire of the Sun (1987), Schindler's List (1993), Amistad (1997), Saving Private Ryan (1998), Munich (2005), War Horse (2011), Lincoln (2012), and Bridge of Spies (2015). His other films include Jurassic Park (1993), A.I. Artificial Intelligence (2001), and War of the Worlds (2005).\n\nSpielberg won the Academy Award for Best Director for Schindler's List and Saving Private Ryan, as well as receiving five other nominations. Three of Spielberg's films—Jaws, E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, and Jurassic Park—achieved box office records, originated and came to epitomize the blockbuster film. The unadjusted gross of all Spielberg-directed films exceeds $9 billion worldwide, making him the highest-grossing director in history. His personal net worth is estimated to be more than $3 billion. He is also known for his long-standing associations with several actors, producers, and technicians, most notably composer John Williams, who has composed music for all but two of Spielberg's feature films.\n\nEarly life\n\nSpielberg was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, to an Orthodox Jewish family. His mother, Leah (Adler) Posner (born 1920), was a restaurateur and concert pianist, and his father, Arnold Spielberg (born 1917), was an electrical engineer involved in the development of computers. His paternal grandparents were immigrants from Ukraine who settled in Cincinnati in the first decade of the 1900s. In 1950, his family moved to Haddon Township, New Jersey when his father took a job with RCA. Three years later, the family moved to Phoenix, Arizona. Spielberg attended Hebrew school from 1953 to 1957, in classes taught by Rabbi Albert L. Lewis. \n\nAs a child, Spielberg faced difficulty reconciling being an Orthodox Jew with the perception of him by other children he played with. \"It isn't something I enjoy admitting,\" he once said, \"but when I was seven, eight, nine years old, God forgive me, I was embarrassed because we were Orthodox Jews. I was embarrassed by the outward perception of my parents' Jewish practices. I was never really ashamed to be Jewish, but I was uneasy at times.\" Spielberg also said he suffered from acts of anti-Semitic prejudice and bullying: \"In high school, I got smacked and kicked around. Two bloody noses. It was horrible.\"\n\nHis first home movie was of a train wreck involving his toy Lionel trains, then age 12. Throughout his early teens, and after entering high school, Spielberg continued to make amateur 8 mm \"adventure\" films. \n\nIn 1958, he became a Boy Scout and fulfilled a requirement for the photography merit badge by making a nine-minute 8 mm film entitled The Last Gunfight. Years later, Spielberg recalled to a magazine interviewer, \"My dad's still-camera was broken, so I asked the scoutmaster if I could tell a story with my father's movie camera. He said yes, and I got an idea to do a Western. I made it and got my merit badge. That was how it all started.\" \nAt age thirteen, while living in Phoenix, Spielberg won a prize for a 40-minute war film he titled Escape to Nowhere, using a cast composed of other high school friends. That motivated him to make 15 more amateur 8mm films. In 1963, at age sixteen, Spielberg wrote and directed his first independent film, a 140-minute science fiction adventure called Firelight, which would later inspire Close Encounters. The film was made for $500, most of which came from his father, and was shown in a local cinema for one evening, which earned back its cost. \n\nAfter attending Arcadia High School in Phoenix for three years, his family next moved to Saratoga, California where he later graduated from Saratoga High School in 1965. He attained the rank of Eagle Scout. His parents divorced while he was still in school, and soon after he graduated Spielberg moved to Los Angeles, staying initially with his father. His long-term goal was to become a film director. His three sisters and mother remained in Saratoga.\n\nIn Los Angeles, he applied to the University of Southern California's film school, but was turned down because of his \"C\" grade average.Fischer, Dennis. Science Fiction Film Directors, 1895-1998, McFarland & Co. (2000) He then applied and was admitted to California State University, Long Beach, where he majored in English, and became a brother of Theta Chi Fraternity. \n\nWhile still a student, he was offered a small unpaid intern job at Universal Studios with the editing department. He was later given the opportunity to make a short film for theatrical release, the 26-minute, 35mm, Amblin', which he wrote and directed. Studio vice president Sidney Sheinberg was impressed by the film, which had won a number of awards, and offered Spielberg a seven-year directing contract. It made him the youngest director ever to be signed for a long-term deal with a major Hollywood studio. He subsequently dropped out of college to begin professionally directing TV productions with Universal. \n\nCareer\n\n1970s\n\nHis first professional TV job came when he was hired to direct one of the segments for the 1969 pilot episode of Night Gallery. The segment, \"Eyes,\" starred Joan Crawford; she and Spielberg were reportedly close friends until her death. The episode is unusual in his body of work, in that the camerawork is more highly stylized than his later, more \"mature\" films. After this, and an episode of Marcus Welby, M.D., Spielberg got his first feature-length assignment: an episode of The Name of the Game called \"L.A. 2017\". This futuristic science fiction episode impressed Universal Studios and they signed him to a short contract. He did another segment on Night Gallery and did some work for shows such as Owen Marshall: Counselor at Law and The Psychiatrist, before landing the first series episode of Columbo (previous episodes were actually TV films).\n\nBased on the strength of his work, Universal signed Spielberg to do four TV films. The first was a Richard Matheson adaptation called Duel. The film is about a psychotic Peterbilt 281 tanker truck driver who chases the terrified driver (Dennis Weaver) of a small Plymouth Valiant and tries to run him off the road. Special praise of this film by the influential British critic Dilys Powell was highly significant to Spielberg's career. Another TV film (Something Evil) was made and released to capitalize on the popularity of The Exorcist, then a major best-selling book which had not yet been released as a film. He fulfilled his contract by directing the TV film-length pilot of a show called Savage, starring Martin Landau. Spielberg's debut full-length feature film was The Sugarland Express, about a married couple who are chased by police as the couple tries to regain custody of their baby. Spielberg's cinematography for the police chase was praised by reviewers, and The Hollywood Reporter stated that \"a major new director is on the horizon.\" However, the film fared poorly at the box office and received a limited release.\n\nStudio producers Richard D. Zanuck and David Brown offered Spielberg the director's chair for Jaws, a thriller-horror film based on the Peter Benchley novel about an enormous killer shark. Spielberg has often referred to the gruelling shoot as his professional crucible. Despite the film's ultimate, enormous success, it was nearly shut down due to delays and budget over-runs. But Spielberg persevered and finished the film. It was an enormous hit, winning three Academy Awards (for editing, original score and sound) and grossing more than $470 million worldwide at the box office. It also set the domestic record for box office gross, leading to what the press described as \"Jawsmania.\" Jaws made Spielberg a household name and one of America's youngest multi-millionaires, allowing him a great deal of autonomy for his future projects. It was nominated for Best Picture and featured Spielberg's first of three collaborations with actor Richard Dreyfuss.\n\nRejecting offers to direct Jaws 2, King Kong and Superman, Spielberg and actor Richard Dreyfuss re-convened to work on a film about UFOs, which became Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977). One of the rare films both written and directed by Spielberg, Close Encounters was a critical and box office hit, giving Spielberg his first Best Director nomination from the Academy as well as earning six other Academy Awards nominations. It won Oscars in two categories (Cinematography, Vilmos Zsigmond, and a Special Achievement Award for Sound Effects Editing, Frank E. Warner). This second blockbuster helped to secure Spielberg's rise. His next film, 1941, a big-budgeted World War II farce, was not nearly as successful and though it grossed over $92.4 million worldwide (and did make a small profit for co-producing studios Columbia and Universal) it was seen as a disappointment, mainly with the critics. \n\nSpielberg then revisited his Close Encounters project and, with financial backing from Columbia Pictures, released Close Encounters: The Special Edition in 1980. For this, Spielberg fixed some of the flaws he thought impeded the original 1977 version of the film and also, at the behest of Columbia, and as a condition of Spielberg revising the film, shot additional footage showing the audience the interior of the mothership seen at the end of the film (a decision Spielberg would later regret as he felt the interior of the mothership should have remained a mystery). Nevertheless, the re-release was a moderate success, while the 2001 DVD release of the film restored the original ending.\n\n1980s\n\nNext, Spielberg teamed with Star Wars creator and friend George Lucas on an action adventure film, Raiders of the Lost Ark, the first of the Indiana Jones films. The archaeologist and adventurer hero Indiana Jones was played by Harrison Ford (whom Lucas had previously cast in his Star Wars films as Han Solo). The film was considered an homage to the cliffhanger serials of the Golden Age of Hollywood. It became the biggest film at the box office in 1981, and the recipient of numerous Oscar nominations including Best Director (Spielberg's second nomination) and Best Picture (the second Spielberg film to be nominated for Best Picture). Raiders is still considered a landmark example of the action-adventure genre. The film also led to Ford's casting in Ridley Scott's Blade Runner. \n\nA year later, Spielberg returned to the science fiction genre with E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial. It was the story of a young boy and the alien he befriends, who was accidentally left behind by his companions and is attempting to return home. E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial went on to become the top-grossing film of all time. E.T. was also nominated for nine Academy Awards including Best Picture and Best Director.\n\nBetween 1982 and 1985, Spielberg produced three high-grossing films: Poltergeist (for which he also co-wrote the screenplay), a big-screen adaptation of The Twilight Zone (for which he directed the segment \"Kick The Can\"), and The Goonies (Spielberg, executive producer, also wrote the story on which the screenplay was based). Spielberg appeared in a cameo on Cyndi Lauper's music video for the movie's theme song, \"The Goonies 'R' Good Enough\". \n\nHis next directorial feature was the Raiders prequel Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom. Teaming up once again with Lucas and Ford, the film was plagued with uncertainty for the material and script. This film and the Spielberg-produced Gremlins led to the creation of the PG-13 rating due to the high level of violence in films targeted at younger audiences. In spite of this, Temple of Doom is rated PG by the MPAA, even though it is the darkest and, possibly, most violent Indy film. Nonetheless, the film was still a huge blockbuster hit in 1984. It was on this project that Spielberg also met his future wife, actress Kate Capshaw.\n\nIn 1985, Spielberg released The Color Purple, an adaptation of Alice Walker's Pulitzer Prize-winning novel of the same name, about a generation of empowered African-American women during depression-era America. Starring Whoopi Goldberg and future talk-show superstar Oprah Winfrey, the film was a box office smash and critics hailed Spielberg's successful foray into the dramatic genre. Roger Ebert proclaimed it the best film of the year and later entered it into his Great Films archive. The film received eleven Academy Award nominations, including two for Goldberg and Winfrey. However, much to the surprise of many, Spielberg did not get a Best Director nomination.\n\nIn 1987, as China began opening to Western capital investment, Spielberg shot the first American film in Shanghai since the 1930s, an adaptation of J. G. Ballard's autobiographical novel Empire of the Sun, starring John Malkovich and a young Christian Bale. The film garnered much praise from critics and was nominated for several Oscars, but did not yield substantial box office revenues. Reviewer Andrew Sarris called it the best film of the year and later included it among the best films of the decade. Spielberg was also a co-producer of the 1987 film *batteries not included.\n\nAfter two forays into more serious dramatic films, Spielberg then directed the third Indiana Jones film, 1989's Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade. Once again teaming up with Lucas and Ford, Spielberg also cast actor Sean Connery in a supporting role as Indy's father. The film earned generally positive reviews and was another box office success, becoming the highest-grossing film worldwide that year; its total box office receipts even topped those of Tim Burton's much-anticipated film Batman, which had been the bigger hit domestically. Also in 1989, he re-united with actor Richard Dreyfuss for the romantic comedy-drama Always, about a daredevil pilot who extinguishes forest fires. Spielberg's first romantic film, Always was only a moderate success and had mixed reviews.\n\n1990s\n\nIn 1991, Spielberg directed Hook, about a middle-aged Peter Pan, played by Robin Williams, who returns to Neverland. Despite innumerable rewrites and creative changes coupled with mixed reviews, the film proved popular with audiences, making over $300 million worldwide (from a $70 million budget).\n\nIn 1993, Spielberg returned to the adventure genre with the film version of Michael Crichton's novel Jurassic Park, about a theme park with genetically engineered dinosaurs. With revolutionary special effects provided by friend George Lucas's Industrial Light & Magic company, the film would eventually become the highest-grossing film of all time (at the worldwide box office) with $914.7 million. This would be the third time that one of Spielberg's films became the highest-grossing film ever.\n\nSpielberg's next film, Schindler's List, was based on the true story of Oskar Schindler, a man who risked his life to save 1,100 Jews from the Holocaust. Schindler's List earned Spielberg his first Academy Award for Best Director (it also won Best Picture). With the film a huge success at the box office, Spielberg used the profits to set up the Shoah Foundation, a non-profit organization that archives filmed testimony of Holocaust survivors. In 1997, the American Film Institute listed it among the 10 Greatest American Films ever Made (#9) which moved up to (#8) when the list was remade in 2007.\n\nIn 1994, Spielberg took a hiatus from directing to spend more time with his family and build his new studio, DreamWorks, with partners Jeffrey Katzenberg and David Geffen. In 1996, he directed the sequel to 1993's Jurassic Park with The Lost World: Jurassic Park, which generated over $618 million worldwide despite mixed reviews, and was the second biggest film of 1997 behind James Cameron's Titanic (which topped the original Jurassic Park to become the new recordholder for box office receipts).\n\nHis next film, Amistad, was based on a true story (like Schindler's List), specifically about an African slave rebellion. Despite decent reviews from critics, it did not do well at the box office. Spielberg released Amistad under DreamWorks Pictures, which has produced all of his films from Amistad onwards with the exception of Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, The Adventures of Tintin and Ready Player One. \n\nIn 1998, Spielberg re-visited Close Encounters yet again, this time for a more definitive 137-minute \"Collector's Edition\" that puts more emphasis on the original 1977 release, while adding some elements of the previous 1980 \"Special Edition,\" but deleting the latter version's \"Mothership Finale,\" which Spielberg regretted shooting in the first place, feeling it should have remained ambiguous in the minds of viewers.\n\nHis next theatrical release in that same year was the World War II film Saving Private Ryan, about a group of U.S. soldiers led by Capt. Miller (Tom Hanks) sent to bring home a paratrooper whose three older brothers were killed in the same twenty-four hours, June 5–6, of the Normandy landing. The film was a huge box office success, grossing over $481 million worldwide and was the biggest film of the year at the North American box office (worldwide it made second place after Michael Bay's Armageddon). Spielberg won his second Academy Award for his direction. The film's graphic, realistic depiction of combat violence influenced later war films such as Black Hawk Down and Enemy at the Gates. The film was also the first major hit for DreamWorks, which co-produced the film with Paramount Pictures (as such, it was Spielberg's first release from the latter that was not part of the Indiana Jones series). Later, Spielberg and Tom Hanks produced a TV mini-series based on Stephen Ambrose's book Band of Brothers. The ten-part HBO mini-series follows Easy Company of the 101st Airborne Division's 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment. The series won a number of awards at the Golden Globes and the Emmys.\n\n2000s\n\nIn 2001, Spielberg filmed fellow director and friend Stanley Kubrick's final project, A.I. Artificial Intelligence which Kubrick was unable to begin during his lifetime. A futuristic film about a humanoid android longing for love, A.I. featured groundbreaking visual effects and a multi-layered, allegorical storyline, adapted by Spielberg himself. Though the film's reception in the US was relatively muted, it performed better overseas for a worldwide total box office gross of $236 million.\n\nSpielberg and actor Tom Cruise collaborated for the first time for the futuristic neo-noir Minority Report, based upon the science fiction short story written by Philip K. Dick about a Washington D.C. police captain in the year 2054 who has been foreseen to murder a man he has not yet met. The film received strong reviews with the review tallying website Rotten Tomatoes giving it a 92% approval rating, reporting that 206 out of the 225 reviews they tallied were positive. The film earned over $358 million worldwide. Roger Ebert, who named it the best film of 2002, praised its breathtaking vision of the future as well as for the way Spielberg blended CGI with live-action. \n\nSpielberg's 2002 film Catch Me If You Can is about the daring adventures of a youthful con artist (played by Leonardo DiCaprio). It earned Christopher Walken an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor. The film is known for John Williams' score and its unique title sequence. It was a hit both commercially and critically. \n\nSpielberg collaborated again with Tom Hanks along with Catherine Zeta-Jones and Stanley Tucci in 2004's The Terminal, a warm-hearted comedy about a man of Eastern European descent who is stranded in an airport. It received mixed reviews but performed relatively well at the box office. In 2005, Empire magazine ranked Spielberg number one on a list of the greatest film directors of all time.\n\nAlso in 2005, Spielberg directed a modern adaptation of War of the Worlds (a co-production of Paramount and DreamWorks), based on the H. G. Wells book of the same name (Spielberg had been a huge fan of the book and the original 1953 film). It starred Tom Cruise and Dakota Fanning, and, as with past Spielberg films, Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) provided the visual effects. Unlike E.T. and Close Encounters of the Third Kind, which depicted friendly alien visitors, War of the Worlds featured violent invaders. The film was another huge box office smash, grossing over $591 million worldwide.\n\nSpielberg's film Munich, about the events following the 1972 Munich Massacre of Israeli athletes at the Olympic Games, was his second film essaying Jewish relations in the world (the first being Schindler's List). The film is based on Vengeance, a book by Canadian journalist George Jonas. It was previously adapted into the 1986 made-for-TV film Sword of Gideon. The film received strong critical praise, but underperformed at the U.S. and world box-office; it remains one of Spielberg's most controversial films to date. Munich received five Academy Awards nominations, including Best Picture, Film Editing, Original Music Score (by John Williams), Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Director for Spielberg. It was Spielberg's sixth Best Director nomination and fifth Best Picture nomination.\n\nIn June 2006, Steven Spielberg announced he would direct a scientifically accurate film about \"a group of explorers who travel through a worm hole and into another dimension\", from a treatment by Kip Thorne and producer Lynda Obst. In January 2007, screenwriter Jonathan Nolan met with them to discuss adapting Obst and Thorne's treatment into a narrative screenplay. The screenwriter suggested the addition of a \"time element\" to the treatment's basic idea, which was welcomed by Obst and Thorne. In March of that year, Paramount hired Nolan, as well as scientists from Caltech, forming a workshop to adapt the treatment under the title Interstellar. The following July, Kip Thorne said there was a push by people for him to portray himself in the film. Spielberg later abandoned Interstellar, which was eventually directed by Christopher Nolan. \n\nSpielberg directed Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, which wrapped filming in October 2007 and was released on May 22, 2008. This was his first film not to be released by DreamWorks since 1997. The film received generally positive reviews from critics, and was financially successful, grossing $786 million worldwide.\n\n2010s\n\nIn early 2009, Spielberg shot the first film in a planned trilogy of motion capture films based on The Adventures of Tintin, written by Belgian artist Hergé, with Peter Jackson. The Adventures of Tintin: The Secret of the Unicorn, was not released until October 2011, due to the complexity of the computer animation involved. The world premiere took place on October 22, 2011 in Brussels, Belgium. The film was released in North American theaters on December 21, 2011, in Digital 3D and IMAX. It received generally positive reviews from critics, and grossed over $373 million worldwide. The Adventures of Tintin won the award for Best Animated Feature Film at the Golden Globe Awards that year. It is the first non-Pixar film to win the award since the category was first introduced. Jackson has been announced to direct the second film. \n\nSpielberg followed with War Horse, shot in England in the summer of 2010. It was released just four days after The Adventures of Tintin, on December 25, 2011. The film, based on the novel of the same name written by Michael Morpurgo and published in 1982, follows the long friendship between a British boy and his horse Joey before and during World War I – the novel was also adapted into a hit play in London which is still running there, as well as on Broadway. The film was released and distributed by Walt Disney Studios, with whom DreamWorks made a distribution deal in 2009; War Horse was the first of four consecutive Spielberg films released by Disney. War Horse received generally positive reviews from critics, and was nominated for six Academy Awards, including Best Picture. \n\nSpielberg next directed the historical drama film Lincoln, starring Daniel Day-Lewis as United States President Abraham Lincoln and Sally Field as Mary Todd Lincoln. Based on Doris Kearns Goodwin's bestseller Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln, the film covered the final four months of Lincoln's life. Written by Tony Kushner, the film was shot in Richmond, Virginia, in late 2011, and was released in the United States in November 2012. Upon release, Lincoln received widespread critical acclaim, and was nominated for twelve Academy Awards (the most of any film that year) including Best Picture and Best Director for Spielberg. It won the award for Best Production Design and Day-Lewis won the Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of Lincoln, becoming the first three time winner in that category as well as the first to win for a performance directed by Spielberg.\n\nIt was announced on May 2, 2013, that Spielberg would direct the film about the story of U.S. sniper Chris Kyle, titled American Sniper. However, on August 5, 2013, it was announced that Spielberg had decided not to direct the film, which was instead directed by Clint Eastwood. \n\nSpielberg directed 2015's Bridge of Spies, a Cold War thriller based on the 1960 U-2 incident, and focusing on James B. Donovan's negotiations with the Soviets for the release of pilot Gary Powers after his aircraft was shot down over Soviet territory. The film starred Tom Hanks as Donovan, as well as Mark Rylance, Amy Ryan, and Alan Alda, with a script by the Coen brothers. The film was shot from September to December 2014 on location in New York City, Berlin and Wroclaw, Poland (which doubled for East Berlin), and was released on October 16, 2015. Bridge of Spies received positive reviews from critics, and was nominated for six Academy Awards, including Best Picture; Rylance won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, becoming the second actor to win for a performance directed by Spielberg.\n\nSpielberg's The BFG is an adaptation of Roald Dahl's celebrated children's story, starring newcomer Ruby Barnhill, and Rylance as the titular Big Friendly Giant. DreamWorks bought the rights in 2010, originally intending John Madden to direct. The film was the last to be written by E.T. screenwriter Melissa Mathison before she died. It was co-produced and released by Walt Disney Pictures, marking the first Disney-branded film to be directed by Spielberg. The BFG premiered out of competition at the Cannes Film Festival on May 14, 2016 and received a wide release in the US on July 1, 2016.\n\nProduction credits\n\nSince the mid-1980s, Spielberg has increased his role as a film producer. He headed up the production team for several cartoons, including the Warner Bros. hits Tiny Toon Adventures, Animaniacs, Pinky and the Brain, Toonsylvania, and Freakazoid!, for which he collaborated with Jean MacCurdy and Tom Ruegger. Due to his work on these series, in the official titles, most of them say, \"Steven Spielberg presents\" as well as making numerous cameos on the shows. Spielberg also produced the Don Bluth animated features, An American Tail and The Land Before Time, which were released by Universal Studios. He also served as one of the executive producers of Who Framed Roger Rabbit and its three related shorts (Tummy Trouble, Roller Coaster Rabbit, Trail Mix-Up), which were all released by Disney, under both the Walt Disney Pictures and the Touchstone Pictures banners. He was furthermore, for a short time, the executive producer of the long-running medical drama ER. In 1989, he brought the concept of The Dig to LucasArts. He contributed to the project from that time until 1995 when the game was released. He also collaborated with software publishers Knowledge Adventure on the multimedia game Steven Spielberg's Director's Chair, which was released in 1996. Spielberg appears, as himself, in the game to direct the player. The Spielberg name provided branding for a Lego Moviemaker kit, the proceeds of which went to the Starbright Foundation.\n\nIn 1993, Spielberg acted as executive producer for the highly anticipated television series seaQuest DSV; a science fiction series set \"in the near future\" starring Roy Scheider (who Spielberg had directed in Jaws) and Jonathan Brandis that aired on Sundays at 8:00 pm. on NBC. While the first season was moderately successful, the second season did less well. Spielberg's name no longer appeared in the third season and the show was cancelled midway through it.\n\nSpielberg served as an uncredited executive producer on The Haunting, The Prince of Egypt, Just Like Heaven, Shrek, Road to Perdition, and Evolution. He served as an executive producer for the 1997 film Men in Black, and its sequels, Men in Black II and Men in Black III. In 2005, he served as a producer of Memoirs of a Geisha, an adaptation of the novel by Arthur Golden, a film to which he was previously attached as director. In 2006, Spielberg co-executive produced with famed filmmaker Robert Zemeckis a CGI children's film called Monster House, marking their eighth collaboration since 1990's Back to the Future Part III. He also teamed with Clint Eastwood for the first time in their careers, co-producing Eastwood's Flags of Our Fathers and Letters from Iwo Jima with Robert Lorenz and Eastwood himself. He earned his twelfth Academy Award nomination for the latter film as it was nominated for Best Picture. Spielberg served as executive producer for Disturbia and the Transformers live action film with Brian Goldner, an employee of Hasbro. The film was directed by Michael Bay and written by Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman, and Spielberg continued to collaborate on the sequels, Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen and Transformers: Dark of the Moon. In 2011, he produced the J. J. Abrams science fiction thriller film Super 8 for Paramount Pictures. \n\nOther major television series Spielberg produced were Band of Brothers, Taken and The Pacific. He was an executive producer on the critically acclaimed 2005 TV miniseries Into the West which won two Emmy awards, including one for Geoff Zanelli's score. For his 2010 miniseries The Pacific he teamed up once again with co-producer Tom Hanks, with Gary Goetzman also co-producing'. The miniseries is believed to have cost $250 million and is a 10-part war miniseries centered on the battles in the Pacific Theater during World War II. Writer Bruce McKenna, who penned several installments of (Band of Brothers), was the head writer.\n\nIn 2007, Steven Spielberg and Mark Burnett co-produced On the Lot a short-lived TV reality show about filmmaking. Despite this, he never gave up working on television. He currently serves as one of the executive producers on United States of Tara, a show created by Academy Award winner Diablo Cody which they developed together (Spielberg is uncredited as creator).\n\nIn 2011, Spielberg launched Falling Skies, a science fiction television series, on the TNT network. He developed the series with Robert Rodat and is credited as an executive producer. Spielberg is also producing the Fox TV series Terra Nova. Terra Nova begins in the year 2149 when all life on the planet Earth is threatened with extinction resulting in scientists opening a door that allows people to travel back 85 million years to prehistoric times. Spielberg also produced The River, Smash, Under the Dome, Extant and The Whispers, as well as a TV adaptation of Minority Report. \n\nIn 2008, Spielberg and DreamWorks acquired the rights to produce a live-action film adaptation of the original Ghost in the Shell manga. Avi Arad and Steven Paul were later confirmed as producers, Rupert Sanders directed, and Scarlett Johansson stars in the lead role. \n\nIn March 2013, Spielberg announced that he was \"developing a Stanley Kubrick screenplay for a miniseries, not for a motion picture, about the life of Napoleon.\" In May 2016 it was announced that Cary Fukunaga is in talks to direct the miniseries for HBO, from a script by David Lenland based on extensive research materials accumulated by Kubrick over many years. \n\nActing credits\n\nSpielberg had cameo roles in The Blues Brothers, Gremlins, Vanilla Sky, and Austin Powers in Goldmember, as well as small uncredited cameos in a handful of other films, such as a life-station worker in Jaws. He also made numerous cameo roles in the Warner Bros. cartoons he produced, such as Animaniacs, and even made reference to some of his films. Spielberg voiced himself in the film Paul, and in one episode of Tiny Toon Adventures titled Buster and Babs Go Hawaiian.\n\nInvolvement in video games\n\nApart from being an ardent gamer Spielberg has had a long history of involvement in video games. He has been giving thanks to his games of his division DreamWorks Interactive most notable as Someone's in the Kitchen with script written by Animaniacs' Paul Rugg, Goosebumps: Escape from HorrorLand, The Neverhood (all in 1996), Skullmonkeys, Dilbert's Desktop Games, Goosebumps: Attack of the Mutant (all 1997), Boombots (1999), T'ai Fu: Wrath of the Tiger (1999), and Clive Barker's Undying (2001). In 2005 the director signed with Electronic Arts to collaborate on three games including an action game and an award winning puzzle game for the Wii called Boom Blox (and its 2009 sequel: Boom Blox Bash Party). Previously, he was involved in creating the scenario for the adventure game The Dig. In 1996, Spielberg worked on and shot original footage for a movie-making simulation game called Steven Spielberg's Director's Chair. He is the creator of the Medal of Honor series by Electronic Arts. He is credited in the special thanks section of the 1998 video game Trespasser. In 2013, Spielberg has announced he is collaborating with 343 Industries for a live-action TV show of Halo. \n\nUpcoming projects\n\nSpielberg began filming an adaptation of the popular sci-fi novel Ready Player One by Ernest Cline in London in July 2016, starring Tye Sheridan, Olivia Cooke, Ben Mendelsohn, Simon Pegg and Mark Rylance. It was originally slated to be released on December 15, 2017 by Warner Bros., but was pushed back to March 30, 2018, to avoid competition with Star Wars Episode VIII. \n\nAfter completing filming on Ready Player One, while it is in its lengthy, effects-heavy post-production, he will film his long-planned adaptation of David Kertzer's acclaimed The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara. The book follows the true story of a young Jewish boy in 1858 Italy who was secretly baptized by a family servant and then kidnapped from his family by the Papal States, where he was raised and trained as a priest, causing international outrage and becoming a media sensation. First announced in 2014, the book has been adapted by Tony Kushner and the film will again star Mark Rylance, in his fourth consecutive collaboration with Spielberg, in the role of Pope Pius IX. It will also star Oscar Isaac. It will be filmed in early 2017 for release at the end of that year, before Ready Player One is completed and released in 2018. \n\nSpielberg will follow that with a fifth installment in the Indiana Jones series. The untitled film is set to star Harrison Ford and will be produced by Kathleen Kennedy and Frank Marshall. It is being written by David Koepp, who has written numerous other films for Spielberg, including the last Indiana Jones film. It will be released by Disney on July 19, 2019. \n\nSpielberg is attached to direct Cortes, a historical epic written by Steven Zaillian about the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire, and Cortes's relationship with Aztec ruler Montezuma. The script is based on an earlier one from 1965 by Oscar-winner Dalton Trumbo. The project at one time had Javier Bardem attached to play the lead role of explorer Hernán Cortés.\n\nSpielberg is attached to direct an adaptation of American photojournalist Lynsey Addario's memoir It's What I Do. Jennifer Lawrence is attached to star in the lead role. \n\nProjects on hold\n\nSpielberg was scheduled to shoot a $200 million adaptation of Daniel H. Wilson's novel Robopocalypse, adapted for the screen by Drew Goddard. The film would follow a global human war against a robot uprising about 15–20 years in the future. Like Lincoln, it was to be released by Disney in the United States and Fox overseas. It was set for release on April 25, 2014, with Anne Hathaway and Chris Hemsworth set to star, but Spielberg postponed production indefinitely in January 2013, just before it had been set to begin. \n\nIn 2009, Spielberg reportedly tried to obtain the screen rights to make a film based on Microsoft's Halo series. In September 2008, Steven Spielberg bought film rights for John Wyndham's novel Chocky and is interested in directing it. He is also interested in making an adaptation of A Steady Rain, Pirate Latitudes, The 39 Clues, and a remake of When Worlds Collide.\n\nIn May 2009, Steven Spielberg bought the rights to the life story of Martin Luther King, Jr. Spielberg will be involved not only as producer but also as a director. However, the purchase was made from the King estate, led by son Dexter, while the two other surviving children, the Reverend Bernice and Martin III, immediately threatened to sue, not having given their approvals to the project. \n\nSpielberg has also considered directing a remake of West Side Story. \n\nThemes\n\nSpielberg's films often deal with several recurring themes. Most of his films deal with ordinary characters searching for or coming in contact with extraordinary beings or finding themselves in extraordinary circumstances. In an AFI interview in August 2000 Spielberg commented on his interest in the possibility of extra terrestrial life and how it has influenced some of his films. Spielberg described himself as feeling like an alien during childhood, and his interest came from his father, a science fiction fan, and his opinion that aliens would not travel light years for conquest, but instead curiosity and sharing of knowledge. \n\nA strong consistent theme in his family-friendly work is a childlike sense of wonder and faith, as attested by works such as Close Encounters of the Third Kind, E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, Hook, A.I. Artificial Intelligence and The BFG. According to Warren Buckland, these themes are portrayed through the use of low height camera tracking shots, which have become one of Spielberg's directing trademarks. In the cases when his films include children (E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, Empire of the Sun, Jurassic Park, etc.), this type of shot is more apparent, but it is also used in films like Munich, Saving Private Ryan, The Terminal, Minority Report, and Amistad. If one views each of his films, one will see this shot utilized by the director, notably the water scenes in Jaws are filmed from the low-angle perspective of someone swimming. Another child oriented theme in Spielberg's films is that of loss of innocence and coming-of-age. In Empire of the Sun, Jim, a well-groomed and spoiled English youth, loses his innocence as he suffers through World War II China. Similarly, in Catch Me If You Can, Frank naively and foolishly believes that he can reclaim his shattered family if he accumulates enough money to support them.\n\nThe most persistent theme throughout his films is tension in parent-child relationships. Parents (often fathers) are reluctant, absent or ignorant. Peter Banning in Hook starts off in the beginning of the film as a reluctant married-to-his-work parent who through the course of the film regains the respect of his children. The notable absence of Elliott's father in E.T., is the most famous example of this theme. In Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, it is revealed that Indy has always had a very strained relationship with his father, who is a professor of medieval literature, as his father always seemed more interested in his work, specifically in his studies of the Holy Grail, than in his own son, although his father does not seem to realize or understand the negative effect that his aloof nature had on Indy (he even believes he was a good father in the sense that he taught his son \"self reliance,\" which is not how Indy saw it). Even Oskar Schindler, from Schindler's List, is reluctant to have a child with his wife. Munich depicts Avner as a man away from his wife and newborn daughter. There are of course exceptions; Brody in Jaws is a committed family man, while John Anderton in Minority Report is a shattered man after the disappearance of his son. This theme is arguably the most autobiographical aspect of Spielberg's films, since Spielberg himself was affected by his parents' divorce as a child and by the absence of his father. Furthermore, to this theme, protagonists in his films often come from families with divorced parents, most notably E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (protagonist Elliot's mother is divorced) and Catch Me If You Can (Frank Abagnale's mother and father split early on in the film). Little known also is Tim in Jurassic Park (early in the film, another secondary character mentions Tim and Lex's parents' divorce). The family often shown divided is often resolved in the ending as well. Following this theme of reluctant fathers and father figures, Tim looks to Dr. Alan Grant as a father figure. Initially, Dr. Grant is reluctant to return those paternal feelings to Tim. However, by the end of the film, he has changed, and the kids even fall asleep with their heads on his shoulders.\n\nMost of his films are generally optimistic in nature. Though some critics accuse his films of being a little overly sentimental, Spielberg feels it is fine as long as it is disguised. He is still a highly praised director as well as being credited as one of the most influential directors of all time. The influence comes from directors Frank Capra and John Ford. \n\nFrequent collaborators\n\nActors\n\nIn terms of casting and production itself, Spielberg has a known penchant for working with actors and production members from his previous films. For instance, he has cast Richard Dreyfuss in several films: Jaws, Close Encounters of the Third Kind, and Always. Aside from his role as Indiana Jones, Spielberg also cast Harrison Ford as a headteacher in E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (though the scene was ultimately cut). Although Spielberg directed veteran voice actor Frank Welker only once (in Raiders of the Lost Ark, for which he voiced many of the animals), Welker has lent his voice in a number of productions Spielberg has executive produced from Gremlins to its sequel Gremlins 2: The New Batch, as well as The Land Before Time, Who Framed Roger Rabbit, and television shows such as Tiny Toons, Animaniacs, and SeaQuest DSV. Spielberg has used Tom Hanks on several occasions and has cast him in Saving Private Ryan, Catch Me If You Can, The Terminal, and Bridge of Spies. Spielberg has collaborated with Tom Cruise twice on Minority Report and War of the Worlds, and cast Shia LaBeouf in five films: Transformers, Eagle Eye, Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen, and Transformers: Dark of the Moon. Spielberg cast Mark Rylance in Bridge of Spies and The BFG, as well as the upcoming Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara and Ready Player One.\n\nOther collaborations\n\nSpielberg prefers working with production members with whom he has developed an existing working relationship. An example of this is his production relationship with Kathleen Kennedy who has served as producer on all his major films from E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial to the recent Lincoln. For cinematography, Allen Daviau, a childhood friend and cinematographer, shot the early Spielberg film Amblin and most of his films up to Empire of the Sun; Janusz Kamiński who has shot every Spielberg film since Schindler's List (see List of film director and cinematographer collaborations); and the film editor Michael Kahn who has edited every film directed by Spielberg from Close Encounters to Munich (except E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial). Most of the DVDs of Spielberg's films have documentaries by Laurent Bouzereau.\n\nA famous example of Spielberg working with the same professionals is his long-time collaboration with John Williams and the use of his musical scores in all of his films since The Sugarland Express (except Bridge of Spies, The Color Purple and Twilight Zone: The Movie). One of Spielberg's trademarks is his use of music by Williams to add to the visual impact of his scenes and to try and create a lasting picture and sound of the film in the memories of the film audience. These visual scenes often uses images of the sun (e.g. Empire of the Sun, Saving Private Ryan, the final scene of Jurassic Park, and the end credits of Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (where they ride into the sunset)), of which the last two feature a Williams score at that end scene. Spielberg is a contemporary of filmmakers George Lucas, Francis Ford Coppola, Martin Scorsese, John Milius, and Brian De Palma, collectively known as the \"Movie Brats\". Aside from his principal role as a director, Spielberg has acted as a producer for a considerable number of films, including early hits for Joe Dante and Robert Zemeckis. Spielberg has often never worked with the same screenwriter in his films, beside Tony Kushner and David Koepp, who have written a few of his films more than once.\n\nPersonal life\n\nMarriages and children\n\nSpielberg first met actress Amy Irving in 1976 at the suggestion of director Brian De Palma, who knew he was looking for an actress to play in Close Encounters. After meeting her, Spielberg told his co-producer Julia Phillips, \"I met a real heartbreaker last night.\" Although she was too young for the role, she and Spielberg began dating and she eventually moved in to what she described as his \"bachelor funky\" house. They lived together for four years, but the stresses of their professional careers took a toll on their relationship. Irving wanted to be certain that whatever success she attained as an actress would be her own: \"I don't want to be known as Steven's girlfriend,\" she said, and chose not to be in any of his films during those years.\n\nAs a result, they broke up in 1979, but remained close friends. Then in 1984 they renewed their romance, and in November 1985, they married, already having had a son, Max Samuel. After three and a half years of marriage, however, many of the same competing stresses of their careers caused them to divorce in 1989. They agreed to maintain homes near each other as to facilitate the shared custody and parenting of their son. Their divorce was recorded as the third most costly celebrity divorce in history. \n\nSpielberg subsequently developed a relationship with actress Kate Capshaw, whom he met when he cast her in Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom. They married on October 12, 1991. Capshaw is a convert to Judaism. They currently move among their four homes in Pacific Palisades, California; New York City; Quelle Farm, Georgica Pond in East Hampton, New York, on Long Island; and Naples, Florida.\n\nThere are seven children in the Spielberg-Capshaw family:\n* Jessica Capshaw (born August 9, 1976) – daughter from Kate Capshaw's previous marriage to Robert Capshaw\n* Max Samuel Spielberg (born June 13, 1985) – son from Spielberg's previous marriage to actress Amy Irving\n* Theo Spielberg (born August 21, 1988) – son adopted by Capshaw before her marriage to Spielberg, who later also adopted him \n* Sasha Rebecca Spielberg (born May 14, 1990, Los Angeles)\n* Sawyer Avery Spielberg (born March 10, 1992, Los Angeles)\n* Mikaela George (born February 28, 1996) – adopted with Kate Capshaw\n* Destry Allyn Spielberg (born December 1, 1996)\n\nReligion\n\nSpielberg grew up in a Jewish household, including having a bar mitzvah ceremony in Phoenix when he turned 13. He grew away from Judaism after his family moved to various cities during his high school years, where they became the only Jews in the neighborhood. Before those years, his family was involved in the synagogue and had many Jewish friends and nearby relatives.\n\nHe remembers his grandparents telling him about their life in Russia, where they were subjected to religious persecution, causing them to eventually flee to the United States. He was made aware of the Holocaust by his parents, who he says “talked about it all the time, and so it was always on my mind.” His father had lost between sixteen and twenty relatives during the Holocaust.\n\nSpielberg \"rediscovered the honor of being a Jew,\" he says, before he made Schindler's List, when he married Kate Capshaw.Pogrebin, Abigail. Stars of David, Broadway Books, NY, (2005) Until then, having become a filmmaker, he only felt his connection to Judaism when he visited his parents. He says he made the film partly to create “something that would confirm my Judaism to my family and myself.”Loshitzky, Yosefa. Spielberg's Holocaust: Critical Perspectives on “Schindler's List”, Indiana Univ. Press (1997) p. 162\n\nHe credits her with fueling his family's current level of observance and for keeping the “momentum flowing\" in their lives, as they now observe Jewish holidays, light candles on Friday nights, and give their children Bar and Bat Mitzvahs. \"This shiksa goddess has made me a better Jew than my own parents.\"\n\nProducing Schindler's List in 1993 also renewed his faith, Spielberg says, but \"it really was the fact that my wife took a profound interest in Judaism.\" He waited ten years after being given the story in 1982 to make the film, as he did not yet feel \"mature\" enough. He first wanted to have a family, \"to figure out what my place was in the world. . . . When my first son, [Max] was born, it greatly affected me. . . . A spirit began to ignite in me, and I became a Jewish dad. . .\"\n\nHe said that making the film became a “natural experience” for him, adding, \"I had to tell the story. I've lived on its outer edges.\" The film, writes biographer Joseph McBride, thereby became the \"culmination\" of Spielberg's long personal struggle with his Jewish identity.McBride, Joseph. Steven Spielberg: A Biography (3rd edition) Some claim the film has made Spielberg \"the one true heir to the great Jewish moguls who created Hollywood,\" most of whom had actively avoided depicting Jews or the Holocaust in their films.\n\nWealth\n\nForbes magazine places Spielberg's personal net worth at $3 billion.\n\nRecognition\n\nIn 2002, Spielberg was one of eight flagbearers who carried the Olympic Flag into Rice-Eccles Stadium at the Opening Ceremonies of the 2002 Winter Olympic Games in Salt Lake City. In 2006, Premiere listed him as the most powerful and influential figure in the motion picture industry. Time listed him as one of the 100 Most Important People of the Century. At the end of the 20th century, Life named him the most influential person of his generation. In 2009, Boston University presented him an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree. \n\nAccording to Forbes Most Influential Celebrities 2014 list, Spielberg was listed as the most influential celebrity in America. The annual list is conducted by E-Poll Market Research and it gave more than 6,600 celebrities on 46 different personality attributes a score representing \"how that person is perceived as influencing the public, their peers, or both.\" Spielberg received a score of 47, meaning 47% of the US believes he is influential. Gerry Philpott, president of E-Poll Market Research, supported Spielberg's score by stating, \"If anyone doubts that Steven Spielberg has greatly influenced the public, think about how many will think for a second before going into the water this summer.\" \n\nPolitics\n\nSpielberg usually supports U.S. Democratic Party candidates. He has donated over $800,000 to the Democratic party and its nominees. He has been a close friend of former President Bill Clinton and worked with the President for the USA Millennium celebrations. He directed an 18-minute film for the project, scored by John Williams and entitled The American Journey. It was shown at America's Millennium Gala on December 31, 1999, in the National Mall at the Reflecting Pool at the base of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. \n\n Spielberg resigned as a member of the national advisory board of the Boy Scouts of America in 2001 because of his disapproval of the organization's anti-homosexuality stance. In 2007 the Arab League voted to boycott Spielberg's movies after he donated $1 million for relief efforts in Israel during the 2006 Lebanon War. On February 20, 2007, Spielberg, Jeffrey Katzenberg, and David Geffen invited Democrats to a fundraiser for Barack Obama. In February 2008, Spielberg pulled out of his role as advisor to the 2008 Summer Olympics in response to the Chinese government's inaction over the War in Darfur. Spielberg said in a statement that \"I find that my conscience will not allow me to continue business as usual.\" It also said that \"Sudan's government bears the bulk of the responsibility for these on-going crimes, but the international community, and particularly China, should be doing more..\" The International Olympic Committee respected Spielberg's decision, but IOC president Jacques Rogge admitted in an interview that \"[Spielberg] certainly would have brought a lot to the opening ceremony in terms of creativity.\" Spielberg's statement drew criticism from Chinese officials and state-run media calling his criticism \"unfair\". In September 2008, Spielberg and his wife offered their support to same-sex marriage, by issuing a statement following their donation of $100,000 to the \"No on Proposition 8\" campaign fund, a figure equal to the amount of money Brad Pitt donated to the same campaign less than a week prior. \n\nSpielberg supports Hillary Clinton for President of the United States in the 2016 election. He donated US$1 million to Priorities USA, a pro-Clinton Super PAC. \n\nHobbies\n\nA collector of film memorabilia, Spielberg purchased a balsa Rosebud sled from Citizen Kane (1941) in 1982. He bought Orson Welles's own directorial copy of the script for the radio broadcast The War of the Worlds (1938) in 1994. Spielberg has purchased Academy Award statuettes being sold on the open market and donated them to the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, to prevent their further commercial exploitation. His donations include the Oscars that Bette Davis received for Dangerous (1935) and Jezebel (1938), and Clark Gable's Oscar for It Happened One Night (1934). \n\nSpielberg is a major collector of the work of American illustrator and painter Norman Rockwell. A collection of 57 Rockwell paintings and drawings owned by Spielberg and fellow Rockwell collector and film director George Lucas were displayed at the Smithsonian American Art Museum July 2, 2010 – January 2, 2011, in an exhibition titled Telling Stories. \n\nSpielberg is an avid film buff, and, when not shooting a picture, he will watch many films in a single weekend. He sees almost every major summer blockbuster in theaters if not preoccupied and enjoys most of them. \n\nSince playing Pong while filming Jaws in 1974, Spielberg has been an avid video gamer. Spielberg played many of LucasArts adventure games, including the first Monkey Island games. He owns a Wii, a PlayStation 3, a PSP, and Xbox 360, and enjoys playing first-person shooters such as the Medal of Honor series and Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare. He has also criticized the use of cut scenes in games, calling them intrusive, and feels making story flow naturally into the gameplay is a challenge for future game developers. \n\nStalking\n\nIn 2001, Spielberg was stalked by conspiracy theorist and former social worker Diana Napolis. She accused him, along with actress Jennifer Love Hewitt, of controlling her thoughts through \"cybertronic\" technology and being part of a satanic conspiracy against her. Napolis was committed to a mental institution before pleading guilty to stalking, and released on probation with a condition that she have no contact with either Spielberg or Hewitt. \n\nJonathan Norman was arrested after making two attempts to enter Spielberg's Pacific Palisades home in June and July 1997. Norman was jailed for 25 years in California. Spielberg told the court: \"Had Jonathan Norman actually confronted me, I genuinely, in my heart of hearts, believe that I would have been raped or maimed or killed.\" \n\nAwards and honors\n\nSpielberg has won three Academy Awards. He has been nominated for seven Academy Awards for the category of Best Director, winning two of them (Schindler's List and Saving Private Ryan), and ten of the films he directed were up for the Best Picture Oscar (Schindler's List won). In 1987 he was awarded the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award for his work as a creative producer.\n\nDrawing from his own experiences in Scouting, Spielberg helped the Boy Scouts of America develop a merit badge in cinematography in order to help promote filmmaking as a marketable skill. The badge was launched at the 1989 National Scout Jamboree, which Spielberg attended, and where he personally counseled many boys in their work on requirements. \nThat same year, 1989, saw the release of Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade. The opening scene shows a teenage Indiana Jones in scout uniform bearing the rank of a Life Scout. Spielberg stated he made Indiana Jones a Boy Scout in honor of his experience in Scouting. For his career accomplishments, service to others, and dedication to a new merit badge Spielberg was awarded the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award. \n\nSteven Spielberg received the AFI Life Achievement Award in 1995.\n\nIn 1998 he was awarded the Federal Cross of Merit with Ribbon of the Federal Republic of Germany. The Award was presented to him by President Roman Herzog in recognition of his film Schindler's List and his Shoa-Foundation. \n\nIn 1999, Spielberg received an honorary degree from Brown University. Spielberg was also awarded the Department of Defense Medal for Distinguished Public Service by Secretary of Defense William Cohen at the Pentagon on August 11, 1999; Cohen presented the award in recognition of Spielberg's film Saving Private Ryan.\n\nIn 2001, he was honored as an honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) by Queen Elizabeth II. \n\nIn 2004 he was admitted as knight of the Légion d'honneur by president Jacques Chirac. On July 15, 2006, Spielberg was also awarded the Gold Hugo Lifetime Achievement Award at the Summer Gala of the Chicago International Film Festival, and also was awarded a Kennedy Center honour on December 3. The tribute to Spielberg featured a short, filmed biography narrated by Tom Hanks and included thank-yous from World War II veterans for Saving Private Ryan, as well as a performance of the finale to Leonard Bernstein's Candide, conducted by John Williams (Spielberg's frequent composer).\n\nThe Science Fiction Hall of Fame inducted Spielberg in 2005, the first year it considered non-literary contributors.. Press release March 24, 2005. Science Fiction Museum (sfhomeworld.org). Archived 2005-03-26. Retrieved 2013-03-22.[http://www.midamericon.org/halloffame/ \"Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame\"] . Mid American Science Fiction and Fantasy Conventions, Inc. Retrieved 2013-04-07. This was the official website of the hall of fame to 2004. In November 2007, he was chosen for a Lifetime Achievement Award to be presented at the sixth annual Visual Effects Society Awards in February 2009. He was set to be honored with the Cecil B. DeMille Award at the January 2008 Golden Globes; however, the new, watered-down format of the ceremony resulting from conflicts in the 2007–08 writers strike, the HFPA postponed his honor to the 2009 ceremony. In 2008, Spielberg was awarded the Légion d'honneur. \n\nIn June 2008, Spielberg received Arizona State University's Hugh Downs Award for Communication Excellence. \n\nSpielberg received an honorary degree at Boston University's 136th Annual Commencement on May 17, 2009. In October 2009 Steven Spielberg received the Philadelphia Liberty Medal; presenting him with the medal was former US president and Liberty Medal recipient Bill Clinton. Special guests included Whoopi Goldberg, Pennsylvania Governor Ed Rendell and Philadelphia Mayor Michael Nutter.\n\nOn October 22, 2011 he was admitted as a Commander of the Belgian Order of the Crown. He was given the badge on a red neck ribbon by the Belgian Federal Minister of Finance Didier Reynders. The Commander is the third highest rank of the Order of the Crown. He was the president of the jury for the 2013 Cannes Film Festival. \n\nOn November 19, 2013, Spielberg was honored by the National Archives and Records Administration with its Records of Achievement Award. Spielberg was given two facsimiles of the 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution, one passed but not ratified in 1861, as well as a facsimile of the actual 1865 amendment signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln. The amendment and the process of passing it were the subject of his film Lincoln. \n\nIn November 2015, it was announced that Spielberg would be awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Barack Obama in a ceremony at the White House. \n\nOn May 26, 2016, Spielberg was awarded an Honorary Doctor of Arts by Harvard University.\n\nIn July 2016, Spielberg was awarded a gold Blue Peter badge on the BBC children's television programme Blue Peter. \n\nFilmography\n\nPraise and criticism\n\n* In 2005, Steven Spielberg was rated the greatest film director of all time by Empire magazine. In 1997 a Wall Street sell-side analyst said, \"There are only two brand names in the business: Disney and Spielberg\". \n* After watching the unconventional, off-center camera techniques of Jaws, Alfred Hitchcock praised \"young Spielberg,\" for thinking outside of the visual dynamics of the theater, saying \"He's the first one of us who doesn't see the proscenium arch\". \n* Some of Spielberg's most notable admirers include Robert Aldrich, Ingmar Bergman, Werner Herzog, Stanley Kubrick, David Lean, Sidney Lumet, Roman Polanski, Martin Scorsese, François Truffaut, David Lynch and Zhang Yimou. \n* Spielberg's movies have also influenced many directors that followed, including Adam Green, J. J. Abrams, Paul Thomas Anderson, Neill Blomkamp, James Cameron, Guillermo del Toro, Roland Emmerich, David Fincher, Peter Jackson, Kal Ng, Robert Rodriguez, John Sayles, Ridley Scott, John Singleton, Kevin Smith, Steven Soderbergh, Quentin Tarantino, and Gareth Edwards. \n* British film critic Tom Shone has said of Spielberg, \"If you have to point to any one director of the last twenty-five years in whose work the medium of film was most fully itself – where we found out what it does best when left to its own devices, it has to be that guy.\" Jess Cagle, the managing editor of Entertainment Weekly, called Spielberg \"...arguably (well, who would argue?) the greatest filmmaker in history.\" \n* Spielberg's critics complain that his films are overly sentimental and tritely moralistic. In his book Easy Riders, Raging Bulls: How the Sex 'n' Drugs 'n' Rock 'n' Roll Generation Saved Hollywood, Peter Biskind summarized the views of Spielberg's detractors, accusing the director of \"infantilizing the audience, reconstituting the spectator as child, then overwhelming him and her with sound and spectacle, obliterating irony, aesthetic self-consciousness, and critical reflection.\" \n* Critics of mainstream film such as Ray Carney and American artist and actor Crispin Glover (who starred in the Spielberg-produced Back to the Future and who sued Spielberg for using his likeness in Back to the Future Part II) claim that Spielberg's films lack depth and do not take risks. \n* French New Wave filmmaker Jean-Luc Godard stated that he holds Spielberg partly responsible for the lack of artistic merit in mainstream cinema and accused Spielberg of using his film Schindler's List to make a profit off tragedy while Schindler's wife, Emilie Schindler, lived in poverty in Argentina. In defense of Spielberg, critic Roger Ebert said \"Has Godard or any other director living or dead done more than Spielberg, with his Holocaust Project, to honor and preserve the memories of the survivors?\" Author Thomas Keneally has also disputed claims that Emilie Schindler was never paid for her contributions to the film, \"not least because I had recently sent Emilie a check myself.\" \n* Film critic Pauline Kael, who had championed Spielberg's films in the 1970s, expressed disappointment in his later development, stating that \"he's become, I think, a very bad director.... And I'm a little ashamed for him, because I loved his early work.... [H]e turned to virtuous movies. And he's become so uninteresting now.... I think that he had it in him to become more of a fluid, far-out director. But, instead, he's become a melodramatist.\" \n* Imre Kertész, Hungarian Jewish author, Nazi concentration camp survivor, and winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature, criticized Spielberg's depiction of the Holocaust in Schindler's List as kitsch, saying \"I regard as kitsch any representation of the Holocaust that is incapable of understanding or unwilling to understand the organic connection between our own deformed mode of life and the very possibility of the Holocaust.\" Veteran documentary filmmaker and professor Claude Lanzmann also labeled Schindler's List \"pernicious in its impact and influence\" and \"very sentimental\". \n* Stephen Rowley wrote an extensive essay about Spielberg and his career in Senses of Cinema. In it he discussed Spielberg's strengths as a filmmaker, saying \"there is a welcome complexity of tone and approach in these later films that defies the lazy stereotypes often bandied about his films\" and that \"Spielberg continues to take risks, with his body of work continuing to grow more impressive and ambitious\", concluding that he has only received \"limited, begrudging recognition\" from critics.\n\nOther\n\n* In 1999, Spielberg, then a co-owner of DreamWorks, was involved in a heated debate in which the studio proposed building on wetlands near Los Angeles, though development was later dropped for economic reasons. \n* In August 2007, Ai Weiwei, artistic consultant for the Beijing Olympic Stadium, known as the \"Bird's Nest\", accused those choreographing the Olympic opening ceremony, including Spielberg, of failing to live up to their responsibility as artists by allowing their work to be used by the Chinese government, which has suppressed human rights in China, including those of Ai's family, for the purpose of \"propaganda\". Ai said, \"It's disgusting. I don't like anyone who shamelessly abuses their profession, who makes no moral judgment.\"", "Robin McLaurin Williams (July 21, 1951 – August 11, 2014) was an American stand-up comedian, actor, director, producer, writer, singer and voice artist. Starting as a stand-up comedian in San Francisco and Los Angeles in the mid-1970s, he is credited with leading San Francisco's comedy renaissance. After rising to fame as Mork in Mork & Mindy (1978–82), Williams went on to establish a career in both stand-up comedy and feature film acting. He was known for his improvisational skills. \n\nAfter his film debut in Popeye (1980), he starred or co-starred in widely acclaimed films, including The World According to Garp (1982), Good Morning, Vietnam (1987), Dead Poets Society (1989), Awakenings (1990), The Fisher King (1991), Aladdin (1992), Good Will Hunting (1997), and One Hour Photo (2002), as well as financial successes, such as Hook (1991), Mrs. Doubtfire (1993), Jumanji (1995), The Birdcage (1996), Night at the Museum (2006), and World's Greatest Dad (2009).\n\nWilliams won the 1997 Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance as Sean Maguire in Good Will Hunting. He also received two Emmy Awards, six Golden Globe Awards, two Screen Actors Guild Awards, and five Grammy Awards throughout his career.\n\nOn August 11, 2014, Williams committed suicide at his home in Paradise Cay, California.\n\nEarly life\n\nWilliams was born Robin McLaurin Williams at St. Luke's Hospital in Chicago, Illinois on July 21, 1951. His father Robert Fitzgerald Williams was a senior executive in Ford Motor Company's Lincoln-Mercury Division. His mother Laurie McLaurin was a former model from Jackson, Mississippi; her great-grandfather was Mississippi senator and governor Anselm J. McLaurin. Williams had two elder half-brothers named Robert and McLaurin. He had English, Welsh, Irish, Scottish, German, and French ancestry. While his mother was a practitioner of Christian Science, Williams was raised as an Episcopalian and later authored a comedic list, \"Top Ten Reasons to be an Episcopalian.\" During a TV interview on Inside the Actors Studio in 2001, he credited his mother as being an important early influence for his sense of humor, noting also that he tried to make her laugh to gain attention.video: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\n0IDy5GlUuf8&t=12m23s \"Robin Williams – Inside The Actors Studio\"], June 10, 2001\n\nWilliams attended public elementary school at Gorton Elementary School (now Gorton Community Center) and middle school at Deer Path Junior High School (now Deer Path Middle School), both in Lake Forest, Illinois. He described himself as a quiet and shy child who did not overcome his shyness until he became involved with his high school drama department. Williams' friends recall him as being very funny. In late 1963, when Williams was twelve, his father was transferred to Detroit. They lived in a 40-room farmhouse on 20 acres in suburban Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, where he was a student at the private Detroit Country Day School. He excelled in school, where he was on the school's soccer team and wrestling team, and became class president. \n\nAs Williams' father was away much of the time and his mother also worked, he was attended to by the family's maid, who was his main companion. When Williams was 16, his father took early retirement and the family moved to Tiburon, California. Following the move, Williams attended Redwood High School in nearby Larkspur. At the time of his graduation in 1969, he was voted \"Most Likely Not to Succeed\" and \"Funniest\" by his classmates. \n\nCollege and Juilliard School\n\nAfter high school graduation, Williams enrolled at Claremont Men's College in Claremont, California to study political science, then later dropped out to pursue acting. Williams then studied theatre for three years at the College of Marin, a community college in Kentfield, California. According to Marin drama professor James Dunn, the depth of Williams's talent first became evident when he was cast in the musical Oliver! as Fagin. Williams was known to improvise during his time in Marin's drama program, putting cast members in hysterics. Dunn called his wife after one late rehearsal to tell her that Williams \"was going to be something special.\"\n\nIn 1973, Williams attained a full scholarship to the Juilliard School in New York City. He was one of only 20 students accepted into the freshman class and one of only two students to be accepted by John Houseman into the Advanced Program at the school that year; the other was Christopher Reeve. William Hurt and Mandy Patinkin were also classmates.Maslon, Laurence, and Kantor, Michael. Make 'em Laugh: The Funny Business of America, Twelve, 2008 pp. 241–244 Reeve remembered his first impression of Williams when they were two new students at Juilliard:\n\nWilliams and Reeve had a class in dialects taught by Edith Skinner, who, Reeve said, was one of the world's leading voice and speech teachers. Skinner had no idea what to make of Williams, adds Reeve, as he [Williams] could instantly perform in many dialects, including Scottish, Irish, English, Russian, and Italian. Their primary acting teacher was Michael Kahn, who was \"equally baffled by this human dynamo,\" notes Reeve. Williams already had a reputation for being funny, but Kahn sometimes criticized his antics as simple stand-up comedy. In a later production, Williams silenced his critics with his convincing role of an old man in The Night of the Iguana, by Tennessee Williams. \"He simply was the old man,\" observed Reeve. \"I was astonished by his work and very grateful that fate had thrown us together.\"\n\nWilliams and Reeve remained close friends until Reeve's death in 2004, following his having become a quadriplegic after a horse-riding accident. Zak, Williams' son, said they were like brothers in their friendship. Williams paid many of Reeve's medical bills and gave financial support to his family. \n\nWilliams left Juilliard during his junior year in 1976 at the suggestion of Houseman, who said there was nothing more Juilliard could teach him. His teacher at Juilliard, Gerald Freedman, notes that Williams was a \"genius,\" and the school's conservative and classical style of training did not suit him, therefore no one was surprised that he left. \n\nCareer\n\nStand-up comedy\n\nAfter his family moved to Marin County, Williams began his career doing stand-up comedy shows in the San Francisco Bay Area in the mid-1970s. His first performance took place at the Holy City Zoo, a comedy club in San Francisco, where he worked his way up from tending bar to getting on stage. In the 1960s, San Francisco was a center for a rock music renaissance, hippies, drugs, and a sexual revolution, and in the 1970s, Williams helped lead its \"comedy renaissance,\" writes critic Gerald Nachman.Nachman, Gerald. Seriously Funny: The Rebel Comedians of the 1950s and 1960s, Pantheon, N.Y. (2003) Williams says he found out about \"drugs and happiness\" during that period, adding that he saw \"the best brains of my time turned to mud.\"\n\nHe moved to Los Angeles and continued doing stand-up shows at various clubs, including the Comedy Club, in 1977, where TV producer George Schlatter saw him. Schlatter, realizing that Williams would become an important force in show business, asked him to appear on a revival of his Laugh-In show. The show aired in late 1977 and became his debut TV appearance. Williams also performed a show at the LA Improv that same year for Home Box Office. While the Laugh-In revival failed, it led Williams into a career in television, during which period he continued doing stand-up at comedy clubs, such as the Roxy, to help him keep his improvisational skills sharp. \n\nEarly influences\n\nWilliams has credited other comedians with having influenced and inspired him, including Jonathan Winters, Peter Sellers, Nichols and May, and Lenny Bruce. He attributed their influence to their ability to attract a more intellectual audience by using a higher level of wit. He also liked Jay Leno for his quickness in ad-libbing comedy routines, and Sid Caesar, whose acts he felt were \"precious.\"\n\nJonathan Winters became his \"idol\" early in life; Williams first saw him on television at age 8 and paid him homage in interviews throughout his career. Williams was inspired by Winters's ingenuity, realizing, he said, \"that anything is possible, that anything is funny He gave me the idea that it can be free-form, that you can go in and out of things pretty easily.\"\n\nDuring an interview in London in 2002, he told Sir Michael Parkinson that Peter Sellers was an important influence, especially his multi-character roles in Dr. Strangelove: \"It doesn't get better than that.\" Williams owned a rare recording of Sellers's early radio Goon Shows. British comedy actors Dudley Moore and Peter Cook were also among his influences, he told Parkinson. \n\nWilliams was also influenced by Richard Pryor's fearless ability to talk about his personal life on stage, with subjects including his use of drugs and alcohol, and Williams added those kinds of topics during his own performances. By bringing up such personal matters as a form of comedy, he told Parkinson, it was \"cheaper than therapy\" and gave him a way to release his pent up energy and emotions.\n\nTelevised live performances\n\nWilliams won a Grammy Award for the recording of his 1979 live show at the Copacabana in New York, \"Reality...What a Concept\". Some of his later tours, after he became a TV and film star, include An Evening With Robin Williams (1982), Robin Williams: At The Met (1986) and Robin Williams Live on Broadway (2002). The latter broke many long-held records for a comedy show. In some cases, tickets were sold out within thirty minutes of going on sale. In 1986, Williams released A Night at the Met. \n\nAfter a six-year break, in August 2008, Williams announced a new 26-city tour titled \"Weapons of Self-Destruction\". He said that this was his last chance to make jokes at the expense of the Bush administration, but by the time the show was staged, only a few minutes covered that subject. The tour started at the end of September 2009 and concluded in New York on December 3, and was the subject of an HBO special on December 8, 2009. \n\nHardships in performing stand-up\n\nWilliams said that partly due to the stress of doing stand-up, he started using drugs and alcohol early in his career. He further said that he never drank or took drugs while on stage but occasionally performed when ill with a hangover from the previous day. During the period he was using cocaine, he said that it made him paranoid when performing on stage.\n\nWilliams once described the life of stand-up comedians:\n\nSome, such as the critic Vincent Canby, were concerned that Williams' monologues were so intense that it seemed as though at any minute his \"creative process could reverse into a complete meltdown\". Williams felt secure he could not run out of ideas as the constant change in world events would keep him supplied. He also explained that he often used free association of ideas while improvising in order to keep audience interest. Williams noted that the competitive comedy club atmosphere could cause problems. For example, some comedians accused him of intentionally copying their jokes, although Williams strongly denied ever doing so. Whoopi Goldberg explained that it is difficult for comedians to not pick up and reuse another comedian's material, and that it is done \"all the time.\" He later avoided going to performances of other comedians to deter similar accusations.\n\nDuring a Playboy interview in 1992, Williams was asked whether he ever feared losing the ability to speak openly about those kinds of events and subjects, and admitted that he would, \"if I felt like I was becoming not just dull but a rock, that I still couldn't spark, still fire off or talk about things.\" While he attributed the recent suicide of novelist Jerzy Kosiński to his fear of losing his creativity and sharpness, Williams felt he could overcome those risks. For that, he credited his father, who he said gave him self-confidence, telling him to never be afraid of talking about subjects which were important to him.\n\nTelevision\n\nAfter the Laugh-In revival and appearing in the cast of The Richard Pryor Show on NBC, Williams was cast by Garry Marshall as the alien Mork in a 1978 episode of the hit TV series Happy Days. Williams impressed the producer with his quirky sense of humor when he sat on his head when asked to take a seat for the audition. As Mork, Williams improvised much of his dialogue and physical comedy, speaking in a high, nasal voice. Mork's appearance was so popular with viewers that it led to the spin-off hit television sitcom Mork & Mindy, which ran from 1978 to 1982; the show was written to accommodate Williams's improvisations. Although he portrayed the same character as in Happy Days, the series was set in the present in Boulder, Colorado instead of the late 1950s in Milwaukee. Mork & Mindy at its peak had a weekly audience of 60 million and was credited with turning Williams into a \"superstar.\" According to critic James Poniewozik, the series was especially popular among young people as Williams became a \"man and a child, buoyant, rubber-faced, an endless gusher of invention.\"\n\nMork became an extremely popular character, featured on posters, coloring books, lunch-boxes, and other merchandise. Mork & Mindy was such a success in its first season that Williams appeared on the March 12, 1979, cover of Time magazine, then the leading news magazine in the U.S. The cover photo, taken by Michael Dressler in 1979, is said to have \"[captured] his different sides: the funnyman mugging for the camera, and a sweet, more thoughtful pose that appears on a small TV he holds in his hands\" according to Mary Forgione of the Los Angeles Times. This photo was installed in the National Portrait Gallery in the Smithsonian Institution shortly after Williams's death to allow visitors to pay their respects. Williams was also on the cover of the August 23, 1979, issue of Rolling Stone magazine, with the cover photograph taken by famed photographer Richard Avedon. \n\nStarting in the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s, Williams began to reach a wider audience with his stand-up comedy, including three HBO comedy specials, Off The Wall (1978), An Evening with Robin Williams (1982) and Robin Williams: Live at the Met (1986). Also in 1986, Williams co-hosted the 58th Academy Awards. \n\nWilliams was also a regular guest on various talk shows, including The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson and Late Night with David Letterman, on which he appeared 50 times. Letterman, who knew Williams for nearly 40 years, recalls seeing him first perform as a new comedian at the Comedy Store in Hollywood, where Letterman and other comedians had already been doing stand-up. \"He came in like a hurricane,\" said Letterman, who said he then thought to himself, \"Holy crap, there goes my chance in show business.\" \n\nWilliams's stand-up work was a consistent thread through his career, as seen by the success of his one-man show (and subsequent DVD) Robin Williams: Live on Broadway (2002). He was voted 13th on Comedy Central's list \"100 Greatest Stand-ups of All Time\" in 2004. \n\nWilliams and Billy Crystal were in an unscripted cameo at the beginning of an episode of the third season of Friends. His many TV appearances included an episode of Whose Line Is It Anyway?, and he starred in an episode of Law and Order: SVU. In 2010, he appeared in a sketch with Robert De Niro on Saturday Night Live, and in 2012, guest-starred as himself in two FX series, Louie and Wilfred. In May 2013, CBS started a new series, The Crazy Ones, starring Williams, but the show was canceled after one season. \n\nFilm actor\n\nWilliams' first film was the 1977 low-budget comedy Can I Do It 'Till I Need Glasses?. His first major performance was as the title character in Popeye (1980); though the film was a commercial flop, the role allowed Williams to showcase the acting skills previously demonstrated in his television work. He also starred as the leading character in The World According to Garp (1982), which Williams considered \"may have lacked a certain madness onscreen, but it had a great core\". Williams continued with other smaller roles in less successful films, such as The Survivors (1983) and Club Paradise (1986), though he felt these roles did not help advance his film career.\n\nHis first major break came from his starring role in director Barry Levinson's Good Morning, Vietnam (1987), which earned Williams a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actor. The film takes place in 1965 during the Vietnam War, with Williams playing the role of Adrian Cronauer, a radio \"shock jock\" who keeps the troops entertained with comedy and sarcasm. Williams was allowed to play the role without a script, improvising most of his lines. Over the microphone, he created voice impressions of people, including Walter Cronkite, Gomer Pyle, Elvis Presley, Mr. Ed and Richard Nixon. \"We just let the cameras roll,\" said producer Mark Johnson, and Williams \"managed to create something new for every single take.\" \n\nMany of his later roles were in comedies tinged with pathos. Williams's roles in comedy and dramatic films garnered him an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor (for his role as a psychologist in Good Will Hunting), as well as two previous Academy Award nominations (for playing an English teacher in Dead Poets Society (1989), and for playing a troubled homeless man in The Fisher King (1991)). In 1991, he played an adult Peter Pan in the movie Hook, although he had said that he would have to lose twenty-five pounds. \n\nOther roles Williams had in acclaimed dramatic films include Moscow on the Hudson (1984), Awakenings (1990) and What Dreams May Come (1998). In the 2002 film Insomnia, Williams portrayed a writer/killer on the run from a sleep-deprived Los Angeles policeman (played by Al Pacino) in rural Alaska. Also in 2002, in the psychological thriller One Hour Photo, Williams played an emotionally disturbed photo development technician who becomes obsessed with a family for whom he has developed pictures for a long time. The last Williams movie released during his lifetime was The Angriest Man in Brooklyn, a film addressing the value of life. In it, Williams played Henry Altmann, a terminally ill man who reassesses his life and works to redeem himself.\n\nAmong the actors who helped him during his acting career, he credited Robert De Niro, from whom he learned the power of silence and economy of dialog when acting, to portray the deep-driven man. From Dustin Hoffman, with whom he co-starred in Hook, he learned to take on totally different character types, and to transform his characters by extreme preparation. Mike Medavoy, producer of Hook, told its director, Steven Spielberg, that he intentionally teamed up Hoffman and Williams for the film because he knew they wanted to work together, and that Williams welcomed the opportunity of working with Spielberg. Williams benefited from working with Woody Allen, who directed he and Billy Crystal in Deconstructing Harry (1997), as Allen had knowledge of the fact that Crystal and Williams had often performed together on stage. \n\nWilliams' penetrative acting in the role of a therapist in Good Will Hunting (1997) deeply influenced some real therapists and won him an Academy Award. In Awakenings (1990), Williams played a doctor modeled on Oliver Sacks, who wrote the book on which the film was based. Sacks later said the way Williams's mind worked was a \"form of genius.\" In 1989 Williams played a private school teacher in Dead Poets Society, which included a final, emotional scene which some critics said \"inspired a generation\" and became a part of pop culture. Looking over most of Williams's films, one writer is \"struck by the breadth of Williams' roles,\" and how radically different most were. \n\nTerry Gilliam, who co-founded Monty Python and directed Williams in two of his films, The Fisher King and The Adventures of Baron Munchausen (1988), noted in 1992 that Williams had the ability to \"go from manic to mad to tender and vulnerable,\" adding that to him Williams was \"the most unique mind on the planet. There's nobody like him out there.\"\n\nDuring his career, he starred as a voice actor in several animated films. His voice role as the Genie in the animated, musical fantasy film, Aladdin (1992) was written specifically for Williams. The film's directors stated that they took a risk by writing the role, and successfully convinced him to take it. Through approximately 30 hours of tape, Williams was able to improvise much of his dialogue and impersonated dozens of celebrity voices, including Ed Sullivan, Jack Nicholson, Robert De Niro, Groucho Marx, Rodney Dangerfield, William F. Buckley, Peter Lorre, Arnold Schwarzenegger and Arsenio Hall. At first, Williams refused to take the role since it was a Disney movie, and he did not want the studio profiting by selling toys and novelty items based on the movie. He accepted the role with certain conditions: \"I'm doing it basically because I want to be part of this animation tradition. I want something for my children. One deal is, I just don't want to sell anything — as in Burger King, as in toys, as in stuff.\" The film went on to become one of his most recognized and best loved roles, and was the highest grossing film of 1992, winning numerous awards, including a Golden Globe for Williams; Williams's performance as the Genie led the way for other animated films to incorporate actors with more star power for voice acting roles. \n\nWilliams continued to provide voices in other animated films, including FernGully: The Last Rainforest (1992), Robots (2005), Happy Feet (2006), and an uncredited vocal performance in Everyone's Hero (2006). He also voiced the holographic Dr. Know character in the live-action film A.I. Artificial Intelligence (2001). He was the voice of The Timekeeper, a former attraction at the Walt Disney World Resort about a time-traveling robot who encounters Jules Verne and brings him to the future. \n\nIn 2006, he starred in The Night Listener, a thriller about a radio show host who realizes that a child with whom he has developed a friendship may or may not exist; that year, he starred in five movies, including Man of the Year, was the Surprise Guest at the Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards and appeared on an episode of Extreme Makeover: Home Edition that aired on January 30, 2006. \n\nAt the time of his death in 2014, Williams had appeared in four movies not yet released: Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb, A Merry Friggin' Christmas, Boulevard and Absolutely Anything. \n\nTheatre actor\n\nWilliams appeared opposite Steve Martin at Lincoln Center in an off-Broadway production of Waiting for Godot in 1988. He made his Broadway acting debut in Rajiv Joseph's Bengal Tiger at the Baghdad Zoo, which opened at the Richard Rodgers Theatre on March 31, 2011. He headlined his own one-man show, Robin Williams: Live on Broadway, that played at the Broadway theatre in July 2002. \n\nPersonal life\n\nMarriages and children\n\nWilliams married his first wife Valerie Velardi in June 1978, following a live-in relationship with comedian Elayne Boosler. Velardi and Williams met in 1976 while he was working as a bartender at a tavern in San Francisco. Their son Zachary Pym \"Zak\" Williams was born in 1983. Williams and Velardi divorced in 1988. \n\nOn April 30, 1989, he married Marsha Garces, Zachary's nanny, who was pregnant with his child. They had two children, Zelda Rae Williams (born 1989) and Cody Alan Williams (born 1991). In March 2008, Garces filed for divorce from Williams, citing irreconcilable differences. Their divorce was finalized in 2010. Williams married his third wife, graphic designer Susan Schneider, on October 22, 2011, in St. Helena, California. The two lived at Williams' house in Sea Cliff, San Francisco, California.\n\nWilliams stated, \"My children give me a great sense of wonder. Just to see them develop into these extraordinary human beings.\" \n\nOther interests\n\nWilliams was a member of the Episcopal Church. He described his denomination in a comedy routine as \"Catholic Lite—same rituals, half the guilt.\" He has also described himself as an \"honorary Jew,\" and on Israel's 60th Independence Day in 2008, he appeared in Times Square, along with several other celebrities to wish Israel a happy birthday. \n\nWilliams was an enthusiast of both pen-and-paper role-playing games and video games. His daughter Zelda was named based on the title character from The Legend of Zelda, one of Williams' favorite video game series, and he sometimes performed at consumer entertainment trade shows. \n\nHis favorite books were the Foundation trilogy by Isaac Asimov, with his favorite book as a child being The Lion, The Witch and The Wardrobe, which he later shared with his children. \n\nWilliams became a devoted cycling enthusiast, having taken up the sport partly as a substitute for drugs. Eventually, he accumulated a large bicycle collection of his own and became a fan of professional road cycling, often traveling to racing events, such as the Tour de France. \n\nPhilanthropy\n\nIn 1986, Williams teamed up with Whoopi Goldberg and Billy Crystal to found Comic Relief USA, an annual HBO television benefit devoted to the homeless, which has raised $80 million, as of 2014. Bob Zmuda, creator of Comic Relief, explains that Williams felt blessed because he came from a wealthy home, but wanted to do something to help those less fortunate. Williams made benefit appearances to support literacy and women's rights, along with appearing at benefits for veterans. He was a regular on the USO circuit, where he traveled to 13 countries and performed to approximately 100,000 troops. After his death, the USO thanked him \"for all he did for the men and women of our armed forces.\" \n\nWilliams and his second wife Marsha founded a philanthropic organization called the Windfall Foundation to raise money for many charities. In December 1999, he sang in French on the BBC-inspired music video of international celebrities doing a cover of The Rolling Stones' \"It's Only Rock 'n Roll (But I Like It)\" for the charity Children's Promise. \n\nIn response to the 2010 Canterbury earthquake, he donated all proceeds of his \"Weapons of Self Destruction\" Christchurch performance to help rebuild the New Zealand city. Half the proceeds were donated to the Red Cross and half to the mayoral building fund. Williams performed with the USO for U.S. troops stationed in Iraq and Afghanistan. \n\nFor several years, Williams supported St. Jude Children's Research Hospital. \n\nAddiction and health problems\n\nDuring the late 1970s and early 1980s, Williams had an addiction to cocaine. He was a casual friend of John Belushi, and the sudden death of Belushi, with the birth of his son Zak, prompted him to quit drugs and alcohol: \"Was it a wake-up call? Oh yeah, on a huge level. The grand jury helped, too.\" Williams turned to exercise and cycling to help alleviate his depression shortly after Belushi's death, according to bicycle shop owner Tony Tom, Williams stated, \"cycling saved my life.\" \n\nIn 2003, he started drinking alcohol again while working on a film in Alaska. In 2006, he checked himself in to a substance-abuse rehabilitation center in Newberg, Oregon, saying he was an alcoholic. \n\nYears afterward, Williams acknowledged his failure to maintain sobriety, but said he never returned to using cocaine, declaring in a 2010 interview:\n\nNo. Cocaine – paranoid and impotent, what fun. There was no bit of me thinking, ooh, let's go back to that. Useless conversations until midnight, waking up at dawn feeling like a vampire on a day pass. No.\n\nIn March 2009, he was hospitalized due to heart problems. He postponed his one-man tour for surgery to replace his aortic valve. The surgery was completed on March 13, 2009, at the Cleveland Clinic. \n\nIn mid-2014, Williams admitted himself into the Hazelden Foundation Addiction Treatment Center in Lindstrom, Minnesota for treatment related to his alcoholism. \n\nHis publicist Mara Buxbaum commented that he was suffering from severe depression prior to his death. Williams' wife Susan stated that in the period before his death, he had been sober, but was diagnosed with early stage Parkinson's disease, which was something he was \"not yet ready to share publicly.\" \n\nDeath\n\nOn August 11, 2014, Williams committed suicide in his home in Paradise Cay, California at age 63. In the initial report released on August 12, the Marin County Sheriff's Office deputy coroner stated Williams had hanged himself with a belt and died from asphyxiation. The final autopsy report, released in November 2014, affirmed that Williams had committed suicide as initially described; neither alcohol nor illegal drugs were involved, while any prescription drugs present in Williams' body were at \"therapeutic\" levels. The report also noted that Williams had been suffering \"a recent increase in paranoia.\" An examination of his brain tissue revealed the presence of \"diffuse Lewy body dementia,\" which may have been misdiagnosed as Parkinson's disease. Williams' doctors reportedly believe that Lewy body dementia \"was the critical factor\" that led to his suicide. His body was cremated and his ashes were scattered in San Francisco Bay on August 12. \n\nTributes\n\nNews of Williams' death spread quickly worldwide. The entertainment world, friends, and fans responded to his death through social and other media outlets. His wife, Susan Schneider, said: \"I lost my husband and my best friend, while the world lost one of its most beloved artists and beautiful human beings. I am utterly heartbroken.\" Williams' daughter Zelda responded to her father's death by stating that the \"world is forever a little darker, less colorful and less full of laughter in his absence\". U.S. President Barack Obama said of Williams: \"He was one of a kind. He arrived in our lives as an alien – but he ended up touching every element of the human spirit.\" \n\nBroadway theaters in New York dimmed their lights for one minute in his honor. Broadway's Aladdin cast honored Williams by having the audience join them in a sing-along of \"Friend Like Me\", an Oscar-nominated song originally sung by Williams in the 1992 film. Fans of Williams created makeshift memorials at his star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame and at locations from his television and film career, such as the bench in Boston's Public Garden featured in Good Will Hunting; the Pacific Heights, San Francisco, home used in Mrs. Doubtfire; and the Boulder, Colorado, home used for Mork & Mindy. It was also reported that a book biography of Williams' life was in the works, to be written by New York Times writer David Itzkoff. In addition, a tunnel on Highway 101 north of the Golden Gate Bridge was officially named the \"Robin Williams Tunnel\" on February 29, 2016. \n\nOn television, during the 66th Primetime Emmy Awards on August 25, 2014, Billy Crystal presented a tribute to Williams, referring to him as \"the brightest star in our comedy galaxy.\" On September 9, 2014, PBS aired a one-hour special devoted to Williams' career, and on September 27, 2014, dozens of leading stars and celebrities held a tribute in San Francisco to celebrate his life and career. \n\nShortly after his death, Disney Channel, Disney XD, and Disney Junior all aired the original Aladdin commercial free over the course of a week, with a dedicated drawing of the genie at the end of each airing before the credits. \n\nLegacy and influence\n\nAlthough Williams was first recognized as a stand-up comedian and television star, he later became known for acting in film roles of substance and serious drama. He was considered a \"national treasure\" by many in the entertainment industry and by the public. \n\nHis on-stage energy and improvisational skill became a model for a new generation of stand-up comedians. Many comedians valued the way he worked highly personal issues into his comedy routines, especially his honesty about drug and alcohol addiction, along with depression.[http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Society/2014/0812/Robin-Williams-His-unscripted-riffs-were-not-merely-funny-but-observant-video \"Robin Williams: His unscripted riffs were not merely funny, but observant\"],(+video), Christian Science Monitor, August 12, 2014 According to media scholar Derek A. Burrill, because of the openness with which Williams spoke about his own life, \"probably the most important contribution he made to pop culture, across so many different media, was as Robin Williams the person.\"\n\nWilliams' unusual free-form style of comedy became so identified with him that new comedians imitated him. Jim Carrey impersonated his Mork character early in his own career. Williams's high-spirited style has been credited with paving the way for the growing comedy scene which developed in San Francisco. Young comedians felt more liberated on stage by seeing Williams's spontaneous style: \"one moment acting as a bright, mischievous child, then as a wise philosopher or alien from outer space.\" According to Judd Apatow, Williams's rapid-fire improvisational style was an inspiration as well as an influence for other comedians, however, his talent was unique enough that no one else tried to copy it. \n\nAs a film actor, Williams' roles often influenced others, both in and out of the film industry. Director Chris Columbus, who directed Williams in Mrs. Doubtfire, says that watching him work \"was a magical and special privilege. His performances were unlike anything any of us had ever seen, they came from some spiritual and otherworldly place.\" \n\nLooking over most of Williams' films, Alyssa Rosenberg at The Washington Post was \"struck by the breadth of Williams' roles\", and how radically different most were, writing that \"Williams helped us grow up.\"\n\nFilmography\n\nAt least 106 acting credits were attributed to Williams between 1977 and 2014, including the following:\n\nAwards\n\nWon:\n* 1978 – Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Musical or Comedy, Mork & Mindy[http://www.bustle.com/articles/37093-did-robin-williams-ever-win-an-emmy-of-course-he-did-he-was-ridiculously-talented \"DID ROBIN WILLIAMS EVER WIN AN EMMY? OF COURSE HE DID — HE WAS RIDICULOUSLY TALENTED, AFTER ALL\"], Bustle, August 2014\n* 1980 – Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Musical or Comedy, Mork & Mindy[http://www.grammy.com/news/robin-williams-dies \"Robin Williams Dies\"], Grammy.com, August 11, 2014\n* 1980 – Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album, Reality... What a Concept\n* 1987 – Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy, Good Morning, Vietnam\n* 1987 – Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album, A Night at the Met\n* 1987 - Emmy Award: Outstanding Individual Performance In A Variety Or Music Program, \"Carol Burnett Special: Carol, Carl, Whoopi & Robin\"[http://www.emmys.com/awards/nominations/award-search?search_api_views_fulltextrobin+williams&field_is_winner%5B1%5D\n1&submitSearch&search_api_views_fulltext_1\nrobin+williams&search_api_views_fulltext_3&search_api_views_fulltext_2\n&search_api_views_fulltext_4&field_nominations_year\n1949-01-01+00%3A00%3A00&field_nominations_year_12014-01-01+00%3A00%3A00&field_nomination_category\nAll Robin Williams Emmys], Emmys\n* 1988 - Emmy Award: Outstanding Individual Performance In A Variety Or Music Program, \"ABC Presents a Royal Gala\"\n* 1989 – Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album, Good Morning Vietnam\n* 1991 – Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy, The Fisher King\n* 1993 – Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy, Mrs. Doubtfire\n* 1996 – Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role, The Birdcage\n* 1997 – Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, Good Will Hunting\n* 1997 – Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role, Good Will Hunting[http://www.sagaftra.org/sag-aftra-statement-loss-robin-williams \"SAG-AFTRA Statement on the Loss of Robin Williams\"], SAG-AFTRA, August 11, 2014\n* 2003 – Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album, Robin Williams Live - 2002\n* 2005 – Golden Globe Cecil B. DeMille Award[http://guardianlv.com/2014/08/emmy-awards-remember-robin-williams/ \"Emmy Awards Remember Robin Williams\"], Guardianlv, August 27, 2014" ] }

{ "description": [ "With Dustin Hoffman, Robin Williams, Julia Roberts, Bob Hoskins. When Captain Hook kidnaps his children, ... Ranking Spielberg's Movies a list of 26 titles", "Eight things you never knew about Steven Spielberg’s 1991 film ... Steven Spielberg, Hook stars Robin Williams as a grown ... Phil Collins also ...", "... Bob Hoskins, Maggie Smith, Robin Williams, Julia Roberts, Phil Collins, ... Spielberg, Hook stars Robin Williams as ... Spielberg went all out on this movie, ...", "Hook Trailer 1991 Director: Steven Spielberg Starring: ... Maggie Smith, Robin Williams, Phil Collins Official Conten ... Movie, Hook Movie,Hook ...", "... imagined it before Steven Spielberg's adaptation appeared in ... Lucas appear in additional cameos and Phil Collins pops up ... Hook), Robin Williams ...", "In diesem Film von Steven Spielberg, ... spielt Robin Williams den 40jährigen Anwalt Peter Banning, ... Phil Collins; Dustin Hoffman;", "Superstars Robin Williams, ... Amber Scott, Laurel Cronin, Phil Collins, Arthur Malet, Isaiah Robinson, ... Mr. Spielberg went all out on this movie, ...", "But at the beginning of Steven Spielberg's \"Hook,\" Peter Pan has grown into Peter Banning (Robin Williams ... the film's visual consultant.) Here, Spielberg ...", "Steven Spielberg's variation on Peter Pan, Hook ... The first of many disappointing fantasy-themed family comedies featuring Robin Williams, Hook ... Phil Collins ..." ], "filename": [ "50/50_3337.txt", "184/184_3339.txt", "140/140_3340.txt", "71/71_3341.txt", "60/60_3342.txt", "40/40_3343.txt", "116/116_3344.txt", "132/132_3345.txt", "163/163_3346.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 ], "title": [ "Hook (1991) - IMDb", "Eight things you never knew about Steven Spielberg’s 1991 ...", "Amazon.com: Hook (Blu-ray + DVD): Dustin Hoffman, Bob ...", "Hook Trailer 1991 - YouTube", "Hook - Turner Classic Movies", "Hook - YouTube", "Amazon.com: Hook: Dustin Hoffman, Robin Williams, Julia ...", "‘Hook’ - The Washington Post", "Hook by Steven Spielberg |Robin Williams, Dustin Hoffman ..." ], "url": [ "http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0102057/", "http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/movies/eight-things-you-never-knew-about-steven-spielbergs-1991-film-hook/story-e6frfmvr-1226845734260", "https://www.amazon.com/Hook-Blu-ray-DVD-Dustin-Hoffman/dp/B005IA9JZO", "http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XyjxcCHnqqY", "http://www.tcm.com/this-month/article/188900%7C0/Hook.html", "http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=72GLbkA0uMg", "https://www.amazon.com/Hook-Dustin-Hoffman/dp/B00170M2OY", "http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/movies/videos/hookpghinson_a0a725.htm", "http://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/dvd-hook-robin-williams/3618588" ], "search_context": [ "Hook (1991) - IMDb\nIMDb\n17 January 2017 4:34 PM, UTC\nNEWS\nThere was an error trying to load your rating for this title.\nSome parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later.\nX Beta I'm Watching This!\nKeep track of everything you watch; tell your friends.\nError\nWhen Captain Hook kidnaps his children, an adult Peter Pan must return to Neverland and reclaim his youthful spirit in order to challenge his old enemy.\nDirector:\nFrom $2.99 (SD) on Amazon Video\nON TV\na list of 28 titles\ncreated 24 Mar 2012\na list of 45 titles\ncreated 08 Apr 2012\na list of 25 titles\ncreated 08 Jun 2012\na list of 25 titles\ncreated 15 Apr 2013\na list of 34 titles\ncreated 06 Mar 2014\nSearch for \" Hook \" on Amazon.com\nConnect with IMDb\nWant to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below.\nYou must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin.\nNominated for 5 Oscars. Another 5 wins & 12 nominations. See more awards  »\nVideos\nAfter a bitter divorce, an actor disguises himself as a female housekeeper to spend time with his children held in custody by his former wife.\nDirector: Chris Columbus\nWhen two kids find and play a magical board game, they release a man trapped for decades in it and a host of dangers that can only be stopped by finishing the game.\nDirector: Joe Johnston\nThe scientist father of a teenage girl and boy accidentally shrinks his and two other neighborhood teens to the size of insects. Now the teens must fight diminutive dangers as the father searches for them.\nDirector: Joe Johnston\nA troubled child summons the courage to help a friendly alien escape Earth and return to his home world.\nDirector: Steven Spielberg\nA martial arts master agrees to teach karate to a bullied teenager.\nDirector: John G. Avildsen\nA toon-hating detective is a cartoon rabbit's only hope to prove his innocence when he is accused of murder.\nDirector: Robert Zemeckis\nIn order to save their home from foreclosure, a group of misfits set out to find a pirate's ancient valuable treasure.\nDirector: Richard Donner\nA troubled boy dives into a wondrous fantasy world through the pages of a mysterious book.\nDirector: Wolfgang Petersen\nDaniel accompanies his mentor to Okinawa who is off to see his dying father and confront his old rival, while Daniel inadvertently makes an enemy of his own.\nDirector: John G. Avildsen\nA newly recruited night security guard at the Museum of Natural History discovers that an ancient curse causes the animals and exhibits on display to come to life and wreak havoc.\nDirector: Shawn Levy\nWhen a street urchin vies for the love of a beautiful princess, he uses a genie's magic power to make himself off as a prince in order to marry her.\nDirectors: Ron Clements, John Musker\nStars: Scott Weinger, Robin Williams, Linda Larkin\nStory of a wonderful little girl, who happens to be a genius, and her wonderful teacher vs. the worst parents ever and the worst school principal imaginable.\nDirector: Danny DeVito\nEdit\nStoryline\nPeter Pan (Williams) has grown up to be a cut-throat merger and acquisitions lawyer, and is married to Wendy's granddaughter. Captain Hook (Hoffman) kidnaps his children, and Peter returns to Never Land with Tinkerbell (Roberts). With the help of her and the Lost Boys, he must remember how to be Peter Pan again in order to save his children by battling with Captain Hook once again. Written by Ed Sutton <[email protected]>\nWhat if Peter Pan grew up?\nGenres:\n11 December 1991 (USA) See more  »\nAlso Known As:\n70 mm 6-Track (70 mm prints)| Dolby SR (35 mm prints)\nColor:\nDid You Know?\nTrivia\nGwyneth Paltrow 's second film. She appears briefly, as the teen-aged Wendy during the quick sequence as Wendy is growing up. See more »\nGoofs\nIn the scenes that take place in Neverland, Peter's arms are hairless, but in the other scenes, thick hair can be seen covering Peter's arms. See more »\nQuotes\nWendy Darling : The stories are true! I swear to you! I swear on everything I adore, and now he's come back to seek his revenge. The fight isn't over for Captain James Hook. He wants you back. He knows that you'll follow Jack and Maggie to the ends of the earth and beyond. And by heaven, you must find a way. Only you can save your children. Somehow, you must go back. You must make yourself remember.\nWendy Darling : Peter, don't you know who you are?\n[...]\nSee more »\nCrazy Credits\nAfter Tootles flies away and the end credits start, one of the stars in the sky continues to glow. According to the Peter Pan stories, \"The second star to the right and straight out till morning\" is where NeverLand is located. See more »\nConnections", "Bangarang: Things you never knew about Hook\nEmail a friend\nTHERE are a few easy ways to tell if someone has seen Hook, one of the greatest kids films from the 1990s.\nSimply start chanting ‘run home jack’ or yell ‘bangarang’ at the top of your lungs and if their eyes light up, you’ll know they’re a fan of the Robin Williams classic.\nThe 1991 movie, which was directed by Steven Spielberg, was nominated for five Oscars and is the fifth highest grossing pirate themed film of all-time.\nHere are some little known facts about the Peter Pan remake:\nMichael Jackson could have been in the movie with a bunch of lost boys. (AP Photo/Pat RoqSource:AP\nMichael Jackson: Steven Spielberg originally wanted to make the movie in 1983 with Michael Jackson playing Peter Pan, according to IMDB . The King of Pop was also going to sing most of the songs on the soundtrack. But Spielberg was too busy with Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom and held off on Hook until 1991.\nBowie would have been a killer Captain Hook.Source:YouTube\nCast: Both Kevin Kline and Tom Hanks were considered for the role of Peter Pan, which of course eventually went to Robin Williams. Rocker David Bowie was offered the role of Captain Hook but turned it down, and Richard Attenborough passed on playing Tootles.\nJulia Roberts wasn’t very pleasant to be around on set.Source:YouTube\nDiva: Julia Roberts played Tinkerbell in the film, but according to IMDB , the actress was such a diva on set that the other cast and crew nicknamed her ‘Tinkerhell’. Another interesting fact: because the Oscar winner appeared barefoot in most of her scenes, she had an assistant whose sole responsibility was to keep her feet clean.\nThat’s Glenn Close with a beard.Source:YouTube\nCameos: Remember when that pirate gets locked in the wooden chest with a scorpion? That pirate was in fact Glenn Close, dressed as a man. Singer Phil Collins also made a cameo in Hook, appearing as a police inspector.\nNotice the hairless arms.Source:News Limited\nClose shave: Robin Williams is one of the hairiest men in Hollywood, and this didn’t quite suit the image of Peter Pan. So the comedian was forced to shave his chest and arms for the role.\nReal word: Bangarang is actually a Jamaican word which means disturbance.\nIt’s a young Gwyneth Paltrow.Source:YouTube\nGwyneth: In just her second film ever, Gwyneth Paltrow played the teenage Wendy in Hook.\nNot impressed: Steven Spielberg was pretty disappointed with how Hook turned out. He said in a radio interview last year that, “I wanna see Hook again because I so don’t like that movie, and I’m hoping someday I’ll see it again and perhaps like some of it.”", "Amazon.com: Hook (Blu-ray + DVD): Dustin Hoffman, Bob Hoskins, Maggie Smith, Robin Williams, Julia Roberts, Phil Collins, Steven Spielberg, Frank Marshall, Kathleen Kennedy, Gerald R. Molen, TriStar Pictures: Movies & TV\nMovies & TV\nFree Shipping for Prime Members | Fast, FREE Shipping with Amazon Prime\nIn Stock.\nShips from and sold by Amazon.com. Gift-wrap available.\nHook (Blu-ray DVD) has been added to your Cart\nAdd to Cart\nWant it tomorrow, Jan. 20? Order within and choose One-Day Shipping at checkout. Details\nShip to:\nPlease enter a valid US zip code.\nPlease enter a valid US zip code.\nShipping to a APO/FPO/DPO? Please add the address to your address book. 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Sell on Amazon\nImage Unavailable\nSorry, this item is not available in\nImage not available\nTo view this video download Flash Player\n    \nUnlimited Streaming with Amazon Prime Start your 30-day free trial to stream thousands of movies & TV shows included with Prime. Start your free trial\nSee all buying options\n$9.99 Free Shipping for Prime Members | Fast, FREE Shipping with Amazon Prime In Stock. Ships from and sold by Amazon.com. Gift-wrap available.\nFrequently Bought Together\nBuy the selected items together\nThis item:Hook (Blu-ray + DVD) by Dustin Hoffman Blu-ray $9.99\nIn Stock.\nShips from and sold by Amazon.com.\nFREE Shipping on orders over $49. Details\nMrs. Doubtfire Blu-ray by Robin Williams Blu-ray $8.99\nIn Stock.\nShips from and sold by Amazon.com.\nFREE Shipping on orders over $49. Details\nCustomers Who Bought This Item Also Bought\nPage 1 of 1 Start over Page 1 of 1\nThis shopping feature will continue to load items. In order to navigate out of this carousel please use your heading shortcut key to navigate to the next or previous heading.\nPage 1 of 1 Start over\nSponsored Products are advertisements for products sold by merchants on Amazon.com. When you click on a Sponsored Product ad, you will be taken to an Amazon detail page where you can learn more about the product and purchase it.\nTo learn more about Amazon Sponsored Products, click here .\nAd feedback\nSpecial Offers and Product Promotions\nEditorial Reviews\nProduct Description\nA high-flying adventure from the magic of Steven Spielberg, Hook stars Robin Williams as a grown-up Peter Pan and Dustin Hoffman as the infamous Captain Hook. Joining the fun is Julia Roberts as Tinkerbell, Bob Hoskins as the pirate Smee, and Maggie Smith as Granny Wendy Darling, who must convince the middle-aged lawyer, Peter Banning, that he was once the legendary Peter Pan. And so the adventure begins anew, with Peter off to Neverland to save his two children from Captain Hook. Along the way, he rediscovers the power of imagination, of friendship, and of magic. A classic tale updated for children of all ages, Hook was nominated for five 1991 Academy Awards(r) including best visual effects.\nAmazon.com\nSteven Spielberg's deeply flawed but sporadically fun and moving update of the Peter Pan legend stars Robin Williams as the grown-up Pan, a corporate-takeover type who must embrace his old identity in order to save his kids from Captain Hook (Dustin Hoffman). The stars put on a good show, including Hoffman's read of Hook's hysterical personality, Julia Roberts mini-turn as a tiny Tinker Bell, and Maggie Smith's touching performance as the aged Wendy. The visual contrast between the adult Pan's bustling outside world and the insulated fantasy of Neverland is striking, but Spielberg's ideas about the Lost Boys--politically correct in their ethnic diversity, energetic on skateboards--are contrived and cheapening. On the plus side, the story's theme about adults finding their innocence again through their children is very touching (though some people have found it cloying). If you can look beyond the glaring problems, there's plenty to like here. --Tom Keogh\nSpecial Features\nFormat: Blu-ray, AC-3, Color, DTS Surround Sound, Dubbed, Subtitled, Widescreen\nLanguage: English\nSubtitles: French, Portuguese, Korean, Mandarin Chinese, Thai, English, Spanish\nDubbed: French, Portuguese, Spanish\nSubtitles for the Hearing Impaired: English\nRegion: All Regions\nStudio: Sony Pictures Home Entertainment\nDVD Release Date: November 1, 2011\nRun Time: 142 minutes\nPage 1 of 1 Start over\nSponsored Products are advertisements for products sold by merchants on Amazon.com. When you click on a Sponsored Product ad, you will be taken to an Amazon detail page where you can learn more about the product and purchase it.\nTo learn more about Amazon Sponsored Products, click here .\nBy Jay Rudin on April 24, 2001\nFormat: VHS Tape\nThe subtitle to the play \"Peter Pan\" is \"The Boy Who Would Not Grow Up\". Spielberg's sequel could well be called \"The Man Who Grew Up Too Much\". The story of Peter Pan is reversed, as are many roles. Robin Williams has the easy task of playing the thoughtless parent, the moderate task of playing the grownup Peter Pan, and the incredibly difficult task of making the transition between the two believable.\nDustin's Hoffman's Capt. Hook knows, as do all of us who remember his soliloquy, that no little children love him. His concern with how he will be remembered, and with Good Form, ring quite true to the original. The character is suave, urbane, vicious, captivating, and ultimately tragic.\nAt first I was annoyed at the modern elements in Never-Never-Land, but I soon realized that they had to be there, as Never-Never-Land was always a compilation of everything Lost Boys found exciting. In the twenties, that included Red Indians, but if they were lost in the 1980s, well then, baseball and skateboards should be included. The original play was Edwardian, but the movie makes no sense unless it's updated.\nThe role-reversal and eventual re-reversal is fascinating. In the play, the same actor always plays both Hook and the thoughtless and cruel father, Mr. Darling. But here, Peter is the uncaring father and a corporate pirate, while Hook takes the children to Never-Never-Land. The lost boys are, at first, quarrelsome and threatening, while the pirates are a happy adventuresome lot, even sentimental in the lullaby sequence. But while the Lost Boys help Peter recover himself (and to recover their own innocence), Hook's attempt to win over Peter's kids is, in the end, a failure, and we are brought full circle. Read more ›", "Hook Trailer 1991 - YouTube\nHook Trailer 1991\nWant to watch this again later?\nSign in to add this video to a playlist.\nNeed to report the video?\nSign in to report inappropriate content.\nRating is available when the video has been rented.\nThis feature is not available right now. Please try again later.\nPublished on Jun 12, 2014\nHook Trailer 1991\nStarring: Bob Hoskins, Dustin Hoffman, Julia Roberts, Maggie Smith, Robin Williams, Phil Collins\nOfficial Content From Sony Pictures Home Entertainment\nPeter Pan, now a grown yuppie, must travel back to Neverland to save his children from his old nemesis, Captain Hook. Good family adventure with a wonderful cast!\nMovie, Hook Movie,Hook Trailer,Hook 1991, Steven Spielberg,Bob Hoskins, Dustin Hoffman, Julia Roberts, Maggie Smith, Robin Williams, Phil Collins\nCategory", "Hook\nRemind Me\nHook\nHook takes the Peter Pan tale in a direction few could have imagined it before Steven Spielberg's adaptation appeared in 1991. Robin Williams stars as middle-aged real-estate speculator Peter Banning, a man who can't remember his birth parents because he was placed with an adoptive family by Wendy Darling (Maggie Smith), whose granddaughter, Moira (Caroline Goodall), he later marries. On a return visit to the Darling residence in London, Banning's children are kidnapped from the nursery where Wendy claims she and her brothers conjured the stories from which J.M. Barrie created his Peter Pan tales. That's when Banning learns the stories are true and that he is Peter Pan, but grew up so that he could marry Moira. He's then carried by Tinker Bell (Julia Roberts) back to Neverland to meet Captain Hook (Dustin Hoffman), whose ransom demand is a fight to the finish. But Peter's been out of circulation for quite a while and can't even remember how to fly, let alone vanquish Hook, so the Lost Boys, (there are now a lot of them) get him back into shape and he's finally ready to save his kids and return to his former life but as a much loosier and self-confident person.\nHook was big on budget, scale and top marquee names. Even its extras were big: David Crosby, Jimmy Buffet and Glenn Close show up as pirates, Carrie Fisher and George Lucas appear in additional cameos and Phil Collins pops up as a police inspector. Due to its size and the number of cast members, costumes, etc., the production was hard to manage. It ran 40 days over its 76 day shooting schedule and was rife with personality conflicts. Julia Roberts was said to be emotionally overwrought during filming and reportedly became known as \"Tinker Hell\". Dustin Hoffman was a perfectionist and had his own writer on hand, and the Lost Boys, seemingly endless numbers of them, were an ever changing lineup of amateur actors.\nHook was apparently not a happy time for Spielberg, either, who commented on the experience in Steven Spielberg: A Biography by Joseph McBride, stating, \"For some reason this movie was such a dinosaur coming out of the gate. It dragged me along behind it...Every day I came on the set I thought, 'Is this flying out of control?'\"\nThe story of Peter Pan is an important one to Spielberg and film critics have spent much time charting its development through his career. Pan is a figure with whom Spielberg has readily aligned himself, as noted in a Time interview from 1985: \"I have always felt like Peter Pan...It has been very hard for me to grow up...I'm a victim of the Peter Pan Syndrome.\"\nIt was the filmmaker's favorite tale as a child and when he was 11, he had his first taste of directing it, that time as a school production. In the early 80s Spielberg developed a live-action version of Peter Pan for Disney and later for Paramount and considered casting Michael Jackson in the title role. He had already discovered that Hoffman would make his ideal Hook. The project was abandoned with the birth of Spielberg's first child, Max, in 1985. In McBride's biography he recalls, \"Peter Pan came at a time when I had my first child and I didn't want to go to London...I wanted to be home as a dad, not a surrogate dad.\"\nThe decision is one that the theme of Hook wholeheartedly endorses. Much has been made about Spielberg's parents' divorce, its effect on him and his own struggle to keep marriage and family intact while managing a superstar career. The collision between responsibility and eternal boyhood that has defined Spielberg's personal and creative life is key to understanding the director's attraction to Hook, so much so, that Spielberg asked John Bradshaw, the popular psychologist who sent everyone looking for his or her inner child, for advice on the script and had him on set, even casting his daughter in the film. Not surprisingly, those portions of the film that involve Peter Banning and his family are considered the most genuine and affecting aspects of Hook.\nApparently Michael Jackson, also notably obsessed with Peter Pan, was disappointed that he wasn't able to play the role on screen and not just on his Neverland Ranch. Vanity Fair reported in a 2000 article that he tried to put a lethal voodoo curse on Spielberg as a result of not winning the lead role.\nLargely considered one of Spielberg's least successful films, Hook nonetheless did well at the box office. Made for a budget of $70 million, it grossed $119 million on U.S. screens. It was nominated for five Oscars®, including those for Art Direction, Costumes, Visual Effects, Makeup and Music. For fans of John Williams, the score for Hook is considered one of his best.\nProducer: Frank Marshall, Kathleen Kennedy and Gerald R. Molen\nDirector: Steven Spielberg\nScreenplay: Jim V. Hart and Malia Scotch Marmo, J.M. Barrie (books and play), Jim V. Hart and Nick Castle (screen story)\nCinematography: Dean Cundey\nArt Direction: Andrew Precht and Thomas E. Sanders\nMusic: John Williams\nFilm Editing: Michael Kahn\nCast: Dustin Hoffman (Captain Hook), Robin Williams (Peter Banning), Julia Roberts (Tinkerbell), Bob Hoskins (Smee), Maggie Smith (Granny Wendy), Caroline Goodall (Moira Banning), Charlie Korsmo (Jack 'Jackie' Banning), Amber Scott (Maggie Banning).\nC-142m. Letterboxed. Closed Captioning.", "Hook - YouTube\nHook\nWant to watch this again later?\nSign in to add this video to a playlist.\nNeed to report the video?\nSign in to report inappropriate content.\nRating is available when the video has been rented.\nThis feature is not available right now. Please try again later.\nPublished on May 13, 2013\nRelease date", "Amazon.com: Hook: Dustin Hoffman, Robin Williams, Julia Roberts, Bob Hoskins: Amazon Digital Services LLC\nBy Cole Trudeau on March 15, 2016\nFormat: Amazon Video Verified Purchase\nA little explanation why I watched this movie again, that i loved when I was a kid (although i never was a big Peter Pan fan). Last weekend we watched \"Pan\" with my 9 year old Stepson. And i was very disappointed. The movies and characters are cold, there is no one i could warm up to. especially the wannabe Indiana Hook and a terrible Jack Sparrow copy Blackbeard made the movie lack character. When i asked my stepson if he ever saw HOOK he said no.\nSo i had to find this movie and thankfully amazon prime video has it included.\nHOOK is everything PAN isn't.\nThe characters are worked out great, Robin Williams plays Peter and his transformation amazing. But Dustin Hoffman as Hook is in my eyes even better! Yes, he is the bad guy, but you just have to love him. Those two alone carry a movie already. Julia Roberts as Tinkerbell is another perfect cast.The story makes a great family movie about the transformation of a business man who has no time for his family because his job is more important. Yes, there are uncountable movies that have this, but the way it plays into the Peter Pan Universe makes it so good.\nMaybe it is a generation problem because \"adventure\" movies are just different today. Pan feels like an adventure movie, Hook is more like a fairy-tale and feels like the crew and cast put their heart into it.\nIf you have amazon prime its a no brainer to give this movie a try. even if not, its good invested money for a family movie evening.", "'Hook'\nSave money with NextCard Visa\nJ.M. Barrie wrote that \"All children, except one, grow up.\" The exception is Peter Pan, that flying, crowing embodiment of exuberant perpetual youth. But at the beginning of Steven Spielberg's \"Hook,\" Peter Pan has grown into Peter Banning (Robin Williams), a 40-year-old mergers and acquisitions lawyer with a billowing paunch, a cellular phone holstered on his belt and a constant expression of fretting anxiety on his face. Banning doesn't remember that he was once Peter Pan; he's lost his wings and his happy thoughts along with them. And because of the incessant tinkling of his portable phone, he's in serious danger of losing his wife, Moira (Caroline Goodall), and his two kids, Jack (Charlie Korsmo) and Maggie (Amber Scott). He's the consummate soulless corporate raider, a man totally estranged from his children, and, more important, the child in himself. He's a '90s-style Lost Boy.\n\"Hook\" is the story of Banning's redemption; it's an extravagant fable about how Banning recovers his past as Peter Pan, saving himself and his family by (please excuse the psychobabble) reclaiming his inner child. It's a '90s movie to the bone, yet another moral lesson for our time. It's also great fun: big, splashy, energetic, one-size-fits-all Hollywood entertainment. Spielberg and Co. have finally made their Disney movie -- or better yet, their film version of a theme park at Disneyland. It's sort of like \"Pirates of the Caribbean\" and \"It's a Small World\" rolled into one. It's a helluva contraption, and certainly one to be marveled at. It gives good ride.\nWhat it doesn't do, though, is instantly take a place in your heart. For all its pomp and color, for all the talent of its contributors, it's not a movie for which you can build a deep affection. The movie is about happy thoughts, but it takes a somewhat mechanical approach to happiness. It's hard to be elated about a machine, and that's what \"Hook\" is -- an $80 million Happy Thought machine.\nThis is a surprise and a disappointment, largely because Spielberg and Williams -- the reigning Peter Pans of Hollywood -- would seem so ideally suited to the material; it's a movie, one would think, that they were both born to make. Somehow, though, the result of their collaboration seems oddly impersonal. They give their all, but not their best.\nSpielberg is one of the greatest visual storytellers in movie history; the camera is his \"once upon a time\" device, and, at his best, he makes you feel as if you're living the story as it's taking place. In \"Hook,\" though, he never seems to get inside his story. The problem may be partly conceptual. The style of the picture is broadly theatrical; at times, it takes on the stagy look of a big Broadway musical. (John Napier, the stage designer for \"Cats\" and \"Les Miserables,\" served as the film's visual consultant.) Here, Spielberg operates more from outside the story than is usually his habit, as if he were a theater director, not a film director. Stylistically, it's a departure for him, but it's not a break that releases his true gifts. He never gives the picture wings.\nThe script -- which was written by Jim V. Hart and Malia Scotch Marmo -- is a nifty updating of Barrie's original, and Spielberg does an expert job of moving from the real world, where Banning and family travel to London to see their aged Aunt Wendy (Maggie Smith), to the fantasy world of Neverland, where Hook has taken Peter's kidnapped children. Our first sight of Neverland is transcendent, and some sequences here -- such as the Lost Boys' food fight and the climatic battle between them and Hook's pirates -- are blissfully directed. We're aware in these scenes that we are in the grip of a great filmmaker. We're also aware that his talents are being tailored to the purpose of creating a film that is all things to all people, a wholesome, crowd-pleasing circus with Spielberg as ringmaster.\nWilliams seems to be inhibited by some of the same constraints. He's not bad in the role; in fact, it fits him like a glove. But a glovelike fit isn't really to Williams's benefit; in this case it may have been a straitjacket. He seems blander here than usual, and his gift for the extraterrestrial non sequitur never shows itself. As it's conceived, the part doesn't allow him much room to bust out and flourish in the way that, say, his recent part in \"The Fisher King\" did. Williams gives us only some of what we might have expected, but not what we might have hoped for -- he never surprises us.\nIt's Dustin Hoffman who takes us by storm, not Williams. His Captain Hook is a delicious portrait of lip-smacking evil, a vain, pompous, sublimely narcissistic swine. Hoffman's performance is unapologetically theatrical, and perfectly suited to the stylized quality of the film. It's a performance in the Barrymore tradition -- grandiloquent, larger than life and a trifle tipsy. He's a prig, this Hook, and more than a little foppish. Hook allows Hoffman to cut loose in a way that Williams can't.\nWe see him shift moods in the space of a lightning flash, at first cajoling Peter's kids to reject their parents, then threatening to commit suicide over the demise of his career -- a routine gesture that his trusted second mate, Smee (Bob Hoskins), is expected to interrupt; we see him exchange his trademark hook for a baseball mitt in a pickup game staged to woo Peter's son, Charlie, away from his father, and we get to see him fence in his high-heeled pumps. Everything Hoffman does here shows him at his hammy best; his performance is a glory.\nThe drama turns on whether Banning can recover his happy thoughts, transform himself into the Peter Pan of his past, and rescue his children. His guide is his childhood companion, Tinkerbell (Julia Roberts), who loves him and has faith that she can whip this bloated Peter into fighting trim. Roberts's fairy role is a small one (pun intended), and if there's a star in Hollywood who's less well suited to being cut down in size, it's this one. Roberts has a voluptuous, abundant spirit on screen, but her pixie character here doesn't allow her to express this quality. She's shrunk down, literally, and for the most part wasted.\nThe movie falls slightly into the doldrums while we're waiting for Peter to rediscover himself; even though we know it's coming, it seems to take forever. When he finally remembers his past, the story takes a neat turn. The movie isn't simply about the happiness of childhood; it's about the pleasures of growing up too. When Peter finally remembers his Happy Thought, it's not a childhood memory that lifts him off the ground, but a flashback to an adult epiphany. To take wing, Peter recalls the birth of his son, and in doing so, he remembers why he chose to grow up -- and abandon Neverland forever -- in the first place: He wanted to be a father. The movie suggests, then, that there are two varieties of Lost Boys -- those who never grow up, and those who grow up but lose the child within them. That's what Hook and his men represent: the evil of lost innocence.\nLife, Peter finally decides at the film's end, is the greatest adventure. Real life. He's outgrown Neverland, but Neverland was a dead end to begin with. It's a potent message, but it might sink in deeper if we sensed that Spielberg had left Neverland behind too -- if he perceived the grown-up world as something other than just another pavilion in the big theme park of life.", "Hook by Steven Spielberg |Robin Williams, Dustin Hoffman, Julia Roberts | 43396039308 | DVD | Barnes & Noble®\nVideos\nOverview\nSteven Spielberg's variation on Peter Pan, Hook comes to DVD with a superb widescreen anamorphic transfer that preserves the original theatrical aspect ratio of 2.35:1. Closed-captioned English soundtracks are rendered in both Dolby Digital 5.1 and Dolby Digital Surround. English subtitles are accessible. Supplemental materials include theatrical trailers, talent files, and production notes. This disc offers excellent picture and sound quality, making it worth a look, especially considering the reasonable list price.\nAdvertising\nEditorial Reviews\nAll Movie Guide - Perry Seibert\nTurning Peter Pan into an exploration of yuppie angst and a metaphor for rediscovering one's \"inner-child,\" Hook might very well be the worst film of Steven Spielberg's career. The first of many disappointing fantasy-themed family comedies featuring Robin Williams, Hook dispenses with the charm and terror of the original tale in order to revel in some busy art direction and make parents realize they need to spend more time with their kids. Such moralizing would be fine if the film were at all entertaining, but none of the characters make any sense in their modern incarnations. The only character who works in a new way is Captain Hook, who misses battling with Peter, but Dustin Hoffman spends time chewing the scenery instead of acting. This is an artistic dead-end for everyone involved.\nProduct Details" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "Chinese_zodiac.txt" ], "title": [ "Chinese zodiac" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Chinese zodiac () is the classification scheme that assigns an animal to each year in a repeating twelve-year cycle. The 12-year cycle of Chinese zodiac is an approximation to the 11.86-year cycle of Jupiter, the largest planet of the solar system. There is a similar concept in western astrology and means \"circle of animals\". It is a scheme and systematic plan of future action that relates each year to an animal and its reputed attributes according to a 12-year cycle. It remains popular in several East Asian countries including China, Vietnam, Korea, Japan, Philippines, Thailand and Taiwan.\n\nName\n\nIdentifying this scheme using the term \"zodiac\" reflects several similarities to the Western zodiac: both have time cycles divided into 12 parts, each labels at least the majority of those parts with names of animals, and each is widely associated with a culture of ascribing a person's personality or events in his or her life to the supposed influence of the person's particular relationship to the cycle. Nevertheless, there are major differences: the Chinese 12-part cycle corresponds to years, rather than months. The Chinese zodiac is represented by 12 animals, whereas some of the signs in the Western zodiac are not animals, despite the implication of the Greek etymology of \"zodiac\". The animals of the Chinese zodiac are not associated with constellations spanned by the ecliptic plane.\n\nSigns\n\nThe zodiac traditionally begins with the sign of the Rat. The following are the twelve zodiac signs (each with its associated Earthly Branch) in order and their characteristics. \n\nJade Emperor\n\n# Rat – 鼠 (子) (Yang, 1st Trine, Fixed Element Water)\n# Ox – 牛 (丑) (Yin, 2nd Trine, Fixed Element Water)\n# Tiger – 虎 (寅) (Yang, 3rd Trine, Fixed Element Wood)\n# Rabbit – 兔 or 兎 (卯) (Yin, 4th Trine, Fixed Element Wood)\n# Dragon – 龍 / 龙 (辰) (Yang, 1st Trine, Fixed Element Wood)\n# Snake – 蛇 (巳) (Yin, 2nd Trine, Fixed Element Fire)\n# Horse – 馬 / 马 (午) (Yang, 3rd Trine, Fixed Element Fire)\n# Goat – 羊 (未) (Yin, 4th Trine, Fixed Element Fire)\n# Monkey – 猴 (申) (Yang, 1st Trine, Fixed Element Metal)\n# Rooster – 雞 / 鸡 (酉) (Yin, 2nd Trine, Fixed Element Metal)\n# Dog – 狗 / 犬 (戌) (Yang, 3rd Trine, Fixed Element Metal)\n# Pig – 豬 / 猪 (亥) (Yin, 4th Trine, Fixed Element Water)\n\nIn Chinese astrology the animal signs assigned by year represent what others perceive you as being or how you present yourself. It is a common misconception that the animals assigned by year are the only signs and many western descriptions of Chinese astrology draw solely on this system. In fact, there are also animal signs assigned by month (called inner animals), by day (called true animals) and hours (called secret animals).\n\nWhile a person might appear to be a Dragon because they were born in the year of the Dragon, they might also be a Snake internally, an Ox truly, and a Goat secretively.\n\nA conflict between a person's zodiac sign and how they live is known as tai sui or kai sui.\n\nChinese calendar\n\nYears\n\nWithin the Four Pillars, the year is the pillar representing information about the person's family background and society or relationship with their grandparents. The person's age can also be easily deduced from the sign of the person, the current sign of the year and the person's perceived age (teens, mid 20's, 40's and so on). For example, a person who is a Tiger is either 12, 24, 36 or 48 years old in 2010, the year of the Tiger. In 2011, the year of the Rabbit, that person is one year older.\n\nThe following table shows the 60-year cycle matched up to the Western calendar for the years 1924–2043 (see Sexagenary cycle article for years 1804–2043). The sexagenary cycle begins at lichun 'about February 4' according to some astrological sources. \n\nArctic Table \n\nMonths and solar terms\n\nWithin the Four Pillars, the month is the pillar representing information about the person's parents or childhood. Many Chinese astrologers consider the month pillar to be the most important one in determining the circumstances of one's adult life.\n\nThe 12 animals are also linked to traditional Chinese agricultural calendar, which runs alongside the better known lunar calendar. Instead of months, this calendar is divided into 24 two week segments known as Solar Terms. Each animal is linked to two of these solar terms for a period similar to the Western month. Unlike the 60 year lunar calendar, which can vary by as much as a month in relation to the Western calendar, the agricultural calendar varies by only one day, beginning on the Western February 3 or 4 every year. Again unlike the cycle of the lunar years, which begins with the Rat, the agricultural calendar begins with the Tiger as it is the first animal of spring. Around summer days are longer than winter days, because it occurs differences of perihelion and aphelion.\n\nAs each sign is linked to a month of the solar year, it is thereby also linked to a season. Each of the elements is also linked to a season (see above), and the element that shares a season with a sign is known as that sign's fixed element. In other words, that element is believed to impart some of its characteristics to the sign concerned. The fixed element of each sign applies also to the year and hour signs, and not just the monthly sign. It is important to note that the fixed element is separate from the cycle of elements which interact with the signs in the 60-year cycle.\n\nHours\n\nThe Chinese zodiac is also used to label times of the day, with each sign corresponding to a \"large-hour\" or shichen (時辰), which is a two-hour period (24 divided by 12 animals). Determining this period depends on knowing an individual's exact time of birth. The secret animal is thought to be a person's truest representation, since this animal is determined by the smallest denominator: a person's birth hour. As this sign is based on the position of the sun in the sky and not the time shown on a local clock, followers of this system believe it to be important to compensate for daylight saving time. However, some on-line systems already compensate for daylight saving time, and astrologers may compensate for this as well, even though a client may already have compensated for it, leading to a theoretically inaccurate reading.\n\nWithin the Four Pillars, the hour is the pillar representing information about one's children and contributions to the world or later life.\n\nLondon & solar time:\n\n* 23:00 – 00:59: 子 Rat\n* 01:00 – 02:59: 丑 Ox\n* 03:00 – 04:59: 寅 Tiger\n* 05:00 – 06:59: 卯 Rabbit\n* 07:00 – 08:59: 辰 Dragon\n* 09:00 – 10:59: 巳 Snake\n* 11:00 – 12:59: 午 Horse\n* 13:00 – 14:59: 未 Goat\n* 15:00 – 16:59: 申 Monkey\n* 17:00 – 18:59: 酉 Rooster\n* 19:00 – 20:59: 戌 Dog\n* 21:00 – 22:59: 亥 Pig\n\nThe times above are based on local solar time, rather than standard time. To convert to standard time, one needs to add or take off up to 30 min or more, depending on one's birth location west or east respectively of the central meridian of the given time zone. London, marking the central meridian of GMT has solar time equivalent to standard time; but for other cities like Cardiff located 3° 11′ W, the times will start at 11 min past the hour, whereas for Norwich, located 1° 17′ E, they will start 5 min earlier.\n\n* standard time for other major cities: \n\nNew York: 22:56 - 00:55 ; Chicago: 22:50 - 00:49; San Francisco: 23:09 - 01:08 ; Los Angeles: 22:53 - 00:52\n\nMumbai: 23:39 - 01:38 ; Lagos: 23:47 - 01:46 ; Cape Town: 23:47 - 01:46 ; Cairo: 22:56 - 00:55 ; Sydney: 23:00 - 00:59 ; Bangkok: 23:19 - 01:18 ; Beijing: 23:15 - 01:14 ; Nairobi: 23:33 - 01:32 ; Buenos Aires: 23:51 - 01:50 ; Moscow: 23:30 - 01:29 ; Paris: 23:51 - 01:50\n\nDay\n\n4 pillars calculator can determine the zodiac animal of the day. \n\nCompatibility\n\nAs the Chinese zodiac is derived according to the ancient Five Elements Theory, every Chinese Sign is composed of five elements with relations, among those elements, of interpolation, interaction, over-action, and counter-action — believed to be the common law of motions and changes of creatures in the universe. Different people born under each animal sign supposedly have different personalities, and practitioners of Chinese astrology consult such traditional details and compatibilities to offer putative guidance in life or for love and marriage. \n\nChinese Zodiac Compatibility Grid \n\n4 Pillars\n\nThe Four Pillars method can be traced back to the Han Dynasty ( AD 220), and is still much used in Feng Shui astrology and general analysis today. The Four Pillars or Columns chart is called such as the Chinese writing causes it to fall into columns. Each pillar or column contains a stem and a branch—and each column relates to the year, month, day and hour of birth. The first column refers to the year animal and element, the second to the month animal and element, the third to the day animal and element, and the last to the hour animal and element.\n\nWithin the 'Four Pillars', the Year column purports to provide information about one's ancestor or early age, and the Month column about one's parents or growing age. The Day column purports to offer information about oneself (upper character) and one's spouse (lower character) or adult age, and the Hour column about children or late age. \n\nFour Animal Trines\n\nSee: Astrological aspect#Trine\n\nFirst Trine\n\nThe first trine consists of the Rat, Dragon and Monkey. These three signs are said to be intense and powerful individuals capable of great good, who make great leaders but are rather unpredictable. The three are said to be intelligent, magnanimous, charismatic, charming, authoritative, confident, eloquent and artistic, but can be manipulative, jealous, selfish, aggressive, vindictive or deceitful.\n\nSecond Trine\n\nThe second trine consists of the Ox, Snake and Rooster. These three signs are said to possess endurance and application, with slow accumulation of energy, meticulous at planning but tending to hold fixed opinions. The three are said to be hard-working, modest, industrious, loyal, philosophical, patient, good-hearted and morally upright, but can also be self-righteous, egotistical, vain, judgmental, narrow-minded or petty.\n\nThird Trine\n\nThe third trine consists of the Tiger, Horse and Dog. These three signs are said to seek true love, to pursue humanitarian causes, to be idealistic and independent but tending to be impulsive. The three are said to be productive, enthusiastic, independent, engaging, dynamic, honourable, loyal and protective, but can also be rash, rebellious, quarrelsome, anxious, disagreeable or stubborn.\n\nFourth Trine\n\nThe fourth trine consists of the Rabbit, Goat and Pig. These three signs are said to have a calm nature and an intellectual approach; they seek aesthetic beauty and are artistic, well-mannered and compassionate, yet detached and resigned to their condition. The three are said to be caring, self-sacrificing, obliging, sensible, creative, empathetic, tactful and prudent, but can also be naïve, pedantic, insecure, cunning, indecisive or pessimistic.\n\nZodiac origin stories\n\nThere are many stories and fables to explain the beginning of the zodiac. Since the Han Dynasty, the 12 Earthly Branches have been used to record the time of day. However, for the sake of entertainment and convenience, they have been replaced by the 12 animals. The 24 hours are divided into 12 periods, and a mnemonic refers to the behaviour of the animals: \n\nA Branch may refer to a double-hour period. In the latter case it is the center of the period; for instance, 马 (the Horse) means noon or a period from 11am to 1pm.\n\n*Rat (Zishi): 23:00 to 00:59. This is the time when Rats are most active in seeking food. Rats also have a different number of digits on front and hind legs, thus earning Rat the symbol of \"turn over\" or \"new start\".\n*Ox (Choushi): 01:00 to 02:59. This is the time when Oxen begin to chew the cud slowly and comfortably.\n*Tiger (Yinshi): 03:00 to 04:59. This is the time when Tigers hunt their prey more and show their ferocity.\n*Rabbit (Maoshi): 05:00 to 06:59. This is the time when the Jade Rabbit is busy pounding herbal medicine on the Moon according to the tale.\n*Dragon (Chenshi): 07:00 to 08:59. This is the time when Dragons are hovering in the sky to give rain.\n*Snake (Sishi): 09:00 to 10:59. This is the time when Snakes are leaving their caves.\n*Horse (Wushi): 11:00 to 12:59. This is the time when the sun is high overhead and while other animals are lying down for a rest, Horses are still standing.\n*Goat (Weishi): 13:00 to 14:59. This is the time when Goats eat grass and urinate frequently.\n*Monkey (Shenshi): 15:00 to 16:59. This is the time when Monkeys are lively.\n*Rooster (Youshi): 17:00 to 18:59. This is the time when Roosters begin to get back to their coops.\n*Dog (Xushi): 19:00 to 20:59. This is the time when Dogs carry out their duty of guarding the houses.\n*Pig (Haishi): 21:00 to 22:59. This is the time when Pigs are sleeping sweetly.\n\nThe Great Race\n\nAn Ancient folk story tells that Cat and Rat were the worst swimmers in the animal kingdom. Although they were poor swimmers, they were both quite intelligent. To get to the meeting called by the Jade Emperor, they had to cross a river to reach the meeting place. The Jade Emperor had also decreed that the years on the calendar would be named for each animal in the order they arrived to the meeting. Cat and Rat decided that the best and fastest way to cross the river was to hop on the back of Ox. Ox, being naïve and good-natured, agreed to carry them both across. Midway across the river, Rat pushed Cat into the water. Then as Ox neared the other side of the river, Rat jumped ahead and reached the shore first. So he claimed first place in the competition and the zodiac. \n\nFollowing closely behind was strong Ox who was named the 2nd animal in the zodiac. After Ox, came Tiger, panting, while explaining to the Jade Emperor how difficult it was to cross the river with the heavy currents pushing it downstream all the time. But with its powerful strength, Tiger made to shore and was named the 3rd animal in the cycle.\n\nSuddenly, from a distance came a thumping sound, and the Rabbit arrived. It explained how it crossed the river: by jumping from one stone to another in a nimble fashion. Halfway through, it almost lost the race, but the Rabbit was lucky enough to grab hold of a floating log that later washed him to shore. For that, it became the 4th animal in the Zodiac cycle. In 5th place was the Flying Dragon. Of course, the Jade Emperor was deeply curious as to why a swift flying creature such as the Dragon should fail to reach first place. The mighty Dragon explained that he had to stop and make rain to help all the people and creatures of the earth, and therefore he was held back. Then, on his way to the finish, he saw a little helpless Rabbit clinging onto a log so he did a good deed and gave a puff of breath to the poor creature so that it could land on the shore. The Jade Emperor was very pleased with the actions of the Dragon, and he was added into the zodiac cycle. As soon as he had done so, a galloping sound was heard, and the Horse appeared. Hidden on the Horse's hoof was the Snake, whose sudden appearance gave the Horse a fright, thus making it fall back and giving the Snake the 6th spot, while the Horse placed 7th.\n\nNot long after that, a little distance away, the Goat, Monkey, and Rooster came to the shore. These three creatures helped each other to get to where they are. The Rooster spotted a raft, and took the other two animals with it. Together, the Goat and the Monkey cleared the weeds, tugged and pulled and finally got the raft to the shore. Because of their combined efforts, the Emperor was very pleased and promptly named the Goat as the 8th creature, the Monkey as the 9th, and the Rooster the 10th.\n\nThe 11th animal was the Dog. Although he was supposed to be the best swimmer, he could not resist the temptation to play a little longer in the river. Though his explanation for being late was because he needed a good bath after a long spell. For that, he almost didn't make it to the finish line. Just as the Jade Emperor was about to call it a day, an oink and squeal was heard from a little Pig. The Pig got hungry during the race, promptly stopped for a feast and then fell asleep. After the nap, the Pig continued the race and was named the 12th animal of the zodiac cycle. The cat drowned in 13th place and did not make it in the zodiac. It is said that is the reason why cats always chase Rats; to get back at them for what they have done.\n\nAnother folk story tells that on registration day, the Rat met up with the Ox. He thought to himself \"Ox is the fastest, strongest animal!\" So the little Rat played a trick on the Ox. He asked the Ox if he would like to listen to him sing. The Rat opened his mouth but said nothing. \"How was that?\" he asked the Ox and of course he replied \"Sorry little Rat, I didn't hear you.\" The Rat told the Ox to let him jump onto his back so that he could sing it more clearly, and the Ox agreed. Soon without knowing, the Ox was walking to the signing post, forgetting the Rat on his back. When they reached there, the Rat jumped off and claimed first place. The Ox following and the rest.\n\nIn Buddhism, legend has it that Buddha summoned all of the animals of the earth to come before him before his departure from this earth, but only 12 animals actually came to bid him farewell. To reward the animals who came to him, he named a year after each of them. The years were given to them in the order they had arrived.\n\nThe 12 animals of the Chinese zodiac must have been developed in the early stages of Chinese civilization over hundreds of years before it became the current edition; and it's very hard to investigate the real origin. Most historians agree that Cat is not in the list since the 12 animals of the Chinese zodiac were formed before cats were introduced to China from India with Buddhism.\n\nAnother story tells that God called the animals to a banquet that night. The Rat, who loved to play tricks on his neighbor, told the cat that the banquet was on the day after tomorrow. The cat believed his neighbour the Rat and slept whilst dreaming of the banquet. The next day, the Rat arrived first followed by the Ox, the Tiger and the rest of the animals. The order of the animals was decided by the order that they arrived. The cat was devastated and vowed that he would always hate the Rat. This is why cats chase Rats in folklore.\n\nProblems with English translation\n\nDue to confusion with synonyms during translation, some of the animals depicted by the English words did not exist in ancient China. For example, 羊 can mean ram, sheep or Goat. Similarly, 鼠 (Rat) can also be translated as mouse, as there are no distinctive words for the two genera in Chinese. Further, 豬 (Pig) is sometimes translated to boar after its Japanese name, and 牛 plainly means cow or Ox, and not water buffalo, 水牛. 雞 (Rooster) may mean chicken or cock. However, Rooster is the most commonly used one among all the synonyms, same for 羊, 鼠, etc.\n\nChinese zodiac in other countries\n\nThe Chinese zodiac signs are also used by cultures other than Chinese. For one example, they usually appear on Korean New Year and Japanese New Year's cards and stamps. The United States Postal Service and those of several other countries issue a \"Year of the ____\" postage stamp each year to honor this Chinese heritage.\n\nThe Chinese lunar coins, depicting the zodiac animals, inspired the Canadian Silver Maple Leaf coins, as well as varieties from Australia, Korea, and Mongolia. The Chinese zodiac is an internationally popular theme, available from many of the world's government and private mints.\n\nThe Chinese zodiac is also used in some other Asian countries that have been under the cultural influence of China. However, some of the animals in the zodiac may differ by country.\n\nEast Asia \n\nThe Korean zodiac is almost identical to the Chinese zodiac except it includes the Sheep instead of the Goat. The Vietnamese zodiac is almost identical to the Chinese zodiac except the second animal is the Water Buffalo instead of the Ox, and the fourth animal is the Cat instead of the Rabbit. The Japanese zodiac includes the Sheep instead of the Goat, and the Wild Boar instead of the Pig. The Japanese have since 1873 celebrated the beginning of the new year on 1 January as per the Gregorian Calendar. The Thai zodiac includes a nāga in place of the Dragon and begins, not at Chinese New Year, but either on the first day of fifth month in Thai lunar calendar, or during the Songkran festival (now celebrated every 13–15 April), depending on the purpose of the use. \n\nBulgars, Huns and Turkic people \n\nThe European Huns used the Chinese zodiac complete with \"Dragon\" \"Pig\". This common Chinese-Turkic Zodiac was in use in Balkan Bulgaria well into the Bulgars' adoption of Slavic language and Orthodox Christianity .\nFollowing is the Hunnish or Bulgarian Pagan zodiac calendar, distinctive from the Greek zodiac but much in conformity with the Chinese one:\n\nTorè calendar\n\nNames of years\n# Kuzgé – [Year of] Saravana - Rat\n# Shiger (Syger) – Ox\n# Kuman (Imén)\n# Ügur – Tiger, Myachè Ügur – Tiger\n# Taushan – Rabbit\n# Samar – Dragon Birgün (Bergen, Birig, Baradj) – Dragon\n# Dilan – Snake\n# Tykha – Horse\n# Téké – Goat\n# Bichin, Michin – Monkey\n# Tavuk – Rooster (also written tağuk—ğ is pronounced as v in Turk. verbs döğmek and öğmek)\n# It – Dog\n# Shushma – Pig (many mistake it as boar though)(Turk., Russ. \"Kaban\"—Translator's Note, also cognate of Turkish şişman, \"fat\")\n\nIn Kazakhstan, an animal cycle similar to the Chinese is used, but the Dragon is substituted by a snail (), and Tiger appears as a leopard ().\n\nIn Mongolia 12 year beasts are called \"Арван хоёр жил\" meaning \"12 years\"\n# Hulgana - Хулгана - Rat\n# Ukher - Үхэр - Ox\n# Bar - Бар - Tiger\n# Tuulai - Туулай - Rabbit\n# Luu - Луу - Dragon\n# Mogoi - Могой - Snake\n# Mori - Морь - Horse\n# Honi - Хонь - Goat\n# Bichin, Michin, Mechin - Бич/Мич, Бичин, Мичин, Мэчин - Monkey\n# Tahiya - Тахиа - Rooster\n# Nohoi - Нохой - Dog\n# Gahai - Гахай - Pig" ] }

{ "description": [ "... if you were born in a tiger year (1950, 1962, 1974, 1986, 1998 ... Culture Chinese Zodiac The Year of the Tiger. ... third of the animals in the Chinese ...", "It is used to record birth years of Chinese ... 2016 is the Year of the Monkey according to Chinese zodiac. The Year of ... animals in Chinese zodiac were also ...", "Chinese Zodiac Signs, The Chinese ... Traditionally these zodiac animals were used to date the years. The 12 Animals of the Chinese Zodiac ... 2010, 1998, 1986 ...", "... 2016 was the Chinese New Year and the start of the Year of ... The monkey is one of 12 animals in the Chinese zodiac ... Feb 7, 1997 – Jan 27, 1998; Jan 26, 2009", "1998 - Year of the Tiger According to the Chinese zodiac, 1998 ... Only twelve animals answered this call. As a reward, ...", "... find out which Chinese New Year Zodiac Animal you are and your typical characteristics. Chinese New Year Animals – ... 1950, 1962, 1974, 1986, 1998 .", "List of Chinese years based on 12 year cycle. ... The animals in the Chinese Zodiac or the animals which constitute the Chinese ... 1998: 1999: 2000: 2001: 2002: 2003 ..." ], "filename": [ "199/199_3384.txt", "68/68_2347.txt", "85/85_2340.txt", "130/130_2341.txt", "137/137_3385.txt", "23/23_2345.txt", "132/132_2346.txt" ], "rank": [ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9 ], "title": [ "Year of the Tiger: Zodiac Luck, Romance, Personality..", "Chinese Zodiac: 12 Animal Signs, Calculator, Origin", "Chinese Zodiac, 12 Chinese Zodiac Animals, Find Your ...", "The Chinese Zodiac - Chinese Animal Signs - Time and Date", "1998 - Year of the Tiger (continued) - Jade Dragon", "Chinese New Year Zodiac Animal - About.com Travel", "Chinese New Year | Chinese Animal Year Zodiac | Chinese ..." ], "url": [ "http://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-zodiac/tiger.htm", "https://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/social_customs/zodiac/", "http://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-zodiac/", "http://www.timeanddate.com/calendar/chinese-zodiac-signs.html", "http://www.jadedragon.com/feb98/tiger.html", "http://gohongkong.about.com/od/chinesenewyear/tp/Chinese-New-Year-Zodiac-Signs.htm", "http://www.prokerala.com/general/calendar/chinese-years.php" ], "search_context": [ "Year of the Tiger: Zodiac Luck, Romance, Personality..\nYears of the Tiger include 1914, 1926, 1938, 1950, 1962, 1974, 1986, 1998, 2010, and 2022.\nYou can use the tool on the right to find your zodiac animal sign.\nThe Tiger’s Personality: Brave, Confident...\nPeople born in the year of the Tiger are brave, competitive, unpredictable, and self-confident. They are very charming and well-liked by others. But sometimes they are likely to be impetuous, irritable, and overindulged.\nWith stubborn personalities and tough judgment, tigers work actively and boldly express themselves, and do things with a high-handed manner. They are authoritative and never go back on what they have said.\nWith great confidence and indomitable fortitude, they can be competent leaders. They will not make preparations for anything, but they can handle anything that comes along.\nWhile they are not motivated by money or power,\nTigers love be challenged and will accept any challenge if it means important value to them, and they do not like to obey others.\nGood Health for “Tigers”\nTigers enjoy good health. They are active so they like to do various sports. Small illnesses, such as colds, coughs, and fever, are rarely experienced by Tigers.\nHowever, they should avoid excessive strenuous exercise, because some dangerous activities may lead to physical harm. When involved in outdoor excise, they should pay particular attention to warm-up exercise. Aerobic exercises, such as jogging, are suitable for keeping fit.\nTigers are energetic and have great enthusiasm at work. When they feel exhausted after extended work, they need some relaxation to refresh themselves.\nThe Best Jobs or Career for Tigers\nThe Tiger, called “the king of the animals\" in China, is usually the center of attention. They are born with leadership, and they are respected by others. Tigers are suitable to any career as leaders.\nThey are suited to careers such as advertising agent, office manager, travel agent, actor, writer, artist, pilot, flight attendant, musician, comedian, and chauffeur.\nHowever, in their early years, Tigers’ careers are not so smooth. After their thirties they find their direction and gather wealth.\nHow to Build Relationships with \"Tigers\"\nIn social relationships, Tigers are always in the dominant role.\nDue to mistrust and over confidence, Tigers do not like to communicate with others, so they are not good at coordinating in social circles. They are inclined to use commanding means to deal with interpersonal relationships. Even though they are acquainted with a lot of people, they do not further the relationships to deep friendship.\nUnderstanding, patience, and tact are needed when dealing with Tigers.\nIn love relationships, Tigers cannot give sweet love to their partners because they lack a sense of romance. Partners need to be equally active to keep up with the Tiger’s sense of adventure.\nThe Luckiest Things for “Tigers”\nLucky numbers: 1, 3, and 4 and numbers containing them (like 13 and 43)\nLucky days: the 16th and 27th of any Chinese lunar calendar month\nLucky colors: blue, gray, orange\nLucky flowers: yellow lily, cineraria\nLucky direction: east, north, south\nLucky months: the 3rd, 7th, and 10th Chinese lunar months.\nThings That Should Be Avoided by “Tigers”\nUnlucky colors: brown\nUnlucky months: the 1st, 4th, 5th and 11th Chinese lunar months\nIs Year 2017 a Lucky Year for \"Tigers\"?\nThe fortune trend for Tigers is rather gloomy in 2017, and the odds will be against them rather than in their favor if they are not resolved successfully.\nNot only do many difficulties lie ahead of them, but they will also be hampered by underhand people. Just as each coin has two sides, Tigers will still have opportunities to move forward and even win in a flexible way if they pursue their advantages and avoid their disadvantages.\nCareer Trend\nTigers should deal with difficulties and conflicts in their career calmly and struggle for their survival flexibly and diligently, or they will have an overwhelming defeat. One point that they should pay special attention to is that they must be flexible enough to adjust their strategies to the changing environment when encountering issues that do not run smoothly.\nFour months must be made full use of if they want to reach a breakthrough in their career, namely the second, fifth, sixth and tenth Chinese lunar months, when few difficulties will occur in their career.\nMoney-Making Opportunities\nTigers will not be blessed due to their poor fortune trend in 2017. They should avoid any high-risk investments in the first, fourth, and seventh, Chinese lunar months even though others may make a profit due to good market prospects.\nNot only will they not have any benefits in the other months (in addition to the months above), but accidents may also happen to them. Instead of being careless and inadvertent, they must carefully manage their finances and save money in case of an emergency.\nHealth Trend\nTigers will be very vulnerable to illnesses due to poor health; therefore, they should look after themselves well to avoid catching acute infectious diseases, especially in the fourth, seventh, and tenth Chinese lunar months.\nIn addition, they should stop bad habits like smoking and drinking, and be wary of drugs. Great attention should be paid to their dental health as it will be easy for them to become ill via oral infections. Instead of concealing an illness and avoiding treatment, they should go to see a doctor immediately.\nRelationship Trend\nIt will be hard for Tigers to fall in love due to their dramatically unstable emotions in 2017; therefore, they will not experience any love.\nAs far as their romantic relationships are concerned, the worst times for them will be in the first, second, and tenth Chinese lunar months. However, it will totally depend on them to make any developments in the relationships.\nThey should deal with their relationships naturally instead of rashly and forcefully, or they will be cheated both emotionally and financially.\nLove Compatibility: Is She/He Compatible with You?\nEach animal sign has its unique characteristics. Love compatibility among Chinese zodiac animals mostly takes into account the general characteristics of each animal. Only those whose characteristics match each other well can be good partners. See below the compatibility of the Tiger with other animals.\nBest with: Dragon, Horse, or Pig\nWorst with: Ox, Snake, or Monkey\nTake our online love Compatibility test\nWhat Type of \"Tiger\" Are You: Wood, Fire, Earth, Gold, or Water?\nIn Chinese element theory, each zodiac sign is associated with one of five elements: Gold (Metal), Wood, Water, Fire, or Earth, which means that e.g. a Wood Tiger comes once in a 60-year cycle.\nIt is theorized that a person's characteristics are decided by their birth year's zodiac animal sign and element. So there are five types of Tigers, each with different characteristics:\nType of Tiger", "Chinese Zodiac: 12 Animal Signs, Calculator, Origin, App\nZi Shi: 11 p.m. to 1 a.m.\nThis is the time rats actively seek food.\nOx\nChou Shi: 1 to 3 a.m.\nThis is the time that oxen ruminate.\nTiger\nYin Shi: 3 to 5 a.m.\nTigers hunt prey and display fiercest nature.\nRabbit\nMao Shi: 5 to 7 a.m.\nThe Jade Rabbit on the moon is busy pounding medicinal herb with a pestle.\nDragon\nChen Shi: 7 to 9 a.m.\nDragons are hover in the sky at that time to give people rainfall.\nSnake\nSi Shi: 9 to 11 a.m.\nSnakes start to leave their burrows.\nHorse\nWu Shi: 11 a.m. to 1 p.m.\nWith the sun high above, other animals are lying down for a noon break while the unconstrained horse is still vigorous.\nSheep\nWei Shi: 1 to 3 p.m.\nIt is said that if sheep ate grass at this time, they would grow stronger.\nMonkey\nShen Shi: 3 to 5 p.m.\nMonkeys become lively.\nYou Shi: 5 to 7 p.m.\nRoosters return to their roost as it is dark.\nDog\nXu Shi: 7 to 9 p.m.\nDogs begin to carry out their duty to guard entrances.\nPig", "The Chinese Zodiac, 12 Zodiac Animals, Find Your Zodiac Sign\nThe Chinese animal zodiac, or shengxiao (/shnng-sshyaoww/ ‘born resembling’), is a repeating cycle of 12 years, with each year being represented by an animal and its reputed attributes. Traditionally these zodiac animals were used to date the years.\nThe 12 Animals of the Chinese Zodiac\nIn order, the 12 animals are: Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, Pig.\nWhat Your Chinese Zodiac Animal Sign Is\nYour Chinese Zodiac sign is derived from your birth year, according to the Chinese lunar calendar. See the years of each animal below or use the calculator on the right to determine your own sign.\nRat: 2008, 1996, 1984, 1972, 1960\nOx: 2009, 1997, 1985, 1973, 1961\nTiger: 2010, 1998, 1986, 1974, 1962\nRabbit: 2011, 1999, 1987, 1975, 1963\nDragon: 2012, 2000, 1988, 1976, 1964\nSnake: 2013, 2001, 1989, 1977, 1965\nHorse: 2014, 2002, 1990, 1978, 1966\nGoat: 2015, 2003, 1991, 1979, 1967\nMonkey: 2016, 2004, 1992, 1980, 1968\nRooster: 2017 , 2005, 1993, 1981, 1969\nDog: 2018, 2006, 1994, 1982, 1970\nPig: 2019, 2007, 1995, 1983, 1971\nFind Your Chinese Zodiac Sign\nChoose your date of birth and find out about your Chinese zodiac sign.\nYou are a:\nLove:\nHealth:\nThose born in January and February take care: Chinese (Lunar) New Year moves between 21 January and February 20. If you were born in January or February, check whether your birth date falls before or after Chinese New Year to know what your Chinese zodiac year is.\nChinese Zodiac Love Compatibility — Is He/She Right for You?\nPeople born in a certain animal year are believed to have attributes of that animal, which could either help or hinder a relationship.\nAn important use of Chinese Zodiac is to determine if two people are compatible, in a romantic relationship or any kind of relationship. In ancient times people were faithful to Chinese Zodiac compatibility and often referred to it before a romantic relationship began. Even nowadays some people still refer to it.\nTake our online test on the right and find how suitable you and your partner are. See our Chinese Zodiac Love Compatibility Charts\nChinese Zodiac Love Compatibility Test Is she/he compatible with you? Take the test and see...\nBoy's Name:\nDate of Birth:\nIt’s BAD LUCK When Your Zodiac Year Comes Around!\nAs the Chinese zodiac recurs every 12 years, your animal year will come around when you are 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, etc.\nAccording to ancient Chinese superstition, in your birth sign year, he will offend the God of Age, and will have bad luck during that year. The best way to avoid bad luck during this year is by wearing something red given by an elder (relative), such as socks, a neck cord, underwear, a waistband, a bracelet, or an anklet.\nRead more on How to be Lucky in Your Zodiac Year .\nChinese Zodiac Years Have Two Different Starts!\nThere are two dates a Chinese zodiac year could be said to start on, and neither is January 1! China traditionally uses two calendars: the solar calendar and the lunar calendar.\nThe traditional solar calendar has 24 fifteen-day solar terms, and the first, called ‘Start of Spring’, falls on February 4 (or 5).\nThe lunar calendar has 12 or 13 months and starts on Chinese New Year, which is somewhere in the period January 21 to February 20.\nMost Chinese people use lunar New Year as the start of the zodiac year. But for fortune telling and astrology, people believe ‘Start of Spring’ is the beginning of the zodiac year.\nChinese Zodiac Origins — Why 12 Animals\nThe 12 animals were chosen deliberately, after many revisions. The zodiac animals are either closely related to ancient Chinese people’s daily lives, or have lucky meanings.\nThe ox, horse, goat, rooster, pig, and dog are six of the main domestic animals raised by Chinese people. The other six animals: rat, tiger, rabbit, dragon, snake, and monkey are all loved by the Chinese people.\nWhy the 12 Zodiac Animals Are in That Order\nThe 12 Chinese Zodiac animals are in a fixed order according to Chinese Yin and Yang Theory and perceived attributes.\nThe yin or the yang of the animals is defined based on the odd or even number of their claws (or toes, hoofs). The animals are then arranged in an alternating (complementary) yin-yang sequence.\nUsually an animal has is the same number of claws on its front and rear legs. However the rat has four toes on its fore legs and five on its hind legs. As the old saying goes, “a thing is valued in proportion to its rarity”, so the Rat ranks first of the 12 zodiac animals. It uniquely combines the attributes of odd (yang) and even (yin). 4+5=9, and yang is dominant, so the Rat is classified as odd (yang) overall.\nZodiac Animal\nAmiability without fidelity leads to immorality.\nChinese Zodiac Hours — Each Hour is Associated with a Zodiac Animal\nChinese zodiac hours\nIt is widely known that each year is associated with a Chinese zodiac animal, but in Chinese culture the 12 zodiac animals are also associated with hours of a day.\nIn ancient times, in order to tell the time, people divided a day into twelve 2-hour periods, and designated an animal to represent each period, according to each animal’s “special time”.\nAccording to Chinese astrology, though not popularly used, a person’s personality and life is more decided by his/her birth hour than year. The zodiac hour is widely used for character and destiny analysis.\nRat", "The Chinese Zodiac\nImaginative, generous, successful, popular, curious\nFeb 10, 1948 – Jan 28, 1949\nJan 28, 1960 – Feb 14, 1961\nFeb 15, 1972 – Feb 2, 1973\nFeb 2, 1984 – Feb 19, 1985\nFeb 19, 1996 – Feb 6, 1997\nFeb 7, 2008 – Jan 25, 2009\nJan 25, 2020 – Feb 11, 2021\nChou (ox)\nConfident, honest, patient, conservative, strong\nJan 29, 1949 – Feb 16, 1950\nFeb 15, 1961 – Feb 4, 1962\nFeb 3, 1973 – Jan 22, 1974\nFeb 20, 1985 – Feb 8, 1986\nFeb 7, 1997 – Jan 27, 1998\nJan 26, 2009 – Feb 13, 2010\nFeb 12, 2021 – Jan 31, 2022\nYin (tiger)\nSensitive, tolerant, brave, active, resilient\nFeb 17, 1950 – Feb 5, 1951\nFeb 5, 1962 – Jan 24, 1963\nJan 23, 1974 – Feb 10, 1975\nFeb 9, 1986 – Jan 28, 1987\nJan 28, 1998 – Feb 15, 1999\nFeb 14, 2010 – Feb 2, 2011\nFeb 1, 2022 – Jan 21, 2023\nMao (rabbit)\nAffectionate, kind, gentle, compassionate, merciful\nFeb 6, 1951 – Jan 26, 1952\nJan 25, 1963 – Feb 12, 1964\nFeb 11, 1975 – Jan 30, 1976\nJan 29, 1987 – Feb 16, 1988\nFeb 16, 1999 – Feb 4, 2000\nFeb 3, 2011 – Jan 22, 2012\nJan 22, 2023 – Feb 9, 2024\nChen (dragon)\nEnthusiastic, intelligent, lively, energetic, innovative\nJan 27, 1952 – Feb 13, 1953\nFeb 13, 1964 – Feb 1, 1965\nJan 31, 1976 – Feb 17, 1977\nFeb 17, 1988 – Feb 5, 1989\nFeb 5, 2000 – Jan 23, 2001\nJan 23, 2012 – Feb 9, 2013\nFeb 10, 2024 – Jan 28, 2025\nSi (snake)\nCharming, intuitive, romantic, highly perceptive, polite\nFeb 14, 1953 – Feb 2, 1954\nFeb 2, 1965 – Jan 20, 1966\nFeb 18, 1977 – Feb 6, 1978\nFeb 6, 1989 – Jan 26, 1990\nJan 24, 2001 – Feb 11, 2002\nFeb 10, 2013 – Jan 30, 2014\nJan 29, 2025 – Feb 16, 2026\nWu (horse)\nDiligent, friendly, sophisticated, talented, clever\nFeb 3, 1954 – Jan 23, 1955\nJan 21, 1966 – Feb 8, 1967\nFeb 7, 1978 – Jan 27, 1979\nJan 27, 1990 – Feb 14, 1991\nFeb 12, 2002 – Jan 31, 2003\nJan 31, 2014 – Feb 18, 2015\nFeb 17, 2026 – Feb 5, 2027\nWei (sheep)\nArtistic, calm, reserved, happy, kind\nJan 24, 1955 – Feb 11, 1956\nFeb 9, 1967 – Jan 29, 1968\nJan 28, 1979 – Feb 15, 1980\nFeb 15, 1991 – Feb 3, 1992\nFeb 1, 2003 – Jan 21, 2004\nFeb 19, 2015 – Feb 7, 2016\nFeb 6, 2027 – Jan 25, 2028\nShen (monkey)\nWitty, lively, flexible, humorous, curious\nFeb 12, 1956 – Jan 30, 1957\nJan 30, 1968 – Feb 16, 1969\nFeb 16, 1980 – Feb 4, 1981\nFeb 4, 1992 – Jan 22, 1993\nJan 22, 2004 – Feb 8, 2005\nFeb 8, 2016 – Jan 27, 2017\nJan 26, 2028 – Feb 12, 2029\nYou (rooster)\nShrewd, honest, communicative, motivated, punctual\nJan 31, 1957 – Feb 17, 1958\nFeb 17, 1969 – Feb 5, 1970\nFeb 5, 1981 – Jan 24, 1982\nJan 23, 1993 – Feb 9, 1994\nFeb 9, 2005 – Jan 28, 2006\nJan 28, 2017 – Feb 15, 2018\nFeb 13, 2029 – Feb 2, 2030\nXu (dog)\nLoyal, honest, responsible, courageous, warm-hearted\nFeb 18, 1958 – Feb 8, 1959\nFeb 6, 1970 – Jan 26, 1971\nJan 25, 1982 - Feb 12, 1983\nFeb 10 1994 – Jan 30, 1995\nJan 29, 2006 – Feb 17, 2007\nFeb 16, 2018 – Feb 4, 2019\nFeb 3, 2030 – Jan 22, 2031\nHai (boar/pig)", "1998 - Year of the Tiger (continued)\nI AM THE TIGER\n1998 - Year of the Tiger\nAccording to the Chinese zodiac, 1998 (beginning on January 28th according to the lunar calendar) will have characteristics much like the Tiger described on our home page. Unfortunately tiger years are also full of wars, unrest, dissension and catastrophes. Consider past Tiger events - such as Watergate, Irangate, the Chernobyl nuclear accident, and the space shuttle explosion. Witness already El Nino and La Nina, the current Asian currency crisis, and the current Clinton scandal. The Year of the Tiger is sure to a be a real shaker!!\nThe best advice for getting through this year of extremes is to proceed with caution. Especially be cautious with new partnerships, friendships and agreements - for these will be extremely fragile and prone to failure.\nBut don�t despair! This year will bring out the best in each of us as we discover hidden strengths and are cleansed of negative energies. And by avoiding impetuous decisions you will emerge energized and triumphant, enabling you to enter into 1999, the Year of the Rabbit, a much easier time for all!\nChinese legend states that thousands of years ago, Buddha sent out a summons to all the animals in the kingdom. Only twelve animals answered this call. As a reward, Buddha endowed each animal with a year of its own in the order of arrival. From then on, each year of the Chinese calendar bore the characteristics of the animal of that name.\nUsing the Chinese zodiac, judge for yourself if the following characteristics describe yourself or your friends. First, find your animal by the date of your birth with the chart below. (If you are born from mid-January to mid-February, you will need to find out the date of the Chinese New Year for the year in which you were born as this changes each year in the lunar calendar. See the end of this article for suggested sources.)", "Chinese New Year Zodiac Animal\ncontinue reading below our video\nTips for Taking Better Travel Photos\nChinese New Year Cow Zodiac Sign. Getty/Stephanie Dalton Cowan\n2.  Cow\nBirth Years for the Cow Zodiac Sign: 1913, 1925, 1937, 1949, 1961, 1973, 1985, 1997\nPatient, reliable and loyal, cows are happiest when their life and relationships are stable. They tend to form strong and long lasting friendships and often have a small but solid circle of friends. While usually relaxed, cows can be apprehensive of change and this fear can make them sensitive to criticism and unwilling to accept other people’s opinions. \nChinese New Year Tiger Zodiac Sign. Getty/Stephanie Dalton Cowan\n3.  Tiger\nBirth Years for the Tiger Zodiac Sign: 1914, 1926, 1938, 1950, 1962, 1974, 1986, 1998\nPassionate about life, Tigers tend to act before they think and throw all their energies into every situation headlong. Supremely confident, they breed confidence in those around them and are natural born leaders and great orators. But their hot and cold emotions mean they are easily bored and change their mind and opinions frequently. They warm to people quickly and usually have a wide circle of friends, but can often be too easily influenced.\nChinese New Year Rabbit Zodiac Sign. Getty/Stephanie Dalton Cowan\n4.  Rabbit\nBirth Years for the Rabbit Zodiac Sign : 1915, 1927, 1939, 1951, 1963, 1975, 1987, 1999\nOne of the noblest signs, rabbits are considered principled and honorable and often gain the admiration of those around them. They care deeply about family and friends and their kindness and sympathy for others means they have long and strong relationships. Inscrutability honest and with a talent for dealing with people, they can often rise to positions of influence.  Their good intentions can make them a soft target for people to take advantage of their charity and sympathy, and their gullibility can lead them into trouble.\nChinese New Year Dragon Zodiac Sign. Getty/Stephanie Dalton Cowan\n5.  Dragon\nBirth Years for the Dragon Zodiac Sign: 1916, 1928, 1940, 1952, 1964, 1976, 1988, 2000\nThe red blooded dragon is one of the strongest signs in the Chinese zodiac and their tireless spirit can often bring them success. Their backbone and resolve means they are often turned to in times of crisis, and they can be relied upon to help out others. Their bravery means there are few situations they cannot over come. Driving them is a fiery temperament and it can make them impulsive and impetuous. They dislike routines and are regularly searching for new challenges and opportunities.\nChinese New Year Snake Zodiac Sign. Getty/Stephanie Dalton Cowan\n6.  Snake\nBirth Years for the Snake Zodiac Sign: 1917, 1929, 1941, 1953, 1965, 1977, 1989, 2001\nNaturally intelligent, snakes have a thirst for knowledge and education giving them a wisdom that makes them prudent and rational when it comes to both money and relationships.  They rarely make snap decisions, preferring to be patient, weigh up the pros and cons before choosing the right course. Their cool, calm and collected approach to life snakes cope with stress well but it can make them seem emotionally detached and they struggle to express themselves.\nChinese New Year Horse Zodiac Sign. Getty/Stephanie Dalton Cowan\n7.  Horse\nBirth Years for the Horse Zodiac Sign: 1918, 1930, 1942, 1954, 1966, 1978, 1990, 2002\nFull of wit and personality, horses revel in being the center of attention, and their outgoing and sociable behavior means they usually have a wide circle of friends. They usually have little difficulty in attracting the opposite sex but quickly fall in love and relationships can often be intense and short; ending in heartbreak. In a relationship or not, horses like to be independent and their can do attitude and belief in themselves can often drive them to success.\nChinese New Year Goat Zodiac Sign. Getty/Stephanie Dalton Cowan\n8.  Sheep\nBirth Years for the Sheep Zodiac Sign: 1919, 1931, 1943, 1955, 1967, 1979, 1991, 2003\nAlways thoughtful and kind to those around them, sheep value deep links to family friends and are unselfish in putting other people first. Gentle in their personality, sheep tend to have an affinity for culture and are often creatively gifted. Their sensitivity and concern makes them deep thinkers, but also worriers, and they are easily stressed and often tense.\nChinese New Year Monkey Zodiac Sign. Getty/Stephanie Dalton Cowan\n9.  Monkey\nBirth Years for the Monkey Zodiac Sign: 1920, 1932, 1944, 1956, 1968, 1980, 1992, 2004\nCombining confidence, charisma and a dash of cuteness, monkeys are usually the life and soul of the party and popular with friends and potential partners. Imaginative with an ability to think creatively, adventurous and restless, they can seem rebellious, unwilling to accept authority, but their inquisitive nature, imagination and ability to think outside the box often makes them gifted at overcoming challenges and striving under stress. Their natural talents may sometimes be lost to laziness and they can seem condescending and egotistical. \nChinese New Year Chicken Zodiac Sign. Getty/Stephanie Dalton Cowan\n10.  Rooster\nBirth Years for the Rooster Zodiac Sign: 1921, 1933, 1945, 1957, 1969, 1981, 1993, 2005\nWith high expectations and high standards, roosters demand the best for themselves and are tenacious in doing whatever it takes to achieve their goals. While their ideals may seem impossibly ambitious, their approach to life is practical, disciplined and hard working. Sharp and capable, they conquer the obstacles that face them resolutely and are unflappable in a crisis. Roosters take failure very personally and can be highly critical of themselves and others around them; sometimes showing insensitivity.\nChinese New Year Dog Zodiac Sign. Getty/Stephanie Dalton Cowan\n11.  Dog\nBirth Years for the Dog Zodiac Sign: 1922, 1934, 1946, 1958, 1970, 1982, 1994, 2006\nThe eternal optimists, dogs always see the best in themselves and others and have a naturally happy disposition. Their enthusiasm is infectious and can inspire others to look towards them for leadership. While they value loyalty and are trusting of others, they are easily jealous and are unforgiving after disagreements and arguments. An innate stubbornness also means they will rarely admit when they are wrong.\nChinese New Year Pig Zodiac Sign. Getty/Stephanie Dalton Cowan\n12.  Pig\nBirth Years for the Pig Zodiac Sign: 1923, 1935, 1947, 1959, 1971, 1983, 1995, 2007\nThe down to earth pig is instantly likable and can always be relied upon for their honesty and sense of fair play. Their friendliness and compassion make them excellent at dealing with people and they are an excellent judge of character. Despite their belief in other people they can often underestimate themselves and often --- wrongly --- feel they lack the skills or talent to achieve what they want most in life.", "Chinese New Year | Chinese Animal Year Zodiac | Chinese New Year Dates\nToday's Horoscope\nThe Chinese Lunar calendar follows a 12 year cycle and each of the 12 years is represented by 12 Animals which form the Chinese Zodiac. After every 12 years the Chinese Calendar repeats itself. The animals in the Chinese Zodiac or the animals which constitute the Chinese calendar are Rat, Ox, Tiger, Hare, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Sheep, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig.\n• Chinese New Year Dates - Chinese new year dates as per English calendar\nChinese Years - Chinese Animal Years List\nGiven below is a list of all the years starting from the year 1900 to 2100 sorted according to the Chinese Animal they represent. For example, the Years listed under the column rat represent the Chinese Year of the Rat, likewise, Chinese Year of the Tiger, Chinese Year of the Hare etc...\nRat\n2103\nChinese New Year - Chinese New Year Date\nWhen in Chinese New Year 2018 or 2019? What is the English date corresponding to Chinese New Year date? Given below is the Chinese New Year dates of all Years between 2005 and 2020.\nChinese New year date in English calendar format and English new year date in Chinese Year Format.\nChinese new year date as per English calendar\nEnglish date corresponding to Chinese new year i.e., first day of first Chinese month of each year.\nChinese New Year 2011 - February 3, 2011\nChinese New Year 2012 - January 23, 2012\nChinese New Year 2013 - February 10, 2013\nChinese New Year 2014 - January 31, 2014\nChinese New Year 2015 - February 19, 2015\nChinese New Year 2016 - February 8, 2016\nChinese New Year 2017 - January 28, 2017\nChinese New Year 2018 - February 16, 2018\nChinese New Year 2019 - February 5, 2019\nChinese New Year 2020 - January 25, 2020\nChinese New Year 2021 - February 12, 2021\nChinese New Year 2022 - February 1, 2022\nChinese New Year 2023 - January 22, 2023\nChinese New Year 2024 - February 10, 2024\nChinese New Year 2025 - January 29, 2025\nChinese New Year 2026 - February 17, 2026\nNew year date as per Chinese calendar year\nChinese date corresponding to English new year i.e., January 1.\nJanuary, 1 2012 is 8-12-4709\nJanuary, 1 2013 is 20-11-4710\nJanuary, 1 2014 is 1-12-4711\nJanuary, 1 2015 is 11-11-4712\nJanuary, 1 2016 is 22-11-4713\nJanuary, 1 2017 is 4-12-4714\nJanuary, 1 2018 is 15-11-4715\nJanuary, 1 2019 is 26-11-4716\nJanuary, 1 2020 is 7-12-4717\nJanuary, 1 2021 is 18-11-4718\nJanuary, 1 2022 is 29-11-4719\nJanuary, 1 2023 is 10-12-4720\nJanuary, 1 2024 is 20-11-4721\nJanuary, 1 2025 is 2-12-4722\nJanuary, 1 2026 is 13-11-4723\nJanuary, 1 2027 is 24-11-4724\nChinese Calendar is the traditional astrology calendar of the Chinese people. Many of the chinese festivals and Government Holidays are determined based on the Chinese Calendar. The months of the Chinese Calendar is a sixty year cycle.\nChinese Animal Year / Chinese Zodiac Calendar\nChinese calendar related links" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Alfred_Brendel.txt" ], "title": [ "Alfred Brendel" ], "wiki_context": [ "Alfred Brendel KBE (born 5 January 1931) is an Austrian pianist, poet and author. \n\nBiography\n\nBrendel was born in Wiesenberg, Czechoslovakia (now Loučná nad Desnou, Czech Republic) to a non-musical family. They moved to Zagreb, Yugoslavia (now Croatia), when Brendel was six where he began piano lessons with Sofija Deželić. He later to moved to Graz, Austria, and studied piano with Ludovica von Kaan at the Graz Conservatory and composition with Artur Michel. Towards the end of World War II, the 14-year-old Brendel was sent back to Yugoslavia to dig trenches.\n\nAfter the war, Brendel composed music, as well as continuing to play the piano, to write and to paint. However, he never had more formal piano lessons and, although he attended master classes with Edwin Fischer and Eduard Steuermann, he was largely self-taught after the age of sixteen. \n\nBrendel gave his first public recital in Graz at the age of 17. He called it \"The Fugue in Piano Literature\", and as well as fugal works by Johann Sebastian Bach, Johannes Brahms and Franz Liszt, it included a sonata of Brendel's own composition.Francis Merson, \"Alfred Brendel: Notes on a Musical Life\", LImelight, April 2016, p. 40 \n\nAt the age of 21, in 1952, he made his solo first recording, Franz Liszt's Weihnachtsbaum, the work's world premiere recording. His first concerto recording, Sergei Prokofiev's Piano Concerto No. 5 had been made a couple of years earlier. He went on to make a string of other records, including three complete sets of the Ludwig van Beethoven piano sonatas (one on Vox Records and two on Philips Records). He was the first performer to record the complete solo piano works of Beethoven. He has recorded or performed little of the music of Frédéric Chopin, but not because of any lack of admiration for the composer. He considers Chopin's Preludes \"the most glorious achievement in piano music after Beethoven and Schubert\".\n\nBrendel recorded extensively for the Vox label, providing them his first of three sets of the complete Beethoven sonatas. His breakthrough came after a recital of Beethoven at the Queen Elizabeth Hall in London, the day after which three major record labels called his agent. Around this time he moved to Hampstead, London, where he still resides. Since the 1970s, Brendel has recorded for Philips Classics Records. He is only the third pianist (after Emil von Sauer and Wilhelm Backhaus) to have been awarded honorary membership of the Vienna Philharmonic, and he was awarded the Hans von Bülow Medal by the Berlin Philharmonic.\n\nIn April 2007 Brendel was one of the initial signatories of the \"Appeal for the Establishment of a Parliamentary Assembly at the United Nations\". \n\nIn 2009 Brendel was featured in the award-winning German-Austrian documentary Pianomania, about a Steinway & Sons piano tuner, which was directed by Lilian Franck and Robert Cibis. The film premiered theatrically in North America, where it was met with positive reviews by The New York Times, as well as in Asia and throughout Europe, and is a part of the Goethe-Institut catalogue.\n\nIn November 2013 Brendel was the guest for BBC Radio 4's Desert Island Discs. His choices were Handel's \" (from Giulio Cesare), Bach's Piano Concerto No. 5 in F minor, BWV 1056 (2nd movement), Mozart's \"\" (from Idomeneo), Joseph Haydn's String Quartet in D major, (Op. 20/4) (4th movement), Beethoven's String Quartet No. 14 in C-sharp minor, Op. 131 (1st movement), Franz Schubert's String Quartet No. 13 in A minor (3rd movement), Mahler's \"\" (from Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen) and Schoenberg's String Trio, Op.45. \n\nWork\n\nBrendel is regarded as one of the major interpreters of Haydn, Beethoven, Schubert and Mozart. He has played relatively few 20th century works but is closely associated with Schoenberg's Piano Concerto. Toward the end of his concert career he stopped playing some of the most physically demanding pieces in the repertoire, such as the Hammerklavier Sonata of Beethoven, owing to problems with arthritis.\n\nCritical reaction to Brendel's playing has been mixed, though generally very positive. While he has been lauded by Michael Steinberg as \"the new Schnabel\", critic Harold C. Schonberg noted that some critics and specialists accused the pianist of \"pedanticism\". Brendel's playing is sometimes described as being \"cerebral\", and he has said that he believes the primary job of the pianist is to respect the composer's wishes without showing off himself, or adding his own spin on the music: \"I am responsible to the composer, and particularly to the piece\". As well as his former mentor and teacher, Edwin Fischer, he cites Alfred Cortot, Wilhelm Kempff, and the conductors Bruno Walter and Wilhelm Furtwängler as particular influences.\n\nBrendel has worked with younger pianists such as Paul Lewis, Till Fellner and, most recently, Kit Armstrong. He has also performed in concert and recorded with his son Adrian and has appeared in many Lieder recitals with Hermann Prey, Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau and Matthias Goerne.\n\nIn November 2007 Brendel announced that he would retire from the concert platform after his concert of 18 December 2008 in Vienna, which featured him as soloist in Mozart's Piano Concerto No. 9 in E-flat; the orchestra (the Vienna Philharmonic) was conducted by Sir Charles Mackerras. His final concert in New York was at Carnegie Hall on 20 February 2008, with works by Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and Schubert. Since his debut at Carnegie Hall on 21 January 1973 he had appeared there 81 times, often in his own recital series, and in 1983 he became only the second pianist to perform the complete cycle of Beethoven's piano sonatas at the Hall, a feat he repeated in 1993 (Artur Schnabel was the first in 1936; after Brendel, Maurizio Pollini performed the cycle in 1995/1996, and Daniel Barenboim did so in 2003).\n\nPersonal life\n\nBrendel has been married twice. His first marriage, from 1960 to 1972, was to Iris Heymann-Gonzala, and they had a daughter, Doris. In 1975, Brendel married Irene Semler, and the couple have three children; a son, Adrian, who is a cellist, and two daughters, Katharina and Sophie. \n\nPublications\n\nNext to music, literature is Brendel's second life and occupation. His writings have appeared in English, German, French, Italian, Spanish, Dutch, Japanese, Korean, and other languages. For several years, he has been a contributor to The New York Review of Books. His books include:\n* Musical Thoughts and Afterthoughts (essays) (1976)\n* Music Sounded Out (1990) – essays, including \"Must Classical Music be Entirely Serious?\"\n* One Finger Too Many (poetry) (1998)\n* Alfred Brendel on Music (collected essays) (2001)\n* Me, of All People: Alfred Brendel in Conversation with Martin Meyer (2002) (UK edition: The Veil of Order)\n* Cursing Bagels (poetry) (2004)\n* Playing the Human Game (collected poems) (2010) Phaidon Press\n* \n\nAwards and accolades\n\n* Honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE; 1989)\n* Hans von Bülow Medal of the Berlin Philharmonic (1992)\n* Beethoven-Ring of the Vienna Music University (2001)\n* Léonie Sonning Music Prize (2002; Denmark)\n* Ernst von Siemens Music Prize (2004)\n* Prix Venenia: Premio Artur Rubinstein (2007)\n* Praemium Imperiale (2008) \n* Herbert von Karajan Prize (2008)\n* Franz Liszt-Ehrenpreis (2011)\n* Juilliard Medal (2011)\n* Voted into the Gramophone Hall of Fame (2012) \n* Golden Mozart Medal of the Salzburg Mozarteum (2014)\n\nBrendel has been awarded honorary doctorates from universities including London (1978), Oxford (1983), Yale (1992), McGill Montreal (2011), and Cambridge (2012) and holds other honorary degrees from the Royal College of Music, London (1999), Boston New England Conservatory (2009), Hochschule Franz Liszt Weimar (2009) and The Juilliard School (2011). He is an honorary Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford and Peterhouse, Cambridge. He has received Lifetime Achievement Awards by Edison, Midem Classical Awards, Deutscher Schallplattenpreis and Gramophone.\n\nA 2012 survey of pianists by the magazine Limelight ranked Brendel as the 8th greatest pianist of all time. A survey of UK's Classic FM presenters included Brendel in its 25 greatest pianists of all time. He was included in Peter Donohoe's \"Fifty Great Pianists\" series for BBC Radio 3. \n\nRecordings\n\n* Alfred Brendel – Unpublished Live and Radio Performances 1968–2001\n* Great Pianists of the 20th Century – Alfred Brendel III" ] }

{ "description": [ "\"Have you come with the luggage?\" ... I am a pessimist who enjoys being pleasantly surprised.\" ... Alfred Brendel Classical music", "Music | Music Review | Alfred Brendel A Pianist Bids Farewell With Schubertian Grace. By ANTHONY TOMMASINI FEB. 22 ... The time had come.", "... Alfred Brendel on AllMusic ... Country; Electronic; Folk; International; ... that follows come from one of Brendel's last public concerts, ...", "Let me change it a little bit to see if we can come up with a partial answer. Why do you perform music? AB: ... , Alfred Brendel on Music and Ausgerechnet Ich ..." ], "filename": [ "138/138_3412.txt", "20/20_3415.txt", "39/39_3418.txt", "36/36_3419.txt" ], "rank": [ 1, 4, 7, 8 ], "title": [ "Alfred Brendel: 'I am a pessimist who enjoys being ...", "Alfred Brendel - Music - Review - The New York Times", "A Birthday Tribute - Alfred Brendel - AllMusic", "Alfred Brendel Interview with Bruce Duffie" ], "url": [ "https://www.theguardian.com/music/2010/oct/17/alfred-brendel-fiona-maddocks-interview", "http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/22/arts/music/22bren.html", "http://www.allmusic.com/album/a-birthday-tribute-mw0002097037", "http://www.bruceduffie.com/brendel2.html" ], "search_context": [ "Alfred Brendel: 'I am a pessimist who enjoys being pleasantly surprised' | Interview | Music | The Guardian\nThe Observer\nAlfred Brendel: 'I am a pessimist who enjoys being pleasantly surprised'\nAs he is feted with a lifetime achievement award, the peerless concert pianist Alfred Brendel reflects on life two years after retirement – the pleasures of art, going to concerts, the sonatas he still plays at home… and the particular joy of C minor\nAlfred Brendel at his home in Hampstead, north London, September 2010. Photographed for the Observer by Sophia Evans\nShare on Messenger\nClose\nBewilderment is stamped on the famous wrinkled brow of Alfred Brendel KBE when he opens his north London front door. \"Have you come with the luggage?\" My bags and umbrella may constitute baggage, but hardly luggage. \"I thought,\" he continues, checking his watch anxiously, \"yo\nu might be the man with the suitcase. They said he'd come now. But he hasn't…\" Out of this halting dialogue, which begins to feel worthy of Pinter – to name only one of Brendel's many illustrious, in this case lamented, friends – it emerges that he has just arrived back from Salzburg. His bags have been lost. Even the world's most celebrated retired pianist is prey to airline incompetence.\nAgreeing to listen out for the doorbell, we move into a graceful, small drawing room at the front of the house, more like a receiving room from another era where you might give your card to a maid and wait in hope. The contents of floor-to-ceiling bookshelves reflect his formidably well-stocked mind – poetry, literature, philosophy and countless art catalogues. Coffee and biscuits have been carefully laid out, enough for several visitors, by some invisible hand. But Brendel, dressed in his familiar, comfortable tweedy attire with a slate-grey jumper which complements his eyes, though he'd probably be appalled at the idea, is alone, dealing with comings and goings himself.\nWhereas privately his friends delight in his clever, zany humour and mercurial mental energy, his public persona can seem a little remote. Today, however, suitcase problems aside, he is smilingly at ease. He has good reason. He has just been honoured with Gramophone magazine's lifetime achievement award, the ultimate recording industry accolade, entirely fitting for a man whose studio career spans 52 years and who has probably issued more discs than any other single living pianist.\n\"It's certainly gratifying to find one has not been forgotten already,\" he says, a little of the old stiff formality returning. Seeing my expression of sheer disbelief – recalling the black-market tickets for his series of farewell concerts two years ago and the high-emotion response they engendered, the talk of a massive Brendel-shaped hole being left in concert life, knowing that he still has a huge following the world over who turn out to hear him lecture – he allows himself a warm, crinkly grin. Moreover, he is regarded by colleagues as the \"musicians' musician\" as well as the \"pianists' mentor\". Not, then, so easy to forget.\nBrendel's thoughts, unexpected and spirited though they always are, follow a clear line. If you throw him a question, he will answer it and await the next one. He is precise and logical, his sentences well-shaped through a still strong and charming Austrian accent. His writings on music, published in two books and a collection, have become classics in their field. Now, to be sure of accuracy, he presents me with two freshly typed sheets of paper in a plastic folder headed \"A Lifetime of Recordings\", with his name written in ink at the top, presumably lest it be mistaken for someone else's.\nIn this mini-essay, a precis of his studio career written when he learned about the Gramophone award, he recalls the novelty of being given one of the new Revox reel-to-reel tape recorders in his late teens. Shortly after, a few days before Christmas, as he recalls, he was invited by the Nixa label to record Prokofiev's Piano Concerto No 5. \"I had never seen the piece and wrote back: 'Please send me the music'.\" Not, by his own admission, the most fluent of sight-readers, he worked hard over the holiday period to master it. At the end of January, with a conductor who was \"charming, if not very competent\", and an orchestra who apparently fitted the same description, he made his first recording, reviewed in the December 1951 edition of Gramophone magazine.\nA near seamless studio journey followed, mostly with the Philips and Decca labels, through three sets of Beethoven concertos, two each of Beethoven's piano sonatas, Schubert's later piano works, the Brahms concertos, plus Haydn, Mozart, Liszt, Schumann – all composers whose work he has, with faithful advocacy, almost reinvented for a modern public. The absences are as interesting as the inclusions: very little Bach; virtually nothing in the way of French music or – for most pianists, a god – Chopin. Brendel has always stuck to music with which, as a performer, he feels kinship. That's the end of the matter.\n\"The mix of spontaneity and control, concerts and recordings, keeps one in check. I was lucky that my last performances were captured live on disc, and survive as documents.\" For a player too often, and misleadingly, accused of being an \"intellectual\", this mix of restraint and freedom is vital. \"I don't feel guilty about being 'intellectual' if that means thinking about the structure and character and humour in a piece of music. But I'm not talking about dry analysis, which is relatively easy if you know how. I do the opposite. I familiarise myself with a piece and wait for it to tell me what it's about, and what makes it a masterpiece. That's what fascinates.\"\nBrendel may have performed his final concert in 2008, conducted by his beloved friend – another of the illustrious and lamented – Sir Charles Mackerras, but his diary is still jammed with public commitments: readings of his own epigrammatic and witty poetry (published as One Finger Too Many and Cursing Bagels, with a collected edition due shortly), evenings of speech and music with fellow musicians including, at next month's Wimbledon music festival, his son, the cellist Adrian Brendel, as well as three lectures at the Wigmore Hall, London. His son and daughter also continue to run an annual festival at Plush, Dorset, where he has a country home.\nFinal, however, means final. He is no longer a concert pianist. He no longer needs to stick plasters on his fingers to practise, as he once did. The lid of his magnificent grand piano, in a studio crammed with books, CDs, African art, death masks and drawings of Liszt and Beethoven and memorabilia of a long career, is shut. A lush bank of garden foliage outside, dripping in the rain, seems to enclose and give privacy to this light-filled, upper ground-floor room, intensifying the silence. So, he has well and truly stopped?\n\"Not completely!\" he explodes, chuckling. \"In my lectures I play examples – maybe 60 or 70 of them. I have to know where they belong, and stay alert. And make sure my fingers still work. It's not so easy…\" But for pleasure? A Schubert impromptu or a Haydn sonata or one of those other works etched on his heart through a lifetime's close encounter. He seems about to say no. \"Well, I might play the slow movement of Op 106.\" He is referring to Beethoven's monumental \"Hammerklavier\" sonata, generally reckoned the most challenging composition of the entire solo piano repertoire . Why that in particular? \"Because. Because there is no end to it.\"\nWhen Brendel makes a remark like that, an entire stampede of wild horses would not persuade him to elaborate. He resists maxims and hates soundbites. He has said, for example, that his favourite key signature is C minor. Can he explain what that means in terms a layman might understand? He strives. \"Mozart's pieces in that key, or those of Schubert and Beethoven, occupy a special sound world. But the way we measure pitch changes over time, so it's not an absolute thing. These works belong to a certain family which we must call 'sublime'. They have a particular kind of energy, which tries to rebel against fate. I cannot say more. These are approximations.\"\nOne of his poems describes a trill in a Beethoven sonata (on the note E flat, in Op 111) so miraculous that the keys play the notes themselves while the mythical pianist levitates above the piano in a kind of ecstasy. Does he believe, as many do, in the mystical powers of music? Comically and momentarily, Brendel looks caught out. \"I am a sceptic. I go to the edge, peer in and see what's there. I am a great admirer of religious music without being religious. As a performer you are a musical character actor. When you play St Francis preaching to the birds [he's referring to a Liszt \"Légend\"], you have to believe what you are doing, and be a convincing saint in a way which can turn it into poetry.\"\nGiven his reputation as a pianist of immense control and finesse, did any aspect come easily or was it all slog? \"Not all slog. But some skills I knew I had: a very good memory, not photographic but reliable. I would say I was lucky to have musical understanding, which came in part from having spent some years, as a young man, writing compositions. In fact in my very first recital [in Graz, when he was 17] I played my own piano sonata which had a double fugue in it.\"\nTypical… others might have settled for a little minuet. Where is it now? \"I don't know. Or if I do I am not showing it to you! Nowadays when a young pianist asks me for advice I say: try to compose something. You will profit from the experience of trying to make something go from first note to last.\" He has a few pupils. While that in itself is no secret, and their names are easy to find, he refuses to talk about them for their own sakes, knowing the fragility of concert careers.\nAt the Gramophone awards, his one-time student and close friend, the concert pianist Imogen Cooper, described the experience of studying with Brendel: \"We spent a full 20 minutes working on one single chord in a late Schubert sonata, he with demonic intensity, I with a kind of rigid terror, until I got it exactly right. Then, so help me God, I had to try to play the next one…\"\nReluctant to enter into the current political fray about arts cuts or music education, he instead makes a typically incisive observation about the musical world at large. \"I'm not a sociologist. I go to concerts\" – he is one of the few who does, often seen leaping to his feet to lead an ovation. \"I listen to some recordings. I coach string quartets and singers. I notice that, today, there are more violinists of a high quality. They used to all come from Russia or America but now the mix is diverse. Quite a few are ladies. Quite a few are good-looking, which wouldn't influence me unduly…\" He blushes and twinkles at this, especially since I make it clear I don't entirely, or even slightly, believe him. His use of the term \"ladies\" is an example of his fluent but quaint English.\nBefore our hour is up, Brendel describes his close affection for the many pictures on his walls. As a young man he also painted, but now only collects: a Jean Arp collage of wonky symmetry \"which puts me back in balance when I feel out of it\"; works by Max Neumann and a large, bright canvas by Maria Lassnig, an abstract expressionist and fellow Austrian. Brendel predicts my unasked question. \"Yes, I am still Austrian by nationality and passport.\" This despite having lived in Britain, in this same house, or, strictly, two adjoined in Hampstead, for nearly 40 years.\nWhere, then, are his roots? He was born in Moravia, now in the Czech Republic, and lived mainly in Graz and Vienna. His family was not especially musical and the fact that his piano lessons, begun at six years old and lasting around 10 years, led to a career came as a surprise to all. He remains devoted to what tends to be termed the \"Austro-Hungarian\" musical tradition but points out that much of it – Beethoven, obviously – is German. \"I am not rooted. I am very happy not to need any sort of soil.\" Recently he experienced a more local upheaval. Now his three children, with his second wife Irene, have grown up and left home, they have sealed off and let one of the houses. \"Thousands of books and pictures have been brought from next door. We have scaled down. It is still all very confusing. I get up to go next door and find there's a wall.\" Brendel has always said that he never regarded himself as \"just a pianist\". He claims he was never \"driven\", and therefore always had the freedom to stop whenever he chose. \"My big fear was that without the adrenaline of giving concerts I would have more aches and pains. Luckily that has not happened. When once asked how I would like to die, I said, 'in time' – meaning not dragging on longer than is right.\"\nHe pauses then demands: \"Do you know how old I am?\" Seventy-nine, I reply. \"I am nearly 80,\" he insists, as if my answer is wrong. Isn't this a somewhat pessimistic approach? \"I regard pessimism as a sign of intelligence. Optimism is a very welcome and life-enhancing feature, a gift, but not necessarily a realistic outlook.\" He sees my perennially optimistic expression cloud somewhat. \"OK, I am a pessimist who enjoys being pleasantly surprised.\"\nHe chortles, then furrows his owlish brow again, looking out of the window on to the wet street, no doubt wondering all over again where his luggage is.\nFull details of the 2010 Gramophone awards can be found at gramophone.co.uk/awards/2010", "Alfred Brendel - Music - Review - The New York Times\nThe New York Times\nMusic |A Pianist Bids Farewell With Schubertian Grace\nSearch\nMusic | Music Review | Alfred Brendel\nA Pianist Bids Farewell With Schubertian Grace\nContinue reading the main story\nThe audience at Carnegie Hall on Wednesday night, which spilled over into stage seats, would have been happy to let the ovations for Alfred Brendel go on and on. But after a substantive program devoted to the Classical masters he has championed and three encores, Mr. Brendel crossed his arms over his chest in gratitude and signaled that that was it. The time had come. With one more bow, he left the stage and ended the New York chapter of his towering 60-year career.\nThis acclaimed Austrian pianist, who has lived in London since the early 1970s, will retire from the concert stage at the end of the year. Wednesday’s recital and a performance last Sunday of Mozart’s Concerto No. 24 with the Met Orchestra and James Levine, also at Carnegie Hall, were his last New York appearances.\nAt 77, Mr. Brendel looks spry and energetic. He certainly played through demanding pieces by Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and Schubert with what seemed undiminished focus, utter integrity and a penchant for surprise. His account of Schubert’s mystical late Sonata in B flat was particularly transfixing: spacious, searching and calmly eloquent. Even in its scherzo, for all the humor, delicacy and grace of his playing, Mr. Brendel conveyed the somber undertow, with sudden turns in the middle section to ominous harmonies and jumpy bass lines.\nBut Mr. Brendel has been grappling with a mild form of arthritis and finds the concert circuit tiring. He is a man of wide-ranging interests, including painting and writing (both essays and humorous German prose poems). And he is a devoted teacher.\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\nBecause Mr. Brendel has concentrated on the Classical masters, he has been viewed as a self-appointed guardian of that heritage. Yet he never made this claim for himself. Instead he has been immersed in a personal and lifelong examination of music he finds continually rewarding and elusive. During his day he played an enormous amount of repertory, including unlikely virtuosic touchstones like Prokofiev’s Fifth Piano Concerto and Mussorgsky’s “Pictures at an Exhibition.” But his landmark early recordings of the complete works of Beethoven on the Vox label brought him to attention and identified him for the public.\nPlease verify you're not a robot by clicking the box.\nInvalid email address. Please re-enter.\nYou must select a newsletter to subscribe to.\nSign Up\nPrivacy Policy\nEven in his chosen repertory, his playing over the years has sometimes come across as dutiful and dry. In his effort to serve these great scores he can seem pedantic to some. At his best, he disappears into the music. He was at his best here: relaxed, sensitive and spontaneous.\nHe began with an eerily calm performance of Haydn’s Variations in F minor, pensive music that slips into rhapsodic bursts of chromatic harmony and spiraling passagework. Then he offered a fascinating, rather cagey account of Mozart’s Sonata in F, from 1788, a work at once deceptively simple and strangely elaborate. In Beethoven’s Sonata No. 13 in E flat — which, like its Opus 27 companion, the “Moonlight,” is labeled “quasi una fantasia” — Mr. Brendel captured the music’s fantastical elements in his vibrant yet lucidly structured performance. If some contrapuntal runs got a little tangled up during the bumptious finale, it mattered little, for all the brio and rustic character of the playing.\nAfter his first encore, a ruminative performance of the slow movement from Bach’s “Italian Concerto,” Mr. Brendel gave a breezy account of Liszt’s “Au Lac de Wallenstadt,” music lightly tinged with Spanish rhythms. Mr. Brendel was once a major exponent of Liszt. Why has he not played more such pieces in recent years? With his final encore, a lyrically supple and unsentimental performance of Schubert’s familiar Impromptu in G flat, came the answer. “This is what I do,” the message seemed to be. “This is who I am.”\nA version of this review appears in print on , on Page E27 of the New York edition with the headline: A Pianist Bids Farewell With Schubertian Grace. Order Reprints | Today's Paper | Subscribe", "A Birthday Tribute - Alfred Brendel | Songs, Reviews, Credits | AllMusic\nA Birthday Tribute\ngoogle+\nAllMusic Review by James Manheim\nThis album was issued in 2011 to honor Austrian pianist Alfred Brendel on his 80th birthday. Suffering from arthritis, Brendel had retired in 2008. The album consists of unreleased live performances from 1985, 2002, and 2007, which, in Brendel 's own words, \"seem to realize my idea\" of the works performed \"more fully than others.\" Brendel lost a bit of physical strength in his old age, but his playing was never about power, and the news here is that the performances, dating from the later parts of a 60-year career, do indeed add to his substantial recorded legacy. They may be of most interest to Brendel fans, who will spot the new subtleties added by this intellectual but never inexpressive artist. But the magnificent performance of the Beethoven Piano Sonata No. 31 in A flat major, Op. 110, could appeal to anyone. Brendel at once contrasts and links the parts of the work's formal architecture. There's lots of definition of the left-hand parts, bringing out the long-range harmonic patterns in the opening movement, and the sonata's moments of instrumental recitative seem to emerge from these patterns with particular vividness; Brendel takes a bit more time with these than in his better-known studio recordings. This and the Schubert Impromptu in F minor, Op. 90/1, that follows come from one of Brendel 's last public concerts, making this album a valuable document. The expansive Mozart Piano Concerto No. 25 in C major, K. 503, recorded in 2002, is a fine essay in long-range balance. The Brahms Piano Concerto No. 1, Op. 15, on disc 1, recorded in 1985, closely follows a studio recording of the period with which Brendel was dissatisfied due to problems with the engineering. All in all, a fine way to cap out a Brendel collection of any size.\nTrack Listing - Disc 1", "Alfred Brendel Interview with Bruce Duffie . . . . .\nPianist  Alfred  Brendel\nA Conversation with Bruce Duffie\nAs life relentlessly goes on, regular concert-goers know that performers will eventually stop being part of their seasons.  We learn to expect this, but some retirements are harder to envision than others.  In December of 2008, Alfred Brendel will give his final concert before the public.  We will, of course, have a large pile of recordings to relive, but somehow the thought of having no more concerts from him just does not seem right.\nFor many years, he has spoiled us with solo and concerto performances of beauty and intelligence.  He has taken us along as he re-thought works, and each new rendering has given us a better picture of the mind of both composer and player.  More details can be found in the biography from his management at the end of this interview, and he also has a website with all the expected information. \nBeing a great city, Chicago is a place that pianists like to visit for both concertos with our orchestra and solo recitals for our public, and Brendel has given us many afternoons and evenings of enjoyment and enlightenment.  It was on one of those trips that I had the pleasure of sitting down with him for a chat.  Though he was very busy\n—\nas he always is\n—\nhe agreed to speak with me for a few minutes while he was practicing for a solo recital at Orchestra Hall in the spring of 1991.  The room where we met was the musicians\n’\nlounge in the basement, and it had several chess-tables for the members of the Chicago Symphony to use during their down-time.  I asked the pianist if he played this intriguing game and was a bit surprised when he said that he didn’t.....\nBruce Duffie:    You don’t play chess?  What do you do when you are not playing piano?\nAlfred Brendel:    I have many interests.  I write.  I have always been a visual person.  I don’t paint anymore, which I have done in my teens, extensively.  But I look.  I have a family; I have friends.  I want to talk to people outside my profession.  So there is a lot to do.\nBD:    Specifically outside the profession?\nAB:    I meet enough musicians in my life, so when I am at home in London I see mainly literary people, philosophers, and others.\nBD:    Does getting away from music make the music better when you come back to it?\nAB:    I am certainly somebody who needs that kind of life.  I could not bear the thought that music gulps me up completely.  I have the illusion — although maybe it’s more than an illusion — that I do what I do out of choice.\nBD:    So you are not a slave to the instrument?\nAB:    [Laughs] I hope not.\nBD:    Do you ever feel that you have perhaps too many concerts, or too many recordings, and so you purposely cut back?\nAB:    I have always tried to get a good balance, to get the balance right between how much I should play and how much I should be available to my family, and to my various interests.  The solution is not too bad.  It’s no always easy, you know.  It’s sometimes a battle between me and my wife and my agent, but we manage!\nBD:    I assume that you could fill six hundred dates a year if you accepted all of the offers.  How do you decide which dates you’ll accept and which dates you’ll pass on?\nAB:    Long ago I decided\n—\nthat was in ’63\n—\nthat I can’t do everything, so I haven’t gone back to Latin America.  I had decided quite a few years ago that four tours in Australia were enough and that I shall skip this very distant island, as well as New Zealand.  I’m going to Japan about every third year, and to Israel.  I keep in touch with certain European capitals, and certain American cities.  As my availability in the United States is very limited, it is very hard sometimes to know what to do.  That is how to keep in touch with the great orchestras, for instance.  But last year, I had made an entirely orchestral tour, for once.  I was with all the great orchestras except Chicago.\nBD:    And you’ll catch us again next season?\nAB:    That’s right!\nBD:    How do you divide your career between orchestral appearances and solo recitals?\nAB:    It depends very much on what I’m doing, and what my projects are.  I had a lot of Brahms Concertos in the fall, and now I have mainly solo recitals for the moment.  But then in the autumn, I do again the Beethoven cycle with Simon Rattle in England.\nBD:    Oh, the five Concerti?\nAB:    Yes.  And in the next two seasons I have a cycle of piano concertos with the London Philharmonia, from Bach to Schoenberg, besides starting the Beethoven Sonatas again.  I wanted to go into that matter once more and with a lot of leisure, so I spread them over three seasons.  I want to restudy all the pieces and see what happens.\nBD:    Do you start with clean scores?\nAB:    I try to, yes.  I try, really, to forget everything, or put anything into question, and then come to a new result.  It may resemble the old, or it may not.  [Both laugh]\nBD:    In other words, if you come to the same conclusions it will resemble the old?\nAB:    Then it has shown me that I’ve done something right in the past.  It may be gratifying, or at least it will give me that illusion.  You see, I’m a skeptic.\nBD:    Completely?\nAB:    Basically.  Maybe not completely, but basically.\nBD:    You say you try to forget everything.  When you are working on the Beethoven Sonatas, do you also try to forget all of the Bach and Schubert and Schoenberg and everything else that you’ve studied in order to come just to Beethoven alone?\nAB:    Not really.  The older I get, hopefully the more clearly I can understand in the context what musical history is about:  how music proceeded, how one composer did something new that composers before had not done before, for instance.  Or how one composer used things in his own way that the composers did before, or combined matters that have never been combined before — that kind of thing.  I’m very interested to find out what was new at a certain time, and how certain harmonies maybe struck the people at that time, and not necessarily at our time.  \nBD:    Well, is it right to play Beethoven and think of ears that have not gone through a couple of World Wars and Depressions and all of this progress?\nAB:    Certainly not!  I am a person of the twentieth century.  I play in modern halls and I have decided to play on modern instruments, though I am very interested in the historic ones.  But you have to do several things at the same time when you are a performer.  When you play on stage, you have to forget yourself and control yourself at the same time.\nBD:    That sounds like it would create schizophrenia.\nAB:    Oh, absolutely!  It is the behavior of a split personality.  And if I may mention a third activity:  you have to consider what the person hears in the twentieth row.\nBD:    Does that change if you have a small hall with only twenty rows, or a big hall with a hundred and fifty rows?\nAB:    It may change my basic outlook, but then of course one always has to try to listen in to the hall and see how it sounds.  Sometimes this is really divining! [Both laugh]\nBD:    I would think that you, at the keyboard, would be in almost the worst place to hear the acoustics of the hall.\nAB:    There are halls where the difference is not very large.  For instance, the Vienna Musikverein is a very good place to judge your own sound in connection with listeners.  And there are other places where the difference may be totally misleading, and where certain people in certain parts of the hall hear different things.  This is the case with virtually all very large halls.\nBD:    Is there anything you, as the artist, can do to compensate for this, or do you just have to present the artistry and hope that everyone will hear as best they can in whatever seat they have purchased?\nAB:    The latter, yes, yes.  I try to play with conviction, and I try to satisfy myself, which is very difficult.\nBD:    Are you ever satisfied?\nAB:    [Laughs] Sometimes for the moment, but it doesn’t last very long.\nBD:    Does it last ‘til the next satisfaction?\nAB:    If I have the possibility to check what I have done, I may have things to rethink.  But there always are sometimes pleasant surprises.\nBD:    Is there any possibility that you can over-analyze and overindulge yourself in the thinking about a piece of music, and lose whatever spontaneity there is within the creativity?\nAB:    There is the possibility to over-analyze, and there is the possibility to over-emphasize meaning to be too direct, relying too much on your wonderful personal feelings.  On the whole, I think this is the greater danger.  There should be a fusion of the two.  One should, particularly when one gets older, get aware of certain things within the composition, but always in connection with the emotions, and always starting new processes, never relying that what one has found out is the gospel.\nBD:    There’s the skeptic again.  [Both laugh]  Then how much of what you play is Beethoven or Schubert or Liszt, and how much is Brendel?\nAB:    You would have to construct a new machine to measure this.  This is really not my first concern.  I try never to forget that the composer is there first, that without the composer I would not be on stage at all, that one has to serve the composer as best as one can.  But it means not to be just totally literal, but to bring a piece to life, and to bring it to life before our present-day ears, for our present-day conditions.  So it is not possible, what I felt was sometimes done in the fifties and early sixties, to try to switch off your own personality and expect the ghost of the composer coming down directly from heaven if you do.\nBD:    You’ve abandoned this?\nAB:    I have never done it.  I was always opposed to it, but I felt that at that time there were quite a few people who subscribed to it.\nBD:    There are recordings which exist from early in your career, and recordings which you are now making of the same music.  Do you disown the old recordings, as far as artistic interpretation?\nAB:    I’m very far from remembering all of them, and as far as my offspring goes, I’m sometimes glad if it leaves me and they lead their own lives! [Laughs]  I would have to listen again to all those records and then give you an account of what I like and what I dislike.  There may be some old recordings, at least some movements, which I still like or which I find convincing in their own terms.  And there may be some recent recordings that I dislike.\nBD:    Is it, then, a mistake for someone to come to you and say, “I’ve studied your earlier recording of this and your middle recording of this and your later recording of this, and in the first recording you did such and such at this bar, and in the later recording you did thus and so at that bar?”\nAB:    It depends what use the listener can make of such information.  If it becomes a sort of sterile passion, then I’m all against it.  But if the listener is still able to see things as a greater unit, listen to a whole movement, a whole piece, and see how the detail fits in the whole, whether it makes sense in the whole, then it’s fine.  I try to do that all the time.  When I question my playing, I listen and say, “Well, there is something that’s not quite wrong here.  What did I do?  Did I overemphasize something?  Did I underemphasize?  Did I do the right thing, but not in the right measure?”  There are many possibilities.  There are sometimes minute corrections that make an enormous difference. \nBD:    It seems that the newer composers are putting more and more indications in the score as to exactly what you should do where and when.  Do you find this more confining or less confining?\nAB:    There are various degrees of precision within the notation.  Already when you take Mozart’s solo works, some of them are very thoroughly marked.  In fact, most of my colleagues leave out some of those markings, because they think it doesn’t fit the music.\nBD:    Are these markings Mozart’s?\nAB:    Mozart’s!  Mozart’s.\nBD:    They’re not by later editors or someone else\n?\nAB:    No, not at all.  But they are very extreme in some cases, and they show that he performed with great emphasis of detail.  Whereas there are some other pieces, like the big F Major Sonata, which has almost no markings, no dynamic markings at all, and where it needs a performer who knows Mozart’s works very well\n—\nparticularly the chamber music works and orchestral works, and maybe some opera\n—\nto decide what one should do with it.\nBD:    Would it be good, then, for a young pianist to start with the works which are more marked up and then go to the ones that are have fewer indications in the score?\nAB:    I would say as regards to Mozart, that a young performer should do well to play a lot of concertos first and then go and play the solo repertory, or get back to some pieces that he has learned too soon.  In the solo works, everything is much more exposed; every note counts to a degree which is very rare in music.  So they are much harder to perform than almost anything.\nBD:    The orchestra can cover up little mistakes or little un-understandings?\nAB:    Also the orchestra gives the player quite a few clues what he should do.  The piano and the orchestra share quite a lot of material usually.  And even if the piano concertos are not dynamically marked, or very rarely, it is much easier in the context to do things which are not ludicrous! [Both laugh]\nBD:    You have twenty-seven concerti of Mozart to work with.  If you’re going to do a whole cycle, you obviously must do all of them.  Are there a few that you’ve come to reluctantly, but you feel you must do just to finish the cycle?\nAB:    Yes.  I left a few when I did my recordings.  First I didn’t want to do them at all, and then I reconsidered, and said, “There must be something wrong with me because there should be enough interest in these pieces for me to deal with.”  I’m still doubtful about the earlier concertos before K. 271, the Jeunehomme Concerto, which is the first very great masterpiece and not really surpassed later.  There are a few works in between, even some parts of the Coronation Concerto, that are not the best Mozart, I would say.\nBD:    But even\nis superlative music, is it not?\nAB:    It usually is, yes.  Yes, of course.\n*     *     *     *     *\nBD:    Let me pursue this just a little bit.  What are some of the traits that go into making a piece of music a masterwork?\nAB:    Well, to answer this question you should have studied composition yourself and composed enough to be able to look at other works that you deal with from a composer’s point of view.  This is a suggestion to all younger performers that I meet, if they ask me what they should do.  The first question is:  do you compose?  Do you have a good understanding of composition?  Did you put pieces together yourself?  It helps to just get at least the first degree of feeling to know how a piece hangs together and why it hangs to together; then gradually, in dealing with masterpieces, to find out why certain pieces are different from others, and how masterworks of the same composer are different.  They wouldn’t be masterworks otherwise.  They contribute something that the composer has not done elsewhere.  To characterize them, to find out this difference, is one of the wonderful tasks of the performer — not to have a stereotyped approach to what the composer has done, but within the very large world of a great composer, to define those pieces.  And it is easier to define them if you play cycles, because you have them next to one another.  You try, as in a much-performed work of variations, to set the variations apart from one another.\nBD:    But a set of variations has all the variations within it, so is a cycle of works like a set of variations on the composer?\nAB:    Well, as far as the variety of the pieces goes, if you play a large cycle of variations, you still have to have an overview and give the kind of large breadth of the cycle.  If I play the Symphonic Etudes, for instance, then there is an enormous drive over the whole work.  Or, there is a wonderful arch over pieces like Beethoven’s Eroica Variations or the Diabelli Variations.  On the other hand, the F Major Variations, Opus 34, that I have played here, are all separated.  They are in different meters and different tempi and in different keys, and that is something you need.  There is no other work where that has been done before or after.  So they really stand apart.\nBD:    Could someone juggle them around and put them in a different order?\nAB:    No, that is impossible.  But they stand apart in the way that one variation does not grow out from the other.  They are separated by little pauses.  They are, of course, organized — Beethoven would not be Beethoven if they did not — in the way that they are in the same distance of keys, always one-third apart until the last but one, which leads to the finale in the fifth.\nBD:    You could say he’s created a cycle of thirds rather than a cycle of fifths.\nAB:    Yes.\nBD:    When you look at the thirty-two sonatas, does that form an integrated cycle?\nAB:    Integrated in the way that each work is different.  Each work counts.  Even the small sonatas, I think, are finished masterpieces.  Therefore, it is one of the few cycles that is worth playing as a cycle.  If you would play all the Haydn Sonatas, or even all the Mozart Sonatas, it is not the same level of general achievement.  Though, for instance, I’m very far from underrating both Mozart’s and Haydn’s Sonatas.  There are some absolutely tremendous pieces there.  But with Haydn, you have to make a choice.  If I will ever do a little Haydn cycle, that would be two recitals! [Laughs]\nBD:    I see.  We’ve kind of been dancing around this, so let me ask the question straight out:  What is the purpose of music?\nAB:    That I cannot answer; I’m sorry.  Maybe ask me again in ten years! [Both laugh]\nBD:    All right, I’ll put that in my book!  Let me change it a little bit to see if we can come up with a partial answer.  Why do you perform music?\nAB:    Because I thought when I was eighteen or nineteen that I had potential as a musician, that it’s worth exploring, that it would be a matter of a lifetime, if I’m lucky, to develop these possibilities, and it would be interesting to see what comes out.  Also, of course, my love of sounds, of connections of sounds, connections that made sense or that overwhelmed me in certain other ways; my admiration and respect for the great composers, and sometimes my sympathy for some lesser composers.\nBD:    So it’s been more than forty years that you’ve been dealing with this.  Are you pleased with the progress that you have made in that time?\nAB:    It’s difficult to give you an answer.  On the whole, I think I have not wasted my time.  I think I have developed and I think my public has noticed it!  I do not regret what I have done.  There is always, maybe, the possibility to have done it better, but I hope to continue for a few years and see what is still there to be brought out, and to be added, and to be filtered.  This is also a matter of getting older — to find out what is more and less important, to sift through one’s musical experience and discard what is not of primary importance or primary quality, and try to keep the rest, and keep it together.\nBD:    Perhaps some things that are not of primary quality now were of primary quality earlier?\nAB:    Well, I would be in a sorry state if I would not have a somewhat clearer picture of what performance is about than I had twenty years ago! [Both laugh]\nBD:    Are you now where you expected to be when you arrived at sixty?\nAB:    I did not devise my future in such precise terms.  When I was twenty, I had a certain vision of what one could achieve, what I might achieve when I’m fifty, and I think, more or less, this has come about.  Now, after fifty, I am not particularly adamant to know exactly what will happen.  I improvise.\n*     *     *     *     *\nBD:    How much of the work of preparing each score is done in the practice room, and how much is left for the inspiration of the evening’s concert?\nAB:    I think one should be very well prepared, but one should know the limits within which a certain work makes sense.  A work is like a character in a drama, or sometimes like the interaction of several characters in a drama.  This character, or these characters, only make sense within their possibilities.  If you step out of these possibilities, then it gets to be nonsense.  Now, within these possibilities there’s quite a bit of leeway, with some works much more than with others.  There are also works where you have to hit exactly one nerve to make them sound convincing.  I have an old lady friend, a very old lady, who has heard many of my concerts and who usually comes to me after the concert.  She’s a very good musician and a very astute person, and she says, “You’ve played everything differently today!” [Laughs]\nBD:    Does that please you, or merely amuse you?\nAB:    Both, both!\nBD:    Is this one of the qualities that sets a work apart as being great, that it can be played in different ways?\nAB:    I suppose that great masterpieces are more complex by definition, that you can look into them from various angles, also at various times and various periods of musical development, and see a logical line.  But it doesn’t mean that everybody can do anything!\nBD:    You have to have a starting point?\nAB:    Well, a starting point — more than a starting point, really an awareness of what the basis of a piece is, and not only what the construction is like, but particularly what the emotional context is like.  Where are the characters?  Where does the atmosphere change?  How does the whole movement function as an emotional entity?  This sort of oversight is also a kind of talent.  You may have it, you may also develop it, but some people never get it.\nBD:    Is this what differentiates between the great performers and the lesser performers?\nAB:    I would think so.  It’s one of the things, at least, yes.\nBD:    What are some of the other things?\nAB:    Honesty; the feeling for emotional quality, which means that there is a difference between emotions of the first order and emotions that are second or third-hand; sentimentality\n—\ngush.  [Both laugh]  Also, something that has already been written about:  saying that some people want everything overemphasized because they do not know that the true feeling has its own order, and that sometimes the finest feeling has the greatest effect if it is almost concealed.\nBD:    Ah, subtlety. \nAB:    Yes.\nBD:    What advice do you have for someone who would like to write music for the piano these days?\nAB:    To do something which has not been done before. [Laughs] When I see a good piano piece, I don’t want to hear a repetition of something.  As I told you, I’m always looking out for something that has not been done before.  It is the first criteria of a piece that is worthwhile. It is not wrong sometimes to go back to older styles, but you have to do something new with them.\nBD:    You’re not looking for novelty for novelty’s sake, though?\nAB:    I am convinced that novelty is one of the best criteria to see whether a piece is worthwhile or not, and I have gained this conviction in dealing with the repertory between Bach and Schoenberg; looking at the pieces and trying to see how they fitted into their time, and what they have done to change the course of music or to add something to it.\nBD:    Is the same is not true of performances of the music:  novelty for novelty’s sake?\nAB:    Absolutely not!  A performance is not a creation, or only in a very limited sense.  If a composer hates his father, metaphorically speaking, then he is in the right position, even if he tries to learn from him.  If a performer hates his father, he should change his profession.\nBD:    What about audiences?  Do you have advice for the typical or even the sophisticated audience that comes to hear your performance?\nAB:    My first advice is to concentrate and be silent.  There are, unfortunately, too many people these days who are used to sitting in front of the television set, and used to one-way traffic — something comes out and nothing goes in.  There has been more noise lately, in audiences, than even before.  I have heard people not only cough, but also sneeze loudly, for instance.  I heard digital watches and hearing aids going off, and even tennis shoes squeaking.  I have some of that on tape at home!  So I can only implore the public to realize that the silence, the concentration of the public, is part of the performance that it really enhances the performance.  By being silent, the audience participates in a good performance, not by contributing noises.\nBD:    Do you feel that if you have a completely silent performance, that you, perhaps, have succeeded better than where there were tennis shoes and alarm watches?\nAB:    Not necessarily.  It would be too easy to explain it that way and it would excuse too many people who simply don’t know at all what a performance is about, and why they sit there and wait for the softest beat to do their cough.  If there are two or three people like that in the audience, then it can really be a big hindrance to everybody, and it is not always your own personal magnetism that can avoid it.\n*     *     *     *     *\nBD:    Are you optimistic about the future of music?\nAB:    I am a pessimist generally.  The world is not in a very good state.  If I am optimistic about anything, then it is about the future of the arts!\nBD:    How can you play Mozart all the time and not be an optimist?\nAB:    I’m not sure Mozart was an optimist himself.\nBD:    But isn’t his music the embodiment of divine optimism?\nAB:    No, I cannot share this view.  His music would be very one-sided and rather narrow in its possibilities if it could only express that.  Mozart could be deeply pessimistic.  His works in minor keys are some of the most desolate soliloquies that I know in music.  Mozart had all these dimensions and I think it would mean to simplify him if one put him into one drawer\n—\nlike it would simplify any great composer.\nBD:    You say you go from Bach to Schoenberg.  Have you found nothing post-Schoenberg that interests you?\nAB:    Oh, I have a lot of interest in new works, but I don’t play them because it would mean specializing on a few pieces while I could otherwise maintain a large older repertory.  But I do go and listen, and I try to know the composers.  And I try to get some sort of feedback from my encounter of new music.\nBD:    If someone writes a piece of music for you, will you not even consider playing it?\nAB:    I would consider it, but I’m not sure if I would play it in the end — not because I wouldn’t like the piece, but because I would think that there maybe somebody else who could do it better.\nBD:    Your performances always have to be the best?\nAB:    Not de facto, but at least one should try to make them the best within your own possibilities.\nBD:    Are you still expanding your repertoire in the time between Bach and Schoenberg with new pieces or new composers from within that era?\nAB:    I try to, yes.\nBD:    How do you decide, then, which you’ll add, and which you won’t?\nAB:    Oh, there has been a waiting list of pieces! [Both laugh]\nBD:    Is it a very short list, or is it as long as your arm?\nAB:    It is too long for me to still master it.  But I also want to keep in touch with the important works that I’ve played before, and go back to them at least in certain intervals.  I’m not one of the pianists who will learn a piece, think that one has mastered it, and put it into the wastepaper basket.  This is one type of performer.  There is another type who are obsessively repeating the pieces that they have played.  That’s also not my way.\nBD:    You try to hit the middle?\nAB:    [Laughs] I try!\nBD:    Thank you for coming back to Chicago, and thank you for spending a little time with me.  I appreciate it very much.\nAB:    My pleasure.  Sorry we don’t have hours, but I have to go back to the instrument.  The tuner will be there as well.  [Though not at this particular engagement, much insight can be found in my Interview with Franz Mohr , Chief Concert Technician for Steinway & Sons 1968-1992,]\nNow celebrating his 60th year of performing before the public, Alfred Brendel is recognized by audiences the world over for his legendary ability to communicate the emotional and intellectual depths of whatever music he performs. A supreme master of his art, his accomplishments as an interpreter of the great composers have earned him a place among the world's most revered musicians.\nHaving spent the earlier part of this season in the concert halls of Vienna, Berlin, London, Budapest, and other musical capitals of Europe, Mr. Brendel appears on his annual North American tour, performing Mozart K.491 with James Levine and the Metropolitan Opera Orchestra at Carnegie Hall; Beethoven Piano Concerto No. 3 with Kent Nagano and the Montreal Symphony, with Franz Welser-Möst and the Cleveland Orchestra, with Osmo Vänskä and the Minnesota Orchestra, and with Stéphane Denève and the Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra. He appears in recital at Carnegie Hall, for the Celebrity Series of Boston, with Chicago Symphony Presents and at the Washington Performing Arts Society.\nMr. Brendel has performed with virtually all leading orchestras and conductors. He has appeared in the major cultural centers of Europe and the Far East, and his annual tours of North America have taken him from coast to coast. In recent seasons Mr. Brendel has performed with the Boston Symphony, New York Philharmonic, Philadelphia Orchestra, and the Chicago Symphony with Daniel Barenboim conducting, the Minnesota Orchestra and Osmo Vänskä, and the Los Angeles Philharmonic in the inaugural season of the new Disney Hall. He is an annual visitor to Carnegie Hall, where in 1983 he became the first pianist since the legendary Artur Schnabel to play all 32 Beethoven sonatas. At Carnegie Hall in 1999, he appeared six times in just over three weeks to delight audiences with recitals, chamber music, lieder with baritone Matthias Goerne, poetry reading, and a Mozart concerto with James Levine and the Metropolitan Opera Orchestra. Mr. Brendel's performance at Carnegie Hall the year before - on April 26, 1998 - marked the exact anniversary of his first public recital fifty years ago at the Kammermusiksaal in Graz, Austria. The same series of celebratory events took place later that year at the Lucerne Festival. Strongly identified for his performances of Mozart, Mr. Brendel marked the composer's 250th birth anniversary on January 27, 2006 with a special performance of Mozart's final piano concerto, K.595, with the Berlin Philharmonic and Simon Rattle at Carnegie Hall, which they performed together thereafter with the Philadelphia Orchestra.\nAlfred Brendel is one of the most prolific recording artists of all time, and for the past thirty years has recorded exclusively for Philips Classics. He is the first pianist to have recorded all of Beethoven's piano compositions and one of the few to have recorded the complete Mozart piano concertos. An extensive discography includes \"The Art of Alfred Brendel,\" a deluxe limited-edition collection of his comprehensive and varied repertoire. His recent releases include a live recording of Schubert sonatas; the five Beethoven piano concertos with Simon Rattle and the Vienna Philharmonic (the fourth time Mr. Brendel has committed these works to disc); Mozart Concertos with the Scottish Chamber Orchestra and Charles Mackerras; works by Haydn, Schubert and Liszt recorded live in Salzburg; and a series of discs devoted to the complete sonatas and other solo works of Mozart. Also recently released is a recording of the complete Beethoven sonatas for piano and cello with his son, cellist Adrian Brendel. He has won many prizes for his recordings, notably the Grand Prix du Disque, the Japan Record Academy Award, Gramophone's \"Critics' Choice,\" the Edison Prize, and the Grand Prix de l'Académie du Disque Français. In 2001, Mr. Brendel received a Lifetime Achievement Award in Cannes at MIDEM, the world's largest recording industry's fair.\nMr. Brendel is well versed in the fields of literature, language, architecture and films. In addition to his latest books, Alfred Brendel on Music and Ausgerechnet Ich (\"Me Of All People\"), he has published two collections of articles, lectures and essays. He is a frequent contributor to The New York Review of Books, having written articles on Mozart, Liszt and Schoenberg. Mr. Brendel's volumes of poetry – \"A collection of texts which can be numbered among the sparse ranks of genuinely comic literature and which make their author possibly ‘immortal.'\" (Frankfurter Allegmeine Zeitung,) include One Finger Too Many, published in the United States by Random House, and Cursing Bagels, released in English by Faber and Faber. He has given readings of his works in New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Dallas, and in many of the cultural capitals of Europe. Mr. Brendel is the subject of the BBC documentary \"Alfred Brendel - Man and Mask.\"\nBorn in Weissenberg, Moravia, Alfred Brendel spent his childhood traveling throughout Yugoslavia and Austria. His father, an architectural engineer, businessman and cinema director, also ran a resort hotel on the Adriatic. The younger Brendel began piano lessons at the age of six but, owing to the family's continuous travel, had to give up one piano teacher after another. In his teens, he attended the Graz Conservatory where he studied piano, composition and conducting. He also showed talent as a painter and, when he made his recital debut at the age of 17, an art gallery near the concert hall was showing a one-man exhibition of his watercolors.\nHe discontinued formal piano studies soon after, preferring to attend occasional master classes, including those given by the famed pianist Edwin Fischer. To this day Mr. Brendel regards his untraditional musical background as something of an advantage. \"Many times a teacher can be too influential,\" he says. \"Being self-taught, I learned to distrust anything I hadn't figured out myself.\" Although Mr. Brendel's artistic interests as a young man did not focus on music alone, his winning the prestigious Busoni Piano Competition in Italy launched his career as a performing musician. He quickly established a reputation of unusual integrity and insight into the music of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schumann and Schubert, as well as the works of Liszt and several 20th century composers.\nAlfred Brendel is the recipient of honorary doctorates from Oxford, London, Sussex and Yale universities. He is only the third pianist in history to be named an honorary member of the Vienna Philharmonic, a distinction he shares with his illustrious predecessors, Emil von Sauer and Wilhelm Backhaus. Mr. Brendel has been awarded the Leonie Sonning Prize, the Furtwängler Prize for Musical Interpretation, London's South Bank Award, the Robert Schumann Prize presented in Zwickau, Schumann's birthplace; the Ernst von Siemens Prize and, most recently, \"A Life for Music – the Artur Rubinstein Prize,\" presented by the Artur Rubinstein Cultural Association of Venice, Italy. In 1989 he was appointed an honorary Knight Commander of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II for \"Outstanding Services to Music in Britain,\" where he has made his home since 1972.\n(Biography from Colbert Artists Management, Inc., January 2008)\n© 1991 Bruce Duffie\nThis interview was recorded in the musicians’ lounge in the basement of Orchestra Hall in Chicago on April 20, 1991.  Portions were used on WNIB (along with musical examples) in 1996 and 1999.  The transcription was made in 2008 and posted on this website in November of that year. \nTo see a full list (with links) of interviews which have been transcribed and posted on this website, click here .\nAward - winning broadcaster Bruce Duffie was with WNIB, Classical 97 in Chicago from 1975 until its final moment as a classical station in February of 2001.  His interviews have also appeared in various magazines and journals since 1980, and he now continues his broadcast series on WNUR-FM, as well as on Contemporary Classical Internet Radio.\nYou are invited to visit his website for more information about his work, including selected transcripts of other interviews, plus a full list of his guests.  He would also like to call your attention to the photos and information about his grandfather , who was a pioneer in the automotive field more than a century ago.  You may also send him E-Mail with comments, questions and suggestions." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "U.S._state.txt" ], "title": [ "U.S. state" ], "wiki_context": [ "A state of the United States of America is one of the 50 constituent political entities that shares its sovereignty with the United States federal government. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the federal government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders (e.g., paroled convicts and children of divorced spouses who are sharing custody).\n\nStates range in population from just under 600,000 (Wyoming) to over 38 million (California), and in area from (Rhode Island) to (Alaska). Four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names.\n\nStates are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local governmental authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state. State governments are allocated power by the people (of each respective state) through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in republican principles, and each provides for a government, consisting of three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. \n\nStates possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution; among them ratifying constitutional amendments. Historically, the tasks of local law enforcement, public education, public health, regulating intrastate commerce, and local transportation and infrastructure have generally been considered primarily state responsibilities, although all of these now have significant federal funding and regulation as well. Over time, the U.S. Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the federal government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a continuing debate over states' rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states' powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government and the rights of individuals.\n\nStates and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Each state is represented by two Senators, and at least one Representative, while additional representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census. Each state is also entitled to select a number of electors to vote in the Electoral College, the body that elects the President of the United States, equal to the total of Representatives and Senators from that state. \n\nThe Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. Alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959.\n\nThe Constitution is silent on the question of whether states have the power to secede (withdraw from) from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U.S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, held that a state cannot unilaterally do so. \n\nStates of the United States\n\nThe 50 U.S. states (in alphabetical order), along with state flag and date each joined the union:\n\nGovernments\n\nAs each state is itself a sovereign entity, it reserves the right to organize its individual government in any way (within the broad parameters set by the U.S. Constitution) deemed appropriate by its people. As a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance. No two state governments are identical.\n\nConstitutions\n\nThe government of each state is structured in accordance with its individual constitution. Many of these documents are more detailed and more elaborate than their federal counterpart. The Constitution of Alabama, for example, contains 310,296 words — more than 40 times as many as the U.S. Constitution. In practice, each state has adopted a three-branch system of government, modeled after the federal government, and consisting of three branches (although the three-branch structure is not required): executive, legislative, and judicial. \n\nExecutive\n\nIn each state, the chief executive is called the governor, who serves as both head of state and head of government. The governor may approve or veto bills passed by the state legislature, as well as push for the passage of bills supported by the party of the Governor. In 43 states, governors have line item veto power. \n\nMost states have a \"plural executive\" in which two or more members of the executive branch are elected directly by the people. Such additional elected officials serve as members of the executive branch, but are not beholden to the governor and the governor cannot dismiss them. For example, the attorney general is elected, rather than appointed, in 43 of the 50 U.S. states.\n\nLegislative\n\nThe legislatures of 49 of the 50 states are made up of two chambers: a lower house (termed the House of Representatives, State Assembly, General Assembly or House of Delegates) and a smaller upper house, always termed the Senate. The exception is the unicameral Nebraska Legislature, which is composed of only a single chamber.\n\nMost states have part-time legislatures, while six of the most populated states have full-time legislatures. However, several states with high population have short legislative sessions, including Texas and Florida. \n\nIn Baker v. Carr (1962) and Reynolds v. Sims (1964), the U.S. Supreme Court held that all states are required to elect their legislatures in such a way as to afford each citizen the same degree of representation (the one person, one vote standard). In practice, most states choose to elect legislators from single-member districts, each of which has approximately the same population. Some states, such as Maryland and Vermont, divide the state into single- and multi-member districts, in which case multi-member districts must have proportionately larger populations, e.g., a district electing two representatives must have approximately twice the population of a district electing just one. If the governor vetoes legislation, all legislatures may override it, usually, but not always, requiring a two-thirds majority.\n\nIn 2013, there were a total of 7,383 legislators in the 50 state legislative bodies. They earned from $0 annually (New Mexico) to $90,526 (California). There were various per diem and mileage compensation. \n\nJudicial\n\nStates can also organize their judicial systems differently from the federal judiciary, as long as they protect the federal constitutional right of their citizens to procedural due process. Most have a trial level court, generally called a District Court or Superior Court, a first-level appellate court, generally called a Court of Appeal (or Appeals), and a Supreme Court. However, Oklahoma and Texas have separate highest courts for criminal appeals. In New York State the trial court is called the Supreme Court; appeals are then taken to the Supreme Court's Appellate Division, and from there to the Court of Appeals.\n\nMost states base their legal system on English common law (with substantial indigenous changes and incorporation of certain civil law innovations), with the notable exception of Louisiana, a former French colony, which draws large parts of its legal system from French civil law.\n\nOnly a few states choose to have the judges on the state's courts serve for life terms. In most of the states the judges, including the justices of the highest court in the state, are either elected or appointed for terms of a limited number of years, and are usually eligible for re-election or reappointment.\n\nRelationships\n\nAmong states\n\nEach state admitted to the Union by Congress since 1789 has entered it on an equal footing with the original States in all respects. With the growth of states' rights advocacy during the antebellum period, the Supreme Court asserted, in Lessee of Pollard v. Hagan (1845), that the Constitution mandated admission of new states on the basis of equality.\n\nUnder Article Four of the United States Constitution, which outlines the relationship between the states, each state is required to give full faith and credit to the acts of each other's legislatures and courts, which is generally held to include the recognition of legal contracts and criminal judgments, and before 1865, slavery status. Regardless of the Full Faith and Credit Clause, some legal arrangements, such as professional licensure and marriages, may be state-specific, and until recently states have not been found by the courts to be required to honor such arrangements from other states. \n\nSuch legal acts are nevertheless often recognized state-to-state according to the common practice of comity. States are prohibited from discriminating against citizens of other states with respect to their basic rights, under the Privileges and Immunities Clause. Under the Extradition Clause, a state must extradite people located there who have fled charges of \"treason, felony, or other crimes\" in another state if the other state so demands. The principle of hot pursuit of a presumed felon and arrest by the law officers of one state in another state are often permitted by a state. \n\nWith the consent of Congress, states may enter into interstate compacts, agreements between two or more states. Compacts are frequently used to manage a shared resource, such as transportation infrastructure or water rights. \n\nWith the federal government\n\nEvery state is guaranteed a form of government that is grounded in republican principles, such as the consent of the governed. This guarantee has long been at the fore-front of the debate about the rights of citizens vis-à-vis the government. States are also guaranteed protection from invasion, and, upon the application of the state legislature (or executive, if the legislature cannot be convened), from domestic violence. This provision was discussed during the 1967 Detroit riot, but was not invoked.\n\nSince the early 20th century, the Supreme Court has interpreted the Commerce Clause of the Constitution of the United States to allow greatly expanded scope of federal power over time, at the expense of powers formerly considered purely states' matters. The Cambridge Economic History of the United States says, \"On the whole, especially after the mid-1880s, the Court construed the Commerce Clause in favor of increased federal power.\" In Wickard v. Filburn , the court expanded federal power to regulate the economy by holding that federal authority under the commerce clause extends to activities which may appear to be local in nature but in reality effect the entire national economy and are therefore of national concern. \n\nFor example, Congress can regulate railway traffic across state lines, but it may also regulate rail traffic solely within a state, based on the reality that intrastate traffic still affects interstate commerce. In recent years, the Court has tried to place limits on the Commerce Clause in such cases as United States v. Lopez and United States v. Morrison.\n\nAnother example of congressional power is its spending power—the ability of Congress to impose taxes and distribute the resulting revenue back to the states (subject to conditions set by Congress). An example of this is the system of federal aid for highways, which include the Interstate Highway System. The system is mandated and largely funded by the federal government, and also serves the interests of the states. By threatening to withhold federal highway funds, Congress has been able to pressure state legislatures to pass a variety of laws. An example is the nationwide legal drinking age of 21, enacted by each state, brought about by the National Minimum Drinking Age Act. Although some objected that this infringes on states' rights, the Supreme Court upheld the practice as a permissible use of the Constitution's Spending Clause in South Dakota v. Dole .\n\nAdmission into the Union\n\nArticle IV, Section 3, Clause 1 of the U.S. Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. Each new state has been admitted on an equal footing with the existing states. It also forbids the creation of new states from parts of existing states without the consent of both the affected states and Congress. This caveat was designed to give Eastern states that still had Western land claims (there were 4 in 1787), to have a veto over whether their western counties could become states, and has served this same function since, whenever a proposal to partition an existing state or states in order that a region within might either join another state or to create a new state has come before Congress.\n\nMost of the states admitted to the Union after the original 13 have been created from organized territories established and governed by Congress in accord with its plenary power under Article IV, Section 3, Clause 2. The outline for this process was established by the Northwest Ordinance (1787), which predates the ratification of the Constitution. In some cases, an entire territory has become a state; in others some part of a territory has.\n\nWhen the people of a territory make their desire for statehood known to the federal government, Congress may pass an enabling act authorizing the people of that territory to organize a constitutional convention to write a state constitution as a step towards admission to the Union. Each act details the mechanism by which the territory will be admitted as a state following ratification of their constitution and election of state officers. Although the use of an enabling act is a traditional historic practice, a number of territories have drafted constitutions for submission to Congress absent an enabling act and were subsequently admitted. Upon acceptance of that constitution, and upon meeting any additional Congressional stipulations, Congress has always admitted that territory as a state.\n\nIn addition to the original 13, six subsequent states were never an organized territory of the federal government, or part of one, before being admitted to the Union. Three were set off from an already existing state, two entered the Union after having been sovereign states, and one was established from unorganized territory:\n*California, 1850, from land ceded to the United States by Mexico in 1848 under the terms of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. \n*Kentucky, 1792, from Virginia (District of Kentucky: Fayette, Jefferson, and Lincoln counties)Michael P. Riccards, \"Lincoln and the Political Question: The Creation of the State of West Virginia\" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 27, 1997 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a\no&d=5000522904 online edition]\n*Maine, 1820, from Massachusetts (District of Maine)\n*Texas, 1845, previously the Republic of Texas \n*Vermont, 1791, previously the Vermont Republic (also known as the New Hampshire Grants and claimed by New York) \n*West Virginia, 1863, from Virginia (Trans-Allegheny region counties) during the Civil War \n\nCongress is under no obligation to admit states, even in those areas whose population expresses a desire for statehood. Such has been the case numerous times during the nation's history. In one instance, Mormon pioneers in Salt Lake City sought to establish the state of Deseret in 1849. It existed for slightly over two years and was never approved by the United States Congress. In another, leaders of the Five Civilized Tribes (Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole) in Indian Territory proposed to establish the state of Sequoyah in 1905, as a means to retain control of their lands. The proposed constitution ultimately failed in the U.S. Congress. Instead, the Indian Territory, along with Oklahoma Territory were both incorporated into the new state of Oklahoma in 1907. The first instance occurred while the nation still operated under the Articles of Confederation. The State of Franklin existed for several years, not long after the end of the American Revolution, but was never recognized by the Confederation Congress, which ultimately recognized North Carolina's claim of sovereignty over the area. The territory comprising Franklin later became part of the Southwest Territory, and ultimately the state of Tennessee.\n\nAdditionally, the entry of several states into the Union was delayed due to distinctive complicating factors. Among them, Michigan Territory, which petitioned Congress for statehood in 1835, was not admitted to the Union until 1837, due to a boundary dispute the adjoining state of Ohio. The Republic of Texas requested annexation to the United States in 1837, but fears about potential conflict with Mexico delayed the admission of Texas for nine years. Also, statehood for Kansas Territory was held up for several years (1854–61) due to a series of internal violent conflicts involving anti-slavery and pro-slavery factions.\n\nPossible new states\n\nPuerto Rico\n\nPuerto Rico referred to itself as the \"Commonwealth of Puerto Rico\" in the English version of its constitution, and as \"Estado Libre Asociado\" (literally, Associated Free State) in the Spanish version.\n\nAs with any non-state territory of the United States, its residents do not have voting representation in the federal government. Puerto Rico has limited representation in the U.S. Congress in the form of a Resident Commissioner, a delegate with limited voting rights in the Committee of the Whole House on the State of the Union, and no voting rights otherwise. \n\nA non-binding referendum on statehood, independence, or a new option for an associated territory (different from the current status) was held on November 6, 2012. Sixty one percent (61%) of voters chose the statehood option, while one third of the ballots were submitted blank. \n\nOn December 11, 2012, the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico enacted a concurrent resolution requesting the President and the Congress of the United States to respond to the referendum of the people of Puerto Rico, held on November 6, 2012, to end its current form of territorial status and to begin the process to admit Puerto Rico as a State. \n\nWashington, D.C.\n\nThe intention of the Founding Fathers was that the United States capital should be at a neutral site, not giving favor to any existing state; as a result, the District of Columbia was created in 1800 to serve as the seat of government. The inhabitants of the District do not have full representation in Congress or a sovereign elected government (they were allotted presidential electors by the 23rd amendment, and have a non-voting delegate in Congress).\n\nSome residents of the District support statehood of some form for that jurisdiction—either statehood for the whole district or for the inhabited part, with the remainder remaining under federal jurisdiction.\n\nOthers\n\nVarious proposals to divide California, usually involving splitting the south half from the north or the urban coastline from the rest of the state, have been advanced since the 1850s. Similarly, numerous proposals to divide New York, all of which involve to some degree the separation of New York City from the rest of the state, have been promoted over the past several decades. The partitioning of either state is, at the present, highly unlikely.\n\nOther even less likely possible new states are Guam and the Virgin Islands, both of which are unincorporated organized territories of the United States. Also, either the Northern Mariana Islands or American Samoa, an unorganized, unincorporated territory, could seek statehood.\n\nSecession from the Union\n\nThe Constitution is silent on the issue of the secession of a state from the union. However, its predecessor document, the Articles of Confederation, stated that the United States \"shall be perpetual.\" The question of whether or not individual states held the right to unilateral secession remained a difficult and divisive one until the American Civil War. In 1860 and 1861, eleven southern states seceded, but following their defeat in the American Civil War were brought back into the Union during the Reconstruction Era. The federal government never recognized the secession of any of the rebellious states. \n\nFollowing the Civil War, the United States Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, held that states did not have the right to secede and that any act of secession was legally void. Drawing on the Preamble to the Constitution, which states that the Constitution was intended to \"form a more perfect union\" and speaks of the people of the United States in effect as a single body politic, as well as the language of the Articles of Confederation, the Supreme Court maintained that states did not have a right to secede. However, the court's reference in the same decision to the possibility of such changes occurring \"through revolution, or through consent of the States,\" essentially means that this decision holds that no state has a right to unilaterally decide to leave the Union.\n\nCommonwealths\n\nFour states—Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia —adopted Constitutions early in their post-colonial existence identifying themselves as commonwealths, rather than states. These commonwealths are states, but legally, each is a commonwealth because the term is contained in its constitution. As a result, \"commonwealth\" is used in all public and other state writings, actions or activities within their bounds.\n\nThe term, which refers to a state in which the supreme power is vested in the people, was first used in Virginia during the Interregnum, the 1649–60 period between the reigns of Charles I and Charles II during which parliament's Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector established a republican government known as the Commonwealth of England. Virginia became a royal colony again in 1660, and the word was dropped from the full title. When Virginia adopted its first constitution on June 29, 1776, it was reintroduced. Pennsylvania followed suit when it drew up a constitution later that year, as did Massachusetts, in 1780, and Kentucky, in 1792.\n\nThe U.S. territories of the Northern Marianas and Puerto Rico are also referred to as commonwealths. This designation does have a legal status different from that of the 50 states. Both of these commonwealths are unincorporated territories of the United States.\n\nOrigins of states' names\n\nThe 50 states have taken their names from a wide variety of languages. Twenty-four state names originate from Native American languages. Of these, eight are from Algonquian languages, seven are from Siouan languages, three are from Iroquoian languages, one is from Uto-Aztecan languages and five others are from other indigenous languages. Hawaii's name is derived from the Polynesian Hawaiian language.\n\nOf the remaining names, 22 are from European languages: Seven from Latin (mainly Latinized forms of English names), the rest are from English, Spanish and French. Eleven states are named after individual people, including seven named for royalty and one named after an American president. The origins of six state names are unknown or disputed. Several of the states that derive their names from (corrupted) names used for Native peoples, have retained the plural ending of \"s\".\n\nGeography\n\nBorders\n\nThe borders of the 13 original states were largely determined by colonial charters. Their western boundaries were subsequently modified as the states ceded their western land claims to the Federal government during the 1780s and 1790s. Many state borders beyond those of the original 13 were set by Congress as it created territories, divided them, and over time, created states within them. Territorial and new state lines often followed various geographic features (such as rivers or mountain range peaks), and were influenced by settlement or transportation patterns. At various times, national borders with territories formerly controlled by other countries (British North America, New France, New Spain including Spanish Florida, and Russian America) became institutionalized as the borders of U.S. states. In the West, relatively arbitrary straight lines following latitude and longitude often prevail, due to the sparseness of settlement west of the Mississippi River.\n\nOnce established, most state borders have, with few exceptions, been generally stable. Only two states, Missouri (Platte Purchase) and Nevada, grew appreciably after statehood. Several of the original states ceded land, over a several year period, to the Federal government, which in turn became the Northwest Territory, Southwest Territory, and Mississippi Territory. In 1791 Maryland and Virginia ceded land to create the District of Columbia (Virginia's portion was returned in 1847). In 1850, Texas ceded a large swath of land to the federal government. Additionally, Massachusetts and Virginia (on two occasions), have lost land, in each instance to form a new state.\n\nThere have been numerous other minor adjustments to state boundaries over the years due to improved surveys, resolution of ambiguous or disputed boundary definitions, or minor mutually agreed boundary adjustments for administrative convenience or other purposes. Occasionally the United States Congress or the United States Supreme Court have settled state border disputes. One notable example is the case New Jersey v. New York, in which New Jersey won roughly 90% of Ellis Island from New York in 1998. \n\nRegional grouping\n\nStates may be grouped in regions; there are endless variations and possible groupings. Many are defined in law or regulations by the federal government. For example, the United States Census Bureau defines four statistical regions, with nine divisions. The Census Bureau region definition is \"widely used … for data collection and analysis,\"\"The National Energy Modeling System: An Overview 2003\" (Report #:DOE/EIA-0581, October 2009). United States Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration. and is the most commonly used classification system. Other multi-state regions are unofficial, and defined by geography or cultural affinity rather than by state lines." ] }

{ "description": [ "T. F. Green Airport ... known as Theodore Francis Green State Airport and Providence ... in the United States. Providence International Airport is a ...", "Theodore Francis Green State Airport PVD is an airport serving the Providence, Rhode Island. PVD Airport is situated approximately 6 miles to the southeast of ...", "Theodore Francis Green State Airport is a regional private jet airport located in Rhode Island, United States. ... jets and it's International Air ...", "Book Flights to Theodore Francis Green State Airport. Theodore Francis Green State Airport or T. F. Green Airport is a public airport which is located in Warwick ...", "KPVD: Theodore Francis Green State Airport Providence, ... International operations: ... please send us your photo.", "Welcome to the official Web site for T.F. Green Airport (PVD). ... © All Content Copyright 2014 RIAC | Contact Us | Privacy Policy | Directions ..." ], "filename": [ "97/97_3461.txt", "40/40_3463.txt", "92/92_3464.txt", "197/197_3465.txt", "21/21_3468.txt", "114/114_3470.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 2, 3, 4, 7, 9 ], "title": [ "Theodore Francis Green State Airport, Providence RI", "Theodore Francis Green State Airport (PVD) 2000 Post Rd ...", "Private Jet Charter Theodore Francis Green State Airport ...", "Find Flights to Theodore Francis Green State Airport (PVD ...", "AirNav: KPVD - Theodore Francis Green State Airport", "Green Airport | PVD | Rhode Island" ], "url": [ "http://providence-airport.com/", "https://www.mapquest.com/us/rhode-island/airports-warwick/theodore-francis-green-state-airport-pvd-328068", "https://www.flyvictor.com/en-us/private-jet-airports/theodore-francis-green-state-airport-(pvd)/", "https://www.cheapoair.com/airports/theodore-francis-green-state-airport-flights-pvd", "https://www.airnav.com/airport/PVD", "http://www.pvdairport.com/" ], "search_context": [ "Theodore Francis Green State Airport, Providence RI\nHotels Near the Airport\nT. F. Green Airport (sometimes called T. F. Green International Airport) (IATA: PVD, ICAO: KPVD, FAA LID: PVD)\n, also known as Theodore Francis Green State Airport and Providence International Airport is located in Warwick, six miles (10 km) south of Providence, in Kent County, Rhode Island, USA. Completely rebuilt in 1996, it was the first state-owned airport in the United States.\nProvidence International Airport is a popular alternative to Boston, Massachusetts' often busy Logan International Airport, as delays and wait time are minimal.\nThere are two terminals with two concourses, North and South. The South Concourse has eight gates, and the North Concourse has 14 gates. Gate 8 is designed for international arrivals for use by Air Canada and SATA International flights; it is directly connected to customs, which is on the lower level of the concourse. The terminal contains a number of stores and restaurants, and a central food court.\nLocal Time: 17-Jan-2017 12:02 AM\n© Copyright 2017, Providence-Airport.com, not the official airport website", "Theodore Francis Green State Airport (PVD) 2000 Post Rd Warwick, RI Major Airports - MapQuest\nSee a problem? Let us know!\nTheodore Francis Green State Airport PVD is an airport serving the Providence, Rhode Island. PVD Airport is situated approximately 6 miles to the southeast of downtown Providence, Rhode Island. Currently, the airport transports about four million passengers annually. T. F. Green State Airport is the largest and busiest airport in Rhode Island.\nLocated just east of I-95 and to the south of Airport Road, PVD Airport has a variety of parking options including economy, short-term, long-term, garage and valet. T. F. Green Airport consists of a main terminal and two concourses (North, South) with 22 gates, all connected via walkway. There are 7 airlines that fly in and out of PVD serving several domestic locations.\nAt T. F. Green State Airport there is an array of quick service and full service dining options, ranging from Starbucks Coffee to Shipyard Brew Pub. Whether it is books and magazines on your list or clothing and accessories MSY has you covered with options ranging from CNBC News to Brooks Brothers. In terms of services there are airline clubs, currency exchanges, ATMs, shoeshine and Wi-Fi.\nGetting to and from PVD Airport has never been easier with public transit like Amtrak, InterLink and MBTA Rail. If looking for additional modes of transport there are taxis, limousines, vans, car rentals and shuttles available. If staying over at T. F. Green Airport there are 11 nearby hotel and motel options within two miles including the Holiday Inn Express Airport, the Crowne Plaza Airport Hotel and the Radisson Hotel Providence Airport Hotel.", "Private Jet Charter Theodore Francis Green State Airport (PVD) | Victor\nCharter a private jet\nTheodore Francis Green State Airport (PVD)\nTheodore Francis Green State Airport is a regional private jet airport located in Rhode Island, United States suitable for a variety of private jets and its International Air Transport Association code is PVD.\nWith Victor, chartering private jets to and from Theodore Francis Green State Airport has never been easier.\nAirport Information", "Find Flights to Theodore Francis Green State Airport (PVD) - CheapOair\nCheck Your Flight Status >\nBook Flights to Theodore Francis Green State Airport\nTheodore Francis Green State Airport or T. F. Green Airport is a public airport which is located in Warwick, Rhode Island, 6 miles south of the capital of Providence. The airport was named after Theodore Francis Green, Rhode Island’s former governor and senator.\nBook flights to Theodore Francis Green State Airport (PVD) with CheapOair! In addition to offering competitive airfares to locations most convenient for you, we provide useful information to inform your travel to PVD. Read below to learn more about PVD flights, and count on CheapOair for the best deals on all of your travel booking needs.\nGround Transportation\nThe MBTA Commuter rail service runs from T.F. Green Airport to downtown Providence, buses and taxis run from the airport to downtown providence. A taxi trip to Providence takes approximately 15 minutes.\nTerminal Features\nWi-Fi access is available in all public areas of T.F. Green Airport for a fee, ATMs and banking facility is also available at the terminals and one thing tha should be kept in mind is that there is no lost and found facility provided by the airport. Meditation and prayer room, pet-relief area and shoeshine stand are also available.\nAirport Parking\nThe airport provides short term and long term parking facilities at Lot D and Lot E respectively, a total of 8,325 parking spaces are available at the airport.", "AirNav: KPVD - Theodore Francis Green State Airport\nTheodore Francis Green State Airport\nProvidence, Rhode Island, USA\nFAA INFORMATION EFFECTIVE 10 NOVEMBER 2016\nLocation\n54.8 ft. / 17 m (estimated)\nVariation: \n6 miles S of PROVIDENCE, RI\nTime zone: \nUTC -5 (UTC -4 during Daylight Saving Time)\nZip code: \nyes\nLights: \nWHEN ATCT CLSD ACTVT HIRL RYS 05/23 & 16/34; SSALR RY 05; MALSR RYS 23 & 34; RY 05 TDZL & RY 05/23 CNTRLN & TWY LGTS - CTAF.\nBeacon: \nWX AWOS-3PT at SFZ (12 nm N): \n120.025 (401-334-0324)\nWX ASOS at UUU (13 nm SE): \n132.075 (401-846-5910)\nAPCH/DEP SVC PRVDD BY BOSTON ARTCC ON FREQS 124.85/307.9 (WOODSTOCK RCAG) WHEN APCH CTL CLSD.\nCLNC DEL PRVDD BY BDR AFSS ON FREQ 122.6/255.4 WHEN ATCT CLOSED.\nASR ELEV. 520 FT; CPME #1 41-43-14.0606N 71-25-27.1622W; CPME #2 41-50-27.9506N 71-40-09.4026W; MTI #1 41-45-23.5122N 71-36-47.3410W.\nNearby radio navigation aids\n7166 x 150 ft. / 2184 x 46 m\nSurface: \nDual double tandem: \n1120.0\nRunway edge lights: high intensity RUNWAY 5  RUNWAY 23 Latitude: 41-42.829538N41-43.828268N Longitude: 071-26.097477W071-25.258923W Elevation: 50.8 ft.44.3 ft. Gradient: 0.1%0.1% Traffic pattern: leftleft Runway heading: 047 magnetic, 032 true227 magnetic, 212 true Markings: precision, in good conditionprecision, in good condition Visual slope indicator: 4-box VASI on left (3.00 degrees glide path)\nVGSI AND GLIDEPATH NOT COINCIDENT. RVR equipment: touchdown, midfield, rollouttouchdown Approach lights: ALSF2: standard 2,400 foot high intensity approach lighting system with centerline sequenced flashers (category II or III)\nALSF2 BECOMES SSALR WHEN ATCT CLSD.MALSR: 1,400 foot medium intensity approach lighting system with runway alignment indicator lights Centerline lights: yesyes Touchdown point: yes, lightedyes, no lights Instrument approach: ILS/DMEILS/DME Obstructions: none70 ft. trees, 2600 ft. from runway, 34:1 slope to clear\nRunway 16/34\n6081 x 150 ft. / 1853 x 46 m\nSurface: \nDual double tandem: \n1120.0\nRunway edge lights: high intensity Gradient: NORTH RUNWAY 16  RUNWAY 34 Latitude: 41-43.899237N41-43.114743N Longitude: 071-25.930507W071-25.099875W Elevation: 53.7 ft.32.8 ft. Gradient: 0.4%0.3% UP Traffic pattern: leftleft Runway heading: 157 magnetic, 142 true337 magnetic, 322 true Displaced threshold: 565 ft.no Markings: precision, in good conditionprecision, in good condition Visual slope indicator: 4-light PAPI on left (3.00 degrees glide path)4-light PAPI on left (3.00 degrees glide path) RVR equipment: touchdown Approach lights: MALSR: 1,400 foot medium intensity approach lighting system with runway alignment indicator lights Runway end identifier lights: yes Touchdown point: yes, no lightsyes, no lights Instrument approach: ILS/DME Obstructions: 19 ft. pole, 560 ft. from runway, 200 ft. left of centerline, 19:1 slope to clear\nAPCH RATIO 23:1 TO DSPLCD THLD.25 ft. trees, 1050 ft. from runway, 500 ft. left of centerline, 19:1 slope to clear\nAirport Ownership and Management from official FAA records\nOwnership:", "Green Airport | PVD | Rhode Island\nSurplus Auction\nNEWS FEED\nSouthwest Airlines began service in Rhode Island in 1996, forever changing the dynamics of air service in Rhode Island and the region. read more...\nIftikhar Ahmad has increased passenger growth by 36% at his current post. read more...\nThe Service Animal Relief Area is located post security in the North Concourse. read more...\nGreen Airport  |  2000 Post Road, Warwick, RI 02886  |  888-268-7222\nInterLink  |  700 Jefferson Blvd. Warwick, RI 02886" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Demi_Moore.txt" ], "title": [ "Demi Moore" ], "wiki_context": [ "Demi Gene Guynes ( ; born November 11, 1962), professionally known as Demi Moore, is an American actress, filmmaker, former songwriter, and model. Moore dropped out of high school at age 16 to pursue an acting career, and appeared in a nude pictorial in Oui magazine in 1981. After making her film debut later that year, she appeared on the soap opera General Hospital and subsequently gained recognition for her work in Blame It on Rio (1984) and St. Elmo's Fire (1985). Her first film to become both a critical and commercial hit was About Last Night... (1986), which established her as a Hollywood star.\n\nIn 1990, Moore starred in Ghost, the highest-grossing film of that year, for which she received a Golden Globe nomination. She had a string of additional box-office successes in the early 1990s, including A Few Good Men (1992), Indecent Proposal (1993), and Disclosure (1994). In 1996, Moore became the highest-paid actress in film history when she was paid a then-unprecedented fee of $12.5 million to star in Striptease, a film that was a high-profile disappointment. Her next major role, G.I. Jane (1997), for which she famously shaved her head, was followed by a lengthy break and significant downturn in Moore's career, although she has remained a subject of substantial media interest during the years since.\n\nEarly life\n\nMoore was born on November 11, 1962 in Roswell, New Mexico. Her biological father, Air Force airman Charles Harmon, Sr., left her mother, Virginia (née King), after a two-month marriage, before Moore was born. When Moore was three months old, her mother married Dan Guynes, a newspaper advertising salesman who frequently changed jobs; as a result, the family moved many times. Moore said in 1991, \"My dad was Dan Guynes. He raised me. There is a man who would be considered my biological father who I don't really have a relationship with.\" Moore learned of him at age 13, when she found her mother and stepfather's marriage certificate and inquired about the circumstances since \"I saw my parents were married in February 1963. I was born in '62.\" Dan Guynes committed suicide in October 1980 at age 37, two years after he separated from Moore's mother. Charles Harmon appeared on Inside Edition in 1995, making an appeal to see his grandchildren. Virginia Guynes had a long record of arrests for crimes, including drunk driving and arson. Moore broke off contact with her in 1990, when Guynes walked away from a rehab stay Moore had paid for at the Hazelden Foundation in Minnesota. Guynes posed nude for the magazine High Society in 1993, where she spoofed Moore's Vanity Fair pregnancy and bodypaint covers, and parodied her love scene from the film Ghost. Moore and Guynes briefly reconciled shortly before Guynes died of cancer in July 1998 at age 54. \n\nMoore was cross-eyed as a child; this was ultimately corrected by two operations. She also suffered from kidney dysfunction. At age 15, Moore moved to West Hollywood, California, where her mother worked for a magazine-distribution company. Moore attended Fairfax High School there, and recalled, \"I moved out of my family's house when I was 16 and left high school in my junior year.\" She signed with the Elite Modeling Agency and went to Europe to work as a pin-up girl, then enrolled in drama classes after being inspired by her next-door neighbor, 17-year-old German actress Nastassja Kinski.Collins, p. 145 In August 1979, three months before her 17th birthday, Moore met musician Freddy Moore who was married and at the time leader of the band Boy, at the Los Angeles nightclub The Troubadour. They lived in an apartment in West Hollywood.\n\nCareer\n\nDemi Moore co-wrote three songs with Freddy Moore and appeared in the music video for their \"It's Not a Rumor,\" performed by his band The Nu Kats. She continues to receive royalty checks from her brief songwriting career (1980-1981). \n\nMoore also appeared on the cover of the January 1981 issue of the adult magazine Oui, in which she posed for a series of photographs containing full frontal nudity. In a 1988 interview, Moore claimed she \"only posed for the cover of Oui—I was 16; I told them I was 18\" and that the photos inside \"were for a European fashion magazine.\" In 1990, she told another interviewer, \"I was 17 years old. I was underage. It was just the cover.\" \n\nMoore made her film debut with a small supporting role in the deaf-teen drama Choices (1981), directed by Silvio Narizzano. Her second feature was the 1982 3-D science fiction/horror film Parasite, for which director Charles Band had instructed casting director Johanna Ray to \"find me the next Karen Allen.\" Moore then joined the cast of the ABC soap opera General Hospital, playing the role of investigative reporter Jackie Templeton from December 1981 to March 1984. During her tenure on the series, she made an uncredited cameo appearance in the 1982 spoof Young Doctors in Love.\n\nMoore's film career took off in 1984 following her appearance in the romantic comedy Blame It on Rio. That same year, she played the lead role in No Small Affair. Her commercial breakthrough came in Joel Schumacher's yuppie drama St. Elmo's Fire (1985), which received negative reviews, but was a box office success and brought Moore to international recognition. Because of her association with that film, Moore was often listed as part of the Brat Pack, a label she felt was \"demeaning\". She progressed to more serious material with About Last Night... (1986), co-starring Rob Lowe, which marked a positive turning point in her career, as Moore noted that, following its release, she began seeing better scripts. Film critic Roger Ebert gave the film four out of four stars and praised her performance, writing, \"There isn't a romantic note she isn't required to play in this movie, and she plays them all flawlessly.\" The success of About Last Night... was unrivaled by Moore's other two 1986 releases, One Crazy Summer and Wisdom, the last youth-oriented films in which she would star. \n\nMoore made her professional stage debut in an off-Broadway production of The Early Girl, which ran at the Circle Repertory Company in fall 1986. In 1988, Moore starred as a prophecy-bearing mother in the apocalyptic drama The Seventh Sign—her first outing as a solo film star. The following year, she played the quick-witted local laundress and prostitute in Neil Jordan's Depression-era allegory We're No Angels (1989) opposite Robert De Niro.\n\nHer most successful film to date was the supernatural romantic melodrama Ghost, a sleeper hit that grossed over $505 million at the box office and was the highest-grossing film of 1990. The love scene between Moore and Patrick Swayze that starts in front of a potter's wheel while the song \"Unchained Melody\" plays in the background has become an iconic moment in cinema history. Ghost was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture, and Moore's performance as Molly Jensen earned her a Golden Globe Award nomination. \n\nIn 1991, Moore had a supporting role in the comedy Nothing but Trouble. It was one of the biggest box office disasters of the year, but most of the blame went to Dan Aykroyd, who wrote and directed the film, as well as starring in it. That same year, she co-produced and starred in the mystery thriller Mortal Thoughts, and appeared as a blonde for the first time in the romantic comedy The Butcher's Wife, with Roger Ebert's review describing her as \"warm and cuddly\". Both films were box-office disappointments, but Moore sustained her A-list status with her starring roles in Rob Reiner's A Few Good Men (1992), Adrian Lyne's Indecent Proposal (1993), and Barry Levinson's Disclosure (1994)—all of which opened at #1 at the box office and were blockbuster hits. \n\nBy 1995, Moore was the highest-paid actress in Hollywood. However, she subsequently had a string of unsuccessful films starting with The Scarlet Letter, a \"freely adapted\" version of the historical romance novel by Nathaniel Hawthorne, in which her portrayal of Hester Prynne was met with harsh criticism. Her follow-up releases, Now and Then and The Juror, were not box-office successes. Moore was paid a record-breaking salary of $12.5 million in 1996 to star in Striptease. Much hype was made about Moore's willingness to dance topless for the part, though this was the sixth time she had shown her breasts on film. Although the film was actually a financial success—grossing over $113 million worldwide —it failed to reach expectations and was widely considered a flop. That same year she provided the speaking voice of the beautiful Esmeralda in Disney's animated adaptation of The Hunchback of Notre Dame. Meanwhile, she also produced and starred in a controversial miniseries for HBO called If These Walls Could Talk, a three-part anthology about abortion. Its screenwriter, Nancy Savoca, directed two segments, including one in which Moore played a widowed nurse in the early 1950s seeking a back-alley abortion. For that role, Moore received a second Golden Globe nomination as Best Actress.Moore famously shaved her head to play a Navy SEAL recruit in Ridley Scott's G.I. Jane (1997). The film was a moderate box-office success, but its domestic gross was only slightly more than it cost to make. During the film's production, it was reported that Moore had ordered studio chiefs to charter two planes for her entourage and her, which reinforced her negative reputation for being a diva —she had previously turned down the Sandra Bullock role in While You Were Sleeping because the studio refused to meet her salary demands, and was dubbed \"Gimme Moore\" by the media.\nAfter G.I. Jane, Moore took the role of an ultrapious psychiatrist in Woody Allen's Deconstructing Harry, then retreated from the spotlight and moved to Hailey, Idaho, on a full-time basis to devote herself to raising her three daughters. She was off screen for three years before re-emerging in the arthouse drama Passion of Mind (2000), the first English-language film from Belgian director Alain Berliner. Her performance was well received, but the film itself garnered mixed reviews and was deemed \"naggingly slow\" by some critics. Moore then resumed her self-imposed career hiatus and continued to turn down film offers. Producer Irwin Winkler said in 2001, \"I had a project about a year and a half ago, and we made an inquiry about her—a real good commercial picture. She wasn't interested.\"\n\nAnother three years passed before Moore acted again. She returned to the screen, playing a villain in the 2003 film Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle, but that was followed by yet another three-year absence. In the interim, Moore signed on as the face of the Versace fashion brand and the Helena Rubinstein brand of cosmetics. In 2006, she appeared in Bobby, which featured an all-star cast, including her husband Ashton Kutcher, although they did not appear in any scenes together.\n\nMoore reunited with Blame It on Rio co-star Michael Caine for the British crime drama Flawless, which came out in a limited release in 2008 with generally positive reviews. As of 2014, her last appearance in a widely released film was in 2007's Mr. Brooks with Kevin Costner. Moore has since acted in a number of independent films, the most notable of which have been The Joneses (2010) with David Duchovny and the critically acclaimed corporate drama Margin Call (2011), where she was part of an ensemble cast that included Kevin Spacey, Simon Baker, and Paul Bettany.\n\nMoore had been cast to play feminist activist Gloria Steinem in the Linda Lovelace biographical film Lovelace, but within a month of being announced for the role, she dropped out of the production in the wake of a January 23, 2012, hospitalization and what her representative called \"professional assistance to treat her exhaustion and improve her overall health.\" Sarah Jessica Parker took over the role. \n\nVanity Fair cover\n\nIn August 1991, Moore appeared nude on the cover of Vanity Fair under the title More Demi Moore. Annie Leibovitz shot the picture while Moore was seven months pregnant with her daughter Scout LaRue, intending to portray \"anti-Hollywood, anti-glitz\" attitude. The cover drew a lot of attention, being discussed on television, radio, and in newspaper articles. The frankness of Leibovitz's portrayal of a pregnant sex symbol led to divided opinions, ranging from suggestions of sexual objectification to celebrations of the photograph as a symbol of empowerment. \n\nThe photograph was subject to numerous parodies, including the Spy magazine version which placed Moore's then-husband Bruce Willis' head on her body. In Leibovitz v. Paramount Pictures Corp., Leibovitz sued over one parody featuring Leslie Nielsen, made to promote the 1994 film Naked Gun 33⅓: The Final Insult. In the parody, the model's body was attached to what is described as \"the guilty and smirking face\" of Nielsen. The teaser said \"Due this March\". The case was dismissed in 1996 because the parody relied \"for its comic effect on the contrast between the original\". In November 2009, the Moroccan magazine Femmes du Maroc emulated the infamous pose with Moroccan news reporter Nadia Larguet, causing controversy in the majority Muslim nation. \n\nIn August 1992, Moore again appeared nude on the cover of Vanity Fair, modeling for body painting artist Joanne Gair in Demi's Birthday Suit. \n\nBusiness ventures\n\nMoore was an investor in the Planet Hollywood chain of theme restaurants, along with Sylvester Stallone, Arnold Schwarzenegger, and former husband Bruce Willis. She was an executive producer of all three films in the Austin Powers franchise, as well as the interview series The Conversation for the Lifetime network. \n\nPersonal life\n\nMarriages and relationships\n\nOn February 8, 1980, at the age of 17, she married singer Freddy Moore, 12 years her senior and recently divorced from his first wife, Lucy. During their marriage, Demi began using Freddy's surname as her stage name. She filed for divorce in September 1984; it was finalized on August 7, 1985.\n\nNext, Moore was engaged to actor Emilio Estevez. The pair planned to marry in December 1986, but called off the engagement. \n\nOn November 21, 1987, Moore married her second husband, actor Bruce Willis. Willis and she have three daughters together: Rumer (born August 16, 1988), Scout (born July 20, 1991), and Tallulah (born February 3, 1994). They announced their separation on June 24, 1998, and filed for divorce on October 18, 2000. \n\nMoore had a longstanding relationship with martial arts instructor Oliver Whitcomb, whom she dated from 1999 to 2002. \n\nIn 2003, Moore began dating actor Ashton Kutcher, who is 15 years younger. They married on September 24, 2005. The wedding was attended by about 150 close friends and family of the couple, including Willis. In November 2011, after months of media speculation about the state of the couple's marriage, Moore announced her decision to end her marriage to Kutcher. After over a year of separation, Kutcher filed for divorce from Moore on December 21, 2012, in Los Angeles Superior Court, citing irreconcilable differences. Moore filed her response papers in March 2013, requesting spousal support and payment of legal fees from Kutcher. On November 27, 2013, their divorce was finalized. \n\nInterests\n\nShe is a follower of Philip Berg's Kabbalah Centre religion, and initiated Kutcher into the faith, having said that she \"didn't grow up Jewish, but ... would say that [she has] been more exposed to the deeper meanings of particular rituals than any of [her] friends that did.\" \n\nAccording to The New York Times, Moore is \"the world's most high-profile doll collector,\" and among her favorites is the Gene Marshall fashion doll. At one point, Moore kept a separate residence to house her 2,000 dolls. \n\nWhile she landed on PETA's Worst-Dressed List in 2009 for wearing fur, two years later she supported the group's efforts to ban circus workers' use of bullhooks on elephants. \n\nCharity work\n\nIn 2009, Moore and Kutcher launched The Demi and Ashton Foundation (DNA), a nonprofit, non-governmental organization directed towards fighting child sexual slavery. Its first campaign was \"Real Men Don't Buy Girls.\" In November 2012, the foundation said it was announcing \"a new name and refined mission\" as Thorn, which aimed \"to disrupt and deflate the predatory behavior of those who abuse and traffic children, solicit sex with children or create and share child pornography\".\n\nFilmography\n\nAwards and nominations\n\nFootnotes" ] }

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PhotoGallery of Demi Moore" ], "filename": [ "20/20_1363097.txt", "71/71_2592609.txt", "79/79_2592613.txt", "56/56_478375.txt", "93/93_1337753.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 2, 7, 8, 9 ], "title": [ "Demi Moore - Biography - IMDb", "21 Actors Who Got Their Big Breaks On TV Soap Operas ...", "Death, coma or the revolving door trick: what now for Ridge?", "Stars Who Got Their Start on Soap Operas | InStyle.com", "Demi Moore Biography - Cast Of Movies" ], "url": [ "http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000193/bio", "http://radaronline.com/photos/celebrities-big-break-tv-soap-opera-photos/photo/1073032/", "http://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/tv-and-radio/death-coma-or-the-revolving-door-trick-what-now-for-ridge-20120815-247n6.html", "http://www.instyle.com/fashion/stars-who-got-their-start-soap-operas", "https://castofmovies.com/actress/demi-moore-biography/" ], "search_context": [ "Demi Moore - Biography - IMDb\nDemi Moore\nBiography\nShowing all 122 items\nJump to: Overview  (3) | Mini Bio  (1) | Spouse  (3) | Trade Mark  (2) | Trivia  (71) | Personal Quotes  (29) | Salary  (13)\nOverview (3)\n5' 5\" (1.65 m)\nMini Bio (1)\nDemi Moore was born on November 11, 1962, in Roswell, New Mexico. Her father, Charles Foster Harmon, Sr., left her mother, Virginia Beverly (King), before Demi was born. Her stepfather, Danny Guynes, did not add much stability to her life, either. He frequently changed jobs and made the family move a total of 40 times. The parents kept on drinking, arguing and beating, until Guynes finally committed suicide. Demi quit school at age 16 to work as a pin-up-girl. At 18, she married rock musician Freddy Moore ; the marriage lasted four years. At 19, she became a regular on the soap opera General Hospital (1963) (1982-1983). From the first salaries, she started partying and sniffing cocaine. That lasted more than three years, until director Joel Schumacher threatened to fire her from the set of St. Elmo's Fire (1985) when she turned up high. She got a withdrawal treatment and returned clean within a week... and stayed clean. With determination and a skill for publicity stunts, like the nude appearance on the cover of Vanity Fair while pregnant, she made her way to fame. Thanks to the huge commercial success of Ghost (1990) and the controversial pictures Indecent Proposal (1993) and Disclosure (1994), she became Hollywood's most sought-after and most expensive actress.\nIn 2009, Demi Moore and spouse Ashton Kutcher launched The Demi and Ashton Foundation, a non-profit, non-governmental organization directed towards fighting child sexual slavery. Its first campaign in \"Real Men Don't Buy Girls\". On April 23, 2011, Demi and Ashton appeared together for their first on-air interview on CNN's Piers Morgan Tonight (2011) to promote their foundation and start the work towards ending child sexual slavery. The foundation's website enables people to educate themselves, show support and take action or make a donation. They first got involved in the issue in 2008 and that a great deal of the early work just involved starting discussions, raising awareness and creating urgency.\n- IMDb Mini Biography By: Tom Zoerner < [email protected]> / rob clement\nSpouse (3)\nTrivia (71)\nHired three cameramen to videotape the birth of her first child.\nBruce and Demi announce they are ending their marriage of eleven years. No reasons given. [June 1998]\nChosen by People (USA) magazine as one of the 50 Most Beautiful People in the World. [1996]\nWas once engaged to Emilio Estevez .\nShe posed nude while seven months pregnant with daughter Scout LaRue Willis for a 1991 Vanity Fair magazine cover. In August 1992, she again posed nude for Vanity Fair, this time wearing body paint that resembled a man's suit.\nStripped on Late Show with David Letterman (1993), allegedly to disprove rumors that she's too fat for her new movie Striptease (1996).\nOwns a production company: \"Moving Pictures\".\nShe appeared in John Parr 's music video \"St. Elmo's Fire (Man In Motion)\".\nListed as one of twelve \"Promising New Actors of 1986\" in John Willis's Screen World, Vol. 38.\nIn order to play a coke addict, Jules, in St. Elmo's Fire (1985), she had to sign a contract stipulating that she would stop her own alcohol and drug abuse, an agreement that caused her life to turn around.\nWas one of three finalists for the lead in Flashdance (1983). No one could decide between the three, so a group of about 50 men were brought into a room, shown the three audition tapes and asked who they would want to sleep with the most. Jennifer Beals won by a landslide.\nWas replaced by Sandra Bullock for the lead in While You Were Sleeping (1995).\nOperations on her left eye during childhood caused her to wear a patch.\nFirst actress to reach 10 million dollar salary mark.\nAunt of actors Cooper Guynes and Oliver Guynes .\nDemi's real father, Charles Harmon, abandoned the family before she was born, which is why she didn't share his last name on her birth certificate.\nContinues to receive royalty checks for songs she wrote before becoming an actress.\nWas spoofed in the video game Leisure Suit Larry 7: Love for Sail! (1996) as a hypersexual version of herself called \"Dewmi (pronounced \"Do Me\") Moore\".\nFirst job was as a bill collector.\nVoted #22 on VH1's Hottest Hotties.\nThough born in New Mexico, she spent much of her childhood in Eastern Pennsylvania.\nSupporter of Arsenal Football Club, and attends home games whenever she is in London.\nShe quit school at age 16 and started working as a pin-up girl.\nAccording to an article in the now defunct Buzz magazine, she was so demanding when it came to perks and fringe benefits, her nickname around Hollywood studio executives was \"Gimme Moore\".\nWas one of the nine original members of the 1980s \"brat pack\", along with Judd Nelson , Mare Winningham , Anthony Michael Hall , Andrew McCarthy , Rob Lowe , Molly Ringwald , Emilio Estevez and Ally Sheedy .\nThe only Brat Packer to become a huge and long-lasting movie star after the Brat Pack era ended.\nAlong with Pia Zadora , Madonna , Pauly Shore and Sylvester Stallone , one of the few people who have \"won\" back to back awards at the Razzies in successive years. She \"won\" Worst Actress of 1997 for her performances in the films The Juror (1996) and Striptease (1996), then again the next year she \"won\" Worst Actress for her role in G.I. Jane (1997).\nHer wedding with Ashton Kutcher was attended by about 100 guests. Among them were ex-husband Bruce Willis , their three daughters, Ashton's best friend and co-star from That '70s Show (1998), Wilmer Valderrama , and Demi's close friend Lucy Liu .\nAuditioned for (and won) the role of Jackie Templeton on General Hospital (1963) after producers put out a casting call for a \" Margot Kidder / Karen Allen \" type actress (both of whom were top box office stars at the time).\nMarried Bruce Willis at the Golden Nugget Hotel in Las Vegas.\nLittle Richard presided over her wedding to Bruce Willis . Ally Sheedy was one of the bridesmaids.\nAttended (but did not graduate from) Fairfax High School in Los Angeles with actor/producer Byron Allen .\nHer ancestry includes English and Scottish.\nLived next door to Nastassja Kinski when moving to Los Angeles to pursue acting.\nHer professional first name \"Demi\" (short for her birth name Demetria) is pronounced \"deh-ME\", not \"DEM-ee\", with emphasis on the second syllable just as in \"Demetria\".\nHer mother died from cancer in 1998 at age 54.\nOlder half-sister of Morgan Guynes .\nHer mother was 18 when she had her.\nIn 1995, became the highest-paid actress in film history, up until that time, earning $12.5 million for Striptease (1996).\nThanked by Blink 182 in the liner notes of their album \"Enema of the State\".\nCredited along with actor Daniel Morton for saving a woman's life through Twitter.\nWas 20th Century Fox's choice to play Katharine Clifton in The English Patient (1996). When the film's producers refused to give in on the studio's decision to cast Moore, Fox withdrew their funding. Miramax eventually picked up the film and the role was given to Kristin Scott Thomas .\nAuditioned for the role of Luisa Contini in Nine (2009), but Marion Cotillard was cast in the role instead.\nHad to drop out of A League of Their Own (1992) due to pregnancy.\nLives in Los Angeles, California and Hailey, Idaho.\nAlong with Gerard Butler , Ben Stiller , Susan Sarandon and director Paul Haggis , she visited a camp for internally displaced persons managed by Sean Penn and his Jenkins-Penn Humanitarian Relief Organization in Port-au-Prince, Haiti. [April 2010]\nThe controversial Vanity Fair magazine cover of Moore - nude and pregnant - was photographed by Annie Leibovitz in May 1991.\nHad knee surgery. [February 2011]\nRemains friends with Daniel Morton since helping save a woman's life on Twitter together.\nFormer publicist is Michael Levine .\nShowed interest in the title role in Æon Flux (2005) that Charlize Theron eventually played. Aeon creator Peter Chung disapproved of the casting of Moore.\nTurned down the role of Sarah Tobias in The Accused (1988), which went to Jodie Foster .\nMet first husband Freddy Moore at the Troubadour nightclub in Los Angeles when she was 16 years old.\nHas three younger paternal half-siblings (James, Charlotte, and Charles Jr.) who she does not have a relationship with.\nGave birth to her first child at age 25, daughter Rumer Glenn Willis (aka Rumer Willis ) on August 16, 1988. Rumer's father is Demi's second ex-husband, Bruce Willis .\nGave birth to her second child at age 28, daughter Scout LaRue Willis on July 20, 1991. Scout's father is Demi's second ex-husband, Bruce Willis .\nGave birth to her third child at age 31, daughter Tallulah Belle Willis on February 3, 1994. Tallulah's father is Demi's second ex-husband, Bruce Willis .\nSeparated from her third husband of 6 years Ashton Kutcher . [November 2011]\n(December 21, 2012) Third husband Ashton Kutcher filed for divorce after a 13 month separation and 7 years of marriage.\nA huge fan of Susan Boyle . When Moore enthused about her on Twitter, the millions who followed helped to turn Boyle into a global megastar. Sadly, Boyle didn't know much about Moore and nothing about Moore's husband Ashton Kutcher .\nSpokeswoman/model for Ann Taylor clothing store chain. [August 2011]\nIs a (raw) vegan.\nHas been romantically linked with Leonardo DiCaprio , Colin Farrell , Timothy Hutton , Pedro Aguinaga , Martin Henderson , Anthony Kiedis , Tobey Maguire , Harry Morton , Peter Morton , Will Hanigan , Guy Oseary , Alex Rodríguez , Thomas Jane , Owen Wilson , Dweezil Zappa and Vito Schnabel .\nDated martial arts instructor Oliver Whitcomb from 1999 to 2002.\nIs an avid doll collector and keeps a separate residence in Idaho to house her 2,000 vintage dolls.\nWas part owner of the Planet Hollywood restaurant chain.\nFan of Rita Hayworth and the movie Gilda (1946).\nRecorded a five-track demo tape in 1982 under the guidance of music producer Greg Penny and almost got a deal from RCA records.\nAppeared in a 1986 stage play with Robin Bartlett called \"The Early Girl\" at Circle Repertory Theatre in New York.\nBrought into fashion the women's pixie cut, a hairstyle she debuted for photographers at the Beverly Hills premiere of When Harry Met Sally... (1989) in July 1989. When Ghost (1990) was released in the summer of 1990, millions of women emulated this short, boy-like crop.\nRented out Six Flags Magic Mountain amusement park in Valencia, Ca. for her 29th birthday in 1991.\nPersonal Quotes (29)\nAll you need is for some of these things to appear in print a couple of times and people start to believe it. I think what really is happening is that the only way the media can allow me to be smart and ambitious is by making me a bitch.\nThe truth is you can have a great marriage, but there are still no guarantees.\nThere's this idea that if you take your clothes off, somehow you must have loose morals. There's still a negative attitude in our society towards women who use a strength that's inherent - their femininity - in any way that might be considered seductive.\nTime is an amazing equalizer. I think if you stay true to yourself and keep moving forward, things come around.\nOn the changes made to Nathaniel Hawthorne 's \"The Scarlet Letter\" (she starred in the adaptation): In truth, not very many people have read the book...the ultimate message of \"Hester Prynne\" would have been lost if we'd stayed with the original ending.\nI didn't want to work and drag my kids with me while they were trying to cross this huge transition. I wanted them to become as stable and as confident as possible. There are people who go through this and don't have the financial means, but I did. It wasn't a risk; it was the right thing to do.\nOnce you've tasted a bit of success, it's more challenging. We have to continue to be willing to take a risk so that we don't get too safe. Unwillingness to risk failure is always there, but it gets harder when you feel you have more to lose. So the better place to keep yourself in is out of your comfort zone, willing to try even at the risk of failing. And that's not natural to me at all. In fact, it's completely unnatural.\nI think we all want the same things. We all want to feel loved, and feel a part of something, but we all have self-doubt no matter where we came from.\n[on plastic surgery] It's completely false, I've never had it done. It's a way to combat your neurosis. The scalpel won't make you happy. For the moment I prefer to be a beautiful woman of my age than try desperately to look thirty.\n[to Susan Boyle ] You have nothing to lose - just keep sharing your light.\nI don't think anyone could imagine it, but with Redford, all of a sudden, I was very shy and more self-conscious. This was THE Robert Redford and he's a kind of shy and reserved guy.\nI'm honored if I can inspire somebody else.\n[on her approach to acting] It's 100 percent instinct. I haven't had years of learning in acting class. It just didn't go that way for me. Not because I ever felt I was so wonderful I didn't need it. I'm sure I could use plenty of guidance. Actually, I was too insecure to want to take that path. I always just felt that if I got in a class and somebody said, 'Boy, you're really not good, and maybe you should consider something else,' I would have had to, and I thought that if I could fake it long enough maybe I could figure it out. There's that old saying, 'Fake it until you make it,' and I think I might have been skating on that thin ice for a while in the hope nobody would find me out. I never even really had the ability to put myself in that kind of learning situation until right before I did Ghost (1990), when I worked in New York with a teacher named Harold Guskin . I enjoyed it, but being in a class would probably still be intimidating for me.\nThe press is a big machine that runs of its own will, and to fight against it would take too much of my focus and my energy. All I can really do is try to find the safest way I can to use the press for positive things - promoting what I love, the movies I make. The rest of it, even though sometimes it hurts, sometimes it's disappointing, sometimes it's unjust, I just don't want to get caught up in it. I've seen what the press does to other stars, and I know I'm no exception. Everybody has their day. Sometimes it's a good time for you in the press, sometimes it's just your turn to get hit. There seems to be no rhyme or reason, no matter what you're doing or how hard you're working. Except you do see that sometimes it comes like the tide - if it's been a really good time for you, the press starts looking for reasons to bring you down, and if you're really down it seems as if they start to jump on a bandwagon so they can be the creators and bring you back. So I just try to ride the wave.\nI do take a stand about how a scene should be played. I have a passion for my work, and that sometimes triggers creative conflicts.\nI have no obligation to be politically correct.\n[on About Last Night... (1986)] Some of the critics didn't like the happy ending. But there was no way you could have any other ending on that movie. After building up compassion for the characters, to just throw it away with an unhappy ending would have been stupid.\n[on working with Michael Caine in Flawless (2007), 2008] Fantastic. I have to say, I've certainly grown in having a greater appreciation for who he is. I realized actually, when I was 20 when I did the film ( Blame It on Rio (1984)) playing his daughter, we didn't have the resource to be able to watch his films like we have today. Young actors now can go back and find everything. For me to have really been that familiar, I would've had to go to those arthouses and really waited to get that little sliver. So now I really have a greater appreciation, which hopefully we do as we get older anyway.\n[on women in combat] If there are women, whatever that percentage might be - two percent, five percent - if they have the desire, if they have the ability to match up on an equal standard, then I think we want them there, because that just means somebody's found what they're supposed to do in their lifetime that they're good at. And if they have the passion to create that kind of commitment to be there, why shouldn't they be?\n[on 1950s anti-abortion laws depicted in her film, If These Walls Could Talk (1996)] The shame and degradation that these women faced - that is really what is criminal.\n[1985, on being dubbed a member of the \"Brat Pack\"] I hate it! I find it embarrassing, hateful and demeaning.\nI used to say that I attended 48 schools, but I think it's something over 30. I attended six high schools, and I always had at least two schools in every grade. Sometimes I made three moves in one grade. My shortest stay was two months.\n[2005] In his own way, Ashton is romantic. We were apart for awhile, and he phoned me and said he'd shaved his leg. One leg. Because then at night, he said, it's like sleeping with a woman when he rubs against himself.\nSome of my lowest points were the most exciting opportunities to push through to be a better person.\nThere's nothing wrong with having a desire to want nice things. It's when we place that as a measure of the value of ourselves that it goes askew.\n[at a briefing on Domestic Sex Trafficking in Washington D.C., 5/4/10] As long as one person is enslaved, we are all enslaved. As long as we continue to allow these young women to be criminalized, the message we're putting out is that women and girls can be bought ... It's time that we bring the dirty little secret out into the open.\nThere was a point in my career that I was being encouraged to do a film for what felt like the wrong reasons, which were for monetary reasons. But I had an overwhelming sense of intuition that it wasn't right, that it felt unsafe, that there were elements that really just were wrong. And what's interesting is, I didn't follow my intuition. I allowed myself to be persuaded. And the biggest part of why that was created is that I didn't have enough self-confidence or trust in my own information.\n[presenting Ghost (1990) at the ArcLight Hollywood, April 2013] It's something that touches people's heart, it transcends and has comforted people's soul in great loss and it has instilled a sense of hope and magic that those we love are always still with us. I'm truly grateful to have been part of this film, and I'm honored to be sharing with you tonight. I thank AFI and Target for bringing together this magical night for you to see it on the big screen.\nI'm sure there was a huge boon in pottery classes that they hadn't seen since macrame, Birkenstocks, and hairy legs were in fashion!\nSalary (13)", "From The Small Screen To The Big Screen: 21 Actors Who Got Their Big Break On TV Soaps | Radar Online\nYes, please sign me up to receive The Daily Juice Privacy Policy\nsend\nGuess Who!\nFrom The Small Screen To The Big Screen: 21 Actors Who Got Their Big Break On TV Soaps\nShare on Facebook (Opens in new window)\nShare\nThank you for subscribing!\n1 of 22\nThey may be big names now but did you know that many of Hollywood’s most successful actors got their big break in soap operas? Here is a list of a few stars who went from small screen success to big screen glory.\nG\nG\nBack in the ‘90s Meg Ryan shared the crown for America’s Sweetheart with Julia Roberts. But the “When Harry Met Sally” star actually made a name for herself from 1982 to 1984 playing Betsy Stewart in “As The World Turns.” Five years after she left, she was faking an orgasm on the big screen.\nG\nG\nBefore she was Buffy The Vampire Slayer, Sarah Michelle Gellar played Kendall Hart – the long-lost daughter of Susan Lucci’s character Erica Kane – in All My Children.\nG\nG\nMovie fans got their first proper glimpse of Brad Pitt when he played a roguish hitchhiker in the 1991 classic “Thelma & Louise.” But hardcore daytime soap fans would have spotted the actor four years earlier when he made his TV debut in two episodes of “Another World.”\nG\nG\nYes, Demi Moore was a key player in Hollywood’s Brat Pack. But before she appeared in movie hits like “St. Elmo’s Fire,” she played investigative reporter Jackie Templeton in “General Hospital” in the early 1980s.\nG\nG\nEva Longoria got her break on a couple of daytime soap operas. She made a guest appearance on “General Hospital” in 2000 before joining the cast of “The Young and The Restless” as Isabella Brana in 2001. Eva left the series in 2003 and went on to become a household name by playing Gabrielle Solis in “Desperate Housewives” a year later.\nG\nG\nRyan Philippe became a household name when he appeared in the movie Cruel Intentions with his future wife – and now ex – wife Reese Witherspoon in 1999. Ryan Philippe became a household name when he appeared in the movie Cruel Intentions with his future wife – and now ex – wife Reese Witherspoon in 1999. But in the early ‘90s the blond actor was better known to “One Life to Live” fans as Billy Douglas – the first gay teen on a daytime soap.\nG\nG\nJosh Duhamel is another Hollywood heartthrob who honed his craft in a daytime soap opera. The future “Transformers” star played lovesick Leo du Pres in “All My Children” from 1999 until his character’s death in 2002. When he returned, briefly, in 2011 to appear in a dream sequence he told Entertainment Weekly: “[I]t was just my way of saying thank you to go back and do an episode.”\nG\nG\nOnly people of a certain age will remember the now defunct soap Santa Barbara. Back in 1990 former child star Leonardo DiCaprio appeared in one episode of the once popular series.\nG\nG\nThe list of movies that Kevin Bacon has been in is astonishing. But before he was cutting a rug in Footloose or keeping fans gripped in Mystic River or his current hit series The Following, he worked on two daytime soaps. In 1979 he appeared in Search For Tomorrow, before appearing in seven Guiding Light episodes in the early ‘80s.\nG\nG\nOscar-winner Marisa Tomei appeared in two episodes of As the World Turns before she got her real big break, playing opposite Lisa Bonet in the sitcom A Different World.\nG\nG\nClearly As The World Turns was the place to be in the 1980s. The Hunger Games: Mockingjay actress Julianne Moore played two half-sisters – Frannie and Sabrina Hughes – in several episodes of the soap in 1985 and 1986.\nG\nG\nGoodfella Ray Liotta is another daytime soap veteran. He played Joey Perrini in Another World in the early 1980s.\nG\nG\nBack in the 1970s Susan Sarandon appeared in two daytime soaps, Search for Tomorrow and A World Apart.\nG\nG\nTommy Lee Jones is another Oscar winner who has soap under his belt. The No Country for Old Men actor appeared in two episodes of One Life To Live back in the 1970s.\nG\nG\nFormer Baywatch star David Hasselhoff has done it all in his career. Not only has he shared a screen with a talking car in Knight Rider, he played a doctor – William ‘Snapper’ Foster – in The Young and the Restless from 1975 to 1982 and again, briefly, in 2010.\nG\nG\nDarth Vader was in a soap opera? Really? Yes, James Earl Jones played Dr. Jim Frazier in an episode of Guiding Light back in 1966.\nG\nG\nThe Help’s Cicely Tyson briefly played Martha Frazier, the wife of James Earl Jones, in Guiding Light back in the ‘60s.\nG\nG\nThe late Larry Hagman will forever be associated in our minds with the role of J.R. Ewing in Dallas and as Anthony Nelson in I Dream of Jeannie decades before that. But in 1957 he appeared in the series Search for Tomorrow – a long forgotten soap that went off the air in 1986.\nG\nG\nIn the mid-1970s – before he donned the red cape to become Superman – Christopher Reeve played Ben Harper in the series Love of Life.\nG\nG\nKnown around the world as his most popular character Dr. Frasier Crane, Kelsey Grammer actually played a physician long before he stepped into the bar on the sitcom Cheers. In the mid-1980s he briefly played Dr. Canard in Another World.", "Death, coma or the revolving door trick: what now for Ridge?\nDeath, coma or the revolving door trick: what now for Ridge?\nRIP Ronn as Ridge\nDaytime television is a ruthless business. Just ask Days of Our Lives character Tommy Horton who, in 1980, went up to the attic to retrieve his skis and never returned.\nOr The Young and the Restless' Jill Abbott, who has been played by so many actresses across such a revolving door of actresses it's difficult to remember what she actually looks like*.\nAs the world came to grips yesterday with news that The Bold and the Beautiful will lose its boldest and most beautiful - dashing Ridge Forrester, played by actor Ronn Moss - the question must now be asked: what will be Ridge's eventual fate?\nRelated Content\nDeath? Coma? Abduction by Prince Omar, the nefarious demi-villain who once abducted the lippy, lovestruck Dr Taylor Hayes? Or worse, a bit more plastic surgery than usual and the indignity of being replaced by a new actor?\nIt appears the last of those options - the old revolving door trick - is the most likely.\nAdvertisement\nBradley Bell, the head writer of The Bold and The Beautiful told US media yesterday that Ridge Forrester will not be killed off.\n\"Ridge will not be dead or presumed dead,\" he said. \"He will just not be in the picture. Ridge is a pivotal part of the show and he will be back in a matter of time ... and probably not all that much time.\nSHARE\nLink\nMoss on the set of The Bold and the Beautiful with Katherine Kelly Lang. \nBut the soap opera revolving door is a risk. And not all re-casts are successful, particularly when you're dealing with an iconic character and an audience as loyal as The Bold and The Beautiful's.\nIn Australia, the 1970s soap Number 96 replaced Abigail with Vicki Raymond but the audience didn't buy it and the character was written out shortly after.\nThere will be a period of time without Ridge, which is where some new, interesting avenues for Brooke will come into play. But at some point it will be necessary for Ridge to return to the show\nSimilarly, audiences didn't respond to the decision by Dallas producers to replace Barbara Bel Geddes - the show's iconic matriarch, Miss Ellie - with Donna Reed. A year later Bel Geddes was back on the show.\n* in the greatest soap tradition, this statement may be overblown. In fact only three actresses have played Jill: Brenda Dickson, Deborah Adair and Jess Walton.\nWho could be the new Ridge?\nKevin Bacon\nSoap opera pedigree: played TJ Werner on Guiding Light.\nSuggested plot twist: Ridge been exploring the poncho factories of South America and playing Six Degrees of Ridge Forrester before returning to LA to take revenge.\nLeonardo DiCaprio\nSoap opera pedigree: played young Mason Capwell on Santa Barbara.\nSuggested plot twist: Ridge leaves LA on a cruise liner which sinks. After kicking Kate Winslet off a bit of wreckage, he floats back to LA to take revenge.\nTommy Lee Jones\nSoap opera pedigree: played Dr Mark Toland on One Life to Live.\nSuggested plot twist: Ridge leaves LA for a job with the Men In Black agency, protecting earth against aliens. He then returns to LA to take revenge.\nDemi Moore\nSoap opera pedigree: played Jackie Templeton in General Hospital.\nSuggested plot twist: Ridge travels to Norway for a sex change operation and jaw transplant, before returning to LA - with boobs - to take revenge.\nBrad Pitt\nSoap opera pedigree: played Chris on Another World.\nSuggested plot twist: Ridge leaves LA, marries Madonna, adopts a dozen children, changes his name to Ridge Von Trapp and returns to LA to take revenge.\nDavid Hasselhoff\nSoap opera pedigree: played Dr Snapper Foster on The Young and The Restless.\nSuggested plot twist: Ridge leaves LA and becomes a middle-aged lifeguard with a worrying paunch, before returning to LA to take revenge.", "Stars Who Got Their Start on Soap Operas | InStyle.com\nStars Who Got Their Start on Soap Operas\nStars Who Got Their Start on Soap Operas\nEverett Collection\n1. Mark Consuelos and Kelly Ripa\nPlucked from the stage of a school production of The Ugly Ducking, Kelly Ripa was advised to pursue professional acting-and it paid off. After scoring a role on the USA Network’s Dance Party USA, she got her big break on All My Children as the troubled Hayley Vaughan. “What I like about Hayley is that she’s not a quitter. She may sometimes feel like giving up, but I have this sense that she never will,” Ripa said back then. In addition to three Daytime Emmy nominations, Ripa found love on the set when her character was coupled with the sexy Mark Consuelos’ Mateo Santos. In real life, the two dated for a year before secretly eloping in Las Vegas. After 12 years on AMC, Kelly moved on to co-host Live with Regis amp Kelly and raise a family that includes kids Michael, Lola, and Joaquin.\n-Bronwyn Barnes, with reporting by Maggie Chong\nRoger Karnbad/Celebrity\n2. Brad Pitt\nThese days he's strutting the red carpet at Cannes with partner Angelina Jolie, but back in the 80's Brad Pitt had a small recurring role as Chris on Another World. “It was real sweaty-palms time for me,” Pitt has said of his first on-screen kiss at his other acting gig, the nighttime drama Dallas. Pitt supplemented bit parts with odd jobs like dressing up as a chicken for El Pollo Loco until he made a huge leap forward when he landed a part in the chick flick, Thelma amp Louise alongside Geena Davis and Susan Sarandon. Since his breakthrough, he has starred in blockbusters like Interview with the Vampire, Fight Club, and Mr. amp Mrs. Smith.\nABC Photo Archives\n3. Demi Moore\nIn 1982, 19 year-old Demi Moore landed her first big acting role on General Hospital, beating out 1,000 other actresses for the job. Her character, Jackie Templeton, had a red-hot romance with the GH hunk Luke Spencer, played by Anthony Geary. Still, Moore's future husband, Ashton Kutcher, couldn't have been too jealous of their onscreen chemistry-he was only 4 years old at the time. Moore left GH in 1983 and went on to star in Blame It on Rio and St. Elmo’s Fire, eventually landing her big break in Ghost. Her key to such a successful career? Self-discipline. “It's the key to everything,” she has said. “I believe it down to my core. If there is structure, you can do anything.”\nEverett Collection\n4. Meg Ryan\nBorn Margaret Mary Emily Hyra, Meg Ryan has been known by many names-and many looks-most notably Sally Albright (in When Harry Met Sally), Annie Reed (in Sleepless in Seattle), and Kathleen Kelly (in You’ve Got Mail). But her first notable character was Betsy Stewart Andropolous, the girl searching for love in all the wrong places on As the World Turns. Ryan’s soap role was the launching pad for her career-she went on to star in many box office hits and collect three Golden Globe nominations along the way. This month, the blonde beauty joins leading ladies Annette Bening and Eva Mendes in the flick The Women.\nABC/Everett Collection\n5. Josh Duhamel\nFormer All My Children star Josh Duhamel might engaged to girlfriend Fergie, but plenty of fans still indulge their guilty pleasures by watching him on reruns of the soap. He made girls weak in the knees when he joined the daytime drama in 1999 as Leo du Pres, winning a Daytime Emmy for Outstanding Supporting Actor in 2002. “I was totally blown away that he was able to learn the lines. He didn't even like giving speeches in class,\" Duhamel's mom has said. Duhamel later moved on to nighttime TV in NBC’s Las Vegas and has been a hit at the box office in films like Win a Date With Tad Hamilton and Transformers.\nAnn Limongello/ABC\n6. Sarah Michelle Gellar\nSarah Michelle Gellar booked her first commercial at the tender age of four. From there it was only up for the actress, who snagged a role on All My Children as Susan Lucci’s meddlesome daughter in 1993. At 18, Gellar won a Daytime Emmy for Outstanding Younger Actress, but at times her budding career was difficult. “I was on All My Children while trying to graduate from high school. Do you go to sleep-overs or to auditions?” the starlet has said of life as a child actor. “Even when she was a teenager, she seemed in her 30s,\" fellow former AMC star Kelly Ripa has said. \"I always thought, 'When I grow up, I want to be like Sarah,' and she was younger than me!” Gellar’s sophistication later landed her roles in Buffy the Vampire Slayer, I Know What You Did Last Summer, and Scooby-Doo.\nEverett Collection\n7. John Stamos\n“I started on General Hospital when I was 18, but I was still flipping burgers at my dad's restaurant. He wouldn't let me quit!\" John Stamos has said of his start in the soap biz. \"People would come in and say, ‘Aren't you on General Hospital?’ and I'd say, ‘No.’” Coming onto the scene as Blackie Parrish on GH in 1981, Stamos became so popular that he started receiving 10,000 fan letters a week. He stayed for two years before moving on to become the Uncle Jesse on the family sitcom, Full House. When that show ended, he toured with the Beach Boys, starred on Broadway and, most recently, landed in the ER as the gorgeous Dr. Gates.\nNBC/Globe\n8. Julianne Moore\nJulianne Moore got the chance to play the classic good twin, evil twin soap role when she starred as both Frannie and Sabrina Hughes on As the World Turns. Moore-formerly Julie Smith-moved to New York in 1983 and two years later landed her job playing British and American half sisters with two distinct personalities. The roles won Moore a daytime Emmy for Outstanding Ingenue in a Drama Series in 1988. “If you're going to do a soap, you always want to play twins. But then you learn that there’s nothing more boring than acting with yourself, because you know what's going to happen,” Moore has said. The Emmy Award-winning actress went on to become an Academy Award nominee for four films, including The Hours and Far From Heaven.\nCBS/Soap Opera Weekly\n9. Ricky Martin\nKnown as “Kiki” to close friends and relatives, Puerto Rican native Ricky Martin has made girls go crazy with songs like “Livin' La Vida Loca” and “Shake Your Bon Bon.” But Martin was first known as hospital orderly Miguel Morez on General Hospital. “What I love about doing a soap opera character is that you can never be sure what will happen to him next,” The Menudo alum said back then. After two years on the show, Martin left to star in Les Miserables on Broadway. The multi-talented singer then went on to release albums that have catapulted him to international fame.\nABC Photo Archives\n10. Ryan Phillippe\nAt the age of 17, Ryan Phillippe embarked on a venture that no daytime actor had ever taken on before. Starring as Billy Douglas on One Life to Live, Phillippe played the first gay teenager on a daytime soap. Reflecting on the experience, Phillippe has said “When I auditioned, I had no idea Billy was gay. They told me, and I said ‘Oh! Okay!’ but a shock went through my system. But I realized that maybe this role is where I’m supposed to be.” Phillippe has also commented on the acting skills he gained during Billy’s coming-out scene, which was “the first time ever that I didn’t have to force tears. My voice went all quivery and they flowed out of me.” From daytime drama, the actor went on to star in Cruel Intentions, Crash, and the Oscar nominated Flags of Our Fathers.", "Demi Moore Ghost, Indecent Proposal, Striptease, G.I. Jane, Bobby, LOL\nDate of Birth: November 11, 1962\nPlace of Birth: Roswell, New Mexico, USA\nHeight: 5′ 5″ (1.65 m)\nBirth Name: Demetria Gene Guynes\nDemi Guynes Kutcher, known professionally as Demi Moore, is an American actress, film producer, film director, former songwriter, and model.\nDemi Moore dropped out of high school at age 16 to pursue an acting career, and posed for a nude pictorial in Oui magazine in 1980. After making her film debut in 1981, she appeared on the soap opera General Hospital and subsequently gained attention for her roles in Blame It on Rio (1984) and St. Elmo’s Fire (1985). Her first film to become both a critical and commercial hit was About Last Night (1986), which established her as a Hollywood star.\nIn 1990, Moore starred in Ghost, the highest-grossing film of that year, which brought her a Golden Globe nomination. She had a string of additional box-office successes over the early 1990s with A Few Good Men (1992), Indecent Proposal (1993), and Disclosure (1994).\nIn 1996, Moore became the highest-paid actress in film history when she was paid a then-unprecedented fee of $12.5 million to star in Striptease. The high-profile disappointment of that film as well as her next, G.I. Jane (1997), was followed by a lengthy hiatus and significant downturn in Moore’s career, although she has remained a subject of substantial media interest during the years since.\nMoore took her professional name from her first husband, musician Freddy Moore, and is the mother of three daughters from her second marriage to actor Bruce Willis . She married her third husband, actor Ashton Kutcher , in 2005, and separated from him in November 2011.\n2. Early life\nDemi Moore was born in Roswell, New Mexico. Prior to Moore’s birth, her biological father, Air Force man Charles Harmon, Sr. left her mother, Virginia King, after a two-month marriage. When Moore was three months old, her mother married Dan Guynes, a newspaper advertising salesman, he did not add much stability to her life, either. He frequently changed jobs and made the family move a total of 40 times; as a result, the family moved many times. As a curious note, her ancestry includes English and Scottish. She was named Demetria after a shampoo that her mother saw in a magazine. Virginia was age 18 when she had her.\nMoore said in 1991, “My dad was Dan Guynes. He raised me. There is a man who would be considered my biological father who I don’t really have a relationship with.” Moore learned of him at age 13, when she found her mother and stepfather’s marriage certificate and inquired about the circumstances since “I saw my parents were married in February 1963. I was born in ’62.” The parents kept on drinking, arguing and beating. Dan Guynes committed suicide in October 1980 at age 37, two years after divorcing Moore’s mother. Moore’s biological father appeared on Inside Edition in 1995, making an appeal to see his grandchildren.\nVirginia Guynes had a long record of arrests for crimes, including drunk driving and arson. Moore broke off contact with her in 1990, when Guynes walked away from a rehab stay Moore had paid for at the Hazelden Foundation in Minnesota. Guynes later embarrassed her daughter by posing nude for the low-end magazine High Society in 1993, where she spoofed Moore’s controversial Vanity Fair pregnancy and bodypaint covers, and parodied her love scene from the film Ghost. Moore and Guynes briefly reconciled shortly before Virginia died from cancer in 1998 at the age of 54.\nMoore has a maternal half-brother, Morgan Guynes, who in 1988 was a U.S. Marine stationed in North Carolina, and gave her away at her wedding the previous year; two paternal half-brothers, Charles Harmon Jr. and James Craig Harmon who in 2006 was sentenced to 10 years in jail for aggravated assault; and a paternal half-sister, Charlotte Harmon Eggar, who in 2012 said she had not seen Moore in 30 years.\nMoore was cross-eyed as a child; this was ultimately corrected by two surgeries. She also suffered from kidney dysfunction. At age 15, Moore moved to West Hollywood, California, where her mother worked for a magazine-distribution company. Moore attended Fairfax High School there, and recalled, “I moved out of my family’s house when I was 16 and left high school in my junior year.” Demi quit school at age 16 to work as a pin-up-girl. She worked at a debt collection agency and had a stint as a pin-up girl in Europe upon signing with the Elite Modeling Agency, then enrolled in drama classes after being inspired by her neighbor, 17-year-old German actress Nastassja Kinski.\nAt 19, she became a regular on the soap opera General Hospital. From the first salaries, she started partying and sniffing cocaine. That lasted more than three years, until director Joel Schumacher threatened to fire her from the set of St. Elmo’s Fire when she turned up high. She got a withdrawal treatment and returned clean within a week; and stayed clean. With determination and a skill for publicity stunts, like the nude appearance on the cover of Vanity Fair while pregnant, she made her way to fame. Thanks to the huge commercial success of Ghost and the controversial pictures Indecent Proposal and Disclosure, she’s Hollywood’s most sought-after and most expensive actress.\n3. Personal life\nIn August 1979, three months before her 17th birthday, Moore met rock musician Freddy Moore at the Los Angeles nightclub The Troubadour. Freddy Moore was married to another woman at that time.\nOn February 8, 1980, at 18, she married Freddy Moore, 12 years her senior, and moved into an apartment in West Hollywood; the marriage lasted four years. Before their marriage, Demi had already begun using Freddy’s surname as her stage name. She filed for divorce in September 1984; it was finalized on August 7, 1985.\nFollowing her divorce from Freddy Moore, Moore was engaged to actor Emilio Estevez. The pair had planned to marry in December 1986, but called off the engagement.\nOn November 21, 1987, Moore married her second husband, actor Bruce Willis at the Golden Nugget Hotel in Las Vegas. She stated on her marriage license that this was her first marriage, explaining in an interview the following year, “I did it only because I thought it was going to take longer if I put that [first marriage] on there.”\nDemi Moore and Bruce Willis have three daughters together: Rumer (born August 16, 1988), Scout (born July 20, 1991), and Tallulah (born February 3, 1994). The couple separated on June 24, 1998, but did not file for divorce until October 18, 2000. Their divorce was finalized one day after the filing.\nOn January 28, 1998, Moore and Willis sued their former nanny, Kim Tannahill, in a U.S. district court in Blaine County, Idaho, claiming she billed them for personal expenses, reneged on some $8,000 worth of loans and spoke about their private lives in violation of a confidentiality agreement. The couple sought at least $300,000 in damages. On February 2, 1998, Tannahill filed a countersuit in a Los Angeles Superior Court. In that lawsuit, Tannahill claimed that she was subjected to “intimidation, threats and force,” and accused Moore of locking her in a bedroom for a two-hour “verbal beating” upon firing her in August 1997, quoting Moore as saying “It’s scary what I could do to you.” Tannahill’s lawsuit was thrown out by a federal judge in April 1998, while the suit filed by Moore and Willis was settled out of court.\nMoore had a longstanding relationship with martial arts instructor Oliver Whitcomb, whom she dated from 1999 to 2002.\nIn May 2003, Moore was sued by the former manager of her Idaho ranch, Lawrence Bass, for sexual harassment and discrimination. Bass sought more than $250,000 in damages, claiming in his lawsuit that Moore approached him in the same manner as did her character with Michael Douglas in the 1994 film Disclosure, then fired him, months later, after he had turned down her advances. Bass, who also filed complaints with the federal Equal Employment Opportunity Commission and Idaho’s Human Rights Commission, had been the subject of seven restraining orders, was arrested in 1998 for domestic abuse, and was wanted for failing to answer a five-count criminal harassment complaint against him. Idaho state investigators ruled there was “no probable cause” to support his allegations against Moore. The case was dismissed in February 2004. Moore filed a countersuit against Bass, who served a 10-day jail sentence for civil contempt.\nAlso in 2003, Moore began dating actor Ashton Kutcher , who is 15 years her junior. They married on September 24, 2005. The wedding was attended by about 150 close friends and family of the couple, including her ex-husband Bruce Willis , their three daughters, Ashton’s best friend and co-star from That ’70s Show, Wilmer Valderrama , and Demi’s close friend Lucy Liu. In November 2011, after months of media speculation about the state of the couple’s marriage, Moore announced her decision to end her marriage to Kutcher. After over a year of separation, Kutcher filed for divorce from Moore on December 21, 2012 in Los Angeles Superior Court, citing irreconcilable differences. Moore filed her response papers in March 2013, requesting spousal support and payment of legal fees from Kutcher.\nIn 2009, Demi Moore and spouse Ashton Kutcher launched The Demi and Ashton Foundation, a non-profit, non-governmental organization directed towards fighting child sexual slavery. Its first campaign in “Real Men Don’t Buy Girls”. On April 23, 2011, Demi and Ashton appeared together for their first on-air interview on CNN’s “Piers Morgan Tonight” to promote their foundation and start the work towards ending child sexual slavery. The foundation’s website enables people to educate themselves, show support and take action or make a donation. They first got involved in the issue in 2008 and that a great deal of the early work just involved starting discussions, raising awareness and creating urgency. In November 2012, the foundation said it was announcing “a new name and refined mission” as Thorn, which aimed “to disrupt and deflate the predatory behavior of those who abuse and traffic children, solicit sex with children or create and share child pornography”.\nDemi Moore owns a production company: “Moving Pictures”. As a curious note, her professional first name “Demi” (short for her birth name Demetria) is pronounced “deh-ME”, not “DEM-ee”, with emphasis on the second syllable just as in “Demetria”.\nShe is a follower of Philip Berg’s Kabbalah Centre religion, and initiated Kutcher into the faith, having said that she “didn’t grow up Jewish, but … would say that [she has] been more exposed to the deeper meanings of particular rituals than any of [her] friends that did.” According to The New York Times, Moore is “the world’s most high-profile doll collector,” and among her favorites is the Gene Marshall fashion doll. At one point, Moore kept a separate residence to house her 2,000 dolls. While she landed on PETA’s Worst-Dressed List in 2009 for wearing fur, two years later she supported the group’s efforts to ban circus workers’ use of bullhooks on elephants.\n4. Career\nDemi Moore co-wrote three songs with Freddy Moore and appeared in the music video for their “It’s Not a Rumor,” performed by his band The Nu Kats. She continues to receive royalty checks from her brief songwriting career (1980-1981). Moore appeared on the cover of the January 1981 issue of the adult magazine Oui, in which she posed for a series of photographs containing full frontal nudity. In a 1988 interview, Moore claimed she only posed for the cover of Oui—I was 16; I told them I was 18 and that the photos inside the issue were for a European fashion magazine. In 1990, she told another interviewer, I was 17 years old. I was underage. It was just the cover.\nMoore made her film debut with a supporting role in the low-budget teen drama Choices in year 1981, directed by Silvio Narizzano. Her second feature was the 1982, 3-D science fiction/horror film Parasite, for which director Charles Band had instructed casting director Johanna Ray to find me the next Karen Allen. Moore gained greater exposure when she joined the cast of the ABC soap opera General Hospital, playing the role of Jackie Templeton from 1982 to 1983. During her tenure on the series, she made an uncredited cameo appearance in the 1982 spoof Young Doctors in Love.\nDemi Moore was one of three finalists for the lead in Flashdance in 1983. No one could decide between the three, so a group of about 50 men was brought into a room, shown the three audition tapes and asked who they would want to sleep with the most. Jennifer Beals won by a landslide.\nMoore’s film career took off in 1984 following her appearance in the sex comedy Blame It on Rio. That same year, she played the lead role in No Small Affair. Her commercial breakthrough came in Joel Schumacher’s yuppie drama St. Elmo’s Fire in 1985, which received negative reviews but was a box office success. Because of that film, Moore was often listed as part of the Brat Pack, a label she shunned at the time. She progressed to more serious material with About Last Night… at year 1986, which marked a positive turning point in her career, as she later noted that she started to see better scripts following its release. Film critic Roger Ebert gave the film 4 out of 4 stars and praised her performance, writing, “There isn’t a romantic note she isn’t required to play in this movie, and she plays them all flawlessly.” The success of About Last Night… was not rivaled by Moore’s other two 1986 releases: One Crazy Summer and Wisdom, the last youth-oriented films she would star in.\nMoore made her professional stage debut in an Off-Broadway production of The Early Girl, which ran at the Circle Repertory Company in fall 1986. In 1988, Moore starred as a prophecy-bearing mother in the apocalyptic drama The Seventh Sign –her first outing as a solo film star. The following year, she played the quick-witted local laundress and prostitute in Neil Jordan’s Depression-era allegory We’re No Angels, opposite Robert De Niro.\nWas dubbed as of the nine original members of the 1980s “brat pack“, along with Judd Nelson, Mare Winningham, Anthony Michael Hall, Andrew McCarthy, Rob Lowe, Molly Ringwald, Emilio Estevez and Ally Sheedy. However, in a 1986 interview, Moore refused the acknowledgment by stating “I don’t belong in any ‘Brat Pack'”.\nHer most successful film was the supernatural romantic melodrama Ghost, with Patrick Swayze and Whoopi Goldberg, a sleeper hit that grossed $505 million at the box office and was the highest-grossing film of 1990. The love scene between Moore and Patrick Swayze that starts in front of a potter’s wheel as the song “Unchained Melody” plays has become an iconic moment in film history. Ghost was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture, and Moore’s performance as Molly Jensen garnered her a Golden Globe Award nomination as Best Actress.\nIn 1991, Demi Moore co-produced and starred in the mystery thriller Mortal Thoughts with Glenne Headly and Bruce Willis , and appeared as a blonde for the first time in the romantic comedy The Butcher’s Wife, with Jeff Daniels. Both films were box-office disappointments, but Moore sustained her A-list status with her starring roles in Rob Reiner’s A Few Good Men with Tom Cruise and Jack Nicholson in 1992; Adrian Lyne’s Indecent Proposal alongside Robert Redford and Woody Harrelson in 1993; and Barry Levinson’s Disclosure with Michael Douglas, Donald Sutherland and Caroline Goodall in 1994; all of which opened at #1 at the box office and were blockbuster hits.\nShe posed nude while seven months pregnant with daughter Scout LaRue Willis for a 1991 Vanity Fair magazine cover. In August 1992, she again posed nude for Vanity Fair, this time wearing body paint that resembled a man’s suit.\nStripped on Late Show with David Letterman on year 1993, allegedly to disprove rumors that she’s too fat for her new movie Striptease. Later, in 1996, Demi Moore was chosen by People magazine as one of the 50 most beautiful people in the world.\nBy 1995, Moore was the highest-paid actress in Hollywood. She subsequently had a string of unsuccessful films starting The Scarlet Letter, with Gary Oldman and Robert Duvall, a “freely adapted” version of the historical romance novel by Nathaniel Hawthorne, in which her portrayal of Hester Prynne was met with harsh criticism.\nDespite the poor reception of that film and her follow-up release, The Juror, Moore was paid a record-breaking salary of $12.5 million in 1996 to star in Striptease, with Burt Reynolds. Much hype was made about Moore’s willingness to dance topless for the part, though this was the sixth time she had shown her breasts on film. Although the film was actually a financial success—grossing over $113 million worldwide —it failed to reach expectations and was widely considered a flop.\nMeanwhile, she also produced and starred in a controversial miniseries for HBO called If These Walls Could Talk, a three-part anthology about abortion. Its screenwriter, Nancy Savoca, directed two segments, including one in which Moore played a widowed nurse in the early 1950s seeking a back-alley abortion, the segment name is 1952, with her acted: Shirley Knight and Catherine Keener. For that role, Moore received a second Golden Globe nomination as Best Actress.\nAlso in 1995 was replaced by Sandra Bullock for the lead in While You Were Sleeping. Demi Moore was 20th Century Fox’s choice to play Katharine Clifton in The English Patient at 1996. However, the film’s producers refused to give in on the studio’s decision to cast Moore, and as a result Fox backed out of the film. Eventually, the film was picked up by Miramax and the role was given to Kristin Scott Thomas, who went on to receive a Best Actress Oscar nomination for her performance, was cast instead.\nDemi Moore famously shaved her head in order to play a Navy SEALS recruit in Ridley Scott’s G.I. Jane, alongside Viggo Mortensen and Anne Bancroft in 1997. The film was a moderate box office success, but its domestic gross was only slightly more than it cost to make. During the film’s production, it was reported that Moore had ordered studio chiefs to charter two planes for her and her entourage, which reinforced her negative reputation for being a diva.\nAfter G.I. Jane, Moore took a low-profile role in Woody Allen’s Deconstructing Harry, with Judy Davis and Julia Louis-Dreyfus, among other actors. Then left the Hollywood spotlight and moved to Hailey, Idaho on a full-time basis to devote herself to raising her three daughters. She was offscreen for three years before re-emerging in the arthouse drama Passion of Mind in 2000, the first English-language film from Belgian director Alain Berliner. Her performance was critically acclaimed, but the film itself received mixed reviews and was deemed naggingly slow by some critics. Moore then resumed her self-imposed career hiatus and continued to turn down film offers.\nAnother three years passed before Demi Moore acted again. She returned to the screen as the villain of the 2003 film Charlie’s Angels: Full Throttle, with Drew Barrymore, Lucy Liu, Cameron Diaz and Bernie Mac, but that was followed by yet another three-year absence. In the interim, Moore signed on as the face of the Versace fashion brand and then the Helena Rubinstein brand of cosmetics. In 2006, she appeared in Bobby which featured an all-star cast, including Harry Belafonte, Nick Cannon, Joy Bryant, Laurence Fishburne, Heather Graham, Anthony Hopkins, Helen Hunt, Joshua Jackson, Lindsay Lohan, Shia LaBeouf, and her husband Ashton Kutcher , although they did not appear in any scenes together.\nMoore reunited with Blame It on Rio co-star Michael Caine for the British crime drama Flawless, which came out in a limited release in 2008 with generally positive reviews. As of 2012, her last appearance in a widely released film was in 2007’s Mr. Brooks with Kevin Costner. Since then, she has acted in several independent films, including the 2011 corporate drama Margin Call, with Kevin Spacey, Paul Bettany and Jeremy Irons, in this movie she had a small role. She also auditioned for the role of Luisa Contini in Nine (2009), but Marion Cotillard was cast in the part instead.\nDemi Moore had been cast to play feminist activist Gloria Steinem in the Linda Lovelace biographical film Lovelace, but within a month of being announced for the role, she dropped out of the production in the wake of a January 23, 2012 hospitalization and what her representative called professional assistance to treat her exhaustion and improve her overall health. Sarah Jessica Parker took over the role.\nAlso in 2012, she had part on the movie LOL, directed by Lisa Azuelos, she share screen with Jean-Luc Bilodeau, Douglas Booth and Miley Cyrus. In 2013 she was part of film Very Good Girls, alongside Elizabeth Olsen and Dakota Fanning. It was announced for 2014, Demi was part of Forsaken with Kiefer Sutherland.\n5. Filmography" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "London.txt", "England.txt" ], "title": [ "London", "England" ], "wiki_context": [ "London is the capital and most populous city of England, Great Britain, and the United Kingdom. On the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain, London has been a major settlement for two millennia. It was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. London's ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its medieval boundaries. Since at least the 19th century, \"London\" has also referred to the metropolis around this core, which now forms the county of Greater London See also: Independent city § National capitals. governed by the Mayor of London and the London Assembly, The London Mayor is not to be confused with the Lord Mayor of London who heads the City of London Corporation, which administers the City of London. historically split between Middlesex, Essex, Surrey, Kent, and Hertfordshire. \n\nLondon is a leading global city, in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism, and transport. It is one of the world's leading financial centres and has the fifth-or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world.Rankings of cities by metropolitan area GDP can vary as a result of differences in the definition of the boundaries and population sizes of the areas compared, exchange rate fluctuations and the method used to calculate output. London and Paris are of broadly similar size in terms of total economic output which can result in third party sources varying as to which is defined as having the fifth- and sixth-largest city GDP in the world. A report by the McKinsey Global Institute published in 2012 estimated that London had a city GDP of US$751.8 billion in 2010, compared to US$764.2 billion for Paris, making them respectively the sixth- and fifth-largest in the world. A report by PricewaterhouseCoopers published in November 2009 estimated that London had a city GDP measured in purchasing power parity of US$565 billion in 2008, compared to US$564 billion for Paris, making them respectively the fifth- and sixth-largest in the world. The McKinsey Global Institute study used a metropolitan area with a population of 14.9 million for London compared to 11.8 million for Paris, whilst the PricewaterhouseCoopers study used a metropolitan area with a population of 8.59 million for London compared to 9.92 million for Paris. London is a world cultural capital. It is the world's most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the world's largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic. London is one of the world's leading investment destinations, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. London's universities form the largest concentration of higher education institutes in Europe, and a 2014 report placed it first in the world university rankings. According to the report London also ranks first in the world in software, multimedia development and design, and shares first position in technology readiness. In 2012, London became the first city to host the modern Summer Olympic Games three times.\n\nLondon has a diverse range of peoples and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken within Greater London. Its estimated mid-2015 population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, and accounting for 12.5 per cent of the UK population. London's urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The city's metropolitan area is one of the most populous in Europe with 13,879,757 inhabitants, while the Greater London Authority states the population of the city-region (covering a large part of the south east) as 22.7 million.\nLondon was the world's most populous city from around 1831 to 1925.\n\nLondon contains four World Heritage Sites: the Tower of London; Kew Gardens; the site comprising the Palace of Westminster, Westminster Abbey, and St Margaret's Church; and the historic settlement of Greenwich (in which the Royal Observatory, Greenwich marks the Prime Meridian, 0° longitude, and GMT). Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Paul's Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. London is home to numerous museums, galleries, libraries, sporting events and other cultural institutions, including the British Museum, National Gallery, Natural History Museum, Tate Modern, British Library and West End theatres. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world. \n\nHistory\n\nToponymy\n\nThe etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century. It is recorded 121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city from AD65/70-80 include the word Londinio (\"in London\"). The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae. This had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud.\n\nFrom 1898, it was commonly accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos; this explanation has since been rejected. Richard Coates put forward an explanation in 1998 that it is derived from the pre-Celtic Old European *(p)lowonida, meaning 'river too wide to ford', and suggested that this was a name given to the part of the River Thames which flows through London; from this, the settlement gained the Celtic form of its name, *Lowonidonjon; this requires quite a serious amendment however. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *(h)lōndinion (as opposed to *londīnion), from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name.\n\nUntil 1889, the name \"London\" officially applied only to the City of London, but since then it has also referred to the County of London and now Greater London.\n\nPrehistory\n\nTwo recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area. In 1999, the remains of a Bronze Age bridge were found on the foreshore north of Vauxhall Bridge. This bridge either crossed the Thames, or went to a now lost island in the river. Dendrology dated the timbers to 1500 BC. In 2010 the foundations of a large timber structure, dated to 4500 BC, were found on the Thames foreshore, south of Vauxhall Bridge. The function of the mesolithic structure is not known. Both structures are on South Bank, at a natural crossing point where the River Effra flows into the River Thames.\n\nRoman London\n\nAlthough there is evidence of scattered Brythonic settlements in the area, the first major settlement was founded by the Romans after the invasion of 43 AD. This lasted only until around 61, when the Iceni tribe led by Queen Boudica stormed it, burning it to the ground. The next, heavily planned, incarnation of Londinium prospered, and it superseded Colchester as the capital of the Roman province of Britannia in 100. At its height in the 2nd century, Roman London had a population of around 60,000.\n\nAnglo-Saxon London (and Viking period)\n\nWith the collapse of Roman rule in the early 5th century, London ceased to be a capital and the walled city of Londinium was effectively abandoned, although Roman civilisation continued in the St Martin-in-the-Fields area until around 450. From around 500, an Anglo-Saxon settlement known as Lundenwic developed in the same area, slightly to the west of the old Roman city. By about 680, it had revived sufficiently to become a major port, although there is little evidence of large-scale production of goods. From the 820s the town declined because of repeated Viking invasions. There are three recorded Viking assaults on London; two of which were successful in 851 and 886 AD, although they were defeated during the attack of 994 AD. \n\nThe Vikings established Danelaw over much of the eastern and northern part of England with its boundary roughly stretching from London to Chester. It was an area of political and geographical control imposed by the Viking incursions which was formally agreed to by the Danish warlord, Guthrum and west-Saxon king, Alfred the Great in 886 AD. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle recorded that London was \"refounded\" by Alfred the Great in 886. Archaeological research shows that this involved abandonment of Lundenwic and a revival of life and trade within the old Roman walls. London then grew slowly until about 950, after which activity increased dramatically. \n\nBy the 11th century, London was beyond all comparison the largest town in England. Westminster Abbey, rebuilt in the Romanesque style by King Edward the Confessor, was one of the grandest churches in Europe. Winchester had previously been the capital of Anglo-Saxon England, but from this time on, London became the main forum for foreign traders and the base for defence in time of war. In the view of Frank Stenton: \"It had the resources, and it was rapidly developing the dignity and the political self-consciousness appropriate to a national capital.\" \n\nMiddle Ages\n\nFollowing his victory in the Battle of Hastings, William, Duke of Normandy, was crowned King of England in the newly finished Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066. William constructed the Tower of London, the first of the many Norman castles in England to be rebuilt in stone, in the southeastern corner of the city, to intimidate the native inhabitants. In 1097, William II began the building of Westminster Hall, close by the abbey of the same name. The hall became the basis of a new Palace of Westminster.\n\nIn the 12th century, the institutions of central government, which had hitherto accompanied the royal English court as it moved around the country, grew in size and sophistication and became increasingly fixed in one place. In most cases this was Westminster, although the royal treasury, having been moved from Winchester, came to rest in the Tower. While the City of Westminster developed into a true capital in governmental terms, its distinct neighbour, the City of London, remained England's largest city and principal commercial centre, and it flourished under its own unique administration, the Corporation of London. In 1100, its population was around 18,000; by 1300 it had grown to nearly 100,000. Disaster struck during the Black Death in the mid-14th century, when London lost nearly a third of its population. London was the focus of the Peasants' Revolt in 1381.\n\nEarly modern\n\nDuring the Tudor period the Reformation produced a gradual shift to Protestantism, much of London passing from church to private ownership.Pevsner, Nikolaus. London I: The Cities of London and Westminster rev. edition, 1962. Introduction p. 48. The traffic in woollen cloths shipped undyed and undressed from London to the nearby shores of the Low Countries, where it was considered indispensable. But the tentacles of English maritime enterprise hardly extended beyond the seas of north-west Europe. The commercial route to Italy and the Mediterranean Sea normally lay through Antwerp and over the Alps; any ships passing through the Strait of Gibraltar to or from England were likely to be Italian or Ragusan. Upon the re-opening of the Netherlands to English shipping in January 1565, there ensued a strong outburst of commercial activity. The Royal Exchange was founded. Mercantilism grew, and monopoly trading companies such as the East India Company were established, with trade expanding to the New World. London became the principal North Sea port, with migrants arriving from England and abroad. The population rose from an estimated 50,000 in 1530 to about 225,000 in 1605.\n\nIn the 16th century William Shakespeare and his contemporaries lived in London at a time of hostility to the development of the theatre. By the end of the Tudor period in 1603, London was still very compact. There was an assassination attempt on James I in Westminster, through the Gunpowder Plot on 5 November 1605.\n\nDuring the English Civil War the majority of Londoners supported the Parliamentary cause. After an initial advance by the Royalists in 1642 culminating in the battles of Brentford and Turnham Green, London was surrounded by defensive perimeter wall known as the Lines of Communication. The lines were built by an up to 20,000 people, and were completed in under two months. \nThe fortifications failed their only test when the New Model Army entered London in 1647, and they were levelled by Parliament the same year. \n\nLondon was plagued by disease in the early 17th century, culminating in the Great Plague of 1665–1666, which killed up to 100,000 people, or a fifth of the population.\n\nThe Great Fire of London broke out in 1666 in Pudding Lane in the city and quickly swept through the wooden buildings. Rebuilding took over ten years and was supervised by Robert Hooke as Surveyor of London.The curious life of Robert Hooke, the man who measured London by Lisa Jardine In 1708 Christopher Wren's masterpiece, St Paul's Cathedral was completed. During the Georgian era, new districts such as Mayfair were formed in the west; new bridges over the Thames encouraged development in South London. In the east, the Port of London expanded downstream.\n\nIn 1762, George III acquired Buckingham House and it was enlarged over the next 75 years. During the 18th century, London was dogged by crime, and the Bow Street Runners were established in 1750 as a professional police force. In total, more than 200 offences were punishable by death, including petty theft. Most children born in the city died before reaching their third birthday. The coffeehouse became a popular place to debate ideas, with growing literacy and the development of the printing press making news widely available; and Fleet Street became the centre of the British press.\n\nAccording to Samuel Johnson:\n\nLate modern and contemporary\n\nLondon was the world's largest city from about 1831 to 1925. London's overcrowded conditions led to cholera epidemics, claiming 14,000 lives in 1848, and 6,000 in 1866. Rising traffic congestion led to the creation of the world's first local urban rail network. The Metropolitan Board of Works oversaw infrastructure expansion in the capital and some of the surrounding counties; it was abolished in 1889 when the London County Council was created out of those areas of the counties surrounding the capital. London was bombed by the Germans during the First World War, and during the Second World War, the Blitz and other bombings by the German Luftwaffe killed over 30,000 Londoners, destroying large tracts of housing and other buildings across the city. Immediately after the war, the 1948 Summer Olympics were held at the original Wembley Stadium, at a time when London had barely recovered from the war.\n\nIn 1951, the Festival of Britain was held on the South Bank. The Great Smog of 1952 led to the Clean Air Act 1956, which ended the \"pea soup fogs\" for which London had been notorious. From the 1940s onwards, London became home to a large number of immigrants, largely from Commonwealth countries such as Jamaica, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan, making London one of the most diverse cities in Europe.\n\nPrimarily starting in the mid-1960s, London became a centre for the worldwide youth culture, exemplified by the Swinging London subculture associated with the King's Road, Chelsea and Carnaby Street. The role of trendsetter was revived during the punk era. In 1965 London's political boundaries were expanded to take into account the growth of the urban area and a new Greater London Council was created. During The Troubles in Northern Ireland, London was subjected to bombing attacks by the Provisional IRA. Racial inequality was highlighted by the 1981 Brixton riot.\n\nGreater London's population declined steadily in the decades after the Second World War, from an estimated peak of 8.6 million in 1939 to around 6.8 million in the 1980s. The principal ports for London moved downstream to Felixstowe and Tilbury, with the London Docklands area becoming a focus for regeneration, including the Canary Wharf development. This was borne out of London's ever-increasing role as a major international financial centre during the 1980s. The Thames Barrier was completed in the 1980s to protect London against tidal surges from the North Sea.\n\nThe Greater London Council was abolished in 1986, which left London as the only large metropolis in the world without a central administration. In 2000, London-wide government was restored, with the creation of the Greater London Authority. To celebrate the start of the 21st century, the Millennium Dome, London Eye and Millennium Bridge were constructed. On 6 July 2005 London was awarded the 2012 Summer Olympics, making London the first city to stage the Olympic Games three times. On 7 July 2005, three London Underground trains and a double-decker bus were bombed in a series of terrorist attacks. In January 2015, Greater London's population was estimated to be 8.63 million, the highest level since 1939.\n\nDuring the Brexit referendum in 2016, UK as a whole decided to leave the European Union, but London voted to remain in the EU. This led to over a hundred thousands of Londoners petitioning Mayor Sadiq Khan to declare London's independence from the UK and rejoin the EU. Supporters cite London's status as a \"world city\" and its demographic and economic differences from the rest of the United Kingdom, and argue that it should become a city-state based on the model of Singapore, while remaining an EU member state. \n\nGovernment\n\nLocal government\n\nThe administration of London is formed of two tiers—a city-wide, strategic tier and a local tier. City-wide administration is coordinated by the Greater London Authority (GLA), while local administration is carried out by 33 smaller authorities. The GLA consists of two elected components; the Mayor of London, who has executive powers, and the London Assembly, which scrutinises the mayor's decisions and can accept or reject the mayor's budget proposals each year.\nThe headquarters of the GLA is City Hall, Southwark; the mayor is Sadiq Khan. The mayor's statutory planning strategy is published as the London Plan, which was most recently revised in 2011. The local authorities are the councils of the 32 London boroughs and the City of London Corporation. They are responsible for most local services, such as local planning, schools, social services, local roads and refuse collection. Certain functions, such as waste management, are provided through joint arrangements. In 2009–2010 the combined revenue expenditure by London councils and the GLA amounted to just over £22 billion (£14.7 billion for the boroughs and £7.4 billion for the GLA). \n\nThe London Fire Brigade is the statutory fire and rescue service for Greater London. It is run by the London Fire and Emergency Planning Authority and is the third largest fire service in the world. National Health Service ambulance services are provided by the London Ambulance Service (LAS) NHS Trust, the largest free-at-the-point-of-use emergency ambulance service in the world. The London Air Ambulance charity operates in conjunction with the LAS where required. Her Majesty's Coastguard and the Royal National Lifeboat Institution operate on the River Thames, which is under the jurisdiction of the Port of London Authority from Teddington Lock to the sea. \n\nNational government\n\nLondon is the seat of the Government of the United Kingdom. Many government departments are based close to the Palace of Westminster, particularly along Whitehall, including the Prime Minister's residence at 10 Downing Street. The British Parliament is often referred to as the \"Mother of Parliaments\" (although this sobriquet was first applied to England itself by John Bright) because it has been the model for most other parliamentary systems. There are 73 Members of Parliament (MPs) from London, who correspond to local parliamentary constituencies in the national Parliament. As of May 2015, 45 are from the Labour Party, 27 are Conservatives, and one is a Liberal Democrat. \n\nPolicing and crime\n\nPolicing in Greater London, with the exception of the City of London, is provided by the Metropolitan Police Service, overseen by the Mayor through the Mayor's Office for Policing and Crime (MOPAC). The City of London has its own police force – the City of London Police. The British Transport Police are responsible for police services on National Rail, London Underground, Docklands Light Railway and Tramlink services. \nA fourth police force in London, the Ministry of Defence Police, do not generally become involved with policing the general public.\n\nCrime rates vary widely by area, ranging from parts with serious issues to parts considered very safe. Today crime figures are made available nationally at Local Authority and Ward level. In 2015 there were 118 homicides, a 25.5% increase over 2014. The Metropolitan Police have made detailed crime figures, broken down by category at borough and ward level, available on their website since 2000. \n\nGeography\n\nScope\n\nLondon, also referred to as Greater London, is one of 9 regions of England and the top-level subdivision covering most of the city's metropolis.London is not a city in the sense that the word applies in the United Kingdom, that of having city status granted by the Crown. The small ancient City of London at its core once comprised the whole settlement, but as its urban area grew, the Corporation of London resisted attempts to amalgamate the city with its suburbs, causing \"London\" to be defined in a number ways for different purposes. \n\nForty per cent of Greater London is covered by the London post town, within which 'LONDON' forms part of postal addresses. The London telephone area code (020) covers a larger area, similar in size to Greater London, although some outer districts are omitted and some places just outside are included. The Greater London boundary has been aligned to the M25 motorway in places.\n\nOutward urban expansion is now prevented by the Metropolitan Green Belt, although the built-up area extends beyond the boundary in places, resulting in a separately defined Greater London Urban Area. Beyond this is the vast London commuter belt. Greater London is split for some purposes into Inner London and Outer London. The city is split by the River Thames into North and South, with an informal central London area in its interior. The coordinates of the nominal centre of London, traditionally considered to be the original Eleanor Cross at Charing Cross near the junction of Trafalgar Square and Whitehall, are approximately . However the actual Geographical centre of London is in the London Borough of Lambeth, just 0.1 miles to the northeast of Lambeth North tube station. \n\nStatus\n\nWithin London, both the City of London and the City of Westminster have city status and both the City of London and the remainder of Greater London are counties for the purposes of lieutenancies. The area of Greater London has incorporated areas that were once part of the historic counties of Middlesex, Kent, Surrey, Essex and Hertfordshire. London's status as the capital of England, and later the United Kingdom, has never been granted or confirmed officially—by statute or in written form.\n\nIts position was formed through constitutional convention, making its status as de facto capital a part of the UK's unwritten constitution. The capital of England was moved to London from Winchester as the Palace of Westminster developed in the 12th and 13th centuries to become the permanent location of the royal court, and thus the political capital of the nation. More recently, Greater London has been defined as a region of England and in this context is known as London.\n\nTopography\n\nGreater London encompasses a total area of 1583 km2, an area which had a population of 7,172,036 in 2001 and a population density of 4542 PD/km2. The extended area known as the London Metropolitan Region or the London Metropolitan Agglomeration, comprises a total area of 8382 km2 has a population of 13,709,000 and a population density of 1510 PD/km2. Modern London stands on the Thames, its primary geographical feature, a navigable river which crosses the city from the south-west to the east. The Thames Valley is a floodplain surrounded by gently rolling hills including Parliament Hill, Addington Hills, and Primrose Hill. The Thames was once a much broader, shallower river with extensive marshlands; at high tide, its shores reached five times their present width.\n\nSince the Victorian era the Thames has been extensively embanked, and many of its London tributaries now flow underground. The Thames is a tidal river, and London is vulnerable to flooding. The threat has increased over time because of a slow but continuous rise in high water level by the slow 'tilting' of Britain (up in the north and down in the south) caused by post-glacial rebound.\n\nIn 1974, a decade of work began on the construction of the Thames Barrier across the Thames at Woolwich to deal with this threat. While the barrier is expected to function as designed until roughly 2070, concepts for its future enlargement or redesign are already being discussed. \n\nClimate\n\nLondon has a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb ), similar to all of southern Britain. Despite its reputation as being a rainy city, London receives less precipitation (601 mm in a year), than Rome, Bordeaux, Toulouse, Naples, Sydney and New York, however, there are many more days with light rain. Temperature extremes for all sites in the London area range from at Kew during August 2003 down to at Northolt during January 1962. \n\nWinters are generally cool and damp with little temperature variation and frequent overcast skies. Daytime highs range from 8 °C, while overnight lows are near . Snowfall occurs occasionally and can cause travel disruption when this happens. Snowfall is more common in Outer London. Spring and autumn are mixed seasons and can be both cool and overcast and pleasantly mild. As a large city, London has a considerable urban heat island effect, making the centre of London at times 5 C-change warmer than the suburbs and outskirts. The effect of this can be seen below when comparing London Heathrow, 15 miles west of London, with the London Weather Centre, in the city centre. \n\nSummers are generally cool but can be warm on occasion. London's average July high is 24 °C. On average London will see 31 days above 25 °C each year, and 4.2 days above every year. Skies are much less overcast in summer in London than during the winter and early spring months. \n\nDistricts\n\nLondon's vast urban area is often described using a set of district names, such as Bloomsbury, Mayfair, Wembley and Whitechapel. These are either informal designations, reflect the names of villages that have been absorbed by sprawl, or are superseded administrative units such as parishes or former boroughs.\n\nSuch names have remained in use through tradition, each referring to a local area with its own distinctive character, but without official boundaries. Since 1965 Greater London has been divided into 32 London boroughs in addition to the ancient City of London. The City of London is the main financial district, and Canary Wharf has recently developed into a new financial and commercial hub in the Docklands to the east.\n\nThe West End is London's main entertainment and shopping district, attracting tourists. West London includes expensive residential areas where properties can sell for tens of millions of pounds. The average price for properties in Kensington and Chelsea is over £2 million with a similarly high outlay in most of central London. \n\nThe East End is the area closest to the original Port of London, known for its high immigrant population, as well as for being one of the poorest areas in London. The surrounding East London area saw much of London's early industrial development; now, brownfield sites throughout the area are being redeveloped as part of the Thames Gateway including the London Riverside and Lower Lea Valley, which was developed into the Olympic Park for the 2012 Olympics and Paralympics.\n\nArchitecture\n\nLondon's buildings are too diverse to be characterised by any particular architectural style, partly because of their varying ages. Many grand houses and public buildings, such as the National Gallery, are constructed from Portland stone. Some areas of the city, particularly those just west of the centre, are characterised by white stucco or whitewashed buildings. Few structures in central London pre-date the Great Fire of 1666, these being a few trace Roman remains, the Tower of London and a few scattered Tudor survivors in the City. Further out is, for example, the Tudor period Hampton Court Palace, England's oldest surviving Tudor palace, built by Cardinal Thomas Wolsey 1515. \n\nWren's late 17th-century churches and the financial institutions of the 18th and 19th centuries such as the Royal Exchange and the Bank of England, to the early 20th century Old Bailey and the 1960s Barbican Estate form part of the varied architectural heritage.\n\nThe disused, but soon to be rejuvenated, 1939 Battersea Power Station by the river in the south-west is a local landmark, while some railway termini are excellent examples of Victorian architecture, most notably St. Pancras and Paddington. The density of London varies, with high employment density in the central area, high residential densities in inner London and lower densities in Outer London.\n\nThe Monument in the City of London provides views of the surrounding area while commemorating the Great Fire of London, which originated nearby. Marble Arch and Wellington Arch, at the north and south ends of Park Lane respectively, have royal connections, as do the Albert Memorial and Royal Albert Hall in Kensington. Nelson's Column is a nationally recognised monument in Trafalgar Square, one of the focal points of central London. Older buildings are mainly brick built, most commonly the yellow London stock brick or a warm orange-red variety, often decorated with carvings and white plaster mouldings.\n\nIn the dense areas, most of the concentration is via medium- and high-rise buildings. London's skyscrapers such as 30 St Mary Axe, Tower 42, the Broadgate Tower and One Canada Square are mostly in the two financial districts, the City of London and Canary Wharf. High-rise development is restricted at certain sites if it would obstruct protected views of St Paul's Cathedral and other historic buildings. Nevertheless, there are a number of very tall skyscrapers in central London (see Tall buildings in London), including the 95-storey Shard London Bridge, the tallest building in the European Union.\n\nOther notable modern buildings include City Hall in Southwark with its distinctive oval shape, and the British Library in Somers Town/Kings Cross. What was formerly the Millennium Dome, by the Thames to the east of Canary Wharf, is now an entertainment venue called The O2 Arena.\n\nNatural history\n\nThe London Natural History Society suggest that London is \"one of the World's Greenest Cities\" with more than 40 percent green space or open water. They indicate that 2000 species of flowering plant have been found growing there and that the tidal Thames supports 120 species of fish. They also state that over 60 species of bird nest in central London and that their members have recorded 47 species of butterfly, 1173 moths and more than 270 kinds of spider around London. London's wetland areas support nationally important populations of many water birds. London has 38 Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs), two National Nature Reserves and 76 Local Nature Reserves. \n\nAmphibians are common in the capital, including smooth newts living by the Tate Modern, and common frogs, common toads, palmate newts and great crested newts. On the other hand, native reptiles such as slow-worms, common lizards, grass snakes and adders, are mostly only seen in Outer London. \n\nAmong other inhabitants of London are 10,000 foxes, so that there are now 16 foxes for every square mile (2.6 square kilometres) of London. These urban foxes are noticeably bolder than their country cousins, sharing the pavement with pedestrians and raising cubs in people's backyards. Foxes have even sneaked into the Houses of Parliament, where one was found asleep on a filing cabinet. Another broke into the grounds of Buckingham Palace, reportedly killing some of Queen ElizabethII's prized pink flamingos. Generally, however, foxes and city folk appear to get along. A survey in 2001 by the London-based Mammal Society found that 80 percent of 3,779 respondents who volunteered to keep a diary of garden mammal visits liked having them around. This sample cannot be taken to represent Londoners as a whole. \n\nOther mammals found in Greater London are hedgehogs, rats, mice, rabbit, shrew, vole, and squirrels, In wilder areas of Outer London, such as Epping Forest, a wide variety of mammals are found including hare, badger, field, bank and water vole, wood mouse, yellow-necked mouse, mole, shrew, and weasel, in addition to fox, squirrel and hedgehog. A dead otter was found at The Highway, in Wapping, about a mile from the Tower Bridge, which would suggest that they have begun to move back after being absent a hundred years from the city. Ten of England's eighteen species of bats have been recorded in Epping Forest: soprano, nathusius and common pipistrelles, noctule, serotine, barbastelle, daubenton's, brown Long-eared, natterer's and leisler's. \n\nAmong the strange sights seen in London have been a whale in the Thames, while the BBC Two programme \"Natural World: Unnatural History of London\" shows pigeons using the London Underground to get around the city, a seal that takes fish from fishmongers outside Billingsgate Fish Market, and foxes that will \"sit\" if given sausages. \n\nHerds of red and fallow deer also roam freely within much of Richmond and Bushy Park. A cull takes place each November and February to ensure numbers can be sustained. Epping Forest is also known for its fallow deer, which can frequently be seen in herds to the north of the Forest. A rare population of melanistic, black fallow deer is also maintained at the Deer Sanctuary near Theydon Bois. Muntjac deer, which escaped from deer parks at the turn of the twentieth century, are also found in the forest. While Londoners are accustomed to wildlife such as birds and foxes sharing the city, more recently urban deer have started becoming a regular feature, and whole herds of fallow and white-tailed deer come into residential areas at night to take advantage of the London's green spaces. \n\nDemography\n\nThe 2011 census recorded that 2,998,264 people or 36.7% of London's population are foreign-born making London the city with the second largest immigrant population, behind New York City, in terms of absolute numbers. The table to the right shows the most common countries of birth of London residents. Note that some of the German-born population, in 18th position, are British citizens from birth born to parents serving in the British Armed Forces in Germany. \nWith increasing industrialisation, London's population grew rapidly throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, and it was for some time in the late 19th and early 20th centuries the most populous city in the world. Its population peaked at 8,615,245 in 1939 immediately before the outbreak of the Second World War, but had declined to 7,192,091 at the 2001 Census. However, the population then grew by just over a million between the 2001 and 2011 Censuses, to reach 8,173,941 in the latter enumeration. \n\nHowever, London's continuous urban area extends beyond the borders of Greater London and was home to 9,787,426 people in 2011, while its wider metropolitan area has a population of between 12 and 14 million depending on the definition used. According to Eurostat, London is the most populous city and metropolitan area of the European Union and the second most populous in Europe (or third if Istanbul is included). During the period 1991–2001 a net 726,000 immigrants arrived in London. \n\nThe region covers an area of 1579 km2. The population density is 5177 PD/km2, more than ten times that of any other British region. In terms of population, London is the 19th largest city and the 18th largest metropolitan region in the world. , London has the largest number of billionaires (British Pound Sterling) in the world, with 72 residing in the city. London ranks as one of the most expensive cities in the world, alongside Tokyo and Moscow.\n\nEthnic groups\n\nAccording to the Office for National Statistics, based on the 2011 Census estimates, 59.8 per cent of the 8,173,941 inhabitants of London were White, with 44.9 per cent White British, 2.2 per cent White Irish, 0.1 per cent gypsy/Irish traveller and 12.1 per cent classified as Other White.\n\n20.9 per cent of Londoners are of Asian and mixed-Asian descent. 19.7 per cent are of full Asian descent, with those of mixed-Asian heritage comprising 1.2 of the population. Indians account for 6.6 per cent of the population, followed by Pakistanis and Bangladeshis at 2.7 per cent each. Chinese peoples account for 1.5 per cent of the population, with Arabs comprising 1.3 per cent. A further 4.9 per cent are classified as \"Other Asian\".\n\n15.6 per cent of London's population are of Black and mixed-Black descent. 13.3 per cent are of full Black descent, with those of mixed-Black heritage comprising 2.3 per cent. Black Africans account for 7.0 per cent of London's population, with 4.2 per cent as Black Caribbean and 2.1 per cent as \"Other Black\". 5.0 per cent are of mixed race.\n\nAcross London, Black and Asian children outnumber White British children by about six to four in state schools. Altogether at the 2011 census, of London's 1,624,768 population aged 0 to 15, 46.4 per cent were White, 19.8 per cent were Asian, 19 per cent were Black, 10.8 per cent were Mixed and 4 per cent represented another ethnic group. In January 2005, a survey of London's ethnic and religious diversity claimed that there were more than 300 languages spoken in London and more than 50 non-indigenous communities with a population of more than 10,000. Figures from the Office for National Statistics show that, , London's foreign-born population was 2,650,000 (33 per cent), up from 1,630,000 in 1997.\n\nThe 2011 census showed that 36.7 per cent of Greater London's population were born outside the UK. A portion of the German-born population are likely to be British nationals born to parents serving in the British Armed Forces in Germany. Estimates produced by the Office for National Statistics indicate that the five largest foreign-born groups living in London in the period July 2009 to June 2010 were those born in India, Poland, the Republic of Ireland, Bangladesh and Nigeria. Figure given is the central estimate. See the source for 95 per cent confidence intervals.\n\nReligion\n\nAccording to the 2011 Census, the largest religious groupings are Christians (48.4 per cent), followed by those of no religion (20.7 per cent), Muslims (12.4 per cent), no response (8.5 per cent), Hindus (5.0 per cent), Jews (1.8 per cent), Sikhs (1.5 per cent), Buddhists (1.0 per cent) and other (0.6 per cent).\n\nLondon has traditionally been Christian, and has a large number of churches, particularly in the City of London. The well-known St Paul's Cathedral in the City and Southwark Cathedral south of the river are Anglican administrative centres, while the Archbishop of Canterbury, principal bishop of the Church of England and worldwide Anglican Communion, has his main residence at Lambeth Palace in the London Borough of Lambeth.\n\nImportant national and royal ceremonies are shared between St Paul's and Westminster Abbey. The Abbey is not to be confused with nearby Westminster Cathedral, which is the largest Roman Catholic cathedral in England and Wales. Despite the prevalence of Anglican churches, observance is very low within the Anglican denomination. Church attendance continues on a long, slow, steady decline, according to Church of England statistics.\n\nLondon is also home to sizeable Muslim, Hindu, Sikh, and Jewish communities. Notable mosques include the East London Mosque in Tower Hamlets, London Central Mosque on the edge of Regent's Park and the Baitul Futuh Mosque of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. Following the oil boom, increasing numbers of wealthy Hindus and Middle-Eastern Muslims have based themselves around Mayfair and Knightsbridge in West London. There are large Muslim communities in the eastern boroughs of Tower Hamlets and Newham. \nLarge Hindu communities are in the north-western boroughs of Harrow and Brent, the latter of which is home to Europe's largest Hindu temple, Neasden Temple. London is also home to 42 Hindu temples. There are Sikh communities in East and West London, particularly in Southall, home to one of the largest Sikh populations and the largest Sikh temple outside India.\n\nThe majority of British Jews live in London, with significant Jewish communities in Stamford Hill, Stanmore, Golders Green, Finchley, Hampstead, Hendon and Edgware in North London. Bevis Marks Synagogue in the City of London is affiliated to London's historic Sephardic Jewish community. It is the only synagogue in Europe which has held regular services continuously for over 300 years. Stanmore and Canons Park Synagogue has the largest membership of any single Orthodox synagogue in the whole of Europe, overtaking Ilford synagogue (also in London) in 1998. The community set up the London Jewish Forum in 2006 in response to the growing significance of devolved London Government.\n\nAccent\n\nThere are many accents that are traditionally thought of as London accents. The most well known of the London accents long ago acquired the Cockney label, which is heard both in London itself, and across the wider South East England region more generally. The accent of a 21st-century Londoner varies widely; what is becoming more and more common amongst the under-30s however is some fusion of Cockney with a whole array of ethnic accents, in particular Caribbean, which form an accent labelled Multicultural London English (MLE). The other widely heard and spoken accent is RP (Received Pronunciation) in various forms, which can often be heard in the media and many of other traditional professions and beyond, although this accent is not limited to London and South East England, and can also be heard selectively throughout the whole UK amongst certain social groupings.\n\nEconomy\n\nLondon generates about 20 per cent of the UK's GDP (or $446 billion in 2005); while the economy of the London metropolitan area—the largest in Europe—generates about 30 per cent of the UK's GDP (or an estimated $669 billion in 2005). London is one of the pre-eminent financial centres of the world as the most important location for international finance. London tops the world rankings on the global financial centres index. \n\nLondon's largest industry is finance, and its financial exports make it a large contributor to the UK's balance of payments. Around 325,000 people were employed in financial services in London until mid-2007. London has over 480 overseas banks, more than any other city in the world. Over 85 percent (3.2 million) of the employed population of greater London works in the services industries. Because of its prominent global role, London's economy had been affected by the Late-2000s financial crisis. However, by 2010 the City has recovered; put in place new regulatory powers, proceeded to regain lost ground and re-established London's economic dominance. The City of London is home to the Bank of England, London Stock Exchange, and Lloyd's of London insurance market.\n\nOver half of the UK's top 100 listed companies (the FTSE 100) and over 100 of Europe's 500 largest companies have their headquarters in central London. Over 70 per cent of the FTSE 100 are within London's metropolitan area, and 75 per cent of Fortune 500 companies have offices in London. \n\nAlong with professional services, media companies are concentrated in London and the media distribution industry is London's second most competitive sector. The BBC is a significant employer, while other broadcasters also have headquarters around the City. Many national newspapers are edited in London. London is a major retail centre and in 2010 had the highest non-food retail sales of any city in the world, with a total spend of around £64.2 billion. The Port of London is the second-largest in the United Kingdom, handling 45 million tonnes of cargo each year.\n\nLondon has five major business districts: the City, Westminster, Canary Wharf, Camden & Islington and Lambeth & Southwark. One way to get an idea of their relative importance is to look at relative amounts of office space: Greater London had 27 million m2 of office space in 2001, and the City contains the most space, with 8 million m2 of office space. London has some of the highest real estate prices in the world. \n\nA growing number of technology companies are based in London notably in East London Tech City, also known as Silicon Roundabout. In April 2014, the city was among the first to receive a geoTLD. In 2014 Forbes magazine ranked London as the most influential city in the world. In February 2014 London was ranked as the European City of the Future in the 2014/15 list by FDi Magazine. \n\nLondon is the world's most expensive office market for the last three years according to world property journal (2015) report. the residential property in London is worth $2.2 trillion - same value as that of Brazil annual GDP. The city has the highest property prices of any European city according to the Office for National Statistics and the European Office of Statistics. On average the price per square metre in central London is €24,252 (April 2014). This is higher than the property prices in other G8 European capital cities; Berlin €3,306, Rome €6,188 and Paris €11,229. \n\nThe gas and electricity distribution networks that manage and operate the towers, cables and pressure systems that deliver energy to consumers across the city are managed by National Grid plc, SGN and UK Power Networks. \n\nTourism\n\nLondon is one of the leading tourist destinations in the world and in 2015 was ranked as the most visited city in the world with over 65 million visits. It is also the top city in the world by visitor cross-border spending, estimated at US$20.23 billion in 2015 Tourism is one of London's prime industries, employing the equivalent of 350,000 full-time workers in 2003, and the city accounts for 54% of all inbound visitor spend in UK. As of 2016 London is rated as the world top ranked city destination by TripAdvisor users. \n\nIn 2010 the ten most-visited attractions in London were: \n# British Museum\n# Tate Modern\n# National Gallery\n# Natural History Museum\n# Imperial War Museum\n# Science Museum\n# Victoria and Albert Museum\n# Madame Tussauds\n# National Maritime Museum\n# Tower of London\nThe number of hotel rooms in London in 2015 stands at 138,769 which is expected to grow over the years. \n\nHousing crisis\n\nThousands of homeless families find themselves stuck in emergency accommodation for at least two years. \nA growth in the number of UK households has led to the homeless charity Shelter stating: \"This growth is a result of people living longer, more people living alone or in smaller households, and net migration.\" \n\nTransport\n\nTransport is one of the four main areas of policy administered by the Mayor of London, however the mayor's financial control does not extend to the longer distance rail network that enters London. In 2007 he assumed responsibility for some local lines, which now form the London Overground network, adding to the existing responsibility for the London Underground, trams and buses. The public transport network is administered by Transport for London (TfL) and is one of the most extensive in the world.\n\nThe lines that formed the London Underground, as well as trams and buses, became part of an integrated transport system in 1933 when the London Passenger Transport Board or London Transport was created. Transport for London is now the statutory corporation responsible for most aspects of the transport system in Greater London, and is run by a board and a commissioner appointed by the Mayor of London.\n\nAviation\n\nLondon is a major international air transport hub with the busiest city airspace in the world. Eight airports use the word London in their name, but most traffic passes through six of these. London Heathrow Airport, in Hillingdon, West London, is the busiest airport in the world for international traffic, and is the major hub of the nation's flag carrier, British Airways. In March 2008 its fifth terminal was opened. There were plans for a third runway and a sixth terminal; however, these were cancelled by the Coalition Government on 12 May 2010. \n\nSimilar traffic, with some cheap short-haul flights, is also handled at Gatwick Airport, south of London in West Sussex.\n\nStansted Airport, north east of London in Essex, is a local UK hub and Luton Airport to the north of London in Bedfordshire, caters mostly for cheap short-haul flights. London City Airport, the smallest and most central airport, in Newham, East London, is focused on business travellers, with a mixture of full service short-haul scheduled flights and considerable business jet traffic. London Southend Airport, east of London in Essex, is a smaller, regional airport that mainly caters for cheap short-haul flights.\n\nRail\n\nUnderground and DLR\n\nThe London Underground, commonly referred to as the Tube, is the oldest and second longest metro system in the world. The system serves 270 stations and was formed from several private companies, including the world's first underground electric line, the City and South London Railway. It dates from 1863.\n\nOver three million journeys are made every day on the Underground network, over 1 billion each year. An investment programme is attempting to reduce congestion and improve reliability, including £6.5 billion (€7.7 billion) spent before the 2012 Summer Olympics. The Docklands Light Railway (DLR), which opened in 1987, is a second, more local metro system using smaller and lighter tram-type vehicles that serve the Docklands, Greenwich and Lewisham.\n\nSuburban\n\nThere are 366 railway stations in the London Travelcard Zones on an extensive above-ground suburban railway network. South London, particularly, has a high concentration of railways as it has fewer Underground lines. Most rail lines terminate around the centre of London, running into eighteen terminal stations, with the exception of the Thameslink trains connecting Bedford in the north and Brighton in the south via Luton and Gatwick airports. London has Britain's busiest station by number of passengers – Waterloo, with over 184 million people using the interchange station complex (which includes Waterloo East station) each year. is the busiest station in Europe by the number of trains passing.\n\nWith the need for more rail capacity in London, Crossrail is due to open in 2018. It will be a new railway line running east to west through London and into the Home Counties with a branch to Heathrow Airport. It is Europe's biggest construction project, with a £15 billion projected cost. \n\nInter-city and international\n\nLondon is the centre of the National Rail network, with 70 percent of rail journeys starting or ending in London. Like suburban rail services, regional and inter-city trains depart from several termini around the city centre, linking London with the rest of Britain including Birmingham, Brighton, Reading, Bristol, Cardiff, Derby, Exeter, Sheffield, Southampton, Leeds, Manchester, Cambridge, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Edinburgh and Glasgow.\n\nSome international railway services to Continental Europe were operated during the 20th century as boat trains, such as the Admiraal de Ruijter to Amsterdam and the Night Ferry to Paris and Brussels. The opening of the Channel Tunnel in 1994 connected London directly to the continental rail network, allowing Eurostar services to begin. Since 2007, high-speed trains link St. Pancras International with Lille, Paris, Brussels and European tourist destinations via the High Speed 1 rail link and the Channel Tunnel. The first high-speed domestic trains started in June 2009 linking Kent to London. There are plans for a second high speed line linking London to the Midlands, North West England, and Yorkshire.\n\nFreight\n\nAlthough rail freight levels are far down compared to their height, significant quantities of cargo are also carried into and out of London by rail; chiefly building materials and landfill waste. As a major hub of the British railway network, London's tracks also carry large amounts of freight for the other regions, such as container freight from the Channel Tunnel and English Channel ports, and nuclear waste for reprocessing at Sellafield.\n\nBuses and trams\n\nLondon's bus network is one of the largest in the world, running 24 hours a day, with about 8,500 buses, more than 700 bus routes and around 19,500 bus stops. In 2013, the network had more than 2 billion commuter trips per annum, more than the Underground. Around £850 million is taken in revenue each year. London has the largest wheelchair accessible network in the world and, from the 3rd quarter of 2007, became more accessible to hearing and visually impaired passengers as audio-visual announcements were introduced. The distinctive red double-decker buses are an internationally recognised trademark of London transport along with black cabs and the Tube.\n\nLondon has a modern tram network, known as Tramlink, centred on Croydon in South London. The network has 39 stops and four routes, and carried 28 million people in 2013. Since June 2008 Transport for London has completely owned Tramlink, and it plans to spend £54m by 2015 on maintenance, renewals, upgrades and capacity enhancements.\n\nCable car\n\nLondon's first and only cable car, known as the Emirates Air Line, opened in June 2012. Crossing the River Thames, linking Greenwich Peninsula and the Royal Docks in the east of the city, the cable car is integrated with London's Oyster Card ticketing system, although special fares are charged. Costing £60 million to build, it carries over 3,500 passengers every day, although this is very much lower than its capacity. Similar to the Santander Cycles bike hire scheme, the cable car is sponsored in a 10-year deal by the airline Emirates.\n\nCycling\n\nCycling is an increasingly popular way to get around London. The launch of a cycle hire scheme in July 2010 has been successful and generally well received. In 2016, there are 13,600 Santander cycles in London. Docking stations and bikes are provided by PBSC Urban Solutions, a company based in Montreal (Canada). The London Cycling Campaign lobbies for better provision. \n\nPort and river boats\n\nFrom being the largest port in the world, the Port of London is now only the second-largest in the United Kingdom, handling 45 million tonnes of cargo each year. Most of this actually passes through the Port of Tilbury, outside the boundary of Greater London.\n\nLondon has frequent river boat services on the Thames known as Thames Clippers. These run up to every 20 minutes between Embankment Pier and North Greenwich Pier. The Woolwich Ferry, with 2.5 million passengers every year, is a frequent service linking the North and South Circular Roads. Other operators run both commuter and tourist boat services in London.\n\nRoads\n\nAlthough the majority of journeys involving central London are made by public transport, car travel is common in the suburbs. The inner ring road (around the city centre), the North and South Circular roads (in the suburbs), and the outer orbital motorway (the M25, outside the built-up area) encircle the city and are intersected by a number of busy radial routes—but very few motorways penetrate into inner London. A plan for a comprehensive network of motorways throughout the city (the Ringways Plan) was prepared in the 1960s but was mostly cancelled in the early 1970s. The M25 is the longest ring-road motorway in the world at long. The A1 and M1 connect London to Leeds, and Newcastle and Edinburgh.\n\nLondon is notorious for its traffic congestion, with the M25 motorway the busiest stretch in the country. The average speed of a car in the rush hour is .\n\nIn 2003, a congestion charge was introduced to reduce traffic volumes in the city centre. With a few exceptions, motorists are required to pay £10 per day to drive within a defined zone encompassing much of central London. Motorists who are residents of the defined zone can buy a greatly reduced season pass. London government initially expected the Congestion Charge Zone to increase daily peak period Underground and bus users by 20,000 people, reduce road traffic by 10 to 15 per cent, increase traffic speeds by 10 to 15 per cent, and reduce queues by 20 to 30 per cent. Over the course of several years, the average number of cars entering the centre of London on a weekday was reduced from 195,000 to 125,000 cars – a 35-per-cent reduction of vehicles driven per day. \n\nEducation\n\nTertiary education\n\nLondon is a major global centre of higher education teaching and research and its 43 universities form the largest concentration of higher education institutes in Europe. According to the QS World University Rankings 2015/16, London has the greatest concentration of top class universities in the world and the international student population around 110,000 which is also more than any other city in the world. A 2014 PricewaterhouseCoopers report termed London as the global capital of higher education \n\nA number of world-leading education institutions are based in London. In the 2014/15 QS World University Rankings, Imperial College London is ranked joint 2nd in the world (alongside The University of Cambridge), University College London (UCL) is ranked 5th, and King's College London (KCL) is ranked 16th. The London School of Economics has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research. The London Business School is considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2015 its MBA programme was ranked second best in the world by the Financial Times.\n\nWith 120,000 students in London, the federal University of London is the largest contact teaching university in the UK. It includes four large multi-faculty universities – King's College London, Queen Mary, Royal Holloway and UCL – and a number of smaller and more specialised institutions including Birkbeck, the Courtauld Institute of Art, Goldsmiths, Guildhall School of Music and Drama, the Institute of Education, the London Business School, the London School of Economics, the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, the Royal Academy of Music, the Central School of Speech and Drama, the Royal Veterinary College and the School of Oriental and African Studies. Members of the University of London have their own admissions procedures, and some award their own degrees.\n\nA number of universities in London are outside the University of London system, including Brunel University, City University London, Imperial College London, Kingston University, London Metropolitan University (with over 34,000 students, the largest unitary university in London),[http://www.londonmet.ac.uk/library/o90402_3.pdf About London Met] London Metropolitan University, August 2008 University of East London, University of West London, University of Westminster, London South Bank University, Middlesex University, and University of the Arts London (the largest university of art, design, fashion, communication and the performing arts in Europe). In addition there are three international universities in London – Regent's University London, Richmond, The American International University in London and Schiller International University.\n\nLondon is home to five major medical schools – Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry (part of Queen Mary), King's College London School of Medicine (the largest medical school in Europe), Imperial College School of Medicine, UCL Medical School and St George's, University of London – and has a large number of affiliated teaching hospitals. It is also a major centre for biomedical research, and three of the UK's five academic health science centres are based in the city – Imperial College Healthcare, King's Health Partners and UCL Partners (the largest such centre in Europe). \n\nThere are a number of business schools in London, including the London School of Business and Finance, Cass Business School (part of City University London), Hult International Business School, ESCP Europe, European Business School London, Imperial College Business School and the London Business School. London is also home to many specialist arts education institutions, including the Academy of Live and Recorded Arts, Central School of Ballet, LAMDA, London College of Contemporary Arts (LCCA), London Contemporary Dance School, National Centre for Circus Arts, RADA, Rambert School of Ballet and Contemporary Dance, the Royal College of Art, the Royal College of Music and Trinity Laban.\n\nPrimary and secondary education\n\nThe majority of primary and secondary schools and further-education colleges in London are controlled by the London boroughs or otherwise state-funded; leading examples include City and Islington College, Ealing, Hammersmith and West London College, Leyton Sixth Form College, Tower Hamlets College and Bethnal Green Academy. There are also a number of private schools and colleges in London, some old and famous, such as City of London School, Harrow, St Paul's School, Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School, University College School, The John Lyon School, Highgate School and Westminster School.\n\nCulture\n\nLeisure and entertainment\n\nLeisure is major part of London economy with a 2003 report contributing a quarter of entire UK leisure economy to London. Globally, the city is amongst the big four fashion capital of the world and according to official statistics London is the world's third busiest film production centre, presents more live comedy than any other city and has the biggest theatre audience of any city in the world. \n\nWithin the City of Westminster in London the entertainment district of the West End has its focus around Leicester Square, where London and world film premieres are held, and Piccadilly Circus, with its giant electronic advertisements. London's theatre district is here, as are many cinemas, bars, clubs and restaurants, including the city's Chinatown district (in Soho), and just to the east is Covent Garden, an area housing speciality shops. The city is the home of Andrew Lloyd Webber, whose musicals have dominated the West End theatre since the late 20th century. The United Kingdom's Royal Ballet, English National Ballet, Royal Opera and English National Opera are based in London and perform at the Royal Opera House, the London Coliseum, Sadler's Wells Theatre and the Royal Albert Hall as well as touring the country. \n\nIslington's 1 mi long Upper Street, extending northwards from Angel, has more bars and restaurants than any other street in the United Kingdom. Europe's busiest shopping area is Oxford Street, a shopping street nearly 1 mi long, making it the longest shopping street in the United Kingdom. Oxford Street is home to vast numbers of retailers and department stores, including the world-famous Selfridges flagship store. Knightsbridge, home to the equally renowned Harrods department store, lies to the south-west.\n \nLondon is home to designers Vivienne Westwood, Galliano, Stella McCartney, Manolo Blahnik, and Jimmy Choo among others; its renowned art and fashion schools make it an international centre of fashion alongside Paris, Milan, and New York City. London offers a great variety of cuisine as a result of its ethnically diverse population. Gastronomic centres include the Bangladeshi restaurants of Brick Lane and the Chinese food restaurants of Chinatown.\n\nThere is a variety of annual events, beginning with the relatively new New Year's Day Parade, fireworks display at the London Eye, the world's second largest street party, the Notting Hill Carnival is held during the late August Bank Holiday each year. Traditional parades include November's Lord Mayor's Show, a centuries-old event celebrating the annual appointment of a new Lord Mayor of the City of London with a procession along the streets of the City, and June's Trooping the Colour, a formal military pageant performed by regiments of the Commonwealth and British armies to celebrate the Queen's Official Birthday.\n\nLiterature, film and television\n\nLondon has been the setting for many works of literature. The literary centres of London have traditionally been hilly Hampstead and (since the early 20th century) Bloomsbury. Writers closely associated with the city are the diarist Samuel Pepys, noted for his eyewitness account of the Great Fire, Charles Dickens, whose representation of a foggy, snowy, grimy London of street sweepers and pickpockets has been a major influence on people's vision of early Victorian London, and Virginia Woolf, regarded as one of the foremost modernist literary figures of the 20th century. \n\nThe pilgrims in Geoffrey Chaucer's late 14th-century Canterbury Tales set out for Canterbury from London – specifically, from the Tabard inn, Southwark. William Shakespeare spent a large part of his life living and working in London; his contemporary Ben Jonson was also based there, and some of his work—most notably his play The Alchemist—was set in the city. A Journal of the Plague Year (1722) by Daniel Defoe is a fictionalisation of the events of the 1665 Great Plague. Later important depictions of London from the 19th and early 20th centuries are Dickens' novels, and Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes stories. Modern writers pervasively influenced by the city include Peter Ackroyd, author of a \"biography\" of London, and Iain Sinclair, who writes in the genre of psychogeography.\n\nLondon has played a significant role in the film industry, and has major studios at Ealing and a special effects and post-production community centred in Soho. Working Title Films has its headquarters in London. London has been the setting for films including Oliver Twist (1948), Scrooge (1951), Peter Pan (1953), The 101 Dalmatians (1961), My Fair Lady (1964), Mary Poppins (1964), Blowup (1966), The Long Good Friday (1980), Notting Hill (1999), Love Actually (2003), V For Vendetta (2005), Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber Of Fleet Street (2008) and The King's Speech (2010). Notable actors and filmmakers from London include; Charlie Chaplin, Alfred Hitchcock, Michael Caine, Helen Mirren, Gary Oldman, Christopher Nolan, Jude Law, Tom Hardy, Keira Knightley and Daniel Day-Lewis. , the British Academy Film Awards have taken place at the Royal Opera House. London is a major centre for television production, with studios including BBC Television Centre, The Fountain Studios and The London Studios. Many television programmes have been set in London, including the popular television soap opera EastEnders, broadcast by the BBC since 1985.\n\nMuseums and art galleries\n\nLondon is home to many museums, galleries, and other institutions, many of which are free of admission charges and are major tourist attractions as well as playing a research role. The first of these to be established was the British Museum in Bloomsbury, in 1753. Originally containing antiquities, natural history specimens and the national library, the museum now has 7 million artefacts from around the globe. In 1824 the National Gallery was founded to house the British national collection of Western paintings; this now occupies a prominent position in Trafalgar Square.\n\nIn the latter half of the 19th century the locale of South Kensington was developed as \"Albertopolis\", a cultural and scientific quarter. Three major national museums are there: the Victoria and Albert Museum (for the applied arts), the Natural History Museum and the Science Museum. The National Portrait Gallery was founded in 1856 to house depictions of figures from British history; its holdings now comprise the world's most extensive collection of portraits. The national gallery of British art is at Tate Britain, originally established as an annexe of the National Gallery in 1897. The Tate Gallery, as it was formerly known, also became a major centre for modern art; in 2000 this collection moved to Tate Modern, a new gallery housed in the former Bankside Power Station.\n\nMusic\n\nLondon is one of the major classical and popular music capitals of the world and is home to major music corporations, such as Warner Music Group as well as countless bands, musicians and industry professionals. The city is also home to many orchestras and concert halls, such as the Barbican Arts Centre (principal base of the London Symphony Orchestra and the London Symphony Chorus), Cadogan Hall (Royal Philharmonic Orchestra) and the Royal Albert Hall (The Proms). London's two main opera houses are the Royal Opera House and the London Coliseum. The UK's largest pipe organ is at the Royal Albert Hall. Other significant instruments are at the cathedrals and major churches. Several conservatoires are within the city: Royal Academy of Music, Royal College of Music, Guildhall School of Music and Drama and Trinity Laban.\n\nLondon has numerous venues for rock and pop concerts, including the world's busiest arena the o2 arena and other large arenas such as Earls Court, Wembley Arena, as well as many mid-sized venues, such as Brixton Academy, the Hammersmith Apollo and the Shepherd's Bush Empire. Several music festivals, including the Wireless Festival, South West Four, Lovebox, and Hyde Park's British Summer Time are all held in London. The city is home to the first and original Hard Rock Cafe and the Abbey Road Studios where The Beatles recorded many of their hits. In the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, musicians and groups like Elton John, Pink Floyd, David Bowie, Queen, The Kinks, The Rolling Stones, The Who, Eric Clapton, Led Zeppelin, The Small Faces, Iron Maiden, Fleetwood Mac, Elvis Costello, Cat Stevens, The Police, The Cure, Madness, The Jam, Dusty Springfield, Phil Collins, Rod Stewart and Sade, derived their sound from the streets and rhythms vibrating through London. \n\nLondon was instrumental in the development of punk music, with figures such as the Sex Pistols, The Clash, and Vivienne Westwood all based in the city. More recent artists to emerge from the London music scene include George Michael, Kate Bush, Seal, Siouxsie and the Banshees, Bush, the Spice Girls, Jamiroquai, Blur, The Prodigy, Gorillaz, Mumford & Sons, Coldplay, Amy Winehouse, Adele, Ed Sheeran and One Direction. London is also a centre for urban music. In particular the genres UK garage, drum and bass, dubstep and grime evolved in the city from the foreign genres of hip hop and reggae, alongside local drum and bass. Black music station BBC Radio 1Xtra was set up to support the rise of home-grown urban music both in London and in the rest of the UK.\n\nNotable people\n\nRecreation\n\nParks and open spaces\n\nThe largest parks in the central area of London are three of the eight Royal Parks, namely Hyde Park and its neighbour Kensington Gardens in the west, and Regent's Park to the north. Hyde Park in particular is popular for sports and sometimes hosts open-air concerts. Regent's Park contains London Zoo, the world's oldest scientific zoo, and is near the tourist attraction of Madame Tussauds Wax Museum. Primrose Hill in the northern part of Regent's Park at 256 ftMills, A., Dictionary of London Place Names, (2001) is a popular spot to view the city skyline.\n\nClose to Hyde Park are smaller Royal Parks, Green Park and St. James's Park. A number of large parks lie outside the city centre, including the remaining Royal Parks of Greenwich Park to the south-east and Bushy Park and Richmond Park (the largest) to the south-west, Hampton Court Park is also a royal park, but, because it contains a palace, it is administered by the Historic Royal Palaces, unlike the eight Royal Parks. \n\nClose to Richmond Park is Kew Gardens which has the world's largest collection of living plants. In 2003, the gardens were put on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. There are also numerous parks administered by London's borough Councils, including Victoria Park in the East End and Battersea Park in the centre. Some more informal, semi-natural open spaces also exist, including the 320 ha Hampstead Heath of North London, and Epping Forest, which covers 2,476 hectares (6,118.32 acres) in the east. Both are controlled by the City of London Corporation. Hampstead Heath incorporates Kenwood House, the former stately home and a popular location in the summer months where classical musical concerts are held by the lake, attracting thousands of people every weekend to enjoy the music, scenery and fireworks.\n\nEpping Forest is a popular venue for various outdoor activities, including mountain biking, walking, horse riding, golf, angling, and orienteering. \n\nWalking\n\nWalking is a popular recreational activity in London. Areas that provide for walks include Wimbledon Common, Epping Forest, Hampton Court Park, Hampstead Heath, the eight Royal Parks, canals and disused railway tracks. Access to canals and rivers has improved recently, including the creation of the Thames Path, some 28 mi of which is within Greater London, and The Wandle Trail; this runs 12 mi through South London along the River Wandle, a tributary of the River Thames. Other long distance paths, linking green spaces, have also been created, including the Capital Ring, the Green Chain Walk, London Outer Orbital Path (\"Loop\"), Jubilee Walkway, Lea Valley Walk, and the Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Walk. \n\nSport\n\nLondon has hosted the Summer Olympics three times: in 1908, 1948, and 2012. It was chosen in July 2005 to host the 2012 Olympics and Paralympics, making it the first city to host the modern Games three times. The city was also the host of the British Empire Games in 1934. In 2017 London will host the World Championships in Athletics. \n\nLondon's most popular sport is football and it has fourteen Football League clubs, including five in the Premier League: Arsenal, Chelsea, Crystal Palace, Tottenham Hotspur, and West Ham United. Other professional teams in London are Fulham, Queens Park Rangers, Brentford, Millwall, Charlton Athletic, AFC Wimbledon, Barnet and Leyton Orient. In 2012, Chelsea became the first London club to win the UEFA Champions League. Arsenal, Chelsea and Tottenham are the only London clubs to have won the League.\n\nFrom 1924, the original Wembley Stadium was the home of the English national football team.\nIt hosted the 1966 FIFA World Cup Final, with England defeating West Germany, and served as the venue for the FA Cup Final as well as rugby league's Challenge Cup final. The new Wembley Stadium serves exactly the same purposes and has a capacity of 90,000. \n\nThree Aviva Premiership rugby union teams are based in London, (London Irish, Saracens, and Harlequins), although currently only Harlequins and Saracens play their home games within Greater London. London Scottish and London Welsh play in the RFU Championship club and other rugby union clubs in the city include Richmond F.C., Rosslyn Park F.C., Westcombe Park R.F.C. and Blackheath F.C.. Twickenham Stadium in south-west London is the national rugby union stadium, and has a capacity of 82,000 now that the new south stand has been completed. \n\nWhile rugby league is more popular in the north of England, there are two professional rugby league clubs in London – the second tier Championship One team, the London Broncos, who play at the Trailfinders Sports Ground in West Ealing, and the third tier League 1 team, the London Skolars from Wood Green, Haringey; in addition, Hemel Stags from Hemel Hempstead north of London also play in League 1.\n\nOne of London's best-known annual sports competitions is the Wimbledon Tennis Championships, held at the All England Club in the south-western suburb of Wimbledon. Played in late June to early July, it is the oldest tennis tournament in the world, and widely considered the most prestigious. \n\nLondon has two Test cricket grounds, Lord's (home of Middlesex C.C.C.) in St John's Wood and the Oval (home of Surrey C.C.C.) in Kennington. Lord's has hosted four finals of the Cricket World Cup. Other key events are the annual mass-participation London Marathon, in which some 35,000 runners attempt a course around the city, and the Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race on the River Thames between Putney and Mortlake.", "England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west. The Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south. The country covers much of the central and southern part of the island of Great Britain, which lies in the North Atlantic; and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight.\n\nThe area now called England was first inhabited by modern humans during the Upper Palaeolithic period, but takes its name from the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes who settled during the 5th and 6th centuries. England became a unified state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery, which began during the 15th century, has had a significant cultural and legal impact on the wider world. The English language, the Anglican Church, and English law – the basis for the common law legal systems of many other countries around the world – developed in England, and the country's parliamentary system of government has been widely adopted by other nations. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the world's first industrialised nation. \n\nEngland's terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north (for example, the mountainous Lake District, Pennines, and Yorkshire Dales) and in the south west (for example, Dartmoor and the Cotswolds). The capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union.According to the European Statistical Agency, London is the largest Larger Urban Zone in the EU, a measure of metropolitan area which comprises a city's urban core as well as its surrounding commuting zone. London's municipal population is also the largest in the EU. England's population of over 53 million comprises 84% of the population of the United Kingdom, largely concentrated around London, the South East, and conurbations in the Midlands, the North West, the North East, and Yorkshire, which each developed as major industrial regions during the 19th century.[http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_270487.pdf 2011 Census – Population and household estimates for England and Wales, March 2011]. Accessed 31 May 2013.\n\nThe Kingdom of England—which after 1535 included Wales—ceased being a separate sovereign state on 1 May 1707, when the Acts of Union put into effect the terms agreed in the Treaty of Union the previous year, resulting in a political union with the Kingdom of Scotland to create the Kingdom of Great Britain. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.\n\nToponymy\n\nThe name \"England\" is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means \"land of the Angles\". The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages. The Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as \"Engla londe\", is in the late ninth century translation into Old English of Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People. The term was then used in a different sense to the modern one, meaning \"the land inhabited by the English\", and it included English people in what is now south-east Scotland but was then part of the English kingdom of Northumbria. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle recorded that the Domesday Book of 1086 covered the whole of England, meaning the English kingdom, but a few years later the Chronicle stated that King Malcolm III went \"out of Scotlande into Lothian in Englaland\", thus using it in the more ancient sense. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its modern spelling was first used in 1538. \n\nThe earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, in which the Latin word Anglii is used. The etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars; it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. How and why a term derived from the name of a tribe that was less significant than others, such as the Saxons, came to be used for the entire country and its people is not known, but it seems this is related to the custom of calling the Germanic people in Britain Angli Saxones or English Saxons. In Scottish Gaelic, another language which developed on the island of Great Britain, the Saxon tribe gave their name to the word for England (Sasunn); similarly, the Welsh name for the English language is \"Saesneg\".\n\nAn alternative name for England is Albion. The name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo: \"Beyond the Pillars of Hercules is the ocean that flows round the earth. In it are two very large islands called Britannia; these are Albion and Ierne\". But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, i.e. it was written later in the Graeco-Roman period or afterwards. The word Albion (Ἀλβίων) or insula Albionum has two possible origins. It either derives from a cognate of the Latin albus meaning white, a reference to the white cliffs of Dover, the only part of Britain visible from the European Continent, or from the phrase the \"island of the Albiones\" in the now lost Massaliote Periplus, that is attested through Avienus' Ora Maritima to which the former presumably served as a source. Albion is now applied to England in a more poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, and made popular by its use in Arthurian legend.\n\nHistory\n\nPrehistory and antiquity\n\nThe earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago. Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years. \nAfter the last ice age only large mammals such as mammoths, bison and woolly rhinoceros remained. Roughly 11,000 years ago, when the ice sheets began to recede, humans repopulated the area; genetic research suggests they came from the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula. The sea level was lower than now and Britain was connected by land bridge to Ireland and Eurasia. \nAs the seas rose, it was separated from Ireland 10,000 years ago and from Eurasia two millennia later.\n\nThe Beaker culture arrived around 2,500 BC, introducing drinking and food vessels constructed from clay, as well as vessels used as reduction pots to smelt copper ores. It was during this time that major Neolithic monuments such as Stonehenge and Avebury were constructed. By heating together tin and copper, which were in abundance in the area, the Beaker culture people made bronze, and later iron from iron ores. The development of iron smelting allowed the construction of better ploughs, advancing agriculture (for instance, with Celtic fields), as well as the production of more effective weapons. \n\nDuring the Iron Age, Celtic culture, deriving from the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures, arrived from Central Europe. Brythonic was the spoken language during this time. Society was tribal; according to Ptolemy's Geographia there were around 20 tribes in the area. Earlier divisions are unknown because the Britons were not literate. Like other regions on the edge of the Empire, Britain had long enjoyed trading links with the Romans. Julius Caesar of the Roman Republic attempted to invade twice in 55 BC; although largely unsuccessful, he managed to set up a client king from the Trinovantes.\n\nThe Romans invaded Britain in 43 AD during the reign of Emperor Claudius, subsequently conquering much of Britain, and the area was incorporated into the Roman Empire as Britannia province. The best-known of the native tribes who attempted to resist were the Catuvellauni led by Caratacus. Later, an uprising led by Boudica, Queen of the Iceni, ended with Boudica's suicide following her defeat at the Battle of Watling Street. This era saw a Greco-Roman culture prevail with the introduction of Roman law, Roman architecture, aqueducts, sewers, many agricultural items and silk. In the 3rd century, Emperor Septimius Severus died at Eboracum (now York), where Constantine was subsequently proclaimed emperor. \n\nThere is debate about when Christianity was first introduced; it was no later than the 4th century, probably much earlier. According to Bede, missionaries were sent from Rome by Eleutherius at the request of the chieftain Lucius of Britain in 180 AD, to settle differences as to Eastern and Western ceremonials, which were disturbing the church. There are traditions linked to Glastonbury claiming an introduction through Joseph of Arimathea, while others claim through Lucius of Britain. By 410, during the Decline of the Roman Empire, Britain was left exposed by the end of Roman rule in Britain and the withdrawal of Roman army units, to defend the frontiers in continental Europe and partake in civil wars. Celtic Christian monastic and missionary movements flourished: Patrick (5th-century Ireland) and in the 6th century Brendan (Clonfert), Comgall (Bangor), David (Wales), Aiden (Lindisfarne) and Columba (Iona). This period of Christianity was influenced by ancient Celtic culture in its sensibilities, polity, practices and theology. Local \"congregations\" were centred in the monastic community and monastic leaders were more like chieftains, as peers, rather than in the more hierarchical system of the Roman-dominated church. \n\nMiddle Ages\n\nRoman military withdrawals left Britain open to invasion by pagan, seafaring warriors from north-western continental Europe, chiefly the Angles, Saxons and Jutes who had long raided the coasts of the Roman province and began to settle, initially in the eastern part of the country. Their advance was contained for some decades after the Britons' victory at the Battle of Mount Badon, but subsequently resumed, over-running the fertile lowlands of Britain and reducing the area under Brythonic control to a series of separate enclaves in the more rugged country to the west by the end of the 6th century. Contemporary texts describing this period are extremely scarce, giving rise to its description as a Dark Age. The nature and progression of the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain is consequently subject to considerable disagreement. Roman-dominated Christianity had in general disappeared from the conquered territories, but was reintroduced by missionaries from Rome led by Augustine from 597 onwards. Disputes between the Roman- and Celtic-dominated forms of Christianity ended in victory for the Roman tradition at the Council of Whitby (664), which was ostensibly about haircuts and the date of Easter, but more significantly, about the differences in Roman and Celtic forms of authority, theology, and practice (Lehane).\n\nDuring the settlement period the lands ruled by the incomers seem to have been fragmented into numerous tribal territories, but by the 7th century, when substantial evidence of the situation again becomes available, these had coalesced into roughly a dozen kingdoms including Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex, East Anglia, Essex, Kent and Sussex. Over the following centuries this process of political consolidation continued. The 7th century saw a struggle for hegemony between Northumbria and Mercia, which in the 8th century gave way to Mercian preeminence. In the early 9th century Mercia was displaced as the foremost kingdom by Wessex. Later in that century escalating attacks by the Danes culminated in the conquest of the north and east of England, overthrowing the kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia and East Anglia. Wessex under Alfred the Great was left as the only surviving English kingdom, and under his successors it steadily expanded at the expense of the kingdoms of the Danelaw. This brought about the political unification of England, first accomplished under Æthelstan in 927 and definitively established after further conflicts by Eadred in 953. A fresh wave of Scandinavian attacks from the late 10th century ended with the conquest of this united kingdom by Sweyn Forkbeard in 1013 and again by his son Cnut in 1016, turning it into the centre of a short-lived North Sea Empire that also included Denmark and Norway. However the native royal dynasty was restored with the accession of Edward the Confessor in 1042.\n\nA dispute over the succession to Edward led to the Norman conquest of England in 1066, accomplished by an army led by Duke William of Normandy. The Normans themselves originated from Scandinavia and had settled in Normandy in the late 9th and early 10th centuries. This conquest led to the almost total dispossession of the English elite and its replacement by a new French-speaking aristocracy, whose speech had a profound and permanent effect on the English language. \n\nSubsequently the House of Plantagenet from Anjou inherited the English throne under Henry II, adding England to the budding Angevin Empire of fiefs the family had inherited in France including Aquitaine. They reigned for three centuries, some noted monarchs being Richard I, Edward I, Edward III and Henry V. The period saw changes in trade and legislation, including the signing of the Magna Carta, an English legal charter used to limit the sovereign's powers by law and protect the privileges of freemen. Catholic monasticism flourished, providing philosophers, and the universities of Oxford and Cambridge were founded with royal patronage. The Principality of Wales became a Plantagenet fief during the 13th century and the Lordship of Ireland was given to the English monarchy by the Pope.\n\nDuring the 14th century, the Plantagenets and the House of Valois both claimed to be legitimate claimants to the House of Capet and with it France; the two powers clashed in the Hundred Years' War. The Black Death epidemic hit England; starting in 1348, it eventually killed up to half of England's inhabitants. From 1453 to 1487 civil war occurred between two branches of the royal family—the Yorkists and Lancastrians—known as the Wars of the Roses. Eventually it led to the Yorkists losing the throne entirely to a Welsh noble family the Tudors, a branch of the Lancastrians headed by Henry Tudor who invaded with Welsh and Breton mercenaries, gaining victory at the Battle of Bosworth Field where the Yorkist king Richard III was killed. \n\nEarly Modern\n\nDuring the Tudor period, the Renaissance reached England through Italian courtiers, who reintroduced artistic, educational and scholarly debate from classical antiquity. England began to develop naval skills, and exploration to the West intensified. \n\nHenry VIII broke from communion with the Catholic Church, over issues relating to his divorce, under the Acts of Supremacy in 1534 which proclaimed the monarch head of the Church of England. In contrast with much of European Protestantism, the roots of the split were more political than theological. He also legally incorporated his ancestral land Wales into the Kingdom of England with the 1535–1542 acts. There were internal religious conflicts during the reigns of Henry's daughters, Mary I and Elizabeth I. The former took the country back to Catholicism while the latter broke from it again, forcefully asserting the supremacy of Anglicanism.\n\nCompeting with Spain, the first English colony in the Americas was founded in 1585 by explorer Walter Raleigh in Virginia and named Roanoke. The Roanoke colony failed and is known as the lost colony, after it was found abandoned on the return of the late-arriving supply ship. With the East India Company, England also competed with the Dutch and French in the East. In 1588, during the Elizabethan period, an English fleet under Francis Drake defeated an invading Spanish Armada. The political structure of the island changed in 1603, when the King of Scots, James VI, a kingdom which was a longtime rival to English interests, inherited the throne of England as James I — creating a personal union. He styled himself King of Great Britain, although this had no basis in English law. Under the auspices of King James VI and I the Authorised King James Version of the Holy Bible was published in 1611. It has not only been ranked with Shakespeare's works as the greatest masterpiece of literature in the English language but also was the standard version of the Bible read by most Protestant Christians for four hundred years, until modern revisions were produced in the 20th century.\n\nBased on conflicting political, religious and social positions, the English Civil War was fought between the supporters of Parliament and those of King Charles I, known colloquially as Roundheads and Cavaliers respectively. This was an interwoven part of the wider multifaceted Wars of the Three Kingdoms, involving Scotland and Ireland. The Parliamentarians were victorious, Charles I was executed and the kingdom replaced by the Commonwealth. Leader of the Parliament forces, Oliver Cromwell declared himself Lord Protector in 1653; a period of personal rule followed. After Cromwell's death and the resignation of his son Richard as Lord Protector, Charles II was invited to return as monarch in 1660, in a move called the Restoration. After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, it was constitutionally established that King and Parliament should rule together, though Parliament would have the real power. This was established with the Bill of Rights in 1689. Among the statutes set down were that the law could only be made by Parliament and could not be suspended by the King, also that the King could not impose taxes or raise an army without the prior approval of Parliament. Also since that time, no British monarch has entered the House of Commons when it is sitting, which is annually commemorated at the State Opening of Parliament by the British monarch when the doors of the House of Commons are slammed in the face of the monarch's messenger, symbolising the rights of Parliament and its independence from the monarch. With the founding of the Royal Society in 1660, science was greatly encouraged.\n\nIn 1666 the Great Fire of London gutted the City of London but it was rebuilt shortly afterwards with many significant buildings designed by Sir Christopher Wren. In Parliament two factions had emerged — the Tories and Whigs. Though the Tories initially supported Catholic king James II, some of them, along with the Whigs, deposed him in the Revolution of 1688 and invited Dutch prince William of Orange to become William III. Some English people, especially in the north, were Jacobites and continued to support James and his sons. After the parliaments of England and Scotland agreed, the two countries joined in political union, to create the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. To accommodate the union, institutions such as the law and national churches of each remained separate. \n\nLate Modern and contemporary\n\nUnder the newly formed Kingdom of Great Britain, output from the Royal Society and other English initiatives combined with the Scottish Enlightenment to create innovations in science and engineering, while the enormous growth in British overseas trade protected by the Royal Navy paved the way for the establishment of the British Empire. Domestically it drove the Industrial Revolution, a period of profound change in the socioeconomic and cultural conditions of England, resulting in industrialised agriculture, manufacture, engineering and mining, as well as new and pioneering road, rail and water networks to facilitate their expansion and development. The opening of Northwest England's Bridgewater Canal in 1761 ushered in the canal age in Britain. In 1825 the world's first permanent steam locomotive-hauled passenger railway—the Stockton and Darlington Railway—opened to the public.\n\nDuring the Industrial Revolution, many workers moved from England's countryside to new and expanding urban industrial areas to work in factories, for instance at Manchester and Birmingham, dubbed \"Warehouse City\" and \"Workshop of the World\" respectively. England maintained relative stability throughout the French Revolution; William Pitt the Younger was British Prime Minister for the reign of George III. During the Napoleonic Wars, Napoleon planned to invade from the south-east. However this failed to manifest and the Napoleonic forces were defeated by the British at sea by Lord Nelson and on land by the Duke of Wellington. The Napoleonic Wars fostered a concept of Britishness and a united national British people, shared with the Scots and Welsh. \n\nLondon became the largest and most populous metropolitan area in the world during the Victorian era, and trade within the British Empire—as well as the standing of the British military and navy—was prestigious. Political agitation at home from radicals such as the Chartists and the suffragettes enabled legislative reform and universal suffrage. Power shifts in east-central Europe led to World War I; hundreds of thousands of English soldiers died fighting for the United Kingdom as part of the Allies. Two decades later, in World War II, the United Kingdom was again one of the Allies. At the end of the Phoney War, Winston Churchill became the wartime Prime Minister. Developments in warfare technology saw many cities damaged by air-raids during the Blitz. Following the war, the British Empire experienced rapid decolonisation, and there was a speeding up of technological innovations; automobiles became the primary means of transport and Frank Whittle's development of the jet engine led to wider air travel. Residential patterns were altered in England by private motoring, and by the creation of the National Health Service (NHS) in 1948. The UK's NHS provided publicly funded health care to all UK permanent residents free at the point of need, being paid for from general taxation. Combined, these changes prompted the reform of local government in England in the mid-20th century. \n\nSince the 20th century there has been significant population movement to England, mostly from other parts of the British Isles, but also from the Commonwealth, particularly the Indian subcontinent. Since the 1970s there has been a large move away from manufacturing and an increasing emphasis on the service industry. As part of the United Kingdom, the area joined a common market initiative called the European Economic Community which became the European Union. Since the late 20th century the administration of the United Kingdom has moved towards devolved governance in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. England and Wales continues to exist as a jurisdiction within the United Kingdom. Devolution has stimulated a greater emphasis on a more English-specific identity and patriotism. There is no devolved English government, but an attempt to create a similar system on a sub-regional basis was rejected by referendum.\n\nGovernance\n\nPolitics\n\nAs part of the United Kingdom, the basic political system in England is a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary system. There has not been a government of England since 1707, when the Acts of Union 1707, putting into effect the terms of the Treaty of Union, joined England and Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain. Before the union England was ruled by its monarch and the Parliament of England. Today England is governed directly by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, although other countries of the United Kingdom have devolved governments. In the House of Commons which is the lower house of the British Parliament based at the Palace of Westminster, there are 532 Members of Parliament (MPs) for constituencies in England, out of the 650 total. \n\nIn the United Kingdom general election, 2015, the Conservative Party won an absolute majority in the 650 contested seats with 10 seats more than all other parties combined (the Speaker of the House not being counted as a Conservative). The Conservative party, headed by the prime minister David Cameron, won 98 more seats than the Labour Party, whose leader Ed Miliband subsequently stood down. The Scottish National Party (Scotland only) won 56 out of 59 Scottish seats in the House of Commons replacing the Liberal Democrats as the third largest party overall in the UK. \n\nAs the United Kingdom is a member of the European Union, there are elections held regionally in England to decide who is sent as Members of the European Parliament. The 2014 European Parliament election saw the regions of England elect the following MEPs: 22 UK Independence Party (UKIP), 17 Conservatives, 17 Labour, 3 Greens, and one Liberal Democrat.\n\nSince devolution, in which other countries of the United Kingdom—Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland—each have their own devolved parliament or assemblies for local issues, there has been debate about how to counterbalance this in England. Originally it was planned that various regions of England would be devolved, but following the proposal's rejection by the North East in a referendum, this has not been carried out.\n\nOne major issue is the West Lothian question, in which MPs from Scotland and Wales are able to vote on legislation affecting only England, while English MPs have no equivalent right to legislate on devolved matters. This when placed in the context of England being the only country of the United Kingdom not to have free cancer treatment, prescriptions, residential care for the elderly and free top-up university fees, has led to a steady rise in English nationalism. Some have suggested the creation of a devolved English parliament, while others have proposed simply limiting voting on legislation which only affects England to English MPs. \n\nLaw\n\nThe English law legal system, developed over the centuries, is the basis of common law legal systems used in most Commonwealth countries and the United States (except Louisiana). Despite now being part of the United Kingdom, the legal system of the Courts of England and Wales continued, under the Treaty of Union, as a separate legal system from the one used in Scotland. The general essence of English law is that it is made by judges sitting in courts, applying their common sense and knowledge of legal precedent—stare decisis—to the facts before them. \n\nThe court system is headed by the Senior Courts of England and Wales, consisting of the Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice for civil cases, and the Crown Court for criminal cases. The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the highest court for criminal and civil cases in England and Wales. It was created in 2009 after constitutional changes, taking over the judicial functions of the House of Lords. A decision of the Supreme Court is binding on every other court in the hierarchy, which must follow its directions. \n\nCrime increased between 1981 and 1995, but fell by 42% in the period 1995–2006. The prison population doubled over the same period, giving it the highest incarceration rate in Western Europe at 147 per 100,000. Her Majesty's Prison Service, reporting to the Ministry of Justice, manages most prisons, housing over 85,000 convicts. \n\nRegions, counties, and districts\n\nThe subdivisions of England consist of up to four levels of subnational division controlled through a variety of types of administrative entities created for the purposes of local government. The highest tier of local government were the nine regions of England: North East, North West, Yorkshire and the Humber, East Midlands, West Midlands, East, South East, South West, and London. These were created in 1994 as Government Offices, used by the UK government to deliver a wide range of policies and programmes regionally, but there are no elected bodies at this level, except in London, and in 2011 the regional government offices were abolished. The same boundaries remain in use for electing Members of the European Parliament on a regional basis.\n\nAfter devolution began to take place in other parts of the United Kingdom it was planned that referendums for the regions of England would take place for their own elected regional assemblies as a counterweight. London accepted in 1998: the London Assembly was created two years later. However, when the proposal was rejected by the northern England devolution referendums, 2004 in the North East, further referendums were cancelled. The regional assemblies outside London were abolished in 2010, and their functions transferred to respective Regional Development Agencies and a new system of local authority leaders' boards. \n\nBelow the regional level, all of England is divided into 48 ceremonial counties. These are used primarily as a geographical frame of reference and have developed gradually since the Middle Ages, with some established as recently as 1974. Each has a Lord Lieutenant and High Sheriff; these posts are used to represent the British monarch locally. Outside Greater London and the Isles of Scilly, England is also divided into 83 metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties; these correspond to areas used for the purposes of local government and may consist of a single district or be divided into several.\n\nThere are six metropolitan counties based on the most heavily urbanised areas, which do not have county councils. In these areas the principal authorities are the councils of the subdivisions, the metropolitan boroughs. Elsewhere, 27 non-metropolitan \"shire\" counties have a county council and are divided into districts, each with a district council. They are typically, though not always, found in more rural areas. The remaining non-metropolitan counties are of a single district and usually correspond to large towns or sparsely populated counties; they are known as unitary authorities. Greater London has a different system for local government, with 32 London boroughs, plus the City of London covering a small area at the core governed by the City of London Corporation. At the most localised level, much of England is divided into civil parishes with councils; they do not exist in Greater London. \n\nGeography\n\nLandscape and rivers\n\nGeographically England includes the central and southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain, plus such offshore islands as the Isle of Wight and the Isles of Scilly. It is bordered by two other countries of the United Kingdom—to the north by Scotland and to the west by Wales. England is closer to the European continent than any other part of mainland Britain. It is separated from France by a 21 mi sea gap, though the two countries are connected by the Channel Tunnel near Folkestone. England also has shores on the Irish Sea, North Sea and Atlantic Ocean.\n\nThe ports of London, Liverpool, and Newcastle lie on the tidal rivers Thames, Mersey and Tyne respectively. At 220 mi, the Severn is the longest river flowing through England. It empties into the Bristol Channel and is notable for its Severn Bore tidal waves, which can reach 2 m in height. However, the longest river entirely in England is the Thames, which is 215 mi in length. There are many lakes in England; the largest is Windermere, within the aptly named Lake District. \n\nIn geological terms, the Pennines, known as the \"backbone of England\", are the oldest range of mountains in the country, originating from the end of the Paleozoic Era around 300 million years ago. Their geological composition includes, among others, sandstone and limestone, and also coal. There are karst landscapes in calcite areas such as parts of Yorkshire and Derbyshire. The Pennine landscape is high moorland in upland areas, indented by fertile valleys of the region's rivers. They contain three national parks, the Yorkshire Dales, Northumberland, and the Peak District. The highest point in England, at 978 m, is Scafell Pike in Cumbria. Straddling the border between England and Scotland are the Cheviot Hills.\n\nThe English Lowlands are to the south of the Pennines, consisting of green rolling hills, including the Cotswold Hills, Chiltern Hills, North and South Downs—where they meet the sea they form white rock exposures such as the cliffs of Dover. The granite Southwest Peninsula in the West Country includes upland moorland, such as Dartmoor and Exmoor, and enjoys a mild climate; both are national parks. \n\nClimate\n\nEngland has a temperate maritime climate: it is mild with temperatures not much lower than 0 °C in winter and not much higher than 32 °C in summer. The weather is damp relatively frequently and is changeable. The coldest months are January and February, the latter particularly on the English coast, while July is normally the warmest month. Months with mild to warm weather are May, June, September and October. Rainfall is spread fairly evenly throughout the year.\n\nImportant influences on the climate of England are its proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, its northern latitude and the warming of the sea by the Gulf Stream. Rainfall is higher in the west, and parts of the Lake District receive more rain than anywhere else in the country. Since weather records began, the highest temperature recorded was on 10 August 2003 at Brogdale in Kent, while the lowest was on 10 January 1982 in Edgmond, Shropshire. \n\nMajor conurbations\n\nThe Greater London Urban Area is by far the largest urban area in England and one of the busiest cities in the world. It is considered a global city and has a population larger than other countries in the United Kingdom besides England itself. Other urban areas of considerable size and influence tend to be in northern England or the English Midlands. There are fifty settlements which have been designated city status in England, while the wider United Kingdom has sixty-six.\n\nWhile many cities in England are quite large in size, such as Birmingham, Sheffield, Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds, Newcastle, Bradford, Nottingham and others, a large population is not necessarily a prerequisite for a settlement to be afforded city status. Traditionally the status was afforded to towns with diocesan cathedrals and so there are smaller cities like Wells, Ely, Ripon, Truro and Chichester. According to the Office for National Statistics the ten largest, continuous built-up urban areas are:\n\nEconomy\n\nEngland's economy is one of the largest in the world, with an average GDP per capita of £22,907. Usually regarded as a mixed market economy, it has adopted many free market principles, yet maintains an advanced social welfare infrastructure. The official currency in England is the pound sterling, whose ISO 4217 code is GBP. Taxation in England is quite competitive when compared to much of the rest of Europe – the basic rate of personal tax is 20% on taxable income up to £31,865 above the personal tax-free allowance (normally £10,000), and 40% on any additional earnings above that amount. \n\nThe economy of England is the largest part of the UK's economy, which has the 18th highest GDP PPP per capita in the world. England is a leader in the chemical and pharmaceutical sectors and in key technical industries, particularly aerospace, the arms industry, and the manufacturing side of the software industry. London, home to the London Stock Exchange, the United Kingdom's main stock exchange and the largest in Europe, is England's financial centre—100 of Europe's 500 largest corporations are based in London. London is the largest financial centre in Europe, and is the second largest in the world. \n\nThe Bank of England, founded in 1694 by Scottish banker William Paterson, is the United Kingdom's central bank. Originally established as private banker to the government of England, since 1946 it has been a state-owned institution. The bank has a monopoly on the issue of banknotes in England and Wales, although not in other parts of the United Kingdom. The government has devolved responsibility to the bank's Monetary Policy Committee for managing the monetary policy of the country and setting interest rates. \n\nEngland is highly industrialised, but since the 1970s there has been a decline in traditional heavy and manufacturing industries, and an increasing emphasis on a more service industry oriented economy. Tourism has become a significant industry, attracting millions of visitors to England each year. The export part of the economy is dominated by pharmaceuticals, cars (although many English marques are now foreign-owned, such as Land Rover, Lotus, Jaguar and Bentley), crude oil and petroleum from the English parts of North Sea oil along with Wytch Farm, aircraft engines and alcoholic beverages. \n\nMost of the UK's £25 billion aerospace industry is primarily based in England. The wings for the Airbus A380 and the Airbus A350 XWB are designed and manufactured at Airbus UK's world-leading facility in Broughton. GKN Aerospace – an expert in metallic and composite aerostructures is involved in almost every civil and military fixed and rotary wing aircraft in production is based in Redditch. \n\nBAE Systems makes large sections of the Typhoon Eurofighter at its sub-assembly plant in Salmesbury and assembles the aircraft for the RAF at its Warton plant, near Preston. It is also a principal subcontractor on the F35 Joint Strike Fighter – the world's largest single defence project – for which it designs and manufactures a range of components including the aft fuselage, vertical and horizontal tail and wing tips and fuel system. As well as this it manufactures the Hawk, the world's most successful jet training aircraft.\n\nRolls-Royce PLC is the world's second-largest aero-engine manufacturer. Its engines power more than 30 types of commercial aircraft, and it has more 30,000 engines currently in service across both the civil and defence sectors. With a workforce of over 12,000 people, Derby has the largest concentration of Rolls-Royce employees in the UK. Rolls-Royce also produces low-emission power systems for ships; makes critical equipment and safety systems for the nuclear industry and powers offshore platforms and major pipelines for the oil and gas industry. \n\nMuch of the UK's space industry is centred on EADS Astrium, based in Stevenage and Portsmouth. The company builds the buses – the underlying structure onto which the payload and propulsion systems are built – for most of the European Space Agency's spacecraft, as well as commercial satellites. The world leader in compact satellite systems, Surrey Satellites, is also part of Astrium. Reaction Engines Limited, the company planning to build Skylon, a single-stage-to-orbit spaceplane using their SABRE rocket engine, a combined-cycle, air-breathing rocket propulsion system is based Culham.\n\nAgriculture is intensive and highly mechanised, producing 60% of food needs with only 2% of the labour force. Two thirds of production is devoted to livestock, the other to arable crops. \n\nScience and technology\n\nProminent English figures from the field of science and mathematics include Sir Isaac Newton, Michael Faraday, Robert Hooke, Robert Boyle, Joseph Priestley, J. J. Thomson, Charles Babbage, Charles Darwin, Stephen Hawking, Christopher Wren, Alan Turing, Francis Crick, Joseph Lister, Tim Berners-Lee, Paul Dirac, Andrew Wiles and Richard Dawkins. Some experts claim that the earliest concept of a metric system was invented by John Wilkins, the first secretary of the Royal Society, in 1668. \n\nAs the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution, England was home to many significant inventors during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Famous English engineers include Isambard Kingdom Brunel, best known for the creation of the Great Western Railway, a series of famous steamships, and numerous important bridges, hence revolutionising public transport and modern-day engineering. Thomas Newcomen's steam engine helped spawn the Industrial Revolution. The Father of Railways, George Stephenson, built the first public inter-city railway line in the world, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, which opened in 1830. With his role in the marketing and manufacturing of the steam engine, and invention of modern coinage, Matthew Boulton (business partner of James Watt) is regarded as one of the most influential entrepreneurs in history. The physician Edward Jenner's smallpox vaccine is said to have \"saved more lives ... than were lost in all the wars of mankind since the beginning of recorded history.\" \n\nInventions and discoveries of the English include: the jet engine, the first industrial spinning machine, the first computer and the first modern computer, the World Wide Web along with HTML, the first successful human blood transfusion, the motorised vacuum cleaner, the lawn mower, the seat belt, the hovercraft, the electric motor, steam engines, and theories such as the Darwinian theory of evolution and atomic theory. Newton developed the ideas of universal gravitation, Newtonian mechanics, and calculus, and Robert Hooke his eponymously named law of elasticity. Other inventions include the iron plate railway, the thermosiphon, tarmac, the rubber band, the mousetrap, \"cat's eye\" road marker, joint development of the light bulb, steam locomotives, the modern seed drill and many modern techniques and technologies used in precision engineering. \n\nTransport\n\nThe Department for Transport is the government body responsible for overseeing transport in England. There are many motorways in England, and many other trunk roads, such as the A1 Great North Road, which runs through eastern England from London to Newcastle (much of this section is motorway) and onward to the Scottish border. The longest motorway in England is the M6, from Rugby through the North West up to the Anglo-Scottish border, a distance of 232 mi. Other major routes include: the M1 from London to Leeds, the M25 which encircles London, the M60 which encircles Manchester, the M4 from London to South Wales, the M62 from Liverpool via Manchester to East Yorkshire, and the M5 from Birmingham to Bristol and the South West.\n\nBus transport across the country is widespread; major companies include National Express, Arriva and Go-Ahead Group. The red double-decker buses in London have become a symbol of England. There is a rapid rail network in two English cities: the London Underground; and the Tyne and Wear Metro in Newcastle, Gateshead and Sunderland. There are several tram networks, such as the Blackpool tramway, Manchester Metrolink, Sheffield Supertram and Midland Metro, and the Tramlink system centred on Croydon in South London.\n\nRail transport in England is the oldest in the world: passenger railways originated in England in 1825. Much of Britain's 10000 mi of rail network lies in England, covering the country fairly extensively, although a high proportion of railway lines were closed in the second half of the 20th century. There are plans to reopen lines such as the Varsity Line between Oxford and Cambridge. These lines are mostly standard gauge (single, double or quadruple track) though there are also a few narrow gauge lines. There is rail transport access to France and Belgium through an undersea rail link, the Channel Tunnel, which was completed in 1994.\n\nEngland has extensive domestic and international aviation links. The largest airport is London Heathrow, which is the world's busiest airport measured by number of international passengers. Other large airports include Manchester Airport, London Stansted Airport, Luton Airport and Birmingham Airport. By sea there is ferry transport, both local and international, including to Ireland, the Netherlands and Belgium. There are around 4400 mi of navigable waterways in England, half of which is owned by the Canal and River Trust, however water transport is very limited. The Thames is the major waterway in England, with imports and exports focused at the Port of Tilbury in the Thames Estuary, one of the United Kingdom's three major ports.\n\nHealthcare\n\nThe National Health Service (NHS) is the publicly funded healthcare system in England responsible for providing the majority of healthcare in the country. The NHS began on 5 July 1948, putting into effect the provisions of the National Health Service Act 1946. It was based on the findings of the Beveridge Report, prepared by economist and social reformer William Beveridge. The NHS is largely funded from general taxation including National Insurance payments, and it provides most of its services free at the point of use, although there are charges for some people for eye tests, dental care, prescriptions and aspects of personal care. \n\nThe government department responsible for the NHS is the Department of Health, headed by the Secretary of State for Health, who sits in the British Cabinet. Most of the expenditure of the Department of Health is spent on the NHS—£98.6 billion was spent in 2008–2009. In recent years the private sector has been increasingly used to provide more NHS services despite opposition by doctors and trade unions. The average life expectancy of people in England is 77.5 years for males and 81.7 years for females, the highest of the four countries of the United Kingdom.\n\nDemography\n\nPopulation\n\nWith over 53 million inhabitants, England is by far the most populous country of the United Kingdom, accounting for 84% of the combined total. England taken as a unit and measured against international states has the fourth largest population in the European Union and would be the 25th largest country by population in the world. With a density of 407 people per square kilometre, it would be the second most densely populated country in the European Union after Malta. \n\nThe English people are a British people. Some genetic evidence suggests that 75–95% descend in the paternal line from prehistoric settlers who originally came from the Iberian Peninsula, as well as a 5% contribution from Angles and Saxons, and a significant Scandinavian (Viking) element. However, other geneticists place the Germanic estimate up to half. Over time, various cultures have been influential: Prehistoric, Brythonic, Roman, Anglo-Saxon, Viking (North Germanic), Gaelic cultures, as well as a large influence from Normans. There is an English diaspora in former parts of the British Empire; especially the United States, Canada, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand. Since the late 1990s, many English people have migrated to Spain. \n\nIn 1086, when the Domesday Book was compiled, England had a population of two million. About ten per cent lived in urban areas. By 1801 the population had grown to 8.3 million, and by 1901 had grown to 30.5 million. Due in particular to the economic prosperity of South East England, it has received many economic migrants from the other parts of the United Kingdom. There has been significant Irish migration. The proportion of ethnically European residents totals at 87.50%, including Germans and Poles.\n\nOther people from much further afield in the former British colonies have arrived since the 1950s: in particular, 6% of people living in England have family origins in the Indian subcontinent, mostly India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. 2.90% of the population are black, from both the Caribbean and countries in Africa itself, especially former British colonies. There is a significant number of Chinese and British Chinese. In 2007, 22% of primary school children in England were from ethnic minority families, and in 2011 that figure was 26.5%. About half of the population increase between 1991 and 2001 was due to immigration. Debate over immigration is politically prominent; according to a 2009 Home Office poll, 80% of people want to cap it. The ONS has projected that the population will grow by six million between 2004 and 2029. \n\nLanguage\n\nAs its name suggests, the English language, today spoken by hundreds of millions of people around the world, originated as the language of England, where it remains the principal tongue spoken by 98% of the population.[http://www.nomisweb.co.uk/census/2011/QS205EW/view/2092957699?cols\nmeasures QS205EW – Proficiency in English], ONS 2011 census. Out of the 51,005,610 residents of England over the age of three, 50,161,765 (98%) can speak English \"well\" or \"very well\". Retrieved 20 July 2015. It is an Indo-European language in the Anglo-Frisian branch of the Germanic family. After the Norman conquest, the Old English language was displaced and confined to the lower social classes as Norman French and Latin were used by the aristocracy.\n\nBy the 15th century, English was back in fashion among all classes, though much changed; the Middle English form showed many signs of French influence, both in vocabulary and spelling. During the English Renaissance, many words were coined from Latin and Greek origins. Modern English has extended this custom of flexibility, when it comes to incorporating words from different languages. Thanks in large part to the British Empire, the English language is the world's unofficial lingua franca. \n\nEnglish language learning and teaching is an important economic activity, and includes language schooling, tourism spending, and publishing. There is no legislation mandating an official language for England, but English is the only language used for official business. Despite the country's relatively small size, there are many distinct regional accents, and individuals with particularly strong accents may not be easily understood everywhere in the country.\n\nAs well as English, England has two other indigenous languages, Cornish and Welsh. Cornish died out as a community language in the 18th century but is being revived, and is now protected under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. It is spoken by 0.1% of people in Cornwall, and is taught to some degree in several primary and secondary schools. \n\nWhen the modern border between Wales and England was established by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542, many Welsh-speaking communities found themselves on the English side of the border. Welsh was spoken in Archenfield in Herefordshire into the nineteenth century. Welsh was spoken by natives of parts of western Shropshire until the middle of the twentieth century if not later. \n\nState schools teach students a second language, usually French, German or Spanish. Due to immigration, it was reported in 2007 that around 800,000 school students spoke a foreign language at home, the most common being Punjabi and Urdu. However, following the 2011 census data released by the Office for National Statistics, figures now show that Polish is the main language spoken in England after English. \n\nReligion\n\nAccording to the 2011 census, 59.4% of the population is Christian, 24.7% non-religious, 5% is Muslim while 3.7% of the population belongs to other religions and 7.2 did not give an answer. Christianity is the most widely practised religion in England, as it has been since the Early Middle Ages, although it was first introduced much earlier in Gaelic and Roman times. This Celtic Church was gradually joined to the Catholic hierarchy following the 6th-century Gregorian mission to Kent led by St Augustine. The established church of England is Church of England, which left communion with Rome in the 1530s when Henry VIII was unable to annul his divorce to the aunt of the king of Spain. The religion regards itself as both Catholic and Reformed.\n\nThere are High Church and Low Church traditions, and some Anglicans regard themselves as Anglo-Catholics, following the Tractarian movement. The monarch of the United Kingdom is the Supreme Governor of the church, which has around 26 million baptised members (of whom the vast majority are not regular churchgoers). It forms part of the Anglican Communion with the Archbishop of Canterbury acting as its symbolic worldwide head. Many cathedrals and parish churches are historic buildings of significant architectural importance, such as Westminster Abbey, York Minster, Durham Cathedral, and Salisbury Cathedral.\n\nThe 2nd-largest Christian practice is the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church. Since its reintroduction after the Catholic Emancipation, the Church has organised ecclesiastically on an England and Wales basis where there are 4.5 million members (most of whom are English). There has been one Pope from England to date, Adrian IV; while saints Bede and Anselm are regarded as Doctors of the Church.\n\nA form of Protestantism known as Methodism is the third largest Christian practice and grew out of Anglicanism through John Wesley. It gained popularity in the mill towns of Lancashire and Yorkshire, and amongst tin miners in Cornwall. There are other non-conformist minorities, such as Baptists, Quakers, Congregationalists, Unitarians and The Salvation Army. \n\nThe patron saint of England is Saint George; his symbolic cross is included in the flag of England, as well as in the Union Flag as part of a combination. There are many other English and associated saints; some of the best-known are: Cuthbert, Edmund, Alban, Wilfrid, Aidan, Edward the Confessor, John Fisher, Thomas More, Petroc, Piran, Margaret Clitherow and Thomas Becket. There are non-Christian religions practised. Jews have a history of a small minority on the island since 1070. They were expelled from England in 1290 following the Edict of Expulsion, only to be allowed back in 1656.\n\nEspecially since the 1950s, religions from the former British colonies have grown in numbers, due to immigration. Islam is the most common of these, now accounting for around 5% of the population in England. Hinduism, Sikhism and Buddhism are next in number, adding up to 2.8% combined, introduced from India and South East Asia.\n\nA small minority of the population practice ancient Pagan religions. Neopaganism in the United Kingdom is primarily represented by Wicca and Witchcraft religions, Druidry, and Heathenry. According to the 2011 UK Census, there are roughly 53,172 people who identify as Pagan in England, and 3,448 in Wales, including 11,026 Wiccans in England and 740 in Wales.\n\nEducation\n\nThe Department for Education is the government department responsible for issues affecting people in England up to the age of 19, including education. State-run and state-funded schools are attended by approximately 93% of English schoolchildren. Of these, a minority are faith schools (primarily Church of England or Roman Catholic schools). Children who are between the ages of 3 and 5 attend nursery or an Early Years Foundation Stage reception unit within a primary school. Children between the ages of 5 and 11 attend primary school, and secondary school is attended by those aged between 11 and 16. After finishing compulsory education, students take GCSE examinations. Students may then opt to continue into further education for two years. Further education colleges (particularly sixth form colleges) often form part of a secondary school site. A-level examinations are sat by a large number of further education students, and often form the basis of an application to university.\n\nAlthough most English secondary schools are comprehensive, in some areas there are selective intake grammar schools, to which entrance is subject to passing the Eleven-Plus exam. Around 7.2% of English schoolchildren attend private schools, which are funded by private sources. Standards in state schools are monitored by the Office for Standards in Education, and in private schools by the Independent Schools Inspectorate. \n\nHigher education students normally attend university from age 18 onwards, where they study for an academic degree. There are over 90 universities in England, all but one of which are public institutions. The Department for Business, Innovation and Skills is the government department responsible for higher education in England. Students are generally entitled to student loans to cover the cost of tuition fees and living costs. The first degree offered to undergraduates is the Bachelor's degree, which usually takes three years to complete. Students are then able to work towards a postgraduate degree, which usually takes one year, or towards a doctorate, which takes three or more years.\n\nEngland's universities include some of the highest-ranked universities in the world; Cambridge University, Imperial College London, Oxford University, University College London and King's College London are all ranked in the global top 20 in the 2014–2015 QS World University Rankings. The London School of Economics has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research. The London Business School is considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2010 its MBA programme was ranked best in the world by the Financial Times. Academic degrees in England are usually split into classes: first class (1st), upper second class (2:1), lower second class (2:2), third (3rd), and unclassified.\n\nThe King's School, Canterbury and King's School, Rochester are the oldest schools in the English-speaking world. Many of England's most well-known schools, such as Winchester College, Eton, St Paul's School, Harrow School and Rugby School are fee-paying institutions. \n\nCulture\n\nArchitecture\n\nMany ancient standing stone monuments were erected during the prehistoric period, amongst the best-known are Stonehenge, Devil's Arrows, Rudston Monolith and Castlerigg. With the introduction of Ancient Roman architecture there was a development of basilicas, baths, amphitheaters, triumphal arches, villas, Roman temples, Roman roads, Roman forts, stockades and aqueducts. It was the Romans who founded the first cities and towns such as London, Bath, York, Chester and St Albans. Perhaps the best-known example is Hadrian's Wall stretching right across northern England. Another well-preserved example is the Roman Baths at Bath, Somerset.\n\nEarly Medieval architecture's secular buildings were simple constructions mainly using timber with thatch for roofing. Ecclesiastical architecture ranged from a synthesis of Hiberno—Saxon monasticism, to Early Christian basilica and architecture characterised by pilaster-strips, blank arcading, baluster shafts and triangular headed openings. After the Norman conquest in 1066 various Castles in England were created so law lords could uphold their authority and in the north to protect from invasion. Some of the best-known medieval castles are the Tower of London, Warwick Castle, Durham Castle and Windsor Castle.\n\nThroughout the Plantagenet era an English Gothic architecture flourished—the medieval cathedrals such as Canterbury Cathedral, Westminster Abbey and York Minster are prime examples. Expanding on the Norman base there was also castles, palaces, great houses, universities and parish churches. Medieval architecture was completed with the 16th-century Tudor style; the four-centred arch, now known as the Tudor arch, was a defining feature as were wattle and daub houses domestically. In the aftermath of the Renaissance a form of architecture echoing classical antiquity, synthesised with Christianity appeared—the English Baroque style, architect Christopher Wren was particularly championed. \n\nGeorgian architecture followed in a more refined style, evoking a simple Palladian form; the Royal Crescent at Bath is one of the best examples of this. With the emergence of romanticism during Victorian period, a Gothic Revival was launched—in addition to this around the same time the Industrial Revolution paved the way for buildings such as The Crystal Palace. Since the 1930s various modernist forms have appeared whose reception is often controversial, though traditionalist resistance movements continue with support in influential places.\n\nFolklore\n\nEnglish folklore developed over many centuries. Some of the characters and stories are present across England, but most belong to specific regions. Common folkloric beings include pixies, giants, elves, bogeymen, trolls, goblins and dwarves. While many legends and folk-customs are thought to be ancient, for instance the tales featuring Offa of Angel and Wayland the Smith, others date from after the Norman invasion; Robin Hood and his Merry Men of Sherwood and their battles with the Sheriff of Nottingham being, perhaps, the best known. \n\nDuring the High Middle Ages tales originating from Brythonic traditions entered English folklore—the Arthurian myth. These were derived from Anglo-Norman, Welsh and French sources, featuring King Arthur, Camelot, Excalibur, Merlin and the Knights of the Round Table such as Lancelot. These stories are most centrally brought together within Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain). Another early figure from British tradition, King Cole, may have been based on a real figure from Sub-Roman Britain. Many of the tales and pseudo-histories make up part of the wider Matter of Britain, a collection of shared British folklore.\n\nSome folk figures are based on semi or actual historical people whose story has been passed down centuries; Lady Godiva for instance was said to have ridden naked on horseback through Coventry, Hereward the Wake was a heroic English figure resisting the Norman invasion, Herne the Hunter is an equestrian ghost associated with Windsor Forest and Great Park and Mother Shipton is the archetypal witch. On 5 November people make bonfires, set off fireworks and eat toffee apples in commemoration of the foiling of the Gunpowder Plot centred on Guy Fawkes. The chivalrous bandit, such as Dick Turpin, is a recurring character, while Blackbeard is the archetypal pirate. There are various national and regional folk activities, participated in to this day, such as Morris dancing, Maypole dancing, Rapper sword in the North East, Long Sword dance in Yorkshire, Mummers Plays, bottle-kicking in Leicestershire, and cheese-rolling at Cooper's Hill. There is no official national costume, but a few are well established such as the Pearly Kings and Queens associated with cockneys, the Royal Guard, the Morris costume and Beefeaters. \n\nCuisine\n\nSince the early modern period the food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce. During the Middle Ages and through the Renaissance period, English cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation, though a decline began during the Industrial Revolution with the move away from the land and increasing urbanisation of the populace. The cuisine of England has, however, recently undergone a revival, which has been recognised by the food critics with some good ratings in Restaurants best restaurant in the world charts. An early book of English recipes is the Forme of Cury from the royal court of Richard II. \n\nTraditional examples of English food include the Sunday roast, featuring a roasted joint (usually beef, lamb, chicken or pork) served with assorted vegetables, Yorkshire pudding, and gravy. Other prominent meals include fish and chips and the full English breakfast (generally consisting of bacon, sausages, grilled tomatoes, fried bread, black pudding, baked beans, mushrooms, and eggs). Various meat pies are consumed such as steak and kidney pie, steak and ale pie, cottage pie, pork pie (the latter usually eaten cold) and the Cornish Pasty.\n\nSausages are commonly eaten, either as bangers and mash or toad in the hole. Lancashire hotpot is a well known stew in the northwest. Some of the more popular cheeses are Cheddar, Red Leicester and Wensleydale together with Blue Stilton. Many Anglo-Indian hybrid dishes, curries, have been created such as chicken tikka masala and balti. Traditional English dessert dishes include apple pie or other fruit pies; spotted dick – all generally served with custard; and, more recently, sticky toffee pudding. Sweet pastries include scones (either plain or containing dried fruit) served with jam and/or cream, dried fruit loaves, Eccles cakes and mince pies as well as a wide range of sweet or spiced biscuits. Common drinks include tea, whose popularity was increased by Catherine of Braganza, whilst frequently consumed alcoholic drinks include wines, ciders and English beers, such as bitter, mild, stout, and brown ale. \n\nVisual arts\n\nThe earliest known examples are the prehistoric rock and cave art pieces, most prominent in North Yorkshire, Northumberland and Cumbria, but also feature further south, for example at Creswell Crags. With the arrival of Roman culture in the 1st century, various forms of art utilising statues, busts, glasswork and mosaics were the norm. There are numerous surviving artefacts, such as those at Lullingstone and Aldborough. During the Early Middle Ages the style favoured sculpted crosses and ivories, manuscript painting, gold and enamel jewellery, demonstrating a love of intricate, interwoven designs such as in the Staffordshire Hoard discovered in 2009. Some of these blended Gaelic and Anglian styles, such as the Lindisfarne Gospels and Vespasian Psalter. Later Gothic art was popular at Winchester and Canterbury, examples survive such as Benedictional of St. Æthelwold and Luttrell Psalter.\n\nThe Tudor era saw prominent artists as part of their court, portrait painting which would remain an enduring part of English art, was boosted by German Hans Holbein, natives such as Nicholas Hilliard built on this. Under the Stuarts, Continental artists were influential especially the Flemish, examples from the period include—Anthony van Dyck, Peter Lely, Godfrey Kneller and William Dobson. The 18th century was a time of significance with the founding of the Royal Academy, a classicism based on the High Renaissance prevailed—Thomas Gainsborough and Joshua Reynolds became two of England's most treasured artists.\n\nThe Norwich School continued the landscape tradition, while the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood with their vivid and detailed style revived the Early Renaissance style—Holman Hunt, Dante Gabriel Rossetti and John Everett Millais were leaders. Prominent amongst 20th-century artists was Henry Moore, regarded as the voice of British sculpture, and of British modernism in general. Contemporary painters include Lucian Freud, whose work Benefits Supervisor Sleeping in 2008 set a world record for sale value of a painting by a living artist. \n\nLiterature, poetry and philosophy\n\nEarly authors such as Bede and Alcuin wrote in Latin. The period of Old English literature provided the epic poem Beowulf and the secular prose of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, along with Christian writings such as Judith, Cædmon's Hymn and hagiographies. Following the Norman conquest Latin continued amongst the educated classes, as well as an Anglo-Norman literature.\n\nMiddle English literature emerged with Geoffrey Chaucer, author of The Canterbury Tales, along with Gower, the Pearl Poet and Langland. William of Ockham and Roger Bacon, who were Franciscans, were major philosophers of the Middle Ages. Julian of Norwich, who wrote Revelations of Divine Love, was a prominent Christian mystic. With the English Renaissance literature in the Early Modern English style appeared. William Shakespeare, whose works include Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, Macbeth, and A Midsummer Night's Dream, remains one of the most championed authors in English literature. \n\nChristopher Marlowe, Edmund Spenser, Philip Sydney, Thomas Kyd, John Donne, and Ben Jonson are other established authors of the Elizabethan age. Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes wrote on empiricism and materialism, including scientific method and social contract. Filmer wrote on the Divine Right of Kings. Marvell was the best-known poet of the Commonwealth, while John Milton authored Paradise Lost during the Restoration.\n\nSome of the most prominent philosophers of the Enlightenment were John Locke, Thomas Paine, Samuel Johnson and Jeremy Bentham. More radical elements were later countered by Edmund Burke who is regarded as the founder of conservatism. The poet Alexander Pope with his satirical verse became well regarded. The English played a significant role in romanticism: Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lord Byron, John Keats, Mary Shelley, Percy Bysshe Shelley, William Blake and William Wordsworth were major figures. \n\nIn response to the Industrial Revolution, agrarian writers sought a way between liberty and tradition; William Cobbett, G. K. Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc were main exponents, while the founder of guild socialism, Arthur Penty, and cooperative movement advocate G. D. H. Cole are somewhat related. Empiricism continued through John Stuart Mill and Bertrand Russell, while Bernard Williams was involved in analytics. Authors from around the Victorian era include Charles Dickens, the Brontë sisters, Jane Austen, George Eliot, Rudyard Kipling, Thomas Hardy, H. G. Wells and Lewis Carroll. Since then England has continued to produce novelists such as George Orwell, D. H. Lawrence, Virginia Woolf, C. S. Lewis, Enid Blyton, Aldous Huxley, Agatha Christie, Terry Pratchett, J. R. R. Tolkien, and J. K. Rowling. \n\nPerforming arts\n\nThe traditional folk music of England is centuries old and has contributed to several genres prominently; mostly sea shanties, jigs, hornpipes and dance music. It has its own distinct variations and regional peculiarities. Wynkyn de Worde printed ballads of Robin Hood from the 16th century are an important artefact, as are John Playford's The Dancing Master and Robert Harley's Roxburghe Ballads collections. Some of the best-known songs are Greensleeves, Pastime with Good Company, Maggie May and Spanish Ladies amongst others. Many nursery rhymes are of English origin such as Twinkle Twinkle Little Star, Roses are red, Jack and Jill, London Bridge Is Falling Down, The Grand Old Duke of York, Hey Diddle Diddle and Humpty Dumpty. Traditional English Christmas carols include \"We Wish You a Merry Christmas\", \"The First Noel\" and \"God Rest You Merry, Gentlemen\". \n\nEarly English composers in classical music include Renaissance artists Thomas Tallis and William Byrd, followed up by Henry Purcell from the Baroque period. German-born George Frideric Handel became a British subject and spent most of his composing life in London, creating some of the most well-known works of classical music, The Messiah, Water Music, and Music for the Royal Fireworks. One of his four Coronation Anthems, Zadok the Priest, composed for the coronation of George II, has been performed at every subsequent British coronation, traditionally during the sovereign's anointing. There was a revival in the profile of composers from England in the 20th century led by Edward Elgar, Benjamin Britten, Frederick Delius, Gustav Holst, Ralph Vaughan Williams and others. Present-day composers from England include Michael Nyman, best known for The Piano, and Andrew Lloyd Webber, whose musicals have achieved enormous success in the West End and worldwide. \n\nIn the field of popular music, many English bands and solo artists have been cited as the most influential and best-selling musicians of all time. Acts such as The Beatles, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, Elton John, Queen, Rod Stewart and The Rolling Stones are among the highest selling recording artists in the world. Many musical genres have origins in (or strong associations with) England, such as British invasion, progressive rock, hard rock, Mod, glam rock, heavy metal, Britpop, indie rock, gothic rock, shoegazing, acid house, garage, trip hop, drum and bass and dubstep. \n\nLarge outdoor music festivals in the summer and autumn are popular, such as Glastonbury, V Festival, and the Reading and Leeds Festivals. The most prominent opera house in England is the Royal Opera House at Covent Garden. The Proms – a season of orchestral classical concerts held at the Royal Albert Hall in London – is a major cultural event in the English calendar, and takes place yearly. The Royal Ballet is one of the world's foremost classical ballet companies, its reputation built on two prominent figures of 20th-century dance, prima ballerina Margot Fonteyn and choreographer Frederick Ashton.\n\nCinema\n\nEngland (and the UK as a whole) has had a considerable influence on the history of the cinema, producing some of the greatest actors, directors and motion pictures of all time, including Alfred Hitchcock, Charlie Chaplin, David Lean, Laurence Olivier, Vivien Leigh, John Gielgud, Peter Sellers, Julie Andrews, Michael Caine, Gary Oldman, Helen Mirren, Kate Winslet and Daniel Day-Lewis. Hitchcock and Lean are among the most critically acclaimed of all-time. Hitchcock's first thriller, The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog (1926), helped shape the thriller genre in film, while his 1929 film, Blackmail, is often regarded as the first British sound feature film. \n\nMajor film studios in England include Pinewood, Elstree and Shepperton. Some of the most commercially successful films of all time have been produced in England, including two of the highest-grossing film franchises (Harry Potter and James Bond). Ealing Studios in London has a claim to being the oldest continuously working film studio in the world. Famous for recording many motion picture film scores, the London Symphony Orchestra first performed film music in 1935. \n\nThe BFI Top 100 British films includes Monty Python's Life of Brian (1979), a film regularly voted the funniest of all time by the UK public. English producers are also active in international co-productions and English actors, directors and crew feature regularly in American films. The UK film council ranked David Yates, Christopher Nolan, Mike Newell, Ridley Scott and Paul Greengrass the five most commercially successful English directors since 2001. Other contemporary English directors include Sam Mendes, Guy Ritchie and Steve McQueen. Current actors include Tom Hardy, Daniel Craig, Benedict Cumberbatch and Emma Watson. Acclaimed for his motion capture work, Andy Serkis opened The Imaginarium Studios in London in 2011. The visual effects company Framestore in London has produced some of the most critically acclaimed special effects in modern film. Many successful Hollywood films have been based on English people, stories or events. The 'English Cycle' of Disney animated films include Alice in Wonderland, The Jungle Book and Winnie the Pooh. \n\nMuseums, libraries, and galleries\n\nEnglish Heritage is a governmental body with a broad remit of managing the historic sites, artefacts and environments of England. It is currently sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. The charity National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty holds a contrasting role. 17 of the 25 United Kingdom UNESCO World Heritage Sites fall within England. Some of the best-known of these are: Hadrian's Wall, Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites, Tower of London, Jurassic Coast, Saltaire, Ironbridge Gorge, Studley Royal Park and various others. \n\nThere are many museums in England, but perhaps the most notable is London's British Museum. Its collection of more than seven million objects is one of the largest and most comprehensive in the world, sourced from every continent, illustrating and documenting the story of human culture from its beginning to the present. The British Library in London is the national library and is one of the world's largest research libraries, holding over 150 million items in all known languages and formats; including around 25 million books. The most senior art gallery is the National Gallery in Trafalgar Square, which houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900. The Tate galleries house the national collections of British and international modern art; they also host the famously controversial Turner Prize. \n\nSports\n\nEngland has a strong sporting heritage, and during the 19th century codified many sports that are now played around the world. Sports originating in England include association football, cricket, rugby union, rugby league, tennis, boxing, badminton, squash, rounders, hockey, snooker, billiards, darts, table tennis, bowls, netball, thoroughbred horseracing, greyhound racing and fox hunting. It has helped the development of golf, sailing and Formula One.\n\nFootball is the most popular of these sports. The England national football team, whose home venue is Wembley Stadium, played Scotland in the first ever international football match in 1872. Referred to as the \"home of football\" by FIFA, England hosted the 1966 FIFA World Cup, and won the tournament by defeating West Germany 4–2 in the final, with Geoff Hurst scoring a hat-trick. With a British television audience peak of 32.30 million viewers, the final is the most watched television event ever in the UK. \n\nAt club level England is recognised by FIFA as the birthplace of club football, due to Sheffield F.C. founded in 1857 being the world's oldest club. The Football Association is the oldest governing body in the sport, with the rules of football first drafted in 1863 by Ebenezer Cobb Morley. The FA Cup and The Football League were the first cup and league competitions respectively. In the modern day the Premier League is the world's most-watched football league, most lucrative, and amongst the elite. \n\nAs is the case throughout the UK, football in England is renowned for the intense rivalries between clubs and the passion of the supporters, which includes a tradition of football chants, such as, \"You're Not Singing Any More\" (or its variant \"We Can See You Sneaking Out!\"), sung by jubilant fans towards the opposition fans who have gone silent (or left early). The European Cup (now UEFA Champions League) has been won by Liverpool, Manchester United, Nottingham Forest, Aston Villa and Chelsea, while Arsenal, and Leeds United have reached the final. Other English clubs have enjoyed success, Tottenham Hotspur, Ipswich Town, Chelsea, and Liverpool have won the UEFA Cup, renamed UEFA Europa League.\n\nCricket is generally thought to have been developed in the early medieval period among the farming and metalworking communities of the Weald. The England cricket team is a composite England and Wales team. One of the game's top rivalries is The Ashes series between England and Australia, contested since 1882. The climax of the 2005 Ashes was viewed by 7.4 million as it was available on terrestrial television. England has hosted four Cricket World Cups (1975, 1979, 1983, 1999) and will host the 2019 edition, but never won the tournament, reaching the final 3 times. However they have hosted the ICC World Twenty20 in 2009, winning this format in 2010 beating rivals Australia in the final. In the domestic competition, the County Championship, Yorkshire are by far the most successful club having won the competition 31 times. Lord's Cricket Ground situated in London is sometimes referred to as the \"Mecca of Cricket\". \n\nWilliam Penny Brookes was prominent in organising the format for the modern Olympic Games. In 1994, then President of the IOC, Juan Antonio Samaranch, laid a wreath on Brooke's grave, and said, \"I came to pay homage and tribute to Dr Brookes, who really was the founder of the modern Olympic Games\". London has hosted the Summer Olympic Games three times, in 1908, 1948, and 2012. England competes in the Commonwealth Games, held every four years. Sport England is the governing body responsible for distributing funds and providing strategic guidance for sporting activity in England.\n\nRugby union originated in Rugby School, Warwickshire in the early 19th century. The England rugby union team won the 2003 Rugby World Cup, the country was one of the host nations of the competition in the 1991 Rugby World Cup and is set to host the 2015 Rugby World Cup. The top level of club participation is the English Premiership. Leicester Tigers, London Wasps, Bath Rugby and Northampton Saints have had success in the Europe-wide Heineken Cup.\n\nRugby league was born in Huddersfield in 1895. Since 2008, the England national rugby league team has been a full test nation in lieu of the Great Britain national rugby league team, which won three World Cups but is now retired. Club sides play in Super League, the present-day embodiment of the Rugby Football League Championship. Rugby League is most popular among towns in the northern English counties of Lancashire, Yorkshire and Cumbria. All eleven English clubs in Super League are based in the north of England. Some of the most successful clubs include Wigan Warriors, St Helens, Leeds Rhinos and Huddersfield Giants; the former three have all won the World Club Challenge previously.\n\nGolf has been prominent in England; due in part to its cultural and geographical ties to Scotland, the home of Golf. There are both professional tours for men and women, in two main tours: the PGA and the European Tour. England has produced grand slam winners: Cyril Walker, Tony Jacklin, Nick Faldo, and Justin Rose in the men's and Laura Davies, Alison Nicholas, and Karen Stupples in the women's. The world's oldest golf tournament, and golf's first major, is The Open Championship, played both in England and Scotland. The biennial golf competition, the Ryder Cup, is named after English businessman Samuel Ryder who sponsored the event and donated the trophy. Nick Faldo is the most successful Ryder Cup player ever, having won the most points (25) of any player on either the European or U.S. teams. \n\nTennis was created in Birmingham, England in the late 19th century, and the Wimbledon Championships is the oldest tennis tournament in the world, and widely considered the most prestigious. Fred Perry was the last Englishman to win Wimbledon in 1936. He was the first player to win all four Grand Slam singles titles and helped lead the Great Britain team to victory over France in the Davis Cup in 1933. English women who have won Wimbledon include: Ann Haydon Jones won in 1969 and Virginia Wade in 1977.\n\nIn boxing, under the Marquess of Queensberry Rules, England has produced many world champions across the weight divisions internationally recognised by the governing bodies. World champions include Bob Fitzsimmons, Ted \"Kid\" Lewis, Randolph Turpin, Nigel Benn, Chris Eubank, Frank Bruno, Lennox Lewis, Ricky Hatton, Naseem Hamed, Amir Khan, Carl Froch, and David Haye. In women's boxing, Nicola Adams became the world's first woman to win an Olympic boxing Gold medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics.\n\nThe 1950 British Grand Prix at Silverstone was the first race in the newly created Formula One World Championship. Since then, England has produced some of the greatest drivers in the sport, including; John Surtees, Stirling Moss, Graham Hill (only driver to have won the Triple Crown), Nigel Mansell (only man to hold F1 and IndyCar titles at the same time), Damon Hill, Lewis Hamilton and Jenson Button. It has manufactured some of the most technically advanced racing cars, and many of today's racing companies choose England as their base of operations for its engineering knowledge and organisation. McLaren Automotive, Williams F1, Team Lotus, Honda, Brawn GP, Benetton, Renault, and Red Bull Racing are all, or have been, located in the south of England. England also has a rich heritage in Grand Prix motorcycle racing, the premier championship of motorcycle road racing, and produced several World Champions across all the various class of motorcycle: Mike Hailwood, John Surtees, Phil Read, Geoff Duke, and Barry Sheene.\n\nDarts is a widely popular sport in England; a professional competitive sport, darts is a traditional pub game. The sport is governed by the World Darts Federation, one of its member organisations is the BDO, which annually stages the Lakeside World Professional Championship, the other being the Professional Darts Corporation (PDC), which runs its own world championship at Alexandra Palace in London. Phil Taylor is widely regarded as the best darts player of all time, having won 187 professional tournaments, and a record 16 World Championships. Trina Gulliver is the ten-time Women's World Professional Darts Champion of the British Darts Organisation. Another popular sport commonly associated with pub games is Snooker, and England has produced several world champions, including Steve Davis and Ronnie O'Sullivan.\n\nThe English are keen sailors and enjoy competitive sailing; founding and winning some of the worlds most famous and respected international competitive tournaments across the various race formats, including the match race, a regatta, and the America's Cup. England has produced some of the world's greatest sailors, including, Francis Chichester, Herbert Hasler, John Ridgway, Robin Knox-Johnston, Ellen MacArthur, Mike Golding, Paul Goodison, and the most successful Olympic sailor ever Ben Ainslie. \n\nNational symbols\n\nThe St George's Cross has been the national flag of England since the 13th century. Originally the flag was used by the maritime Republic of Genoa. The English monarch paid a tribute to the Doge of Genoa from 1190 onwards, so that English ships could fly the flag as a means of protection when entering the Mediterranean.\nA red cross was a symbol for many Crusaders in the 12th and 13th centuries. It became associated with Saint George, along with countries and cities, which claimed him as their patron saint and used his cross as a banner. Since 1606 the St George's Cross has formed part of the design of the Union Flag, a Pan-British flag designed by King James I.\n\nThere are numerous other symbols and symbolic artefacts, both official and unofficial, including the Tudor rose, the nation's floral emblem, and the Three Lions featured on the Royal Arms of England. The Tudor rose was adopted as a national emblem of England around the time of the Wars of the Roses as a symbol of peace. It is a syncretic symbol in that it merged the white rose of the Yorkists and the red rose of the Lancastrians—cadet branches of the Plantagenets who went to war over control of the nation. It is also known as the Rose of England. The oak tree is a symbol of England, representing strength and endurance. The Royal Oak symbol and Oak Apple Day commemorate the escape of King Charles II from the grasp of the parliamentarians after his father's execution: he hid in an oak tree to avoid detection before safely reaching exile.\n\nThe Royal Arms of England, a national coat of arms featuring three lions, originated with its adoption by Richard the Lionheart in 1198. It is blazoned as gules, three lions passant guardant or and it provides one of the most prominent symbols of England; it is similar to the traditional arms of Normandy. England does not have an official designated national anthem, as the United Kingdom as a whole has God Save the Queen. However, the following are often considered unofficial English national anthems:\nJerusalem, Land of Hope and Glory (used for England during the 2002 Commonwealth Games), and I Vow to Thee, My Country. England's National Day is 23 April which is St George's Day: St George is the patron saint of England." ] }

{ "description": [ "The population of London is expected to near 10 million people within a ... The Independent Books; ... England is expected to house 58.4 million people by ...", "A Population History of London. ... From a population of around half a million ... (the number of old and young people supported by the working population). For ...", "UK population could hit 132 million, ... a population of 96.5 million in 2087 and a third of England’s population would be over ... views of London ." ], "filename": [ "52/52_3513.txt", "143/143_3514.txt", "123/123_3519.txt" ], "rank": [ 2, 3, 8 ], "title": [ "London population predicted to near 10 million within a ...", "London History - A Population History of London - Central ...", "UK population could hit 132 million, warn official figures ..." ], "url": [ "http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/population-of-london-predicted-to-near-10-million-in-a-decade-as-england-continues-to-grow-a7048531.html", "http://www.oldbaileyonline.org/static/Population-history-of-london.jsp", "http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/immigration/10509723/UK-population-could-hit-132-million-warn-official-figures.html" ], "search_context": [ "London population predicted to near 10 million within a decade as England continues to grow | The Independent\nHome News\nLondon population predicted to near 10 million within a decade as England continues to grow\nThe ONS expects 315 out of England's 324 local authorities to see their population increase over the period\nWednesday 25 May 2016 14:36 BST\nClick to follow\nThe Independent Online\nThe ONS expects London to have 9,708,000 residents by mid-2024 iStock\nThe population of London is expected to near 10 million people within a decade as the capital remains the fastest-growing region in England.\nAccording to the Office for National Statistics’ (ONS) latest population predictions, there will be by 9.7 million residents in the city by the middle of 2024 and the rate shows no sign of slowing.\nSuzie Dunsmith, from the ONS’ population projections unit, said: “All regions of England are projected to see an increase in their population size over the next decade, with London, the East of England and South East projected to grow faster than the country as a whole. \n“The population is also ageing with all regions seeing a faster growth in those aged 65 and over than in younger age groups.”\nNine out of 10 fastest-growing local authorities are in London, with the eastern boroughs of Tower Hamlets, Barking and Dagenham and Newham topping the charts, while the only area outside the capital in the top 10 is Corby.\nRead more\nBritain's human landscape: Oxford university's Professor Danny Dorling has created an atlas of the UK's population\nThe Northamptonshire town is forecast to expand by 17 per cent over 10 years, seeing its population rise to 76,000.\nThe East and South East of England are also growing faster than the national average, at 8.9 per cent and 8.1 per cent respectively.\nAll regions of the country are expected to see their populations but the slowest increase expected by the ONS is in the North East, on 3.1 per cent, followed by the North West and Yorkshire and the Humber.\nBut the number of residents in nine out of 324 local authority areas is predicted to decline, including Barrow-in-Furness, Cumbria, which is projected to see its population fall by 2,900 people, or 4.3 per cent in the period. \nOvercrowding in London - London Live\nSeven of the decreasing areas are in the North West, including Blackpool and Burnley, with one, Redcar and Cleveland, in the North East and another, Richmondshire, in Yorkshire and The Humber.\n“It should be noted that the projections reflect current trends and do not take into account the ability of an area to accommodate any extra population,” a spokesperson for the ONS said.\n“The primary purpose of the subnational projections is to provide an estimate of the future size and age structure of the population for regions, local authorities and Clinical Commissioning Groups in England. “These are used as a common framework for informing local-level policy and planning in a number of different fields.”\nUK news in pictures\nThe Ivy Restaurant in London as it celebrates its 100th anniversary\nPA wire\nA general view of a Green Plaque unveiled to celebrate 100 years of the Ivy\nGetty Images\nThe coffin of Jill Saward leaves Lichfield Cathedral after her funeral service in Lichfield, England\nGetty Images\n4/28 17 January 2017\nThe funeral cortege of Jill Saward leaves Lichfield Cathedral after her funeral service in Lichfield, England\nGetty Images\nJill Saward's husband Gavin Drake is comforted after her funeral at Lichfield Cathedral in Staffordshire\nPA wire\n6/28 17 January 2017\nBritains recently appointed ambassador to the EU, Tim Barrow, walks through Downing Street in central London\nGetty Images\n7/28 17 January 2017\nThe sun rises through the frosty mist in as deer graze in Windsor Great Park, Berkshire\nPA\nA misty Sunrise in Windsor Great Park, Berkshire\nPA\n9/28 16 January 2017\nAngels from Freedom by OVE Collective illuminates in Jubilee Park in Canary Wharf, London as part of the Winter Lights festival 2017\nMatt Alexander/PA Wire\n10/28 16 January 2017\nOn Your Wavelength by Marcus Lyall uses mind-power to choreograph light patterns at the Canary Wharf Winter Lights Festival 2017\nMatt Alexander/PA Wire\n11/28 16 January 2017\nAt 7 metres, Ovo, by Ovo Collective immerses visitors in a unique light structure as part of the Canary Wharf Winter Lights festival 2017\nMatt Alexander/PA Wire\n12/28 16 January 2017\nHorizontal Interference by Joachim Slugocki and Katarzyna Malejka illuminates Westferry Circus in Canary Wharf, London as part of the Winter Lights festival 2017\nMatt Alexander/PA Wire\n13/28 16 January 2017\nAngels from Freedom by OVE Collective illuminates in Jubilee Park in Canary Wharf, London as part of the Winter Lights festival 2017\nMatt Alexander/PA Wire\n14/28 16 January 2017\nOvo, by Ovo Collective immerses visitors in a unique light structure as part of the Canary Wharf Winter Lights festival 2017\nMatt Alexander/PA Wire\n15/28 12 January 2017\nA postman in Braco, near Stirling, Scotland. Frequent snow showers and strong winds are expected widely across Scotland, Northern Ireland, Wales and the north of England on Thursday with the possibility of sleet or snow for a short time in the south of the UK\nAndrew Milligan/PA Wire\n16/28 12 January 2017\nHighland cattle in the snow near Brough. Frequent snow showers and strong winds are expected widely across Scotland, Northern Ireland, Wales and the north of England on Thursday with the possibility of sleet or snow for a short time in the south of the UK\nOwen Humphreys/PA Wire\n17/28 12 January 2017\nFrequent snow showers and strong winds are expected widely across Scotland, Northern Ireland, Wales and the north of England on Thursday with the possibility of sleet or snow for a short time in the south of the UK\nAndrew Milligan/PA Wire\n18/28 12 January 2017\nBritish Foreign Secretary Boris Johnson arrives for the Cyprus Peace Talks at the European headquarters of the United Nations in Geneva, Switzerland\nEPA\n19/28 11 January 2017\nHealth Secretary Jeremy Hunt leaves his home in London. According to documents leaked to the BBC, record numbers of patients are facing long waits in A & E's and that nearly a quarter of all patients waited longer than the four hour target set in 2004. The figures come after the British Red Cross claimed the NHS was facing a 'humanitarian crisis' this winter\nGetty\n20/28 10 January 2017\nCourt artist sketch by Elizabeth Cook of Rolf Harris appearing by video link at Southwark Crown Court in London, where he is accused of seven counts of indecent assault and one of sexual assault\nElizabeth Cook/PA Wire\n21/28 10 January 2017\nA David Bowie fan poses in front of the mural of late British pop icon David Bowie created by Australian street artist James Cochran, also known as Jimmy C, as fans paid their respects in Brixton, south London\nGetty\nLabour Party leader Jeremy Corbyn leaves the Millbank television studios in Westminster, London\nPA\n23/28 9 January 2017\nBritain's Prime Minister Theresa May visits the Wellbeing Centre which provides support to people recovering from mental health needs, in Aldershot, Hampshire\nReuters\n24/28 9 January 2017\nPeople queue for buses at Bishopsgate in the City of London, as Underground workers in the capital continued a 24-hour strike\nPA wire\n25/28 9 January 2017\nPeople look at a sign warning travellers of industrial action at Elephant and Castle Underground Station in London as a 24-hour strike halted Tube services\nPA wire\nMartin McGuinness leaves Stormont Castle today following his resignation as Northern Ireland Deputy First Minister\nGetty\n27/28 9 January 2017\nPeople queue for buses at Bishopsgate in the City of London, as Underground workers in the capital continued a 24-hour strike\nPA Wire", "London History - A Population History of London - Central Criminal Court\nA Population History of London\nThe Demography of Urban Growth\nHumanity's first 'world city' was a seething and constantly growing metropolis of the young. Migrants and immigrants filled its neighbourhoods and gave to each one a distinctive character, which in turn changed decade by decade as new waves of both the desperate and the hopeful from Britain and across the world came to occupy the bright streets and dingy courts of the capital. In the process, many of the emotions and conflicts that fuelled the crimes recorded in the Old Bailey Proceedings were created.\nContents of this Article\nIntroductory Reading\nIntroduction\nIn terms of its population London overshadowed all other British and almost all European cities even in the late seventeenth century and continued to do so throughout the next two and a half centuries. By the early twentieth century it dwarfed its largest competitors, and formed an urban machine for living that was unprecedented in human history. From a population of around half a million when the Proceedings began publication in 1674, London reached a staggering population of over seven million by the time they ceased in 1913. From a city which was just starting to spill beyond the confines of the ‘Square Mile’, by 1913 London marched across the landscape, some seventeen miles from end to end.\nThis pattern of growth was not steady, nor was it entirely down to any single factor. But between them a gradual and punctuated decline in child mortality, in combination with in-migration, from the British Isles, Europe and the rest of the world, were decisive. The city that was created in the process was marked by its youth and its high proportion of women, drawn to the capital by domestic service.\nIntroductory Reading\n1674-1715\nIn the mid-1670s, when the Proceedings began to be published, the population of the capital was approximately 500,000. Fourteen years later, Gregory King, Britain’s first great demographer, estimated it at 527,000. This was a period of low overall population growth, even stagnation in England and was characterised by a very late age at marriage, low illegitimacy rates, and relatively low levels of birth within marriage. These factors impacted just as much on the population of London as on that of the country as a whole, and were exacerbated by particularly high levels of urban infant mortality. As a result, the last three to four decades of the seventeenth century and the first two decades of the eighteenth are a period characterised by slow incremental growth. It is also a period during which a high proportion of London's inhabitants were migrants. Most women came as domestic servants seeking employment, while young men sought apprenticeships or more casual labour. One estimate suggests that a sixth of all people born in England around 1700 lived some part of their lives in London. It was only by maintaining this constant influx that the capital could possibly maintain its population and grow.\nThe combination of low overall fertility rates with high levels of migration substantially skewed the age structure of London. Low fertility rates, for instance, generally result in a low overall dependency ratio (the number of old and young people supported by the working population). For England as whole this ratio reached its lowest point in the 1670s. Because a high number of London's inhabitants were relatively young recent migrants over the age of 14, the effect would be even more powerfully felt in the capital. In other words, London in the late seventeenth century was not a city of children or the elderly. Instead, it was dominated by young men and women in their teens and twenties.\nDuring the seventeenth century migration tended to be long distance and international. As a result, besides its youth, London's population in this period was also characterised by its diversity. All the regions and countries that made up the British Isles were well represented by self-conscious communities of migrants. Specific neighbourhoods were associated with Yorkshire, Scotland and Ireland. At the same time the Huguenot refugees from France successfully carved out a distinct district for themselves in Spitalfields; while Sephardic Jews and Ashkenazim from Poland and Germany settled around Whitechapel and Petticoat Lane. The Irish came to dominate the area around St Giles in the Fields, which came to be known as \"Little Dublin\".\nIntroductory Reading\n1715-1760\nBy 1715 the population of London had reached around 630,000; rising to approximately 740,000 by 1760. Population growth in this period was not, however, evenly spread. Steady growth up to around 1725 was followed by a period of relative stagnation to mid-century, followed in turn by stronger growth during the 1750s. Poor hygiene, living conditions and the \"gin craze\" are frequently cited as explanations for the high mortality rate, and demographers have in particular pointed to the extremely high rate among infants (20.2 deaths per 100 live births by the age of 2 years in the period 1730-9).\nChanging attitudes towards child mortality in this period are reflected in both the establishment of institutions such as the Foundling Hospital in 1741; and in the Proceedings themselves, by the decline in prosecutions for infanticide noticeable from the 1730s onwards, as efforts shifted towards supporting single mothers rather than shaming them. The stagnation or very slow growth of the population of London in this period was also reflected by a marked depression in the building industries.\n1760-1815\nFrom approximately three-quarters of a million people in 1760, London continued a strong pattern of growth through the last four decades of the eighteenth century. In 1801, when the first reliable modern census was taken, greater London recorded 1,096,784 souls; rising to a little over 1.4 million inhabitants by 1815. No single decade in this period witnessed less than robust population growth.\nIn part this urban bloat resulted from a marked decline in infant mortality brought about by better hygiene and childrearing practices, and a changing disease pattern. By the 1840s children born in the capital were three times less likely to die in childhood than those born in the 1730s.\nBut much more important than mortality was increased migration and rising fertility. Long distance migration within the Britain Isles declined (with the exception of migration from Ireland), and was replaced by a higher level of regional migration, with London attracting large numbers from the home counties and from communities with strong links to London through coastal shipping. As a result, many more Londoners came to have family and friends back home within a few days walk than they would have done in the seventeenth century. This also ensured that the social identity of communities defined by a region of origin within the British Isles became relatively less important.\nAt the same time, international, and indeed global, migration (both economic and forced) became more significant. Following the end of hostilities at the conclusions of the Seven Years War in 1763 and the American War in 1783, a large number of black men and women from Africa, the Caribbean and North America settled in London. By the last quarter of the eighteenth century the black population of London is estimated to have been between 5,000 and 10,000. The outcome of the American War in particular also resulted in the establishment of a large American loyalist community, both white and black.\nMarriage patterns evolved rapidly. From having a demographic regime at the turn of the seventeenth century in which people married in their late 20s and had relatively few children, in or out of wedlock, a new pattern took over in London from as early as the 1730s and was well established by the 1760s. This new regime was characterised by high levels of illegitimacy, an average marriage age of below 25, and high overall levels of fertility both within and outside marriage. This reflected a profound change in the behaviour of the still typically young and migrant inhabitants of London.\nThroughout this period women continued to dominate the population as a whole. In 1801 54% of Londoners were female. This both reflected the importance of domestic service in drawing young people to London and exacerbated the impact of changing patterns of courtship and fertility.\nIntroductory Reading\n1815-1860\nIn 1815 London was already the largest city in the world, but by 1860 it had grown three-fold to reach 3,188,485 souls. And many of the souls it contained were from elsewhere. In 1851, over 38 per cent of Londoners were born somewhere else.\nThe Irish made up perhaps the single largest immigrant group. In 1841, when the first census to record the birthplace of Londoners was taken, 4% of the population were from Ireland, representing 73,000 individuals. This rose to 109,000 in 1851 in the wake of the Great Famine (1846-9). A further 13,000 Londoners were from elsewhere in Europe and the rest of the world (rising to 26,000 in 1851). French, Italian, German and Spanish refugees (both economic and political) all formed substantial communities in London during these decades – many forced to flee following the political and economic disorder associated with the revolutions of 1830 and 1848. Added to these were smaller communities of Chinese , Indian and African sailors, living and working along the riverside. And finally, there was a thriving and substantial Jewish community, replenished decade by decade by further European migration.\nAs in earlier periods, however, the vast majority of the migrants who fuelled London’s remarkable population growth were from Britain, and in particular, from the counties and regions of the South East. As a result, Londoners continued to be both younger and more likely to be female than the inhabitants of other British regions. As in the preceding period, the first half of the nineteenth century also witnessed a steady decline in both child and adult mortality, primarily as a consequence of better sanitation, building standards and food supplies. For the first time, London ceased to be a sink of mortality for rural emigrants, as its death rate came to into line with that of the surrounding counties.\n1860-1913\nThe last half of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth saw continued strong growth, in some ways replicating and reinforcing the pattern set in preceding decades. The over three million people living in Greater London in 1861 more than doubled to become over seven million by the 1910s. During the same period, the flow of European immigrants rose from a steady stream to a regular river of humanity, while migration from the wider world also grew in importance.\nReflecting increasing fertility rates, by 1901 the proportion of Londoners born elsewhere had declined to just 33% of the total, but with the growing size of the new megalopolis the number of new migrants was nevertheless huge. And while the Irish born population of London declined from 107,000 in 1861 to just 60,000 in 1901, other groups came to take their place in the hard-scrabble economy of immigrant London.\nThe great revolutions and political struggles of late nineteenth-century Europe brought many from Russia, Poland, France, Italy and Germany - including revolutionaries and political activists such as Karl Marx. But most came to work, or to escape persecution. In 1901 there were 27,400 Germans, 11,300 Frenchmen and women, and 11,000 Italians. But most prominent of all the immigrant communities were the Jews . From the 1860s in particular, the well established London Jewish community was dramatically expanded by those fleeing conscription into the armies of the Austrian Empire, and famine in Russia in 1869-70. The Russo-Turkish War of 1875-6 created a new batch of refugees, but it was in the 1880s, and as a result of the persecution of the Jews in both Russia and Prussia, that most came. It is estimated that by 1901 there were 140,000 Jews living in London, three times as many as two decades earlier.\nChinese and Indian immigrants became a more prominent and established part of the London whirl in these same years, while Indian sailors, and a small but significant African and Black Caribbean community continued to prosper. The Pan-African Conference was held in London in 1900; reflecting the extent to which the capital acted as the centre of imperial dissent as much as the centre of the imperium. The 1901 census recorded 33,000 Londoners as having been born in British colonies or dependencies.\nIntroductory Reading\nThe Demography of Crime\nThroughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the population of London was dominated by the young and by women, and in some ways this is reflected in the Proceedings. From 1789 the age of men and women convicted of crimes is regularly recorded (as is the age of other defendants whose youth or old age provided some mitigation). Just as the population as a whole was dominated by the young, so too was the population of convicted criminals, though this pattern was exacerbated by a greater inclination to prosecute juvenile delinquents. Those prosecuted for violent crimes, in particular, continued to be predominantly young men, and to a lesser extent young women.\nAs the nature of the court at the Old Bailey changed to focus more exclusivley on serious crime (and in particular fraud) the number of younger, relatively petty offenders declined. After the 1850s most pick-pockets and shoplifters were dealt with by the police and magistrate’s courts, removing their largely juvenile perpetrators from the Proceedings.\nNevertheless, throughout this period almost two-thirds of the defendants for whom age is recorded were between fourteen and thirty.\nImmigrants, whose financial security and cultural capital were limited, are similarly prominent. In part, this is a simple reflection of the marginal economic position of most new migrants, but it also reflects the prejudices and bigotry of prosecutors. Throughout the nineteenth century approximately one per cent of all trials involved an interpreter called upon to translate the proceedings to the defendant.\nOne group whose presence in the London population is not clearly reflected in the Proceedings is women, who account for less than a third of the defendants in the eighteenth century, declining to around 15% in the middle decades of the nineteenth century and just over 8% in the first decade of the twentieth. Given that women formed a majority of the population as a whole, these figures are extremely low. For a more detailed discussion of the role of gender in the criminal justice system see Gender in the Proceedings .\nIntroductory Reading\nIntroductory Reading\nFinlay, Roger A.P. and Shearer, Beatrice Robina, \"Population Growth and Suburban Expansion\" in Beier, A.L. and Finlay, R., eds, London 1500-1700 : The Making of the Metropolis (London, 1986), 37-59\nLanders, John, Death and the Metropolis: Studies in the Demographic History of London, 1670-1830 (Cambridge, 1993)\nWrigley, E. A., \"A Simple Model of London's Importance in Changing English Society and Economy, 1650-1750\", Past & Present 37 (1967), 44-70. Also in Philip Abrams and E.A. Wrigley, eds, Towns in Societies: Essays in Economic History and Historical Sociology (Cambridge, 1978)\nL.D. Schwarz, London in the Age of Industrialisation: Entrepreneurs, Labour Force and Living Conditions, 1700-1850 (Cambridge, 1992), part II.\nFor more secondary literature on this subject see the Bibliography .", "UK population could hit 132 million, warn official figures - Telegraph\nUK population could hit 132 million, warn official figures\nNew Office for National Statistics data predicts Britain's population could surge even faster than previously thought\nThe population of Britain could rise from its current record level of 63.7 million to just under 78 million by 2037 Photo: ALAMY\nBy John Bingham , and David Barrett\n8:10PM GMT 10 Dec 2013\nThe population of Britain could more than double in the next century unless immigration is tightly controlled, according to official estimates showing it could grow 40 per cent faster than previously thought.\nOnly weeks after the Office for National Statistics predicted that the UK will have 10 million more people within the next 25 years, it published new estimates showing that the true figure could be four million higher.\nThe dramatic upward revision suggests the population of Britain could rise from its current record level of 63.7 million to just under 78 million by 2037.\nOn the same projection it could reach and as much as 132 million by this time next century.\nThat would mean that the UK would pass the milestone of 70 million people – a figure once considered controversial and which some politicians have suggested might never be passed, by around 2024 – at least four years earlier than previously predicted.\nRelated Articles\nPopulation growing by 216,000 a year despite visa cuts\n30 Aug 2012\nFrank Field, the former Labour Cabinet minister, claimed the higher estimate could be just the start of the revisions as statistics become more accurate.\nHe said it showed that fears among voters about immigration which he said had long been played down by politicians were now being borne out by figures.\nMr Field warned that the result could wreak havoc with the NHS, schools and the housing crisis.\nHe said: “At a time when political parties are being committed to longer term controls on public expenditure where would the money come from for hospitals, for housing, for schools?\n“We have already got a growing crisis in maternity services.”\nThe upward revision is contained in a report by the ONS setting out “variant” population projections.\nBritain already has the fastest growing population in Europe, fuelled by mass immigration during the last decade and a baby boom, itself linked to the fact that working migrants tend to be the age at which to start a family.\nThe ONS’s main prediction is still that Britain is on course to reach 73.3 million by 2037 – a rate which would take the population to 93.3 million by 2112.\nBut statisticians have produced a series of alternative scenarios based on different assumptions about the levels of immigration, life expectancy and the birth rate.\nThey suggest that the population will be between 71.4 million and 77.7 million by 2037.\nIf higher levels of migration, life expectancy and birth rate are all factored in the, UK population would then soar to 77.7 million within 25 years and 93 million within 50 years. It would then reach 110.9 million by 2087 before hitting 131.9 million in 2112.\nAt that rate England alone would have a population of 96.5 million in 2087 and a third of England’s population would be over 65 by 2072.\n“Due to the inherent uncertainty of demographic behaviour, any set of projections will inevitably be proved wrong, to a greater or lesser extent, as a forecast of future demographic events or population structure,” the ONS explained.\nMr Field said the figures suggested politicians had been burying their heads in the sand about the impact of immigration.\nHe likened the optimism among the political about the impact of population growth to the attitudes which gave rise to appeasement in the run-up to the Second World War.\n“The British political leadership have a characteristic of not wishing to face up to what is happening until very late in the day.\n“If you look at the biggest crisis we have had over the last century, particularly about the European situation, almost to the very end people thought hat there would not be a war - our ability to fool ourselves is very considerable.\n“The public were much more prepared for what was coming.\n“The worry is that as the statistics become more able to predict what appeared not long ago to be unknowable and the time and unthinkable, they are getting more accurate – I don’t think this is the last.”" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Clarice_Cliff.txt" ], "title": [ "Clarice Cliff" ], "wiki_context": [ "Clarice Cliff (20 January 1899 – 23 October 1972) was an English ceramic artist active from 1922 to 1963. She began as an apprentice potter. By reason of her talent and ability, she became a ceramic artist, becoming the head of the factory artistic department.\n\nEarly life \n\nThe Cliff family moved to Tunstall, Stoke-on-Trent, from the Eccleshall area in about 1725. Cliff was born in Tunstall, Stoke-on-Trent, England. When Clarice was born their home was on Meir Street on a terrace of modest houses. Cliff's father Harry worked at the local iron foundry in Tunstall, her mother Ann took in washing to supplement the family income, and they had seven children.Wentworth-Sheilds Peter, Johnson Kay: Clarice Cliff, L'Odeon publishing 1976/1981 \n\nCliff was sent to a different school from her siblings, and this perhaps prompted her more independent approach to her career, and her non-standard life style by Stoke-on-Trent standards. After school Cliff would visit aunts who were hand painters at a local pottery company, and she also made models from papier-mâché at school. \n\nAt the age of 13, Cliff started working in the pottery industry. Her first work was as a gilder, adding gold lines on ware of traditional design. Once she had mastered this she changed jobs to learn freehand painting at another potbank, at the same time studying art and sculpture at the Burslem School of Art in the evenings.\n\nEarly career\n\nIn 1916,Cliff made the rather unusual decision to move to the factory of A.J. Wilkinson at Newport, Burslem, to improve her career opportunities. This necessitated a lengthy journey to work. This was an unusual start to an unusual career; most young women in the Staffordshire Potteries were on 'apprentice wages', and having mastered a particular task, stayed with that to maximise their income. However, Cliff was ambitious and acquired skills in modelling figurines and vases, gilding, keeping pattern books and hand painting ware: outlining, enamelling (filling in colours within the outline) and banding (the radial bands on plates or vessels). In the early 1920s her immediate boss Jack Walker brought Cliff to the attention of one of the two factory owners, Colley Shorter, who managed it with his brother Guy. Colley Shorter was 17 years older than Cliff, and as well as playing a major role in nurturing her skills and ideas, he was later to be her husband.\n\nCliff was given a second apprenticeship at A. J. Wilkinson's in 1924 (when she was already 25 years old) primarily as a 'modeller' but she also worked with the factory designers John Butler and Fred Ridgway. They produced conservative, Victorian style ware – Butler had been the designer for over 20 years by this time. Eventually, Cliff's wide range of skills were recognised and in 1927 she was given her own studio at the adjoining Newport Pottery which Shorter had bought in 1920. Here Cliff was allowed to decorate some of the old defective 'glost' (white) ware in her own freehand patterns. For these she used on-glaze enamel colours, which enabled a brighter palette than underglaze colours. \n\nShe covered the imperfections in simple patterns of triangles, in a style that she called 'Bizarre'. The earliest examples had just a hand-painted mark, usually in a rust coloured paint, 'Bizarre by Clarice Cliff', sometimes with 'Newport Pottery' underneath. To the surprise of the company's senior salesman Ewart Oakes, when he took a car load to a major stockist, it was immediately popular. Clarice was joined by young painter Gladys Scarlett, who helped her with the ware, and soon a more professional 'backstamp' was made, which carried Cliff's facsimile signature, and proclaimed Hand painted Bizarre by Clarice Cliff, Newport Pottery England. \n\nThis backstamp was in fact to lead to Bizarre being used as an umbrella name for her entire pattern range, so that the factory then had to refer to the first pieces in the simple triangles as Original Bizarre.\n\nIn March 1927 Colley Shorter (who acted very independently of his brother, Guy), sent Cliff to the Royal College of Art in Kensington, London for two brief periods of study in March and May. These dates are recorded in the Royal College of Art archive and were also remembered by Gladys Scarlett (in 1982 ) as she was briefly left alone at Newport to paint the new 'Bizarre' ware.\n\nFrom 1927 Cliff was actually credited for shapes she designed, such as her Viking Boat flower holder, though her modelling for the factory is recorded in trade journal as far back as 1923–24. The shapes from 1929 onwards took on a more 'Moderne' influence, often angular and geometric, and some are what was to be later termed Art Deco. Abstract and cubist patterns appeared on these shapes, such as the 1929 Ravel (seen on Cliff's Conical shape ware) which was an abstract leaf and flower pattern named after the composer. The image shows a Conical coffee pot, and sugar bowl and cream with four triangular feet, another of Cliff's rather Bizarre shape ideas which proved popular with 1930s customers. Ravel was to be produced between 1929 and at least as late as 1935.\n\nIn 1928 Clarice produced a simple, hand painted pattern of Crocus flowers in orange, blue and purple, each flower being constructed with confident upward strokes. Then green leaves were added by holding the piece upside down and painting thin lines amongst the flowers. Being made from the individual brushstrokes, the Crocus pattern was clearly completely hand-painted, and the vibrant colours instantly attracted large sales. \n\nInitially, Clarice had just one young decorator produce Crocus, Ethel Barrow. But as orders flooded in by 1930 a separate decorating 'shop' was established underneath the top floor of the building which housed the 'Bizarre' shop, and Ethel became responsible for training young painters how to do the pattern. Twenty young women painted nothing but Crocus 5½ days a week, for much of the 1930s. Crocus was unusual in that it was produced on both tableware, tea and coffeeware, and 'fancies', novelty items made primarily as gift ware. The pattern had many colour variations, including Purple Crocus (1932) Blue Crocus (1935), Sungleam Crocus (1935) Spring Crocus. It was even produced after the war, the final pieces with Clarice Cliff marks being made in 1963, though Midwinter (who bought the factory) continued to paint it to order until as late as 1968. \n\nBy 1929, Cliff's team of decorators had grown to a team of around 70 young painters, mainly women (called her 'Bizarre girls') but also four boys – who hand painted the ware under her direction. Many of these workers were traced in the 1980s and 1990s and they totalled over 100. Their names and work for Clarice Cliff were recorded in the centenary book. \n\nThe factory produced a series of small colour printed leaflets (quite unusual for this time) which could be obtained by post, or picked up from stockists. This promotional device was clearly successful, as one young girl was employed whose only job was to put the leaflets in stamped addressed envelopes sent into the factory. At this time, many women would buy pottery by 'mail order' from advertising in magazines. The series of leaflets, each of which covered a range of pieces in a similar style or set of colours, included ones for Bizarre, Fantasque, Delecia, Appliqué, Inspiration, Crocus & Gayday and others. The original leaflet for the Appliqué patterns featured just two, Lucerne and Lugano, but Cliff's prolific ability to design new patterns is witnessed by the fact that by 1932 the Appliqué range had 14 patterns: with Avignon, Windmill, Red Tree, Idyll, Palermo, Blossom, Caravan, Bird of Paradise, Etna, Garden, Eden and Monsoon in addition to the original two. The Appliqué Lugano pattern is shown left on a 10 in wall plaque, with (inset) the printed Bizarre mark, and a hand painted range name as often seen on this ware. Appliqué, with its more intense colouring, proved long term to be one of the most sought after Cliff ranges.\n\nThe Fantasque range evolved between 1928 and 1934 and mainly featured abstracts or landscapes of cottages and trees, and some Art Deco inspired patterns. The first Fantasque landscape pattern was Trees and House and this sold well from 1930 until at least 1934. However, it was the slightly later, more sophisticated Autumn pattern issued near the end of 1930 which was to prove the most adaptable and popular. Originally created in red (coral) green and black in 1930, from 1931 many colourway variations appeared. The rarest remains the red colourway, shown on a 13 in wall plaque, but the best selling version at the time was one with the trees in blue green and yellow. All these variations have proven particularly collectible.\n\nThe 1930s\n\nIn 1930, Cliff was appointed Art Director to Newport Pottery and A. J. Wilkinson, the two adjoining factories that produced her wares. Her work involved spending more time with the Colley Shorter, and this gradually developed into an affair, conducted in secrecy. The couple worked closely together on creating awareness of 'Bizarre ware' to catch the attention of buyers in the middle of a major financial depression, and with a skilful eye and great foresight, Colley Shorter registered Clarice's name and even some of her shapes. It was her ability to design both patterns and also the shapes they were to go on that distinguished Cliff above any other designers in the Staffordshire Potteries at this time. Her first modelling in the mid 20s was of stylised figures, people, ducks, the floral embossed Davenport ware of 1925. But in 1929 at the same time as she started the colourful cubist and landscape designs, Cliff's modelling took on a new style. This was influenced by European originals by Désny, Tétard Freres, Josef Hoffmann and others, that she had seen in design journals including 'Mobilier e Décoration'. \n\nBetween 1929 and 1935 Cliff issued a mass of shape ranges, including Conical, Bon Jour/Biarritz, Stamford, Eton, Daffodil, and Trieste. In each of these there were tea and coffee ware shapes, but the first two were so popular that biscuit barrels, sugar sifters, bowls and vases were issued to enlarge the range. Bon Jour had 20 shapes created during 1933, with about 10 more being added in 1934. There were also many other innovatively shaped vases, bowls and 'fancies', such as the Liner vase, Flower tube vase and the (now rare) Lido Lady ashtray and Age of Jazz musicians and dancers. \n\nThrough the depths of the Depression Cliff's wares continued to sell in volume at what were high prices for the time. Her Bizarre and Fantasque ware was sold throughout North America, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, but not in mainland Europe. In Britain many top London stores sold it, including Harrods. Some of the other London stockists have long since closed, but the list is impressive: 'Maple & Co., Lawley's, Bon Marche, John Lewis Peter Robinson, Selfridges, John Barker & Co., Warring & Gillow and Gorringe's'. However, the extant order books of the period confirm that Bizarre ware was never sold at Woolworths as some have erroneously stated. \n\nFurther outrageous patterns, vividly coloured, such as Melon and Circle Tree appeared in 1930. Cliff devised many ways of marketing these; in-store painting demonstrations, for which Cliff chose just the prettiest of her painters and most famously she and Shorter had the idea to actually pay major 1930s celebrities to endorse the ware. This was done both in magazine articles and by appearances at large stores. The celebrities included 'actresses Adrienne Allen, Marion Lorne, Marie Tempest, the BBC presenter Christopher Stone, musical comedy star Bobby Howes '. Even Sir Malcolm Campbell who had just broken the world land speed record appeared at a promotion at the First Avenue Hotel, London in 1930.\n\nCliff's worldwide impact was made clear by a story in the 'Pasadena Evening Post' in California. It pictured her with a five-foot-high 'horse' made entirely of Bizarre ware which had been made to promote the ware in Britain. It was in this article, that Cliff made what has become her most famous quote: Having a little fun at my work does not make me any less of an artist, and people who appreciate truly beautiful and original creations in pottery are not frightened by innocent tomfoolery \n\nBetween 1932 and 1934 Cliff was the art director for a major project involving nearly 30 artists of the day (prompted by the Prince of Wales) to promote good design on tableware. The 'Artists in Industry' earthenware examples were produced under her direction, and the artists included such notable names as Duncan Grant, Paul Nash, Barbara Hepworth, Vanessa Bell, and Dame Laura Knight. The project 'Modern Art for the Table' was launched at Harrods London in October 1934 but received a mixed response from both the public and the press, though at the same time Cliff's own patterns and shapes were selling in large quantities around the world. \n\nCliff's patterns are highly stylised and interpreted in strong colours, such as the 1933 Honolulu pattern. The trees are enamelled in red (coral) orange and yellow. Cliff produced a colourway variation on this by simply changing the trees to shades of blue and pink, and this was then called Rudyard after a local Staffordshire beauty spot.\n\nClarice Cliff's fame and success in the 1930s are hard to fully appreciate now, but at that time there was no such thing as 'career women'. The publicity she received in the national press was unprecedented. Research by a PhD student into the contemporary press between 1928 and 1936 found '360 articles about Cliff and her work were published in the trade press, women's magazines, national and local newspapers'. This was put into context when he pointed out that in the same period, Susie Cooper, another Staffordshire ceramicist and designer, had 'fewer than 20 reviews, all bar one in the trade press' . \n\nDespite all the publicity she received, Cliff was actually quite camera shy, and in most cases the images of her pottery were what dominated the women's magazine of the day. One picture which shows Cliff informally was taken when a South African stockist of her ware, from Werner Brothers, visited the factory on a buying trip. Cliff is seen with the 3-year-old daughter and wife of the stockist. After the visit Cliff sent the daughter a present of a miniature child's tea set painted in her Honolulu pattern. \n\nIn the mid 30s tastes changed and heavily modelled ware came into vogue. The My Garden series issued from 1934 onwards led the way, with small flowers modelled as a handle or base on more rounded shapes. These were fully painted in bright colours – the body of the ware was covered in thin colour washes – 'Verdant' was green, 'Sunrise' yellow and so on. The range included vases, bowls, jugs, a biscuit barrel, and proved very popular as gift ware. It was produced in more muted colours, right until the start of the war in 1939.\n\nOther modelled shapes included the 1937 'Raffia' based on traditional basketware by Native Americans, decorated in a similar style to them with small blocks of colour. More popular was the heavily modelled Harvest ware, jugs and bowls modelled with corn and fruit. After the war this range was heavily marketed in North America (very patriotically) as England. This later modelled ware attracts relatively low prices at auction.\n\nThe 1940s\n\nIn 1940, after the death of Ann Shorter, Colley's wife, he married Cliff and she moved into his home Chetwynd House at Clayton, Staffordshire. This Arts and Crafts home had been designed in 1899 and was one of the earliest commissions of the British architects Parker and Unwin (Barry Parker and Raymond Unwin) who were later heavily involved in the Welwyn Garden city project. \n\nDuring World War II only plain white pottery (utility ware) was permitted under wartime regulations, so Cliff assisted with management of the pottery but was not able to continue design work. Instead she concentrated her creative talents on gardening and the massive 4 acre garden at Chetwynd House became her shared passion with Shorter. \n\nAfter the war, although Cliff was occasionally nostalgic for the 'Bizarre' years, as witnessed in personal letters to friends, she seemed to be realistic and accepted the commercial taste was for conservative ware. Clarice seemed to enjoy playing a lesser role at the factory, knowing that she could not recapture those crazy days of the thirties. Much of the post-war production went to Australia, New Zealand or North America, where the taste was for formal ware in traditional English designs such as Tonquin rather than the striking patterns and shapes that had established Cliff's reputation; thus she was never to return to creative work. The post-war ware has little value at auction.\n\nLater life\n\nA.J.Wilkinson and their Newport Pottery continued to sell ware under Cliff's name until 1964. The death of Colley Shorter in 1963 led Cliff to sell the factory to Midwinter in 1964 and she retired, becoming somewhat of a recluse. However, from December 1971 to January 1972, the first exhibition of Clarice Cliff pottery took place at Brighton, East Sussex. Cliff reluctantly provided comments for the catalogue, though she refused an invitation to go to the opening. The exhibition was prompted by enthusiastic collectors, including Martin Battersby, an early devotee of 20s and 30s design, the first author on that period to publish major works, and a devotee of Cliff's ceramics. Then, on 23 October 1972, Cliff died suddenly at Chetwynd House.\n\nRevival of interest in her work\n\nThe exhibition and the first book published privately in 1976 'Clarice Cliff' by Peter Wentworth- and Kay Johnson (L'Odeon publishing) marked the start of a major revival of interest in Cliff's work, which has continued to be sought after by Art Deco ceramic collectors ever since. \n\nIn 1982 the ORIGINAL Clarice Cliff Collectors Club was formed and promoted her and her work throughout the world. The club founder had appealed in the Staffordshire Evening Sentinel for anyone who worked with Cliff to contact him and was delighted when he found 28 former workers. Still calling themselves the 'Bizarre girls' even in their mid 70s and early 80s Cliff's former painters were delighted in the interest in the pottery they had hand painted 50 years earlier. They attended the annual meetings of the club, and were to be involved in many television and radio programmes about Cliff, and a mass of books that appeared. Many of their memories were recorded in the CCCC Reviews from 1982 to 2004. The club also held meetings and exhibitions in Britain, North America, Australia and New Zealand.\n\nThe Stoke-on-Trent meetings visited the old painting shop of Bizarre ware by the canal at Newport, Burslem from 1987 to 1997, ironically the only building left standing on the site. Sadly it was demolished by Wedgwood in 1997, and the land sold for housing. \n\nA chain of mergers had led to Wedgwood owning the Clarice Cliff name, and from 1992 to 2002 they produced a range of reproductions of the highly sought 1930s pieces. These were made to a high quality, and were produced in small numbers for sale to collectors who could not find (or perhaps could not afford) the most striking original pieces.\n\nThe first pieces produced included a ginger jar in House and Bridge, a large shape 14 vase in Solitude, a Stamford shape teapot milk and sugar in Pink Roof Cottage, a Conical bowl in Tennis, and a wall plaque in Lightning. From 1996 to 2002 pieces were made for CCCC members and these were also sold at major Wedgwood rooms. The hand painted pieces ceased production in 2002 but ware with printed (not hand painted) patterns were made in larger quantities by Wedgwood during and after this time. These reproductions should not be confused with forgeries (of which a number are found), the Wedgwood ones are clearly marked as 'Wedgwood Clarice Cliff'. An original Cliff painter Alice Andrews, then in her 80s, was employed to appear at launches of the ware in stores throughout Britain. \n\nStatus as an artist\n\nIn the mid 90s Cliff's position as a major artist of her era was confirmed when she was included in major international reference works; the massive Dictionary of Art by Macmillan Publishers, and Allgemeines Künstlerlexikon by K. G. Saur Verlag . \n\nThe work of the CCCC culminated with the centenary exhibition 'Clarice Cliff the Art of Bizarre' at the Wedgwood Museum, Barlaston Stoke-on-Trent. Nowadays, with 26 years of experience the club is based on the internet (see below). It should not be confused with an organisation who used the same name from 2001 after registering it in 1997. The CCCC was then the consultant for the BBC Radio 4 drama 'The Bizarre Girl', written by Lizzie Slater which was described as 'an uplifting drama exploring the dramatic rise of Clarice Cliff from the shop floor to Company Art Director ~ illustrating how a working-class Staffordshire girl brought modern art to the people'. The drama was broadcast in December 2000. \n\nCollecting Clarice\n\nIn 2002 Peter Wentworth- and Kay Johnson, the authors of the original 'Clarice Cliff' book from 1976 returned to Britain to lecture at a CCCC event at Christie's, South Kensington. They spoke about the early days of collecting when their first purchase had been, 'a Summerhouse Athens jug for 7 shillings and 6 pence, 35 pence'. Peter had actually spoken to Cliff on the phone, but she had declined to be interviewed. They revealed that they had both been working for Stanley Kubrick when they wrote their book; Kay was Kubrick's personal assistant, and as set designer Peter had been able to decorate a room in A Clockwork Orange with a frieze he has designed based on original landscapes by Cliff.\n \nThe collecting market for Clarice Cliff pottery is complex; it is still possible to find examples of Crocus, Cliff's longest produced pattern (1928–1964) for as little as £30–50. But rare combinations of shape and pattern attract very high prices at auction. The world record price for a piece of Clarice Cliff is held by Christie's, South Kensington, London, who sold an 18 in 'charger' (wall plaque) in the May Avenue pattern for £39,500 in 2004. Shortly after this the same auction house sold an 8 in vase in Sunspots for £20,000. \n\nIn 2008, Cliff's pottery continued to prove both sought after and esteemed. Despite the financial depression collectors still paid high prices for special pieces. In Britain, Bonhams, London sold a 'Triple Bonjour' vase in Blue Firs for £6000.\n\nA rare Red Autumn shape 369 vase sold for £4900 at Fielding's auctioneers, Stourbridge in the West Midlands, and Woolley and Wallis auctioneers Salisbury sold a 3 in high miniature vase in Café (used as a salesman's sample in the 1930s) for a staggering £3000. In May 2009 an eighteen inch charger in the May Avenue pattern sold for £20,500 at Fielding's auctioneers. \n\nOn 2 August 2009 Will Farmer of the BBC Antiques Roadshow and members of the original Clarice Cliff Collectors Club unveiled three plaques commemorating Clarice Cliff's life and work in the Potteries. These were on her birthplace, Meir Street, Tunstall, her second home on Edwards Street, Tunstall and the site of Newport Pottery by the canal in Burslem where her Bizarre ware was decorated. These were filmed by BBC television for showing on a special Antiques Roadshow programme in December 2009. \n\nIn September 2009 the Victoria and Albert Museum in London opened its 'New Ceramics Galleries' and Cliff's work was chosen to be included; 'There will be two rooms displaying 20th-century collections. One will show ceramics made in a factory context and will include objects by designers such as Susie Cooper and Clarice Cliff' ." ] }

{ "description": [ "Why did Clarice Cliff become so ... Perhaps one pivotal reason Clarice Cliff has become so famous is because she was just an ordinary person with whom we can all ...", "The original website for Clarice Cliff collectors, ... In 1928 Clarice created a pattern of Crocus flowers made from individual brushstrokes, ...", "Clarice Cliff Pottery. As you probably know from articles in antiques publications, pottery by Clarice Cliff has brought record prices. In auctions, teapots have sold ...", "Clarice Cliff Toile Red Transferware Shallow Soup Salad Bowl Harvest Poppies", "... a Clarice Cliff expert and founder of the ... Clarice’s pottery was matched in vibrancy ... The Clarice Cliff website The Clarice Cliff ...", "Clarice Cliff is, today, regarded as ... Clarice started work at the age of 13 in 'The Potteries'. Moved to the AJ Wilkinson's pottery factory in 1916. Clarice given ...", "... a Clarice Cliff ... 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Some referred to her �Clarence� Cliff! The startling contrast between designs such as Crocus and Lugano; or shapes such as her Yo Yo vase and the very traditional My Garden ware, was puzzling. How could ONE person have designed such a diversity of designs?\nAt the time there had been just one book about her, published in 1976 and was out of print. However, I finally managed to get a copy of the L�Odeon Clarice Cliff book, and devoured its contents eagerly. The more I learned about her pottery and life the more I become thoroughly engrossed. This was a very exciting time as many of the pieces I found were not in the book. What were to become her most famous creations, the classic Age of Jazz figures, were shown only in archive black and white photographs. It was clear there was much to discover.\nSuch is the �spell� cast by Clarice�s art that today posters, books and her personal\npossessions are all sought by enthusiasts. Yet the early eighties saw a quiet build in interest, so fortunately I managed to assemble a collection in the days when pieces cost tens of pounds, rather than thousands. To answer the many mysteries about Clarice and her pottery, I started the Clarice Cliff Collectors Club back in 1982. Seeing the vast diversity of shapes and designs in other people's collections made me realise it might take years to catalogue them all, and I am still trying to complete this task 18 years later.\nI began to research Clarice�s work in Stoke on Trent, where between 1982 and 1988 I traced over 30 of Clarice�s original paintresses. They had been just 14 years old when they joined her between\n1927 and 1936, so were robust, lively women, surprised at the interest in their work. On my trips to Stoke I also discovered both the old decorating shop at Newport Pottery and the original tip where the breakages, �shards� were dumped! I still cherish a box with hundreds of pieces of �broken Bizarre� ~ another collector�s foible!\nSoon, I had so much new information that I decided to write a book of my own on Clarice, but no British publisher could\nbe interested. Then, fate played its part; American collectors Louis and Susan Meisel approached me. Our mutual love for Clarice�s work inspired us to produce a new book. We added new shapes, new designs, new names to Clarice�s story. And for the first time, we illustrated the Age of Jazz figures! Bizarre Affair was published in 1988 and is still in print today. It added a hint of the personal story behind the amazing pots, as the title referred to the affair Clarice had with the factory owner Colley Shorter. Bizarre Affair exhibitions were staged at the National Theatre, London, and Warrington Museum, and yet more devotees discovered Clarice. The poster has already sold for �20 to �30, and an original edition of the book now sells for up to �50.\n \nSince 1988 the ceramics world has never been the same: suddenly Clarice was really discovered! But she was certainly not the chosen �doyenne of British ceramics amongst academics and �serious� writers. Luckily, ceramics collectors chose not to listen to the critics.\nChristies in South Kensington introduced sales of just Clarice Cliff pottery in 1989. They were amazed to find that hundreds of enthusiasts arrived on viewing and sales days, and �celebrity collectors� were soon spotted. Cliff devotees were rumoured to include Jerry Hall, Dawn French and Whoopi Goldberg.\nClarice�s pottery was exported to many countries, including the USA and Canada, South Africa, New Zealand and Australia, so collectors and auctions are found around the world. Indeed, the current World record is for a teaset sold by Christie�s in Melbourne in 1999 for �17,500!\nMost recently, the phenomenal prices have appeared on eBay. There are usually over 250 pieces of Clarice Cliff on offer and a humble four inch high Beehive honeypot in Carpet sold for an astounding �2530 ($4050).\nI only ever intended to write one other Clarice book, for her Centenary year of 1999. I had my plans mapped-out as early as 1994.. but suddenly, such was the interest in her, that I wrote three books between 1995 and 1998. In schools, thousands of youngsters did art projects based on her designs or shapes, and at the other end of the spectrum, newly retired people were studying her work because they found her bright, primary colours rejuvenating.\nClarice�s unique contribution was to bring colour into the lives of everyday people. And she was also\nthe first woman to produce her own shapes en-masse in a Staffordshire �potbank� ~ hundreds of them! She designed over 20 teapot shapes alone, and companies adapted her designs; not only on pottery, but on aprons, tea towels, doormats, trays, calendars, even biscuit tins! This spate of look-alike ware cashed�in on Clarice�s style, much in the same way that �Mockintosh� appeared to copy the unique style of Charles Rennie Mackintosh.\nSome collectors may find it hard to accept that thousands of plates with her patterns printed on them have been produced, but it is an affordable way of buying her Art, otherwise she might be another renowned, but distant designer from another era. She really is the people�s designer from the Thirties: her work was aimed at a mass market then, and the �magic� still works! As prices continue to rise, it is still possible for new devotees to buy actual hand-painted reproductions of her work by Wedgwood. These represent an affordable way to enjoy her amazing shapes and patterns. Ironically, Wedgwood has employed a team of young decorators to produce these piece, and they are based in Tunstall, Clarice�s home town!\nClarice�s Centenary year was 1999, and she was finally acknowledged for her achievements in her home town of\nStoke-on-Trent. The Wedgwood Museum held an exhibition Clarice Cliff : The Art of Bizarre for six months. It was visited by 100,000 people including her original painters - the Bizarre �girls�- now all in their eighties. They became the focus for the public interest and adulation Clarice never really had.\nPerhaps one pivotal reason Clarice Cliff has become so famous is because she was just an ordinary person with whom we can all strongly identify. She was modest about her achievements to the last, refusing to go to an exhibition of her work in 1972 just before her death. Her �girls� tell us that she would have been �stunned� at the interest now. But it was inevitable for someone who, in a few years created a range of over 400 different shapes which could be ordered on any of over 500 major designs. No other Potteries designer ever achieved this unique skill of being both a prolific modeller of shapes and creator of designs: her fame is based on sheer talent.\nClarice�s Centenary has gone, but her �star� continues to rise. In the first auction after Centenary year her pottery has not only maintained its high prices, but suddenly made many new record prices. Lotus jugs, one of her most available shapes, were sold for �7000 to �8000 in standard designs. An Age of Jazz figure, that we did not really know a great deal about in 1982, made a world record price of �15,500 ! One of my first members had paid �20 for hers in the seventies. Clarice would have �chuckled�, for she was an artist who thoroughly enjoyed her work. She herself said in 1933: \"Having a little fun at my work does not make me any less of an artist, and people who appreciate truly beautiful and original creations in pottery are not frightened by a little innocent tomfoolery.\"\nThe Clarice Cliff Collectors Club is at www.claricecliff.com\n \n \n \nCredits: Images of Clarice Cliff and Colley Shorter are � Leonard Griffin� and Pavilion Books 1998/1999 Credits: Images of Wedgwood Clarice Cliff reproductions � Leonard Griffin� and Josiah Wedgwood� Credits: Clarice Cliff pottery images, and 1988 �Bizarre Affair� poster � Leonard Griffin� and Clarice Cliff Collectors Club", "The Original Clarice Cliff Website - History, Museum, Events, Forum\nGo to Features >\nClarice Cliff is, today, regarded as one of the most influential ceramics artists of the 20th Century and her work is collected, valued and admired the world over. She was born on January 20th 1899 in Tunstall, Stoke-on-Trent and started work at the age of 13 in 'The Potteries'. Clarice moved to the AJ Wilkinson's pottery factory in 1916. She was ambitious and her skills were recognised so that eventually she was given her own studio. It was here that she starting creating her own patterns and the famous 'Bizarre' wares were launched in 1927.\nIn 1928 Clarice created a pattern of Crocus flowers made from individual brushstrokes, completely hand-painted in bright colours. Orders came in thick and fast and in 1930 a separate decorating department was set up to meet demand. The vast majority of Clarice's 'Art Deco' output was between 1927 and 1936. These years are commonly known, by collectors, as The 'Bizarre' years. After 'Bizarre' Clarice continued to produce many wares in her own unique style and to suit the current tastes of the nation and the various worldwide export markets.\nJoin ClariceCliff.com - read about our membership packages here >", "Clarice Cliff Pottery\nClarice Cliff PotteryBy Mark Chervenka\nClarice Cliff\nPottery\nAs you probably know from articles in antiques publications, pottery by Clarice Cliff has brought record prices. In auctions, teapots have sold for over $3,000; plates, up to $3,300; vases and jugs, $975 to $1,800. Cliff figurines have sold for over $6,000; vases have brought over $10,000.\nThe increasing popularity of Cliff's work-- plus the scarcity and high price of originals-- has created a demand for reproductions and look-alikes and a temptation to sell the new reproductions as old. This article presents a brief history of Cliff's pottery and a list of known reproductions on the market.\nClarice Cliff: The potter\nClarice Cliff was born in Tunstall, England in 1899 and grew up in the Staffordshire pottery district. She began work at 13 years of age and by 1916 was a studio painter at Wilkinson Royal Staffordshire Pottery in Burslem, England.\nIn 1920, Wilkinson took over the nearby Newport Pottery which included a large amount of unsold plain white pottery. By 1926-27, Cliff had begun to decorate this unsold white ware with bright hand brushed paint in Art Deco designs. The designs were so successful that an entire new line was put into production in1928. New Art Deco ceramic shapes were added in 1929. In the late 1930s changing public tastes limited production and WW II ended it altogether. Some production was resumed after the War and continued off and on until 1963.\nInterest in Cliff's work was renewed with an exhibit of her works in England at both the Victoria and Albert Museum and the Brighton Museum in 1972. Later, in the same year, Cliff died and prices of her pottery began rising. In 1982, the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York placed a small collection on view. Another English exhibition was assembled by the Warwick Museum in 1987.\nOriginal marks and backstamps\nA great number and variety of marks were used on original Cliff pottery. That's why it is hard to show a \"typical\" mark or list general guidelines of original marks. Originals were hand painted, rubber stamped and lithographed; two or more methods were often used on one piece. Most rubber stamped and lithographed marks are in black ink but other colors of ink were used as well. A great deal of Cliff pottery is marked but many pieces are not. Entire sets of dinnerware, for example, that have survived the years intact will frequently have only one piece that is marked. Additional variations of marks appear on items made for large retail stores such as Harrods.\nFrom 1928-1937, most marks included a line name, such as \"Bizarre Line\" and the name \"Clarice Cliff\". These pieces can also have either the Wilkinson or Newport Pottery names as well. Between 1937 to 1963, the line names were dropped and backstamps had only the name \"Clarice Cliff.\" In 1963, the use of the Clarice Cliff name was ended when the Newport factories were sold to a company named Midwinters. Midwinters was in turn acquired by the Wedgwood Group in 1970.\nReproductions, fakes and forgeries\nThere are several potential problems with Cliff pottery: 1) New decorations on old undecorated blanks with original marks; 2) New marks on old unmarked decorated pieces; and 3) Application of forged old marks to new legitimate reproductions.\nIn 1985, Midwinters (which took over Newport in 1963), decided to produce limited editions of some Cliff pieces. These included: Conical shape teapot in Umbrellas and Rain pattern; Conical sugar shakers in six different patterns (at this time unable to verify pattern names); a Mei Ping shape vase in Honolulu pattern and a 13\" diameter wall plaque (charger) in the Summerhouse pattern. Prices for the limited editions ranged from about $20 for the sugar shakers to around $200 for a vase. Most of this production was distributed in England but some was presumably purchased by tourists and could turn up anywhere. All the Midwinters pieces were originally dated 1985 and carried a special backstamp. If you encounter the above shapes and patterns, though, you might want to double check the mark. The Midwinter reproductions could carry forged old backstamps.\nThe first outright fakes began surfacing about one year later, 1986, in London, England. These were made as copies of a Lotus (shape) vase. The glaze and painting were described as very poor but the forged backstamp was said to be very convincing.\nSince the mid-1980s a number of pieces of previously undecorated blanks with genuine backstamps have been newly painted in expensive old patterns such as Red Roofs, House and Bridge and others. These pieces were reported in England.\nNext, a group of legitimate reproductions was introduced in 1993 by The Metropolitan Museum of Art (MMA) in New York. There were six new pieces made. Those included: a 6 1/2\" Conical shape teapot of 20 oz. capacity decorated in Orange Autumn Cafe Au Lait pattern; a Conical shape 6 oz. cup and saucer in Orange Autumn pattern; a 4\" Bonjour shape jam pot in Windbells pattern; a 6 1/4\" vase Shape #278 in Melon pattern; and a 10 1/4\" dinner plate in an early abstract design.\nAll the MMA pieces were painted by hand in the Philippines. They are all marked with an impressed copyright symbol, the year 1993 and the letters MMA (Fig. 2).\nAs an experiment, we were able to obtain some forged old backstamps and applied them to several new MMA pieces. We first filled in the impressed marks with a thick transparent glaze then applied the marks. The result in Fig. 3, even at twice actual size, shows that the impressed mark is all but invisible. If we can do this well, then a professional can surely do much better.\nSeparating new from old is not easy. Due to the large number of original backstamps used, it is hard to set down rules of how old marks should appear. The forged marks we used looked a little ragged under magnification but not much more so than the usual differences that appear among genuinely old marks. Original Cliff pottery is heavier than the reproductions but, again, this knowledge isn't much use if you haven't examined originals.\nThe shapes of the MMA pieces–the vase, jam pot, cup, saucer and plate–are unlikely to call attention because they are virtually exact copies of original shapes. The MMA teapot, however, is unique. It is very unusual for original Conical shape Cliff teapots to have open pierced handles; the majority of originals have solid handles. We were unable to examine any of the Midwinter pieces and can offer no advice on them.\nHow widespread the use of forged marks on the Midwinter and MMA reproductions isn't known. Good forgeries escape detection, it's the poor work that gets caught. If you encounter any of the reproduced shapes with an apparently old backstamp be sure to give the mark a thorough inspection.\nFig. 1-A New handles are open.\nFig. 1-B Old handles are solid\nFigs. 1-A & 1-B The teapot above is one of six legitimate Clarice Cliff reproductions sold by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. Forgeries of old backstamps, though, are being applied to these and other new Cliff reproductions. This new teapot has an open pierced handle. Most comparable vintage handles were solid\nFig. 2\nFig. 3\nFigs. 2-3 The Metropolitan Museum of Art (MMA) reproductions are impressed with the copyright symbol, year date and MMA as shown about actual size in Fig. 2. A MMA reproduction with the impressed mark filled in and a forged backstamp added is in Fig. 3. If you look closely at the arrrow, you can see the faint circle of the copyright mark. Shown about twice actual size.\nFig. 4", "1000+ images about Clarice Cliff Pottery on Pinterest | As you like it, Pottery and Ceramics\nForward\nVintage Newport Pottery “Clarice Cliff” Spring Crocus Bonjour Shape Sugar Sifter Lovely Newport Pottery “Clarice Cliff” Bonjour shaped sugar sifter in the Spring Crocus pattern which was designed in 1933, decorated in yellow, pink and blue crocuses on a cream/white background with bands of green above and below, on two roll feet. Marked underneath with “Newport Pottery Co England” & “Made in England” & “T”. With original stopper, cork has shrunk in width so is loose. Dimensions:5…\nSee More", "BBC Inside Out - Clarice Cliff\n  Inside Out - West Midlands: Monday 3rd March, 2003\nCLARICE CLIFF POTTERY\nPRICEY POTTERY | pound for pound, Clarice Cliff's work is worth more than gold\nFor those of you with an eye for a collectable, Inside Out may have just the thing. With her bright and original designs, Clarice Cliff took the pottery world of the 1920s by storm. Now 80 years on, some of her work, pound for pound, is worth more than gold.\nClarice Cliff was born in Stoke-on-Trent in 1899. By the First World War, she was working in one of the many factories that dominated the potteries.\nBy the late 1920s, amid economic recession, Clarice was designing innovative, colour rich pottery and her career was blossoming.\nClarice Cliff's career blossomed in the height of recession\n\"She was successful when everyone else was just trying to make some money, she was making a load of money,\" explains Leonard Griffin, a Clarice Cliff expert and founder of the Clarice Cliff Collectors Club.\n\"The colours sold themselves, they were in the windows of the stores in London and major cities throughout the world.\"\nA colourful life\nClarice’s pottery was matched in vibrancy by her equally colourful love life.\nDuring the 1920s, Clarice had an illicit affair with her then boss, Colly Shorter. Years later the pair married, but it was the couple’s business partnership that took the pottery industry by storm.\n\"People have often said she wouldn’t have succeeded without him, but the fact is, his factory wouldn’t have succeeded without her,\" says Leonard.\n\"This swish twenties woman came along and revolutionised British pottery for him.\"\nBygone age\nNowadays, Cliff’s pottery is still very much in demand and Inside Out meets Andy Muir from Birmingham, whose collection is arguably one of the largest in the UK.\nAndy selects a classic 1931 piece which he believes embodies Clarice’s work.\n\"It’s a classic piece from 1931. Fantastic pattern called Orange House,\" says Andy. \"Whimsical cottage and cartoony landscape, it’s everything Clarice was and is today.\"\nThis may be a classic example of her work, but it is not the rarest in the collection. That privilege belongs to an abstract 1930s piece that Andy bought in New Zealand. Today it would fetch a staggering £10,000.\nAn acquired taste?\nRene worked for Clarice 70 years ago, but wasn't the greatest fan of her work\nWhilst modern day collectors like Andy may marvel a bygone age, Inside Out has tracked down someone with first hand knowledge of Clarice Cliff.\n85 year old Rene Dale, worked for Clarice at Newport pottery 70 years ago.\nNot only was Clarice an innovative, talented designer, but according to Rene, she an excellent boss as well.\n\"You couldn’t have asked for a nicer boss. She thought the world of the girls you know,\" says Rene. \"She has no family of her own and she sort of took us on as her family.\"\nRene may be a huge fan of Clarice’s management style, but for Rene, her pottery was somewhat of an acquired taste.\nPound for pound, Clarice's work is worth more than gold\n\"We all thought it was so gaudy, but then that was the idea, she wanted it gaudy, she wanted it gay,\" explains Rene. \"She thought the British housewives deserved more colour in their lives.\"\nSo with pieces of Clarice Cliff’s, fetching anywhere up to £20,000, what would this local girl from Stoke think of it all? Maybe Rene can answer that:\n\"If Clarice knew what was going on now, she’d dig a hole and get into it. She wouldn’t have liked all this fuss.\"\nSee also ...", "History of Clarice Cliff, one of the World's Most Influential Ceramics Artists\nClarice Cliff born on January 20th 1899 in Tunstall, Stoke-on-Trent.\nClarice started work at the age of 13 in 'The Potteries'.\nMoved to the AJ Wilkinson's pottery factory in 1916.\nClarice given her own studio. The famous 'Bizarre' wares launched 1927.\nShe marries her then boss, Colley Shorter, in 1940.\nMoves with Colley to Chetwynd House, with its stunning gardens.\nThe factory continues to produce pottery bearing Clarice's name until 1964.\nFollowing Colley Shorter's death Clarice sells the factory to Midwinter's.\nClarice retires to Chetwynd House.\nThe first Clarice Cliff exhibition takes place at Brighton in 1972 and Clarice provides comments for the catalogue.\nClarice Cliff dies suddenly at Chetwynd House on 23rd October 1972.\n1999 celebrated Worldwide as Clarice's Centenary year.\nWant to find out more? Become a member of ClariceCliff.com and access the full version of this website.", "Clarice Cliff - by Susan Scott\nClarice Cliff\nSusan Scott\n    In November, 1997, a Clarice Cliff Age of Jazz figure set a new record -- selling to a determined American collector at Christie’s for over $20,000. Earlier the same month, a huge 15\" hexagonal vase in the rare and highly desired Football pattern sold in a northern English auction room for $3800. Amusingly, it had come from a solicitor’s office where a valuation expert had noticed the brightly colored vase being used as a doorstop. The years as a doorstop had resulted in damage to the base but the vase still sold well above estimate after determined bidding from collectors and dealers. Clarice Cliff seems to be either idolized as an icon of the English Deco period or regarded as something of an aberration by design pundits of the period. Her life and her role in twentieth century British design history have been hotly debated. From the headline in a 1929 newspaper \"Bizarre looks like a Russian ballet master’s nightmare\" to the headline in a 1993 Daily Mail \"How an affair with a married man and the Bizarre Girls made Clarice Cliff’s fortune\" she has continued to attract notoriety. In 1931, the Pottery Gazette hailed Clarice as \"a pioneer of advanced thought\" and assured buyers that her work represented heirlooms of the future.\nClarice’s story is well known. She was born in 1899 and grew up in a typical Potteries working class family. As one of eight children she was expected to go out to work at the earliest opportunity and at thirteen she left school and joined Lingard, Webster and Company. She was meant to apprentice for seven years in order to learn the skill of the enameller or free hand painter and for a five-and-a-half day week she was paid one shilling. With so many men off at war she was able to move first to Hollinshead & Kirkham and, in 1916, to A.J.Wilkinson in the lithography department. Although she is often called an overnight success, in fact she spent four years hand painting, keeping pattern books and gilding before her work was noticed. One night when she had stayed after work, the decorating manager saw the plate she was decorating and showed it to the managing director, Colley Shorter.\nBy late 1925 Clarice Cliff was considered Mr. Colley’s prot�g�. She moved into a small apartment in Hanley much to her family’s disapproval. At the same time Colley Shorter gave Clarice an office next to his at the Newport Pottery. Clarice and Colley spent more and more time behind the closed door of her studio. Neither her fellow workers nor the other directors approved of this relationship and Clarice grew more and more isolated. Colley Shorter decided that Clarice needed formal training and paid for her to go to the Royal College of Art in London for three months in 1927. In the fall she was sent to Paris where she roamed the galleries and museums seeking ideas. Once again events conspired in Clarice’s favor. Just as the war had secured her a place at Wilkinson’s, so in 1926 the General Strike in England had extended coal shortages. Factories were desperate for ware to sell. When Wilkinson’s bought Newport Pottery in 1920, they inherited many hundreds of pieces of pottery which were still sitting in various stockrooms around the factory. In a letter to the Brighton Museum in 1972, Clarice said that \"this huge stock had always interested me and presented a challenge.\" She was given permission to set up a small studio and she and fifteen-year-old Gladys Scarlett set about covering the ware with brightly colored geometric decoration.\nSoon five more girls joined them, and Clarice set up a system for outlining, enameling and banding. The girls were told by Clarice to use the paint thickly and make the brush strokes obvious, the reverse of their usual instructions. Colley was working at the same time on a marketing plan and decided the ware should have a name. Clarice settled on \"Bizarre\". Next Colley sent Clarice and a couple of the Bizarre girls to London to be photographed demonstrating the hand painting of Bizarre ware in a shop window. In September the true test came. Wilkinson’s salesman, the very skeptical Ewart Oakes, was sent off with a carload of \"Bizarre\". He sold out before the end of the week. In retrospect it is truly incredible how quickly things moved after that.\nColley was a master of the art of modern advertising. He planned his \"Bizarre\" campaign with great skill. Newspapers and women’s magazines often featured photographs of Bizarre girls sitting in a shop window painting. The girls would sit dressed in artists’ smocks with big black bows at the neck and berets on their heads demonstrating their work. Colley hired well-known personalities to come to the shows and be seen and photographed buying pieces of Clarice’s \"Bizarre\". The constant creation of new patterns was a successful method of keeping \"Bizarre\" in the public eye. In 1931 Clarice and Colley had the idea of installing a radio in the shop so the Bizarre girls could listen to music while they painted. Whether productivity really did go up 25% is irrelevant; once again they achieved a wave of publicity. Photographs of the girls working on Bizarre ware were always good for the order book and Colley and Clarice were brilliant at capturing the public’s attention.\nThe simple geometric patterns which Clarice designed were easily learned by her semi-skilled fourteen year old girls and she decided to move on to other designs. The Crocus pattern was instantly successful, and remained a best seller for the factory into the 1960s. Early in 1929 demand was so great for \"Crocus\" that a separate shop was set up underneath the Bizarre shop and at its peak employed twenty girls. Collectors today revere Clarice for patterns like Sunray and Lucerne, but it is patterns like Crocus and Ravel which kept the factory working.\nNewport Pottery made such enormous profits in 1929 that Colley Shorter decided to issue a new series of designs under the name \"Fantasque\". It was classed as part of the Wilkinson production for tax purposes. This was simply bookkeeping; all the ware was still decorated in the Bizarre shop. The first Fantasque range consisted of eight patterns including such popular ones as Umbrellas and Rain, Broth and Fruit.\nThere were now 25 girls and boys working in the Bizarre shop -- most of them sixteen years old or younger. They were arranged according to their jobs with the front benches occupied by outliners who passed their work on to enamellers. The banders and liners sat at the back and finished the decorating process. The vast stock of old Newport ware was running down and Clarice was busy creating new shapes more in keeping with her designs. The whole of Newport Pottery was soon given over to the production of Bizarre ware. By the start of 1930 the biscuit and glost ovens were manned 24 hours a day. By 1931 the 25 boys and girls had grown to 150. It is impossible to describe all the patterns and shapes which Clarice designed or supervised in the next few years or the speed at which events moved. In an interview at the time Clarice was asked about design ideas and she said some weeks were better than others. That week she had only come up with twelve new designs!\nUsually Clarice would assign a particular pattern to one outliner -- from working through the pattern to filling all the orders. When a pattern became too much in demand for one girl to do, others were trained to work alongside. Look closely at several pieces of a pattern like Trees and House and you will begin to see the different styles of the ‘girls’. Part of the charm of Clarice Cliff lies in the minute variations in pattern resulting from different paintresses copying them at different times. Sometimes the girls worked from memory when the pattern book was unavailable -- the results can sometimes be quite varied but always interesting.\nThe first of the Applique range was designed in April 1930. The range was more expensive to produce since so many colors were used and it sold for about 25% more than Bizarre. It did not sell particularly well and was mostly phased out by 1932. At the start of 1931 Clarice came up with two Fantasque landscapes -- Autumn and Summerhouse. Autumn sold very well for more than a year and then Clarice replaced it with Pastel Autumn and Orange Autumn to create a new market. She was very skilled at alternating colorways in order to rekindle interest in a pattern. Before the end of the year among the patterns she had introduced were Red Roofs, Farmhouse, House and Bridge and Gibraltar.\nIt is difficult to imagine in today’s climate of committee design, just how quickly Clarice and Colley responded to the need to create new products for a depressed marketplace. Clarice was even more productive in 1932 if this were possible. Floral patterns included Nasturium, Canterbury Bells, Chintz and Hollyrose\" Fruit patterns like Apples, Oranges and Lemons and Pastel Melon were introduced. Landscapes were even more prolific--Limberlost, Poplar, Pink Roof Cottage, Moonlight, May Avenue, and Pastel Autumn and Orange Autumn. Only one year later, fashions had changed, people no longer wanted her brilliant colors and Clarice introduced her last true Bizarre landscape Bridgewater.\nWith the ever-deepening worldwide depression, Clarice could no longer afford to fail and this may have created the climate for the uninspired patterns of the latter half of the 1930s. By 1935, even the name \"Bizarre\" had been phased out and the pottery was simply marked \"Clarice Cliff, Newport Pottery or Wilkinson Ltd., England\"(the whole subject of backstamps is enormously complicated and if interested you should consult The Bizarre Affair).\nIn November 1939 Colley Shorter’s wife died after a lengthy illness. Colley and Clarice married secretly a year later. Neither Colley nor Clarice’s family approved of the relationship and they had few visits from family members. After the war Colley spent time overseas trying to stimulate sales. Late in 1949 he and Clarice went to Canada and the United States, giving interviews and taking orders. Although Crocus was still being produced, most of the other post-war ware -- with the Clarice Cliff signature above Royal Staffordshire Ceramics -- seems to bear no relation to her earlier work and has never been considered collectible. After Colley’s death Clarice sold the factory to Roy Midwinter and lived a reclusive life at Chetwynd until her death in 1972.\nClarice Cliff was unique. She chose to interpret art deco in her medium -- ceramics -- with vivid colors and strong lines unlike any seen before. For a very few brief years she was encouraged to try anything -- no matter how extreme -- and try anything she did. She said in 1930 that \"color seems to radiate happiness and the spirit of modern life\" and somehow that is what she created with her pottery -- joy and a sense of limitless possibility. When you look at a piece of Clarice Cliff Pottery you can almost see that room full of young boys and girls listening to the radio, gossiping about the dance to come, and painting as fast they can. Bevis Hillier argued that \"the cosy genius...continues to appeal because there are moments when one feels like cosiness rather than angst, profundity or high art.\" Clarice Cliff was a cosy genius who made people feel brighter in the darkening 1930s. Clearly her work is having the same effect in the 1990s.\nTales of Clarice Cliff Collecting\nSome years ago in London, a South African collector told me about the \"Latona Dahlia\" teaset he had discovered. A lady called him about \"a teaset with flowers on\" and when he arrived it was a 23 piece teaset in a pattern so rare that one piece causes excitement. When he asked how much she wanted she said it had been a wedding gift and was not for sale...but that she would trade it for a new microwave which she had seen in a nearby store. He said he ran so fast to the store and then back carrying the microwave that he thought he might collapse before the teaset was his!\nLen Griffin, the president of the Clarice Cliff Collectors’ Club, and the researcher of most of the current information on patterns and shapes, tells the story of the elderly lady who put two 18\" YoYo vases in \"Latona Roses\" out for the garbage men to pick up. Luckily her neighbor rescued them and suggested she get them valued. They sold for $16,000 and she was able to buy the council house she had lived in for so many years.\nA friend of mine showed me a tiny figure of a horse he had picked up in a garage sale in London, Ontario for under one dollar. I sent off a picture of his discovery to Len Griffin; he thinks it may be part of the 1930 Impressions series made by Clarice herself. Very few of these pieces exist and most are in the Brighton Museum. How did this one end up in Canada and who knows what it is worth?\nJust before Len was to give a talk in New Zealand early in 1996, a woman showed him a miniature teaset in Honolulu pattern. This unique set had been sent to her mother in South Africa along with a personal note from Clarice, suggesting that some day they might use it to have tea together. More than sixty years later, both mother and daughter had come along to hear Len speak and tell him this incredible story!\nTips for collectors:\nMore and more collectors are using the Internet to buy internationally. This can be wonderful since it gives you an opportunity to buy in places like New Zealand and South Africa where you may not be willing or able to travel. It also means that you must have great faith in the seller. You may be wise to establish return policies in advance and in writing before you send off for a very expensive piece of Clarice Cliff from a dealer you know nothing about.\nClarice prices seem to climb higher every year but, unless your budget is without limit, you would be wise to study the auction catalogues from the past ten years very carefully. Ten years ago the price for Lotus jugs was incredible, then the prices dropped and they have slowly edged back up. Three years ago anything from the Applique range went through the roof and yet at the 1996 auction at Christie’s, a number of pieces remained unsold. Ten years ago you could easily assemble a collection of conical sugar dredgers for a few hundred dollars each. Today a rare conical can cost from $3000 and up!\nSometimes in North America dealers price anything with a Clarice Cliff backstamp as though it were a wonderful hand-painted bit of Bizarre. Like most Staffordshire potteries after the war, the Wilkinson factory suffered hard times and they produced anything they thought would sell. Although the pieces may have a Clarice Cliff backstamp, few of them were designed by Clarice and they are not of interest to most serious collectors who are looking for the hand painted wares from the late 1920s to the mid-1930s.\nIf you like the idea of Clarice Cliff, but simply cannot afford to spend $1000 on a sugar dredger, or $20,000 on an Age of Jazz figure, the 1992 and 1993 Wedgwood reproductions might interest you. They were issued in a limited edition of 500 and are carefully marked. When they were introduced they sold anywhere from $125-400. Interestingly, the November 1997 auction at Christie’s South Kensington included a section of these Wedgwood reproductions. The ‘Solditude’ vase (see photograph) was $325 originally, but sold for $865 five years later. There was also a range done by Midwinter in 1985 but these do not turn up very often especially in North America.\nThe Museum of Modern Art in New York brought out a series of pieces loosely based on Clarice Cliff designs several years ago and they are still in production in the Philippines today and featured in the MOMA catalogue. The pieces are easily distinguished from 1930s Clarice -- they are impressed with the date and MOMA and the body is much lighter than the originals.\nUnlike the carefully marked reproductions, fake dredgers have started to appear. As prices for Clarice Cliff continue to go up, it was inevitable that fakes would start to turn up. In December, 1994 the first fake conicals appeared at a \"deco\" antique fair in England. Since then, a number have been sold in Red Roofs, House & Bridge, Orange Erin and Sungay. Len Griffin, head of the Clarice Cliff Collectors Club, suggests that although the shape is quite well modeled the quality of the painting is poor. The body feels good but the base rim is ground flat -- instead of the rim it should have -- and the holes go too far up to the top. The banding is wavy and there are gaps between colors which is not true of the originals. The dredgers simply look too shiny and there are no scratches and no wear. It is very difficult to match Clarice’s colorways with today’s paints, so look at each piece carefully. Beware of that bargain in the flea market; by now the fakes will have made their way to America.\nLotus jugs have turned up in Orange Roof Cottage and Orange Erin. Unlike genuine Clarice Cliff where the decoration is applied within an outline, these fakes are only partly outlined and have areas of decoration applied freehand. Yet another favourite trick of fakers is to take a genuine Clarice Cliff mid-1930s plain or banded dinner plate and add an enamel pattern to the center. If you look closely you should be able to see the mistakes in color and pattern. Another clue is the impressed date stamp on the underside of the plate. If it is 36 or 37 and you know the pattern dates to 1930, it may be worth looking more closely.\nBecause prices for Clarice Cliff are so high, obviously more and more pieces are being restored. As long as they are properly marked and priced, this is not an issue. You should always look very closely at the tips of conical sugars and the spouts of tea and coffee pots. Ask the dealer if he/she knows of any restoration. The more pieces you look at and handle, the better able you will be to spot repairs.\nIf you are relatively new to Clarice collecting, you should spend some time reading some of the books and studying the pictures. It is very easy to buy a mismatched cup and saucer or jampot and lid.\nPatterns vary enormously in price and it is worth finding out exactly which patterns are most valuable. Often dealers who don’t specialize in Clarice price similar pieces around the same price. If you happen to stumble on two plates, one Coral Firs and one May Avenue, would you know which one to buy if they were both priced at $500? If you see a May Avenue plate for $500 please give e-mail me!\nFurther Reading", "The Classic Creatives: Clarice Cliff | The Young Creatives\nThe Classic Creatives: Clarice Cliff\nClarice Cliff, ceramic artist extraordinaire (1899-1972).\nWhat did she do?\nClarice was famed for her iconic designs: her striking use of colour and pattern make her pieces instantly recognisable, and her work is still highly sought after by collectors. Her pieces regularly sell at auction for thousands of pounds.\nHaving been surrounded by the industry from a young age – her aunts worked as hand painters at a nearby pottery firm – Clarice undertook a number of apprenticeships before being given her own studio; it was then that she began to create her own patterns on pieces of broken pottery. She named\nher products the ‘Bizarre’ range and called the team of young women who painted her designs the ‘Bizarre girls’.\nIn 1928, she created the ‘Crocus’ ranges, and it was here that her success began to accelerate. By 1929, she had over 70 people working for her.\nIn the early 1930s, she was appointed the manager of a project that involved dozens of the period’s best artists, titled Modern Art for the Table. Other artists involved included Barbara Hepworth, Vanessa Bell and Paul Nash.\nShe worked with a diverse range of products, including plates, vases and coffee pots, and created all of her designs by hand.\nWhat inspired her work?\nClarice was born and raised in Stoke-on-Trent in Staffordshire, which is still famed for its pottery today (among others, it’s home to the Wedgwood Museum); it was a city buzzing with opportunity for budding ceramic artists.\nOne of the biggest influences in her work was the Art Deco movement, which favoured bold patterns, striking colour and screamed 1920s glamour. Many of her pieces were based around hot, dusty landscapes, often painted in Mediterranean-esque brights: think deep blue skies, rolling yellow fields and a red-roofed cottage.\nWhat is her best known piece of work?\nHer Crocus range is still what she is best known for, but all of her work is loved across the globe; a plaque she painted sold in America for £39,500.\nWhy should I care about her work?\nIn a time when the ‘career woman’ didn’t exist – women had barely managed to secure the vote when Cliff was at her most prevalent during the 1930s – Clarice managed to successfully make her mark on a traditionally male industry, based purely on her talent.\nHer hard-work ethic – undertaking strenuous apprenticeships and developing her talents on the job – makes her an inspiration. Work hard and the results will – eventually – come.\nConsidering that she created her designs alone, her huge range of varied patterns reflect her expert eye for design. Her colourful pieces  brought a splash of practical style to homes across the country.\nShe said…\n‘Having a little fun at my work does not make me any less of an artist and people who appreciate truly beautiful and original creations in pottery are not frightened by innocent tomfoolery!’\nMore of Clarice’s designs can be seen at the Victoria & Albert museum . \nLike this:" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "James_Bond.txt", "Louis_Armstrong.txt" ], "title": [ "James Bond", "Louis Armstrong" ], "wiki_context": [ "The James Bond series focuses on a fictional British Secret Service agent created in 1953 by writer Ian Fleming, who featured him in twelve novels and two short-story collections. Since Fleming's death in 1964, eight other authors have written authorised Bond novels or novelizations: Kingsley Amis, Christopher Wood, John Gardner, Raymond Benson, Sebastian Faulks, Jeffery Deaver, William Boyd and Anthony Horowitz. The latest novel is Trigger Mortis by Anthony Horowitz, published in September 2015. Additionally Charlie Higson wrote a series on a young James Bond, and Kate Westbrook wrote three novels based on the diaries of a recurring series character, Moneypenny.\n\nThe character has also been adapted for television, radio, comic strip, video games and film. The films are the longest continually running and the third-highest-grossing film series to date, which started in 1962 with Dr. No, starring Sean Connery as Bond. As of , there have been twenty-four films in the Eon Productions series. The most recent Bond film, Spectre (2015), stars Daniel Craig in his fourth portrayal of Bond; he is the sixth actor to play Bond in the Eon series. There have also been two independent productions of Bond films: Casino Royale (a 1967 spoof) and Never Say Never Again (a 1983 remake of an earlier Eon-produced film, Thunderball).\n\nThe Bond films are renowned for a number of features, including the musical accompaniment, with the theme songs having received Academy Award nominations on several occasions, and two wins. Other important elements which run through most of the films include Bond's cars, his guns, and the gadgets with which he is supplied by Q Branch. The films are also noted for Bond's relationships with various women, who are sometimes referred to as \"Bond girls\".\n\nPublication history\n\nCreation and inspiration\n\nAs the central figure for his works, Ian Fleming created the fictional character of James Bond, an intelligence officer in the Secret Intelligence Service, commonly known as MI6. Bond was also known by his code number, 007, and was a Royal Naval Reserve Commander.\n\nFleming based his fictional creation on a number of individuals he came across during his time in the Naval Intelligence Division during World War II, admitting that Bond \"was a compound of all the secret agents and commando types I met during the war\". Among those types were his brother, Peter, who had been involved in behind-the-lines operations in Norway and Greece during the war. Aside from Fleming's brother, a number of others also provided some aspects of Bond's make up, including Conrad O'Brien-ffrench, Patrick Dalzel-Job and Bill \"Biffy\" Dunderdale.\n\nThe name James Bond came from that of the American ornithologist James Bond, a Caribbean bird expert and author of the definitive field guide Birds of the West Indies. Fleming, a keen birdwatcher himself, had a copy of Bond's guide and he later explained to the ornithologist's wife that \"It struck me that this brief, unromantic, Anglo-Saxon and yet very masculine name was just what I needed, and so a second James Bond was born\". He further explained that:\n\nOn another occasion, Fleming said: \"I wanted the simplest, dullest, plainest-sounding name I could find, 'James Bond' was much better than something more interesting, like 'Peregrine Carruthers'. Exotic things would happen to and around him, but he would be a neutral figure—an anonymous, blunt instrument wielded by a government department.\"\n\nFleming decided that Bond should resemble both American singer Hoagy Carmichael and himself and in Casino Royale, Vesper Lynd remarks, \"Bond reminds me rather of Hoagy Carmichael, but there is something cold and ruthless.\" Likewise, in Moonraker, Special Branch Officer Gala Brand thinks that Bond is \"certainly good-looking ... Rather like Hoagy Carmichael in a way. That black hair falling down over the right eyebrow. Much the same bones. But there was something a bit cruel in the mouth, and the eyes were cold.\"\n\nFleming also endowed Bond with many of his own traits, including sharing the same golf handicap, the taste for scrambled eggs and using the same brand of toiletries. Bond's tastes are also often taken from Fleming's own as was his behaviour, with Bond's love of golf and gambling mirroring Fleming's own. Fleming used his experiences of his espionage career and all other aspects of his life as inspiration when writing, including using names of school friends, acquaintances, relatives and lovers throughout his books.\n\nIt was not until the penultimate novel, You Only Live Twice, that Fleming gave Bond a sense of family background. The book was the first to be written after the release of Dr. No in cinemas and Sean Connery's depiction of Bond affected Fleming's interpretation of the character, to give Bond both a sense of humour and Scottish antecedents that were not present in the previous stories. In a fictional obituary, purportedly published in The Times, Bond's parents were given as Andrew Bond, from the village of Glencoe, Scotland, and Monique Delacroix, from the canton of Vaud, Switzerland. Fleming did not provide Bond's date of birth, but John Pearson's fictional biography of Bond, James Bond: The Authorized Biography of 007, gives Bond a birth date on 11 November 1920, while a study by John Griswold puts the date at 11 November 1921.\n\nNovels and related works\n\nIan Fleming novels\n\nWhilst serving in the Naval Intelligence Division, Fleming had planned to become an author and had told a friend, \"I am going to write the spy story to end all spy stories.\" On 17 February 1952, he began writing his first James Bond novel, Casino Royale at his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica, where he wrote all his Bond novels during the months of January and February each year. He started the story shortly before his wedding to his pregnant girlfriend, Ann Charteris, in order to distract himself from his forthcoming nuptials.\n\nAfter completing the manuscript for Casino Royale, Fleming showed the manuscript to his friend (and later editor) William Plomer to read. Plomer liked it and submitted it to the publishers, Jonathan Cape, who did not like it as much. Cape finally published it in 1953 on the recommendation of Fleming's older brother Peter, an established travel writer. Between 1953 and 1966, two years after his death, twelve novels and two short-story collections were published, with the last two books – The Man with the Golden Gun and Octopussy and The Living Daylights – published posthumously. All the books were published in the UK through Jonathan Cape.\n\nPost-Fleming novels\n\nAfter Fleming's death a continuation novel, Colonel Sun, was written by Kingsley Amis (as Robert Markham) and published in 1968. Amis had already written a literary study of Fleming's Bond novels in his 1965 work The James Bond Dossier. Although novelizations of two of the Eon Productions Bond films appeared in print, James Bond, The Spy Who Loved Me and James Bond and Moonraker, both written by screenwriter Christopher Wood, the series of novels did not continue until the 1980s. In 1981 the thriller writer John Gardner picked up the series with Licence Renewed. Gardner went on to write sixteen Bond books in total; two of the books he wrote – Licence to Kill and GoldenEye – were novelizations of Eon Productions films of the same name. Gardner moved the Bond series into the 1980s, although he retained the ages of the characters as they were when Fleming had left them. In 1996 Gardner retired from writing James Bond books due to ill health. \n\nIn 1996 the American author Raymond Benson became the author of the Bond novels. Benson had previously been the author of The James Bond Bedside Companion, first published in 1984. \nBy the time he moved on to other, non-Bond related projects in 2002, Benson had written six Bond novels, three novelizations and three short stories. \n\nAfter a gap of six years, Sebastian Faulks was commissioned by Ian Fleming Publications to write a new Bond novel, which was released on 28 May 2008, the 100th anniversary of Fleming's birth. The book—titled Devil May Care—was published in the UK by Penguin Books and by Doubleday in the US. American writer Jeffery Deaver was then commissioned by Ian Fleming Publications to produce Carte Blanche, which was published on 26 May 2011. The book updated Bond into a post-9/11 agent, independent of MI5 or MI6. On 26 September 2013 Solo, written by William Boyd, was published, set in 1969. In October 2014 it was announced that Anthony Horowitz was to write a Bond continuation novel. Set in the 1950s two weeks after the events of Goldfinger, it contains material written, but previously unreleased, by Fleming. Trigger Mortis was released on 8 September 2015. \n\nYoung Bond\n\nThe Young Bond series of novels was started by Charlie Higson and, between 2005 and 2009, five novels and one short story were published. The first Young Bond novel, SilverFin was also adapted and released as a graphic novel on 2 October 2008 by Puffin Books. In October 2013 Ian Fleming Publications announced that Stephen Cole would continue the series, with the first edition scheduled to be released in Autumn 2014. \n\nThe Moneypenny Diaries\n\nThe Moneypenny Diaries are a trilogy of novels chronicling the life of Miss Moneypenny, M's personal secretary. The novels are penned by Samantha Weinberg under the pseudonym Kate Westbrook, who is depicted as the book's \"editor\". The first instalment of the trilogy, subtitled Guardian Angel, was released on 10 October 2005 in the UK. A second volume, subtitled Secret Servant was released on 2 November 2006 in the UK, published by John Murray. A third volume, subtitled Final Fling was released on 1 May 2008. \n\nAdaptations\n\nTelevision\n\nIn 1954 CBS paid Ian Fleming $1,000 ($ in dollars) to adapt his novel Casino Royale into a one-hour television adventure as part of its Climax! series. The episode aired live on 21 October 1954 and starred Barry Nelson as \"Card Sense\" James Bond and Peter Lorre as Le Chiffre. The novel was adapted for American audiences to show Bond as an American agent working for \"Combined Intelligence\", while the character Felix Leiter—American in the novel—became British onscreen and was renamed \"Clarence Leiter\".\n\nIn 1973 a BBC documentary Omnibus: The British Hero featured Christopher Cazenove playing a number of such title characters (e.g. Richard Hannay and Bulldog Drummond). The documentary included James Bond in dramatised scenes from\nGoldfinger—notably featuring 007 being threatened with the novel's circular saw, rather than the film's laser beam—and Diamonds Are Forever. In 1991 a TV cartoon series James Bond Jr. was produced with Corey Burton in the role of Bond's nephew, also called James Bond. \n\nRadio\n\nIn 1956 the novel Moonraker was adapted for broadcast on South African radio, with Bob Holness providing the voice of Bond. According to The Independent, \"listeners across the Union thrilled to Bob's cultured tones as he defeated evil master criminals in search of world domination\". \n\nThe BBC have adapted five of the Fleming novels for broadcast: in 1990 You Only Live Twice was adapted into a 90-minute radio play for BBC Radio 4 with Michael Jayston playing James Bond. The production was repeated a number of times between 2008 and 2011. On 24 May 2008 BBC Radio 4 broadcast an adaptation of Dr. No. The actor Toby Stephens, who played Bond villain Gustav Graves in the Eon Productions version of Die Another Day, played Bond, while Dr. No was played by David Suchet. Following its success, a second story was adapted and on 3 April 2010 BBC Radio 4 broadcast Goldfinger with Stephens again playing Bond. Sir Ian McKellen was Goldfinger and Stephens' Die Another Day co-star Rosamund Pike played Pussy Galore. The play was adapted from Fleming's novel by Archie Scottney and was directed by Martin Jarvis. \nIn 2012 the novel From Russia, with Love was dramatized for Radio 4; it featured a full cast again starring Stephens as Bond. In May 2014 Stephens again played Bond, in On Her Majesty's Secret Service, with Alfred Molina as Blofeld, and Joanna Lumley as Irma Bunt. \n\nComics medium\n\nIn 1957 the Daily Express approached Ian Fleming to adapt his stories into comic strips, offering him £1,500 per novel and a share of takings from syndication. After initial reluctance, Fleming, who felt the strips would lack the quality of his writing, agreed. To aid the Daily Express in illustrating Bond, Fleming commissioned an artist to create a sketch of how he believed James Bond looked. The illustrator, John McLusky, however, felt that Fleming's 007 looked too \"outdated\" and \"pre-war\" and changed Bond to give him a more masculine look. The first strip, Casino Royale was published from 7 July 1958 to 13 December 1958 and was written by Anthony Hern and illustrated by John McLusky.\n\nMost of the Bond novels and short stories have since been adapted for illustration, as well as Kingsley Amis's Colonel Sun; the works were written by Henry Gammidge or Jim Lawrence with Yaroslav Horak replacing McClusky as artist in 1966. After the Fleming and Amis material had been adapted, original stories were produced, continuing in the Daily Express and Sunday Express until May 1977.\n\nSeveral comic book adaptations of the James Bond films have been published through the years: at the time of Dr. No's release in October 1962, a comic book adaptation of the screenplay, written by Norman J. Nodel, was published in Britain as part of the Classics Illustrated anthology series. It was later reprinted in the United States by DC Comics as part of its Showcase anthology series, in January 1963. This was the first American comic book appearance of James Bond and is noteworthy for being a relatively rare example of a British comic being reprinted in a fairly high-profile American comic. It was also one of the earliest comics to be censored on racial grounds (some skin tones and dialogue were changed for the American market). \n\nWith the release of the 1981 film For Your Eyes Only, Marvel Comics published a two-issue comic book adaptation of the film. When Octopussy was released in the cinemas in 1983, Marvel published an accompanying comic; Eclipse also produced a one-off comic for Licence to Kill, although Timothy Dalton refused to allow his likeness to be used. New Bond stories were also drawn up and published from 1989 onwards through Marvel, Eclipse Comics and Dark Horse Comics.\n\nFilms\n\nThe Eon Productions films\n\nIn 1962 Eon Productions, the company of Canadian Harry Saltzman and American Albert R. \"Cubby\" Broccoli, released the first cinema adaptation of an Ian Fleming novel, Dr. No, featuring Sean Connery as 007. Connery starred in a further four films before leaving the role after You Only Live Twice, which was taken up by George Lazenby for On Her Majesty's Secret Service. Lazenby left the role after just one appearance and Connery was tempted back for his last Eon-produced film Diamonds Are Forever.\n\nIn 1973 Roger Moore was appointed to the role of 007 for Live and Let Die and played Bond a further six times over twelve years before being replaced by Timothy Dalton for two films. After a six-year hiatus, during which a legal wrangle threatened Eon's productions of the Bond films, Irish actor Pierce Brosnan was cast as Bond in GoldenEye, released in 1995; he remained in the role for a total of four films, before leaving in 2002. In 2006, Daniel Craig was given the role of Bond for Casino Royale, which rebooted the series. The twenty-third Eon produced film, Skyfall, was released on 26 October 2012. The series has grossed almost $7 billion to date, making it the third-highest-grossing film series (behind Harry Potter and the Marvel Cinematic Universe), and the single most successful adjusted for inflation. \n\nNon-Eon films\n\nIn 1967 Casino Royale was adapted into a parody Bond film starring David Niven as Sir James Bond and Ursula Andress as Vesper Lynd. Niven had been Fleming's preference for the role of Bond. The result of a court case in the High Court in London in 1963 allowed Kevin McClory to produce a remake of Thunderball titled Never Say Never Again in 1983. The film, produced by Jack Schwartzman's Taliafilm production company and starring Sean Connery as Bond, was not part of the Eon series of Bond films. In 1997 the Sony Corporation acquired all or some of McClory's rights in an undisclosed deal, which were then subsequently acquired by MGM, whilst on 4 December 1997, MGM announced that the company had purchased the rights to Never Say Never Again from Taliafilm. As at 2015 Eon holds the full adaptation rights to all of Fleming's Bond novels. \n\nMusic\n\nThe \"James Bond Theme\" was written by Monty Norman and was first orchestrated by the John Barry Orchestra for 1962's Dr. No, although the actual authorship of the music has been a matter of controversy for many years. In 2001, Norman won £30,000 in libel damages from the The Sunday Times newspaper, which suggested that Barry was entirely responsible for the composition. The theme, as written by Norman and arranged by Barry, was described by another Bond film composer, David Arnold, as \"bebop-swing vibe coupled with that vicious, dark, distorted electric guitar, definitely an instrument of rock 'n' roll ... it represented everything about the character you would want: It was cocky, swaggering, confident, dark, dangerous, suggestive, sexy, unstoppable. And he did it in two minutes.\" Barry composed the scores for eleven Bond films and had an uncredited contribution to Dr. No with his arrangement of the Bond Theme.\n\nA Bond film staple are the theme songs heard during their title sequences sung by well-known popular singers. Several of the songs produced for the films have been nominated for Academy Awards for Original Song, including Paul McCartney's \"Live and Let Die\", Carly Simon's \"Nobody Does It Better\", Sheena Easton's \"For Your Eyes Only\", Adele's \"Skyfall\", and Sam Smith's \"Writing's on the Wall\". Adele won the award at the 85th Academy Awards, and Smith won at the 88th Academy Awards. For the non-Eon produced Casino Royale, Burt Bacharach's score included \"The Look of Love\", which was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Song. \n\nVideo games\n\nIn 1983 the first Bond video game, developed and published by Parker Brothers, was released for the Atari 2600, the Atari 5200, the Atari 800, the Commodore 64 and the ColecoVision. Since then, there have been numerous video games either based on the films or using original storylines. In 1997 the first-person shooter video game GoldenEye 007 was developed by Rare for the Nintendo 64, based on the 1995 Pierce Brosnan film GoldenEye. The game received very positive reviews, won the BAFTA Interactive Entertainment Award for UK Developer of the Year in 1998 and sold over eight million copies worldwide, grossing $250 million. \n\nIn 1999 Electronic Arts acquired the licence and released Tomorrow Never Dies on 16 December 1999. In October 2000, they released The World Is Not Enough for the Nintendo 64 followed by 007 Racing for the PlayStation on 21 November 2000. In 2003, the company released James Bond 007: Everything or Nothing, which included the likenesses and voices of Pierce Brosnan, Willem Dafoe, Heidi Klum, Judi Dench and John Cleese, amongst others. In November 2005, Electronic Arts released a video game adaptation of 007: From Russia with Love, which involved Sean Connery's image and voice-over for Bond. In 2006 Electronic Arts announced a game based on then-upcoming film Casino Royale: the game was cancelled because it would not be ready by the film's release in November of that year. With MGM losing revenue from lost licensing fees, the franchise was removed from EA to Activision. Activision subsequently released the 007: Quantum of Solace game on 31 October 2008, based on the film of the same name. \n\nA new version of GoldenEye 007 featuring Daniel Craig was released exclusively for the Nintendo Wii and a handheld version for the Nintendo DS in November 2010. A year later another new version was released for Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 under the title GoldenEye 007: Reloaded. In October 2012 007 Legends was released, which featured one mission from each of the Bond actors of the Eon Productions' series. \n\nGuns, vehicles and gadgets\n\nGuns\n\nFor the first five novels, Fleming armed Bond with a Beretta 418 until he received a letter from a thirty-one-year-old Bond enthusiast and gun expert, Geoffrey Boothroyd, criticising Fleming's choice of firearm for Bond, calling it \"a lady's gun – and not a very nice lady at that!\" Boothroyd suggested that Bond should swap his Beretta for a Walther PPK 7.65mm and this exchange of arms made it to Dr. No. Boothroyd also gave Fleming advice on the Berns-Martin triple draw shoulder holster and a number of the weapons used by SMERSH and other villains. In thanks, Fleming gave the MI6 Armourer in his novels the name Major Boothroyd and, in Dr. No, M introduces him to Bond as \"the greatest small-arms expert in the world\". Bond also used a variety of rifles, including the Savage Model 99 in \"For Your Eyes Only\" and a Winchester .308 target rifle in \"The Living Daylights\". Other handguns used by Bond in the Fleming books included the Colt Detective Special and a long-barrelled Colt .45 Army Special.\n\nThe first Bond film, Dr. No, saw M ordering Bond to leave his Beretta behind and take up the Walther PPK, which the film Bond used in eighteen films. In Tomorrow Never Dies and the two subsequent films, Bond's main weapon was the Walther P99 semi-automatic pistol.\n\nVehicles\n\nIn the early Bond stories Fleming gave Bond a battleship-grey Bentley 4½ Litre with an Amherst Villiers supercharger. After Bond's car was written off by Hugo Drax in Moonraker, Fleming gave Bond a Mark II Continental Bentley, which he used in the remaining books of the series. During Goldfinger, Bond was issued with an Aston Martin DB Mark III with a homing device, which he used to track Goldfinger across France. Bond returned to his Bentley for the subsequent novels.\n\nThe Bond of the films has driven a number of cars, including the Aston Martin V8 Vantage, during the 1980s, the V12 Vanquish and DBS during the 2000s, as well as the Lotus Esprit; the BMW Z3, BMW 750iL and the BMW Z8. He has, however, also needed to drive a number of other vehicles, ranging from a Citroën 2CV to a Routemaster Bus, amongst others.\n\nBond's most famous car is the silver grey Aston Martin DB5, first seen in Goldfinger; it later featured in Thunderball, GoldenEye, Tomorrow Never Dies, Casino Royale and Skyfall. The films have used a number of different Aston Martins for filming and publicity, one of which was sold in January 2006 at an auction in the US for $2,090,000 to an unnamed European collector. \n\nGadgets\n\nFleming's novels and early screen adaptations presented minimal equipment such as the booby-trapped attaché case in From Russia with Love, although this situation changed dramatically with the films. However, the effects of the two Eon-produced Bond films Dr. No and From Russia with Love had an effect on the novel The Man with the Golden Gun, through the increased number of devices used in Fleming's final story.\n\nFor the film adaptations of Bond, the pre-mission briefing by Q Branch became one of the motifs that ran through the series. Dr. No provided no spy-related gadgets, but a Geiger counter was used; industrial designer Andy Davey observed that the first ever onscreen spy-gadget was the attaché case shown in From Russia with Love, which he described as \"a classic 007 product\". The gadgets assumed a higher profile in the 1964 film Goldfinger. The film's success encouraged further espionage equipment from Q Branch to be supplied to Bond, although the increased use of technology led to an accusation that Bond was over-reliant on equipment, particularly in the later films.\n\nDavey noted that \"Bond's gizmos follow the zeitgeist more closely than any other ... nuance in the films\" as they moved from the potential representations of the future in the early films, through to the brand-name obsessions of the later films. It is also noticeable that, although Bond uses a number of pieces of equipment from Q Branch, including the Little Nellie autogyro, a jet pack and the exploding attaché case, the villains are also well-equipped with custom-made devices, including Scaramanga's golden gun, Rosa Klebb's poison-tipped shoes, Oddjob's steel-rimmed bowler hat and Blofeld's communication devices in his agents' vanity case.\n\nCultural impact\n\nCinematically, Bond has been a major influence within the spy genre since the release of Dr. No in 1962, with 22 secret agent films released in 1966 alone attempting to capitalise on the Bond franchise's popularity and success. The first parody was the 1964 film Carry On Spying, which shows the villain Dr. Crow being overcome by agents who included James Bind (Charles Hawtry) and Daphne Honeybutt (Barbara Windsor). One of the films that reacted against the portrayal of Bond was the Harry Palmer series, whose first film, The Ipcress File was released in 1965. The eponymous hero of the series was what academic Jeremy Packer called an \"anti-Bond\", or what Christoph Lindner calls \"the thinking man's Bond\". The Palmer series were produced by Harry Saltzman, who also used key crew members from the Bond series, including designer Ken Adam, editor Peter R. Hunt and composer John Barry. The four \"Matt Helm\" films starring Dean Martin (released between 1966 and 1969), the \"Flint\" series starring James Coburn (comprising two films, one each in 1966 and 1969), while The Man from U.N.C.L.E. also moved onto the cinema screen, with eight films released: all were testaments to Bond's prominence in popular culture. More recently, the Austin Powers series by writer, producer and comedian Mike Myers, and other parodies such as the 2003 film Johnny English, have also used elements from or parodied the Bond films.\n\nFollowing the release of the film Dr. No in 1962, the line \"Bond ... James Bond\", became a catch phrase that entered the lexicon of Western popular culture: writers Cork and Scivally said of the introduction in Dr. No that the \"signature introduction would become the most famous and loved film line ever\". In 2001, it was voted as the \"best-loved one-liner in cinema\" by British cinema goers, and in 2005, it was honoured as the 22nd greatest quotation in cinema history by the American Film Institute as part of their 100 Years Series. The 2005 American Film Institute's '100 Years' series recognised the character of James Bond himself as the third greatest film hero. He was also placed at number 11 on a similar list by Empire and as the fifth greatest movie character of all time by Premiere. \n\nThe 23 James Bond films produced by Eon Productions, which have grossed $4,910,000,000 in box office returns alone, have made the series one of the highest-grossing ever. It is estimated that since Dr. No, a quarter of the world's population have seen at least one Bond film. The UK Film Distributors' Association have stated that the importance of the Bond series of films to the British film industry cannot be overstated, as they \"form the backbone of the industry\". \n\nTelevision also saw the effect of Bond films, with the NBC series The Man from U.N.C.L.E., which was described as the \"first network television imitation\" of Bond, largely because Fleming provided advice and ideas on the development of the series, even giving the main character the name Napoleon Solo. Other 1960s television series inspired by Bond include I Spy, and Get Smart.\n\nBy 2012, James Bond had become such a symbol of the United Kingdom that the character, played by Craig, appeared in the opening ceremony of the 2012 London Olympics as Queen Elizabeth II's escort. \n\nThroughout the life of the film series, a number of tie-in products have been released.\n\nCriticisms of James Bond \n\nThe James Bond character and related media have triggered a number of criticisms and reactions across the political spectrum, and are still highly debated in popular culture studies. Left-leaning observers often accuse Bond novels and films of misogyny and sexism. Geographers have considered the role of exotic locations in the movies in the dynamics of the Cold War, with power struggles among blocs playing out in the peripheral areas. Other critics claim that 21st century Bond movies reflect imperial nostalgia. American conservative critics, particularly in the 1960s and 1970s, saw Bond as a nihilistic, hedonistic, and amoral character that challenged family values.", "Louis Armstrong (August 4, 1901 – July 6, 1971), nicknamed Satchmo or Pops, was an American trumpeter, composer, singer and occasional actor who was one of the most influential figures in jazz. His career spanned five decades, from the 1920s to the 1960s, and different eras in jazz. \n\nComing to prominence in the 1920s as an \"inventive\" trumpet and cornet player, Armstrong was a foundational influence in jazz, shifting the focus of the music from collective improvisation to solo performance. With his instantly recognizable gravelly voice, Armstrong was also an influential singer, demonstrating great dexterity as an improviser, bending the lyrics and melody of a song for expressive purposes. He was also skilled at scat singing.\n\nRenowned for his charismatic stage presence and voice almost as much as for his trumpet-playing, Armstrong's influence extends well beyond jazz music, and by the end of his career in the 1960s, he was widely regarded as a profound influence on popular music in general. Armstrong was one of the first truly popular African-American entertainers to \"cross over\", whose skin color was secondary to his music in an America that was extremely racially divided. He rarely publicly politicized his race, often to the dismay of fellow African-Americans, but took a well-publicized stand for desegregation in the Little Rock Crisis. His artistry and personality allowed him socially acceptable access to the upper echelons of American society which were highly restricted for black men of his era.\n\nEarly life \n\nArmstrong often stated that he was born on July 4, 1900, a date that has been noted in many biographies. Although he died in 1971, it was not until the mid-1980s that his true birth date of August 4, 1901 was discovered by researcher Tad Jones through the examination of baptismal records. \n\nArmstrong was born into a poor family in New Orleans, Louisiana, and was the grandson of slaves. He spent his youth in poverty, in a rough neighborhood known as \"the Battlefield\", which was part of the Storyville legal prostitution district. His father, William Armstrong (1881–1922), abandoned the family when Louis was an infant and took up with another woman. His mother, Mary \"Mayann\" Albert (1886–1927), then left Louis and his younger sister, Beatrice Armstrong Collins (1903–1987), in the care of his grandmother, Josephine Armstrong, and at times, his Uncle Isaac. At five, he moved back to live with his mother and her relatives, and only saw his father in parades.\n\nHe attended the Fisk School for Boys, where he most likely had early exposure to music. He brought in some money as a paperboy and also by finding discarded food and selling it to restaurants, but it was not enough to keep his mother from prostitution. He hung out in dance halls close to home, where he observed everything from licentious dancing to the quadrille. For extra money he also hauled coal to Storyville, and listened to the bands playing in the brothels and dance halls, especially Pete Lala's, where Joe \"King\" Oliver performed as well as other famous musicians who would drop in to jam.\n\nAfter dropping out of the Fisk School at age eleven, Armstrong joined a quartet of boys who sang in the streets for money. He also started to get into trouble. Cornet player Bunk Johnson said he taught Armstrong (then 11) to play by ear at Dago Tony's Tonk in New Orleans, although in his later years Armstrong gave the credit to Oliver. Armstrong hardly looked back at his youth as the worst of times but drew inspiration from it instead: \"Every time I close my eyes blowing that trumpet of mine—I look right in the heart of good old New Orleans... It has given me something to live for.\" \n\nHe also worked for a Lithuanian-Jewish immigrant family, the Karnofskys, who had a junk hauling business and gave him odd jobs. They took him in and treated him like family; knowing he lived without a father, they fed and nurtured him. He later wrote a memoir of his relationship with the Karnofskys titled, Louis Armstrong + the Jewish Family in New Orleans, La., the Year of 1907. In it he describes his discovery that this family was also subject to discrimination by \"other white folks\" nationalities who felt that they were better than the Jewish race... \"I was only seven years old but I could easily see the ungodly treatment that the White Folks were handing the poor Jewish family whom I worked for.\" \nArmstrong wore a Star of David pendant for the rest of his life and wrote about what he learned from them: \"how to live—real life and determination.\"Teachout, Terry. [https://www.commentarymagazine.com/article/satchmo-and-the-jews/ \"Satchmo and the Jews\"] Commentary magazine, 1 November 2009. The influence of Karnofsky is remembered in New Orleans by the Karnofsky Project, a non-profit organization dedicated to accepting donated musical instruments to \"put them into the hands of an eager child who could not otherwise take part in a wonderful learning experience.\" \n\nArmstrong developed his cornet playing skills by playing in the band of the New Orleans Home for Colored Waifs, where he had been sent multiple times for general delinquency, most notably for firing his stepfather's pistol into the air at a New Year's Eve celebration, but it was only an empty shot, as police records confirm. Professor Peter Davis (who frequently appeared at the home at the request of its administrator, Captain Joseph Jones) instilled discipline in and provided musical training to the otherwise self-taught Armstrong. Eventually, Davis made Armstrong the band leader. The home band played around New Orleans and the thirteen-year-old Louis began to draw attention by his cornet playing, starting him on a musical career. At fourteen he was released from the home, living again with his father and new step-mother, Gertrude, and then back with his mother and thus back to the streets and their temptations. Armstrong got his first dance hall job at Henry Ponce's where Black Benny became his protector and guide. He hauled coal by day and played his cornet at night.\n\nHe played in the city's frequent brass band parades and listened to older musicians every chance he got, learning from Bunk Johnson, Buddy Petit, Kid Ory, and above all, Joe \"King\" Oliver, who acted as a mentor and father figure to the young musician. Later, he played in brass bands and riverboats of New Orleans, and began traveling with the well-regarded band of Fate Marable, which toured on a steamboat up and down the Mississippi River. He described his time with Marable as \"going to the University,\" since it gave him a much wider experience working with written arrangements.\n\nIn 1919, Joe Oliver decided to go north and resigned his position in Kid Ory's band; Armstrong replaced him. He also became second trumpet for the Tuxedo Brass Band, a society band. \n\nCareer \n\n \n\n1920s\n\nThroughout his riverboat experience, Armstrong's musicianship began to mature and expand. At twenty, he could read music and started to be featured in extended trumpet solos, one of the first jazz men to do this, injecting his own personality and style into his solo turns. He had learned how to create a unique sound and also started using singing and patter in his performances. In 1922, Armstrong joined the exodus to Chicago, where he had been invited by his mentor, Joe \"King\" Oliver, to join his Creole Jazz Band and where he could make a sufficient income so that he no longer needed to supplement his music with day labor jobs. It was a boom time in Chicago and though race relations were poor, the city was teeming with jobs available for black people, who were making good wages in factories and had plenty to spend on entertainment.\n\nOliver's band was among the most influential jazz bands in Chicago in the early 1920s, at a time when Chicago was the center of the jazz universe. Armstrong lived luxuriously in Chicago, in his own apartment with his own private bath (his first). Excited as he was to be in Chicago, he began his career-long pastime of writing nostalgic letters to friends in New Orleans. As Armstrong's reputation grew, he was challenged to \"cutting contests\" by hornmen trying to displace the new phenomenon, who could blow two hundred high Cs in a row. Armstrong made his first recordings on the Gennett and Okeh labels (jazz records were starting to boom across the country), including taking some solos and breaks, while playing second cornet in Oliver's band in 1923. At this time, he met Hoagy Carmichael (with whom he would collaborate later) who was introduced by friend Bix Beiderbecke, who now had his own Chicago band.\n\nArmstrong enjoyed working with Oliver, but Louis' second wife, pianist Lil Hardin Armstrong, urged him to seek more prominent billing and develop his newer style away from the influence of Oliver. Lil had her husband play classical music in church concerts to broaden his skill and improve his solo play and she prodded him into wearing more stylish attire to make him look sharp and to better offset his growing girth. Lil's influence eventually undermined Armstrong's relationship with his mentor, especially concerning his salary and additional moneys that Oliver held back from Armstrong and other band members. Armstrong and Oliver parted amicably in 1924. Shortly afterward, Armstrong received an invitation to go to New York City to play with the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra, the top African-American band of the time. Armstrong switched to the trumpet to blend in better with the other musicians in his section. His influence upon Henderson's tenor sax soloist, Coleman Hawkins, can be judged by listening to the records made by the band during this period.\n\nArmstrong quickly adapted to the more tightly controlled style of Henderson, playing trumpet and even experimenting with the trombone. The other members quickly took up Armstrong's emotional, expressive pulse. Soon his act included singing and telling tales of New Orleans characters, especially preachers. The Henderson Orchestra was playing in prominent venues for white-only patrons, including the famed Roseland Ballroom, featuring the arrangements of Don Redman. Duke Ellington's orchestra would go to Roseland to catch Armstrong's performances and young horn men around town tried in vain to outplay him, splitting their lips in their attempts.\n\nDuring this time, Armstrong made many recordings on the side, arranged by an old friend from New Orleans, pianist Clarence Williams; these included small jazz band sides with the Williams Blue Five (some of the most memorable pairing Armstrong with one of Armstrong's few rivals in fiery technique and ideas, Sidney Bechet) and a series of accompaniments with blues singers, including Bessie Smith, Ma Rainey, and Alberta Hunter.\n\nArmstrong returned to Chicago in 1925 due mostly to the urging of his wife, who wanted to pump up Armstrong's career and income. He was content in New York but later would concede that she was right and that the Henderson Orchestra was limiting his artistic growth. In publicity, much to his chagrin, she billed him as \"the World's Greatest Trumpet Player\". At first, he was actually a member of the Lil Hardin Armstrong Band and working for his wife. He began recording under his own name for Okeh with his famous Hot Five and Hot Seven groups, producing hits such as \"Potato Head Blues\", \"Muggles\", (a reference to marijuana, for which Armstrong had a lifelong fondness), and \"West End Blues\", the music of which set the standard and the agenda for jazz for many years to come.\n\nThe group included Kid Ory (trombone), Johnny Dodds (clarinet), Johnny St. Cyr (banjo), wife Lil on piano, and usually no drummer. Armstrong's band leading style was easygoing, as St. Cyr noted, \"One felt so relaxed working with him, and he was very broad-minded ... always did his best to feature each individual.\" Among the most notable of the Hot Five and Seven records were \"Cornet Chop Suey,\" \"Struttin' With Some Barbecue,\" \"Hotter Than that\" and \"Potato Head Blues,\", all featuring highly creative solos by Armstrong. His recordings soon after with pianist Earl \"Fatha\" Hines (most famously their 1928 \"Weatherbird\" duet) and Armstrong's trumpet introduction to and solo in \"West End Blues\" remain some of the most famous and influential improvisations in jazz history. Armstrong was now free to develop his personal style as he wished, which included a heavy dose of effervescent jive, such as \"whip that thing, Miss Lil\" and \"Mr. Johnny Dodds, Aw, do that clarinet, boy!\" \n\nArmstrong also played with Erskine Tate's Little Symphony, which played mostly at the Vendome Theatre. They furnished music for silent movies and live shows, including jazz versions of classical music, such as \"Madame Butterfly\", which gave Armstrong experience with longer forms of music and with hosting before a large audience. He began to scat sing (improvised vocal jazz using nonsensical words) and was among the first to record it, on the Hot Five recording \"Heebie Jeebies\" in 1926. The recording was so popular that the group became the most famous jazz band in the United States, even though they had not performed live to any great extent. Young musicians across the country, black or white, were turned on by Armstrong's new type of jazz. \n\nAfter separating from Lil, Armstrong started to play at the Sunset Café for Al Capone's associate Joe Glaser in the Carroll Dickerson Orchestra, with Earl Hines on piano, which was soon renamed Louis Armstrong and his Stompers, though Hines was the music director and Glaser managed the orchestra. Hines and Armstrong became fast friends and successful collaborators. \n\nArmstrong returned to New York, in 1929, where he played in the pit orchestra of the successful musical Hot Chocolate, an all-black revue written by Andy Razaf and pianist/composer Fats Waller. He also made a cameo appearance as a vocalist, regularly stealing the show with his rendition of \"Ain't Misbehavin'\", his version of the song becoming his biggest selling record to date. \n\n1930s\n\nArmstrong started to work at Connie's Inn in Harlem, chief rival to the Cotton Club, a venue for elaborately staged floor shows, and a front for gangster Dutch Schultz. Armstrong also had considerable success with vocal recordings, including versions of famous songs composed by his old friend Hoagy Carmichael. His 1930s recordings took full advantage of the new RCA ribbon microphone, introduced in 1931, which imparted a characteristic warmth to vocals and immediately became an intrinsic part of the 'crooning' sound of artists like Bing Crosby. Armstrong's famous interpretation of Carmichael's \"Stardust\" became one of the most successful versions of this song ever recorded, showcasing Armstrong's unique vocal sound and style and his innovative approach to singing songs that had already become standards.\n\nArmstrong's radical re-working of Sidney Arodin and Carmichael's \"Lazy River\" (recorded in 1931) encapsulated many features of his groundbreaking approach to melody and phrasing. The song begins with a brief trumpet solo, then the main melody is introduced by sobbing horns, memorably punctuated by Armstrong's growling interjections at the end of each bar: \"Yeah! ...\"Uh-huh\" ...\"Sure\" ... \"Way down, way down.\" In the first verse, he ignores the notated melody entirely and sings as if playing a trumpet solo, pitching most of the first line on a single note and using strongly syncopated phrasing. In the second stanza he breaks into an almost fully improvised melody, which then evolves into a classic passage of Armstrong \"scat singing\".\n\nAs with his trumpet playing, Armstrong's vocal innovations served as a foundation stone for the art of jazz vocal interpretation. The uniquely gritty coloration of his voice became a musical archetype that was much imitated and endlessly impersonated. His scat singing style was enriched by his matchless experience as a trumpet soloist. His resonant, velvety lower-register tone and bubbling cadences on sides such as \"Lazy River\" exerted a huge influence on younger white singers such as Bing Crosby.\n\nThe Great Depression of the early 1930s was especially hard on the jazz scene. The Cotton Club closed in 1936 after a long downward spiral, and many musicians stopped playing altogether as club dates evaporated. Bix Beiderbecke died and Fletcher Henderson’s band broke up. King Oliver made a few records but otherwise struggled. Sidney Bechet became a tailor and Kid Ory returned to New Orleans and raised chickens. \n\nArmstrong moved to Los Angeles in 1930 to seek new opportunities. He played at the New Cotton Club in Los Angeles with Lionel Hampton on drums. The band drew the Hollywood crowd, which could still afford a lavish night life, while radio broadcasts from the club connected with younger audiences at home. Bing Crosby and many other celebrities were regulars at the club. In 1931, Armstrong appeared in his first movie, Ex-Flame and was also convicted of marijuana possession but received a suspended sentence. He returned to Chicago in late 1931 and played in bands more in the Guy Lombardo vein and he recorded more standards. When the mob insisted that he get out of town,[http://riverwalkjazz.stanford.edu/program/louis-armstrong-30s-tribute-life-and-music-armstrong-30s Louis Armstrong in the 30s: A Tribute to the Life and Music of Armstrong in the 30s]. Retrieved May 5, 2015. Armstrong visited New Orleans, had a hero's welcome and saw old friends. He sponsored a local baseball team known as \"Armstrong's Secret Nine\" and had a cigar named after him. But soon he was on the road again and after a tour across the country shadowed by the mob, Armstrong decided to go to Europe to escape.\n\nAfter returning to the United States, he undertook several exhausting tours. His agent Johnny Collins' erratic behavior and his own spending ways left Armstrong short of cash. Breach of contract violations plagued him. Finally, he hired Joe Glaser as his new manager, a tough mob-connected wheeler-dealer, who began to straighten out his legal mess, his mob troubles, and his debts. Armstrong also began to experience problems with his fingers and lips, which were aggravated by his unorthodox playing style. As a result, he branched out, developing his vocal style and making his first theatrical appearances. He appeared in movies again, including Crosby's 1936 hit Pennies from Heaven. In 1937, Armstrong substituted for Rudy Vallee on the CBS radio network and became the first African American to host a sponsored, national broadcast. \n\n1940s\n\nAfter spending many years on the road, Armstrong settled permanently in Queens, New York in 1943 in contentment with his fourth wife, Lucille. Although subject to the vicissitudes of Tin Pan Alley and the gangster-ridden music business, as well as anti-black prejudice, he continued to develop his playing. He recorded Hoagy Carmichael's Rockin' Chair for Okeh Records.\n\nDuring the subsequent thirty years, Armstrong played more than three hundred gigs a year. Bookings for big bands tapered off during the 1940s due to changes in public tastes: ballrooms closed, and there was competition from television and from other types of music becoming more popular than big band music. It became impossible under such circumstances to support and finance a 16-piece touring band.\n\nThe All Stars\n\nDuring the 1940s, a widespread revival of interest in the traditional jazz of the 1920s made it possible for Armstrong to consider a return to the small-group musical style of his youth. Following a highly successful small-group jazz concert at New York Town Hall on May 17, 1947, featuring Armstrong with trombonist/singer Jack Teagarden, Armstrong's manager, Joe Glaser dissolved the Armstrong big band on August 13, 1947 and established a six-piece traditional jazz small group featuring Armstrong with (initially) Teagarden, Earl Hines and other top swing and Dixieland musicians, most of them ex-big band leaders. The new group was announced at the opening of Billy Berg's Supper Club.\n\nThis group was called Louis Armstrong and his All Stars and included at various times Earl \"Fatha\" Hines, Barney Bigard, Edmond Hall, Jack Teagarden, Trummy Young, Arvell Shaw, Billy Kyle, Marty Napoleon, Big Sid Catlett, Cozy Cole, Tyree Glenn, Barrett Deems, Joe Darensbourg, Eddie Shu and percussionist Danny Barcelona. During this period, Armstrong made many recordings and appeared in over thirty films. He was the first jazz musician to appear on the cover of Time magazine, on February 21, 1949. In 1948, he participated in the Nice Jazz Festival, where Suzy Delair sang \"C'est si bon\", by Henri Betti and André Hornez, for the first time in public.\n\n1950s–1970s\n\nWith the publishers' permission, Armstrong recorded the first American version of \"C'est si bon\" on June 26, 1950, in New York, with English lyrics by Jerry Seelen. When it was released, the disc garnered worldwide sales. In the 1960s, he toured Ghana and Nigeria, performing with Victor Olaiya during the Nigerian Civil war. \nIn 1964, he recorded his biggest-selling record, \"Hello, Dolly!\", a song by Jerry Herman, originally sung by Carol Channing. Armstrong's version remained on the Hot 100 for 22 weeks, longer than any other record produced that year, and went to No. 1 making him, at 62 years, 9 months and 5 days, the oldest person ever to accomplish that feat. In the process, he dislodged the Beatles from the No. 1 position they had occupied for 14 consecutive weeks with three different songs.[http://www.jazzhouse.org/gone/lastpost2.php3?edit\n1176392524 Hale, James (editor of Jazzhouse.org), Danny Barcelona (1929–2007), Drums, Armstrong All-Star, The Last Post, 2007]. Retrieved July 4, 2007.\nArmstrong made his last recorded trumpet performances on his 1968 album Disney Songs the Satchmo Way. \nArmstrong kept up his busy tour schedule until a few years before his death in 1971. He also toured Africa, Europe, and Asia under the sponsorship of the US State Department with great success, earning the nickname \"Ambassador Satch\" and inspiring Dave Brubeck to compose his jazz musical The Real Ambassadors. \n\nPersonal life \n\nPronunciation of name\n\nThe Louis Armstrong House Museum website states:\n\n In a memoir written for Robert Goffin between 1943 and 1944, Armstrong states, \"All white folks call me Louie,\" suggesting that he himself did not. That said, Armstrong was registered as \"Lewie\" for the 1920 U.S. Census. On various live records he's called \"Louie\" on stage, such as on the 1952 \"Can Anyone Explain?\" from the live album In Scandinavia vol.1. It should also be noted that \"Lewie\" is the French pronunciation of \"Louis\" and is commonly used in Louisiana.\n\nFamily\n\nOn March 19, 1918, at the age of 16, Louis married Daisy Parker, a prostitute from Gretna, Louisiana. They adopted a 3-year-old boy, Clarence Armstrong, whose mother, Louis' cousin Flora, died soon after giving birth. Clarence Armstrong was mentally disabled (the result of a head injury at an early age) and Louis would spend the rest of his life taking care of him. Louis' marriage to Parker failed quickly and they separated in 1923.\n\nOn February 4, 1924, Louis married Lil Hardin Armstrong, who was Oliver's pianist and had also divorced her first spouse only a few years earlier. His second wife was instrumental in developing his career, but in the late 1920s Hardin and Louis grew apart. They separated in 1931 and divorced in 1938, after which Louis married longtime girlfriend Alpha Smith. His marriage to his third wife lasted four years, and they divorced in 1942. Louis then married Lucille Wilson, a singer at the Cotton Club, to whom he was married until his death in 1971. \n\nArmstrong's marriages never produced any offspring, though he loved children. However, in December 2012, 57-year-old Sharon Preston-Folta claimed to be his daughter from a 1950s affair between Armstrong and Lucille \"Sweets\" Preston, a dancer at the Cotton Club. In a 1955 letter to his manager, Joe Glaser, Armstrong affirmed his belief that Preston's newborn baby was his daughter, and ordered Glaser to pay a monthly allowance of $400 to mother and child. \n\nPersonality \n\nArmstrong was noted for his colorful and charismatic personality. His autobiography vexed some biographers and historians, as he had a habit of telling tales, particularly of his early childhood when he was less scrutinized, and his embellishments of his history often lack consistency. \n\nIn addition to an entertainer, Armstrong was a leading personality of the day. He was beloved by an American public that gave even the greatest African American performers little access beyond their public celebrity, and he was able to live a private life of access and privilege afforded to few other African Americans during that era.\n\nHe generally remained politically neutral, which at times alienated him from members of the black community who looked to him to use his prominence with white America to become more of an outspoken figure during the Civil Rights Movement of U.S. history.\n\nNicknames \n\nThe nicknames Satchmo and Satch are short for Satchelmouth. Like many things in Armstrong's life, which was filled with colorful stories both real and imagined, many of his own telling, the nickname has many possible origins.\n\nThe most common tale that biographers tell is the story of Armstrong as a young boy dancing for pennies in the streets of New Orleans, who would scoop up the coins off of the streets and stick them into his mouth to avoid having the bigger children steal them from him. Someone dubbed him \"satchel mouth\" for his mouth acting as a satchel. Another tale is that because of his large mouth, he was nicknamed \"satchel mouth\" which became shortened to Satchmo.\n\nEarly on he was also known as Dipper, short for Dippermouth, a reference to the piece Dippermouth Blues. and something of a riff on his unusual embouchure.\n\nThe nickname Pops came from Armstrong's own tendency to forget people's names and simply call them \"pops\" instead. The nickname was soon turned on Armstrong himself. It was used as the title of a 2010 biography of Armstrong by Terry Teachout. \n\nRace \n\nArmstrong was largely accepted into white society, both on stage and off, a privilege reserved for very few African-American public figures, and usually those of either exceptional talent or fair skin tone. As his fame grew, so did his access to the finer things in life usually denied to African-Americans, even famous ones. His renown was such that he dined in reputable restaurants and stayed in hotels usually exclusively for whites. It was a power and privilege that he enjoyed, although he was very careful not to flaunt it with fellow performers of color, and privately, he shared what access that he could with friends and fellow musicians.\n\nThat still did not prevent members of the African-American community, particularly in the late 1950s to the early 1970s, from calling him an Uncle Tom, a black-on-black racial epithet for someone who kowtowed to white society at the expense of their own racial identity. Billie Holiday countered, however, \"Of course Pops toms, but he toms from the heart.\" He was criticized for accepting the title of \"King of The Zulus\" for Mardi Gras in 1949. In the New Orleans African-American community it is an honored role as the head of leading black Carnival Krewe, but bewildering or offensive to outsiders with their traditional costume of grass-skirts and blackface makeup satirizing southern white attitudes.\n\nSome musicians criticized Armstrong for playing in front of segregated audiences, and for not taking a strong enough stand in the American Civil Rights Movement. The few exceptions made it more effective when he did speak out. Armstrong's criticism of President Eisenhower, calling him \"two-faced\" and \"gutless\" because of his inaction during the conflict over school desegregation in Little Rock, Arkansas in 1957 made national news. As a protest, Armstrong canceled a planned tour of the Soviet Union on behalf of the State Department saying: \"The way they're treating my people in the South, the government can go to hell\" and that he could not represent his government abroad when it was in conflict with its own people. \n\nThe FBI kept a file on Armstrong for his outspokenness about integration. \n\nReligion \n\nWhen asked about his religion, Armstrong would answer that he was raised a Baptist, always wore a Star of David, and was friends with the Pope. Armstrong wore the Star of David in honor of the Karnofsky family, who took him in as a child and lent him the money to buy his first cornet. Louis Armstrong was, in fact, baptized as a Catholic at the Sacred Heart of Jesus Church in New Orleans, and he met popes Pius XII and Paul VI, though there is no evidence that he considered himself Catholic. Armstrong seems to have been tolerant towards various religions, but also found humor in them.\n\nPersonal habits \n\nArmstrong was concerned with his health. He used laxatives to control his weight, a practice he advocated both to acquaintances and in the diet plans he published under the title Lose Weight the Satchmo Way. Armstrong's laxative of preference in his younger days was Pluto Water, but he then became an enthusiastic convert when he discovered the herbal remedy Swiss Kriss. He would extol its virtues to anyone who would listen and pass out packets to everyone he encountered, including members of the British Royal Family. (Armstrong also appeared in humorous, albeit risqué, cards that he had printed to send out to friends; the cards bore a picture of him sitting on a toilet—as viewed through a keyhole—with the slogan \"Satch says, 'Leave it all behind ya!'\") The cards have sometimes been incorrectly described as ads for Swiss Kriss. In a live recording of \"Baby, It's Cold Outside\" with Velma Middleton, he changes the lyric from \"Put another record on while I pour\" to \"Take some Swiss Kriss while I pour.\" \n\nThe concern with his health and weight was balanced by his love of food, reflected in such songs as \"Cheesecake\", \"Cornet Chop Suey,\" though \"Struttin’ with Some Barbecue\" was written about a fine-looking companion, not about food. He kept a strong connection throughout his life to the cooking of New Orleans, always signing his letters, \"Red beans and ricely yours...\" \n\nWritings \n\nArmstrong’s gregariousness extended to writing. On the road, he wrote constantly, sharing favorite themes of his life with correspondents around the world. He avidly typed or wrote on whatever stationery was at hand, recording instant takes on music, sex, food, childhood memories, his heavy \"medicinal\" marijuana use—and even his bowel movements, which he gleefully described. He had a fondness for lewd jokes and dirty limericks as well.\n\nSocial organizations \n\nLouis Armstrong was not, as is often claimed, a Freemason. Although he is usually listed as being a member of Montgomery Lodge No. 18 (Prince Hall) in New York, no such lodge has ever existed. However, Armstrong stated in his autobiography that he was a member of the Knights of Pythias which is not a Masonic group. \n\nMusic \n\nHorn playing and early jazz \n\nIn his early years, Armstrong was best known for his virtuosity with the cornet and trumpet. The most lauded recordings on which Armstrong plays trumpet include the Hot Five and Hot Seven sessions, as well as those of the Red Onion Jazz Babies. Armstrong's improvisations, while unconventionally sophisticated for that era, were also subtle and highly melodic. The solo that Armstrong plays during the song Potato Head Blues has long been considered his best solo of that series. \n\nPrior to Armstrong, most collective ensemble playing in jazz, along with its occasional solos, simply varied the melodies of the songs. Armstrong was virtually the first to create significant variations based on the chord harmonies of the songs instead of merely on the melodies. This opened a rich field for creation and improvisation, and significantly changed the music into a soloist's art form.\n\nOften, Armstrong re-composed pop-tunes he played, simply with variations that made them more compelling to jazz listeners of the era. At the same time, however, his oeuvre includes many original melodies, creative leaps, and relaxed or driving rhythms. Armstrong's playing technique, honed by constant practice, extended the range, tone and capabilities of the trumpet. In his records, Armstrong almost single-handedly created the role of the jazz soloist, taking what had been essentially a collective folk music and turning it into an art form with tremendous possibilities for individual expression.\n\nArmstrong was one of the first artists to use recordings of his performances to improve himself. Armstrong was an avid audiophile. He had a large collection of recordings, including reel-to-reel tapes, which he took on the road with him in a trunk during his later career. He enjoyed listening to his own recordings, and comparing his performances musically. In the den of his home, he had the latest audio equipment and would sometimes rehearse and record along with his older recordings or the radio. \n\nVocal popularity \n\nAs his music progressed and popularity grew, his singing also became very important. Armstrong was not the first to record scat singing, but he was masterful at it and helped popularize it with the first recording on which he scatted, \"Heebie Jeebies\". At a recording session for Okeh Records, when the sheet music supposedly fell on the floor and the music began before he could pick up the pages, Armstrong simply started singing nonsense syllables while Okeh president E.A. Fearn, who was at the session, kept telling him to continue. Armstrong did, thinking the track would be discarded, but that was the version that was pressed to disc, sold, and became an unexpected hit. Although the story was thought to be apocryphal, Armstrong himself confirmed it in at least one interview as well as in his memoirs. On a later recording, Armstrong also sang out \"I done forgot the words\" in the middle of recording \"I'm A Ding Dong Daddy From Dumas.\"\n\nSuch records were hits and scat singing became a major part of his performances. Long before this, however, Armstrong was playing around with his vocals, shortening and lengthening phrases, interjecting improvisations, using his voice as creatively as his trumpet.\n\nComposing\n\nArmstrong was a gifted composer who wrote more than fifty songs, which in a number of cases have become jazz standards (e.g., “Gully Low Blues,” “Potato Head Blues,” and “Swing That Music”).\n\nColleagues and followers \n\nDuring his long career he played and sang with some of the most important instrumentalists and vocalists of the time; among them were Bing Crosby, Duke Ellington, Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines, Jimmie Rodgers, Bessie Smith and perhaps most famously Ella Fitzgerald. His influence upon Crosby is particularly important with regard to the subsequent development of popular music: Crosby admired and copied Armstrong, as is evident on many of his early recordings, notably \"Just One More Chance\" (1931). The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz describes Crosby's debt to Armstrong in precise detail, although it does not acknowledge Armstrong by name:\n\nArmstrong recorded two albums with Ella Fitzgerald: Ella and Louis, and Ella and Louis Again for Verve Records, with the sessions featuring the backing musicianship of the Oscar Peterson Trio and drummers Buddy Rich (on the first album), and Louie Bellson (on the second). Norman Granz then had the vision for Ella and Louis to record Porgy and Bess which is the most famous and critically acclaimed version of the Gershwin brothers' work.\n\nHis recordings for Columbia Records, Louis Armstrong Plays W.C. Handy (1954) and Satch Plays Fats (all Fats Waller tunes) (1955) were both being considered masterpieces, as well as moderately well selling. In 1961 the All Stars participated in two albums - \"The Great Summit\" and \"The Great Reunion\" (now together as a single disc) with Duke Ellington. The albums feature many of Ellington's most famous compositions (as well as two exclusive cuts) with Duke sitting in on piano. His participation in Dave Brubeck's high-concept jazz musical The Real Ambassadors (1963) was critically acclaimed, and features \"Summer Song,\" one of Armstrong's most popular vocal efforts.\n\nIn 1964 his recording of the song \"Hello Dolly\" went to number one. An album of the same title was quickly created around the song, and also shot to number one (knocking The Beatles off the top of the chart). The album sold very well for the rest of the year, quickly going \"Gold\" (500,000). His performance of \"Hello Dolly\" won for best male pop vocal performance at the 1964 Grammy Awards.\n\nHits and later career \n\nArmstrong had nineteen \"Top Ten\" records including \"Stardust\", \"What a Wonderful World\", \"When The Saints Go Marching In\", \"Dream a Little Dream of Me\", \"Ain't Misbehavin'\", \"You Rascal You\", and \"Stompin' at the Savoy\". \"We Have All the Time in the World\" was featured on the soundtrack of the James Bond film On Her Majesty's Secret Service, and enjoyed renewed popularity in the UK in 1994 when it featured on a Guinness advert. It reached number 3 in the charts on being re-released.\n\nIn 1964, Armstrong knocked The Beatles off the top of the Billboard Hot 100 chart with \"Hello, Dolly!\", which gave the 63-year-old performer a U.S. record as the oldest artist to have a number one song. His 1964 song \"Bout Time\" was later featured in the film Bewitched.\n\nArmstrong performed in Italy at the 1968 Sanremo Music Festival where he sang \"Mi Va di Cantare\" alongside his friend, the Eritrean-born Italian singer Lara Saint Paul. In February 1968, he also appeared with Lara Saint Paul on the Italian RAI television channel where he performed \"Grassa e Bella,\" a track he sang in Italian for the Italian market and C.D.I. label. \n\nIn 1968, Armstrong scored one last popular hit in the United Kingdom with \"What a Wonderful World\", which topped the British charts for a month; however, the single did not chart at all in America. The song gained greater currency in the popular consciousness when it was used in the 1987 movie Good Morning, Vietnam, its subsequent re-release topping many charts around the world. Armstrong even appeared on the October 28, 1970, Johnny Cash Show, where he sang Nat King Cole's hit \"Rambling Rose\" and joined Cash to re-create his performance backing Jimmie Rodgers on \"Blue Yodel No. 9\".\n\nStylistic range \n\nArmstrong enjoyed many types of music, from blues to the arrangements of Guy Lombardo, to Latin American folksongs, to classical symphonies and opera. Armstrong incorporated influences from all these sources into his performances, sometimes to the bewilderment of fans who wanted him to stay in convenient narrow categories. Armstrong was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as an early influence. Some of his solos from the 1950s, such as the hard rocking version of \"St. Louis Blues\" from the WC Handy album, show that the influence went in both directions.\n\nLiterature, radio, films and TV \n\nArmstrong appeared in more than a dozen Hollywood films, usually playing a band leader or musician. His most familiar role was as the bandleader cum narrator in the 1956 musical, High Society, in which he sang the title song and performed a duet with Bing Crosby on \"Now You Has Jazz\". In 1947, he played himself in the movie New Orleans opposite Billie Holiday, which chronicled the demise of the Storyville district and the ensuing exodus of musicians from New Orleans to Chicago. In the 1959 film, The Five Pennies (the story of the cornetist Red Nichols), Armstrong played himself as well as singing and playing several classic numbers. With Danny Kaye Armstrong performed a duet of \"When the Saints Go Marching In\" during which Kaye impersonated Armstrong. Armstrong also had a part in the film alongside James Stewart in The Glenn Miller Story in which Glenn (played by Stewart) jammed with Armstrong and a few other noted musicians of the time.\n\nHe was the first African American to host a nationally broadcast radio show in the 1930s. In 1969, Armstrong had a cameo role in the film version of Hello, Dolly! as the bandleader, Louis, to which he sang the title song with actress Barbra Streisand. His solo recording of \"Hello, Dolly!\" is one of his most recognizable performances.\n\nHe was heard on such radio programs as The Story of Swing (1937) and This Is Jazz (1947), and he also made countless television appearances, especially in the 1950s and 1960s, including appearances on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson.\n\nArgentine writer Julio Cortázar, a self-described Armstrong admirer, asserted that a 1952 Louis Armstrong concert at the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées in Paris played a significant role in inspiring him to create the fictional creatures called Cronopios that are the subject of a number of Cortázar's short stories. Cortázar once called Armstrong himself \"Grandísimo Cronopio\" (The Great Cronopio).\n\nArmstrong appears as a minor fictionalized character in Harry Turtledove's Southern Victory Series. When he and his band escape from a Nazi-like Confederacy, they enhance the insipid mainstream music of the North. A young Armstrong also appears as a minor fictionalized character in Patrick Neate's 2001 novel Twelve Bar Blues, part of which is set in New Orleans, and which was a winner at that year's Whitbread Book Awards.\n\nThere is a pivotal scene in Stardust Memories (1980) in which Woody Allen is overwhelmed by a recording of Armstrong's \"Stardust\" and experiences a nostalgic epiphany. The combination of the music and the perfect moment is the catalyst for much of the film's action, prompting the protagonist to fall in love with an ill-advised woman. \n\nTerry Teachout wrote a one-man play about Armstrong called Satchmo at the Waldorf that was premiered in 2011 in Orlando, Fla., and has since been produced by Shakespeare & Company, Long Wharf Theater, and the Wilma Theater. The production ran off Broadway in 2014.\n\nA fledgling musician named \"Louis,\" who is obsessed with Buddy Bolden, appears in two of David Fulmer's Storyville novels: Chasing the Devil's Tail and Jass.\n\nDeath \n\nAgainst his doctor's advice, Armstrong played a two-week engagement in March 1971 at the Waldorf-Astoria's Empire Room. At the end of it he was hospitalized for a heart attack. He was released from the hospital in May, and died of a heart attack in his sleep on July 6, 1971, a month before his 70th birthday. He was residing in Corona, Queens, New York City, at the time of his death. He was interred in Flushing Cemetery, Flushing, in Queens, New York City. \nHis honorary pallbearers included Bing Crosby, Ella Fitzgerald, Dizzy Gillespie, Pearl Bailey, Count Basie, Harry James, Frank Sinatra, Ed Sullivan, Earl Wilson, Alan King, Johnny Carson and David Frost. Peggy Lee sang The Lord's Prayer at the services while Al Hibbler sang \"Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Seen\" and Fred Robbins, a long-time friend, gave the eulogy. \n\nAwards and honors \n\nGrammy Awards \n\nArmstrong was posthumously awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1972 by the Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. This Special Merit Award is presented by vote of the Recording Academy's National Trustees to performers who, during their lifetimes, have made creative contributions of outstanding artistic significance to the field of recording. \n\nGrammy Hall of Fame\n\nRecordings of Armstrong were inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, which is a special Grammy award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least 25 years old, and that have \"qualitative or historical significance.\" \n\nRock and Roll Hall of Fame \n\nThe Rock and Roll Hall of Fame listed Armstrong's West End Blues on the list of 500 songs that shaped Rock and Roll. \n\nInductions and honors \n\nIn 1995, the U.S. Post Office issued a Louis Armstrong 32 cents commemorative postage stamp.\n\nFilm honors \n\nIn 1999 Armstrong was nominated for inclusion in the American Film Institute's 100 Years...100 Stars. \n\nLegacy \n\nThe influence of Armstrong on the development of jazz is virtually immeasurable. Yet, his irrepressible personality both as a performer, and as a public figure later in his career, was so strong that to some it sometimes overshadowed his contributions as a musician and singer.\n\nAs a virtuoso trumpet player, Armstrong had a unique tone and an extraordinary talent for melodic improvisation. Through his playing, the trumpet emerged as a solo instrument in jazz and is used widely today. Additionally, jazz itself was transformed from a collectively improvised folk music to a soloist's serious art form largely through his influence. He was a masterful accompanist and ensemble player in addition to his extraordinary skills as a soloist. With his innovations, he raised the bar musically for all who came after him.\n\nThough Armstrong is widely recognized as a pioneer of scat singing, Ethel Waters precedes his scatting on record in the 1930s according to Gary Giddins and others. Billie Holiday and Frank Sinatra are just two singers who were greatly indebted to him. Holiday said that she always wanted Bessie Smith's 'big' sound and Armstrong's feeling in her singing. Even special musicians like Duke Ellington have praised Armstrong through strong testimonials. Duke Ellington said, \"If anybody was a master, it was Louis Armstrong.\" In 1950, Bing Crosby, the most successful vocalist of the first half of the 20th century, said, \"He is the beginning and the end of music in America.\"\n\nIn the summer of 2001, in commemoration of the centennial of Armstrong's birth, New Orleans's main airport was renamed Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport.\n\nIn 2002, the Louis Armstrong's Hot Five and Hot Seven recordings (1925–1928) were preserved in the United States National Recording Registry, a registry of recordings selected yearly by the National Recording Preservation Board for preservation in the National Recording Registry of the Library of Congress. \n\nThe US Open tennis tournament's former main stadium was named Louis Armstrong Stadium in honor of Armstrong who had lived a few blocks from the site. \n\nToday, there are many bands worldwide dedicated to preserving and honoring the music and style of Satchmo, including the Louis Armstrong Society located in New Orleans, Louisiana.\n\nHome turned into National Historic Landmark \n\nThe house where Armstrong lived for almost 28 years was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1977 and is now a museum. The Louis Armstrong House Museum, at 34-56 107th Street (between 34th and 37th Avenues) in Corona, Queens, presents concerts and educational programs, operates as a historic house museum and makes materials in its archives of writings, books, recordings and memorabilia available to the public for research. The museum is operated by the City University of New York's Queens College, following the dictates of Lucille Armstrong's will. The museum opened to the public on October 15, 2003. A new visitors center is planned. \n\nDiscography \n\nSingles \n\nOriginal albums \n\nThese LPs and EPs were released during Armstrong's lifetime and contained original studio and/or live recordings. The year and label information is for the first vinyl release, unless otherwise noted. Additional information such as number of tracks is given only when necessary to distinguish between different releases under the same title. In most cases, the number of CD releases listed is limited, with preference given to the label that originally released the album.\n\nPosthumous releases \n\nThese LPs and CDs were released after Armstrong's 1971 death.\n\n* Louis Armstrong Hot Five and Hot Seven Sessions\n** Hot Fives & Sevens (JSP, 1998)\n** The Complete Hot Five & Hot Seven Recordings (Columbia/Legacy)\n* Struttin' (Drive Archive, 1996) — 8 February 1947 concert with Edmond Hall's All-Stars\n* The Complete Ella Fitzgerald & Louis Armstrong on Verve (1997) — repackaging of Ella and Louis, Ella and Louis Again, and Porgy and Bess\n* rereleases of Together For The First Time and The Great Reunion\n** The Great Summit: The Master Takes (2001)\n** Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington: The Great Summit/Complete Sessions (2000) — includes additional CD of alternate takes\n* The Legendary Berlin Concert (Jazzpoint Records, 2000) — 22 March 1965 concert with Billy Kyle, Tyree Glenn, Eddie Shu, Arvell Shaw and Danny Barcelona\n\nList of songs recorded \n\nChronology of the recordings of Armstrong's songs:" ] }

{ "description": [ "\"We Have All the Time in the World\" is a James Bond theme and popular song sung by Louis Armstrong. Its music was ... 1969 James Bond film On Her ...", "James Bond title songs, ... on board to write another song for the movie, and they brought in Louis Armstrong to ... Louis Armstrong, 'We Have All the Time in ...", "Song: We Have All The Time ... We Have All The Time In The World Artist: Louis Armstrong ... It is a secondary musical theme in 1969 James Bond film ...", "23 best and worst Bond theme songs ranked: ... Notable as the only Bond film to feature its theme song artist in the opening title credits, ... Louis Armstrong ...", "The 10 best James Bond theme songs. Prev. ... Writing's On the Wall,\" the theme song for the new James Bond film, ... by Louis Armstrong. The least Bond-ish of ...", "Spectre Feature James Bond Movie ... by Louis Armstrong. One of the best James Bond theme songs wasn ... the James Bond Theme Songs from worst to best ..." ], "filename": [ "40/40_3606.txt", "137/137_3607.txt", "10/10_3609.txt", "67/67_3611.txt", "128/128_3612.txt", "191/191_3614.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 1, 4, 6, 7, 9 ], "title": [ "Louis Armstrong - We Have All the Time in the World [007 ...", "The Top 10 James Bond Theme Songs - Rolling Stone", "Louis Armstrong - We Have All The Time In The World", "23 best and worst Bond theme songs ranked: Which are ...", "The 10 best James Bond theme songs - CBS News", "All the James Bond Theme Songs Ranked! - New Movies, Movie ..." ], "url": [ "http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X5y58Q26ick", "http://www.rollingstone.com/music/lists/the-top-10-james-bond-theme-songs-20121005/louis-armstrong-we-have-all-the-time-in-the-world-1969-19691231", "http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RMxRDTfzgpU", "http://www.digitalspy.com/movies/james-bond-007/feature/a659194/23-best-and-worst-bond-theme-songs-ranked-which-are-classics-and-which-need-their-00-status-revoked/", "http://www.cbsnews.com/media/the-10-best-james-bond-theme-songs/", "http://www.comingsoon.net/movies/features/623825-james-bond-theme-songs-ranked#!" ], "search_context": [ "Louis Armstrong - We Have All the Time in the World [007 On Her Majesty's Secret Service ] - YouTube\nLouis Armstrong - We Have All the Time in the World [007 On Her Majesty's Secret Service ]\nWant to watch this again later?\nSign in to add this video to a playlist.\nNeed to report the video?\nSign in to report inappropriate content.\nRating is available when the video has been rented.\nThis feature is not available right now. Please try again later.\nPublished on Oct 7, 2013\n\"We Have All the Time in the World\" is a James Bond theme and popular song sung by Louis Armstrong. Its music was composed by John Barry and the lyrics by Hal David. It is a secondary musical theme in 1969 James Bond film On Her Majesty's Secret Service, the title theme being the instrumental \"On Her Majesty's Secret Service,\" also composed by Barry.\nCategory", "Louis Armstrong, 'We Have All the Time in the World' (1969) | The Top 10 James Bond Theme Songs | Rolling Stone\nThe Top 10 James Bond Theme Songs\nBruce Springsteen Cover Band Drops Out of Trump...\nThe Top 10 James Bond Theme Songs\nWith the arrival of Adele's new Bond theme, we look back at the best songs from the franchise\n10\nTom Copi/Michael Ochs Archive/Getty Images9/10\nOctober 5, 2012\nAll Stories\n9. Louis Armstrong, 'We Have All the Time in the World' (1969)\nJames Bond title songs, as a rule, have the name of the movie in the chorus. That was a bit of a challenge with On Her Majesty's Secret Service, so producers opted to go with an instrumental in the opening sequence. Hal David and Burt Bacharach were brought on board to write another song for the movie, and they brought in Louis Armstrong to sing it. The 68-year-old jazz great was sick at the time, but he nailed the song in just a single take. He died less than two years later.", "Louis Armstrong - We Have All The Time In The World - YouTube\nLouis Armstrong - We Have All The Time In The World\nWant to watch this again later?\nSign in to add this video to a playlist.\nNeed to report the video?\nSign in to report inappropriate content.\nRating is available when the video has been rented.\nThis feature is not available right now. Please try again later.\nPublished on Sep 20, 2011\nSong: We Have All The Time In The World\nArtist: Louis Armstrong\nWriter(s): Hal David, John Barry\nGenre: Jazz\nAlbum: Her Majesty's Secret Service - Soundtrack\nReleased: 1969, 1994 (Re-released)\nProducer: Phil Ramone\n''We Have All the Time in the World'' is a James Bond theme and popular song sung by Louis Armstrong. Its music was composed by John Barry and the lyrics by Hal David. It is a secondary musical theme in 1969 James Bond film On Her Majesty's Secret Service, the title theme being the instrumental \"On Her Majesty's Secret Service,\" also composed by Barry.\nThe song title, \"We Have All the Time in the World\", is taken from James Bond's final words in both the novel and the film. Louis Armstrong was too ill to play his trumpet. Barry chose Armstrong because he felt he could \"deliver the title line with irony.\"\nWhen asked for his favourite Bond composition, John Barry cited both \"We Have All...\" and \"Goldfinger\". \"Goldfinger\" because it perfected the \"Bond Sound\", and \"We Have All...\" because it was the finest piece of music he had written for a Bond movie and because of the pleasure of working with Louis Armstrong.\nHow much time do we have? :-)\nLyrics:\nWe have all, the time in the world\nTime enough for life, to unfold\nAll the precious things\nWe have all the love in the world\nIf that's all we have, you will find\nWe need nothing more\nEvery step of the way\nWill find us\nWith the cares of the world\nFar behind us\nWe have all the time in the world\nJust for love\nNothing more, nothing less, only love...\nEvery step of the way\nWill find us\nWith the cares of the world\nFar behind us, yes...\nWe have all the time in the world\nJust for love, nothing more, nothing less, only love...\nOnly love...", "23 best and worst Bond theme songs ranked: Which are classics and which need their 00 status revoked?\n23 best and worst Bond theme songs ranked: Which are classics and which need their 00 status revoked?\nNo, 'Live and Let Die' isn't at number one.\nDon't Miss\nShare\nDecember 08 2016 7:52 AM\nShare\nDecember 05 2016 8:16 AM\nShare\nDecember 01 2016 10:30 PM\nNovember 28 2016 10:59 AM\nLatest News\nShare\n2 hours ago 5:59 PM\nShare\n3 hours ago 5:03 PM\n4 hours ago 4:14 PM\nMust Read\nShare\n3 hours ago 5:03 PM\nShare\n4 hours ago 4:14 PM\n24 December 2016 7:00 AM\nShares\nIt's the holiday period, and what would that be without a Bond film? With Spectre on Sky Cinema Action & Adventure at 8pm tonight, where does Sam Smith sit in the illustrious ranks of Shirley Bassey, Paul McCartney and Rita Coolidge(!)? We've gone back through every single 007 song to find out which ones are earworms and which need their 00 status revoked.\nA quick point to note: we've discounted instrumentals, so the opening credits pieces from Dr No and On Her Majesty's Secret Service are not on the list.\nAdvertisement - Continue Reading Below\n23. 'Another Way to Die' - Jack White & Alicia Keys (2008)\n©  Rex Shutterstock MGM/Everett\nThe first and only duet in the entire Bond theme back catalogue, on paper this sounded great but what emerged was a sludgy, lifeless and unremarkable track that went in one ear and out the other.\n22. 'Die Another Day' - Madonna (2002)\n©  Getty Images Dave Benett\nCompounding the horror of her on-screen cameo in this stinker of a film is Madonna's dreary entry in the musical canon, its Auto-Tuning and electronic blips failing to disguise that 'Die Another Day' is dead on arrival.\n©  Getty Images Rob Verhorst/Redferns\nAdvertisement - Continue Reading Below\nOpening with a naff '80s saxophone solo, Rita Coolidge's offering was written by John Barry and Tim Rice, but the two musical legends came up with a snoozer of a track that wouldn't feel out of place in a Lifetime movie.\n20. 'For Your Eyes Only' - Sheena Easton (1981)\n©  Chris Walter/WireImage\nNotable as the only Bond film to feature its theme song artist in the opening title credits, 'For Your Eyes Only' is a cheesy throwaway that somehow managed to score an Oscar nomination. This is one of those Bond tunes that lacks punch and dynamism, and is more likely to send you off to sleep than get you amped up for 2 hours of eyebrow-raising Roger Moore action.\n©  Getty Images Evening Standard\nAdvertisement - Continue Reading Below\nTwo words for this Lulu track: hot mess. The diminutive Scottish singer certainly has the pipes for a Bond theme, but her offering clumsily told the entire film's plotline in its lyrics (spoilers, Lu!), although scandalously chickened out when it came to mentioning a third nipple.\n18. 'Writing's on the Wall' - Sam Smith (2015)\n©  Twitter @samsmithworld\nA snoozer of a ballad from Sam Smith, 'Writing's on the Wall' sounds more like a rejected theme from The Bodyguard than it does a Bond theme. Still, at least the edgeless tune has the benefit of accompanying a loopy octopus-driven credits sequence in the film itself.\n©  David Redfern/Redferns\nAdvertisement - Continue Reading Below\nWe're surely not alone in having a soft spot for Shirley Bassey, but her third and (so far) final outing for the series is a pale 'Goldfinger' imitation. And while we aren't saying that Bond lyrics are the most coherent, what on earth are you crooning about, Shirley?\n16. 'From Russia with Love' - Matt Monro (1963)\n©  David Redfern/Redferns\nThe very first Bond movie Dr No used an instrumental version of the Monty Norman/John Barry theme, so this was the first official Bond theme song. Though Monro's track isn't bad per se, it's far too laid-back and lounge crooner to have any lasting impact. It's also very much at odds with the breakneck pace of Sean Connery's second 007 outing.\n15. 'You Know My Name' - Chris Cornell (2006)\n©  J. Vespa/WireImage for John Varvatos\nDaniel Craig's tenure got off to a storming start thanks to Casino Royale. Unfortunately, the Chris Cornell theme song – a deliberate attempt to ape the up-tempo entries from Paul McCartney and Duran Duran – couldn't quite match it. This is a perfectly decent rock song in its own right, but Bond deserves better.\n14. 'Tomorrow Never Dies' - Sheryl Crow (1997)\n©  Simon Ritter/Redferns\nSheryl Crow makes a creditable effort of updating the classic Bond formula, matching some classic rumbling strings with the moody thrumming of an electric guitar. A fine if forgettable entry.\n©  Ron Howard/Redferns\nAdvertisement - Continue Reading Below\nSean Connery's final (official) James Bond outing may have been a bit of a duffer, but at least it boasted this Shirley Bassey belter. What can we glean from this track? Shirley *really* likes Diamonds. Sample lyric: \"Diamonds are forever / They are all I need to please me / They can stimulate and tease me.\"\n12. 'The Living Daylights' - Aha (1987)\n©  Bob King/Redferns\nFeeling like a conscious effort to replicate the success of 'A View to a Kill', band-of-the-moment Aha delivered a decent ditty that's just lacking that extra bit of lyrical inspiration to elevate it into the top ten. The Norwegian pop stars reportedly clashed with John Barry on the making of this track - but the latter admirably managed to work this tune into his instrumental score to good effect.\n©  PA Images\nAdvertisement - Continue Reading Below\n'Thunderball' had a tumultuous genesis, with Shirley Bassey and Dionne Warwick both having songs for the movie rejected before Tom Jones was rushed in. The material is fairly generic Bond and composer John Barry wisely advised Jones not to read into the lyrics, which was definitely for the best. Despite that, Jones was a pitch perfect choice and gains extra points for fainting in the studio after delivering the final high note.\n10. 'Licence to Kill' - Gladys Knight (1989)\nLyrically speaking, we'll admit it's a bit by-the-numbers, but 'License to Kill' is elevated by Gladys Knight absolutely nailing the vocals without even breaking a sweat and stomping all over her more anaemic challengers.\n9. 'Skyfall' - Adele (2012)\nAdele's Oscar winner 'Skyfall' was exactly the right song for the occasion of Bond's 50th anniversary. A Bondian tune with a big voice, big chorus and big instrumentation. Lyrically this might not be the most sophisticated theme of the lot, but on the first listen of those opening bars it all clicks into place - this feels exactly how a classic Bond theme should.\n8. 'The World is Not Enough' - Garbage (1999)\nOften overlooked, Garbage probably stands as the most leftfield and daring choice for a theme song. Whatever you think of the band's usual output, they nail this track by blending classic Bond with Shirley Manson's eerie and strident vocals and a '90s indie sensibility that's hardly out of date at all.\n7. 'Nobody Does it Better' - Carly Simon (1977)\nAdvertisement - Continue Reading Below\nNo Bond song sums up Roger Moore's Bond run quite like this Carly Simon ballad. Moore effortlessly breezed through explosions and death-defying situations with nothing more than a raised eyebrow and a Martini glass in hand. This would be much higher on the list, but Steve Coogan's hilarious recreation of The Spy Who Loved Me's opening in I'm Alan Partridge has softened its impact somewhat. \"Glang… glang-alang-alang-alang-alang-alang…\"\n6. 'You Only Live Twice' - Nancy Sinatra (1967)\nNancy Sinatra was the first non-Brit to tackle a Bond theme, and they couldn't have chosen better. The sultry 'You Only Live Twice' captures all the sex and exoticism of the films, with a (much sampled) opening that is only slightly less iconic than the Bond theme itself.\n5. 'GoldenEye' - Tina Turner (1995)\nAdvertisement - Continue Reading Below\nTo fans of a certain age, GoldenEye stands as a classic Bond film - thanks in no small part to Sean Bean, Famke Janssen and the N64 - and its theme is instantly recognisable from the first bar that jumps from understated right to explosive.\nThis Bono and The Edge-written number is guilty of crimes that we've criticised lesser entries for - namely being utterly incoherent - but Tina Turner commits so completely to her subject that we can't help but love it.\n4. 'Goldfinger' - Shirley Bassey (1964)\nOut of Bassey's Bond outings, there's no denying that 'Goldfinger' is the best. Much like the film itself, it set the tone for everything that would come afterwards, with strident brass and ultra-literal lyrics to match the globetrotting exploits and knowing campiness.\nWithout Goldfinger, who's to say how the Bond theme would have progressed. Certainly we would have been deprived of this gem , at the very least.\n3. 'Live and Let Die' - Paul McCartney & Wings (1973)\nBond was moving into uncertain waters in the post-Sean Connery era, but a suave and unflappable Roger Moore proved that 007 had legs with his debut Live and Let Die.\nAfter a string of ballads as theme tunes, Paul McCartney & Wings tore up the rule book with an epic 3-minute rock and roll song that signalled a new era for everyone's favourite superspy. McCartney threw everything and the kitchen sink into 'Live and Let Die' - piano, raging guitars, brass, dramatic key changes - to come up with something remarkable.\n2. 'We Have All the Time in the World' - Louis Armstrong (1969)\nGeorge Lazenby only played James Bond once, but boy what a movie! On Her Majesty's Secret Service was a cracker across the board; great Bond girl in Diana Rigg, great villain in Telly Savalas's Blofeld and the only 007 film that'll legit make you cry.\nPart of its brilliance was the music. John Barry's powerful 'OHMSS' instrumental theme played out over the opening credits, but the theme connected to it - Louis Armstrong's 'We Have all the Time in the World' - ties in perfectly to the film's emotionally-charged story. Sure, it doesn't feel particularly Bondy, but the fact that one of the greatest love songs of all time emerged from a 007 film is something of a miracle.\n1. 'A View to a Kill' - Duran Duran (1985)\nThe only Bond song to reach the top of the Billboard charts, 'A View to a Kill' also happens to be the best of the series. With a storming guitar riff and catchy Bondian lyrics (\"Dance into the fire, that fatal kiss is all we need\"), Duran Duran's tune brilliantly straddles the line between being a great 'Bond theme' and a cracking song in its own right.\nBarry also managed to weave motifs from the song into his score , creating a musical interplay that elevates this to the top of the pile. It's a shame, then, that this didn't have a better film to back it up.\nListen to Digital Spy's Bond theme playlist (including instrumentals) in our Spotify player below:", "The 10 best James Bond theme songs - CBS News\nCBS News\nDavid Morgan CBS News September 8, 2015, 9:33 AM\nThe 10 best James Bond theme songs\nNext\nMGM/UA\nGrammy winner Sam Smith is the new voice behind \"Writing's On the Wall,\" the theme song for the new James Bond film, \"Spectre.\" It marks the first 007 theme song recorded by a British male solo artist since 1965.\nFrom Shirley Bassey to Adele, a variety of artists have recorded a track for the long-running movie franchise over the years. The 23 previous James Bond themes make up some of the most memorable movie music of all time.\nClick through for our countdown of the top 10 Bond songs:\n10. \"A View to a Kill\"\nWritten by Duran Duran and John Barry, performed by Duran Duran.\nThe song - the English's band's second Number 1 hit in the U.S. - was a successful blend of rock and traditional Bond orchestral textures. And the lyrics have a rueful Bondian flavor:\nUntil we dance into the fire,\nThat fatal kiss is all we need,\nDance into the fire,\nTo fatal sounds of broken dreams.\n9. \"Nobody Does It Better\"\nFrom \"The Spy Who Loved Me.\" Music by Marvin Hamlisch, lyrics by Carole Bayer Sager; performed by Carly Simon.\nThis enormously popular hit was one of only three songs from official Bond films to be nominated for an Academy Award for Best Song (the others being \"Live and Let Die\" and \"Skyfall\"). Musically it's a little repetitive, but Carly Simon's soothing vocals make us completely believe that she's actually in love with James Bond. It's also a rare Bond song that can exist quite well outside the universe of secret agents, despite the telling line:\nThe spy who loved me\nIs keeping all my secrets safe tonight.\n8. \"Thunderball\"\nMusic by John Barry, lyrics by Don Black; performed by Tom Jones.\nThe Welsh singer's swagger is perfectly matched against the boisterous brass of this arrangement. It's not exactly subtle, but then, neither is the film.\nStrangely, while the song and film's title refers to intelligence agencies' plan to retrieve stolen nuclear warheads (Operation Thunderball), the lyrics seem to tell us more about the hero:\nHe always runs while others walk.\nHe acts while other men just talk.\nThey call him the winner who takes all -\nAnd he strikes like Thunderball. ...\nAny woman he wants, he'll get;\nHe will break any heart without regret.\nHis days of asking are all gone.\nHis fight goes on and on and on.\nBut he thinks that the fight is worth it all -\nSo he strikes like Thunderball.\n7. \"Diamonds Are Forever\"\nMusic by John Barry, lyrics by Don Black; performed by Shirley Bassey.\nShirley Bassey gained a lot of street cred from her dazzling performance of \"Goldfinger,\" and so we cut her some slack on her other Bond performances (for the anemic theme from \"Moonraker,\" and the rejected song for \"Quantum of Solace\"). But she brought her A-game to \"Diamonds Are Forever,\" which challenged her voice and endurance of breath as much as \"Goldfinger\" had.\nThe song has an advantage over some other Bond themes of having lyrics that are less pointed (\"The Man With the Golden Gun\" is about as plot-specific as a song can get), but the chorus is a tad repetitious repetitious repetitious.\n6. \"The World is Not Enough\"\nMusic by David Arnold, lyrics by Don Black; performed by Garbage.\nPeople like us\nThere's no point in living\nIf you can't feel the life.\nWe know when to kiss\nAnd we know when to kill.\nIf we can't have it all\nThen nobody will.\nIt's performed by the Scottish-American alternative rock band Garbage (featuring singer Shirley Manson), which would lead one to anticipate a much harsher sound from the creators of the 1996 song, \"Stupid Girl.\" But this collaboration between the group and the film's composer, David Arnold, backed by a 60-piece orchestra, created a lush amalgamation of electronica beats and seductive strings.\n5. \"For Your Eyes Only\"\nMusic by Bill Conti, lyrics by Mike Leeson; performed by Sheena Easton.\nThe Scot who'd made a splash with her hit singles \"Modern Girl\" and \"9 to 5\" (released in the U.S. as \"Morning Train\") became the first singer to appear on screen performing the title song amid Maurice Binder's evocative visuals.\n4. \"You Only Live Twice\"\nMusic by John Barry, lyrics by Leslie Bricusse; performed by Nancy Sinatra.\nYou only live twice, or so it seems:\nOne life for yourself and one for your dreams.\nYou drift through the years and life seems tame,\nTill one dream appears, and love is its name.\nThe melody and chord changes of \"You Only Live Twice\" have a mesmeric quality that flows from the preceding pre-credit sequence (when we believe we've watched Bond get killed). While Nancy Sinatra doesn't get to deliver the brash confidence of \"These Boots Are Made for Walking,\" her insouciance carries her (and us) away on John Barry's lilting strings.\n3. \"Skyfall\"\nWritten by Adele Adkins and Paul Epworth; performed by Adele.\nMusically it's a rich evocation of the time-honored standards of Bond music as originally encapsulated in John Barry's horn-rich orchestrations, minor chords, and ceaseless energy. Lyrically, it delves deeply into the plot of the film, and of Bond's relationship with M and MI6. And in terms of performance, the only singer today who could match Shirley Bassey is Adele.\nYou may have my number, you can take my name,\nBut you'll never have my heart.\nLet the sky fall,\nPut your hand in my hand\nAnd we'll stand.\nThere was some concern that the song, arranged by J. A. C. Redford, couched its sound too heavily in chords borrowed from the classic Monty Norman/John Barry Bond theme and be ruled ineligible for the Academy Awards , but cooler heads prevailed over this very cool tune -- which wound up being the first Bond song to win an Oscar.\n2. \"Live and Let Die\"\nWritten by Paul McCartney and Linda McCartney; performed by Paul McCartney and Wings.\nHow many tonal shifts can you have in a theme song? From pop ballad to hard rock to classical, they're all here, with an invigorating, pounding drive that is impossible to resist (See Jennifer Lawrence in \"American Hustle\" for an entertaining example).\n1. \"Goldfinger\"\nMusic by John Barry, lyrics by Leslie Bricusse and Anthony Newley; performed by Shirley Bassey.\nIt set the standard for Bond theme songs, and to date it hasn't been topped.\nGoldfinger,\nHe's the man, the man with the Midas touch,\nA spider's touch.\nBeckons you to enter his web of sin,\nBut don't go in\nGolden words he will pour in your ear,\nBut his lies can't disguise what you fear,\nFor a golden girl knows when he's kissed her -\nIt's the kiss of death from Mister\nGoldfinger.\nPretty girl, beware of his heart of gold,\nThis heart is cold.\nJust as Bond films usually succeed or fail on the strength of their villain, the theme for \"Goldfinger\" demonstrates that a song about a bad guy can be so much more intriguing than a song about a good guy. There's just so much more to dig into - a charismatic character who instills dread and fear - that stirs the singer to such a guttural, enthralling, rafter-rattling shout of a performance. Bravo, Shirley! Now get yourself a cup of tea with honey.\nHonorable Mention\nThe following are worthy of mention even if they do not fall into the category of opening title songs.\n\"From Russia With Love\"\nMusic by John Barry, lyrics by Lionel Bart; performed by Matt Monro.\nTechnically, this may not count as a theme song since it was not played with its vocals under the film's opening titles, but within the film (as a radio source music), and finally under the end credits. But the melody is much more memorable than the words anyway:\nI've seen places, faces and smiled for a moment\nBut oh, you haunted me so.\nStill my tongue-tied young pride\nWould not let my love for you show\nIn case you'd say no.\nTo Russia I flew, but there and then\nI suddenly knew you'd care again.\nMy running around is through.\nI fly to you, from Russia with love.\n\"My running around is through\"? This is James Bond, we're talking about!\nAt least it can be heard without lyrics under the opening titles (and under a lot of jiggling female flesh).\nHonorable Mention\n\"Surrender (Tomorrow Never Dies)\"\nMusic by David Arnold and David McAlmont, lyrics by Don Black; performed by K.D. Lang.\nThe original opening title track for \"Tomorrow Never Dies,\" sung by K.D. Lang, was rejected in favor of another song sung by Sheryl Crow. So Lang's song was retitled \"Surrender\" and relegated to the film's end credits. There were no curvy, silhouetted models dripping in oil, but in the writing and in Lang's powerful vocals, \"Surrender\" beats Crow's \"Tomorrow Never Dies\" hands down.\nHonorable Mention\n\"We Have All the Time in the World\"\nFrom \"On Her Majesty's Secret Service.\" Music by John Barry, lyrics by Hal David; performed by Louis Armstrong.\nThe least Bond-ish of Bond songs, this slow ballad sung by the great Satchmo was heard not under the opening titles (which instead featured a great instrumental number by John Barry), but during the film, under a happy romantic montage featuring James Bond (George Lazenby) and Tracy (Diana Rigg), who would drive off together into the sunset (but not, we will learn, toward a happy ending).", "James Bond Themes: We've Ranked Every Song!\nSHARE\nGet ready for SPECTRE with our ranked list of all the James Bond themes\nJames Bond is one of the few constants that movie lovers have in this crazy world of ours. We seem to know that, no matter what, a new Bond movie is always on the way. With it will come new gadgets, a new car, new lovely ladies and a new James Bond theme song that will play over the opening credits and attempt to seduce us. And as always, we welcome these things with open arms.\nThe history of James Bond theme songs isn’t quite as long as some might suspect, however. The first two films in the series – Dr. No and From Russia With Love – didn’t have opening songs, they had orchestral arrangements. Dr. No even segued into a weird rendition of “Three Blind Mice.” Later on, On Her Majesty’s Secret Service gave the opening number amiss and snuck its theme song into the middle and end of the movie.\nBut although there may be exceptions, we all know what we think of when we think of “James Bond Theme Songs.” We think of explosive renditions of sensual songs. We think of a handful of classics and a handful of duds. And we think to ourselves, “Which ones really are the best?” because that’s the way the human mind works.\nHere then is ComingSoon.net’s answer to that question. These are the official James Bond theme songs, ranked from worst to best, with two honorable mentions because they may or may not count, but were just that good, dang it.\nJames Bond Themes Honorable Mention: “We Have All The Time in the World” by Louis Armstrong\nOne of the best James Bond theme songs wasn’t actually played over the opening credits, so we’re giving it our first honorable mention. This enormously romantic song from On Her Majesty’s Secret Service is one of the few James Bond themes that helps tell the story of the film, in which our hero finally meets the love of his life. (Alas, it was short-lived.) Satchmo warbles his trademark warble, our hearts melt, and a classic is born.\nJames Bond Themes Honorable Mention: “Surrender” by K.D. Lang\nOriginally intended for the opening credits of Tomorrow Never Dies, and then for some reason relegated to the closing credits, K.D. Lang’s “Surrender” is silken and cool. The horn sections are sassy and powerful. It’s one of the best James Bond theme songs, and it’s not even officially a James Bond theme song. And it’s a heck of a lot better than the official theme the movie finally got.\nJames Bond Themes 21. “Die Another Day” by Madonna\nMadonna performing a James Bond theme? It should have been a match made in heaven. Unfortunately, Die Another Day came out after Madonna’s sultry era, and smack dab in the middle of her auto-tuned dance phase. There’s still a generic sexiness to her “Die Another Day” that, in a vacuum, is more appropriate to James Bond than several other songs on this list. But then she yells out “Sigmund Freud! Analyze this! Analyze this! Analyze this-this-this!” and the only proper reaction is a facepalm.\nJames Bond Themes 20. “Moonraker” by Shirley Bassey\nYou would think the theme to one of the silliest Bond movies would be equally unforgettable. You would be wrong. There was an unfortunate time in the franchise when all the James Bond theme songs were indistinguishable from the generic pop they would play in an orthodontist’s waiting room. (They were, unsurprisingly, all in the midst of the Roger Moore era.) Shirley Bassey’s theme from Moonraker is the worst of the lot, in part because Bassey – who also performed two of the best Bond songs – was obviously better than this.\nJames Bond Themes 19. “All Time High” by Rita Coolidge\nAnother chintzy ballad from the Roger Moore era. Octopussy was a pretty bad movie to begin with but this generic love song from Rita Coolidge makes it sound about as exciting as a 1980s gum commercial. There is very little to say about this James Bond theme other than “snore.”\nJames Bond Themes 18. “For Your Eyes Only” by Sheena Easton\nSheena Easton’s theme from For Your Eyes Only is actually a pretty good song. It has a lilting, romantic quality… the sort of thing you’d play at a wedding while the bride and groom make moon eyes at each other. It is not, however, much of a James Bond theme. There’s no showmanship here. No sexiness. Nothing grand. It’s orthodontist’s music, once again, but to Easton’s credit it’s rather good orthodontist music.\nJames Bond Themes 17. “Licence to Kill” by Gladys Knight\nGladys Knight belts the living daylights out of the theme to Licence to Kill, a song that sounds like the kind of tune your parents would have had sex to in the 1980s. It’s the early electronic production that kills an otherwise solid James Bond song here. If they’d put away the Casio keyboards and hired a full orchestra instead, this could have been one of the best.\nJames Bond Themes 16. “Tomorrow Never Dies” by Sheryl Crow\nA dramatic intro, a mournful guitar and a bluesy attitude make Sheryl Crow’s James Bond theme from Tomorrow Never Dies a seriously cool song. Unfortunately, Crow herself can’t quite keep up with it. She nails the sexy lounge room lyrics, but she can’t quite belt the chorus, and seems to be struggling just when the song needs the most power.\nJames Bond Themes 15. “Another Way to Die” by Jack White and Alicia Keys\nAnother almost-great song, this James Bond theme from Quantum of Solace features a brassy and explosive orchestration that’s practically perfect for the franchise. Unfortunately the gimmick – the first duet in James Bond history – falls apart. Jack White’s indie rock screeching might have been fine on its own, and Alicia Keys could have wailed the whole thing and we would have been happy. But these two great tastes taste lousy together.\nJames Bond Themes 14. “You Know My Name” by Chris Cornell\nThe last few songs were half-great. Either the song was awesome but the vocals mucked it up, or vice-versa. But Chris Cornell’s James Bond theme song to Casino Royale has a different problem: it’s just okay. It’s got a perfectly serviceable hard rock action riff, and Cornell’s vocals do that it perfectly serviceable justice. It’s too bad that one of the best Bond movies ever had to settle for one of the most mediocre James Bond theme songs ever.\nJames Bond Themes 13. “The Living Daylights” by a-ha\nThe Norwegian new wave band a-ha gave us one of the best music videos ever made (with “Take On Me” in 1985), and a pretty good James Bond theme for a pretty good James Bond movie. There’s a fun mix of orchestral bombast and feel-good synth rock in The Living Daylights. This is one of the most underrated James Bond theme songs.\nJames Bond Themes 12. “The World is Not Enough” by Garbage\nThe theme to The World is Not Enough has exactly the right amount of brassiness for a James Bond theme song. The lyrics are enigmatic and alluring, and Garbage front woman Shirley Manson knows how to sell them. This song never quite hits the soaring heights of the best James Bond themes but it does its sexy job.\nJames Bond Themes 11. “Writing’s On The Wall” by Sam Smith\nSome James Bond theme songs are erotic, and some are romantic, and some – like Sam Smith’s theme to the upcoming SPECTRE – are depressing. But to Smith’s credit, “Writing’s On The Wall” is EPICALLY depressing. It plays like the sad song that plays over and over again in the mind of a man who’s watched too many loved ones die, as he solemnly drinks himself to oblivion at the back of a bar. This sort of melancholy may not be the most enjoyable aspect of James Bond, but it’s undeniably an important part of the character, and Smith seems to understand that.\nJames Bond Themes 10. “Diamonds Are Forever” by  Shirley Bassey\nThe second-best song that Shirley Bassey performed for the James Bond franchise is still one of the best. For a series that, on some level, has always been about wish fulfillment, listening to one of the great singers belt powerful notes about avarice seems just about right. So say what you will about the film (it’s not on many of the lists of James Bond’s best), but Bassey had good material here and she knocked it out of the park.\nJames Bond Themes 9. “The Man with the Golden Gun” by Lulu\nNot a lot of Bond villains get their own theme song, but Christopher Lee’s assassin from The Man with the Golden Gun gets a flashy, catchy, groovy tune that makes him seem cool as hell. (And of course, he is.) Lulu completely sells the awesomeness of the villain Scaramanga, and although the song may seem almost ridiculously upbeat today, it only adds to the charm.\nJames Bond Themes 8. “You Only Live Twice” by Nancy Sinatra\nAnother love ballad for Bond, but if Nancy Sinatra’s song from You Only Live Twice was playing at your orthodontist’s office, it would be the sexiest orthodontist’s office in town. There’s a mysterious quality to the string section, and a playfulness to the declining notes. They combine to make something rather magical. From here on out all of the Bond songs on this list are bona fide classics.\nJames Bond Themes 7. “Nobody Does It Better” by Carly Simon\nSome would argue that Carly Simon’s theme to The Spy Who Loved Me is the best James Bond theme song ever. They may have a point, but maybe what’s really going on is that this is just “the best song from a James Bond movie.” It’s a fun tune, catchy as hell, romantic and beautifully sung. But nothing about this seems to specifically evoke James Bond, his adventures, his history or even his films. “Nobody Does It Better” is still a winner by any estimation; there’s just happens to be a reason why it didn’t crack our top five.\nJames Bond Themes 6. “A View to a Kill” by Duran Duran\nA lot of the best James Bond theme songs sound like they belong in a lounge act. That’s not a complaint, just an observation. For whatever reason, the English new wave act Duran Duran was given free reign to provide A View to a Kill with a new and exciting sound all its own. “A View to a Kill” was a hit song, and it probably would have been a success even without the James Bond connection. It’s entertaining and cool and energetic, and it promises one hell of a good time. (Whether or not the movie actually lives up to that promise is a matter of some debate.)\nJames Bond Themes 5. “Live and Let Die” by Paul McCartney & Wings\nBig and brassy! Paul McCartney (yes, yes, and also Wings) ushered in a new era of James Bond movies with the theme to Live and Let Die, sending the series careening into a 1970s musical sound as the franchise rebranded itself with a new leading man, Roger Moore. This is an almost maniacally excited song. The melody shifts and spirals and builds and sinks and hardly gives the listener a chance to get their bearings. It’s a thrill.\nJames Bond Themes 4. “Thunderball” by Tom Jones\nThe lyrics are stupid, but who cares? Tom Jones sings like nobody’s business, and pounds the theme to Thunderball out with a silky energy. It’s powerful but alluring. This is the sort of song you imagine Bond would play on a jukebox when he’s about to seduce you. There are better James Bond theme songs, but none from a male singer. Tom Jones and James Bond probably go out for dry martinis together all the time. They’re the perfect pair.\nJames Bond Themes 3. “Skyfall” by Adele\nIt’s almost TOO good. Soulful and aching and grand, Adele’s theme to Skyfall is stunningly performed, and gives the distinct impression that someone tried to make the ultimate James Bond theme and had the talent to back it up. History and sensuousness have elevated two songs higher than Adele’s contribution, at least in our eyes, but not by much.\nJames Bond Themes 2. “GoldenEye” by Tina Turner\nBono and The Edge collaborated with Tina Turner on this, the sultriest James Bond song ever. This is a song sung by someone you will be attracted to, damn it, and for whom you would do just about anything. Tina Turner has more erotic confidence in one Goldeneye theme than most of us will ever experience in our whole lifetimes. James Bond songs had never been this deliciously sweaty before. It’s like pheromones set to music.\nJames Bond Themes 1. “Goldfinger” by  Shirley Bassey\nIt was the first “real” James Bond song (again, the first two films only opened with orchestral music), and it’s still the best. Shirley Bassey got an opportunity to sing her soul out and she accepted the challenge with obvious pleasure. This is a song that makes the villain Auric Goldfinger seem a lot more threatening (and attractive) than he actually is, but that’s part of the miracle of Bassey’s work here. It’s proud and heroic and enticing and it’s kind of a lie, but who cares? The music is pure James Bond, the lyrics are pure machismo, and the performance is perfect.\nSPECTRE" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Vietnam_War.txt" ], "title": [ "Vietnam War" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Vietnam War (), also known as the Second Indochina War, and known in Vietnam as Resistance War Against America () or simply the American War, was a Cold War-era proxy war that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. This war followed the First Indochina War (1946–54) and was fought between North Vietnam—supported by the Soviet Union, China and other communist allies—and the government of South Vietnam—supported by the United States, Philippines and other anti-communist allies. The Viet Cong (also known as the National Liberation Front, or NLF), a South Vietnamese communist common front aided by the North, fought a guerrilla war against anti-communist forces in the region. The People's Army of Vietnam, also known as the North Vietnamese Army (NVA), engaged in a more conventional war, at times committing large units to battle.\n\nAs the war continued, the part of the Viet Cong in the fighting decreased as the role of the NVA grew. U.S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, and airstrikes. In the course of the war, the U.S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam.\n\nThe U.S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a Communist takeover of South Vietnam. This was part of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam. They viewed the conflict as a colonial war, fought initially against forces from France and then the U.S., and later against South Vietnam. \n\nBeginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina. The Military Assistance Advisory Group, Indochina (with an authorized strength of 128 men) was set up in September 1950 with a mission to oversee the use and distribution of US military equipment by the French and their allies. U.S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. U.S. involvement escalated further following the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin incident, in which a U.S. destroyer clashed with North Vietnamese fast attack craft, which was followed by the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which gave the U.S. president authorization to increase U.S. military presence. Regular U.S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965. Operations crossed international borders: bordering areas of Laos and Cambodia were heavily bombed by U.S. forces as American involvement in the war peaked in 1968, the same year that the communist side launched the Tet Offensive. The Tet Offensive failed in its goal of overthrowing the South Vietnamese government, but became the turning point in the war, as it persuaded a large segment of the U.S. population that its government's claims of progress toward winning the war were illusory despite many years of massive U.S. military aid to South Vietnam.\n\nGradual withdrawal of U.S. ground forces began as part of \"Vietnamization\", which aimed to end American involvement in the war while transferring the task of fighting the Communists to the South Vietnamese themselves. Despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U.S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture. The war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. \n\nDirect U.S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973. The capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities (see Vietnam War casualties). Estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 800,000 to 3.1 million. Some 200,000–300,000 Cambodians, . 20,000–200,000 Laotians, , which estimates 200,000 by 1973. and 58,220 U.S. service members also died in the conflict, with a further 1,626 missing in action.\n\nNames for the war\n\nVarious names have been applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English. It has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict.\n\nAs there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this particular conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is generally known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ (Resistance War Against America). It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam (The Vietnam War). \n\nThe primary military organizations involved in the war were, on one side, the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) and the U.S. military, and, on the other side, the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) (more commonly called the North Vietnamese Army, or NVA, in English-language sources), and the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF, more commonly known as the Viet Cong in English language sources), a South Vietnamese communist guerrilla force. \n\nBackground to 1949\n\nFrance began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the next seven decades. In spite of military resistance, most notably by the Cần Vương of Phan Đình Phùng, by 1888 the area of the current-day nations of Cambodia and Vietnam was made into the colony of French Indochina (Laos was later added to the colony).. Various Vietnamese opposition movements to French rule existed during this period, such as the Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng who staged the failed Yên Bái mutiny in 1930, but none were ultimately as successful as the Viet Minh common front, which was founded in 1941, controlled by the Indochinese Communist Party, and funded by the U.S. and the Chinese Nationalist Party in its fight against Imperial Japanese occupation..\n\nIn 1940, during World War II, the French were defeated by the Germans. The French State (commonly known as Vichy France) was established as a client state of Nazi Germany. The French colonial authorities, in French Indochina, sided with the Vichy regime. In September 1940, Japan invaded Indochina. Following the cessation of fighting and the beginning of the Imperial Japanese occupation, the French colonial authorities collaborated with the Japanese. The French continued to run affairs in Indochina, but ultimate power resided in the hands of the Imperial Japanese.\n\nThe Viet Minh was founded as a league for independence from France, but also opposed Japanese occupation in 1945 for the same reason. The U.S. and Chinese Nationalist Party supported them in the fight against the Imperial Japanese. However, they did not have enough power to fight actual battles at first. Viet Minh leader Ho Chi Minh was suspected of being a communist and jailed for a year by the Chinese Nationalist Party. \n\nDouble occupation by France and Japan continued until the German forces were expelled from France and the French Indochina colonial authorities started holding secret talks with the Free French. Fearing that they could no longer trust the French authorities, the Imperial Japanese military interned the French authorities and troops on 9 March 1945. and created the puppet Empire of Vietnam state, under Bảo Đại instead.\n\nDuring 1944–1945, a deep famine struck northern Vietnam due to a combination of bad weather and French/Japanese exploitation (French Indochina had to supply grains to Japan). Between 400,000 and 2 million people died of starvation (out of a population of 10 million in the affected area).. Exploiting the administrative gap that the internment of the French had created, the Viet Minh in March 1945 urged the population to ransack rice warehouses and refuse to pay their taxes.. Between 75 and 100 warehouses were consequently raided.. This rebellion against the effects of the famine and the authorities that were partially responsible for it bolstered the Viet Minh's popularity and they recruited many members during this period.\n\nOn 22 August 1945, following the Imperial Japanese surrender, OSS agents Archimedes Patti and Carleton B. Swift Jr. arrived in Hanoi on a mercy mission to liberate allied POWs and were accompanied by Jean Sainteny, a French government official. The Japanese forces informally surrendered (the official surrender took place on 2 September 1945 in Tokyo Bay) but being the only force capable of maintaining law and order the Imperial Japanese military remained in power while keeping French colonial troops and Sainteny detained..\n\nDuring August the Imperial Japanese forces remained inactive as the Viet Minh and other nationalist groups took over public buildings and weapons, which began the August Revolution. OSS officers met repeatedly with Ho Chi Minh and other Viet Minh officers during this period and on 2 September 1945 Ho Chi Minh declared the independent Democratic Republic of Vietnam before a crowd of 500,000 in Hanoi. In an overture to the Americans, he began his speech by paraphrasing the United States Declaration of Independence: \"All men are created equal. The Creator has given us certain inviolable Rights: the right to Life, the right to be Free, and the right to achieve Happiness.\"\n\nThe Viet Minh took power in Vietnam in the August Revolution. The Viet Minh, downplaying their Communist agenda and stressing nationalism enjoyed large popular support (Vietnamese independence being popular at the time), although Arthur J. Dommen cautions against a \"romanticized view\" of their success: \"The Viet Minh use of terror was systematic….the party had drawn up a list of those to be liquidated without delay.\" After their defeat in the war, the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) gave weapons to the Vietnamese, and kept Vichy French officials and military officers imprisoned for a month after the surrender. The Viet Minh had recruited more than 600 Imperial Japanese soldiers and given them roles to train or command Vietnamese soldiers. \n\nHowever, the major allied victors of World War II, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Soviet Union, all agreed the area belonged to the French. As the French did not have the means to immediately retake Vietnam, the major powers came to an agreement that British troops would occupy the south while Nationalist Chinese forces would move in from the north. Nationalist Chinese troops entered the country to disarm Imperial Japanese troops north of the 16th parallel on 14 September 1945. When the British landed in the south, they rearmed the interned French forces as well as parts of the surrendered Imperial Japanese forces to aid them in retaking southern Vietnam, as they did not have enough troops to do this themselves.\n\nOn the urging of the Soviet Union, Ho Chi Minh initially attempted to negotiate with the French, who were slowly re-establishing their control across the area. In January 1946, the Viet Minh won elections across central and northern Vietnam.. On 6 March 1946, Ho signed an agreement allowing French forces to replace Nationalist Chinese forces, in exchange for French recognition of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam as a \"free\" republic within the French Union, with the specifics of such recognition to be determined by future negotiation. The French landed in Hanoi by March 1946 and in November of that year they ousted the Viet Minh from the city. British forces departed on 26 March 1946, leaving Vietnam in the hands of the French. Soon thereafter, the Viet Minh began a guerrilla war against the French Union forces, beginning the First Indochina War.\n\nThe war spread to Laos and Cambodia, where communists organized the Pathet Lao and the Khmer Serei, both of which were modeled on the Viet Minh.. Globally, the Cold War began in earnest, which meant that the rapprochement that existed between the Western powers and the Soviet Union during World War II disintegrated. The Viet Minh fight was hampered by a lack of weapons; this situation changed by 1949 when the Chinese Communists had largely won the Chinese Civil War and were free to provide arms to their Vietnamese allies.\n\nExit of the French, 1950–54\n\nIn January 1950, the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union recognized the Viet Minh's Democratic Republic of Vietnam, based in Hanoi, as the legitimate government of Vietnam. The following month the United States and Great Britain recognized the French-backed State of Vietnam in Saigon, led by former Emperor Bảo Đại, as the legitimate Vietnamese government.. The outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 convinced many Washington policymakers that the war in Indochina was an example of communist expansionism directed by the Soviet Union. \n\nMilitary advisors from the People's Republic of China (PRC) began assisting the Viet Minh in July 1950. PRC weapons, expertise, and laborers transformed the Viet Minh from a guerrilla force into a regular army. In September 1950, the United States created a Military Assistance and Advisory Group (MAAG) to screen French requests for aid, advise on strategy, and train Vietnamese soldiers.. By 1954, the United States had supplied 300,000 small arms and spent US$1 billion in support of the French military effort, shouldering 80 percent of the cost of the war. \n\nThere were also talks between the French and Americans in which the possible use of three tactical nuclear weapons was considered, though reports of how seriously this was considered and by whom are even now vague and contradictory. One version of the plan for the proposed Operation Vulture envisioned sending 60 B-29s from U.S. bases in the region, supported by as many as 150 fighters launched from U.S. Seventh Fleet carriers, to bomb Viet Minh commander Võ Nguyên Giáp's positions. The plan included an option to use up to three atomic weapons on the Viet Minh positions. Admiral Arthur W. Radford, Chairman of the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, gave this nuclear option his backing. U.S. B-29s, B-36s, and B-47s could have executed a nuclear strike, as could carrier aircraft from the Seventh Fleet.[http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2004/August%202004/0804dien.aspx Dien Bien Phu], Air Force Magazine 87:8, August 2004.\n\nU.S. carriers sailed to the Gulf of Tonkin, and reconnaissance flights over Dien Bien Phu were conducted during the negotiations. According to U.S. Vice-President Richard Nixon, the plan involved the Joint Chiefs of Staff drawing up plans to use three small tactical nuclear weapons in support of the French. Nixon, a so-called \"hawk\" on Vietnam, suggested that the United States might have to \"put American boys in\". U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower made American participation contingent on British support, but they were opposed to such a venture. In the end, convinced that the political risks outweighed the possible benefits, Eisenhower decided against the intervention. Eisenhower was a five-star general. He was wary of getting the United States involved in a land war in Asia. \n\nThe Viet Minh received crucial support from the Soviet Union and PRC. PRC support in the Border Campaign of 1950 allowed supplies to come from the PRC into Vietnam. Throughout the conflict, U.S. intelligence estimates remained skeptical of French chances of success. \n\nThe Battle of Dien Bien Phu marked the end of French involvement in Indochina. Giap's Viet Minh forces handed the French a stunning military defeat, and on 7 May 1954, the French Union garrison surrendered. At the Geneva Conference, the French negotiated a ceasefire agreement with the Viet Minh, and independence was granted to Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam.\n\nTransition period\n\nVietnam was temporarily partitioned at the 17th parallel, and under the terms of the Geneva Accords, civilians were to be given the opportunity to move freely between the two provisional states for a 300-day period. Elections throughout the country were to be held in 1956 to establish a unified government. Around one million northerners, mainly minority Catholics, fled south, fearing persecution by the communists following an American propaganda campaign using slogans such as \"The Virgin Mary is heading south\",. and aided by a U.S.-funded $93 million relocation program, which included the use of the Seventh Fleet to ferry refugees. As many as two million more would have left had they not been stopped by the Viet Minh.. The northern, mainly Catholic refugees were meant to give the later Ngô Đình Diệm regime a strong anti-communist constituency.. Diệm later went on to staff his administration's key posts mostly with northern and central Catholics.\n\nIn addition to the Catholics flowing south, up to 130,000 \"Revolutionary Regroupees\" went to the north for \"regroupment\", expecting to return to the south within two years. The Viet Minh left roughly 5,000 to 10,000 cadres in the south as a \"politico-military substructure within the object of its irredentism.\" The last French soldiers were to leave Vietnam in April 1956. The PRC completed its withdrawal from North Vietnam at around the same time. Around 52,000 Vietnamese civilians moved from south to north. \n\nBetween 1953 and 1956, the North Vietnamese government instituted various agrarian reforms, including \"rent reduction\" and \"land reform\", which resulted in significant political oppression. During the land reform, testimony from North Vietnamese witnesses suggested a ratio of one execution for every 160 village residents, which extrapolated nationwide would indicate nearly 100,000 executions. Because the campaign was concentrated mainly in the Red River Delta area, a lower estimate of 50,000 executions became widely accepted by scholars at the time. However, declassified documents from the Vietnamese and Hungarian archives indicate that the number of executions was much lower than reported at the time, although likely greater than 13,500. In 1956, leaders in Hanoi admitted to \"excesses\" in implementing this program and restored a large amount of the land to the original owners..\n\nThe south, meanwhile, constituted the State of Vietnam, with Bảo Đại as Emperor and Ngô Đình Diệm (appointed in July 1954) as his prime minister. Neither the United States government nor Ngô Đình Diệm's State of Vietnam signed anything at the 1954 Geneva Conference. With respect to the question of reunification, the non-communist Vietnamese delegation objected strenuously to any division of Vietnam, but lost out when the French accepted the proposal of Viet Minh delegate Phạm Văn Đồng, who proposed that Vietnam eventually be united by elections under the supervision of \"local commissions\". The United States countered with what became known as the \"American Plan\", with the support of South Vietnam and the United Kingdom. It provided for unification elections under the supervision of the United Nations, but was rejected by the Soviet delegation. The United States said, \"With respect to the statement made by the representative of the State of Vietnam, the United States reiterates its traditional position that peoples are entitled to determine their own future and that it will not join in any arrangement which would hinder this\". \n\nU.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower wrote in 1954, \"I have never talked or corresponded with a person knowledgeable in Indochinese affairs who did not agree that had elections been held as of the time of the fighting, possibly eighty percent of the population would have voted for the Communist Ho Chi Minh as their leader rather than Chief of State Bảo Đại. Indeed, the lack of leadership and drive on the part of Bảo Đại was a factor in the feeling prevalent among Vietnamese that they had nothing to fight for.\" According to the Pentagon Papers, however, from 1954 to 1956 \"Ngô Đình Diệm really did accomplish miracles\" in South Vietnam: \"It is almost certain that by 1956 the proportion which might have voted for Ho—in a free election against Diệm—would have been much smaller than eighty percent.\" In 1957, independent observers from India, Poland, and Canada representing the International Control Commission (ICC) stated that fair, unbiased elections were not possible, with the ICC reporting that neither South nor North Vietnam had honored the armistice agreement \n\nFrom April to June 1955, Diệm eliminated any political opposition in the south by launching military operations against two religious groups: the Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo of Ba Cụt. The campaign also focused on the Bình Xuyên organized crime group which was allied with members of the communist party secret police and had some military elements. As broad-based opposition to his harsh tactics mounted, Diệm increasingly sought to blame the communists.\n\nIn a referendum on the future of the State of Vietnam on 23 October 1955, Diệm rigged the poll supervised by his brother Ngô Đình Nhu and was credited with 98.2 percent of the vote, including 133% in Saigon. His American advisors had recommended a more modest winning margin of \"60 to 70 percent.\" Diệm, however, viewed the election as a test of authority.. Three days later, he declared South Vietnam to be an independent state under the name Republic of Vietnam (ROV), with himself as president. Likewise, Ho Chi Minh and other communist officials always won at least 99% of the vote in North Vietnamese \"elections\". \n\nThe domino theory, which argued that if one country fell to communism, then all of the surrounding countries would follow, was first proposed as policy by the Eisenhower administration.. John F. Kennedy, then a U.S. Senator, said in a speech to the American Friends of Vietnam: \"Burma, Thailand, India, Japan, the Philippines and obviously Laos and Cambodia are among those whose security would be threatened if the Red Tide of Communism overflowed into Vietnam.\" \n\nDiệm era, 1955–63\n\nRule\n\nA devout Roman Catholic, Diệm was fervently anti-communist, nationalist, and socially conservative. Historian Luu Doan Huynh notes that \"Diệm represented narrow and extremist nationalism coupled with autocracy and nepotism.\". The majority of Vietnamese people were Buddhist, and were alarmed by actions such as Diệm's dedication of the country to the Virgin Mary.\n\nBeginning in the summer of 1955, Diệm launched the \"Denounce the Communists\" campaign, during which communists and other anti-government elements were arrested, imprisoned, tortured, or executed. He instituted the death penalty against any activity deemed communist in August 1956. According to Gabriel Kolko about 12,000 suspected opponents of Diệm were killed between 1955 and 1957 and by the end of 1958 an estimated 40,000 political prisoners had been jailed. However, Guenter Lewy argues that such figures were exaggerated and that there were never more than 35,000 prisoners of all kinds in the whole country..\n\nIn May 1957, Diệm undertook a ten-day state visit to the United States. President Eisenhower pledged his continued support, and a parade was held in Diệm's honor in New York City. Although Diệm was publicly praised, in private Secretary of State John Foster Dulles conceded that Diệm had been selected because there were no better alternatives..\n\nFormer Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara wrote in Argument Without End (1999) that the new American patrons of the Republic of Vietnam (ROV) were almost completely ignorant of Vietnamese culture. They knew little of the language or long history of the country. There was a tendency to assign American motives to Vietnamese actions, though Diệm warned that it was an illusion to believe that blindly copying Western methods would solve Vietnamese problems.\n\nInsurgency in the South, 1954–60\n\nBetween 1954 and 1957 there was large-scale but disorganized dissidence in the countryside which the Diệm government succeeded in quelling. In early 1957 South Vietnam had its first peace in over a decade. However, by mid-1957 through 1959 incidents of violence increased but the government \"did not construe it as a campaign, considering the disorders too diffuse to warrant committing major GVN [Government of Vietnam] resources.\" By early 1959 however, Diệm considered it an organized campaign and implemented Law 10/59, which made political violence punishable by death and property confiscation. There had been some division among former Viet Minh whose main goal was to hold the elections promised in the Geneva Accords, leading to \"wildcat\" activities separate from the other communists and anti-GVN activists.\n\nIn December 1960, the National Liberation Front (NLF, a.k.a. the Viet Cong) was formally created with the intent of uniting all anti-GVN activists, including non-communists. According to the Pentagon Papers, the Viet Cong \"placed heavy emphasis on the withdrawal of American advisors and influence, on land reform and liberalization of the GVN, on coalition government and the neutralization of Vietnam.\" Often the leaders of the organization were kept secret.\n\nThe reason for the continued survival of the NLF was the class relations in the countryside. The vast majority of the population lived in villages in the countryside where the key issue was land reform. The Viet Minh had reduced rents and debts; and had leased communal lands, mostly to the poorer peasants. Diem brought the landlords back to the villages. People who were farming land they held for years now had to return it to landlords and pay years of back rent. This rent collection was enforced by the South Vietnamese army. The divisions within villages reproduced those that had existed against the French: \"75 percent support for the NLF, 20 percent trying to remain neutral and 5 percent firmly pro-government,\" \n\nNorth Vietnamese involvement\n\nSources disagree on whether North Vietnam played a direct role in aiding and organizing South Vietnamese rebels prior to 1960. Kahin and Lewis assert:\n\nSimilarly, historian Arthur Schlesinger Jr. states that \"it was not until September, 1960 that the Communist Party of North Vietnam bestowed its formal blessing and called for the liberation of the south from American imperialism\".\n\nBy contrast, the author of War Comes to Long An Jeffrey Race interviewed communist defectors in 1967 and 1968 who found such denials \"very amusing\", and who \"commented humorously that the Party had apparently been more successful than was expected in concealing its role.\" James Olson and Randy Roberts assert that North Vietnam authorized a low-level insurgency in December 1956. To counter the accusation that North Vietnam was violating the Geneva Accord, the independence of the Viet Cong was stressed in communist propaganda. \n\nIn March 1956, southern communist leader Lê Duẩn presented a plan to revive the insurgency entitled \"The Road to the South\" to the other members of the Politburo in Hanoi, but as both China and the Soviets opposed confrontation at this time, Lê Duẩn's plan was rejected. However the North Vietnamese leadership approved tentative measures to revive the southern insurgency in December 1956..This decision was made at the 11th Plenary Session of the Lao Dong Central Committee. Communist forces were under a single command structure set up in 1958. The North Vietnamese Communist Party approved a \"people's war\" on the South at a session in January 1959 and in May, Group 559 was established to maintain and upgrade the Ho Chi Minh trail, at this time a six-month mountain trek through Laos. About 500 of the \"regroupees\" of 1954 were sent south on the trail during its first year of operation. The first arms delivery via the trail was completed in August 1959..\n\nNorth Vietnam invaded Laos in 1959, and used 30,000 men to build invasion routes through Laos and Cambodia by 1961. About 40,000 communist soldiers infiltrated into the south from 1961–63. North Vietnam sent 10,000 troops of the North Vietnamese Army to attack the south in 1964, and this figure increased to 100,000 in 1965. \n\nKennedy's escalation, 1961–63\n\nIn the 1960 U.S. presidential election, Senator John F. Kennedy defeated incumbent Vice President Richard Nixon. Although Eisenhower warned Kennedy about Laos and Vietnam, Europe and Latin America \"loomed larger than Asia on his sights.\". In his inaugural address, Kennedy made the ambitious pledge to \"pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, in order to assure the survival and success of liberty.\" In June 1961, he bitterly disagreed with Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev when they met in Vienna to discuss key U.S.–Soviet issues. Only 16 months later, the U.S.–Soviet issues included the Cuban Missile Crisis (October 16–28, 1962) played out on television worldwide and was the closest the Cold War came to escalating into a full-scale nuclear war, and the U.S. raised the readiness level of Strategic Air Command(SAC) forces to DEFCON 2.\n\nThe Kennedy administration remained essentially committed to the Cold War foreign policy inherited from the Truman and Eisenhower administrations. In 1961, the U.S. had 50,000 troops based in Korea, and Kennedy faced a three-part crisis – the failure of the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the construction of the Berlin Wall, and a negotiated settlement between the pro-Western government of Laos and the Pathet Lao communist movement. These crises made Kennedy believe that another failure on the part of the United States to gain control and stop communist expansion would fatally damage U.S. credibility with its allies and his own reputation. Kennedy was thus determined to \"draw a line in the sand\" and prevent a communist victory in Vietnam. He told James Reston of The New York Times immediately after his Vienna meeting with Khrushchev, \"Now we have a problem making our power credible and Vietnam looks like the place.\" \n\nIn May 1961, U.S. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson visited Saigon and enthusiastically declared Diệm the \"Winston Churchill of Asia.\". Asked why he had made the comment, Johnson replied, \"Diệm's the only boy we got out there.\" Johnson assured Diệm of more aid in molding a fighting force that could resist the communists.\n\nKennedy's policy toward South Vietnam rested on the assumption that Diệm and his forces had to ultimately defeat the guerrillas on their own. He was against the deployment of American combat troops and observed that \"to introduce U.S. forces in large numbers there today, while it might have an initially favorable military impact, would almost certainly lead to adverse political and, in the long run, adverse military consequences.\" \nThe quality of the South Vietnamese military, however, remained poor. Poor leadership, corruption, and political promotions all played a part in weakening the South Vietnamese Army (ARVN). The frequency of guerrilla attacks rose as the insurgency gathered steam. While Hanoi's support for the Viet Cong played a role, South Vietnamese governmental incompetence was at the core of the crisis..\n\nOne major issue Kennedy raised was whether the Soviet space and missile programs had surpassed those of the United States. Although Kennedy stressed long-range missile parity with the Soviets, he was also interested in using special forces for counterinsurgency warfare in Third World countries threatened by communist insurgencies. Although they were originally intended for use behind front lines after a conventional Soviet invasion of Europe, Kennedy believed that the guerrilla tactics employed by special forces such as the Green Berets would be effective in a \"brush fire\" war in Vietnam.\n\nKennedy advisors Maxwell Taylor and Walt Rostow recommended that U.S. troops be sent to South Vietnam disguised as flood relief workers. Kennedy rejected the idea but increased military assistance yet again. In April 1962, John Kenneth Galbraith warned Kennedy of the \"danger we shall replace the French as a colonial force in the area and bleed as the French did.\" By November 1963, there were 16,000 American military personnel in South Vietnam, up from Eisenhower's 900 advisors. \n\nThe Strategic Hamlet Program was initiated in late 1961. This joint U.S.-South Vietnamese program attempted to resettle the rural population into fortified camps. It was implemented in early 1962 and involved some forced relocation, village internment, and segregation of rural South Vietnamese into new communities where the peasantry would be isolated from Communist insurgents. It was hoped these new communities would provide security for the peasants and strengthen the tie between them and the central government. However, by November 1963 the program had waned, and it officially ended in 1964.\n\nOn 23 July 1962, fourteen nations, including China, South Vietnam, the Soviet Union, North Vietnam and the United States, signed an agreement promising to respect the neutrality of Laos.[http://www.answers.com/topic/international-agreement-on-the-neutrality-of-laos-35k International Agreement on the Neutrality of Laos].\n\nOusting and assassination of Ngô Đình Diệm\n\nThe inept performance of the South Vietnamese army was exemplified by failed actions such as the Battle of Ap Bac on 2 January 1963, in which a small band of Viet Cong won a battle against a much larger and better-equipped South Vietnamese force, many of whose officers seemed reluctant even to engage in combat. \n\nThe Army of the Republic of Vietnam forces were led in that battle by Diệm's most trusted general, Huỳnh Văn Cao, commander of the IV Corps. Cao was a Catholic who had been promoted due to religion and fidelity rather than skill, and his main job was to preserve his forces to stave off coups; he had earlier vomited during a communist attack. Some policymakers in Washington began to conclude that Diệm was incapable of defeating the communists and might even make a deal with Ho Chi Minh. He seemed concerned only with fending off coups, and had become more paranoid after attempts in 1960 and 1962, which he partly attributed to U.S. encouragement. As Robert F. Kennedy noted, \"Diệm wouldn't make even the slightest concessions. He was difficult to reason with…\" \n\nAs historian James Gibson summed up the situation:\n\nDiscontent with Diệm's policies exploded following the Huế Phật Đản shootings of nine majority Buddhists who were protesting against the ban on the Buddhist flag on Vesak, the Buddha's birthday. This resulted in mass protests against discriminatory policies that gave privileges to the Catholic Church and its adherents. Diệm's elder brother Ngô Đình Thục was the Archbishop of Huế and aggressively blurred the separation between church and state. Thuc's anniversary celebrations shortly before Vesak had been bankrolled by the government, and Vatican flags were displayed prominently. There had also been reports of Buddhist pagodas being demolished by Catholic paramilitaries throughout Diệm's rule. Diệm refused to make concessions to the Buddhist majority or take responsibility for the deaths. On 21 August 1963, the ARVN Special Forces of Colonel Lê Quang Tung, loyal to Diệm's younger brother Ngô Đình Nhu, raided pagodas across Vietnam, causing widespread damage and destruction and leaving a death toll estimated to range into the hundreds.\n\nU.S. officials began discussing the possibility of a regime change during the middle of 1963. The United States Department of State was generally in favor of encouraging a coup, while the Defense Department favored Diệm. Chief among the proposed changes was the removal of Diệm's younger brother Nhu, who controlled the secret police and special forces and was seen as the man behind the Buddhist repression and more generally the architect of the Ngô family's rule. This proposal was conveyed to the U.S. embassy in Saigon in Cable 243.\n\nThe Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was in contact with generals planning to remove Diệm. They were told that the United States would not oppose such a move nor punish the generals by cutting off aid. President Diệm was overthrown and executed, along with his brother, on 2 November 1963. When he was informed, Maxwell Taylor remembered that Kennedy \"rushed from the room with a look of shock and dismay on his face.\". He had not anticipated Diệm's murder. The U.S. ambassador to South Vietnam, Henry Cabot Lodge, invited the coup leaders to the embassy and congratulated them. Ambassador Lodge informed Kennedy that \"the prospects now are for a shorter war\".. Kennedy wrote Lodge a letter congratulating him for \"a fine job.\" \n\nFollowing the coup, chaos ensued. Hanoi took advantage of the situation and increased its support for the guerrillas. South Vietnam entered a period of extreme political instability, as one military government toppled another in quick succession. Increasingly, each new regime was viewed by the communists as a puppet of the Americans; whatever the failings of Diệm, his credentials as a nationalist (as Robert McNamara later reflected) had been impeccable..\n\nU.S military advisors were embedded at every level of the South Vietnamese armed forces. They were however criticized for ignoring the political nature of the insurgency.. The Kennedy administration sought to refocus U.S. efforts on pacification and \"winning over the hearts and minds\" of the population. The military leadership in Washington, however, was hostile to any role for U.S. advisors other than conventional troop training. General Paul Harkins, the commander of U.S. forces in South Vietnam, confidently predicted victory by Christmas 1963.. The CIA was less optimistic, however, warning that \"the Viet Cong by and large retain de facto control of much of the countryside and have steadily increased the overall intensity of the effort\".\n\nParamilitary officers from the CIA's Special Activities Division trained and led Hmong tribesmen in Laos and into Vietnam. The indigenous forces numbered in the tens of thousands and they conducted direct action missions, led by paramilitary officers, against the Communist Pathet Lao forces and their North Vietnamese supporters. The CIA also ran the Phoenix Program and participated in Military Assistance Command, Vietnam – Studies and Observations Group (MAC-V SOG), which was originally named the Special Operations Group, but was changed for cover purposes. \n\nJohnson's escalation, 1963–69\n\nAt the time Lyndon B. Johnson took over the presidency after the death of Kennedy, he had not been heavily involved with policy toward Vietnam, Presidential aide Jack Valenti recalls, \"Vietnam at the time was no bigger than a man's fist on the horizon. We hardly discussed it because it was not worth discussing.\".Johnson viewed many members that he inherited from Kennedy's cabinet with distrust because he had never penetrated their circle during Kennedy's presidency; to Johnson's mind, those like W. Averell Harriman and Dean Acheson spoke a different language. \n\nUpon becoming president, however, Johnson immediately had to focus on Vietnam: on 24 November 1963, he said, \"the battle against communism [...] must be joined [...] with strength and determination.\".Before a small group, including Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., the new president also said, \"We should stop playing cops and robbers [a reference to Diệm's failed leadership] and get back to… winning the war… tell the generals in Saigon that Lyndon Johnson intends to stand by our word…[to] win the contest against the externally directed and supported Communist conspiracy.\" The pledge came at a time when the situation in South Vietnam was deteriorating, especially in places like the Mekong Delta, because of the recent coup against Diệm.: \"At a place called Hoa Phu, for example, the strategic hamlet built during the previous summer now looked like it had been hit by a hurricane. […] Speaking through an interpreter, a local guard explained to me that a handful of Viet Cong agents had entered the hamlet one night and told the peasants to tear it down and return to their native villages. The peasants complied without question.\"\n\nThe military revolutionary council, meeting in lieu of a strong South Vietnamese leader, was made up of 12 members headed by General Dương Văn Minh—whom Stanley Karnow, a journalist on the ground, later recalled as \"a model of lethargy.\". Lodge, frustrated by the end of the year, cabled home about Minh: \"Will he be strong enough to get on top of things?\" His regime was overthrown in January 1964 by General Nguyễn Khánh.. However, there was persistent instability in the military as several coups—not all successful—occurred in a short period of time.\n\nOn 2 August 1964, the , on an intelligence mission along North Vietnam's coast, allegedly fired upon and damaged several torpedo boats that had been stalking it in the Gulf of Tonkin.. A second attack was reported two days later on the and Maddox in the same area. The circumstances of the attack were murky. Lyndon Johnson commented to Undersecretary of State George Ball that \"those sailors out there may have been shooting at flying fish.\" \n\nThe second attack led to retaliatory air strikes, prompted Congress to approve the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution on 7 August 1964, signed by Johnson, and gave the president power to conduct military operations in Southeast Asia without declaring war. Although Congressmen at the time denied that this was a full-scale war declaration, the Tonkin Resolution allowed the president unilateral power to launch a full-scale war if the president deemed it necessary. In the same month, Johnson pledged that he was not \"… committing American boys to fighting a war that I think ought to be fought by the boys of Asia to help protect their own land.\".\n\nAn undated NSA publication declassified in 2005, however, revealed that there was no attack on 4 August. It had already been called into question long before this. \"Gulf of Tonkin incident\", writes Louise Gerdes, \"is an oft-cited example of the way in which Johnson misled the American people to gain support for his foreign policy in Vietnam.\" George C. Herring argues, however, that McNamara and the Pentagon \"did not knowingly lie about the alleged attacks, but they were obviously in a mood to retaliate and they seem to have selected from the evidence available to them those parts that confirmed what they wanted to believe.\".\n\n\"From a strength of approximately 5,000 at the start of 1959 the Viet Cong's ranks grew to about 100,000 at the end of 1964…Between 1961 and 1964 the Army's strength rose from about 850,000 to nearly a million men.\" The numbers for U.S. troops deployed to Vietnam during the same period were quite different; 2,000 in 1961, rising rapidly to 16,500 in 1964. By early 1965, 7,559 South Vietnamese hamlets had been destroyed by the Viet Cong. \n\nThe National Security Council recommended a three-stage escalation of the bombing of North Vietnam. On 2 March 1965, following an attack on a U.S. Marine barracks at Pleiku, Operation Flaming Dart (initiated when Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin was on a state visit to North Vietnam), Operation Rolling Thunder and Operation Arc Light commenced. The bombing campaign, which ultimately lasted three years, was intended to force North Vietnam to cease its support for the Viet Cong by threatening to destroy North Vietnam's air defenses and industrial infrastructure. As well, it was aimed at bolstering the morale of the South Vietnamese.Earl L. Tilford, Setup: What the Air Force did in Vietnam and Why. Maxwell Air Force Base AL: Air University Press, 1991, p. 89. Between March 1965 and November 1968, \"Rolling Thunder\" deluged the north with a million tons of missiles, rockets and bombs..\n\nBombing was not restricted to North Vietnam. Other aerial campaigns, such as Operation Commando Hunt, targeted different parts of the Viet Cong and NVA infrastructure. These included the Ho Chi Minh trail supply route, which ran through Laos and Cambodia. The objective of stopping North Vietnam and the Viet Cong was never reached. As one officer noted, \"This is a political war and it calls for discriminate killing. The best weapon… would be a knife… The worst is an airplane.\". The Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force Curtis LeMay, however, had long advocated saturation bombing in Vietnam and wrote of the communists that \"we're going to bomb them back into the Stone Age\". \n\nEscalation and ground war\n\nAfter several attacks upon them, it was decided that U.S. Air Force bases needed more protection as the South Vietnamese military seemed incapable of providing security. On 8 March 1965, 3,500 U.S. Marines were dispatched to South Vietnam. This marked the beginning of the American ground war. U.S. public opinion overwhelmingly supported the deployment. \n\nIn a statement similar to that made to the French almost two decades earlier, Ho Chi Minh warned that if the Americans \"want to make war for twenty years then we shall make war for twenty years. If they want to make peace, we shall make peace and invite them to afternoon tea.\" As former First Deputy Foreign Minister Tran Quang Co has noted, the primary goal of the war was to reunify Vietnam and secure its independence. Some have argued that the policy of North Vietnam was not to topple other non-communist governments in South East Asia.. However, the Pentagon Papers warned of \"a dangerous period of Vietnamese expansionism….Laos and Cambodia would have been easy pickings for such a Vietnam….Thailand, Malaya, Singapore, and even Indonesia, could have been next.\" \n\nThe Marines' initial assignment was defensive. The first deployment of 3,500 in March 1965 was increased to nearly 200,000 by December.. The U.S. military had long been schooled in offensive warfare. Regardless of political policies, U.S. commanders were institutionally and psychologically unsuited to a defensive mission. In December 1964, ARVN forces had suffered heavy losses at the Battle of Bình Giã, in a battle that both sides viewed as a watershed. Previously, communist forces had utilized hit-and-run guerrilla tactics. However, at Binh Gia, they had defeated a strong ARVN force in a conventional battle. Tellingly, South Vietnamese forces were again defeated in June 1965 at the Battle of Đồng Xoài. \n\nDesertion rates were increasing, and morale plummeted. General William Westmoreland informed Admiral U. S. Grant Sharp Jr., commander of U.S. Pacific forces, that the situation was critical. He said, \"I am convinced that U.S. troops with their energy, mobility, and firepower can successfully take the fight to the NLF [National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam a.k.a. the Viet Cong].\" With this recommendation, Westmoreland was advocating an aggressive departure from America's defensive posture and the sidelining of the South Vietnamese. By ignoring ARVN units, the U.S. commitment became open-ended.. Westmoreland outlined a three-point plan to win the war:\n* Phase 1. Commitment of U.S. (and other free world) forces necessary to halt the losing trend by the end of 1965.\n* Phase 2. U.S. and allied forces mount major offensive actions to seize the initiative to destroy guerrilla and organized enemy forces. This phase would end when the enemy had been worn down, thrown on the defensive, and driven back from major populated areas.\n* Phase 3. If the enemy persisted, a period of twelve to eighteen months following Phase 2 would be required for the final destruction of enemy forces remaining in remote base areas. \n\nThe plan was approved by Johnson and marked a profound departure from the previous administration's insistence that the government of South Vietnam was responsible for defeating the guerrillas. Westmoreland predicted victory by the end of 1967. Johnson did not, however, communicate this change in strategy to the media. Instead he emphasized continuity. The change in U.S. policy depended on matching the North Vietnamese and the Viet Cong in a contest of attrition and morale. The opponents were locked in a cycle of escalation.. The idea that the government of South Vietnam could manage its own affairs was shelved.\n\nThe one-year tour of duty of American soldiers deprived units of experienced leadership. As one observer noted \"we were not in Vietnam for 10 years, but for one year 10 times.\" As a result, training programs were shortened.\n\nSouth Vietnam was inundated with manufactured goods. As Stanley Karnow writes, \"the main PX [Post Exchange], located in the Saigon suburb of Cholon, was only slightly smaller than the New York Bloomingdale's…\". The American buildup transformed the economy and had a profound effect on South Vietnamese society. A huge surge in corruption was witnessed.\n\nWashington encouraged its SEATO allies to contribute troops. Australia, New Zealand, South Korea, Thailand, and the Philippines. all agreed to send troops. Major allies, however, notably NATO nations Canada and the United Kingdom, declined Washington's troop requests. The U.S. and its allies mounted complex operations, such as operations Masher, Attleboro, Cedar Falls, and Junction City. However, the communist insurgents remained elusive and demonstrated great tactical flexibility.\n\nMeanwhile, the political situation in South Vietnam began to stabilize with the coming to power of prime minister Air Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ and figurehead Chief of State, General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu, in mid-1965 at the head of a military junta. This ended a series of coups that had happened more than once a year. In 1967, Thieu became president with Ky as his deputy, after rigged elections. Although they were nominally a civilian government, Ky was supposed to maintain real power through a behind-the-scenes military body. However, Thieu outmaneuvered and sidelined Ky by filling the ranks with generals from his faction. Thieu was also accused of murdering Ky loyalists through contrived military accidents. Thieu, mistrustful and indecisive, remained president until 1975, having won a one-candidate election in 1971..\n \n\nThe Johnson administration employed a \"policy of minimum candor\". in its dealings with the media. Military information officers sought to manage media coverage by emphasizing stories that portrayed progress in the war. Over time, this policy damaged the public trust in official pronouncements. As the media's coverage of the war and that of the Pentagon diverged, a so-called credibility gap developed.\n\nTet Offensive\n\nIn late 1967 the Communists lured American forces into the hinterlands at Đắk Tô and at the Marine Khe Sanh combat base in Quảng Trị Province where the United States was more than willing to fight because it could unleash its massive firepower unimpeded by civilians. However, on 31 January 1968, the NVA and the Viet Cong broke the truce that traditionally accompanied the Tết (Lunar New Year) holiday by launching the largest battle of the war, the Tet Offensive, in the hope of sparking a national uprising. Over 100 cities were attacked by over 85,000 enemy troops including assaults on General Westmoreland's headquarters and the U.S. Embassy in Saigon..\n\nAlthough the U.S. and South Vietnamese forces were initially shocked by the scale of the urban offensive, they responded quickly and effectively, decimating the ranks of the Viet Cong. In the former capital city of Huế, the combined NVA and Viet Cong troops captured the Imperial Citadel and much of the city and massacred over 3,000 unarmed Huế civilians. In the following Battle of Huế American forces employed massive firepower that left 80 percent of the city in ruins. Further north, at Quảng Trị City, members of the 1st Cavalry Division and 1st ARVN Infantry Division killed more than 900 NVA and Vietcong troops in and around the city. In Saigon, 1,000 NLF (Viet Cong) fighters fought off 11,000 U.S. and ARVN troops for three weeks.\n\nAcross South Vietnam, 1,100 Americans and other allied troops, 2,100 ARVN, 14,000 civilians, and 32,000 NVA and Viet Cong lay dead. \n\nBut the Tet Offensive had another, unintended consequence. General Westmoreland had become the public face of the war. He had been named Time magazine's 1965's Man of the Year and eventually was featured on the magazine's cover three times. Time described him as \"the sinewy personification of the American fighting man… (who) directed the historic buildup, drew up the battle plans, and infused the… men under him with his own idealistic view of U.S. aims and responsibilities.\" Six weeks after the Tet Offensive began, \"public approval of his overall performance dropped from 48 percent to 36 percent–and, more dramatically, endorsement for his handling of the war fell from 40 percent to 26 percent.\" \n\nA few months earlier, in November 1967, Westmoreland had spearheaded a public relations drive for the Johnson administration to bolster flagging public support. In a speech before the National Press Club he had said a point in the war had been reached \"where the end comes into view.\" Thus, the public was shocked and confused when Westmoreland's predictions were trumped by Tet. The American media, which had until then been largely supportive of U.S. efforts, turned on the Johnson administration for what had become an increasing credibility gap.\n\nAlthough the Tet Offensive was a significant victory for allied forces, in terms of casualties and control of territory, it was a sound defeat when evaluated from the point of view of strategic consequences: it became a turning point in America's involvement in the Vietnam War because it had a profound impact on domestic support for the conflict. Despite the military failure for the Communist forces, the Tet Offensive became a political victory for them and ended the career of president Lyndon B. Johnson, who declined to run for re-election as his approval rating slumped from 48 to 36 percent. As James Witz noted, Tet \"contradicted the claims of progress… made by the Johnson administration and the military.\" The offensive constituted an intelligence failure on the scale of Pearl Harbor. Journalist Peter Arnett, in a disputed article, quoted an officer he refused to identify, saying of Bến Tre (laid to rubble by U.S. attacks) that \"it became necessary to destroy the village in order to save it\". \n\nWalter Cronkite said in an editorial, \"To say that we are closer to victory today is to believe, in the face of the evidence, the optimists who have been wrong in the past. To suggest we are on the edge of defeat is to yield to unreasonable pessimism. To say that we are mired in stalemate seems the only realistic, yet unsatisfactory, conclusion.\" Following Cronkite's editorial report, President Lyndon Johnson is reported to have said, \"If I've lost Cronkite, I've lost Middle America.\" \n\nWestmoreland became Chief of Staff of the Army in March 1968, just as all resistance was finally subdued. The move was technically a promotion. However, his position had become untenable because of the offensive and because his request for 200,000 additional troops had been leaked to the media. Westmoreland was succeeded by his deputy Creighton Abrams, a commander less inclined to public media pronouncements. \n\nOn 10 May 1968, despite low expectations, peace talks began between the United States and North Vietnam in Paris. Negotiations stagnated for five months, until Johnson gave orders to halt the bombing of North Vietnam.\n\nAs historian Robert Dallek writes, \"Lyndon Johnson's escalation of the war in Vietnam divided Americans into warring camps… cost 30,000 American lives by the time he left office, (and) destroyed Johnson's presidency…\" His refusal to send more U.S. troops to Vietnam was seen as Johnson's admission that the war was lost. It can be seen that the refusal was a tacit admission that the war could not be won by escalation, at least not at a cost acceptable to the American people. As Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara noted, \"the dangerous illusion of victory by the United States was therefore dead.\".\n\nVietnam was a major political issue during the United States presidential election in 1968. The election was won by Republican party candidate Richard Nixon.\n\nVietnamization, 1969–72\n\nNixon Doctrine / Vietnamization\n\nU.S. President Richard Nixon began troop withdrawals in 1969. His plan, called the Nixon Doctrine, was to build up the ARVN, so that they could take over the defense of South Vietnam. The policy became known as \"Vietnamization\".\n\nNixon said in 1970 in an announcement, \"I am tonight announcing plans for the withdrawal of an additional 150,000 American troops to be completed during the spring of next year. This will bring a total reduction of 265,500 men in our armed forces in Vietnam below the level that existed when we took office 15 months ago.\"\n\nOn 10 October 1969, Nixon ordered a squadron of 18 B-52s loaded with nuclear weapons to race to the border of Soviet airspace to convince the Soviet Union, in accord with the madman theory, that he was capable of anything to end the Vietnam War.\n\nNixon also pursued negotiations. Theater commander Creighton Abrams shifted to smaller operations, aimed at communist logistics, with better use of firepower and more cooperation with the ARVN. Nixon also began to pursue détente with the Soviet Union and rapprochement with China. This policy helped to decrease global tensions. Détente led to nuclear arms reduction on the part of both superpowers. But Nixon was disappointed that China and the Soviet Union continued to supply the North Vietnamese with aid. In September 1969, Ho Chi Minh died at age seventy-nine. \n\nThe anti-war movement was gaining strength in the United States. Nixon appealed to the \"silent majority\" of Americans who he said supported the war without showing it in public. But revelations of the My Lai Massacre, in which a U.S. Army platoon raped and killed civilians, and the 1969 \"Green Beret Affair\" where eight Special Forces soldiers, including the 5th Special Forces Group Commander, were arrested for the murder of a suspected double agent provoked national and international outrage.\n\nBeginning in 1970, American troops were withdrawn from border areas where most of the fighting took place, and instead redeployed along the coast and interior, which is one reason why casualties in 1970 were less than half of 1969's totals.\n\nCambodia and Laos\n\nPrince Norodom Sihanouk had proclaimed Cambodia neutral since 1955, but the communists used Cambodian soil as a base and Sihanouk tolerated their presence, because he wished to avoid being drawn into a wider regional conflict. Under pressure from Washington, however, he changed this policy in 1969. The Vietnamese communists were no longer welcome. President Nixon took the opportunity to launch a massive bombing campaign, called Operation Menu, against communist sanctuaries along the Cambodia/Vietnam border. Only five high-ranking Congressional officials were informed of Operation Menu. \n\nIn 1970, Prince Sihanouk was deposed by his pro-American prime minister Lon Nol. North Vietnam invaded Cambodia in 1970 at the request of Khmer Rouge deputy leader Nuon Chea. U.S. and ARVN forces launched an invasion into Cambodia to attack NVA and Viet Cong bases.\n\nThis invasion sparked nationwide U.S. protests as Nixon had promised to deescalate the American involvement. Four students were killed by National Guardsmen at Kent State University during a protest in Ohio, which provoked further public outrage in the United States. The reaction to the incident by the Nixon administration was seen as callous and indifferent, providing additional impetus for the anti-war movement. The U.S. Air Force continued to heavily bomb Cambodia in support of the Cambodian government as part of Operation Freedom Deal.\n\nIn 1971 the Pentagon Papers were leaked to The New York Times. The top-secret history of U.S. involvement in Vietnam, commissioned by the Department of Defense, detailed a long series of public deceptions on the part of the U.S. government. The Supreme Court ruled that its publication was legal. \n\nThe ARVN launched Operation Lam Son 719 in February 1971, aimed at cutting the Ho Chi Minh trail in Laos. The ostensibly neutral Laos had long been the scene of a civil war, pitting the Laotian government backed by the US against the Pathet Lao and its North Vietnamese allies. After meeting resistance, ARVN forces retreated in a confused rout. They fled along roads littered with their own dead. When they exhausted fuel supplies, soldiers abandoned their vehicles and attempted to barge their way on to American helicopters sent to evacuate the wounded. Many ARVN soldiers clung to helicopter skids in a desperate attempt to save themselves. U.S. aircraft had to destroy abandoned equipment, including tanks, to prevent them from falling into enemy hands. Half of the ARVN troops involved in the operation were either captured or killed. The operation was a fiasco and represented a clear failure of Vietnamization. As Karnow noted \"the blunders were monumental… The (South Vietnamese) government's top officers had been tutored by the Americans for ten or fifteen years, many at training schools in the United States, yet they had learned little.\" \n\nIn 1971 Australia and New Zealand withdrew their soldiers. The U.S. troop count was further reduced to 196,700, with a deadline to remove another 45,000 troops by February 1972. As peace protests spread across the United States, disillusionment and ill-discipline grew in the ranks including increased drug use, \"fragging\" (the act of murdering the commander of a fighting unit) and desertions. \n\nVietnamization was again tested by the Easter Offensive of 1972, a massive conventional NVA invasion of South Vietnam. The NVA and Viet Cong quickly overran the northern provinces and in coordination with other forces attacked from Cambodia, threatening to cut the country in half. U.S. troop withdrawals continued. American airpower responded, beginning Operation Linebacker, and the offensive was halted. However, it became clear that without American airpower South Vietnam could not survive. The last remaining American ground troops were withdrawn by the end of March 1973; U.S. naval and air forces remained in the Gulf of Tonkin, as well as Thailand and Guam. \n\n1972 election and Paris Peace Accords\n\nThe war was the central issue of the 1972 U.S. presidential election. Nixon's opponent, George McGovern, campaigned on a platform of withdrawal from Vietnam. Nixon's National Security Advisor, Henry Kissinger, continued secret negotiations with North Vietnam's Lê Đức Thọ. In October 1972, they reached an agreement.\n\nHowever, South Vietnamese president Thieu demanded massive changes to the peace accord. When North Vietnam went public with the agreement's details, the Nixon administration claimed that the North was attempting to embarrass the president. The negotiations became deadlocked. Hanoi demanded new changes.\n\nTo show his support for South Vietnam and force Hanoi back to the negotiating table, Nixon ordered Operation Linebacker II, a massive bombing of Hanoi and Haiphong 18–29 December 1972. The offensive destroyed much of the remaining economic and industrial capacity of North Vietnam. Simultaneously Nixon pressured Thieu to accept the terms of the agreement, threatening to conclude a bilateral peace deal and cut off American aid.\n\nOn 15 January 1973, Nixon announced the suspension of offensive action against North Vietnam. The Paris Peace Accords on \"Ending the War and Restoring Peace in Vietnam\" were signed on 27 January 1973, officially ending direct U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. A cease-fire was declared across North and South Vietnam. U.S. prisoners of war were released. The agreement guaranteed the territorial integrity of Vietnam and, like the Geneva Conference of 1954, called for national elections in the North and South. The Paris Peace Accords stipulated a sixty-day period for the total withdrawal of U.S. forces. \"This article\", noted Peter Church, \"proved… to be the only one of the Paris Agreements which was fully carried out.\" \n\nOpposition to U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War: 1962–1973\n\nDuring the course of the Vietnam War a large segment of the American population came to be opposed to U.S. involvement in South Vietnam. Public opinion steadily turned against the war following 1967 and by 1970 only a third of Americans believed that the U.S. had not made a mistake by sending troops to fight in Vietnam. \n\nNearly a third of the American population were strongly against the war. It is possible to specify certain groups who led the anti-war movement and the reasons why. Many young people protested because they were the ones being drafted while others were against the war because the anti-war movement grew increasingly popular among the counterculture and drug culture in American society and its music.\n\nSome advocates within the peace movement advocated a unilateral withdrawal of U.S. forces from Vietnam. One reason given for the withdrawal is that it would contribute to a lessening of tensions in the region and thus less human bloodshed. Early opposition to U.S. involvement in Vietnam drew its inspiration from the Geneva Conference of 1954. American support of Diệm in refusing elections was seen as thwarting the very democracy that America claimed to be supporting. John F. Kennedy, while Senator, opposed involvement in Vietnam.\n\nOpposition to the Vietnam War tended to unite groups opposed to U.S. anti-communism and imperialism and, for those involved with the New Left such as the Catholic Worker Movement. Others, such as Stephen Spiro opposed the war based on the theory of Just War. Some wanted to show solidarity with the people of Vietnam, such as Norman Morrison emulating the actions of Thích Quảng Đức. In a key televised debate from 15 May 1965, Eric Severeid reporting for CBS conducted a debate between McGeorge Bundy and Hans Morgenthau dealing with an acute summary of the main war concerns of the U.S. as seen at that time stating them as: \"(1) What are the justifications for the American presence in Vietnam – why are we there? (2) What is the fundamental nature of this war? Is it aggression from North Vietnam or is it basically, a civil war between the peoples of South Vietnam? (3) What are the implications of this Vietnam struggle in terms of Communist China's power and aims and future actions? And (4) What are the alternatives to our present policy in Vietnam?\" \n\nHigh-profile opposition to the Vietnam War turned to street protests in an effort to turn U.S. political opinion. On 15 October 1969, the Vietnam Moratorium attracted millions of Americans. Riots broke out at the 1968 Democratic National Convention during protests against the war. After news reports of American military abuses such as the 1968 My Lai Massacre, brought new attention and support to the anti-war movement, some veterans joined Vietnam Veterans Against the War. The fatal shooting of four students at Kent State University in 1970 led to nationwide university protests. Anti-war protests ended with the final withdrawal of troops after the Paris Peace Accords were signed in 1973. South Vietnam was left to defend itself alone when the fighting resumed. Many South Vietnamese subsequently fled to the United States. \n\nExit of the Americans: 1973–75\n\nThe United States began drastically reducing their troop support in South Vietnam during the final years of Vietnamization. Many U.S. troops were removed from the region, and on 5 March 1971, the United States returned the 5th Special Forces Group, which was the first American unit deployed to South Vietnam, to its former base in Fort Bragg, North Carolina. \n\nUnder the Paris Peace Accords, between North Vietnamese Foreign Minister Lê Đức Thọ and U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, and reluctantly signed by South Vietnamese president Thiệu, U.S. military forces withdrew from South Vietnam and prisoners were exchanged. North Vietnam was allowed to continue supplying communist troops in the South, but only to the extent of replacing expended materiel. Later that year the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Kissinger and Thọ, but the Vietnamese negotiator declined it saying that a true peace did not yet exist.\n\nThe communist leaders had expected that the ceasefire terms would favor their side. But Saigon, bolstered by a surge of U.S. aid received just before the ceasefire went into effect, began to roll back the Viet Cong. The communists responded with a new strategy hammered out in a series of meetings in Hanoi in March 1973, according to the memoirs of Trần Văn Trà..\n\nAs the Viet Cong's top commander, Tra participated in several of these meetings. With U.S. bombings suspended, work on the Ho Chi Minh trail and other logistical structures could proceed unimpeded. Logistics would be upgraded until the North was in a position to launch a massive invasion of the South, projected for the 1975–76 dry season. Tra calculated that this date would be Hanoi's last opportunity to strike before Saigon's army could be fully trained.\n\nIn the November 1972 Election, Democratic nominee George McGovern lost 49 of 50 states to the incumbent President Richard Nixon. On 15 March 1973, President Nixon implied that the United States would intervene militarily if the communist side violated the ceasefire. Public and congressional reaction to Nixon's trial balloon was unfavorable and in April Nixon appointed Graham Martin as U.S. ambassador to Vietnam. Martin was a second stringer compared to previous U.S. ambassadors and his appointment was an early signal that Washington had given up on Vietnam. During his confirmation hearings in June 1973, Secretary of Defense James R. Schlesinger stated that he would recommend resumption of U.S. bombing in North Vietnam if North Vietnam launched a major offensive against South Vietnam. On 4 June 1973, the U.S. Senate passed the Case–Church Amendment to prohibit such intervention..\n\nThe oil price shock of October 1973 following the Yom Kippur War in Egypt caused significant damage to the South Vietnamese economy. The Viet Cong resumed offensive operations when the dry season began and by January 1974 it had recaptured the territory it lost during the previous dry season. After two clashes that left 55 South Vietnamese soldiers dead, President Thieu announced on 4 January that the war had restarted and that the Paris Peace Accord was no longer in effect. There had been over 25,000 South Vietnamese casualties during the ceasefire period. \n\nGerald Ford took over as U.S. president on 9 August 1974 after President Nixon resigned due to the Watergate scandal. At this time, Congress cut financial aid to South Vietnam from $1 billion a year to $700 million. The U.S. midterm elections in 1974 brought in a new Congress dominated by Democrats who were even more determined to confront the president on the war. Congress immediately voted in restrictions on funding and military activities to be phased in through 1975 and to culminate in a total cutoff of funding in 1976.\n\nThe success of the 1973–74 dry season offensive inspired Trà to return to Hanoi in October 1974 and plead for a larger offensive in the next dry season. This time, Trà could travel on a drivable highway with regular fueling stops, a vast change from the days when the Ho Chi Minh trail was a dangerous mountain trek.. Giáp, the North Vietnamese defense minister, was reluctant to approve Trà's plan. A larger offensive might provoke a U.S. reaction and interfere with the big push planned for 1976. Trà appealed over Giáp's head to first secretary Lê Duẩn, who approved of the operation.\n\nTrà's plan called for a limited offensive from Cambodia into Phước Long Province. The strike was designed to solve local logistical problems, gauge the reaction of South Vietnamese forces, and determine whether U.S. would return to the fray.\n\nOn 13 December 1974, North Vietnamese forces attacked Route 14 in Phước Long Province. Phuoc Binh, the provincial capital, fell on 6 January 1975. Ford desperately asked Congress for funds to assist and re-supply the South before it was overrun. Congress refused. The fall of Phuoc Binh and the lack of an American response left the South Vietnamese elite demoralized.\n\nThe speed of this success led the Politburo to reassess its strategy. It was decided that operations in the Central Highlands would be turned over to General Văn Tiến Dũng and that Pleiku should be seized, if possible. Before he left for the South, Dũng was addressed by Lê Duẩn: \"Never have we had military and political conditions so perfect or a strategic advantage as great as we have now.\" \n\nAt the start of 1975, the South Vietnamese had three times as much artillery and twice the number of tanks and armored cars as the opposition. They also had 1,400 aircraft and a two-to-one numerical superiority in combat troops over their Communist enemies. However, the rising oil prices meant that much of this could not be used. They faced a well-organized, highly determined and well-funded North Vietnam. Much of the North's material and financial support came from the communist bloc. Within South Vietnam, there was increasing chaos. The departure of the American military had compromised an economy dependent on U.S. financial support and the presence of a large number of U.S. troops. South Vietnam suffered from the global recession that followed the Arab oil embargo.\n\nCampaign 275\n\nOn 10 March 1975, General Dung launched Campaign 275, a limited offensive into the Central Highlands, supported by tanks and heavy artillery. The target was Buôn Ma Thuột, in Đắk Lắk Province. If the town could be taken, the provincial capital of Pleiku and the road to the coast would be exposed for a planned campaign in 1976. The ARVN proved incapable of resisting the onslaught, and its forces collapsed on 11 March. Once again, Hanoi was surprised by the speed of their success. Dung now urged the Politburo to allow him to seize Pleiku immediately and then turn his attention to Kon Tum. He argued that with two months of good weather remaining until the onset of the monsoon, it would be irresponsible to not take advantage of the situation.\n\nPresident Nguyễn Văn Thiệu, a former general, was fearful that his forces would be cut off in the north by the attacking communists; Thieu ordered a retreat. The president declared this to be a \"lighten the top and keep the bottom\" strategy. But in what appeared to be a repeat of Operation Lam Son 719, the withdrawal soon turned into a bloody rout. While the bulk of ARVN forces attempted to flee, isolated units fought desperately. ARVN General Phu abandoned Pleiku and Kon Tum and retreated toward the coast, in what became known as the \"column of tears\".\n\nAs the ARVN tried to disengage from the enemy, refugees mixed in with the line of retreat. The poor condition of roads and bridges, damaged by years of conflict and neglect, slowed Phu's column. As the North Vietnamese forces approached, panic set in. Often abandoned by the officers, the soldiers and civilians were shelled incessantly. The retreat degenerated into a desperate scramble for the coast. By 1 April the \"column of tears\" was all but annihilated.\n\nOn 20 March, Thieu reversed himself and ordered Huế, Vietnam's third-largest city, be held at all costs, and then changed his policy several times. Thieu's contradictory orders confused and demoralized his officer corps. As the North Vietnamese launched their attack, panic set in, and ARVN resistance withered. On 22 March, the NVA opened the siege of Huế. Civilians flooded the airport and the docks hoping for any mode of escape. Some even swam out to sea to reach boats and barges anchored offshore. In the confusion, routed ARVN soldiers fired on civilians to make way for their retreat.\n\nOn 25 March, after a three-day battle, Huế fell. As resistance in Huế collapsed, North Vietnamese rockets rained down on Da Nang and its airport. By 28 March 35,000 VPA troops were poised to attack the suburbs. By 30 March 100,000 leaderless ARVN troops surrendered as the NVA marched victoriously through Da Nang. With the fall of the city, the defense of the Central Highlands and Northern provinces came to an end.\n\nFinal North Vietnamese offensive\n\nWith the northern half of the country under their control, the Politburo ordered General Dung to launch the final offensive against Saigon. The operational plan for the Ho Chi Minh Campaign called for the capture of Saigon before 1 May. Hanoi wished to avoid the coming monsoon and prevent any redeployment of ARVN forces defending the capital. Northern forces, their morale boosted by their recent victories, rolled on, taking Nha Trang, Cam Ranh, and Da Lat.\n\nOn 7 April, three North Vietnamese divisions attacked Xuân Lộc, 40 miles (64 km) east of Saigon. The North Vietnamese met fierce resistance at Xuân Lộc from the ARVN 18th Division, who were outnumbered six to one. For two bloody weeks, severe fighting raged as the ARVN defenders made a last stand to try to block the North Vietnamese advance. By 21 April, however, the exhausted garrison were ordered to withdraw towards Saigon.\n\nAn embittered and tearful president Thieu resigned on the same day, declaring that the United States had betrayed South Vietnam. In a scathing attack, he suggested U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger had tricked him into signing the Paris peace agreement two years ago, promising military aid that failed to materialize. Having transferred power to Trần Văn Hương, he left for Taiwan on 25 April. At the same time, North Vietnamese tanks had reached Biên Hòa and turned toward Saigon, brushing aside isolated ARVN units along the way.\n\nBy the end of April, the ARVN had collapsed on all fronts except in the Mekong Delta. Thousands of refugees streamed southward, ahead of the main communist onslaught. On 27 April 100,000 North Vietnamese troops encircled Saigon. The city was defended by about 30,000 ARVN troops. To hasten a collapse and foment panic, the NVA shelled the airport and forced its closure. With the air exit closed, large numbers of civilians found that they had no way out.\n\nFall of Saigon\n\nChaos, unrest, and panic broke out as hysterical South Vietnamese officials and civilians scrambled to leave Saigon. Martial law was declared. American helicopters began evacuating South Vietnamese, U.S., and foreign nationals from various parts of the city and from the U.S. embassy compound. Operation Frequent Wind had been delayed until the last possible moment, because of U.S. Ambassador Graham Martin's belief that Saigon could be held and that a political settlement could be reached.\n\nSchlesinger announced early in the morning of 29 April 1975 the evacuation from Saigon by helicopter of the last U.S. diplomatic, military, and civilian personnel. Frequent Wind was arguably the largest helicopter evacuation in history. It began on 29 April, in an atmosphere of desperation, as hysterical crowds of Vietnamese vied for limited space. Martin pleaded with Washington to dispatch $700 million in emergency aid to bolster the regime and help it mobilize fresh military reserves. But American public opinion had soured on this conflict.\n\nIn the United States, South Vietnam was perceived as doomed. President Gerald Ford had given a televised speech on 23 April, declaring an end to the Vietnam War and all U.S. aid. Frequent Wind continued around the clock, as North Vietnamese tanks breached defenses on the outskirts of Saigon. In the early morning hours of 30 April, the last U.S. Marines evacuated the embassy by helicopter, as civilians swamped the perimeter and poured into the grounds. Many of them had been employed by the Americans and were left to their fate.\n\nOn 30 April 1975, NVA troops entered the city of Saigon and quickly overcame all resistance, capturing key buildings and installations. A tank from the 324th Division crashed through the gates of the Independence Palace at 11:30 am local time and the Viet Cong flag was raised above it. President Dương Văn Minh, who had succeeded Huong two days earlier, surrendered.\n\nOther countries' involvement\n\nPro-Hanoi\n\nPeople's Republic of China\n\nIn 1950, the People's Republic of China extended diplomatic recognition to the Viet Minh's Democratic Republic of Vietnam and sent weapons, as well as military advisers led by Luo Guibo to assist the Viet Minh in its war with the French. The first draft of the 1954 Geneva Accords was negotiated by French prime minister Pierre Mendès France and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai who, fearing U.S. intervention, urged the Viet Minh to accept a partition at the 17th parallel. \n\nChina's support for North Vietnam included both financial aid and the deployment of hundreds of thousands of military personnel in support roles. In the summer of 1962, Mao Zedong agreed to supply Hanoi with 90,000 rifles and guns free of charge. Starting in 1965, China sent anti-aircraft units and engineering battalions to North Vietnam to repair the damage caused by American bombing, man anti-aircraft batteries, rebuild roads and railroads, transport supplies, and perform other engineering works. This freed North Vietnamese army units for combat in the South. China sent 320,000 troops and annual arms shipments worth $180 million. The Chinese military claims to have caused 38% of American air losses in the war. China claimed that its military and economic aid to North Vietnam and the Viet Cong totaled $20 billion (approx. $143 billion adjusted for inflation in 2015) during the Vietnam War. Included in that aid were donations of 5 million tons of food to North Vietnam (equivalent to NV food production in a single year), accounting for 10-15% of the North Vietnamese food supply by the 1970s.\n\nSino-Soviet relations soured after the Soviets invaded Czechoslovakia in August 1968. In October, the Chinese demanded North Vietnam cut relations with Moscow, but Hanoi refused. The Chinese began to withdraw in November 1968 in preparation for a clash with the Soviets, which occurred at Zhenbao Island in March 1969. The Chinese also began financing the Khmer Rouge as a counterweight to the Vietnamese communists at this time.\n\nChina \"armed and trained\" the Khmer Rouge during the civil war and continued to aid them for years afterward. \nThe Khmer Rouge launched ferocious raids into Vietnam in 1975–1978. When Vietnam responded with an invasion that toppled the Khmer Rouge, China launched a brief, punitive invasion of Vietnam in 1979.\n\nSoviet Union\n\nSoviet ships in the South China Sea gave vital early warnings to Viet Cong forces in South Vietnam. The Soviet intelligence ships would pick up American B-52 bombers flying from Okinawa and Guam. Their airspeed and direction would be noted and then relayed to COSVN, North Vietnam's southern headquarters. Using airspeed and direction, COSVN analysts would calculate the bombing target and tell any assets to move \"perpendicularly to the attack trajectory.\" These advance warning gave them time to move out of the way of the bombers, and, while the bombing runs caused extensive damage, because of the early warnings from 1968 to 1970 they did not kill a single military or civilian leader in the headquarters complexes. \n\nThe Soviet Union supplied North Vietnam with medical supplies, arms, tanks, planes, helicopters, artillery, anti-aircraft missiles and other military equipment. Soviet crews fired Soviet-made surface-to-air missiles at U.S. F-4 Phantoms, which were shot down over Thanh Hóa in 1965. Over a dozen Soviet citizens lost their lives in this conflict. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russian officials acknowledged that the Soviet Union had stationed up to 3,000 troops in Vietnam during the war. \n\nSome Russian sources give more specific numbers: Between 1953 and 1991, the hardware donated by the Soviet Union included 2,000 tanks, 1,700 APCs, 7,000 artillery guns, over 5,000 anti-aircraft guns, 158 surface-to-air missile launchers, 120 helicopters. During the war, the Soviets sent North Vietnam annual arms shipments worth $450 million. From July 1965 to the end of 1974, fighting in Vietnam was observed by some 6,500 officers and generals, as well as more than 4,500 soldiers and sergeants of the Soviet Armed Forces. In addition, Soviet military schools and academies began training Vietnamese soldiers – in all more than 10,000 military personnel. \n\nNorth Korea\n\nAs a result of a decision of the Korean Workers' Party in October 1966, in early 1967 North Korea sent a fighter squadron to North Vietnam to back up the North Vietnamese 921st and 923rd fighter squadrons defending Hanoi. They stayed through 1968, and 200 pilots were reported to have served. \n\nIn addition, at least two anti-aircraft artillery regiments were sent as well. North Korea also sent weapons, ammunition and two million sets of uniforms to their comrades in North Vietnam. Kim Il-sung is reported to have told his pilots to \"fight in the war as if the Vietnamese sky were their own\". \n\nCuba\n\nThe contribution to North Vietnam by the Republic of Cuba, under Fidel Castro have been recognized several times by representatives of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Fidel Castro has mentioned in his discourses the Batallón Girón (Giron Battalion) as comprising the Cuban contingent that served as military advisors during the war. In this battalion, alongside the Cubans, fought Nguyễn Thị Định, founding member of the Viet Cong, who later became the first female Major General in the North Vietnamese Army. There are numerous allegations by former U.S. prisoners of war that Cuban military personnel were present at North Vietnamese prison facilities during the war and that they participated in torture activities, in what is known as the \"Cuba Program\". Witnesses to this include Senator John McCain, 2008 U.S. Presidential candidate and former Vietnam prisoner of war, according to his 1999 book Faith of My Fathers. Benjamin Gilman, a Vietnam War POW/MIA issue advocate, claim evidence that Cuba's military and non-military involvement may have run into the \"thousands\" of personnel. Fidel Castro visited in person Quảng Trị province, held by North Vietnam after the Easter Offensive to show his support for the Viet Cong. \n\nPro-Saigon\n\nSouth Korea\n\nOn the anti-communist side, South Korea (a.k.a. the Republic of Korea, ROK) had the second-largest contingent of foreign troops in South Vietnam after the United States. In November 1961, Park Chung-hee proposed South Korean participation in the war to John F. Kennedy, but Kennedy disagreed. On 1 May 1964 Lyndon Johnson requested South Korean participation. The first South Korean troops began arriving in 1964 and large combat formations began arriving a year later. The ROK Marine Corps dispatched their 2nd Marine Brigade while the ROK Army sent the Capital Division and later the 9th Infantry Division. In August 1966 after the arrival of the 9th Division the Koreans established a corps command, the Republic of Korea Forces Vietnam Field Command, near I Field Force, Vietnam at Nha Trang. The South Koreans soon developed a reputation for effectiveness, reportedly conducting counterinsurgency operations so well that American commanders felt that the South Korean area of responsibility was the safest. \n\nApproximately 320,000 South Korean soldiers were sent to Vietnam, each serving a one-year tour of duty. Maximum troop levels peaked at 50,000 in 1968, however all were withdrawn by 1973. About 5,099 South Koreans were killed and 10,962 wounded during the war. South Korea claimed to have killed 41,000 Viet Cong fighters. The United States paid South Korean soldiers 236 million dollars for their efforts in Vietnam, and South Korean GNP increased five-fold during the war.\n\nAustralia and New Zealand\n\nAustralia and New Zealand, close allies of the United States and members of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) and the ANZUS military co-operation treaty, sent ground troops to Vietnam. Both nations had gained experience in counterinsurgency and jungle warfare during the Malayan Emergency and World War II. Their governments subscribed to the Domino theory. Australia began by sending advisors to Vietnam in 1962, and combat troops were committed in 1965.Dennis et al 2008, pp. 555–558. New Zealand began by sending a detachment of engineers and an artillery battery, and then started sending special forces and regular infantry which were attached to Australian formations. Australia's peak commitment was 7,672 combat troops and New Zealand's 552. More than 60,000 Australian personnel were involved during the course of the war, of which 521 were killed and more than 3,000 wounded. Approximately 3,500 New Zealanders served in Vietnam, with 37 killed and 187 wounded. Most Australians and New Zealanders served in the 1st Australian Task Force in Phước Tuy Province.\n\nPhilippines\n\nSome 10,450 Filipino troops were dispatched to South Vietnam. They were primarily engaged in medical and other civilian pacification projects. These forces operated under the designation PHLCAG-V or Philippine Civic Action Group-Vietnam. More noteworthy was the fact that the naval base in Subic Bay was used for the U.S. Seventh Fleet from 1964 till the end of the war in 1975. The Navy base in Subic bay and the Air force base at Clark achieved maximum functionality during the war and supported an estimated 80,000 locals in allied tertiary businesses from shoe making to prostitution. \n\nThailand\n\nThai Army formations, including the \"Queen's Cobra\" battalion, saw action in South Vietnam between 1965 and 1971. Thai forces saw much more action in the covert war in Laos between 1964 and 1972, though Thai regular formations there were heavily outnumbered by the irregular \"volunteers\" of the CIA-sponsored Police Aerial Reconnaissance Units or PARU, who carried out reconnaissance activities on the western side of the Ho Chi Minh trail.\n\nRepublic of China (Taiwan)\n\nSince November 1967, the Taiwanese government secretly operated a cargo transport detachment to assist the United States and South Vietnam. Taiwan also provided military training units for the South Vietnamese diving units, later known as the Lien Doi Nguoi Nhai (LDMN) or \"Frogman unit\" in English. In addition to the diving trainers there were several hundred military personnel. Military commandos from Taiwan were captured by communist forces three times trying to infiltrate North Vietnam.\n\nCanada and the ICC\n\nCanada, India and Poland constituted the International Control Commission, which was supposed to monitor the 1954 ceasefire agreement. Officially, Canada did not have partisan involvement in the Vietnam War and diplomatically it was \"non-belligerent\". Victor Levant suggested otherwise in his book Quiet Complicity: Canadian Involvement in the Vietnam War (1986). The Vietnam War entry in The Canadian Encyclopedia asserts plainly that Canada's record on the truce commissions was a pro-Saigon partisan one. \n\nUnited Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races (FULRO)\n\nThe ethnic minority peoples of south Vietnam like the Christian Montagnards (Degar), Hindu and Muslim Cham and the Buddhist Khmer Krom banded together in the United Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races (French: Front Uni de Lutte des Races Opprimées, acronym: FULRO) to fight against the Vietnamese for autonomy or independence. FULRO fought against both the anti-Communist South Vietnamese and the Communist Viet Cong, and then FURLO proceeded to fight against the united Communist Socialist Republic of Vietnam after the fall of South Vietnam. FULRO was supported by China, the United States, Cambodia, and some French citizens.\n\nDuring the war, the South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem began a program to settle ethnic Vietnamese Kinh on Montagnard lands in the Central Highlands region. This provoked a backlash from the Montagnards. The Cambodians under both the pro-China King Sihanouk and the pro-American Lon Nol supported their fellow co-ethnic Khmer Krom in south Vietnam, following an anti- ethnic Vietnamese policy.\n\nFULRO was formed from the amalgation of the Cham organization \"Champa Liberation Front\" (Front de Liberation du Champa FLC) led by the Cham Muslim officer Les Kosem who served in the Royal Cambodian Army, the Khmer Krom organization \"Liberation Front of Kampuchea Krom\" (Front de Liberation du Kampuchea Krom FLKK) led by Chau Dara, a former monk, and the Montagnard organizations \"Central Highlands Liberation Front\" (Front de Liberation des Hauts Plateaux FLHP) led by Y Bham Enuol and BAJARAKA.\n\nAfter overthrowing pro-China Sihanouk, Cambodian leader Lon Nol, despite being anti-Communist and ostensibly in the \"pro-American\" camp, continued to back FULRO against all Vietnamese, both anti-communist South Vietnam and the Communist Viet Cong. Lon Nol planned a slaughter of all Vietnamese in Cambodia and a restoration of South Vietnam to a revived Champa state.\n\nVietnamese were slaughtered and dumped in the Mekong River at the hands of Lon Nol's anti-Communist forces. The Khmer Rouge later imitated Lon Nol's actions. \n\nThe leaders of FULRO were executed by the Khmer Rouge leader Pol Pot when he took power in Cambodia but FULRO insurgents proceeded to fight against the Vietnamese occupation of Cambodia and it was not until 1992 that they finally surrendered to the United Nations in Cambodia.\n\nWar crimes\n\nA large number of war crimes took place during the Vietnam War. War crimes were committed by both sides during the conflict and included rape, massacres of civilians, bombings of civilian targets, terrorism, the widespread use of torture and the murder of prisoners of war. Additional common crimes included theft, arson, and the destruction of property not warranted by military necessity. \n\nAllied war crimes\n\nWar crimes committed by US forces\n\nIn 1968, the Vietnam War Crimes Working Group (VWCWG) was established by the Pentagon task force set up in the wake of the My Lai Massacre, to attempt to ascertain the veracity of emerging claims of war crimes by U.S. armed forces in Vietnam, during the Vietnam War period.\n\nThe investigation compiled over 9,000 pages of investigative files, sworn statements by witnesses and status reports for top military officers, indicating that 320 incidents had factual basis. The substantiated cases included 7 massacres between 1967 and 1971 in which at least 137 civilians were killed; seventy eight further attacks targeting non-combatants resulting in at least 57 deaths, 56 wounded and 15 sexually assaulted; one hundred and forty-one cases of US soldiers torturing civilian detainees or prisoners of war with fists, sticks, bats, water or electric shock. Over 800 alleged atrocities were investigated but only 23 soldiers were ever convicted on charges and most served sentences of less than a year. A Los Angeles Times report on the archived files concluded that the war crimes were not confined to a few rogue units, having been uncovered in every army division that was active in Vietnam.\n\nIn 2003 a series of investigative reports by the Toledo Blade uncovered a large number of unreported American war crimes particularly from the Tiger Force unit. Some of the most violent war criminals included men such as Sam Ybarra and Sergeant Roy E. \"the Bummer\" Bumgarner, a soldier who served with the 1st Cavalry Division and later the 173d Airborne Brigade. \n\nIn 1971 the later U.S. presidential candidate, John Kerry, testified before the U.S. Senate and stated that over 150 U.S. veterans testified during the Winter Soldier Investigation and described war crimes committed in Southeast Asia.\n\nAccording to political scientist R.J. Rummel, U.S. troops murdered about 6,000 Vietnamese civilians during the war. Nick Turse, in his 2013 book, Kill Anything that Moves, argues for a much higher total. He says that a relentless drive toward higher body counts, a widespread use of free-fire zones, rules of engagement where civilians who ran from soldiers or helicopters could be viewed as Viet Cong, and a widespread disdain for Vietnamese civilians led to massive civilian casualties and endemic war crimes inflicted by U.S. troops.. One example cited by Turse is Operation Speedy Express, an operation by the 9th Infantry Division, which was described by John Paul Vann as, in effect, \"many My Lais\". A report by Newsweek magazine suggested that 5,000 innocent civilians may have been killed by U.S. soldiers in this single operation. In more detail:\n\nWar Crimes committed by South Vietnamese forces\n\nIn terms of atrocities by the South Vietnamese, during the Diem era (1954-1963) R.J. Rummell estimated that 16,000 to 167,000 South Vietnamese civilians were killed; for 1964 to 1975, Rummel estimated a total of 42,000 to 128,000 killed. Thus, the total for 1954 to 1975 is from 57,000 to 284,000 deaths caused by South Vietnam, excluding NLF/North Vietnamese forces killed by the South Vietnamese armed forces. \n\nWar crimes committed by South Korean forces\n\nSouth Korean forces were also culpable of war crimes as well. One of the massacres was the Tây Vinh Massacre where ROK Capital Division of the South Korean Army killed 1,200 unarmed citizens between 12 February 1966 and 17 March 1966 in Bình An village, today Tây Vinh village, Tây Sơn District of Bình Định Province in South Vietnam. Another example was the Gò Dài massacre where ROK Capital Division of the South Korean Army killed 380 civilians on 26 February 1966 in Gò Dài hamlet, in Bình An commune, Tây Sơn District (today Tây Vinh District) of Bình Định Province in South Vietnam.\n\nNorth Vietnamese, Viet Cong, and Khmer Rouge war crimes\n\nAccording to Guenter Lewy, Viet Cong insurgents assassinated at least 37,000 civilians in South Vietnam and routinely employed terror.. Ami Pedahzur has written that \"the overall volume and lethality of Viet Cong terrorism rivals or exceeds all but a handful of terrorist campaigns waged over the last third of the twentieth century\". Notable Viet Cong atrocities include the massacre of over 3,000 unarmed civilians at Huế during the Tet Offensive and the incineration of hundreds of civilians at the Đắk Sơn massacre with flamethrowers. Up to 155,000 refugees fleeing the final North Vietnamese Spring Offensive were killed or abducted on the road to Tuy Hòa in 1975. According to Rummel, North Vietnamese and Viet Cong troops murdered between 106,000 and 227,000 civilians in South Vietnam. North Vietnam was also known for its inhumane and abusive treatment of American POWs, most notably in Hỏa Lò Prison (aka the Hanoi Hilton), where severe torture was employed to extract \"confessions\"..\n\nViet Cong insurgents reportedly sliced off the genitals of village chiefs and sewed them inside their bloody mouths, cut off the tongues of helpless victims, rammed bamboo lances through one ear and out the other, slashed open the wombs of pregnant women, machine gunned children, hacked men and women to pieces with machetes, and cut off the fingers of small children who dared to get an education. According to a U.S. Senate report, squads were assigned monthly assassination quotas. Peer De Silva, former head of the Saigon department of the CIA, wrote that from as early as 1963, Viet Cong units were using disembowelment and other methods of mutilation for psychological warfare.\n\nIn the Cambodian Civil War, Khmer Rouge insurgents reportedly committed atrocities during the war. These include the murder of civilians and POWs by slowly sawing off their heads a little more each day, the destruction of Buddhist wats and the killing of monks, attacks on refugee camps involving the deliberate murder of babies and bomb threats against foreign aid workers, the abduction and assassination of journalists, and the shelling of Phnom Penh for more than a year. Journalist accounts stated that the Khmer Rouge shelling \"tortured the capital almost continuously\", inflicting \"random death and mutilation\" on 2 million trapped civilians. \n\nThe Khmer Rouge forcibly evacuated the entire city after taking it, in what has been described as a death march: François Ponchaud wrote: \"I shall never forget one cripple who had neither hands nor feet, writhing along the ground like a severed worm, or a weeping father carrying his ten-year old daughter wrapped in a sheet tied around his neck like a sling, or the man with his foot dangling at the end of a leg to which it was attached by nothing but skin\"; John Swain recalled that the Khmer Rouge were \"tipping out patients from the hospitals like garbage into the streets….In five years of war, this is the greatest caravan of human misery I have seen.\" \n\nWomen in the Vietnam War\n\nAmerican nurses\n\nDuring the Vietnam War, American women served on active duty doing a variety of jobs. Early in 1963, the Army Nurse Corps (ANC) launched Operation Nightingale, an intensive effort to recruit nurses to serve in Vietnam. Most nurses who volunteered to serve in Vietnam came from predominantly working or middle-class families with histories of military service. The majority of these women were white Catholics and Protestants. Because the need for medical aid was great, many nurses underwent a concentrated four-month training program before being deployed to Vietnam in the ANC. Due to the shortage of staff, nurses usually worked twelve-hour shifts, six days per week and often suffered from exhaustion. First Lieutenant Sharon Lane was the only female military nurse to be killed by enemy gunfire during the war, on 8 June 1969. \n\nAt the start of the Vietnam War, it was commonly thought that American women had no place in the military. Their traditional place had been in the domestic sphere, but with the war came opportunity for the expansion of gender roles. In Vietnam, women held a variety of jobs which included operating complex data processing equipment and serving as stenographers. Although a small number of women were assigned to combat zones, they were never allowed directly in the field of battle. The women who served in the military were solely volunteers. They faced a plethora of challenges, one of which was the relatively small number of female soldiers. Living in a male-dominated environment created tensions between the sexes. While this high male to female ratio was often uncomfortable for women, many men reported that having women in the field with them boosted their morale. Although this was not the women's purpose, it was one positive result of their service. By 1973, approximately 7,500 women had served in Vietnam in the Southeast Asian theater. In that same year, the military lifted the prohibition on women entering the armed forces.\n\nAmerican women serving in Vietnam were subject to societal stereotypes. Many Americans either considered females serving in Vietnam masculine for living under the army discipline, or judged them to be women of questionable moral character who enlisted for the sole purpose of seducing men. To address this problem, the ANC released advertisements portraying women in the ANC as \"proper, professional and well protected.\" (26) This effort to highlight the positive aspects of a nursing career reflected the ideas of second-wave feminism that occurred during the 1960s–1970s in the United States. Although female military nurses lived in a heavily male environment, very few cases of sexual harassment were ever reported. \n\nVietnamese women\n\nUnlike the American women who went to Vietnam, North Vietnamese women were enlisted and fought in the combat zone as well as providing manual labor to keep the Ho Chi Minh trail open and cook for the soldiers. They also worked in the rice fields in North Vietnam and Viet Cong-held farming areas in South Vietnam's Mekong Delta region to provide food for their families and the war effort. Women were enlisted in both the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) and the Viet Cong guerrilla insurgent force in South Vietnam. Some women also served for the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong intelligence services.\n\nIn South Vietnam, many women voluntarily served in the ARVN's Women's Armed Force Corps (WAFC) and various other Women's corps in the military. Some, like in the WAFC, fought in combat with other soldiers. Others served as nurses and doctors in the battlefield and in military hospitals, or served in South Vietnam or America's intelligence agencies. During Diệm's presidency, Madame Nhu was the commander of the WAFC.\n\nThe war saw more than one million rural people migrate or flee the fighting in the South Vietnamese countryside to the cities, especially Saigon. Among the internal refugees were many young women who became the ubiquitous \"bargirls\" of wartime South Vietnam \"hawking her wares – be that cigarettes, liquor, or herself\" to American and allied soldiers. American bases were ringed by bars and brothels. \n\n8,040 Vietnamese women came to the United States as war brides between 1964 and 1975. Many mixed-blood Amerasian children were left behind when their American fathers returned to the United States after their tour of duty in South Vietnam. 26,000 of them were permitted to immigrate to the United States in the 1980s and 1990s. \n\nBlack servicemen in Vietnam\n\nThe experience of African American military personnel during the Vietnam War has received significant attention. For example, the website \"African-American Involvement in the Vietnam War\" compiles examples of such coverage, as does the print and broadcast work of journalist Wallace Terry.\n\nThe epigraph of Terry's book Bloods: An Oral History of the Vietnam War by Black Veterans (1984), includes the following quote: \"I have an intuitive feeling that the Negro serviceman have a better understanding than whites of what the war is about.\" – General William C. Westmoreland, U.S. Army, Saigon, 1967. That book's introduction includes observations about the impact of the war on the black community in general and on black servicemen specifically. Points he makes on the latter topic include: the higher proportion of combat casualties in Vietnam among African American servicemen than among American soldiers of other races, the shift toward and different attitudes of black military careerists versus black draftees, the discrimination encountered by black servicemen \"on the battlefield in decorations, promotion and duty assignments\" as well as their having to endure \"the racial insults, cross-burnings and Confederate flags of their white comrades\" – and the experiences faced by black soldiers stateside, during the war and after America's withdrawal. Upon the war's completion, black casualties made up 12.5% of US combat deaths, approximately equal to percentage of draft-eligible black men, though still slightly higher than the 10% who served in the military. \n\nWeapons\n\nThe communist forces were principally armed with Chinese and Soviet weaponry though some guerrilla units were equipped with Western infantry weapons either captured from French stocks during the First Indochina war or from ARVN units or bought on the black market. The ubiquitous Soviet AK-47 assault rifle was often regarded as the best rifle of the war, due to its ability to continue to function even in adverse, muddy conditions. Other weapons used by the Viet Cong included the World War II-era PPSh-41 submachine gun (both Soviet and Chinese versions), the SKS carbine, the DShK heavy machine gun and the RPG-2/B-40 grenade launcher.\n\nWhile the Viet Cong had both amphibious tanks (such as the PT-76) and light tanks (such as the Type 62), they also used bicycles to transport munitions. The US' heavily armored, 90 mm M48A3 Patton tank saw extensive action during the Vietnam War and over 600 were deployed with US Forces. They played an important role in infantry support.\n\nThe US service rifle was initially the M14 (though some units were still using the WWII-era M1 Garand for a lack of M14s). Found to be unsuitable for jungle warfare, the M14 was replaced by M16 which was more accurate and lighter than the AK-47. For a period, the gun suffered from a jamming flaw known as \"failure to extract\", which means that a spent cartridge case remained lodged in the action after a round is fired. According to a congressional report, the jamming was caused primarily by a change in gunpowder which was done without adequate testing and reflected a decision for which the safety of soldiers was a secondary consideration. That issue was solved in early 1968 with the issuance of the M16A1 that featured a chrome plated chamber among several other features. End-user satisfaction with the M16 was high except during this episode, but the M16 still has a reputation as a gun that jams easily.\n\nThe M60 machine gun GPMG (General Purpose Machine Gun) was the main machine gun of the US army at the time and many of them were put on helicopters, to provide suppressive fire when landing in hostile regions. The MAC-10 machine pistol was supplied to many special forces troops in the midpoint of the war. It also armed many CIA agents in the field.\n\nTwo aircraft which were prominent in the war were the AC-130 \"Spectre\" Gunship and the UH-1 \"Huey\" gunship. The AC-130 was a heavily armed ground-attack aircraft variant of the C-130 Hercules transport plane; it was used to provide close air support, air interdiction and force protection. The AC-130H \"Spectre\" was armed with two 20 mm M61 Vulcan cannons, one Bofors 40mm autocannon, and one 105 mm M102 howitzer. The Huey is a military helicopter powered by a single, turboshaft engine, with a two-bladed main rotor and tail rotor. Approximately 7,000 UH-1 aircraft saw service in Vietnam.\n\nThe Claymore M18A1, an anti-personnel mine, was widely used during the war. Unlike a conventional land mine, the Claymore is command-detonated and directional, meaning it is fired by remote-control and shoots a pattern of 700 one-eighth-inch steel balls into the kill zone like a shotgun.\n\nThe aircraft ordnance used during the war included precision-guided munition, cluster bombs, and napalm, a thickening/gelling agent generally mixed with petroleum or a similar fuel for use in an incendiary device, initially against buildings and later primarily as an anti-personnel weapon that sticks to skin and can burn down to the bone.\n\nRadio communications\n\nThe Vietnam War was the first conflict where U.S. forces had secure voice communication equipment available at the tactical level. The National Security Agency ran a crash program to provide U.S. forces with a family of security equipment code named NESTOR, fielding 17,000 units initially. Eventually 30,000 units were produced. However limitations of the units, including poor voice quality, reduced range, annoying time delays and logistical support issues led to only one unit in ten being used.[http://www.governmentattic.org/18docs/Hist_US_COMSEC_Boak_NSA_1973u.pdf A History of U.S. Communications Security; the David G. Boak Lectures,] National Security Agency (NSA), Volumes I, 1973, Volumes II 1981, partially released 2008, additional portions declassified October 14, 2015 While many in the U.S. military believed that the Viet Cong and NVA would not be able to exploit insecure communications, interrogation of captured communication intelligence units showed they were able to understand the jargon and codes used in realtime and were often able to warn their side of impending U.S. actions.\n\nAftermath\n\nEvents in Southeast Asia\n\nOn 2 July 1976, North and South Vietnam were merged to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Despite speculation that the victorious North Vietnamese would, in President Nixon's words, \"massacre the civilians there [South Vietnam] by the millions,\" there is a widespread consensus that no mass executions in fact took place. However, over the decade following the end of the war, an estimated 1 million South Vietnamese were sent to reeducation camps, with approximately 165,000 prisoners dying. In addition, 200,000 to 400,000 Vietnamese boat people died at sea, according to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. \n\nPhnom Penh, the capital of Cambodia, fell to the communist Khmer Rouge on 17 April 1975. Under the leadership of Pol Pot, the Khmer Rouge would eventually kill 1–3 million Cambodians in the Killing Fields, out of a population of around 8 million.Heuveline, Patrick (2001). \"The Demographic Analysis of Mortality in Cambodia.\" In Forced Migration and Mortality, eds. Holly E. Reed and Charles B. Keely. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Heuveline suggests that a range of 1.17–3.42 million people were killed. At least 1,386,734 victims of execution have been counted in mass graves, while demographic analysis suggests that the policies of the regime caused between 1.7 and 2.5 million excess deaths altogether (including disease and starvation). After repeated border clashes in 1978, Vietnam invaded Democratic Kampuchea (Cambodia) and ousted the Khmer Rouge, who were being supported by China, in the Cambodian–Vietnamese War. In response, China invaded Vietnam in 1979. The two countries fought a brief border war, known as the Sino-Vietnamese War. From 1978 to 1979, some 450,000 ethnic Chinese left Vietnam by boat as refugees or were expelled. The devastating impact of Khmer Rouge rule contributed to a 1979 famine in Cambodia, during which an additional 300,000 Cambodians perished.\n\nThe Pathet Lao overthrew the monarchy of Laos in December 1975, establishing the Lao People's Democratic Republic under the leadership of a member of the royal family, Souphanouvong. The change in regime was \"quite peaceful, a sort of Asiatic 'velvet revolution'\"—although 30,000 former officials were sent to reeducation camps, often enduring harsh conditions for several years. The conflict between Hmong rebels and the Pathet Lao continued in isolated pockets. \n\nOver 3 million people left Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia in the Indochina refugee crisis. Most Asian countries were unwilling to accept these refugees, many of whom fled by boat and were known as boat people. Between 1975 and 1998, an estimated 1.2 million refugees from Vietnam and other Southeast Asian countries resettled in the United States, while Canada, Australia, and France resettled over 500,000. China accepted 250,000 people. Of all the countries of Indochina, Laos experienced the largest refugee flight in proportional terms, as 300,000 people out of a total population of 3 million crossed the border into Thailand. Included among their ranks were \"about 90 percent\" of Laos's \"intellectuals, technicians, and officials.\" In 1988, Vietnam suffered a famine that afflicted millions. Vietnam played a role in Asia similar to Cuba's in Latin America: it supported local revolutionary groups and was a headquarters for Soviet-style communism. Unexploded ordnance, mostly from U.S. bombing, continue to detonate and kill people today. The Vietnamese government claims that ordnance has killed some 42,000 people since the war officially ended. In 2012 alone, unexploded bombs and other ordnance claimed 500 casualties in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, according to activists and government databases. \n\nAgent Orange and similar chemical substances used by the U.S. have also caused a considerable number of deaths and injuries over the years, including the US Air Force crew that handled them. On 9 August 2012, the United States and Vietnam began a cooperative cleaning up of the toxic chemical on part of Danang International Airport, marking the first time Washington has been involved in cleaning up Agent Orange in Vietnam. \n\nEffect on the United States\n\nIn the post-war era, Americans struggled to absorb the lessons of the military intervention. As General Maxwell Taylor, one of the principal architects of the war, noted, \"First, we didn't know ourselves. We thought that we were going into another Korean War, but this was a different country. Secondly, we didn't know our South Vietnamese allies… And we knew less about North Vietnam. Who was Ho Chi Minh? Nobody really knew. So, until we know the enemy and know our allies and know ourselves, we'd better keep out of this kind of dirty business. It's very dangerous.\". President Ronald Reagan coined the term \"Vietnam Syndrome\" to describe the reluctance of the American public and politicians to support further international interventions after Vietnam.\n\nSome have suggested that \"the responsibility for the ultimate failure of this policy [America's withdrawal from Vietnam] lies not with the men who fought, but with those in Congress…\" Alternatively, the official history of the United States Army noted that \"tactics have often seemed to exist apart from larger issues, strategies, and objectives. Yet in Vietnam the Army experienced tactical success and strategic failure… The…Vietnam War…legacy may be the lesson that unique historical, political, cultural, and social factors always impinge on the military…Success rests not only on military progress but on correctly analyzing the nature of the particular conflict, understanding the enemy's strategy, and assessing the strengths and weaknesses of allies. A new humility and a new sophistication may form the best parts of a complex heritage left to the Army by the long, bitter war in Vietnam.\"\n\nU.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger wrote in a secret memo to President Gerald Ford that \"in terms of military tactics, we cannot help draw the conclusion that our armed forces are not suited to this kind of war. Even the Special Forces who had been designed for it could not prevail.\" Even Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara concluded that \"the achievement of a military victory by U.S. forces in Vietnam was indeed a dangerous illusion.\".\n\nDoubts surfaced as to the effectiveness of large-scale, sustained bombing. As Army Chief of Staff Harold Keith Johnson noted, \"if anything came out of Vietnam, it was that air power couldn't do the job.\" Even General William Westmoreland admitted that the bombing had been ineffective. As he remarked, \"I still doubt that the North Vietnamese would have relented.\"\n\nThe inability to bring Hanoi to the bargaining table by bombing also illustrated another U.S. miscalculation. The North's leadership was composed of hardened communists who had been fighting for thirty years. They had defeated the French, and their tenacity as both nationalists and communists was formidable. Ho Chi Minh is quoted as saying, \"You can kill ten of my men for every one I kill of yours…But even at these odds you will lose and I will win.\".\n\nThe Vietnam War called into question the U.S. Army doctrine. Marine Corps General Victor H. Krulak heavily criticised Westmoreland's attrition strategy, calling it \"wasteful of American lives… with small likelihood of a successful outcome.\" In addition, doubts surfaced about the ability of the military to train foreign forces.\n\nBetween 1965 and 1975, the United States spent $111 billion on the war ($686 billion in FY2008 dollars). This resulted in a large federal budget deficit.\n\nMore than 3 million Americans served in the Vietnam War, some 1.5 million of whom actually saw combat in Vietnam. James E. Westheider wrote that \"At the height of American involvement in 1968, for example, there were 543,000 American military personnel in Vietnam, but only 80,000 were considered combat troops.\". Conscription in the United States had been controlled by the president since World War II, but ended in 1973.\n\nBy war's end, 58,220 American soldiers had been killed, more than 150,000 had been wounded, and at least 21,000 had been permanently disabled. The average age of the U.S. troops killed in Vietnam was 23.11 years. According to Dale Kueter, \"Of those killed in combat, 86.3 percent were white, 12.5 percent were black and the remainder from other races.\" Approximately 830,000 Vietnam veterans suffered some degree of posttraumatic stress disorder. An estimated 125,000 Americans left for Canada to avoid the Vietnam draft, and approximately 50,000 American servicemen deserted. In 1977, United States president Jimmy Carter granted a full and unconditional pardon to all Vietnam-era draft dodgers. The Vietnam War POW/MIA issue, concerning the fate of U.S. service personnel listed as missing in action, persisted for many years after the war's conclusion. The costs of the war loom large in American popular consciousness; a 1990 poll showed that the public incorrectly believed that more Americans lost their lives in Vietnam than in World War II. \n\nAs of 2013, the U.S. government is paying Vietnam veterans and their families or survivors more than 22 billion dollars a year in war-related claims. \n\nImpact on the U.S. military\n\nAs the Vietnam War continued inconclusively and became more unpopular with the American public, morale declined and disciplinary problems grew among American enlisted men and junior, non-career officers. Drug use, racial tensions, and the growing incidence of fragging—attempting to kill unpopular officers and non-commissioned officers with grenades or other weapons—created severe problems for the U.S. military and impacted its capability of undertaking combat operations. By 1971, a U.S. Army colonel writing in the Armed Forces Journal declared: \"By every conceivable indicator, our army that now remains in Vietnam is in a state approaching collapse, with individual units avoiding or having refused combat, murdering their officers and non commissioned officers, drug-ridden, and dispirited where not near mutinous....The morale, discipline, and battleworthiness of the U.S. Armed Forces are, with a few salient exceptions, lower and worse than at any time in this century and possibly in the history of the United States.\" Between 1969 and 1971 the US Army recorded more than 700 attacks by troops on their own officers. Eighty-three officers were killed and almost 650 were injured. \n\nRon Milam has questioned the severity of the \"breakdown\" of the U.S. armed forces, especially among combat troops, as reflecting the opinions of \"angry colonels\" who deplored the erosion of traditional military values during the Vietnam War. Although acknowledging serious problems, he questions the alleged \"near mutinous\" conduct of junior officers and enlisted men in combat. Investigating one combat refusal incident, a journalist declared, \"A certain sense of independence, a reluctance to behave according to the military's insistence on obedience, like pawns or puppets...The grunts [infantrymen] were determined to survive...they insisted of having something to say about the making of decisions that determined whether they might live or die.\" \n\nThe morale and discipline problems and resistance to conscription (the draft) were important factors leading to the creation of an all-volunteer military force by the United States and the termination of conscription. The last conscript was inducted into the army in 1973. The all-volunteer military moderated some of the coercive methods of discipline previously used to maintain order in military ranks. \n\nEffects of U.S. chemical defoliation\n\nOne of the most controversial aspects of the U.S. military effort in Southeast Asia was the widespread use of chemical defoliants between 1961 and 1971. They were used to defoliate large parts of the countryside to prevent the Viet Cong from being able to hide their weapons and encampments under the foliage. These chemicals continue to change the landscape, cause diseases and birth defects, and poison the food chain. \n\nEarly in the American military effort, it was decided that since the enemy were hiding their activities under triple-canopy jungle, a useful first step might be to defoliate certain areas. This was especially true of growth surrounding bases (both large and small) in what became known as Operation Ranch Hand. Corporations like Dow Chemical Company and Monsanto were given the task of developing herbicides for this purpose. American officials also pointed out that the British had previously used 2,4,5-T and 2,4-D (virtually identical to America's use in Vietnam) on a large scale throughout the Malayan Emergency in the 1950s in order to destroy bushes, crops, and trees in effort to deny communist insurgents the concealment they needed to ambush passing convoys. Indeed, Secretary of State Dean Rusk told President John F. Kennedy on 24 November 1961, that \"[t]he use of defoliant does not violate any rule of international law concerning the conduct of chemical warfare and is an accepted tactic of war. Precedent has been established by the British during the emergency in Malaya in their use of aircraft for destroying crops by chemical spraying.\" \n\nThe defoliants, which were distributed in drums marked with color-coded bands, included the \"Rainbow Herbicides\"—Agent Pink, Agent Green, Agent Purple, Agent Blue, Agent White, and, most famously, Agent Orange, which included dioxin as a by-product of its manufacture. About 11-12 million gallons (41.6-45.4 million L) of Agent Orange were sprayed over southern Vietnam between 1961 and 1971. A prime area of Ranch Hand operations was in the Mekong Delta, where the U.S. Navy patrol boats were vulnerable to attack from the undergrowth at the water's edge.\n\nIn 1961 and 1962, the Kennedy administration authorized the use of chemicals to destroy rice crops. Between 1961 and 1967, the U.S. Air Force sprayed 20 million U.S. gallons (75,700,000 L) of concentrated herbicides over 6 million acres (24,000 km2) of crops and trees, affecting an estimated 13% of South Vietnam's land. In 1965, 42% of all herbicide was sprayed over food crops. Another purpose of herbicide use was to drive civilian populations into RVN-controlled areas. \n\nVietnamese victims affected by Agent Orange attempted a class action lawsuit against Dow Chemical and other US chemical manufacturers, but District Court Judge Jack B. Weinstein dismissed their case..In his 234-page judgment, Weinstein observed: \"Despite the fact that Congress and the President were fully advised of a substantial belief that the herbicide spraying in Vietnam was a violation of international law, they acted on their view that it was not a violation at the time.\" They appealed, but the dismissal was cemented in February 2008 by the Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit. As of 2006, the Vietnamese government estimates that there are over 4,000,000 victims of dioxin poisoning in Vietnam, although the United States government denies any conclusive scientific links between Agent Orange and the Vietnamese victims of dioxin poisoning. In some areas of southern Vietnam, dioxin levels remain at over 100 times the accepted international standard. \n\nThe U.S. Veterans Administration has listed prostate cancer, respiratory cancers, multiple myeloma, Diabetes mellitus type 2, B-cell lymphomas, soft-tissue sarcoma, chloracne, porphyria cutanea tarda, peripheral neuropathy, and spina bifida in children of veterans exposed to Agent Orange. \n\nCasualties\n\nEstimates of the number of casualties vary, with one source suggesting up to 3.8 million violent war deaths in Vietnam for the period 1955 to 2002. \n195,000–430,000 South Vietnamese civilians died in the war. Extrapolating from a 1969 US intelligence report, Guenter Lewy estimated 65,000 North Vietnamese civilians died in the war. Estimates of civilian deaths caused by American bombing of North Vietnam in Operation Rolling Thunder range from 52,000 to 182,000. The military forces of South Vietnam suffered an estimated 254,256 killed between 1960 and 1974 and additional deaths from 1954–1959 and in 1975. The official US Department of Defense figure was 950,765 communist forces killed in Vietnam from 1965 to 1974. Defense Department officials believed that these body count figures need to be deflated by 30 percent. In addition, Guenter Lewy assumes that one-third of the reported \"enemy\" killed may have been civilians, concluding that the actual number of deaths of communist military forces was probably closer to 444,000. A detailed demographic study calculated 791,000–1,141,000 war-related deaths for all of Vietnam. Between 240,000Sliwinski estimates 240,000 wartime deaths, of which 40,000 were caused by U.S. bombing. (). He characterizes other estimates ranging from 600,000–700,000 as \"the most extreme evaluations\" (p. 42). and 300,000 Cambodians died during the war. About 60,000 Laotians also died, and 58,300 U.S. military personnel were killed, of which 1,596 are still listed as missing . \n\nPopular culture\n\nThe Vietnam War has been featured extensively in television, film, video games, and literature in the participant countries. In American popular culture, the \"Crazy Vietnam Veteran\", who was suffering from Posttraumatic stress disorder, became a common stock character after the war.\n\nOne of the first major films based on the Vietnam War was John Wayne's pro-war film, The Green Berets (1968). Further cinematic representations were released during the 1970s and 1980s, including Michael Cimino's The Deer Hunter (1978), Francis Ford Coppola's Apocalypse Now (1979), Oliver Stone's Platoon (1986) – based on his service in the U.S. Military during the Vietnam War, Stanley Kubrick's Full Metal Jacket (1987), Hamburger Hill (1987), and Casualties of War (1989). Later films would include We Were Soldiers (2002) and Rescue Dawn (2007).\n\nThe war also influenced a generation of musicians and songwriters in Vietnam and the United States, both anti-war and pro/anti-communist. The band Country Joe and the Fish recorded \"I-Feel-Like-I'm-Fixin'-To-Die Rag\" / The \"Fish\" Cheer in 1965, and it became one of the most influential anti-Vietnam protest anthems. Many songwriters and musicians supported the anti-war movement, including Pete Seeger, Joan Baez, Peggy Seeger, Ewan MacColl, Barbara Dane, The Critics Group, Phil Ochs, John Lennon, Nina Simone, Neil Young, Tom Paxton, Jimmy Cliff and Arlo Guthrie." ] }

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Johnson , per the authority given to him by Congress in the subsequent Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, decided to escalate the Vietnam Conflict by sending U.S. ground troops to Vietnam. On March 8, 1965, 3,500 U.S. Marines landed near Da Nang in South Vietnam; they are the first U.S. troops arrive in Vietnam.", "On the beach where US troops landed 50 years ago, a new Vietnam flourishes | World news | The Guardian\nDispatch\nOn the beach where US troops landed 50 years ago, a new Vietnam flourishes\nThis week’s anniversary will pass quietly in a rejuvenated nation where the young are more interested in tech and social media than memories of the past\nView from the rooftop of Hotel A La Carte on the My Khe beach of Da Nang. Photograph: Thomas Uhlemann/ Thomas Uhlemann/dpa/Corbis\nSaturday 28 February 2015 17.40 EST\nLast modified on Monday 20 April 2015 11.57 EDT\nClose\nThis article is 1 year old\nA solitary fisherman crouches in the surf, his eyes skimming the surface for signs of movement in the shallows. A conical hat protects him from the afternoon sun. He is alone on the beach, which lies 14km north of the central Vietnamese city of Da Nang. Behind him, flies swarm around rubbish strewn across the sand. To a passerby it wouldn’t occur that anything of significance had ever happened here.\nIt was on this unremarkable stretch of Nam O Beach where, at 9.03am on 8 March 1965, 3,500 US marines disembarked from their landing crafts and waded on to Vietnam’s shores, becoming the first American ground troops to arrive in the country.\nAt the time, the US-backed government in South Vietnam was suffering from power struggles among its leadership and troops were deserting its army. Communist forces from North Vietnam were taking advantage, advancing down the Ho Chi Minh trail and gaining control in the countryside. Viet Cong guerrillas had attacked a US compound in the Central Highlands in February. Now, they were approaching Da Nang. General William Westmoreland requested two battalions of US marines to provide support, and at this crucial turning point, President Lyndon B Johnson agreed.\nThe landing was carefully stage managed. The troops were given a warm welcome by a delegation of smiling children and traditionally dressed Vietnamese women brandishing garlands of flowers. A sign held aloft read: “Welcome, Gallant Marines.” It was an incongruous beginning for the marines, and their mission – to defend the city’s air base during the Operation Rolling Thunder bombing campaign against targets in the North – seemed straightforward. Nobody on the beach that day had any idea of the long and tortuous conflict that was to follow. By the end of the year, nearly 185,000 troops had been deployed as the war escalated. A decade later when Saigon fell and US soldiers made their final exit, 2.7m Americans had served in Vietnam – more than 58,000 were killed.\nFinding Vietnam's war children – in pictures\nRead more\nVietnam was left in ruins. Ho Chi Minh had warned the US “you will kill 10 of our men, and we will kill one of yours, and in the end it will be you who tire of it,” and in the end, he was proved right. Vietnam was reunified, but at enormous cost. An estimated 3 million Vietnamese were killed, including 2 million civilians. Hundreds of thousands were seriously injured and disabled. Farmland was contaminated by exposure to 43m litres of Agent Orange. The countryside had been littered with 14m tonnes of ordnance, a significant proportion of it unexploded. Millions of people had been displaced. Famine and disease were rife.\nBack in the west, a succession of war films has ensured that 50 years on in America, Vietnam is still synonymous with war. But the Vietnam of today is a vastly different place.\nIn the last two decades, Vietnam has transformed from one of Asia’s poorest countries to one of its fastest developing. The decision of the Communist government to implement wide-ranging economic reforms, known as “Doi Moi” (renovation) in 1986 opened up its new “socialist-oriented market economy” to the world. The subsequent economic growth has led to rapid improvements in living standards and sharp declines in poverty. More than 7.8 million international visitors came to Vietnam last year for business and tourism.\nCulturally, much has changed too. Visiting Americans may be surprised to see McDonald’s, Starbucks and KFC. Cinemas show many of the latest Hollywood releases; urban malls sell Levi’s jeans and Converse shoes; iPads are everywhere.\nIn many respects, Da Nang represents the nation’s astonishing development in microcosm. Today, it is a modern and well-run metropolis of high-rise buildings, sweeping tree-lined boulevards and dramatic river bridges. Under the visionary leadership of Nguyen Ba Thanh – the city’s populist former leader, whose death last month sparked an outpouring of public grief – the shacks and tin huts of old have been replaced by stylish office blocks, motorbike showrooms, mega malls and trendy cafes. The spotless sands of “China Beach”, once a popular R&R spot for US soldiers, are now dominated by a long line of lavish luxury hotels and five-star golf courses. The air base fought over so fiercely is now a modern international airport, connecting Da Nang with the world.\nChuck Palazzo is an American war veteran who was stationed in Da Nang in 1970-72. He returned to the city in 2008 and has lived here ever since as a member of Veterans for Peace campaigning on behalf of victims of Agent Orange and unexploded ordnance. “Coming back here was very much a culture shock,” he says. “To see how the people have risen up from the ashes, literally, is just incredible. The young people especially are very much looking forward. They’re interested in technology, social media, banking, economics, participating in the word community. It’s good to see.”\nThese days, the horrors of war are rarely discussed. While Reunification Day is celebrated as a national holiday, and the anniversaries of Ho Chi Minh’s birthday and the Communist party’s formation are also marked, other milestones pass quietly. There will be no public reflection on the 50th anniversary of the Nam O Beach landing. “People do not really talk about it [the war] in detail, especially the American side of things,” explains Nguyen Quang Nam, a motorbike tour guide whose company employs some former South Vietnamese soldiers to drive tourists around the country.\nEven in Da Nang’s military museum, there is little in the way of detailed information on the battles here. Instead, large groups of schoolchildren are taken on daily tours around a dramatic collection of seized American tanks, fighter jets and helicopters, marvelling at these trophies of war while listening to a military guide performing a narrative of the heroic victory.\nDespite this lack of openness, the war has influenced the young generation in many subtle ways, argues Jonathan London, a professor of Asian and international studies at the City University of Hong Kong: “It does play a significant role in their lives, particularly in places like Da Nang where the fighting and its destructive impacts were widely and severely felt. It was experienced not only as an international war involving a global superpower but also a civil war that divided communities and even families. A lot of that history is subdued. But it’s there.”\nOn the surface though, there is a sense that the Vietnamese people have moved on with their lives. At a downtown Da Nang bar, a group of colleagues from a state-run telecommunications company meet for a drink after work. “We have no problem with Americans,” says Tran Ngoc Hao. “Things are very open now. People in Vietnam are thinking more about the future rather than the past.”\nPalazzo was struck by this attitude of tolerance when he first returned to Vietnam. “When I arrived at Hanoi airport I was paranoid as hell that the immigration folks had my name in some database labelling me as a marine. I was sweating as I went up to the desk. But the guy just looked at my passport and with a big smile on his face said, ‘Come on in, you’re welcome here.’ It has been that way for me ever since. I have never once experienced any animosity.”\nPolitical ties have also evolved greatly in the years since the Vietnam-US relationship was normalised under the Clinton presidency in 1995. Two-way trade reached $36.3bn last year. Now the two countries are negotiating the terms of the Trans Pacific Partnership, and the US increasingly sees Vietnam as a key partner in its “pivot to Asia”. “No matter how you look at it, Vietnam and America have developed a special relationship,” says London. “I think leaders in both countries are keen to make relations special for all the right reasons.”\nPalazzo hopes that in time his countrymen will change their perspective about Vietnam. “The Vietnamese are not the folks as the American media portrayed them [for 10 years during the war].\n“They’re human beings, and my hope is that someday the Americans view Vietnam as they do today Japan and the European countries who we were at war with. It’d be good if more came here to see for themselves.”\nHoa and his colleagues are ready to welcome them with open arms. “Of course, we want to be friends with all people,” he declares passionately. “We will give everything now to develop our country in the future.” Lifting his beer bottle for a toast, he proudly exclaims: “To peace! To progress! To Vietnam!”\nBack on Nam O, the lone fisherman stands up and gathers his equipment. A small fishing boat sails past a little offshore, a Vietnamese flag unfurled proudly in the breeze. Serenely, he waves a hand in acknowledgement, and turns to head towards home along the empty beach.\nThis article was amended on 27 March 2015 to correct the total number of US troops who served in the Vietnam war.", "The Vietnam War, Part I: Early Years and Escalation - The Atlantic\nThe Atlantic\n46 Photos\nIn Focus\nFifty years ago, in March 1965, 3,500 U.S. Marines landed in South Vietnam. They were the first American combat troops on the ground in a conflict that had been building for decades. The communist government of North Vietnam (backed by the Soviet Union and China) was locked in a battle with South Vietnam (supported by the United States) in a Cold War proxy fight. The U.S. had been providing aid and advisors to the South since the 1950s, slowly escalating operations to include bombing runs and ground troops. By 1968, more than 500,000 U.S. troops were in the country, fighting alongside South Vietnamese soldiers as they faced both a conventional army and a guerrilla force in unforgiving terrain. Each side suffered and inflicted huge losses, with the civilian populace suffering horribly. Based on widely varying estimates, between 1.5 and 3.6 million people were killed in the war. This photo essay, part one of a three-part series, looks at the earlier stages of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, as well as the growing protest movement, between the years 1962 and 1967. Be sure to also see part 2 and part 3 . Warning: Several of these photographs are graphic in nature.", "Vietnam War History - Vietnam War - HISTORY.com\nVietnam War History\nA+E Networks\nIntroduction\nThe Vietnam War was a long, costly armed conflict that pitted the communist regime of North Vietnam and its southern allies, known as the Viet Cong, against South Vietnam and its principal ally, the United States. The war began in 1954 (though conflict in the region stretched back to the mid-1940s), after the rise to power of Ho Chi Minh and his communist Viet Minh party in North Vietnam, and continued against the backdrop of an intense Cold War between two global superpowers: the United States and the Soviet Union. More than 3 million people (including 58,000 Americans) were killed in the Vietnam War; more than half were Vietnamese civilians. By 1969, at the peak of U.S. involvement in the war, more than 500,000 U.S. military personnel were involved in the Vietnam conflict. Growing opposition to the war in the United States led to bitter divisions among Americans, both before and after President Richard Nixon ordered the withdrawal of U.S. forces in 1973. In 1975, communist forces seized control of Saigon, ending the Vietnam War, and the country was unified as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam the following year.\nGoogle\nRoots of the Vietnam War\nDuring World War II , Japan invaded and occupied Vietnam, a nation on the eastern edge of the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia that had been under French administration since the late 19th century. Inspired by Chinese and Soviet communism, Ho Chi Minh formed the Viet Minh, or the League for the Independence of Vietnam, to fight both Japan and the French colonial administration. Japan withdrew its forces in 1945, leaving the French-educated Emperor Bao Dai in control of an independent Vietnam. Ho’s Viet Minh forces rose up immediately, seizing the northern city of Hanoi and declaring a Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) with Ho as president.\nDid You Know?\nAccording to a survey by the Veterans Administration, some 500,000 of the 3 million troops who served in Vietnam suffered from post-traumatic stress disorder, and rates of divorce, suicide, alcoholism and drug addiction were markedly higher among veterans.\nSeeking to regain control of the region, France backed Bao and set up the state of Vietnam (South Vietnam) in July 1949, with Saigon as its capital. Armed conflict continued until a decisive battle at Dien Bien Phu in May 1954 ended in French defeat by Viet Minh forces. The subsequent treaty negotiations at Geneva split Vietnam along the latitude known as the 17th parallel (with Ho in control in the North and Bao in the South) and called for nationwide elections for reunification to be held in 1956. In 1955, however, the strongly anti-communist Ngo Dinh Diem pushed Bao aside to become president of the Government of the Republic of Vietnam (GVN).\nVietnam War: U.S. Intervention Begins\nWith the Cold War intensifying, the United States hardened its policies against any allies of the Soviet Union, and by 1955 President Dwight D. Eisenhower had pledged his firm support to Diem and South Vietnam. With training and equipment from American military and police, Diem’s security forces cracked down on Viet Minh sympathizers in the south, whom he derisively called Viet Cong (or Vietnamese Communist), arresting some 100,000 people, many of whom were tortured and executed. By 1957, the Viet Cong and other opponents of Diem’s repressive regime began fighting back with attacks on government officials and other targets, and by 1959 they had begun engaging South Vietnamese Army forces in firefights.\nIn December 1960, Diem’s opponents within South Vietnam–both communist and non-communist–formed the National Liberation Front (NLF) to organize resistance to the regime. Though the NLF claimed to be autonomous and that most of its members were non-Communist, many in Washington assumed it was a puppet of Hanoi. A team sent by President John F. Kennedy in 1961 to report on conditions in South Vietnam advised a build-up of American military, economic and technical aid in order to help confront the Viet Cong threat. Working under the “domino theory,” which held that if one Southeast Asian country fell to communism, many would follow, Kennedy increased U.S. aid, though he stopped short of committing to a large-scale military intervention. By 1962, the U.S. military presence in South Vietnam had reached some 9,000 troops, compared with fewer than 800 during the 1950s.\nVietnam War Escalates\nA coup by some of his own generals succeeded in toppling and killing Diem and his brother, Ngo Dinh Nhu, in November 1963, three weeks before Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas . The ensuing political instability in South Vietnam persuaded Kennedy’s successor, Lyndon B. Johnson , and Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara to further increase U.S. military and economic support. The following August, after DRV torpedo boats attacked two U.S. destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin, Johnson ordered the retaliatory bombing of military targets in North Vietnam. Congress soon passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution , which gave Johnson broad war-making powers, and U.S. planes began regular bombing raids, codenamed Operation Rolling Thunder , the following February.\nIn March 1965, Johnson made the decision–with solid support from the American public–to send U.S. combat forces into battle in Vietnam. By June, 82,000 combat troops were stationed in Vietnam, and General William Westmoreland was calling for 175,000 more by the end of 1965 to shore up the struggling South Vietnamese army. Despite the concerns of some of his advisers about this escalation, and about the entire war effort as well as a growing anti-war movement in the U.S., Johnson authorized the immediate dispatch of 100,000 troops at the end of July 1965 and another 100,000 in 1966. In addition to the United States, South Korea, Thailand, Australia and New Zealand also committed troops to fight in South Vietnam (albeit on a much smaller scale).\nStrategy of Attrition in Vietnam\nIn contrast to the air attacks on North Vietnam, the U.S.-South Vietnamese war effort in the south was fought on the ground, largely under the command of General Westmoreland, in coordination with the government of General Nguyen Van Thieu in Saigon. In general, U.S. military forces in the region pursued a policy of attrition, aiming to kill as many enemy troops as possible rather than trying to secure territory. By 1966, large areas of South Vietnam had been designated as “free-fire zones,” from which all innocent civilians were supposed to have evacuated and only enemy remained. Heavy bombing by B-52 aircraft or shelling made these zones uninhabitable, as refugees poured into camps in designated safe areas near Saigon and other cities. Even as the body count (at times exaggerated by U.S. and South Vietnamese authorities) mounted steadily, DRV and Viet Cong troops refused to stop fighting, encouraged by the fact that they could easily reoccupy lost territory. Meanwhile, supported by aid from China and the Soviet Union, North Vietnam strengthened its air defenses.\nBy November 1967, the number of American troops in Vietnam was approaching 500,000, and U.S. casualties had reached 15,058 killed and 109,527 wounded. As the war stretched on, some soldiers came to mistrust their government’s reasons for keeping them there, as well as Washington’s claims that the war was being won. The later years of the war saw increased physical and psychological deterioration among American soldiers, including drug use, mutinies and attacks by soldiers against officers and noncommissioned officers.\nBombarded by horrific images of the war on their televisions, Americans on the home front turned against the war as well: In October 1967, some 35,000 demonstrators staged a mass antiwar protest outside the Pentagon . Opponents of the war argued that civilians, not enemy combatants, were the primary victims and that the United States was supporting a corrupt dictatorship in Saigon.\nImpact of the Tet Offensive on Vietnam War\nBy the end of 1967, Hanoi’s communist leadership was growing impatient as well, and sought to strike a decisive blow aimed at forcing the better-supplied United States to give up hopes of success. On January 31, 1968, some 70,000 DRV forces under General Vo Nguyen Giap launched the Tet offensive (named for the lunar new year), a coordinated series of fierce attacks on more than 100 cities and towns in South Vietnam. Though taken by surprise, U.S. and South Vietnamese forces managed to strike back quickly, and the communists were unable to hold any of the targets for more than a day or two. Reports of the attacks stunned the U.S. public, however, especially after news broke that Westmoreland had requested an additional 200,000 troops. With his approval ratings dropping in an election year, Johnson called a halt to bombing in much of North Vietnam in March (though bombings continued in the south) and promised to dedicate the rest of his term to seeking peace rather than reelection.\nJohnson’s new tack, laid out in a March 1968 speech, met with a positive response from Hanoi, and peace talks between the U.S. and North Vietnam opened in Paris that May. Despite the later inclusion of the South Vietnamese and the National Liberation Front (the political arm of the Viet Cong) the dialogue soon reached an impasse, and after an election campaign marred by violence, Republican Richard M. Nixon defeated Hubert Humphrey to win the White House.\nVietnam War Ends: From Vietnamization to Withdrawal\nNixon sought to deflate the antiwar movement by appealing to a “silent majority” of Americans who he believed supported the war effort. In an attempt to limit the volume of American casualties, he announced a program of withdrawing troops, increasing aerial and artillery bombardment and giving South Vietnamese control over ground operations. In addition to this policy, which he called “ Vietnamization ,” Nixon continued public peace talks in Paris, adding higher-level secret talks conducted by Secretary of State Henry Kissinger beginning in the spring of 1968. The North Vietnamese continued to insist on complete U.S. withdrawal as a condition of peace, however, and the next few years would bring even more carnage, including the horrifying revelation that U.S. soldiers had massacred more than 400 unarmed civilians in the village of My Lai in March 1968.\nAnti-war protests continued to build as the conflict wore on. In 1968 and 1969, there were hundreds of anti-war marches and gatherings throughout the country. On November 15, 1969, the largest anti-war protest in American history took place in Washington, D.C. , as over 250,000 Americans gathered peacefully, calling for withdrawal of American troops from Vietnam. The anti-war movement, which was particularly strong on college campuses, divided Americans bitterly. For some young people, the war symbolized a form of unchecked authority they had come to resent. For other Americans, opposing the government was considered unpatriotic and treasonous.\nAs the first U.S. troops were withdrawn, those who remained became increasingly angry and frustrated, exacerbating problems with morale and leadership. Tens of thousands of soldiers received dishonorable discharges for desertion, and about 500,000 American men from 1965-73 became “draft dodgers,” with many fleeing to Canada to evade conscription. Nixon ended draft calls in 1972, and instituted an all-volunteer army the following year.\nIn 1970, a joint U.S-South Vietnamese operation invaded Cambodia, hoping to wipe out DRV supply bases there. The South Vietnamese then led their own invasion of Laos, which was pushed back by North Vietnam. The invasion of these countries, in violation of international law, sparked a new wave of protests on college campuses across America, including two at Kent State in Ohio and Jackson State in Mississippi during which National Guardsmen and police killed a total of six student protesters. By the end of June 1972, however, after another failed offensive into South Vietnam, Hanoi was finally willing to compromise. Kissinger and North Vietnamese representatives drafted a peace agreement by early fall, but leaders in Saigon rejected it, and in December Nixon authorized a number of bombing raids against targets in Hanoi and Haiphong. Known as the Christmas Bombings, the raids drew international condemnation.\nLegacy of the Vietnam War\nIn January 1973, the United States and North Korea concluded a final peace agreement, ending open hostilities between the two nations. War between North and South Vietnam continued, however, until April 30, 1975, when DRV forces captured Saigon, renaming it Ho Chi Minh City (Ho himself died in 1969). The long conflict had affected an immense majority of the country’s population; in eight years of warfare, an estimated 2 million Vietnamese died, while 3 million were wounded and another 12 million became refugees. War had decimated the country’s infrastructure and economy, and reconstruction proceeded slowly. In 1976, Vietnam was unified as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, though sporadic violence continued over the next 15 years, including conflicts with neighboring China and Cambodia. Under a broad free market policy put in place in 1986, the economy began to improve, boosted by oil export revenues and an influx of foreign capital. Trade and diplomatic relations between Vietnam and the U.S. were resumed in the 1990s.\nIn the United States, the effects of the Vietnam War would linger long after the last troops returned home in 1973. The nation spent more than $120 billion on the conflict in Vietnam from 1965-73; this massive spending led to widespread inflation, exacerbated by a worldwide oil crisis in 1973 and skyrocketing fuel prices. Psychologically, the effects ran even deeper. The war had pierced the myth of American invincibility, and had bitterly divided the nation. Many returning veterans faced negative reactions from both opponents of the war (who viewed them as having killed innocent civilians) and its supporters (who saw them as having lost the war), along with physical damage including the effects of exposure to the harmful chemical herbicide Agent Orange , millions of gallons of which had been dumped by U.S. planes on the dense forests of Vietnam. In 1982, the Vietnam Veterans Memorial was unveiled in Washington, D.C. On it were inscribed the names of 57,939 American armed forces killed or missing during the war; later additions brought that total to 58,200.\nTags", "Why did the US commit ground troops to Vietnam in 1965? – Thoughts of a 23 year old Liberal…\nA couple of people have asked me to post this, so here it is! (A small presentation I’m giving tomorrow!)\n**************************************************\nWhy did the US commit ground troops to Vietnam in 1965?\nThe Vietnam War was a proxy war during the Cold War, which lasted almost 20 years. There were several, complicated, reasons why the US committed ground troops to Vietnam. I will briefly outline a handful of these, including; US spending during the First Indo-China War; the involvement of US “advisors”; the Gulf of Tonkin incident and of course the policy of Containment.\nThe First Indo-China War, fought between the French colonialists and the Vietnamese liberation front. The Vietnamese people wanted independence from their French overlords after the end of the Second World War. Throughout the Second World War they had fought off the oppressive, invading forces of the Japanese, side by side with the Allied forces, primarily in the name of freedom and self-determination. The people of Vietnam unsurprisingly expected independence after World War II. Independence was spreading across the globe, but the French had other ideas. Left decimated and facing the crippling reality of six years of Total Warfare the French could be expected to have allowed Vietnam to go it alone, but they wanted to assert their authority in the emerging Far-East. The War began in 1946 and lasted until 1954. The US originally remained neutral as because it opposed imperialism (a stance they had made clear to the UK) but began financing the French’s efforts through the Mutual Assistance Programme in 1949 (similar to the Marshall Plan). They supplied not only finance, but weaponry, fighter planes, and naval air-carriers. (By 1967 over $30bn had been given to nations through the MAP.)\nThe Geneva Peace Convention in 1954 secured a temporary separation of Vietnam along the 17th parallel. Ho Chi Minh controlled 2/3rds of Vietnam at the time, but accepted this division along with the promise that free and open elections were held across the nation to reunite the country in 1956. At this point the US had already financed a long campaign against Communism, it seemed highly unlikely that they would spend so much money and then abandon their objectives.\nWhen the election date came and went, supporters of the Communist Party in the South began an insurgency against President Diem. President Eisenhower had noted that had the Geneva Accords been held, “possibly 80 percent of the population would have voted for Communist Ho Chi Minh” and the government quickly became more repressive and unpopular, insurgency came as no real surprise to anybody. It has been commonly accepted that the original insurgency came from within the South and that Ho Chi Minh had no great role in the rebellion. But by 1959 this had changed, it was widely acknowledged that Ho Chi Minh had broken the Geneva Convention’s conditions and was funding the rebels in the South. Civil War had hit Vietnam!\nPresident JFK in his inauguration speech made the ambitious pledge to “pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, in order to assure the survival and success of liberty” a comment primarily aimed at America’s Communist rivals. JFK sent 16,000 American “advisors” to South Vietnam, up dramatically from the 900 the Eisenhower had sent before him. The advisors’ role quickly became blurred when it became apparent that they were leading skirmishes against the Vietcong. The US had become actively involved in Vietnam by 1963.\nIn November 1963 JFK was assassinated and replaced by his VP Linden B. Johnson. LBJ’s focus was on his “Great Society” which aimed to eliminate poverty and racial injustice. His knowledge of US foreign policy, especially in Vietnam was insignificant in comparison.  Presidential aide Jack Valenti recalls, “Vietnam at the time was no bigger than a man’s fist on the horizon. We hardly discussed it because it was not worth discussing.” LBJ took a hard-line to Vietnam and there is no doubt that the introduction of LBJ to the Vietnamese War had a drastic effect.\nThe Gulf of Tonkin incident was a pre-text for escalation for significant intervention by the US. In 2005, an internal National Security Agency historical study was declassified; it concluded that the Maddox had engaged the North Vietnamese Navy on August 2, but that there were no North Vietnamese Naval vessels present during the incident of August 4. The US public and Congress were sold the line that the US Navy was attacked by the North Vietnamese, when in reality the US launched the first attack, and the second incident was a salvage mission. LBJ gave a speech dramatising Ho Chi Minh’s forces as the aggressor and declaring the US would continue its fight for the people of the South Johnson misled the American people to gain support for his foreign policy in Vietnam. The War escalated from this point and Army numbers peaked at over 500,000 by late 1968.\nWhilst the Gulf of Tonkin may have been the tipping point for a huge scale US involvement, the real reason had much deeper roots. The logical progression of the US’ policy of containment led them to Vietnam. The US was worried about the idea of the “Domino Effect”. Eisenhower put the theory into words in April 1954. “Finally, you have broader considerations that might follow what you would call the “falling domino” principle. You have a row of dominoes set up, you knock over the first one, and what will happen to the last one is the certainty that it will go over very quickly. So you could have a beginning of a disintegration that would have the most profound influences.” The credibility of such a theory had been hotly debated, but regardless it was a highly influential idea that the US and allied governments bought into.\nDespite such a monumental effort in Vietnam, the US were ultimately unsuccessful in their attempts to overthrow Ho Chi Minh, and in 1975, 19 years after the War began Vietnam was unified under the man the US had fought so hard to remove.\n******************************************************************\nFeedback is greatly encouraged and wanted!!!", "Timeline of the Vietnam War - History Learning Site\nHome   »   Vietnam War   »  Timeline of the Vietnam War\nTimeline of the Vietnam War\nCitation: C N Trueman \"Timeline of the Vietnam War\"\nhistorylearningsite.co.uk. The History Learning Site, 27 Mar 2015. 16 Aug 2016.\n1862: Vietnam became part of the French Empire\n \n1890: Ho Chi Minh was born\n \n1930: Ho Chi Minh helped to form the Indo-Chinese Communist Party\n \n1941: Vietminh formed to counter Japanese invasion of Vietnam\n \n1945: Japan handed Vietnam to the Vietminh; Ho Chi Minh declared the\nDemocratic Republic of Vietnam (September); French troops arrived back in Vietnam\n \n1946: war broke out between the French and the Vietminh\n \n1949: Communist China came into being allowing the Vietminh to train in\n          China away from French attacks\n \n1950: Truman refused to recognise the Democratic Republic of Vietnam\n           Communist China + USSR did recognise Ho’s state\n \n1954: The Battle of Dien Bien Phu – Giap defeated the French force based there; a ceasefire was agreed at Geneva that split Vietnam at the 17th Parallel; France withdrew her military from Vietnam; US promises aid worth $100 million to the anti-communist Diem\n \n1955: The pro-American Ngo Dinh Diem became President of South Vietnam in October. America agreed to train Diem’s army.\n \n1956: Diem started to arrest anyone suspected of being in the Vietminh\n \n1957: the Vietminh started a campaign of guerrilla warfare in South Vietnam\n \n          casualties; the Ho Chi Minh Trail was first used\n \n1960: the National Liberation Front (NLF) was formed in Hanoi though in the South, they were known as the Vietcong (VC)\n \n1961: US President Kennedy pledged extra aid to South Vietnam\n \n1962: The number of US military advisors increased from 700 to 12,000\n \n1963: President Diem was killed in a military coup\n          15,000 US military advisors were in South Vietnam\n \n1964: the Gulf of Tonkin incident; Congress passed the ‘Gulf of Tonkin\n          Resolution’; America bombs targets in North Vietnam; NLF   attacked US air bases\n \n1965: ‘Operation Rolling Thunder’ started; first US combat troops were sent to Vietnam in March; by the end of the year there were 200,000 US troops there; first major conventional clash between USA and NVA at Ia Drang\n \n1966: 400,000 US troops were in Vietnam\n \n1967: 490,000 US troops in Vietnam; Nguyen Van Thieu became President of South Vietnam\n \n1968: Tet Offensive ; demonstrations against the war started in America; My Lai massacre; peace talks began in Paris; 540,000 US troops in\n            Vietnam; anti-Vietnam War riots in Chicago (August)\n \n1969: Nixon ordered the secret bombing of Cambodia; ‘ Vietnamization ’\n          started; Nixon announced the start of US troop withdrawals; Ho Chi\n          Minh died; 480,000 US troops in Vietnam; My Lai massacre made\npublic in November\n \n1970: Four student demonstrators shot dead at Kent State University ;\n          280,000 US troops in Vietnam; secret peace talks held in Paris; large scale anti-war demonstrations throughout USA\n \n1971: 140,000 US troops in Vietnam; Lt. William Calley convicted of murder at My Lai and jailed\n \n1972: Haiphong harbour mined (May); “Peace is at hand” – Dr Kissinger\n \n1973: ceasefire signed in Paris; last US troops left Vietnam; US POW’s\n          released\n1975: Khmer Rouge took control of Cambodia; NLF captured Saigon", "Vietnam War 1962–75 | Australian War Memorial\nPublications\nVietnam War 1962–75\nEKN/67/0130/VN Iroquois helicopters land to take members of 7RAR back to Nui Dat after completion of Operation Ulmarra, August 1967. AWM EKN/67/0130/VN\nThe arrival of the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam (AATTV) in South Vietnam during July and August 1962 was the beginning of Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War. Australia's participation in the war was formally declared at an end when the Governor-General issued a proclamation on 11 January 1973. The only combat troops remaining in Vietnam were a platoon guarding the Australian embassy in Saigon, which was withdrawn in June 1973.\nThe Australian commitment consisted predominantly of army personnel, but significant numbers of air force and navy personnel and some civilians also took part.\nOn this page:\nLinks to online sources and other material\nOverview\nFrom the time of the arrival of the first members of the Team in 1962 almost 60,000 Australians, including ground troops and air force and navy personnel, served in Vietnam; 521 died as a result of the war and over 3,000 were wounded. The war was the cause of the greatest social and political dissent in Australia since the conscription referendums of the First World War. Many draft resisters, conscientious objectors, and protesters were fined or jailed, while soldiers met a hostile reception on their return home.\nAustralian support for South Vietnam in the early 1960s was in keeping with the policies of other nations, particularly the United States, to stem the spread of communism in Europe and Asia. In 1961 and 1962 Ngo Dinh Diem, leader of the government in South Vietnam, repeatedly requested security assistance from the US and its allies. Australia eventually responded with 30 military advisers, dispatched as the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam (AATTV), also known as \"the Team\". Their arrival in South Vietnam during July and August 1962 was the beginning of Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War. In August 1964 the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) also sent a flight of Caribou transports to the port of Vung Tau.\nBy early 1965, when it had become clear that South Vietnam could not stave off the communist insurgents and their North Vietnamese comrades for more than a few months, the US commenced a major escalation of the war. By the end of the year it had committed 200,000 troops to the conflict. As part of the build-up, the US government requested further support from friendly countries in the region, including Australia. The Australian government dispatched the 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (1RAR), in June 1965 to serve alongside the US 173d Airborne Brigade in Bien Hoa province.\nP01951.007 Vung Tau, Vietnam: door-gunner from No. 9 Squadron, RAAF, using twin-mounted M60 machine-guns.\nAWM P01951.007\nThe following year the Australian government felt that Australia's involvement in the conflict should be both strong and identifiable. In March 1966 the government announced the dispatch of a taskforce to replace 1RAR, consisting of two battalions and support services (including a RAAF squadron of Iroquois helicopters), to be based at Nui Dat, Phuoc Tuy province. Unlike 1RAR, the taskforce was assigned its own area of operations and included conscripts who had been called up under the National Service Scheme , introduced in 1964. All nine RAR battalions served in the taskforce at one time or another, before it was withdrawn in 1971; at the height of the Australian involvement it numbered some 8,500 troops. A third RAAF squadron (of Canberra jet bombers) was also committed in 1967, and destroyers of the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) joined US patrols off the North Vietnamese coast. The RAN also contributed a clearance diving team and a helicopter detachment that operated with the US Army from October 1967.\nIn August 1966 a company of 6RAR was engaged in one of Australia's heaviest actions of the war, in a rubber plantation near Long Tan. The 108 soldiers of D Coy held off an enemy force, estimated at over 2000, for four hours in the middle of a tropical downpour. They were greatly assisted by a timely ammunition resupply by RAAF helicopters, close fire support from Australian artillery, and the arrival of reinforcements in APCs as night fell. The armoured vehicles had been delayed because they had to 'swim' across a flooded creek and fight through groups of enemy on the way. When the Viet Cong withdrew at night fall they left behind 245 dead, but carried away many more casualties. Seventeen Australians were killed and 25 wounded, with one dying of wounds several days later.\nThe year 1968 began with a major offensive by the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese Army, launched during the Vietnamese lunar new year holiday period, known as \"Tet\". Not only the timing but the scale of the offensive came as a complete surprise, taking in cities, towns, and military installations throughout South Vietnam. While the \"Tet Offensive\" ultimately ended in military defeat for the communists, it was propaganda victory. US military planners began to question if a decisive victory could ever be achieved and the offensive stimulated US public opposition to the war. For Australian troops, the effects of the offensive were felt around their base at Nui Dat, where a Viet Cong attack on targets around Ba Ria, the provincial capital, was repulsed with few casualties.\nCOL/67/0140/VN A wounded digger, hurt in a booby-trap explosion, is evacuated to Vung Tau.\nAWM COL/67/0140/VN\nBy 1969 anti-war protests were gathering momentum in Australia. Opposition to conscription mounted, as more people came to believe the war could not be won. A \"Don't register\" campaign to dissuade young men from registering for conscription gained increasing support and some of the protests grew violent. The US government began to implement a policy of \"Vietnamisation'', the term coined for a gradual withdrawal of US forces that would leave the war in the hands of the South Vietnamese. With the start of the phased withdrawals, the emphasis of the activities of the Australians in Phuoc Tuy province shifted to the provision of training to the South Vietnamese Regional and Popular Forces.\nAt the end of April 1970 US and South Vietnamese troops were ordered to cross the border into Cambodia. While the invasion succeeded in capturing large quantities of North Vietnamese arms, destroying bunkers and sanctuaries, and killing enemy soldiers, it ultimately proved disastrous. By bringing combat into Cambodia, the invasion drove many people to join the underground opposition, the Khmer Rouge, irreparably weakening the Cambodian government. When the Khmer Rouge came to power in April 1975, it imposed a cruel and repressive regime that killed several million Cambodians and left the country with internal conflict that continues today. The extension of the war into a sovereign state, formally neutral, inflamed anti-war sentiment in the United States and provided the impetus for further anti-war demonstrations in Australia. In the well-known Moratorium marches of 1970 and 1971, more than 200,000 people gathered to protest against the war, in cities and towns throughout the country.\nP01404.028 Phuoc Tuy province, South Vietnam, November 1966: 6RAR soldiers follow an armoured personnel carrier (APC) during Operation Ingham, a \"search and destroy\" mission.\nAWM P01404.028\nBy late 1970 Australia had also begun to wind down its military effort in Vietnam. The 8th Battalion departed in November (and was not replaced), but, to make up for the decrease in troop numbers, the Team's strength was increased and its efforts became concentrated in Phuoc Tuy province. The withdrawal of troops and all air units continued throughout 1971 – the last battalion left Nui Dat on 7 November, while a handful of advisers belonging to the Team remained in Vietnam the following year. In December 1972 they became the last Australian troops to come home, with their unit having seen continuous service in South Vietnam for ten and a half years. Australia's participation in the war was formally declared at an end when the Governor-General issued a proclamation on 11 January 1973. The only combat troops remaining in Vietnam were a platoon guarding the Australian embassy in Saigon (this was withdrawn in June 1973).\nCUN/66/0161/VN Vietnam, 1966: Australians patrol near the village of Tan Phu, near Bien Hoa Air Base.\nAWM CUN/66/0161/VN\nIn early 1975 the communists launched a major offensive in the north of South Vietnam, resulting in the fall of Saigon on 30 April. During April a RAAF detachment of 7–8 Hercules transports flew humanitarian missions to aid civilian refugees displaced by the fighting and carried out the evacuation of Vietnamese orphans (Operation Babylift), before finally taking out embassy staff on 25 April.\nFrom the time of the arrival of the first members of the Team in 1962 almost 60,000 Australians, including ground troops and air force and navy personnel, served in Vietnam; 521 died as a result of the war and over 3,000 were wounded. The war was the cause of the greatest social and political dissent in Australia since the conscription referendums of the First World War. Many draft resisters, conscientious objectors, and protesters were fined or gaoled, while some soldiers met a hostile reception on their return home.\nSources and further reading:\nChris Coulthard-Clark, The RAAF in Vietnam: Australian air involvement in the Vietnam War 1962–1975, The Official History of Australia's Involvement in Southeast Asian Conflicts 1948–1975, vol. 4 (Sydney: Allen & Unwin in association with the Australian War Memorial, 1995)\nPeter Dennis et al., The Oxford companion to Australian military history (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 2nd ed., 2008)\nPeter Edwards, A nation at war: Australian politics, society, and diplomacy during the Vietnam War 1965–1975, The Official History of Australia's Involvement in Southeast Asian Conflicts 1948–1975, vol. 6 (Sydney: Allen & Unwin in association with the Australian War Memorial, 1997)\nJeffrey Grey, Up top: the Royal Australian Navy in Southeast Asian Conflicts, 1955–1972, The Official History of Australia's Involvement in Southeast Asian Conflicts 1948–1975, vol. 7 (Sydney: Allen & Unwin in association with the Australian War Memorial, 1998)\nIan McNeill, To Long Tan: the Australian Army and the Vietnam War 1950–1966, The Official History of Australia's Involvement in Southeast Asian Conflicts 1948–1975, vol. 2 (Sydney: Allen & Unwin in association with the Australian War Memorial, 1993)\nIan McNeill and Ashley Ekins, On the offensive: the Australian Army in the Vietnam War 1967–1968, The Official History of Australia's Involvement in Southeast Asian Conflicts 1948–1975, vol. 8 (Sydney: Allen & Unwin in association with the Australian War Memorial, 2003)\nJ. Rowe, Vietnam: the Australian experience (Sydney: Time–Life Books Australia and John Ferguson, 1987)\nEssays, articles, and talks", "What Everyone Should Know About the Vietnam War\nWhat Everyone Should Know About the Vietnam War\nSign Up for Our Free Newsletters\nThanks, You're in!\nHealth Tip of the Day\nRecipe of the Day\nThere was an error. Please try again.\nPlease select a newsletter.\nPlease enter a valid email address.\nDid you mean ?\nUpdated February 27, 2016.\nWhat Was the Vietnam War?\nThe Vietnam War was the prolonged struggle between nationalist forces attempting to unify the country of Vietnam under a communist government and the United States (with the aid of the South Vietnamese) attempting to prevent the spread of communism.\nEngaged in a war that many viewed as having no way to win, U.S. leaders lost the American public's support for the war. Since the end of the war, the Vietnam War has become a benchmark for what not to do in all future U.S. foreign conflicts.\nDates of the Vietnam War: 1959 -- April 30, 1975\nAlso Known As: American War in Vietnam, Vietnam Conflict, Second Indochina War, War Against the Americans to Save the Nation\nHo Chi Minh Comes Home\nThere had been fighting in Vietnam for decades before the Vietnam War began. The Vietnamese had suffered under French colonial rule for nearly six decades when Japan invaded portions of Vietnam in 1940.\ncontinue reading below our video\nOverview of the Vietnam War\nIt was in 1941, when Vietnam had two foreign powers occupying them, that communist Vietnamese revolutionary leader Ho Chi Minh arrived back in Vietnam after spending 30 years traveling the world.\nOnce Ho was back in Vietnam, he established a headquarters in a cave in northern Vietnam and established the Viet Minh , whose goal was to rid Vietnam of the French and Japanese occupiers.\nHaving gained support for their cause in northern Vietnam, the Viet Minh announced the establishment of an independent Vietnam with a new government called the Democratic Republic of Vietnam on September 2, 1945. The French, however, were not willing to give up their colony so easily and fought back.\nFor years, Ho had tried to court the United States to support him against the French, including supplying the U.S. with military intelligence about the Japanese during World War II .\nDespite this aid, the United States was fully dedicated to their Cold War foreign policy of containment, which meant preventing the spread of Communism.\nThis fear of the spread of Communism was heightened by the U.S. \" domino theory ,\" which stated that if one country in Southeast Asia fell to Communism then surrounding countries would also soon fall.\nTo help prevent Vietnam from becoming a communist country, the U.S. decided to help France defeat Ho and his revolutionaries by sending the French military aid in 1950.\nFrance Steps Out, U.S. Steps In\nIn 1954, after suffering a decisive defeat at Dien Bien Phu , the French decided to pull out of Vietnam.\nAt the Geneva Conference of 1954, a number of nations met to determine how the French could peacefully withdraw. The agreement that came out of the conference (called the Geneva Accords ) stipulated a cease fire for the peaceful withdrawal of French forces and the temporary division of Vietnam along the 17th parallel (which split the country into communist North Vietnam and non-communist South Vietnam).\nIn addition, a general democratic election was to be held in 1956 that would reunite the country under one government. The United States refused to agree to the election, fearing the communists might win.\nWith help from the United States, South Vietnam carried out the election only in South Vietnam rather than countrywide. After eliminating most of his rivals, Ngo Dinh Diem was elected. His leadership, however, proved so horrible that he was killed in 1963 during a coup supported by the United States.\nSince Diem had alienated many South Vietnamese during his tenure, communist sympathizers in South Vietnam established the National Liberation Front (NLF), also known as the Viet Cong , in 1960 to use guerrilla warfare against the South Vietnamese.\nFirst U.S. Ground Troops Sent to Vietnam\nAs the fighting between the Viet Cong and the South Vietnamese continued, the U.S. continued to send additional advisers to South Vietnam.\nWhen the North Vietnamese fired directly upon two U.S. ships in international waters on August 2 and 4, 1964 (known as the Gulf of Tonkin Incident ), Congress responded with the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. This resolution gave the President the authority to escalate U.S. involvement in Vietnam.\nPresident Lyndon Johnson used that authority to order the first U.S. ground troops to Vietnam in March 1965.\nJohnson's Plan for Success\nPresident Johnson's goal for U.S. involvement in Vietnam was not for the U.S. to win the war, but for U.S. troops to bolster South Vietnam's defenses until South Vietnam could take over.\nBy entering the Vietnam War without a goal to win, Johnson set the stage for future public and troop disappointment when the U.S. found themselves in a stalemate with the North Vietnamese and the Viet Cong.\nFrom 1965 to 1969, the U.S. was involved in a limited war in Vietnam. Although there were aerial bombings of the North, President Johnson wanted the fighting to be limited to South Vietnam. By limiting the fighting parameters, the U.S. forces would not conduct a serious ground assault into the North to attack the communists directly nor would there be any strong effort to disrupt the Ho Chi Minh Trail (the Viet Cong's supply path that ran through Laos and Cambodia).\nLife in the Jungle\nU.S. troops fought a jungle war, mostly against the well-supplied Viet Cong. The Viet Cong would attack in ambushes, set up booby traps, and escape through a complex network of underground tunnels. For U.S. forces, even just finding their enemy proved difficult.\nSince Viet Cong hid in the dense brush, U.S. forces would drop Agent Orange or napalm bombs , which cleared an area by causing the leaves to drop off or to burn away.\nIn every village, U.S. troops had difficulty determining which, if any, villagers were the enemy since even women and children could build booby traps or help house and feed the Viet Cong. U.S. soldiers commonly became frustrated with the fighting conditions in Vietnam. Many suffered from low morale, became angry, and some used drugs.\nSurprise Attack - The Tet Offensive\nOn January 30, 1968, the North Vietnamese surprised both the U.S. forces and the South Vietnamese by orchestrating a coordinated assault with the Viet Cong to attack about a hundred South Vietnamese cities and towns.\nAlthough the U.S. forces and the South Vietnamese army were able to repel the assault known as the  Tet Offensive , this attack proved to Americans that the enemy was stronger and better organized than they had been led to believe.\nThe Tet Offensive was a turning point in the war because President Johnson, faced now with an unhappy American public and bad news from his military leaders in Vietnam, decided to no longer escalate the war.\nNixon's Plan for \"Peace With Honor\"\nIn 1969,  Richard Nixon  became the new U.S. President and he had his own plan to end U.S. involvement in Vietnam. \nPresident Nixon outlined a plan called Vietnamization, which was a process to remove U.S. troops from Vietnam while handing back the fighting to the South Vietnamese. The withdrawal of U.S. troops began in July 1969.\nTo bring a faster end to hostilities, President Nixon also expanded the war into other countries, such as Laos and Cambodia -- a move that created thousands of protests, especially on college campuses, back in America.\nTo work toward peace, new peace talks began in Paris on January 25, 1969.\nWhen the U.S. had withdrawn most of its troops from Vietnam, the North Vietnamese staged another massive assault, called the  Easter Offensive  (also called the Spring Offensive), on March 30, 1972. North Vietnamese troops crossed over the demilitarized zone (DMZ) at the 17th parallel and invaded South Vietnam.\nThe remaining U.S. forces and the South Vietnamese army fought back.\nThe Paris Peace Accords\nOn January 27, 1973, the peace talks in Paris finally succeeded in producing a cease-fire agreement. The last U.S. troops left Vietnam on March 29, 1973, knowing they were leaving a weak South Vietnam who would not be able to withstand another major communist North Vietnam attack.\nReunification of Vietnam\nAfter the U.S. had withdrawn all its troops, the fighting continued in Vietnam.\nIn early 1975, North Vietnam made another big push south which toppled the South Vietnamese government. South Vietnam officially surrendered to communist North Vietnam on April 30, 1975.\nOn July 2, 1976, Vietnam was reunited as a  communist country , the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.\nPrev" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Anna_Kournikova.txt" ], "title": [ "Anna Kournikova" ], "wiki_context": [ "Anna Sergeyevna Kournikova (; born 7 June 1981) is a Russian former professional tennis player. Her appearance and celebrity status made her one of the best known tennis stars worldwide. At the peak of her fame, fans looking for images of Kournikova made her name one of the most common search strings on Google Search.\n\nDespite never winning a singles title, she reached No. 8 in the world in 2000. She achieved greater success playing doubles, where she was at times the World No. 1 player. With Martina Hingis as her partner, she won Grand Slam titles in Australia in 1999 and 2002, and the WTA Championships in 1999 and 2000. They referred to themselves as the \"Spice Girls of Tennis\". \n\nKournikova's professional tennis career ended prematurely at the age of 21 due to serious back and spinal problems, including a herniated disk. She lives in Miami Beach, Florida, and plays in occasional exhibitions and in doubles for the St. Louis Aces of World Team Tennis. She was a new trainer for season 12 of the television show The Biggest Loser, replacing Jillian Michaels, but did not return for season 13. In addition to her tennis and television work, Kournikova serves as a Global Ambassador for Population Services International's \"Five & Alive\" program, which addresses health crises facing children under the age of five and their families. \n\nEarly life \n\nAnna Kournikova was born in Moscow, Russia, on 7 June 1981. Her father, Sergei Kournikov (born 1961), a former Greco-Roman wrestling champion, eventually earned a PhD and was a professor at the University of Physical Culture and Sport in Moscow. As of 2001, he was still a part-time martial arts instructor there. Her mother Alla (born 1963) had been a 400-metre runner. Her younger brother, Allan, is a youth golf world champion who was featured in the 2013 documentary film The Short Game. \n\nSergei Kournikov has said, \"We were young and we liked the clean, physical life, so Anna was in a good environment for sport from the beginning\".\n\nKournikova received her first tennis racquet as a New Year gift in 1986 at age 5. Describing her early regimen, she said, \"I played two times a week from age six. It was a children's program. And it was just for fun; my parents didn't know I was going to play professionally, they just wanted me to do something because I had lots of energy. It was only when I started playing well at seven that I went to a professional academy. I would go to school, and then my parents would take me to the club, and I'd spend the rest of the day there just having fun with the kids.\" In 1986, Kournikova became a member of the Spartak Tennis Club, coached by Larissa Preobrazhenskaya. In 1989, at the age of eight, Kournikova began appearing in junior tournaments, and by the following year, was attracting attention from tennis scouts across the world. Kournikova signed a management deal at age ten and went to Bradenton, Florida, to train at Nick Bollettieri's celebrated tennis academy.\n\nTennis career \n\n1989–1997: Early years and breakthrough \n\nFollowing her arrival in the United States, Kournikova became prominent on the tennis scene. At 14, she won the European Championships and the Italian Open Junior tournament. She became the youngest player to win the 18-and-under division of the Junior Orange Bowl tennis tournament. By the end of the year, Kournikova was crowned the ITF Junior World Champion U-18 and Junior European Champion U-18.\n\nIn 1994, Kournikova received a wild card into ITF tournament in Moscow qualifications, but lost to third seeded Sabine Appelmans. She debuted in professional tennis at 14 in the Fed Cup for Russia, the youngest player ever to participate and win. In 1995, she turned pro, and won two ITF titles, in Midland, Michigan and Rockford, Illinois. The same year Kournikova reached her first WTA Tour doubles final at the Kremlin Cup. Partnering with 1995 Wimbledon girls' champion in both singles and doubles Aleksandra Olsza, they lost to Meredith McGrath and Larisa Neiland.\n\nIn 1996, she started playing under a new coach, Ed Nagel. Her six-year tenure with Ed would produce terrific results. At 15, she made her grand slam debut, when she reached the fourth round of the 1996 US Open, only to be stopped by then-top ranked player Steffi Graf, the eventual champion. After this tournament, Kournikova's ranking jumped from No. 144 to debut in the Top 100 at No. 69. Kournikova was a member of the Russian delegation to the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta, Georgia. In 1996, she was named WTA Newcomer of the Year, and she was ranked No. 57 in the end of the season.\n\nKournikova entered the 1997 Australian Open as World No. 67, where she lost in the first round to World No. 12 Amanda Coetzer. At the Italian Open, Kournikova lost to Amanda Coetzer in the second round. However, she reached the semi-finals in the doubles partnering with Elena Likhovtseva, before losing to the sixth seeds Mary Joe Fernández and Patricia Tarabini.\n\nAt the 1997 French Open, Kournikova made it to the third round before losing to World No. 1 Martina Hingis. She also reached the third round in doubles with Likhovtseva. At the 1997 Wimbledon Championships, Kournikova became only the second woman in the open era to reach the semi-finals in her Wimbledon debut, the first being Chris Evert in 1972; she still holds the record for being the youngest Wimbledon semi-finalist in history (15 years of age). There she lost to eventual champion Martina Hingis.\n\nAt the 1997 US Open, she lost in the second round to the eleventh seed Irina Spîrlea. Partnering with Likhovtseva, she reached the third round of the women's doubles event. Kournikova played her last WTA Tour event of 1997 at Porsche Tennis Grand Prix in Filderstadt, losing to Amanda Coetzer in the second round of singles, and in the first round of doubles to Lindsay Davenport and Jana Novotná partnering with Likhovtseva. She broke into the top 50 on 19 May, and was ranked No. 32 in singles and No. 41 in doubles at the end of the season. \n\n1998–2000: Success and stardom \n\nIn 1998, Kournikova broke into the WTA's top 20 rankings for the first time, when she was ranked No. 16. At the 1998 Australian Open, Kournikova lost in the third round to World No. 1 player Martina Hingis. She also partnered with Larisa Neiland in women's doubles, and they lost to eventual champions Hingis and Mirjana Lučić in the second round. Although she lost in the second round of the Paris Open to Anke Huber in singles, Kournikova reached her second doubles WTA Tour final, partnering with Larisa Neiland. They lost to Sabine Appelmans and Miriam Oremans. Kournikova and Neiland reached their second consecutive final at the Linz Open, losing to Alexandra Fusai and Nathalie Tauziat. At the Miami Open, Kournikova reached her first WTA Tour singles final, before losing to Venus Williams in the final.\n\nKournikova then reached two consecutive quarterfinals, at Amelia Island and the Italian Open, losing respectively to Lindsay Davenport and Martina Hingis. At the German Open, she reached the semi-finals in both singles and doubles, partnering with Larisa Neiland. At the 1998 French Open Kournikova had her best result at this tournament, making it to the fourth round before losing to Jana Novotná. She also reached her first Grand Slam doubles semi-finals, losing with Neiland to Lindsay Davenport and Natasha Zvereva. During her quarterfinals match at the grass-court Eastbourne Open versus Steffi Graf, Kournikova injured her thumb, which would eventually force her to withdraw from the 1998 Wimbledon Championships. However, she won that match, but then withdrew from her semi-finals match against Arantxa Sánchez Vicario. Kournikova returned for the Du Maurier Open and made it to the third round, before losing to Conchita Martínez. At the 1998 US Open Kournikova reached the fourth round before losing to Arantxa Sánchez Vicario. Her strong year qualified her for the year-end 1998 WTA Tour Championships, but she lost to Monica Seles in the first round. However, with Seles, she won her first WTA doubles title, in Tokyo, beating Mary Joe Fernández and Arantxa Sánchez Vicario in the final. At the end of the season, she was ranked No. 10 in doubles.\n\nAt the start of the 1999 season, Kournikova advanced to the fourth round in singles before losing to Mary Pierce. However, Kournikova won her first doubles Grand Slam title, partnering Martina Hingis. The two defeated Lindsay Davenport and Natasha Zvereva in the final. At the Tier I Family Circle Cup, Kournikova reached her second WTA Tour final, but lost to Martina Hingis. She then defeated Jennifer Capriati, Lindsay Davenport and Patty Schnyder on her route to the Bausch & Lomb Championships semi-finals, losing to Ruxandra Dragomir. At The French Open, Kournikova reached the fourth round before losing to eventual champion Steffi Graf. Once the grass-court season commenced in England, Kournikova lost to Nathalie Tauziat in the semi-finals in Eastbourne. At Wimbledon, Kournikova lost to Venus Williams in the fourth round. She also reached the final in mixed doubles, partnering with Jonas Björkman, but they lost to Leander Paes and Lisa Raymond. Kournikova again qualified for year-end WTA Tour Championships, but lost to Mary Pierce in the first round, and ended the season as World No. 12.\n\nWhile Kournikova had a successful singles season, she was even more successful in doubles. After their victory at the Australian Open, she and Martina Hingis won tournaments in Indian Wells, Rome, Eastbourne and the WTA Tour Championshiops, and reached the final of The French Open where they lost to Serena and Venus Williams. Partnering with Elena Likhovtseva, Kournikova also reached the final in Stanford. On 22 November 1999 she reached the World No. 1 ranking in doubles, and ended the season at this ranking. Anna Kournikova and Martina Hingis were presented with the WTA Award for Doubles Team of the Year.\n\nKournikova opened her 2000 season winning the Gold Coast Open doubles tournament partnering with Julie Halard. She then reached the singles semi-finals at the Medibank International Sydney, losing to Lindsay Davenport. At the 2000 Australian Open, she reached the fourth round in singles and the semi-finals in doubles. That season, Kournikova reached eight semi-finals (Sydney, Scottsdale, Stanford, San Diego, Luxembourg, Leipzig and 2000 WTA Tour Championships), seven quarterfinals (Gold Coast, Tokyo, Amelia Island, Hamburg, Eastbourne, Zürich and Philadelphia) and one final. On 20 November 2000 she broke into top 10 for the first time, reaching No. 8. She was also ranked No. 4 in doubles at the end of the season. Kournikova was once again, more successful in doubles. She reached the final of the 2000 US Open in mixed doubles, partnering with Max Mirnyi, but they lost to Jared Palmer and Arantxa Sánchez Vicario. She also won six doubles titles – Gold Coast (with Julie Halard), Hamburg (with Natasha Zvereva), Filderstadt, Zürich, Philadelphia and the 2000 WTA Tour Championships (with Martina Hingis).\n\n2001–2003: Injuries and final years \n\nHer 2001 season was dominated by injury, including a left foot stress fracture which forced her withdrawal from twelve tournaments, including the French Open and Wimbledon. She underwent surgery in April. She reached her second career grand slam quarterfinals, at the Australian Open. Kournikova then withdrew from several events due to continuing problems with her left foot and did not return until Leipzig. With Barbara Schett, she won the doubles title in Sydney. She then lost in the finals in Tokyo, partnering with Iroda Tulyaganova, and at San Diego, partnering with Martina Hingis. Hingis and Kournikova also won the Kremlin Cup. At the end of the 2001 season, she was ranked No. 74 in singles and No. 26 in doubles.\n\nKournikova was quite successful in 2002. She reached the semi-finals of Auckland, Tokyo, Acapulco and San Diego, and the final of the China Open, losing to Anna Smashnova. This was Kournikova's last singles final. With Martina Hingis, she lost in the final at Sydney, but they won their second grand slam title together, the Australian Open. They also lost in the quarterfinals of the US Open. With Chanda Rubin, Kournikova played the semi-finals of Wimbledon, but they lost to Serena and Venus Williams. Partnering Janet Lee, she won the Shanghai title. At the end of 2002 season, she was ranked No. 35 in singles and No. 11 in doubles.\n\nIn 2003, Anna Kournikova collected her first grand slam match victory in two years at the Australian Open. She defeated Henrieta Nagyová in the 1st round, and then lost to Justine Henin-Hardenne in the 2nd round. She withdrew from Tokyo due to a sprained back suffered at the Australian Open and did not return to Tour until Miami. On 9 April, in what would be the final WTA match of her career, Kournikova retired in the 1st round of the Family Circle Cup in Charleston, South Carolina, due to a left adductor strain. Her singles world ranking was 67. She reached the semi-finals at the ITF tournament in Sea Island, before withdrawing from a match versus Maria Sharapova due to the adductor injury. She lost in the 1st round of the ITF tournament in Charlottesville. She did not compete for the rest of the season due to a continuing back injury. At the end of the 2003 season and her professional career, she was ranked No. 305 in singles and No. 176 in doubles.\n\nKournikova's two Grand Slam doubles titles came in 1999 and 2002, both at the Australian Open in the Women's Doubles event with partner Martina Hingis. Kournikova proved a successful doubles player on the professional circuit, winning 16 tournament doubles titles, including two Australian Opens and being a finalist in mixed doubles at the US Open and at Wimbledon, and reaching the No. 1 ranking in doubles in the Women's Tennis Association tour rankings. Her pro career doubles record was 200–71. However, her singles career plateaued after 1999. For the most part, she managed to retain her ranking between 10 and 15 (her career high singles ranking was No.8), but her expected finals breakthrough failed to occur; she only reached four finals out of 130 singles tournaments, never in a Grand Slam event, and never won one.\n\nHer singles record is 209–129. Her final playing years were marred by a string of injuries, especially back injuries, which caused her ranking to erode gradually. As a personality Kournikova was among the most common search strings for both articles and images in her prime.\n\n2004–present: Exhibitions and World Team Tennis \n\nKournikova has not played on the WTA Tour since 2003, but still plays exhibition matches for charitable causes. In late 2004, she participated in three events organized by Elton John and by fellow tennis players Serena Williams and Andy Roddick. In January 2005, she played in a doubles charity event for the Indian Ocean tsunami with John McEnroe, Andy Roddick, and Chris Evert. In November 2005, she teamed up with Martina Hingis, playing against Lisa Raymond and Samantha Stosur in the WTT finals for charity. Kournikova is also a member of the St. Louis Aces in the World Team Tennis (WTT), playing doubles only.\n\nIn September 2008, Kournikova showed up for the 2008 Nautica Malibu Triathlon held at Zuma Beach in Malibu, California. The Race raised funds for children's Hospital Los Angeles. She won that race for women's K-Swiss team. On 27 September 2008, Kournikova played exhibition mixed doubles matches in Charlotte, North Carolina, partnering with Tim Wilkison and Karel Nováček. Kournikova and Wilkison defeated Jimmy Arias and Chanda Rubin, and then Kournikova and Novacek defeated Rubin and Wilkison.\n\nOn 12 October 2008, Anna Kournikova played one exhibition match for the annual charity event, hosted by Billie Jean King and Elton John, and raised more than $400,000 for the Elton John AIDS Foundation and Atlanta AIDS Partnership Fund. She played doubles with Andy Roddick (they were coached by David Chang) versus Martina Navratilova and Jesse Levine (coached by Billie Jean King); Kournikova and Roddick won.\n\nKournikova competed alongside John McEnroe, Tracy Austin and Jim Courier at the \"Legendary Night\", which was held on 2 May 2009, at the Turning Stone Event Center in Verona, New York. The exhibition included a mixed doubles match of McEnroe and Austin against Courier and Kournikova.\n\nIn 2008, she was named a spokesperson for K-Swiss. In 2005, Kournikova stated that if she were 100% fit, she would like to come back and compete again. \n\nIn June 2010, Kournikova reunited with her doubles partner Martina Hingis to participate in competitive tennis for the first time in seven years in the Invitational Ladies Doubles event at Wimbledon. On 29 June 2010 they defeated the British pair Samantha Smith and Anne Hobbs. \n\nPlaying style \n\nAs a player, Kournikova was noted for her footspeed and aggressive baseline play, and excellent angles and dropshots; however, her relatively flat, high-risk groundstrokes tended to produce frequent errors, and her serve was sometimes unreliable in singles.\n\nKournikova plays right-handed with a two-handed backhand. She is a great player at the net. She can hit forceful groundstrokes and also drop shots. \n\nHer playing style fits the profile for a doubles player, and is complemented by her height. She has been compared to such doubles specialists as Pam Shriver and Peter Fleming.\n\nPersonal life \n\nKournikova was in a relationship with fellow Russian Pavel Bure, an NHL ice hockey player. The two met in 1999 when Kournikova was still linked to Bure's former Russian teammate Sergei Fedorov. Bure and Kournikova were reported to have been engaged in 2000 after a reporter took a photo of them together in a Florida restaurant where Bure supposedly asked Kournikova to marry him. As the story made headlines in Russia, where they were both heavily followed in the media as celebrities, Bure and Kournikova both denied any engagement. Kournikova, 10 years younger than Bure, was 18 years old at the time. \n\nThe following year, Kournikova and Fedorov were married in Moscow. Fedorov claimed he and Kournikova were married in 2001, and divorced in 2003. Kournikova's representatives deny any marriage to Fedorov; however, Fedorov's agent Pat Brisson claims that although he does not know when they got married, he knew \"Fedorov was married\". \n\nKournikova started dating pop star Enrique Iglesias in late 2001 (she appeared in his video, \"Escape\"). Kournikova has consistently refused to directly confirm or deny the status of her personal relationships. In June 2008, Iglesias was quoted by the Daily Star as having married Kournikova the previous year and subsequently separated. The couple have invested in a $20 million home to be built on a private island in Miami. \n\nKournikova resides in Miami Beach, Florida.\n\nMedia publicity \n\nMost of Kournikova's fame has come from the publicity surrounding her looks and her personal life. During her debut at the 1996 US Open at the age of 15, the western world noticed her beauty, and soon pictures of her appeared in numerous magazines worldwide.\n\nIn 2000, Kournikova became the new face for Berlei's shock absorber sports bras, and appeared in the \"only the ball should bounce\" billboard campaign. Following that, she was cast by the Farrelly brothers for a minor role in the 2000 film Me, Myself & Irene starring Jim Carrey and Renée Zellweger. Photographs of her have appeared on covers of various publications, including men's magazines, such as one in the much-publicized 2004 Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue, where she posed in bikinis and swimsuits, as well as in FHM and Maxim. Kournikova was named one of People's 50 Most Beautiful People in 1998 and was voted \"hottest female athlete\" on ESPN.com. In 2002 she also placed first in FHM's 100 Sexiest Women in the World in US and UK editions. By contrast, ESPN—citing the degree of hype as compared to actual accomplishments as a singles player—ranked Kournikova 18th in its \"25 Biggest Sports Flops of the Past 25 Years\". Kournikova was also ranked No. 1 in the ESPN Classic series \"Who's number 1?\" when the series featured sport's most overrated athletes. \n\nShe continued to be the most searched athlete on the Internet through 2008 even though she had retired from the professional tennis circuit years earlier. After slipping from first to sixth among athletes in 2009, she moved back up to third place among athletes in terms of search popularity in 2010. \n\nIn October 2010, Kournikova headed to NBC's The Biggest Loser where she led the contestants in a tennis-workout challenge. In May 2011, it was announced that Kournikova would join The Biggest Loser as a regular celebrity trainer in season 12. She did not return for season 13. \n\nIn November 2010, she became an American citizen. In 2011, Men's Health named her one of the \"100 Hottest Women of All-Time\", ranking her at No. 29. \n\nInfluences on popular culture \n\nA variation of a White Russian made with skim milk is known as an Anna Kournikova. In the lingo of the poker variation Texas Hold 'em, the hole cards Ace–King (unsuited) are sometimes referred to as an \"Anna Kournikova\", a term introduced by the poker commentator Vince van Patten during a WPT tournament because it \"looks great but never wins\". A video game featuring Kournikova's licensed appearance, titled Anna Kournikova's Smash Court Tennis, was developed by Namco and released for the PlayStation in Japan and Europe in November 1998. A computer virus named the Anna Kournikova virus arose on 12 February 2001. \n\nCareer statistics and awards \n\n* 1996: WTA Newcomer of the Year\n* 1999: WTA Doubles Team of the Year (with Martina Hingis)\n\nBooks \n\n* Anna Kournikova by Susan Holden (2001) (ISBN 978-1-84222-416-8 / ISBN 978-1-84222-416-8)\n* Anna Kournikova (Women Who Win) by Connie Berman (2001) (ISBN 978-0-7910-6529-7 / ISBN 978-0-7910-6529-7)" ] }

{ "description": [ "Lucrative deals with Cole Haan, Evian, ... Eisenbud sought to distinguish Sharapova from Anna Kournikova, ... Only one, Canon, chose not to renew her contract, ..." ], "filename": [ "38/38_3789.txt" ], "rank": [ 7 ], "title": [ "Brand Sugarpova: How Maria Sharapova Became the World's ..." ], "url": [ "http://www.newsweek.com/2014/07/11/brand-sugarpova-how-maria-sharapova-became-worlds-highest-paid-female-athlete-256632.html" ], "search_context": [ "Brand Sugarpova: How Maria Sharapova Became the World's Highest-Paid Female Athlete\nBrand Sugarpova: How Maria Sharapova Became the World's Highest-Paid Female Athlete\nOn 6/30/14 at 8:07 AM\n07/11/14\nSports Maria Sharapova Wimbledon Tennis Sponsorship\nWhen Maria Sharapova takes to the courts of Wimbledon, she does not smile. She chases balls with the aggression of a Doberman Pinscher, grunts like a hyena in heat, and blasts rocket-like serves at her opponents. During intense matches she’s pure terror—a leggy, blonde monster ready to obliterate the person on the other side of the net.\nBut on the evening of June 18, the Wednesday before the start of Wimbledon, she’s more beauty than beast as she sits inside the Sugarpova Candy Lounge—a pop-up shop in Wimbledon village promoting her eponymous line of gummy bears, gumballs and soft chews. Sharapova wears a white V-neck t-shirt with a plunging neckline; the Sugarpova logo—a pair of cherry red, puckered lips—sits just south of her breasts.\nShe’s fielding questions from Laura Robson, an injured British tennis player who is reporting on Wimbledon for the BBC.\nTry Newsweek for only $1.25 per week\n“What made you go into sweets?” Robson asks.\n“When I was a little girl I loved sweets, whether it was a little piece of candy or a lollipop that I got after practice or an English lesson,” Sharapova says. “Two years ago it just hit me: ‘Why not do something with candy and create a business of my own?’”\nRobson suggests that gorging on liquorice-flavoured rainbow swirls with a marshmallow center may not fit with Sharapova’s training regimen. But Sharapova, seven years Robson’s senior and ranked 86 places above her, simply laughs. She navigates the conversation back to her core message: she is a hands-on businesswoman. “I’ve visited the factory,” she says. “It was a cool experience seeing how it was made. It’s pretty much a colorful rainbow liquid that is turned into a liquorice or gummy bear.”\nThe players smile at each other. The conversation winds through a series of banalities. We learn that Sharapova puts on her left shoe before her right. She has a pudgy, eight-year-old dog, who is currently in summer camp. She loved the Spice Girls when she was younger. Eventually Sharapova guides Robson—and the BBC camera crew—past racks of Sugarpova tank tops, available for £16. Meanwhile, children and grown men have lined up outside.\nIt’s fitting that the sound of cha-ching emanates from Sharapova’s candy shop on Wimbledon High Street. In 2004, ten years ago this week, Sharapova upset Serena Williams in the Wimbledon final, catapulting Sharapova, then 17, onto the cover of Sports Illustrated and turning her into the world’s most marketable female athlete. Lucrative deals with Cole Haan, Evian, Honda, and Samsung followed, all capped off with a Nike deal that guaranteed her $70 million. The four Grand Slam titles that have followed have activated millions in bonuses.\nShe comes into this year's competition buoyed by her victory at the French Open earlier this month, and with both Williams' sisters failing to reach the second week of the Wimbledon singles for the first time in eight years, Sharapova's path to the final looks clearer. She plays her fourth round match against Angelique Kerber today.\nLast year Forbes magazine listed her as the world’s highest-paid female athlete for the tenth straight year. She topped the list with $29 million in earnings – $23 million of which came from endorsements rather than prize money. Sharapova may have entered Wimbledon as World No. 5, but her earnings put her $8.5m ahead of World No. 1 Serena Williams. She's adding more sweets to her honey pot. Sugarpova, launched in August 2012, is now sold in more than 30 countries. In 2013 the company sold 1.3 million bags of candy, and will likely double that figure this year. In April Sharapova became an equity owner in sun protection brand Supergoop. In June she became the face of Avon's new fragrance, Luck. And this fall she launches her own line of sleepwear. \n“Everything she has is because of that win at Wimbledon,” says Max Eisenbud, the agent who has guided Sharapova through contracts, deals and endorsements since she was 11. “You don’t get this candy shop without that.\"\nIt’s the evening after Sharapova launched her candy lounge, and she’s standing inside the Selfridges food hall in London. She’s wearing a black sleeveless dress, which brings into sharper focus her main accessory: a cup of Pinkberry frozen yogurt topped with Sugarpova Smitten Sour Mini, a sour rainbow candy strip.\nIn March, Pinkberry, the upscale frozen yogurt franchise founded in West Hollywood, inked a deal to offer Sugarpova as a topping in its shops around the world. Now Sharapova is walking a series of journalists through the partnership, as hundreds of fans line up for autographs and photos. Some began queuing at six in the morning. Others, including a group of Japanese tourists, snap photos through a glass window.\nWhen it’s finally my turn, I ask her why she chose to leave her face off of the Sugarpova packaging, despite her agent’s protests. “I wanted the brand to live on its own,” she says. “Of course in the beginning your ultimate fans are buying the product. But two years down the line people are buying it because of the quality and creativity of the packaging. It makes them happy. They see it, they love it, they bring it to birthday parties.”\nMaria Sharapova poses for photographers at a photo call to promote her Sugarpova candy range in London. Neil Hall/Reuters\nThe First Maria\nDesigner gowns and candy toppings are a far cry from Sharapova’s humble roots. Her mother became pregnant with her 10 months after the Chernobyl nuclear disaster. The Sharapovs lived 40 miles from the site, so fled to Nyagan, Russia, a petroleum and gas centre in Western Siberia. In 1993 Martina Navratilova spotted a six-year-old Sharapova at a tennis exhibition in Moscow and encouraged her parents to move to Florida so Maria could train at the elite Nick Bollettieri Tennis Academy. She and her father Yuri arrived in Florida with no English skills and just $700 of borrowed money. “He worked a lot of construction jobs, and at restaurants and golf courses, and helped out at tennis academies,” Sharapova says. Within six months she had secured a scholarship to Bollettieri’s academy.\nEnter Eisenbud, a straight-talking, balding man with a New Jersey accent. He began representing Sharapova in 1999, shortly after he joined IMG, the leading international sports agency that represents athletes like Novak Djokovic and Serena Williams. Maria was just 11 years old at the time. Even at that young age she understood his role: to help her cover expenses, such as tournament entry fees, stringing her racket and hotel rooms.\n“Tennis is an expensive sport, especially for families that don’t have a lot of money,” she says. “Booking a hotel at a tournament may seem like a small thing, but help like that was important for my family and I to get to those tournaments and get the right coaches.”\nWhen his charge was 13, Eisenbud began to understand how marketable she may one day become. In the spring of 2001, Sharapova filmed a segment with HBO’s Real Sports. The interviewer asks the following question: “If you had a choice between winning Wimbledon or making $20 million in endorsements, what would you choose?” The teenager stares straight into the camera and shows a glint of business-savvy: “I would want to win Wimbledon, because then the millions will come.\"\nHer response floored Eisenbud. “That wasn’t anything from me, and it wasn’t media training,” he says. “That’s probably the first time I realized this girl’s going to be really special.”\nEisenbud sought to distinguish Sharapova from Anna Kournikova, perhaps the world’s most recognised tennis star in the late 90s. “Kournikova was blonde and Russian and everybody wanted to make the comparisons,” Eisenbud says. “And, you know, no woman likes to be compared to another woman.” Snapping back at one journalist, Sharapova once said, “I’m not the next anyone. I’m the first Maria Sharapova.”\nDifferentiating the two served purposes beyond vanity: it also addressed the Kournikova conundrum. Despite rising to number eight in the world, and blazing a trail for Eastern European tennis players, Kournikova became known more for her beauty than her talent. She famously appeared in an advertisement for Berlei Shock Absorber Bras wearing her only her B-cups and panties. The tag line? “Only the ball should bounce.” She appeared in barely-there bikinis for spreads in FHM, Maxim, and Sports Illustrated, repeatedly appeared on People’s 50 Most Beautiful People list, and regularly topped Google’s annual rankings for search engine terms. Despite all her promise, she never won a WTA singles title. In 2004, ESPN ranked her #18 on its list of the “Biggest Flops of the Last 25 Years.”\nEisenbud could see what was coming, so he made a conscious effort only to allow media interviews when Sharapova won junior tournaments. “That forced media to speak about her winning,” he says. “That means the press always positioned her as a winner.”\nSharapova protected her own brand as a teenager as well. “We would be at dinner and maybe somebody was drinking a beer or alcohol was at the table,” Eisenbud says. “Obviously, she wasn’t drinking it. But she didn’t want anybody taking a picture of her with alcohol, so she’d peel off the labels.”\nMaria Sharapova holding the Wimbledon trophy after beating Serena Williams in 2004, aged 17. Jeff Overs/BBC via Getty\nGold Rush\nIn 2004, Sharapova entered Wimbledon as the #13 seed. In a shock result, she thrashed top seed and two-time defending champion Serena Williams 6-1, 6-4, marking the most lopsided women’s final at the All-England Club since 1992. \"I want to cut up this trophy,” a giddy Sharapova said during her on-court interview, “and give it to everybody, this whole crowd.\"\nIt soon became evident that she could now afford to hand them all bags of money instead. Within an hour, Eisenbud received nearly 800 emails from potential sponsors throwing ludicrous sums of money his way. He exercised extreme caution, bypassing lucrative deals with a mind to choosing blue chip brands that might pay less, but would set the right tone for Brand Maria in the future.\n“Before she won Wimbledon the Sharapovs didn’t have much money, and they wanted to get paid,” says Eisenbud. “We did some lucrative, one-year deals that paid her a lot of money. They were Japan-only so didn’t affect the global brand we were building.” (Those deals included Pepsi and Honda, even though Sharapova did not have a driver’s license at the time). She signed just one global deal, with Motorola, which was poised to launch its popular Razr line of mobile phones. That deal stemmed directly from Sharapova’s match with Williams: after her victory, she tried to phone her mother on court, but her unbranded cell phone wouldn’t work.\nEisenbud had laid the foundation for those deals in Japan years before. When she was still a junior, he secured her a deal with Tokyo-based NEC computers. “We encouraged her to play in Japan because it was a big market and they like blondes,” he says. Today Japan is the country that consumes the most bags of Sugarpova annually.\nIn subsequent years Canon, TAG Heuer, and Land Rover, among others, came knocking. Rising to the top of her sport mattered, but so did the fact she chose tennis to begin with. Women’s tennis remains far and away the most visible and lucrative of all female sports. It’s the only professional sport where female athletes compete at the same high-profile tournaments as the men, year-round, and no other women’s sport can match its global scale. Currently the top 10 female players hail from 10 different countries. Seven of the 10 highest-paid female athletes in 2013 were tennis players.\nAnita Elberse, a professor of marketing at Harvard Business School, who teaches a case study on Sharapova every year, says there is a dearth of marketable female athletes. “In the world of tennis there is Maria, the Williams Sisters and then the list almost stops already,” she says. “That gives the ones that are on that short list enormous power. They have even more opportunities to benefit from their position.”\nSharapova became a brand ambassador for Porsche in 2013. A spokesperson at the German automaker says Sharapova helps them reach new target groups like women and younger Porsche drivers. “Maria is an exceptional athlete,” she says. “She combines top performance in her sport with elegance and power. These are precisely the qualities that are embroiled in our sports cars.”\nEndorsers like Sharapova can influence the bottom line. Elberse has found that a firm’s decision to sign a celebrity, particularly an athlete, as an endorser leads, on average, to a sales increase of 4%. “That’s a significant sum of money,” she says. When athletes win important tournaments or championships these same firms see a boost in both sales and stock prices. “So if you have a consistent performer like Sharapova who is constantly a contender there is a strong payoff for the brand.”\nMaria Sharapova keeping her eye on the ball while playing Alison Riske of the U.S. at Wimbledon 2014. Suzanne Plunkett/Reuters\nFive Birds, One Stone\nEisenbud is standing next to a sushi stand inside Selfridges food hall, watching Sharapova sign autographs. A disgruntled fan comes up to him to complain that the person who took his photo has captured neither him nor Maria. Eisenbud disarms him with his coarse charm: “Sheesh,” he says. “Whoever took this photo should be shot in the head!” The man gets back in line.\nProblem-solving is Eisenbud’s forte. As Maria has sealed more and more sponsorship deals, he has had to work hard to make sure sponsors get along. He organises meetings and social events so they can learn to like each other, and he spends most of his day meeting-and-greeting with sponsors and making sure schedules don’t conflict. He plans every hour of every day six months in advance. On-court outfits that Sharapova will wear to major tournaments are determined 18 months in advance, giving Nike time to tweak them and bring them to market.\nEisenbud and Sharapova exchange up to 50 emails a day. He blind copies her on important emails to keep her in the loop. “There are about 10 days a year where I just want to cry,” he says of the constantly changing schedule. “But I’m a master of killing like five birds with one stone.”\nIt’s not an exaggeration. At precisely 6:20pm security guards on walkie talkies rush Eisenbud, Sharapova, and Sharapova’s publicist through the crowds of the food hall, through the perfume section, and up two flights of stairs to a personal shopping area. It’s a pre-determined route that was timed the day before (taking four-and-a-half minutes). Over the next 22 minutes, Sharapova’s assistant stylist helps her change into an Antonio Berardi dress, and then a series of Porsche SUVs whisk Sharapova’s team off to the Goring Hotel, where Sharapova takes photos with racing driver Mark Webber, also a Porsche athlete, in front of a new Porsche 918 Spyder. During a brief rain delay, Sharapova and her publicist, crouched under an umbrella, discuss what she’ll be wearing to the ESPY Awards on July 16th. Webber then drives Sharapova to the Women’s Tennis Association (WTA) Pre-Wimbledon Party, a mandatory event for Top 10 players. She walks down the red carpet and disappears into a sea of flashing cameras. When she emerges, Eisenbud is already waiting for her.\nMaria Sharapova poses with her trophy near the Eiffel Tower in Paris a day after winning the women's singles final of the French Open Gonzalo Fuentes/Reuters\nHaute Maria\nSharapova began nurturing her own business ventures in 2008 when reconstructive shoulder surgery sidelined her for 10 months. “I have played tennis since I was four years old and everything was on automatic pilot,” she says. “Suddenly there was a stop sign in front of me and I didn’t know if I would come back.”\nSo, drawing on the endless meetings she had previously had with other brands, she began to think about developing Sugarpova and her own fashion interests. She negotiated a deal with Cole Haan, the luxury fashion label, to design a collection of shoes, handbags and accessories. She recalls meeting with Vogue editor Anna Wintour for advice. “Anna said, ‘Well, it would be an amazing honor to do that. But you have to realize that this is your first chance and your biggest chance and you have to do it well.’”\nShe took that advice seriously. Merideth Gilmor, Sharapova’s publicist—who was the head of communications at Cole Haan at the time—says that Sharapova broke the stereotype of guest designers who lend their name and little else. “She comes to the first meeting with mood boards, full sketches, colour and material swatches and heel treatments—high heel, short heel, stacked heel,” she says. “She had done her research. The CEO looked at me and he was like, ‘Oh my god. This girl has got it.’”\nShe raises her python-print ballet flat to illustrate the point. “The lacing on this ballet flat was not originally there,” she says. “Maria was like, and then we were like, how do we connect Maria with the ballet flat? The lacing. Lacing on a tennis racket. Lacing on a ballet flat.” It went on to become one of the company’s best-selling shoes.\nDuring Sharapova’s 10 months off the courts, Eisenbud tried to calm sponsors’ nerves. The majority did not worry about her injury, and appreciated her offer to work extra days since she suddenly had extra time on her hands. Only one, Canon, chose not to renew her contract, wary that she might not return to her previous form. It proved to be their loss. Lindsay Hymson, the director of public relations at TAG Heuer, says the injury ultimately made Sharapova a stronger ambassador. “Our brand is not about celebrating success,” she says. “It’s about the mental fortitude that helps someone overcome adversity. It's about the inner strength, like Maria's, to continuously challenge herself after a shoulder injury and to win two French Open titles.”\nEisenbud admits that the deals and sponsorships he has helped negotiate add stress and strain to Sharapova's packed schedule. That, he says, makes her on-court achievements all the more admirable.\n“All these other players, they come to Wimbledon and all they need to do is focus on playing tennis,” he says. “She comes to Wimbledon and she has the Sugarpova pop-up, the events, the parties. I think people take for granted just how her everyday business is running and that she is still playing tennis. She had practice this morning, and she did fitness after that.  She’s got to get up tomorrow and practice again. Twice, you know.”\nI sigh, but Eisenbud shakes his head. “There is an amazing machine behind her. Don’t feel sorry for Maria Sharapova.”" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "The_Monkees.txt" ], "title": [ "The Monkees" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Monkees are an American Pop-rock band originally active between 1965 and 1971, with subsequent reunion albums and tours in the decades that followed. They were formed in Los Angeles in 1965 by Bob Rafelson and Bert Schneider for the American television series The Monkees, which aired from 1966 to 1968. The musical acting quartet was composed of Americans Micky Dolenz, Michael Nesmith and Peter Tork and British actor and singer Davy Jones. The band's music was initially supervised by producer Don Kirshner.\n\nDolenz described the Monkees as initially being \"a TV show about an imaginary band ... that wanted to be The Beatles, [but] that was never successful\". The actor-musicians, however, soon became a real band.\n\nFor the first few months of their initial five-year career as \"The Monkees\", the four actor-musicians were allowed only limited roles in the recording studio. This was due in part to the amount of time required to film the television series. Nonetheless, Nesmith did compose and produce some songs from the beginning, and Peter Tork contributed limited guitar work on the sessions produced by Nesmith. They eventually fought for and earned the right to collectively supervise all musical output under the band's name. The sitcom was canceled in 1968, but the band continued to record music through 1971.\n\nA revival of interest in the television show came in 1986, which led to a series of reunion tours and new records. Up until 2011 the group had reunited and toured several times, with varying degrees of success. Despite the sudden death of Davy Jones on February 29, 2012, the surviving members reunited for a tour in November–December 2012 and again in 2013 for a 24-date tour.\n\nThe Monkees have sold more than 75 million records worldwide and had international hits, including \"Last Train to Clarksville\", \"Pleasant Valley Sunday\", \"Daydream Believer\" and \"I'm a Believer\". At their peak in 1967, the band outsold The Beatles and The Rolling Stones combined. \n\nConception\n\nAspiring filmmaker Bob Rafelson developed the initial idea for The Monkees in 1962, but was unsuccessful in selling the series. He had tried selling it to Revue, the television division of Universal Pictures. In May 1964, while working at Screen Gems, Rafelson teamed up with Bert Schneider, whose father, Abraham Schneider, headed the Colpix Television and Screen Gems Television units of Columbia Pictures. Rafelson and Schneider ultimately formed Raybert Productions. \n\nThe Beatles' film A Hard Day's Night inspired Rafelson and Schneider to revive Rafelson's idea for The Monkees. As \"The Raybert Producers\", they sold the show to Screen Gems Television on April 16, 1965. Rafelson and Schneider's original idea was to cast an existing New York folk rock group, The Lovin' Spoonful, who were not widely known at the time. However, John Sebastian had already signed the band to a record contract, which would have denied Screen Gems the right to market music from the show.\n\nOn July 14, 1965, The Hollywood Reporter stated that future band member Davy Jones was expected to return to the United States in September 1965 after a trip to England \"to prepare for [a] TV pilot for Bert Schneider and Bob Rafelson\". Jones had previously starred as the Artful Dodger in the Broadway show Oliver!, which debuted on December 17, 1962, and his performance was later seen on The Ed Sullivan Show the same night as the Beatles' first appearance on that show, February 9, 1964. He was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Musical in 1963. In September 1964 he was signed to a long-term contract to appear in TV programs for Screen Gems, make feature films for Columbia Pictures and to record music for the Colpix label. Rafelson and Schneider already had him in mind for their project after their plans for The Lovin' Spoonful fell through; when they chose him, he was essentially a proto-star looking for his lucky break.\n\nOn September 8–10, 1965, Daily Variety and The Hollywood Reporter ran an ad to cast the remainder of the band/cast members for the TV show:\n\nMadness!! Auditions. Folk & Roll Musicians-Singers for acting roles in new TV series. Running Parts for 4 insane boys, age 17-21. Want spirited Ben Frank's types. Have courage to work. Must come down for interview.\n\nOut of 437 applicants, the other three chosen for the cast of the TV show were Michael Nesmith, Peter Tork and Micky Dolenz. Nesmith had been working as a musician since early 1963 and had been recording and releasing music under various names, including Michael Blessing and \"Mike & John & Bill\" and had studied drama in college; contrary to popular belief, of the final four, Nesmith was the one member who actually saw the ad in the Daily Variety and The Hollywood Reporter. Tork, the last to be chosen, had been working the Greenwich Village scene as a musician, and had shared the stage with Pete Seeger; he learned of The Monkees from Stephen Stills, whom Rafelson and Schneider had rejected. Dolenz was an actor (his father was veteran character actor George Dolenz) who had starred in the TV series Circus Boy as a child, using the stage name Mickey Braddock, and he had also played guitar and sung in a band called the Missing Links before the Monkees, which had recorded and released a very minor single, \"Don't Do It\". By that time he was using his real name; he found out about The Monkees through his agent.\n\nDeveloping the music for their debut album\n\nDuring the casting process Don Kirshner, Screen Gems' head of music, was contacted to secure music for the pilot that would become The Monkees. Not getting much interest from his usual stable of Brill Building writers, Kirshner assigned Tommy Boyce and Bobby Hart to the project. The duo contributed four demo recordings for the pilot. One of these recordings was \"(Theme From) The Monkees\" which helped get the series the green light. \n\nWhen The Monkees was picked up as a series, development of the musical side of the project accelerated. Columbia-Screen Gems and RCA Victor entered into a joint venture called Colgems Records primarily to distribute Monkees records. Raybert set up a rehearsal space and rented instruments for the group to practice playing in April 1966, but it quickly became apparent they would not be in shape in time for the series debut. The producers called upon Kirshner to recruit a producer for the Monkees sessions. \n\nKirshner called on Snuff Garrett, composer of several hits by Gary Lewis & the Playboys, to produce the initial musical cuts for the show. Garrett, upon meeting the four Monkees in June 1966, decided that Jones would sing lead, a choice that was unpopular with the group. This cool reception led Kirshner to drop Garrett and buy out his contract. Kirshner next allowed Nesmith to produce sessions, provided he did not play on any tracks he produced. Nesmith did, however, start using the other Monkees on his sessions, particularly Tork as a guitarist. Kirshner came back to the enthusiastic Boyce and Hart to be the regular producers, but he brought in one of his top East Coast associates, Jack Keller, to lend some production experience to the sessions. Boyce and Hart observed quickly that when brought into the studio together, the four actors would fool around and try to crack each other up. Because of this, they would often bring in each singer individually. \n\nAccording to Nesmith, it was Dolenz's voice that made the Monkees' sound distinctive, and even during tension-filled times Nesmith and Tork sometimes turned over lead vocal duties to Dolenz on their own compositions, such as Tork's \"For Pete's Sake,\" which became the closing title theme for the second season of the television show.\n\nThe Monkees' debut and second albums were meant to be a soundtrack to the first season of the TV show, to cash in on the audience. In the 2006 Rhino Deluxe Edition re-issue of their second album, More of the Monkees, Mike Nesmith stated, \"The first album shows up and I look at it with horror because it makes [us] appear as if we are a rock 'n' roll band. There's no credit for the other musicians. I go completely ballistic, and I say, 'What are you people thinking?' [The powers that be say], 'Well, you know, it's the fantasy.' I say, 'It's not the fantasy. You've crossed the line here! You are now duping the public. They know when they look at the television series that we're not a rock 'n' roll band; it's a show about a rock 'n' roll band. ... nobody for a minute believes that we are somehow this accomplished rock 'n' roll band that got their own television show. ... you putting the record out like this is just beyond the pale.\" Within a few months of their debut album, Music Supervisor Don Kirshner would be forcibly dismissed and the Monkees would take control as a real band.\n\nThe Monkees' first single, \"Last Train to Clarksville\" b/w \"Take a Giant Step\", was released in August 1966, just weeks prior to the TV broadcast debut. In conjunction with the first broadcast of the television show on September 12, 1966, on the NBC television network, NBC and Columbia had a major hit on their hands. The first long-playing album, The Monkees, was released a month later, spent 13 weeks at #1 and stayed on the Billboard charts for 78 weeks. Twenty years later, during their reunion, it would spend another 24 weeks on the Billboard charts. This first album is also notable, in addition to containing their debut single, for containing band member Nesmith's first foray into country-rock, \"Papa Gene's Blues,\" which mixed country, rock and Latin flavors.\n\nFrom television to concert stage\n\nIn assigning instruments for purposes of the television show, a dilemma arose as to which of the four would be the drummer. Both Nesmith (a skilled guitarist and bassist) and Tork (who could play several stringed and keyboard instruments) were peripherally familiar with the instrument but both declined to give the drum set a try. Jones knew how to play the drums and tested well enough initially on the instrument, but the producers felt that, behind a drum kit, the camera would exaggerate his short stature and make him virtually hidden from view. Thus, Dolenz (who only knew how to play the guitar) was assigned to become the drummer. Tork taught Dolenz his first few beats on the drums, enough for him to fake his way through filming the pilot, but he was soon taught how to play properly. Thus, the lineup for the TV show most frequently featured Nesmith on guitar, Tork on bass, Dolenz on drums and Jones as a frontman, singer and percussionist. This, however, is in opposition to the lineup which would have made the most sense based upon the members' musical strengths. For example, Tork is actually a better guitar player than Nesmith, while Nesmith had at one time specifically trained on the bass. While Jones certainly had a strong lead voice and sings lead on several Monkees recordings, Dolenz's voice is regarded, particularly by Nesmith, as one of the most distinctive in popular music history and a hallmark of the Monkees' sound. This theoretical lineup was actually depicted once, in the music video for the band's song \"Words\", which shows Jones on drums, Tork playing lead guitar, Nesmith on bass and Dolenz fronting the group. In concert appearances Tork also took much of the guitar duties, even in appearances with Nesmith, and Dolenz often plays rhythm guitar on stage.\n\nUnlike most television shows of the time, The Monkees episodes were written with many setups, requiring frequent breaks to prepare the set and cameras for short bursts of filming. Some of the \"bursts\" are considered proto-music videos, inasmuch as they were produced to sell the records. Eric Lefcowitz, in The Monkees Tale, pointed out that the Monkees were—first and foremost—a video group. The four actors would spend 12-hour days on the set, many of them waiting for the production crew to do their jobs. Noticing that their instruments were left on the set unplugged, the four decided to turn them on and start playing.\n\nAfter working on the set all day, the Monkees (usually Dolenz or Jones) would be called into the recording studio to cut vocal tracks. As the band was essential to this aspect of the recording process, there were few limits on how long they could spend in the recording studio, and the result was an extensive catalogue of unreleased recordings.\n\nOn tour\n\nPleased with their initial efforts, Columbia (over Kirshner's objections) planned to send the Monkees out to play live concerts. The massive success of the series—and its spin-off records—created intense pressure to mount a touring version of the group. Against the initial wishes of the producers, the band went out on the road and made their debut live performance in December 1966 in Hawaii.\n\nThey had no time to rehearse a live performance except between takes on set. They worked on the TV series all day, recorded in the studio at night and slept very little. The weekends were usually filled with special appearances or filming of special sequences. These performances were sometimes used during the actual series. The episode \"Too Many Girls (Fern and Davy)\" opens with a live version of \"(I'm Not Your) Steppin' Stone\" being performed as the scene was shot. One entire episode was filmed featuring live music. The last show of the premiere season, \"Monkees on Tour\", was shot in a documentary style by filming a concert in Phoenix, Arizona, on January 21, 1967. Bob Rafelson wrote and directed the episode.\n\nIn DVD commentary tracks included in the Season One release, Nesmith admitted that Tork was better at playing guitar than bass. In Tork's commentary he stated that Jones was a good drummer, and had the live performance lineups been based solely on playing ability, it should have been Tork on guitar, Nesmith on bass and Jones on drums, with Dolenz taking the fronting role. The four Monkees performed all the instruments and vocals for most of the live set. The most notable exceptions were during each member's solo sections where, during the December 1966 – May 1967 tour, they were backed by the Candy Store Prophets. During the summer 1967 tour of the United States and the UK (from which the Live 1967 recordings are taken), they were backed by a band called The Sundowners. In 1968 the Monkees toured Australia and Japan. The results were far better than expected. Wherever they went, the group was greeted by scenes of fan adulation reminiscent of Beatlemania. This gave the singers increased confidence in their fight for control over the musical material chosen for the series.\n\nWith Jones sticking primarily to vocals and tambourine (except when filling in on the drums when Dolenz came forward to sing a lead vocal), the Monkees' live act constituted a classic power trio of electric guitar, electric bass and drums (except when Tork passed the bass part to Jones or one of The Sundowners in order to take up the banjo or electric keyboards).\n\nKirshner and More of the Monkees\n\nAndrew Sandoval noted in Rhino's 2006 Deluxe Edition CD reissue of More of the Monkees that album sales were outstripping Nielsen ratings, meaning that more people were buying the music than watching the television show, which meant that the producers decided that more attention needed to be paid to the music and that more music needed to be produced for more albums. Sandoval also noted that their second album, More of the Monkees, propelled by their second single, \"I'm a Believer\" b/w \"(I'm Not Your) Steppin' Stone\", became the biggest selling LP of their career, spending 70 weeks on the Billboard charts, staying No. 1 for 18 weeks, becoming the third biggest selling album of the 1960s and also returning to the charts in 1986 for another 26 weeks.\n\nAt the time songwriters Boyce and Hart considered the Monkees to be their project, with Tommy Boyce stating in the 2006 Rhino reissue of More of the Monkees that he considered the Monkees to be actors in the television show, while Boyce and Hart were the songwriters and producers doing the records. They wanted Micky to sing the faster songs and have Davy sing the ballads. He also stated in the liner notes that he felt that Michael's country leanings didn't fit in with the Monkees' image, and although he thought that Peter was a great musician, he had a different process of thinking about songs that wasn't right for the Monkees. Music Coordinator Kirshner, though, realizing how important the music was, wanted to move the music in a newer direction than Boyce and Hart to get the best record, and so he decided to move the production to New York where his A-list of writers/producers resided.\n\nHowever, the Monkees had been complaining that the music publishing company would not allow them to play their own instruments on their records, or to use more of their own material. These complaints intensified when Kirshner moved track recording from California to New York, leaving the band out of the musical process until they were called upon to add their vocals to the completed tracks. This campaign eventually forced Kirshner to let the group have more participation in the recording process. Dolenz's initial reaction, mentioned in the 2006 Rhino CD reissue of More of the Monkees, was \"To me, these were the soundtrack albums to the show, and it wasn't my job. My job was to be an actor and to come in and to sing the stuff when I was asked to do so. I had no problem with that . . . It wasn't until Mike and Peter started getting so upset that Davy and I started defending them . . . they were upset because it wasn't the way they were used to making music. The artist is the bottom line. The artist decides what songs are gonna go on and in what order and who writes 'em and who produces 'em.\" Nesmith, when asked about the situation, in Rolling Stone magazine, said, \". . . We were confused, especially me. But all of us shared the desire to play the songs we were singing. Everyone was accomplished--the notion [that] I was the only musician is one of those rumors that got started and won't stop--but it was not true . . . We were also kids with our own taste in music and were happier performing songs we liked--and/or wrote--than songs that were handed to us . . . The [TV show's] producers [in Hollywood] backed us and David went along. None of us could have fought the battles we did [with the music publishers] without the explicit support of the show's producers.\" \n\nFour months after their debut single was released in September 1966, on January 16, 1967, the Monkees held their first recording session as a fully functioning, self-contained band, recording an early version of Nesmith's self-composed top 40 hit single \"The Girl I Knew Somewhere\", along with \"All of Your Toys\" and \"She's So Far Out, She's In\". Four days later, on January 20, 1967, their debut self-titled album made its belated release in the U.K. (it was released in October '66 in the U.S.). This same month Kirshner released their second album of songs that used session musicians, More of the Monkees, without the band's knowledge. Nesmith and Tork were particularly upset when they were on tour in January 1967 and discovered this second album. The Monkees were annoyed at not having even been told of the release in advance, at having their opinions on the track selection ignored, at Kirshner's self-congratulatory liner notes and also because of the amateurish-looking cover art, which was merely a composite of pictures of the four taken for a J.C. Penney clothing advertisement. Indeed, the Monkees had not even been given a copy of the album; they had to buy it from a record store. \n\nThe climax of the rivalry between Kirshner and the band was an intense argument among Nesmith, Kirshner and Colgems lawyer Herb Moelis, which took place at the Beverly Hills Hotel in January 1967. Kirshner had presented the group with royalty checks and gold records. Nesmith had responded with an ultimatum, demanding a change in the way the Monkees' music was chosen and recorded. Moelis reminded Nesmith that he was under contract. The confrontation ended with Nesmith punching a hole in a wall and saying, \"That could have been your face!\" However, each of the members, including Nesmith, accepted the $250,000 royalty checks (equivalent to approximately $ in today's funds).\n\nKirshner's dismissal came in early February 1967, when he violated an agreement between Colgems and the Monkees not to release material directly created by the group together with unrelated Kirshner-produced material. Kirshner violated this agreement when he released \"A Little Bit Me, A Little Bit You\", composed and written by Neil Diamond, as a single with an early version of \"She Hangs Out\", a song recorded in New York with Davy Jones' vocals, as the B-side. This single was only released in Canada and was withdrawn after a couple weeks. \n\nKirshner was reported to have been incensed by the group's unexpected rebellion, especially when he felt they had \"modicum talent\" when compared to the superstars of the day like John Lennon and Paul McCartney. In the liner notes for Rhino's 2006 Deluxe Edition CD reissue of More of the Monkees, Kirshner stated, \"[I controlled the group] because I had a contract. I kicked them out of the studio because I had a TV show that I had to put songs in, and to me it was a business and I had to knock off the songs.\" This experience led directly to Kirshner's later venture, The Archies, which was an animated series—the \"stars\" existed only on animation cels, with music done by studio musicians, and obviously could not seize creative control over the records issued under their name.\n\nScreen Gems held the publishing rights to a wealth of material, with the Monkees being offered the first choice of many new songs. Due to the abundance of material numerous tracks were recorded but left unreleased, until Rhino Records started releasing them through the Missing Links series of albums, starting in the late 1980s. A rumor persists that the Monkees were offered \"Sugar, Sugar\" in 1967, but declined to record it. Producer and songwriter Jeff Barry, joint writer and composer of \"Sugar, Sugar\" with Andy Kim, has denied this, saying that the song had not even been written at the time. \n\nIndependence\n\nHeadquarters and Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones\n\nThe Monkees wanted to pick the songs they sang and play on the songs they recorded, and be the Monkees. With Kirshner dismissed as Musical Supervisor, in late February 1967 Nesmith hired former Turtles bassist Douglas Farthing Hatlelid, who was better known by his stage name Chip Douglas, to produce the next Monkees album, which was to be the first Monkees album where they were the only musicians, outside of most of the bass, and the horns. Douglas was responsible for both music presentation—actually leading the band and engineering recordings—and playing bass on most of Headquarters. This album, along with their next, Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd., would serve as the soundtrack to the second season of the television show.\n\nIn March 1967 \"The Girl I Knew Somewhere\", composed by Nesmith and performed by Dolenz, Nesmith, Tork and bassist John London, was issued as the B-side to the Monkees' third single, \"A Little Bit Me, a Little Bit You\", and it rose to No. 39 on the charts. The A-side rose to No. 2. \n\nIssued in May 1967, Headquarters had no songs released as singles in the United States, but it would still be their third No. 1 album in a row, with many of its songs played on the second season of the television show. Having a more country-folk-rock sound than the pop outings under Kirshner, Sandoval notes in the 2007 Deluxe Edition reissue from Rhino that the album rose to No. 1 on May 24, 1967, with the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper released the following week, which would knock Headquarters to the #2 spot on the charts for the next 11 weeks, the same weeks which would become known by the counterculture as the \"Summer of Love\". A selection that Dolenz wrote and composed, \"Randy Scouse Git,\" was issued under the title \"Alternate Title\" (due to the controversial title of the song) as a single internationally, where it rose to No. 2 on the charts in the UK and Norway, and in the top 10 in other parts of the world. Tork's \"For Pete's Sake\" would be used as the closing theme for the television show. Nesmith would continue in his country-rock leanings, adding the pedal steel guitar to three of the songs, along with contributing his self-composed countrified-rock song \"Sunny Girlfriend\". Tork added the banjo to the Nesmith-composed rocker \"You Told Me\", a song whose introduction was satirical of the Beatles' \"Taxman\". Other notable songs are the Nesmith-composed straightforward pop-rock song \"You Just May Be the One\", used on the television series during both seasons, along with \"Shades of Gray\" (with piano introduction written by Tork ), \"Forget that Girl\" and \"No Time\", used in the television show. The Monkees wrote five of the 12 songs on the album, plus the two tracks \"Band 6\" and \"Zilch\". The Los Angeles Times, when reviewing Headquarters, stated that \"The Monkees Upgrade Album Quality\" and that \"The Monkees are getting better. Headquarters has more interesting songs and a better quality level [than previous albums] . . . None of the tracks is a throwaway . . . The improvement trend is laudable.\" \n\nThe high of Headquarters was short-lived, however. Recording and producing as a group was Tork's major interest and he hoped that the four would continue working together as a band on future recordings, according to the liner notes of the 2007 Rhino reissue of Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd.. \"Cuddly Toy\" on Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd. would mark the last time Dolenz, who originally played guitar before the Monkees, would make a solo stand as a studio drummer. In commentary for the DVD release of the second season of the show, Tork said that Dolenz was \"incapable of repeating a triumph.\" Having been a drummer for one album, Dolenz lost interest in being a drummer and indeed, he largely gave up playing instruments on Monkees recordings (producer Chip Douglas also had identified Dolenz's drumming as the weak point in the collective musicianship of the quartet, having to splice together multiple takes of Dolenz's \"shaky\" drumming for final use). By this point the four did not have a common vision regarding their musical interests, with Nesmith and Jones also moving in different directions—Nesmith following his country/folk instincts and Jones reaching for Broadway-style numbers. The next three albums featured a diverse mixture of musical style influences, including country-rock, folk-rock, psychedelic rock, soul/R&B, guitar rock, Broadway and English music hall sensibilities.\n\nAt the height of their fame in 1967, they also suffered from a media backlash. Nesmith states in the 2007 Rhino reissue of Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd., \"Everybody in the press and in the hippie movement had got us into their target window as being illegitimate and not worthy of consideration as a musical force [or] certainly any kind of cultural force. We were under siege; wherever we went there was such resentment for us. We were constantly mocked and humiliated by the press. We were really gettin' beat up pretty good. We all knew what was going on inside. Kirshner had been purged. We'd gone to try to make Headquarters and found out that it was only marginally okay and that our better move was to just go back to the original songwriting and song-making strategy of the first albums except with a clear indication of how [the music] came to be . . . The rabid element and the hatred that was engendered is almost impossible to describe. It lingers to this day among people my own age.\" Tork disagreed with Nesmith's assessment of Headquarters, stating, \"I don't think the Pisces album was as groovy to listen to as Headquarters. Technically it was much better, but I think it suffers for that reason.\" Both Headquarters and Pisces are highly revered by most Monkees fans.\n\nWith Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd., the Monkees fourth album, they went back to making music for the television show, except that they had control over the music and which songs would be chosen. They used a mixture of themselves and session musicians on the album. They would use this strategy of themselves playing, plus adding session musicians (including the Wrecking Crew, Louie Shelton, Glen Campbell, members of the Byrds and the Association, drummer \"Fast\" Eddie Hoh, Lowell George, Stephen Stills, Buddy Miles, and Neil Young) throughout their recording career, relying more on session musicians when the group became temporarily estranged after Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd. and recorded some of their songs separately.\n\nUsing Chip Douglas again to produce, Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd., released in November 1967 was the Monkees' fourth No. 1 album in a row, staying at No. 1 for 5 weeks, and was also their last No. 1 album. It featured the hit single \"Pleasant Valley Sunday\" (#3 on charts) b/w \"Words\" (#11 on charts), the A-side had Nesmith on electric guitar/backing vocals, Tork on piano/backing vocals, Dolenz on lead vocals and possibly guitar and Jones on backing vocals; the B-side had Micky and Peter alternating lead vocals, Peter played organ, Mike played guitar, percussion, and provided backing vocals, and Davy provided percussion and backing vocals. Other notable items about this album is that it features an early use of the Moog Synthesizer on two tracks, the Nesmith-penned \"Daily Nightly\", along with \"Star Collector\". All of its songs, except for two, were featured on the Monkees' television show during the second season.\n\nThe song \"What Am I Doing Hangin' 'Round?\", recorded in June 1967 and featured on Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd., is seen as a landmark in the fusion of country and rock despite Nesmith's prior country-flavored rock songs for the Monkees. Nesmith stated, \"One of the things that I really felt was honest was country-rock. I wanted to move the Monkees more into that because ... if we get closer to country music, we'll get closer to blues, and country blues, and so forth. ... It had a lot of un-country things in it: a familiar change from a I major to a VI minor — those kinds of things. So it was a little kind of a new wave country song. It didn't sound like the country songs of the time, which was Buck Owens.\"\n\nTheir next single, \"Daydream Believer\" (with a piano intro written by Tork), would shoot to No. 1 on the charts, letting the Monkees hold the No. 1 position in the singles chart and the album chart with Pisces simultaneously. \"Daydream Believer\" used the non-album track \"Goin' Down\" as its B-side, which featured Nesmith and Tork on guitar with Micky on lead vocals.\n\nDuring their 1986 reunion, both Headquarters and Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd. would return to the charts for 17 weeks.\n\nThe Birds, The Bees & The Monkees\n\nThe Monkees decided that they no longer needed Chip Douglas as a producer, and starting in November 1967, they largely produced their own sessions. Although the Monkees albums after this date will state \"Produced by The Monkees\", they would mostly be recording as solo artists. In a couple of cases, Boyce and Hart had returned from the first two albums to produce, but credit was given to the Monkees. It was also during this time that Michael Nesmith recorded his first solo album, The Wichita Train Whistle Sings, a big band jazz instrumental collection of interpretations of Nesmith's compositions, arranged by the jazz musician Shorty Rogers. Praised in The Los Angeles Times by the author of The Encyclopedia of Jazz, jazz critic Leonard Feather wrote \"Verbally and musically, Mike Nesmith is one of the most articulate spokesmen for the new and literate breed of pop musicians who have spring from the loins of primitive rock. [The album] with its carriage trade of symphony, rock, country, western, and swing, and with jazz riding in the caboose, may well indicate where contemporary popular music will be situated in the early 1970s.\"\n\nConsidered by some to be the Monkees' \"White Album\" period (for example, Sandoval mentions this in the liner notes of Rhino Handmade's 2010 Deluxe reissue of the album), each of the Monkee's contributions reflected his own musical tastes, which resulted in an eclectic album. Micky sang the pop songs (e.g., \"I'll Be Back Upon My Feet\"), and performed a double-vocal with Mike on the Nesmith/Allison composed \"Auntie's Municipal Court\". Davy sang the ballads (e.g., \"Daydream Believer\" and \"We Were Made for Each Other\") and Nesmith contributed some experimental songs, like the progressive \"Writing Wrongs\", the unusual hit song \"Tapioca Tundra\", and the lo-fi 1920s sound of \"Magnolia Simms\". This last song is notable for added effects to make it sound like an old record (even including a \"record skipping\" simulation) made before the Beatles \"Honey Pie\", which used a similar effect.\n\nPropelled by the hit singles \"Daydream Believer\" and \"Valleri\", along with Nesmith's self-penned top 40 hit \"Tapioca Tundra\", The Birds, The Bees & The Monkees reached No. 3 on the Billboard charts shortly after it was released in April 1968. It was the first album released after NBC announced they were not renewing The Monkees for a third season. The album cover—a quaint collage of items looking like a display in a jumble shop or toy store—was chosen over the Monkees' objections. It was the last Monkees' album to be released in separate, dedicated mono and stereo mixes. During the 1986 reunion, it would return to the Billboard charts for 11 weeks.\n\nBeyond television\n\nDuring the filming of the second season, the band became tired of scripts which they deemed monotonous and stale. They had already succeeded in eliminating the laugh track (a then-standard on American sitcoms), with the bulk of Season 2 episodes airing minus the canned chuckles. They proposed switching the format of the series to become more like a variety show, with musical guests and live performances. This desire was partially fulfilled within some second-season episodes, with guest stars like musicians Frank Zappa, Tim Buckley and Charlie Smalls (composer of The Wiz) performing on the show. However, NBC was not interested in eliminating the existing format, and the group (except for Peter) had little desire to continue for a third season. Tork said in DVD commentary that everyone had developed such difficult personalities that the big-name stars invited as guests on the show would invariably leave the experience \"hating everybody\".\n\nScreen Gems and NBC went ahead with the existing format anyway, commissioning Monkees writers Gerald Gardner and Dee Caruso to create a straight-comedy, no-music half-hour in the Monkees mold; a pilot episode was filmed with the then-popular nightclub act The Pickle Brothers. The pilot had the same energy and pace of The Monkees, but never became a series.\n\nIn June 1968, Music Supervisor Lester Sill chose to release the two non-album tracks \"D.W. Washburn\" b/w \"It's Nice To Be With You\" as the Monkees' next single. The Leiber/Stoller-penned A-side would break into the Top 20, peaking at No. 19 on the charts.\n\nHead\n\nAfter The Monkees was canceled in February 1968, Rafelson directed the four Monkees in a feature film, Head. Schneider was executive producer, and the project was co-written and co-produced by Bob Rafelson with a then relatively unknown Jack Nicholson.\n\nThe film, conceived and edited in a stream of consciousness style, featured oddball cameo appearances by movie stars Victor Mature, Annette Funicello, a young Teri Garr, boxer Sonny Liston, famous stripper Carol Doda, Green Bay Packer linebacker Ray Nitschke, and musician Frank Zappa. It was filmed at Columbia Pictures' Screen Gems studios and on location in California, Utah, and The Bahamas between February 19 and May 17, 1968 and premiered in New York City on November 6 of that year (the film later debuted in Hollywood on November 20).\n\nThe film was not a commercial success, in part because it was the antithesis of The Monkees television show, intended to comprehensively demolish the group's carefully groomed public image. Rafelson and Nicholson's Ditty Diego-War Chant (recited at the start of the film by the Monkees), ruthlessly parodies Boyce and Hart's \"Monkees Theme\". A sparse advertising campaign (with no mention of the Monkees) squelched any chances of the film doing well, and it played only briefly. In commentary for the DVD release, Nesmith said that by this time, everyone associated with the Monkees \"had gone crazy\". They were each using the platform of the Monkees to push their own disparate career goals, to the detriment of the Monkees project. Indeed, Nesmith said, Head was Rafelson and Nicholson's intentional effort to \"kill\" the Monkees, so that they would no longer be bothered with the matter.\n\nReleased in October 1968, the single from the album, \"The Porpoise Song\", is a psychedelic pop song written by Goffin/King, with lead vocals from Micky Dolenz and backing vocals from Davy Jones, and it reached number 62 on the Billboard charts. \n\nThe soundtrack album to the movie, Head, reached No. 45 on the Billboard charts. Jack Nicholson assembled the film's soundtrack album, weaving dialogue and sound effects from the film in between the songs from the film. The six (plus \"Ditty Diego\") Monkees songs on the album range from psychedelic pop to straight ahead rockers to Broadway rock to eastern-influenced pop to a folk-rock ballad. Although the Monkees performed \"Circle Sky\" live in the film, the studio version is chosen for the soundtrack album. The live version would later be released on various compilations, including Rhino's Missing Links series of Monkees albums. The soundtrack album also includes a song from the film's composer, Ken Thorne. The album had a mylar cover, to give it a mirror-like appearance, so that the person looking at the cover would see his own head, a play on the album title Head. Peter Tork said, \"That was something special ... [Jack] Nicholson coordinated the record, made it up from the soundtrack. He made it different from the movie. There's a line in the movie where [Frank] Zappa says, 'That's pretty white.' Then there's another line in the movie that was not juxtaposed in the movie, but Nicholson put them together in the [soundtrack album], when Mike says, 'And the same thing goes for Christmas.' ... that's funny, ... very different from the movie ...that was very important and wonderful that he assembled the record differently from the movie. ... It was a different artistic experience.\" The soundtrack album is a cult favorite among the Monkees' fans.\n\nOver the intervening years Head has developed a cult following for its innovative style and anarchic humor. Members of the Monkees, Nesmith in particular, cite the soundtrack album as one of the crowning achievements of the band.\n\nEarly 1969: Tork's resignation, Instant Replay and The Monkees Present\n\nTensions within the group were increasing. Peter Tork, citing exhaustion, quit by buying out the last four years of his Monkees contract at $150,000 per year, equal to about $ per year today. This was shortly after the band's Far East tour in December 1968, after completing work on their 1969 NBC television special, 33⅓ Revolutions Per Monkee, which rehashed many of the ideas from Head, only with the Monkees playing a strangely second-string role. In the DVD commentary for the television special, Dolenz noted that after filming was complete, Nesmith gave Tork a gold watch as a going-away present, engraved \"From the guys down at work.\" (Tork kept the back, but replaced the watch several times in later years.) Most of the songs from the 33 1/3 Revolutions Per Monkee TV Special would not be officially released until over 40 years later, on the 2010 and 2011 Rhino Handmade Deluxe boxed sets of Head and Instant Replay.\n\nSince the Monkees at this point were producing their own songs with very little of the other band members involvement, they planned a future double album (eventually to be reduced to The Monkees Present) on which each Monkee would separately produce one side of a disc.\n\nIn February 1969, the Monkees' seventh album, Instant Replay, without Tork's involvement beyond playing guitar on \"I Won't Be the Same Without Her\", was released, which reached No. 32 on the charts. The single from the album was \"Tear Drop City\", which peaked at No. 56 on the U.S. Billboard chart and No. 34 on the Australian chart. According to Rhino Handmade's 2011 Deluxe Edition reissue of this album, Davy Jones told Melody Maker, \"Half of the songs were recorded over the last three years, but there are also about six new ones.\" The Monkees wanted to please the original 1966 fans by offering up new recordings of some previously unreleased older styled songs, as well as gain a new audience with what they considered a more mature sound. Nesmith continued in his country-rock vein after offering straight ahead rock and experimental songs on the two prior albums. Nesmith stated in Rhino Handmade's 2011 Deluxe Edition reissue, \"I guess it was the same embryo beating in me that was somewhere in Don Henley and Glenn Frey and Linda Ronstadt and Neil Young. Everybody who was hanging out in those times. I could just feel this happening that there was this thing. So, I headed off to Nashville to see if I couldn't get some of the Nashville country thing into the rock 'n' roll or vice versa. What I found was that Nashville country was not the country that was going to be the basis of country-rock and that it was Western, Southwest country. It was coming much more out of the Southern California scene. I ended up with a lot of Dobro, mandolin, banjo, and things that were hard-core mountain music stuff ... the Nashville cats were so blown out by playin' this kind of music. They loved it, for one thing.\"\n\nDolenz contributed the biggest and longest Monkees' production, \"Shorty Blackwell\", a song inspired by his cat of the same name. Dolenz called it his \"feeble attempt at something to do with Sgt. Pepper.\" Jones contributed an electric guitar rocker, \"You and I.\" Both Jones and Dolenz continued their role of singing on the pop songs. Lyrically, it has a theme of being one of the Monkees' most melancholy albums.\n\nThroughout 1969 the trio appeared as guests on television programs such as The Glen Campbell Goodtime Hour, The Johnny Cash Show, Hollywood Squares, and Laugh-In. The Monkees also had a contractual obligation to appear in several television commercials with Bugs Bunny for Kool-Aid drink mix as well as Post cereal box singles.\n\nIn April 1969, the single \"Someday Man\" b/w \"Listen to the Band\" was released, which had the unique distinction of the B-side, a Nesmith composed country-rock song, charting higher (#63) than the Jones-sung A-side (#81).\n\nThe final album with Michael Nesmith from the Monkees original incarnation would be their eighth album, The Monkees Present, released in October 1969, which peaked at No. 100 on the Billboard charts. It would include the Nesmith composed country-rock singles \"Listen to the Band\" and \"Good Clean Fun\" (released in September 1969). Other notable songs include the Dolenz composition \"Little Girl\", which featured Louie Shelton on electric guitar, joining Micky on acoustic guitar, along with \"Mommy and Daddy\" (B-side to the \"Good Clean Fun single) in which he sang about America's treatment of the Native Americans and drug abuse, and in an earlier take, released on Rhino Handmade's 2011 Deluxe Edition of Instant Replay, sang about JFK's assassination and the Vietnam war. Jones collaborated with Bill Chadwick on some slower ballads, along with releasing a couple of older upbeat songs from 1966.\n\nIn the summer of 1969 the three Monkees embarked on a tour with the backing of the soul band \"Sam and the Good-Timers\". The concerts for this tour were longer sets than their earlier concert tours, many shows running over two hours. Although the tour was met with some positive critical reception (Billboard in particular praised it), other critics were not favorable of the mixing of the Monkees' pop music with the Goodtimers' R&B approach. Toward the end of the tour, some dates were canceled due to poor ticket sales, and the tour failed to re-establish the band commercially, with no single entering the Top 40 in 1969. Dolenz remarked that the tour \"was like kicking a dead horse. The phenomenon had peaked.\" \n\nApril 1970: Nesmith's resignation and Changes\n\nOn April 14, 1970, Nesmith joined Dolenz and Jones for the last time as part of the original incarnation of the Monkees to film a Kool-Aid commercial, with Nesmith leaving the group to continue recording songs with his own country-rock group called Michael Nesmith & The First National Band, which he had started recording with on February 10, 1970. His first album with his own band was called Magnetic South, and at the time he left the Monkees in April, he was recording songs for his second album with The First National Band, called Loose Salute.\n\nThis left Dolenz and Jones to record the bubblegum pop album Changes as the ninth and final album by the Monkees released during its original incarnation. By this time, Colgems was hardly putting any effort into the project, and they sent Dolenz and Jones to New York for the Changes sessions, to be produced by Jeff Barry and Andy Kim. In comments for the liner notes of the 1994 re-release of Changes, Jones said that he felt they had been tricked into recording an \"Andy Kim album\" under the Monkees name. Except for the two singers' vocal performances, Changes is the only album that fails to win any significant praise from critics looking back 40 years to the Monkees' recording output. The album spawned the single \"Oh My My\", which was accompanied by a music film promo (produced/directed by Dolenz). Dolenz contributed one of his own compositions, \"Midnight Train\", which was used in the re-runs of the Monkees TV series. The \"Oh My My\" b/w \"I Love You Better\" single from the Changes album would be the last single issued under the Monkees name in the United States, until 1986. Originally released in June 1970, Changes would first chart in Billboard's Top 200 during the Monkees' 1986 reunion, staying on the charts for 4 weeks.\n\nSeptember 22, 1970 marked the final recording session by the Monkees in their original incarnation, when Jones and Dolenz recorded \"Do It in the Name of Love\" and \"Lady Jane\". Not mixed until February 19, 1971, and released later that year as a single (\"Do It in the Name Of Love\" b/w \"Lady Jane\"), the two remaining Monkees then lost the rights to use the name in several countries, the U.S. included. The single was not credited to the Monkees in the U.S., but to a misspelled \"Mickey Dolenz and Davy Jones\", although in Japan it was issued under the Monkees' name.\n\nJones released a solo album in 1971, titled Davy Jones, featuring the single \"Rainy Jane\" / \"Welcome to My Love\". Both Jones and Dolenz released multiple singles as solo artists in the years following the original break-up of the Monkees. The duo continued to tour throughout most of the 1970s.\n\nReunions and revivals\n\nDolenz, Jones, Boyce & Hart\n\nPartly because of repeats of the television series The Monkees on Saturday mornings and in syndication, The Monkees Greatest Hits charted in 1976. The LP, issued by Arista, who by this time had custody of the Monkees' master tapes, courtesy of their corporate owner, Screen Gems, was actually a re-packaging of an earlier (1972) compilation LP called Refocus that had been issued by Arista's previous label imprint, Bell Records, also owned by Screen Gems. Dolenz and Jones took advantage of this, joining ex-Monkees songwriters Tommy Boyce and Bobby Hart to tour the United States. From 1975 to 1977, as the \"Golden Hits of The Monkees\" show (\"The Guys who Wrote 'Em and the Guys who Sang 'Em!\"), they successfully performed in smaller venues such as state fairs and amusement parks, as well as making stops in Japan, Thailand, Hong Kong and Singapore. They also released an album of new material as Dolenz, Jones, Boyce & Hart. Nesmith had not been interested in a reunion. Tork claimed later that he had not been asked, although a Christmas single (credited to Micky Dolenz, Davy Jones and Peter Tork due to legal reasons) was produced by Chip Douglas and released on his own label in 1976. The single featured Douglas' and Howard Kaylan's \"Christmas Is My Time Of Year\" (originally recorded by a 1960s group Christmas Spirit), with a B-side of Irving Berlin's \"White Christmas\" (Douglas released a remixed version of the single, with additional overdubbed instruments, in 1986). This was the first (albeit unofficial) Monkees single since 1971. Tork also joined Dolenz, Jones, Boyce & Hart on stage at Disneyland on July 4, 1976, and also joined Dolenz and Jones on stage at the Starwood in Hollywood in 1977.\n\nOther semi-reunions occurred between 1970 and 1986. Tork helped arrange a Dolenz single, \"Easy on You\"/\"Oh Someone\" in 1971. Tork also recorded some unreleased tracks for Nesmith's Countryside label during the 1970s, and Dolenz (by then a successful television director in the United Kingdom) directed a segment of Nesmith's NBC-TV series Television Parts, although the segment in question was not included when the series' six episodes aired during the summer of 1985.\n\nMTV and Nickelodeon reignite Monkeemania\n\nBrushed off by critics during their heyday as manufactured and lacking talent, the Monkees experienced a critical and commercial rehabilitation two decades later. A Monkees TV show marathon (\"Pleasant Valley Sunday\") was broadcast on February 23, 1986, on the then five-year-old MTV video music channel. In February and March, Tork and Jones played together in Australia. Then in May, Dolenz, Jones, and Tork announced a \"20th Anniversary Tour\" produced by David Fishof and they began playing North America in June. Their original albums began selling again as Nickelodeon began to run their old series daily. MTV promotion also helped to resurrect a smaller version of Monkeemania, and tour dates grew from smaller to larger venues and became one of the biggest live acts of 1986 and 1987. A new greatest hits collection was issued, reaching platinum status.\n\nBy now, Nesmith was amenable to a reunion, but forced to sit out most projects because of prior commitments to his Pacific Arts video production company. However, he did appear with the band in a 1986 Christmas medley music video for MTV, and appeared on stage with Dolenz, Jones, and Tork at the Greek Theatre, in Los Angeles, on September 7, 1986. In September 1988, the three rejoined to play Australia again, Europe and then North America, with that string of tours ending in September 1989. Nesmith again returned at the Universal Amphitheatre, Los Angeles, show on July 10, 1989 and took part in a dedication ceremony at the Hollywood Walk of Fame, when the Monkees received a TV star there in 1989.\n\nThe sudden revival of the Monkees in 1986 helped move the first official Monkees single since 1971, \"That Was Then, This Is Now\", to the No. 20 position in Billboard Magazine. The success, however, was not without controversy. Jones had declined to sing on the track, recorded along with two other new songs included in a compilation album, Then & Now... The Best of The Monkees. Some copies of the single and album credit the new songs to \"The Monkees\", others as \"Micky Dolenz and Peter Tork (of the Monkees)\". Reportedly, these recordings were the source of some personal friction between Jones and the others during the 1986 tour; Jones would typically leave the stage when the new songs were performed.\n\nThe 1980s reunion tours were the most lucrative venture the three had ever seen in their days as the Monkees, far surpassing the monies they had made in the 1960s. Nesmith had little financial need to join in Monkees-related projects, mostly as his mother Bette Nesmith Graham was the inventor of Liquid Paper, leaving Nesmith over $25 million upon her death in 1980.\n\nA new album by the touring trio, Pool It! (the Monkees' tenth), appeared the following year and was a moderate success. From 1986 to 1989, the Monkees would conduct major concert tours in the United States, Australia, Japan, and Europe.\n\nNew Monkees\n\nIn 1987, a new television series called New Monkees appeared. Four young musicians were placed in a similar series based on the original show, but \"updated\" for the 1980s. The New Monkees left the air after 13 episodes. (Neither Bob Rafelson nor Bert Schneider were involved in the development or production of the series, although it was produced by \"Straybert Productions\" headed by Steve Blauner, Rafelson and Schneider's partner in BBS Productions.)\n\n1990s reunions\n\nIn the 1990s, the Monkees continued to record new material. In 1993, Dolenz and Jones worked together on a television commercial, and another reunion tour was launched with the two of them in 1994. Rhino Records re-issued all the original LPs on CD, each of which included between three and six bonus tracks of previously unreleased or alternate takes; the first editions came with collectible trading cards.\n\nTheir eleventh album Justus was released in 1996. It was the first since 1968 on which all four original members performed and produced. Justus was produced by the Monkees, all songs were written by one of the four Monkees, and it was recorded using only the four Monkees for all instruments and vocals, which was the inspiration for the album title and spelling (Justus = Just Us).\n\nThe trio of Dolenz, Jones, and Tork reunited again for a successful 30th anniversary tour of American amphitheaters in 1996, while Nesmith joined them onstage in Los Angeles to promote the new songs from Justus. For the first time since the brief 1986 reunion, Nesmith returned to the concert stage for a tour of the United Kingdom in 1997, highlighted by two sold-out concerts at Wembley Arena in London. The full quartet also appeared in an ABC television special titled Hey, Hey, It's the Monkees, which was written and directed by Nesmith and spoofed the original series that had made them famous. Following the UK tour, Nesmith declined to continue future performances with the Monkees, having faced harsh criticism from the British music press for his deteriorating musicianship. Tork noted in DVD commentary that \"In 1966, Nesmith had learned a reasonably good version of the famous 'Last Train to Clarksville' guitar lick, but in 1996, Mike was no longer able to play it\" and so Tork took over the lead guitar parts.\n\nNesmith's departure from the tour was acrimonious. Jones was quoted by the Los Angeles Times as complaining that Nesmith \"made a new album with us. He toured Great Britain with us. Then all of a sudden, he's not here. Later, I hear rumors he's writing a script for our next movie. Oh, really? That's bloody news to me. He's always been this aloof, inaccessible person... the fourth part of the jigsaw puzzle that never quite fit in.\" \n\n2000s reunions\n\nTork, Jones, and Dolenz toured the United States in 1997, after which the group took another hiatus until 2001 when they once again reunited to tour the United States. However, this tour was also accompanied by public sniping. Dolenz and Jones had announced that they had \"fired\" Tork for his constant complaining and threatening to quit. Tork was quoted as saying that, as well as the fact he wanted to tour with his own band, \"Shoe Suede Blues.\" Tork told WENN News he was troubled by the overindulgence in alcohol by other members of the tour crew:\n\nMicky Dolenz and Davy Jones fired me just before the last two shows of our 35th anniversary tour. I'm both happy and sad over the whole thing. I always loved the work onstage—but I just couldn't handle the backstage problems. I'd given them 30 days notice that I was leaving so my position is that I resigned first and then they dropped me. Thank God I don't need the Monkees anymore...I'm a recovering alcoholic and haven't had a drink in several years. I'm not against people drinking—just when they get mean and abusive. I went on the anniversary tour with the agreement that I didn't have to put up with drinking and difficult behavior offstage. When things weren't getting better, I gave the guys notice that I was leaving in 30 days for good. \n\nTork later stated in 2011 that the alcohol played only a small role and Tork then said, \"I take full responsibility for the backstage problems on the 2001 tour. We were getting along pretty well until I had a meltdown. I ticked the other guys off good and proper and it was a serious mistake on my part. I was not in charge of myself to the best of my ability – the way I hope I have become since. I really just behaved inappropriately, honestly. I apologized to them.\" \n\nJones and Dolenz went on to tour the United Kingdom in 2002, but Tork declined to participate. Jones and Dolenz toured the United States one more time as a duo in 2002, and then split to concentrate on their own individual projects. With different Monkees citing different reasons, the group chose not to mark their 40th anniversary in 2006.\n\n2010–2011 reunions\n\nIn October, Jones stated that a reunion marking the band's 45th anniversary was a possibility. Noted Monkees biographer Andrew Sandoval commented in The Hollywood Reporter that he \"spent three years cajoling them to look beyond their recent differences (which included putting aside solo projects to fully commit to The Monkees).\"\n\nAn Evening with The Monkees: The 45th Anniversary Tour commenced on May 12, 2011 in Liverpool, England, before moving to North America in June and July for a total of 43 performances. Sandoval noted, \"Their mixed feelings on the music business and their long and winding relationship weighed heavily, but once they hit the stage, the old magic was apparent. For the next three months...[they brought] the music and memories to fans in the band's grandest stage show in decades. Images from their series and films flashed on a huge screen behind them; even Rolling Stone, whose owner, Jann Wenner, has vowed to keep them out of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, gushed.\" Nesmith did not take part in the tour, which grossed approximately $4 million. \n\nOn August 8, 2011, the band cancelled ten last-minute shows due to what was initially reported as \"internal group issues and conflicts\", though Tork later confirmed \"there were some business affairs that couldn't be coordinated correctly. We hit a glitch and there was just this weird dislocation at one point.\" Jones clarified that \"the (45th Anniversary) tour was only supposed to go until July. And it was great, the best time we've had because we're all on the same page now. We gelled onstage and off. But then more dates were being added. And more. And then the next thing we knew, they were talking about Japan, Australia, Brazil, and we were like, 'Wait a second. This is turning into something more than a tour.' We were doing 40 songs a night, plus other material. Some of these shows were 2 hours long. Then there was the travel, getting to the next venue with no time to revive. The audiences were great. But, let's face it, we're not kids.\" \n\nDeath of Jones and reunion with Nesmith\n\nThe 45th anniversary tour would be the last with Jones, who died of a heart attack due to atherosclerosis on February 29, 2012. Soon thereafter, rumors began to circulate that Nesmith would reunite with Dolenz and Tork in the wake of Jones' death. This was confirmed on August 8, 2012, when the surviving trio announced a series of U.S. shows for November and December, commencing in Escondido, California and concluding in New York City. The brief tour marked the first time Nesmith performed with the Monkees since 1997, as well as the first without Jones. Jones' memory was honored throughout the shows via recordings and video. During one point, the band went quiet and a recording of Jones singing \"I Wanna Be Free\" played while footage of him was screening behind the band. For Jones' signature song, \"Daydream Believer\", Dolenz said that the band had discussed who should sing the song and had concluded that it should be the fans, saying \"It doesn't belong to us anymore. It belongs to you.\"\n\nThe Fall 2012 tour was very well received by both fans and critics, resulting in the band scheduling a 24-date summer tour for 2013. Dubbed \"A Midsummer’s Night With the Monkees\", concerts also featured Nesmith, Dolenz, and Tork. \"The reaction to the last tour was euphoric\", Dolenz told Rolling Stone magazine. \"It was pretty apparent there was a demand for another one.\" A third tour with Nesmith would follow in 2014.\n\nIn 2014, the Monkees were inducted into the Pop Music Hall of Fame at the 2014 Monkees Convention. At the convention the band announced a 2014 tour of the Eastern and Midwestern US. \n\nGood Times! and 50th anniversary: 2015-present\n\nDolenz and Tork toured as the Monkees in 2015 without Nesmith's participation. Nesmith stated that he was busy with other ventures, although Dolenz stated \"He's always invited.\" In February 2016, Dolenz announced that the Monkees would be releasing a new album, entitled Good Times!, as a celebration of their 50th Anniversary. Good Times!, produced by Adam Schlesinger of Fountains of Wayne. It features unused songs written for the band in the 60s as well as songs by contemporary songwriters. One track includes an archived Jones vocal track. All three surviving members appear on the new album. The album was announced in conjunction with the band's 50th anniversary tour, which will again feature just Dolenz and Tork. \n\nControversies\n\nStudio recordings controversy\n\nControversy over the Monkees' studio abilities hit early in 1967. Dolenz told a reporter that the Wrecking Crew provided the backing tracks for the first two Monkees albums, and that his origin as a drummer was simply that a Monkee had to be tasked with learning the drums since he knew how to play only the guitar. A January 28, 1967 Saturday Evening Post article quoted Nesmith railing against the music creation process. \"Do you know how debilitating it is to sit up and have to duplicate somebody else’s records?\" he asked. \"Tell the world we don’t record our own music... Our records are not our forté,\" he added. The whistle blowing on themselves worked in forcing producer Don Kirshner out of the project and the band taking creative control for its third album. But when the Monkees toured the U.K. in 1967, the story that the band was recording their own music for its current album and playing their own instruments on stage was not the headline.\n\nMaking the front pages of several U.K. and international music papers was that the group members did not always play all of their own instruments or sing all of the backing vocals in the studio during their tour of England. The group was derisively dubbed the \"Pre-Fab Four\", and the London Sunday Mirror called them a \"Disgrace to the Pop World.\" Piling on later that year was tour opener Jimi Hendrix who before he left the tour told Melody Maker magazine, \"Oh God, I hate them! Dishwater....You can't knock anybody for making it, but people like the Monkees?\" Dealing with the controversy on the television series proved challenging. An interview tag at the end of episode No. 31 of their TV show, \"Monkees at the Movies\", which first aired April 1967, where Bob Rafelson asked the group about accusations that they did not play their instruments in concert, to which Nesmith responded, \"I'm fixin' to walk out there in front of fifteen thousand people, man! If I don't play my own instrument, I'm in a lot of trouble!\" But in the \"Devil and Peter Tork\" episode, the episode serves as a parable as a Kirshner-like producer has Tork sign over his soul to be a success as a musician. \n\nIn November 1967, the wave of anti-Monkee sentiment was reaching its peak while the Monkees released their fourth album, Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn, & Jones Ltd. In liner notes for the 1995 re-release of this album, Nesmith was quoted as saying that after Headquarters, \"The press went into a full-scale war against us, talking about how 'The Monkees are four guys who have no credits, no credibility whatsoever and have been trying to trick us into believing they are a rock band.' Number 1, not only was this not the case; the reverse was true. Number 2, for the press to report with genuine alarm that the Monkees were not a real rock band was looney tunes! It was one of the great goofball moments of the media, but it stuck.\" Davy Jones stated in 1969 to Tiger Beat, \"I get so angry when musicians say, 'Oh, your music is so bad,' because it's not bad to the kids. Those people who talk about 'doing their own thing' are groups that go and play in the clubs that hold 50 people, while we're playing to 10,000 kids. You know, it hurts me to think that anybody thinks we're phony, because we're not. We're only doing what we think is our own thing.\" \n\nIt was reported in Rolling Stone on October 11, 2011 that Tork still feels that the Monkees do not get the respect that they deserve. \"With all due modesty since I had little to do with it, the Monkees' songbook is one of the better songbooks in pop history\", he says. \"Certainly in the top five in terms of breadth and depth. It was revealed that we didn't play our own instruments on the records much at the very moment when the idealism of early Beatlemania in rock was at its peak. So we became the ultimate betrayers. The origins of the group were obvious and everyone understood that, but suddenly some little switch was flipped and all that stuff came crashing down around our ears.\" \n\nTimeline for the studio recordings controversy\n\n* 1962: Jones lands the part of Michael in the stage show Peter Pan, in which he is coached on the tone of his voice. Later that year, he lands the role of the Artful Dodger in the Broadway musical production of Oliver! Nesmith receives his first guitar during Christmas of 1962. He will build his proficiency with it to rehabilitate his hands after they are injured. Tork takes part in folk ensembles. The initial idea for The Monkees is developed\n* 1963: Tork moves to New York's Greenwich Village to play in various folk groups in music \"basket\" houses, where money is collected after each performance. While still performing in the musical Oliver!, Jones makes his first studio recordings of demonstration tapes of his singing. He is also nominated for a Tony award. Nesmith performs solo and with folk groups and releases his first recording.\n* 1964: Dolenz plays guitar and sings in his first band, the Missing Links. Dolenz had started playing Spanish guitar when he was 10–12 years old. Jones signs recording contract with Colpix Records. He appears on The Ed Sullivan Show on the same night as the Beatles. This will bring him to the attention of Bob Rafelson and Bert Schneider. Nesmith wins Headliner of the Year talent contest performing with John London. Tork tours with folk group.\n* 1965: Jones's first singles and album are released. He appears on Dick Clark's Where the Action Is. Nesmith releases more singles and plays with folk group. He records for Colpix. Record World gives one of Nesmith's singles a four star review. He appears on a couple of TV shows performing music. Tork still performs in Greenwich Village clubs. Dolenz sings on stage. At the end of the year, the four Monkees are cast in the TV show. Rafelson: \"It's often been said that the Monkees were manufactured, but the term irritates me just a little bit. The Monkees were more like a Japanese marriage: arranged. In America and elsewhere the divorce rate is pretty high, but in Japan things go better.\" \n* April 1966: The Monkees begin rehearsing as a band to produce music for the upcoming TV Show and records. Nesmith, Dolenz, and Tork were all experienced guitar players, but no one had experience playing the drums. Jones had been a singer on Broadway, but lacked any experience with any musical instruments. Producer Ward Sylvester tells Tork that he would have signed the band even without a TV show.\n* May 1966: Filming for the TV show starts, taking 12 hours a day for the cast of the Monkees. The public is informed in the beginning that the Monkees are \"manufactured\", as seen in this Washington Post report: \"The series stars a fearsome foursome in the Monkees, a wholly manufactured singing group of attractive young men who come off as a combination of the Beatles, the Dead End Kids and the Marx Brothers. Critics will cry foul. Longhairs will demand, outraged, that they be removed from the air. But the kids will adore the Monkees [...] unlike other rock 'n' roll groups, the boys had never performed together before. Indeed, they'd never even met [...] they've been working to create their own sound.\" \n* June 1966: Although the producers want the Monkees to create their own music, they had not progressed enough by this point and still lacked the \"upbeat, young, happy, driving, pulsating sound\" that they desired. Dolenz stated, \"I'm sure that Rafelson and Schneider said in all honesty, 'Yeah, don't worry, when we start going you're gonna record your own tunes and it will be wonderful.' But the things get caught up in the inertia of the moment. NBC gets involved. RCA gets involved. Screen Gems gets involved. Millions and millions of dollars are on the line [...] people aren't as forthcoming. Mike's style was very distinct, country-western, Peter was very folk-rock, neither of which at the time would have been considered mainstream pop. Davy would have done all Broadway tunes [...] I ended up singing the leads [...] pop-rock was more my style.\" However, they used selections of Nesmith's authorship and composition from the beginning. \n* June 10, 1966: The Monkees' first recording sessions take place. These sessions feature members of the Wrecking Crew, a group of studio musicians in Los Angeles who would play on several Monkees album tracks, mostly those produced by Nesmith. These sessions were unsuccessful, however, and most future sessions in 1966 would feature the Candy Store Prophets, a studio band led by Boyce & Hart.\n* June 25, 1966: Nesmith produces his first Monkees track in a recording studio, his two self-composed songs \"All the King's Horses\", \"The Kind of Girl I Could Love\", plus \"I Don't Think You Know Me\", as a way for Raybert Productions to fulfill their promise to him to allow him to produce and record his own music. He is not allowed to play the instruments.\n* July 1966: Various producers from Boyce & Hart to Jack Keller to Nesmith continue to record sessions. Nesmith gets all four members to sing on his productions. On July 18, 1966 Nesmith also gets Tork to play guitar on the songs he is producing for the first time. Sessions continue in this manner, with the hired producers Boyce & Hart and Jack Keller and Monkees member Nesmith producing/recording songs in the studio through November 1966. \n* August 1966: The Monkees' first single is released.\n* September 1966: The Monkees' TV show premieres. \n* October 1966: The Monkees' debut album is released. Group member Nesmith, in particular, is angered when he sees the album cover, because he thinks it makes it look like they played all of the instruments.\n* October 2, 1966: The Monkees give their first public interview, which appears in The New York Times, in which Jones is asked if the big push for the Monkees is fair to the real rock groups, to which he responds, \"... That's the breaks, but you can't fool the people, you really can't.\" \n* October 24, 1966: Newsweek interviews the Monkees. They are asked how the music is created. Davy Jones tells them, \"This isn't a rock 'n' roll group. This is an act.\" \n* December 1966: The Monkees perform live in concert starting December 3, 1966. TV Week in the meantime, interviews Rafelson about why the Monkees' public access to interviews is limited, wondering if it could be related to embarrassing questions regarding their musical prowess, to which Rafelson assures that they do all of their own playing and singing. He also states that interviews are almost impossible due to them spending 12 hours a day filming the TV show, 4 hours recording, rehearsing for concert tours, and spending some weekends making personal appearance tours. During this time frame, the Monkees are generally barred from making television appearances on shows outside of their own, as Raybert fears the group's overexposure. \n* December 27, 1966: The Monkees are again interviewed about their music in Look magazine. Tork responds, \"We have the potential, but there's not time to practice.\" Dolenz says, \"We're advertisers. We're selling the Monkees. It's gotta be that way.\" Nesmith says, \"They're in the middle of something good and they're trying to sell something. They want us to be the Beatles, but we're not. We're us. We're funny.\" \n* December 28, 1966: Weekly Variety reports that the Monkees are selling faster than the Beatles did at their launch.\n* January 1967: The Monkees' second album is released while they were on tour, without the Monkees' knowledge. This upsets Nesmith and Tork, as they had been told that they were going to be doing their own album. Dolenz and Jones are initially indifferent because to them, coming from the acting world, it was just a soundtrack to the TV show and they were doing their job by singing what they were asked to sing. But when they saw how angry Nesmith and Tork were, they too joined in that anger.\n* January 16, 1967: Four months after their first single is released, the Monkees hold their first recording session as a self-contained, fully functioning band.\n* January 28, 1967: Band member Nesmith speaks to the Saturday Evening Post in an expose, stating, \"The music had nothing to do with us. It was totally dishonest. Do you know how debilitating it is to sit up and have to duplicate somebody else's records? That's really what we're doing. The music happened in spite of the Monkees. It was what Kirshner wanted to do. Our records are not our forte. I don't care if we never sell another record. Maybe we were manufactured [...] Tell the world we're synthetic because [...] we are. Tell them the Monkees are wholly man-made overnight, that millions of dollars have been poured into this thing. Tell the world we don't record our own music. But that's us they see on television. That show is really a part of us. They're not seeing something invalid.\" Decades later, Nesmith reflected, \"The press decided they were going to unload on us as being somehow illegitimate, somehow false. That we were making an attempt to dupe the public, when in fact it was me that was making the attempt to maintain the integrity. So, the press went into a full-scale war against us. Telling us the Monkees are four guys who have no credits, no credibility whatsoever, who have been trying to trick us into believing that they are a rock band. Number one, not only was it not the case, the reverse was true. Number two, [for] the press to report with genuine alarm that the Monkees were not a real rock band was looney tunes. It was one of the great goofball moments of the media, but it stuck.\" \n* February 4, 1967: Although the Monkees have continued to play and record their own music for their upcoming album, Jones records some songs with hired producer Jeff Barry. \n* February 1967: Kirshner works behind the Monkees' backs to release another single without the band's knowledge. \n* February 25, 1967: Jones is interviewed for the New Musical Express, and says, \"I can only speak for myself. I am an actor and I have never pretended to be anything else. The public have made me into a rock 'n' roll singer. No one is trying to fool anyone! People have tried to put us down by saying we copied the Beatles. So, all right, maybe the Monkees is a half-hour Hard Day's Night. But now we read that the Who are working on a TV a group. Now who's copying who?\" \n* February 27, 1967: Kirshner is dismissed as Music Coordinator for the Monkees, primarily due to his handling of the third would-be-but-withdrawn single from the Monkees. Lester Sill takes his place. The Monkees continue recording their own songs, with them playing instruments, getting ready for their next album. In the meantime, the Nesmith-penned \"The Girl I Knew Somewhere\" is released as part of the Monkees third single, which features the Monkees playing as a self-contained band, which becomes a top 40 hit.\n* May 1967: The Monkees' first self made album, Headquarters, is released.\n\nAfter Headquarters, the Monkees started using a mixture of themselves playing along with other musicians, including members of the Wrecking Crew and Candy Store Prophets along with other musicians such as Stephen Stills, Neil Young, and Harry Nilsson; but they still wrote, sang, produced, and played on their remaining albums, except for their final offering from the original incarnation in 1970, Changes, which was recorded after Nesmith and Tork had left the group and featured Dolenz and Jones singing to the backing tracks of what Jones referred to in the liner notes of the 1994 reissue that album as \"a rejected Andy Kim album\". In the same liner notes, Jones stated that he was unhappy about that recording and claimed that it was not a real album. The final album featured one Dolenz composition.\n\nTork commented on some of the controversy when writing about Jones's death: \"When we first met, I was confronted with a slick, accomplished, young performer, vastly more experienced than I in the ways of show biz, and yes, I was intimidated. Englishness was at a high premium in my world, and his experience dwarfed my entertainer's life as a hippie, basket-passing folk singer on the Greenwich Village coffee house circuit. If anything, I suppose I was selected for the cast of 'The Monkees' TV show partly as a rough-hewn counterpart to David's sophistication. [...] the Monkees—the group now, not the TV series—took a lot of flack for being 'manufactured,' by which our critics meant that we hadn't grown up together, paying our dues, sleeping five to a room, trying to make it as had the Beatles and Rolling Stones. Furthermore, critics said, the Monkees' first albums—remember albums?—were almost entirely recorded by professional studio musicians, with hardly any input from any of us beyond lead vocals. I felt this criticism keenly, coming as I did from the world of the ethical folk singer, basically honoring the standards of the naysayers. We did play as a group live on tour.\" \n\nMeeting the Beatles\n\nCritics of the Monkees observed that they were simply the \"Pre-Fab four\", a made-for-TV knockoff of the Beatles; the Beatles, however, took it in their stride and hosted a party for the Monkees when they visited England. The party occurred during the time when the Beatles were recording Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band; as such, the party inspired the line in the Monkees' tune \"Randy Scouse Git\", written by Dolenz, which read, \"the four kings of EMI are sitting stately on the floor.\"\n\nGeorge Harrison praised their self-produced musical attempts, saying, \"It's obvious what's happening, there's talent there. They're doing a TV show, it's a difficult chore and I wouldn't be in their shoes for the world. When they get it all sorted out, they might turn out to be the best.\" (Tork was later one of the musicians on Harrison's Wonderwall Music, playing Paul McCartney's five-string banjo.)\n\nNesmith attended the \"A Day in the Life\" sessions at Abbey Road Studios; he can be seen in the Beatles' home movies, including one scene where he is talking with John Lennon. During the conversation, Nesmith had reportedly asked Lennon \"Do you think we're a cheap imitation of the Beatles, your movies and your records?\" to which Lennon assuredly replied, \"I think you're the greatest comic talent since the Marx Brothers. I've never missed one of your programs.\" Nesmith wrote about this encounter on Facebook:\n\nWhen The Beatles were recording Sgt. Peppers, Phyllis and I spent a few days with John and Cynthia at their home, and one in the studio with \"the boys.\" That's where those pictures of John and I come from—the \"Day in the Life\" session. The minute I had the wherewithal—cachet and money—I raced to London and looked up John.\n\nDuring the '60s it seemed to me London was the center of the World and The Beatles were the center of London and the Sgt Pepper session was the center of The Beatles. It was an extraordinary time, I thought, and I wanted to get as close as I could to the heart of it. But like a hurricane the center was not stormy or tumultuous. It was exciting, but it was calm, and to an extent peaceful. The confidence of the art permeated the atmosphere. Serene—and really, really fun. Then I discovered the reason for this. During that time in one of our longer, more reflective, talks I realized that John was not aware of who The Beatles were. Of course he could not be. He was clueless in this regard. He had never seen or experienced them. In the strange paradox of fame, none of The Beatles ever saw The Beatles the way we did. Certainly not the way I did. I loved them beyond my ability to express it. As the years passed and I met more and more exceptional people sitting in the center of their own hurricane I saw they all shared this same sensibility. None of them could actually know the force of their own work.\n\nDolenz was also in the studio during a Sgt. Pepper session, which he mentioned while broadcasting for WCBS-FM in New York (incidentally, he interviewed Ringo Starr on his program). On February 21, 1967, he attended the overdub and mixing session for the Beatles' \"Fixing a Hole\" at EMI's Abbey Road studio 2. \n\nDuring the 1970s, during Lennon's infamous \"lost weekend\", John Lennon, Ringo Starr, Micky Dolenz, Harry Nilsson and Keith Moon often hung out together, and were collectively known in the press as \"The Hollywood Vampires\". \n\nPaul McCartney can be seen in the 2002 concert film Back in the U.S. singing \"Hey, Hey, We're The Monkees\", the theme from The Monkees show, while backstage.\n\nThe Monkees \"Cuddly Toy\" and \"Daddy's Song\" were written by songwriter Harry Nilsson. \"Cuddly Toy\" would be recorded several months before Nilsson's own debut in October 1967. At the press conference announcing the formation of Apple, the Beatles named Harry Nilsson as both their favorite American artist and as their favorite American group. Derek Taylor, the Beatles's press officer, had introduced them to Harry's music. \n\nIn 1995, Ringo Starr joined Davy, Peter, Micky to film a Pizza Hut commercial. \n\nJulian Lennon was a fan, stating at the time of Davy Jones' passing, \"You did some Great work!\" \n\nRock and Roll Hall of Fame\n\nIn June 2007, Tork complained to the New York Post that Jann Wenner had blackballed the Monkees from the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland, Ohio. Tork stated:\n\n[Wenner] doesn't care what the rules are and just operates how he sees fit. It is an abuse of power. I don't know whether the Monkees belong in the Hall of Fame, but it's pretty clear that we're not in there because of a personal whim. Jann seems to have taken it harder than everyone else, and now, 40 years later, everybody says, 'What's the big deal? Everybody else does it.' [Uses studio artists or backing bands.] Nobody cares now except him. He feels his moral judgment in 1967 and 1968 is supposed to serve in 2007.\n\nIn a Facebook post, Nesmith stated that he does not know if the Monkees belong in the Hall of Fame because he can only see the impact of the Monkees from the inside, and further stated: \"I can see the HOF (Hall of Fame) is a private enterprise. It seems to operate as a business, and the inductees are there by some action of the owners of the Enterprise. The inductees appear to be chosen at the owner's pleasure. This seems proper to me. It is their business in any case. It does not seem to me that the HOF carries a public mandate, nor should it be compelled to conform to one.\"\n\nIn 1992, Davy Jones spoke to People magazine, stating \"I'm not as wealthy as some entertainers, but I work hard, and I think the best is yet to come. I know I'm never going to make the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, but maybe there's something else for me in show business. I've been given a talent—however big or little—that has given me many opportunities. I've got to try to use it the best way I can. A lot of people go days without having someone hug them or shake their hand. I get that all the time.\" \n\nIn 2015, Micky Dolenz said, \"As far as the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame I’ve never been one to chase awards or anything like that; it’s never been very important to me. I was very proud to win an Emmy for The Monkees, having come out of television as a kid. When we won the Emmy for best TV show in ’66 or ‘67 that was a huge feather in my cap. But I’ve never chased that kind of stuff. I’ve never done a project and thought, “What do I do here to win an award?” Specifically as far as the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame I’ve been very flattered that the fans and people have championed the Monkees. Very flattered and honored that they do. If you know anything about the organization, and I’ve done charity work for the foundation, the Hall of Fame is a private club. It’s like a country club and they have the right to do that; that’s their prerogative. That’s their private club. That’s kind of how I feel about it.\" \n\nVarious magazines and news outlets, such as Time, NPR radio, The Christian Science Monitor, Goldmine magazine, Yahoo Music and MSNBC have argued that the Monkees belong in the Rock n' Roll Hall of Fame.\n\nOriginally unreleased recordings\n\nBeginning in 1987, Rhino Records started to make available previously unreleased Monkees recordings on a series of albums called Missing Links. Having numerous quality songwriters, musicians, producers and arrangers—along with high budgets—at their hands while making albums during the 1960s, the band was able to record as many songs as the Beatles in half the time.\n\nThe three volumes of this initial series contained 59 songs. These include the group's first recordings as a self-contained band, including the intended single \"All Of Your Toys,\" Nesmith's Nashville sessions, and alternate versions of songs featured only on the television series. The Listen to the Band box set also contained previously unreleased recordings, as did the 1994-95 series CD album reissues. Rhino/Rhino Handmade's Deluxe Edition reissue series has also included alternate mixes, unreleased songs, and the soundtrack to 33 1/3 Revolutions Per Monkee.\n\nBand members\n\nCurrent\n\n* Micky Dolenz – vocals, drums, moog synthesizer, guitar (1966–1971, 1986–1989, 1993–1997, 2001–2002, 2011–present)\n* Peter Tork – vocals, keyboards, piano, guitar, bass, banjo (1966–1968, 1986–1989, 1995–1997, 2001, 2011–present)\n* Michael Nesmith – guitar, vocals, keyboards (1966–1970, 1986, 1989, 1996–1997, 2012–2014, 2016)\n\nFormer\n\n* Davy Jones – vocals, tambourine, maracas, bass, guitar, drums (1966–1971, 1986–1989, 1993–1997, 2001–2002, 2011–2012; died in 2012)\n\nTimeline \n\nImpact and legacy\n\nThe Monkees, selected specifically to appeal to the youth market as American television's response to the Beatles with their manufactured personae and carefully produced singles, are seen as an original precursor to the modern proliferation of studio and corporation-created bands. But this critical reputation has softened somewhat, with the recognition that the Monkees were neither the first manufactured group nor unusual in this respect. The Monkees also frequently contributed their own songwriting efforts on their albums and saw their musical skills improve. They ultimately became a self-directed group, playing their own instruments and writing many of their own songs.\n\nNoted Monkees and 1960s music historian Andrew Sandoval noted, in The Hollywood Reporter, that the Monkees \"pioneered the music video format [and band member Mike Nesmith dreamed up the prototype for what would become MTV] and paved the way for every boy band that followed in their wake, from New Kids on the Block to 'N Sync to Jonas Brothers, while Davy set the stage for future teen idols David Cassidy and Justin Bieber. As pop stars go, you would be hard pressed to find a successful artist who didn't take a page from the Monkees' playbook, even generations later. Monkee money also enabled Rafelson and Schneider to finance Easy Rider and Five Easy Pieces, which made Jack Nicholson a star. In fact, the Monkees series was the opening salvo in a revolution that brought on the New Hollywood cinema, an influence rarely acknowledged but no less impactful.\"\n\nThe Chicago Tribune interviewed Davy Jones, who said, \"We touched a lot of musicians, you know. I can't tell you the amount of people that have come up and said, 'I wouldn't have been a musician if it hadn't been for the Monkees.' It baffles me even now,\" Jones added. \"I met a guy from Guns N' Roses, and he was overwhelmed by the meeting, and was just so complimentary.\" \n\nThe Monkees found unlikely fans among musicians of the punk rock period of the mid-1970s. Many of these punk performers had grown up on TV reruns of the series, and sympathized with the anti-industry, anti-Establishment trend of their career. Sex Pistols and Minor Threat both recorded versions of \"(I'm Not Your) Steppin' Stone\" and it was often played live by Toy Love. The Japanese new wave pop group The Plastics recorded a synthesizer and drum-machine version of \"Last Train to Clarksville\" for their 1979 album Welcome Plastics.\n\nGlenn A. Baker, author of Monkeemania: The True Story of the Monkees, described the Monkees as \"rock's first great embarrassment\" in 1986:\n\nLike an illegitimate child in a respectable family, the Monkees are destined to be regarded forever as rock's first great embarrassment; misunderstood and maligned like a mongrel at a ritzy dog show, or a test tube baby at the Vatican. The rise of the pre-fab four coincided with rock's desperate desire to cloak itself with the trappings of respectability, credibility and irreproachable heritage. The fact was ignored that session players were being heavily employed by the Beach Boys, the Beatles, the Mamas and the Papas, the Byrds and other titans of the age. However, what could not be ignored, as rock disdained its pubescent past, was a group of middle-aged Hollywood businessmen had actually assembled their concept of a profitable rock group and foisted it upon the world. What mattered was that the Monkees had success handed to them on a silver plate. Indeed, it was not so much righteous indignation but thinly disguised jealousy which motivated the scornful dismissal of what must, in retrospect, be seen as entertaining, imaginative and highly memorable exercise in pop culture. \n\nMediaite columnist Paul Levinson noted that \"The Monkees were the first example of something created in a medium—in this case, a rock group on television—that jumped off the screen to have big impact in the real world.\"\n\nWhen commenting on the death of Jones on February 29, 2012, Time magazine contributor James Poniewozik praised the television show, saying that \"even if the show never meant to be more than entertainment and a hit-single generator, we shouldn't sell The Monkees short. It was far better TV than it had to be; during an era of formulaic domestic sitcoms and wacky comedies, it was a stylistically ambitious show, with a distinctive visual style, absurdist sense of humor and unusual story structure. Whatever Jones and the Monkees were meant to be, they became creative artists in their own right, and Jones' chipper Brit-pop presence was a big reason they were able to produce work that was commercial, wholesome and yet impressively weird.\n\nBoth the style and substance of the Monkees were imitated by American boy band Big Time Rush (BTR), who performed in their own television series which -- by admission of series creator Scott Fellows -- was heavily influenced by the Monkees. Similar to the Monkees, Big Time Rush featured a \"made-for-tv\" boy band often caught in a series of misadventures, hijinks, and somewhat slapstick comedy. The show, now in reruns but still hugely popular on Teen Nick, is highly stylized and patterned after the Monkees, even capped with similar cartoonish sound effects. Like the Monkees, BTR has also seen critical and commercial success in America and worldwide through album, singles and high TV ratings worldwide.\"\n\nCovers\n\n* Mike Nesmith's individual song publishing opened the way for the Paul Butterfield Blues Band to record \"Mary, Mary\" for their groundbreaking second album, East-West, in 1966---months before the song was recorded by the Monkees for the controversial More of the Monkees second album. \n* Linda Ronstadt would have her first major hit two years later, when her folk-rock group The Stone Poneys recorded Nesmith's \"Different Drum,\" a song they may have found by way of the Greenbriar Boys' earlier version. Except for a comic and brief playing of the song on a Monkees television episode, neither Nesmith nor the Monkees themselves recorded the song.\n* Canadian singer Anne Murray recorded \"Daydream Believer\" on her 1979 album, I'll Always Love You. In 1980, it peaked at No. 1 on the U.S. Adult Contemporary chart, No. 12 on the pop chart, and No. 3 on the country chart.\n* In 1988, Run–D.M.C. recorded \"Mary, Mary\" on their album Tougher Than Leather.\n* Australian indie-rock bands of the 1980s such as Grooveyard (\"All The King's Horses\"), Prince Vlad & the Gargoyle Impalers (\"Mary, Mary\", \"For Pete's Sake\", \"Circle Sky\"), the Upbeat, and the Mexican Spitfires (\"Mary, Mary\") performed Monkees cover versions.\n* Cassandra Wilson had an indie hit with \"Last Train to Clarksville\" in 1995.\n* The alternative rock group Smash Mouth had a hit with \"I'm a Believer\" in 2001, and their version was featured in the computer-animated movie Shrek.\n* Japanese indie rock band Shonen Knife recorded \"Daydream Believer\".\n* Indie group Carter USM recorded \"Randy Scouse Git\", which is also called \"Alternate Title\".\n* The 1980s psychedelic rock band Bongwater recorded \"You Just May Be The One\" and \"The Porpoise Song\".\n* The Dickies recorded their own version of \"She\" on their 1979 debut album The Incredible Shrinking Dickies. \n* The Monkees also had a big influence on Paul Westerberg, lead singer and songwriter for the Replacements; \"Daydream Believer\" and \"You Just May Be The One\" are staples at his live shows.\n* The British alternative rock band the Wedding Present recorded \"Pleasant Valley Sunday\" in the early 1990s.\n* The Sex Pistols covered \"(I'm Not Your) Steppin' Stone\" in the 1970s.\n* George Benson covered \"Last Train to Clarksville\" in 1968 on his jazz album Shape of Things to Come.\n* Thrash metal band Intruder covered \"(I'm Not Your) Steppin' Stone\" in 1989 on their album A Higher Form of Killing.\n\nIn popular culture\n\nThe band's legacy was strengthened by Rhino Entertainment's acquisition of the Monkees' franchise from Columbia Pictures in the early 1990s. The label has released several Monkees-related projects, including remastered editions of both the original television series and their complete music library, as well as their motion picture Head.\n\nThe highly respected Criterion Collection, whose stated goal is to release \"a continuing series of important classic and contemporary films, [and] has been dedicated to gathering the greatest films from around the world and publishing them in editions that offer the highest technical quality and award-winning, original supplements\" recognized The Monkees film Head as meeting their criteria when they fully restored and released it on DVD and Blu-ray in 2010. They stated that Head was \"way, way ahead of its time\" and \"arguably the most authentically psychedelic film made in 1960s Hollywood\", Head dodged commercial success on its release but has since been reclaimed as one of the great cult objects of its era.\" \n\nIn the book, Hey, Hey We're The Monkees, Rafelson explains, \"[Head] explored techniques on film that hadn't been used before. The first shot of Micky under water is a perfect example. Now you see it on MTV all the time, but it was invented for the movie [...] I got two long-haired kids out of UCLA who created the effects that the established laboratory guys said couldn't be done. We invented double-matted experiences. Polarization hadn't been used in movies before. [...] When it was shown in France, the head of the Cinematheque overly praised the movie as a cinematic masterpiece, and from that point on, this movie began to acquire an underground reputation.\" \n\nOther examples of the Monkees impact:\n* Brian Wilson, of the Beach Boys, noted in the Monkees Anthology CD liner notes that \"The Monkees inspired me to write \"Break Away\" with my dad. Thank you for all of the good music.\"\n* Glen Campbell, who was a touring member of the Beach Boys, and a successful solo artist, mentioned in the Monkees Anthology CD liner notes that \"I love the Monkees because I dug their music.\"\n* Nirvana's lead singer Kurt Cobain was a fan of the Monkees, and put their logo on the back of one of his early guitars.\n* U2 was a big fan of the Monkees, and had Davy Jones come out during one of their concerts to sing \"Daydream Believer.\"\n* R.E.M.'s lead singer Michael Stipe had once stated that they would not accept induction into the Rock n' Roll Hall of Fame until the Monkees were inducted. (R.E.M. has since been inducted.)\n* In the 1990s, Dolenz, Jones and Tork had minor roles in the family sitcom Boy Meets World. Tork played Topanga's father Jedidiah; Jones played Reginald, an old friend from Europe; Dolenz played Gordy, Mr. Matthews' best friend. In the one episode that the three were in together, they performed \"My Girl\" and \"Not Fade Away.\"\n* In 1991, a feature film called Daydream Believer (known as The Girl Who Came Late in some markets) was released in Australia.\n* In 1995, Dolenz, Jones, and Tork, alongside the Beatles drummer Ringo Starr, starred in a Pizza Hut commercial. Starr wants to convince \"the lads\" to reunite in order to promote a new pizza style. In the end, Dolenz, Jones, and Tork appear next to Starr, leading the drummer to say \"oops, wrong lads.\"\n* Jones, Tork and Dolenz also feature memorably as themselves in The Brady Bunch Movie. Jones is invited by Marcia to appear as the surprise star guest at the high school prom. (This was a take-off on a 1971 episode of the original series with Jones and a similar plotline.) After a difficult start, he proves a surprise hit with the modern-day audience, especially the adult chaperones when they realize their girlhood idol is on-stage. Later, the Bradys themselves perform \"Keep On Dancing,\" a 1960s-style \"groovy\" song, in the evening's \"Search for a Star\" talent contest. Everyone is surprised when they win the award until it is revealed that the judging panel consists of Jones, Tork and Dolenz.\n* In The Simpsons episode \"Fear of Flying,\" a flashback to Marge's childhood showed that she had a Monkees lunchbox on her first day of school, only for another girl to taunt her about her love for the band by telling her they did not play their own instruments or write their own songs—and claim that Mike Nesmith's hat was not his own. In the present, Marge notes that the girl was right, however her psychiatrist assures her by saying, \"The Monkees weren't about music, Marge. They were about rebellion, about political and social upheaval!\"\n* In the South Park episode \"Chickenpox,\" a cover of the song \"I'm a Believer,\" recorded by Weezer, plays in the background of a montage depicting the strenuous relationship between Kyle Broflovski and Eric Cartman.\n* The 1999 British Pop band S Club 7's T.V. show Miami 7 featured a very similar storyline to the Monkees TV Show as they were also a manufactured band trying to become famous like the Monkees. It was also the 2nd time a manufactured band had appeared on television in the USA. \n* In 2005, eBay used \"Daydream Believer\" as the theme for a promotional campaign.\n* In 2006, Evergreen used \"Daydream Believer\" in their advertisements; the lyrics were adapted for the product.\n* In 2009, Britain's Got Talent sensation Susan Boyle recorded \"Daydream Believer.\"\n* In 2010, Nick Vernier Band created a digital \"Monkees reunion\" through the release of Mister Bob (featuring The Monkees), a new song produced under license from Rhino Entertainment, containing vocal samples from the band's recording \"Zilch.\"\n* In 2011, \"Mister Bob\" was released as a single to coincide with the Monkees's 45th Anniversary Tour.\n* In 2012, the television show Breaking Bad featured the song \"Goin' Down\" as the soundtrack to a meth cooking montage.\n* In 2013, the closing song of Mad Men Season 6, Episode 12 is the Monkees' \"Porpoise Song\", also known as the theme from their 1968 psychedelic film (co-written by a young Jack Nicholson), \"Head\".\n\nNotable achievements\n\n* Had the top-charting American single of 1967 (\"I'm a Believer\"). (Billboard number-one for seven weeks) with \"Daydream Believer\" tied for third. I'm a Believer was listed as the #48 song on the Billboard Hot 100 50th Anniversary Chart that was released in August 2008. The August 2013 updated 55th Anniversary Chart shows the song at #57. \n* Gave the Jimi Hendrix Experience their first U.S. concert tour exposure as an opening act in July 1967. Jimi Hendrix's heavy psychedelic guitar and sexual overtones did not go over well with the teenage girls in the audience, which eventually led to his leaving the tour early. \n* Gene Roddenberry was inspired to introduce the character of Chekov in his Star Trek TV series in response to the popularity of Davy Jones, complete with hairstyle and appearance mimicking that of Jones. \n* Introduced Tim Buckley to a national audience, via his appearance in the series finale, \"The Frodis Caper\" (aka \"Mijacogeo\").\n* Last music artist to win the MTV Friday Night Video Fights by defeating Bon Jovi 51% to 49%.\n* First music artist to win two Emmy Awards.\n* Had seven albums on the Billboard top 200 chart at the same time (six were re-issues during 1986-1987).\n* One of the first artists achieving number-one hits in the United States and United Kingdom simultaneously.\n* The only recording act to have four No. 1 albums in a 12-month (changed from 1 year to avoid confusion with a calendar year) span. \n* Held the No. 1 spot on the Billboard album chart for 31 consecutive weeks, 37 weeks total. \n* Held the record for the longest stay at No. 1 for a debut record album until 1982 when Men at Work's debut record album Business As Usual broke that record.\n* Received their star on the Hollywood Walk of fame in July 1989. All 4 members were present for the ceremony.\n* In 2008, the Monkees were inducted into the Hit Parade Hall of Fame.\n* In 2014 the Monkees were inducted into America's Pop Music Hall of Fame. \n* The Music Business Association (Music Biz) honored The Monkees with an Outstanding Achievement Award celebrating their 50th anniversary on May 16, 2016. \n\nDiscography\n\n* The Monkees (1966)\n* More of The Monkees (1967)\n* Headquarters (1967)\n* Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd. (1967)\n* The Birds, The Bees & the Monkees (1968)\n* Head (1968)\n* Instant Replay (1969)\n* The Monkees Present (1969)\n* Changes (1970)\n* Pool It! (1987)\n* Justus (1996)\n* Good Times! (2016)\n\nTours\n\n* North American Tour (1966–67)\n* British Tour (1967)\n* Pacific Rim Tour (1968)\n* North American Tour (1969) (Dolenz, Jones, Nesmith)\n* The Golden Hits of The Monkees (1975–77) (Dolenz, Jones, Boyce and Hart)\n* Sounds of The Monkees (1986; 1987) (Jones, Tork)\n* 20th Anniversary World Tour (1986) (Dolenz, Jones, Tork)\n* Here We Come Again Tour (1987–88) (Dolenz, Jones, Tork)\n* The Monkees Live (1989) (Dolenz, Jones, Tork)\n* The Monkees Summer Tour (1989) (Dolenz, Jones, Tork)\n* Micky and Davy: Together Again (1994–95) (Dolenz, Jones)\n* Monkees: The 30th Anniversary Tour (1996) (Dolenz, Jones, Tork)\n* Justus Tour (1997)\n* North American Tour (1997) (Dolenz, Jones, Tork)\n* Monkeemania Returns Tour (2001–2002) (Dolenz, Jones, Tork)\n* An Evening with The Monkees: The 45th Anniversary Tour (2011) (Dolenz, Jones, Tork)\n* An Evening with The Monkees (Fall 2012) (Dolenz, Nesmith, Tork)\n* A Midsummer's Night with the Monkees (Summer 2013) (Dolenz, Nesmith, Tork)\n* The Monkees Live in Concert (Spring 2014) (Dolenz, Nesmith, Tork)\n* An Evening with the Monkees (2015) (Dolenz, Tork)\n* 50th Anniversary Tour (2016) (Dolenz, Tork)\n\nComics\n\nThere was also \"The Monkees\" comic published in the United States by Dell Comics, which ran for seventeen issues from 1967 to 1969. In the United Kingdom, a Daily Mirror \"Crazy Cartoon Book\" featured four comic stories as well as four photos of The Monkees, all in black and white; it was published in 1967.\n\nBiopic\n\nIn 2000, VH-1 produced the television biopic Daydream Believers: The Monkees' Story. In 2002, the movie was released on DVD, and featured both commentaries and interviews with Dolenz, Jones and Tork. The aired version did differ from the DVD release as the TV version had an extended scene with all four Monkees meeting the Beatles but with a shortened Cleveland concert segment. It was also available on VHS.\n\nMusical\n\nA stage musical opened in the UK at the Manchester Opera House on Friday March 30, 2012, and was dedicated to Davy Jones (the Jones family attended the official opening on April 3). The production is a Jukebox musical and starred Stephen Kirwan, Ben Evans, Tom Parsons and Oliver Savile as actors playing the parts of the Monkees (respectively Dolenz, Jones, Nesmith, Tork) who are hired by an unscrupulous businessman to go on a world tour pretending to be the real band. The show includes 18 Monkees songs plus numbers by other 60s artists. It ran in Manchester as part of the \"Manchester Gets it First\" program until April 14, 2012 before a UK tour. Following its Manchester run, the show appeared in the Glasgow King's Theatre and the Sunderland Empire Theatre.\n\nBibliography\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*" ] }

{ "description": [ "Get discount The Monkees tickets for Warner Theatre Washington, D.C.. Goldstar has The Monkees reviews, ... Two of The Monkees' original four members ... (Washington, DC)", "The Monkees are cutting a new album with tracks by Rivers Cuomo, ... My job is just to come in and sing lead vocals. ... Washington, DC @ Warner Theatre May 27 ...", "Group Members : Michael Nesmith, ... of the music press often lambasted the Monkees, largely because they didn't come together organically but ... Washington, DC US ...", "This is the version of The Monkees featuring original members Mickey Dolenz and Peter Tork, ... Washington, DC @ Warner Theatre ... Mashable is a global, ...", "... The Monkees original members Micky Dolenz and Peter Tork sing on live TV. ... \"I thought it came out great, ... Washington, DC @ Warner Theatre May 27 ...", "... with surviving members Nesmith, ... The Monkees' last new album came in 1996, with \"JustUs.\" ... Billboard biz.", "Warner Music Canada. ... GOOD TIMES! features all three surviving band members ... 26 Washington, DC Warner Theatre. 27 ...", "Must come down for interview.' 437 ... (born Peter Halsten Thorkelson on 13th February 1942 in Washington DC), ... Peter Tork was the first member to leave ..." ], "filename": [ "7/7_3830.txt", "85/85_3831.txt", "199/199_3832.txt", "35/35_3833.txt", "3/3_3834.txt", "31/31_3835.txt", "16/16_3836.txt", "152/152_3837.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ], "title": [ "The Monkees Washington, D.C. Tickets - $20.00 - $45.00 at ...", "The Monkees Plot 50th Anniversary Tour, New LP 'Good Times ...", "The Monkees | Download Music, Tour Dates & Video | eMusic", "Hey hey, The Monkees announced a 50th anniversary album ...", "The Monkees Live on TV 2016 I'm A Believer / Good Times ...", "The Monkees Announce Summer U.S. Tour Dates | Billboard", "The Monkees Let The Good Times! Roll With New Album And ...", "Monkees - Pop-Cult.Com" ], "url": [ "https://www.goldstar.com/events/washington-dc/the-monkees-tickets", "http://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/the-monkees-plot-50th-anniversary-tour-new-lp-good-times-20160205", "http://www.emusic.com/artist/the-monkees/11764416/", "http://mashable.com/2016/02/05/monkees-new-album-tour/", "http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vmWEEawpU2s", "http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1560031/the-monkees-announce-summer-us-tour-dates", "http://www.warnermusic.ca/press-release/766/the-monkees-let-the-good-times-roll-with-new-album-and-tour-for-50th-anniversary/", "http://www.tv.pop-cult.com/monkees.html" ], "search_context": [ "The Monkees Washington, D.C. Tickets - $20 - $45 at Warner Theatre. 2016-05-26\n6 Stars\n5.0 by 4 members\nHey hey, it's The Monkees, and here they come, treating you to a night of all their greatest hits at the Warner Theatre in D.C. Two of The Monkees' original four members -- Micky Dolenz and Peter Tork -- reunite to sing \"Last Train to Clarksville\" and \"I'm a Believer,\" along with so many other jams. At the height of their success in 1967, The Monkees sold more albums than The Beatles or The Rolling Stones. Don't miss this special night of timeless rock classics, acoustic numbers and fan favorites.\n* Additional fees apply. No coupon or promo codes necessary to enjoy the displayed discount price.\nAll offers for The Monkees have expired.\nThe last date listed for The Monkees was Thursday May 26, 2016 / 8:00pm.", "The Monkees Plot 50th Anniversary Tour, New LP 'Good Times!' - Rolling Stone\nThe Monkees Plot 50th Anniversary Tour, New LP 'Good Times!'\nThe Monkees Plot 50th Anniversary Tour, New LP 'Good Times!'\nMicky Dolenz talks about new Monkees album, which features songs by Rivers Cuomo and Noel Gallagher\nThe Monkees are cutting a new album with tracks by Rivers Cuomo, Noel Gallagher, Ben Gibbard and more Credit: Dave J Hogan/Getty\nAll Stories\nThis summer marks the 50th anniversary of the Monkees ' television series and the release of their debut single \"Last Train To Clarksville,\" and the group will celebrate by releasing their new album Good Times! and embarking on an extensive North American tour. The album is the Monkees' first collection of original material since 1997's JustUs, and it will feature new songs by Noel Gallagher, Rivers Cuomo, Ben Gibbard and many more. Adam Schlesinger of Fountains of Wayne serves as producer on the new LP. \nMore News\nMonkees' Complete TV Series, 'Head' Coming to Blu-ray\nLimited edition 50th anniversary collection will feature all 58 'Monkees' episodes plus bonus features\nGood Times! also features a handful of songs written for the Monkees back in the 1960s that they never got around to releasing, including Neil Diamond's \"Love to Love,\" Boyce and Hart's \"Whatever's Right\" and Carole King's \"Wasn't Born To Follow.\" There's also \"I Know What I Know,\" a new song by Mike Nesmith. The title track was written by Harry Nilsson and cut at a 1968 session with Nesmith on guitar, though never finished. The group plans to flesh out the tune, turning it into a virtual duet between Nilsson and Monkees singer Micky Dolenz.\nThe Monkees returned from a decade-long hiatus in 2011 when the three-man lineup of Micky Dolenz, Peter Tork and Davy Jones reunited for a 45th anniversary tour. Jones died of a sudden heart attack  early the following year, and months later the group stunned fans by hitting the road with Mike Nesmith, who sat out nearly all Monkees reunion tours since the group split in 1971. The lineup of Nesmith/Tork/Dolenz played a series of American shows through the summer of 2014, though last year Nesmith stepped aside yet again and Dolenz and Tork began gigging without him. \"Mike has a lot of other arrows in his quiver,\" says Dolenz. \"For starters, he runs a big business. He's also writing a book, which was the specific reason he gave me for not wanting to leave town again for any particular length of time.\"\nTalk of a 50th anniversary Monkees project began a couple of years ago. The group's trademark is owned by Rhino, and they oversee the release of all Monkees reissues (both the music and TV series) and they license out the name so they can use it on tour. \"There have been some recent personnel changes at Rhino and the incoming personnel were very, very pro and positive about the Monkees,\" says Dolenz. \"[Rhino executives] John Hughes and Mark Pinkus both said they wanted us to make a new album, and they spelled out the exact kind of album that would go down well with the 50th anniversary and with our fans.\"\nAdam Schlesinger was hired to produce the disc, and songwriters all over the world were approached about submitting tunes for the group to cut. \"I'm not a big music listener outside of Frank Sinatra during martini hour,\" says Dolenz. \"But I began doing research and I realized that the whole indie rock scene is all about recapturing that 1960s jangly guitar sound of the Monkees, amongst many other groups, of course. One reason we don't have a final track listing yet is because once we put the word out all these people said they wanted to get involved.\"\nThe album has a hard release date of June 10th, though right now Schlesinger is busy creating music for the CW show Crazy Ex-Girlfriend and formal recording sessions have yet to begin. \"We've been talking a lot back and forth and sharing music via Dropbox,\" says Dolenz. \"It's coming together fast, which isn't a bad thing since it forces you to make decisions. My job is just to come in and sing lead vocals. It's no different than the old days when we had to get everything done in three-hour sessions because that was the limit of the musician's union.\"\nRight now, he's focused on wrapping his head around the new songs. \"We all agree that the lyrics in the Rivers Cuomo song needed to be aged up a little but,\" Dolenz says. \"It sounds like it's about a little girl and I'm 70 years old, so Rivers is re-writing the lyrics.\" Noel Gallagher is still crafting lyrics for his contribution, though Dolenz says that Ben Gibbard's song \"Me & Magdalena\" and Zach Rogue's tune \"Terrifying\" are both in and ready to go. \"They're all keeping with our sensibility,\" says Dolenz. \"I just keep calling it that jangly guitar pop sound, though I used to call it 'progressive bubblegum.'\"\nThe Monkees in 1965. Dezo Hoffmann/REX\nAs of now, there's no formal plans for Mike Nesmith to contribute any guitar or vocal parts. \"I don't know what's going to happen with that,\" he says. \"Frankly, we don't even have a recording schedule right now!\" Peter Tork, however, will definitely be on hand to record vocals and likely play guitar and possibly the banjo on some of the songs. Davy Jones' voice will be heard on Neil Diamond's \"Love To Love,\" which the group cut in the 1960s. \"I'm hoping to do harmonies on that,\" says Dolenz. \"But I haven't spoken to Adam about that in any great detail.\"\nThe tour kicks off on May 18th in Fort Myers, Florida and runs though October 29th in Shippensburg, PA, though more dates may be added. The group expects to play some new songs, though the show will revolve around their deep catalog of classics. \"I've always felt it was important to give the audience what they want,\" says Dolenz, \"which is the hits. Peter and I do a lovely acoustic portion of the show, like we're sitting around a campfire. Our vocal blend has become very, very interesting.\"\nThey plan on performing many songs that originally featured Mike Nesmith on lead vocals, though he won't be on the tour. \"He's always invited,\" says Dolenz. \"And at times he has blessed us with his presence. I don't see him going on the road, and certainly not for the whole grueling thing. I sure hope he does show up at some point and sing a couple of songs with us.\"\nThe Monkees' heyday lasted little more than three years, and nobody is more shocked than the members of the band that they're still around for the 50th anniversary. \"Here I am, 70 years old,\" says Dolenz. \"How the hell did that happen? But I'm more excited for this album and tour than I've been for anything in a long time.\"\nThe Monkees Tour Dates", "The Monkees | Download Music, Tour Dates & Video | eMusic\nGroup Members: Michael Nesmith , Micky Dolenz , Davy Jones , Michael Nesmith\nAll Music Guide:\n\"Hey hey, we are the Monkees/You know we love to please/A manufactured image/With no philosophies.\" In 1968, the Monkees addressed their own reputation in the song \"Ditty Diego (War Chant),\" which summed up the bad rap they'd received in the music press since they first emerged in the summer of 1966. The Monkees were talented singers, musicians, and songwriters who made a handful of the finest pop singles of their day (as well as a few first-rate albums) and delivered exciting, entertaining live shows. But at a time when rock music was becoming more self-conscious and \"serious,\" the hipper echelons of the music press often lambasted the Monkees, largely because they didn't come together organically but through the casting process for a television series, and they initially didn't write the bulk of their own material or play all the instruments on their records. The fact they later took creative control of their music was often overlooked, and the quality of their music, which featured the work of some of the finest session players and songwriters of the 1960s, often seemed to be beside the point. Time has ultimately vindicated the Monkees, and their music still sounds fresh and engaging decades after it was recorded, but in some circles they never fully shook being branded as \"the Pre-Fab Four,\" no matter how far they moved from the circumstances that brought them together.\nThe Monkees story began in the fall of 1965, when Bob Rafelson and Bert Schneider, a pair of producers whose Raybert Productions had a deal with Columbia Pictures and their TV branch Screen Gems, came up with an idea for a television series about a rock group. Inspired by Richard Lester's groundbreaking comedies with the Beatles, A Hard Day's Night and Help!, Rafelson and Schneider imagined a situation comedy in which a four-piece band had wacky adventures every week and occasionally burst into song. The NBC television network liked the idea, and production began on The Monkees in early 1966. Don Kirshner, a music business veteran who was a top executive at Colgems Records (a label affiliated with Columbia/Screen Gems), was appointed music coordinator for the series, and Tommy Boyce and Bobby Hart, a producing and songwriting team, signed on to handle much of the day-to-day chores of creating music for the show's fictive band. A casting call went out for four young men to play the members of the group, and Rafelson and Schneider's choices for the roles were truly inspired. Michael Nesmith and Peter Tork were musicians with solid performing and recording experience who also had a flair for playing comedy, while Micky Dolenz and Davy Jones were primarily actors but had also dabbled in pop music and had strong vocal abilities. As the show went before the camera, Kirshner had Boyce and Hart take the four leads into the studio to begin recording the songs that would be featured on the show each week. While initially the cast was only going to provide vocals for material Boyce and Hart had already recorded, the producers were impressed enough with Nesmith's songwriting skills that they chose to use a few of his tunes and let him produce them. With this, the Monkees took their first step toward evolving into a proper, self-sufficient rock band.\nThe Monkees debuted on NBC in the fall of 1966 and was an immediate hit in the ratings, while \"Last Train to Clarksville,\" the group's first single, had become a number one hit a few weeks earlier (the self-titled debut album would top the chart in October). Rafelson, Schneider, and Kirshner shrewdly allowed the show to promote the records and vice versa, and while the notion that television time could sell pop records was hardly new (Ricky Nelson proved that almost a decade earlier), no one had made it work with quite the success the Monkees achieved almost immediately. Dozens of Monkees-related products flooded the marketplace, from toy guitars and lunch boxes to board games and models of the custom Pontiac the guys drove on the show. In late 1966, someone got the idea of booking a few live shows with the Monkees, and recordings of their early concerts prove that while not all four were virtuoso musicians, they worked well together on-stage and were a energetic, rough-and-ready rock band who could work a crowd. As the Monkees gained confidence in their abilities as performers, they began to chafe under the restrictions imposed on them by Kirshner, who had full control over what songs they would record and who would produce and play on the sessions.\nThe Monkees' early recordings found them working with a stellar team of songwriters (including Neil Diamond, Carole King and Gerry Goffin, and David Gates along with Boyce and Hart) and musicians (such as Glen Campbell, James Burton, Hal Blaine, and Larry Taylor), but Nesmith and Tork in particular were eager to show off their own talents (Nesmith was responsible for some of the Monkees' most distinctive tunes), and all four were stung by the negative publicity they'd received as rock critics declared they weren't a \"real\" band and couldn't play their instruments (Nesmith and Tork certainly could, and Dolenz and Jones would become capable instrumentalists, but they weren't allowed to play on their earliest recordings). When the Monkees were presented with copies of their second album, More of the Monkees, in January 1967, Nesmith and Tork were furious -- it was filled with material recorded for the TV show and the bandmembers had no input into its packaging or sequencing. This led to a standoff between the four Monkees, who demanded autonomy over the music they performed, and Kirshner, who didn't want to disrupt the hitmaking machine he'd helped create. Eventually, Rafelson and Schneider sided with his stars (who could not be readily replaced) and Kirshner was fired in the spring of 1967. (Kirshner would later coordinate the music for the Archies, who as cartoon characters lacked the power to rebel against their producers.)\nNow calling their own musical shots, the Monkees recorded their third album, Headquarters, with Chip Douglas (aka Douglas Farthing Hatlelid) of the Turtles producing and playing bass. Outside of Douglas and a few string and horn players, the Monkees played all the instruments on Headquarters, and the album rose to number one on the charts in May of 1967, proving the group members were more than capable of making memorable records on their own (and the closing track, \"Randy Scouse Git,\" showed the cultural changes that were making themselves known in America had not escaped the attention of TV's leading pop group). Another Monkees album appeared in November 1967, Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd., which is generally regarded as the group's finest work; while all four Monkees played and sang on the album, they also brought a few session players in for the recordings, hitting a middle ground between the polished studiocraft of the first two LPs and the more organic sound of Headquarters. While the Monkees now had the freedom to chart their own path in the recording studio, this also led to the musicians discovering their creative differences, and by the time they recorded The Birds, the Bees & the Monkees (released in April 1968), the foursome was starting to splinter, with each member essentially producing and coordinating 25 percent of the album, and the band's collaborative energy began to dissipate.\nAfter two successful seasons, the Monkees' television series was not renewed for the fall 1968 season, as the group hoped to launch a career in the movies. But Head, their first (and last) feature film, was a commercial disaster; it was an often clever and challenging satire of the Monkees' own curious stardom and the culture that surrounded them, but it also quite literally had no plot and confounded the younger viewers who were the TV show's strongest fan base. The soundtrack album struggled to a relatively dismal number 45 on the charts, and shortly afterwards Peter Tork opted to leave the band. The Monkees released two albums as a trio in 1969, Instant Replay and The Monkees Present, but while they both contained fine music that showed the group was continuing to mature, neither launched any major hits, and the band's commercial fortunes were clearly beginning to wane. In late 1969, Nesmith left to pursue a solo career (he'd already released an instrumental solo album, The Wichita Train Whistle Sings, in 1968), and after a final Monkees album featuring just Dolenz and Jones, 1970's Changes, the group quietly dissolved.\nNesmith went on to a critically respected and modestly successful solo career, cutting several excellent country-rock albums, and he enjoyed considerable success in the entertainment business, producing music videos and feature films as well as running a film and video label, Pacific Arts. Both Dolenz and Jones moved back and forth between acting and music, and in 1975 they teamed up with Tommy Boyce and Bobby Hart to record a new album and the foursome went out on the road, playing their new material as well as many of the Monkees' hits. Tork's music career stayed under the radar through much of the '70s, though he led a band called Release, operated a music production firm, recorded a Christmas single with Dolenz and Jones in 1976, and was courted for a solo deal with Sire Records.\nThe Monkees' television show stayed on the air for years in reruns after the group broke up, and in 1985, MTV presented a daylong marathon of Monkees episodes, tipping their hat to the show and the band that helped bring rock and television together. The marathon was a hit in the ratings and Monkees reruns became a regular feature on the network. That same year, producer and promoter David Fishof put together a Monkees reunion tour; while Nesmith's business commitments prevented him from joining his bandmates, Dolenz, Jones, and Tork were game, and the tour was a massive commercial success, and much of the group's back catalog bounced back into the charts. (Nesmith also made a guest appearance with the Monkees for their sold-out appearance at L.A.'s Greek Theater, and appeared with them on an MTV Christmas video.) In 1986, Dolenz and Tork cut a new single, \"That Was Then, This Is Now,\" which was tagged onto a Monkees hits compilation and became a hit. The success of the single prompted the Monkees (again minus Nesmith) to record a new album, but 1987's Pool It! didn't fare well with critics or fans, and the members soon went their separate ways again, though Dolenz and Jones occasionally worked as a duo.\nAs the 30th anniversary of the Monkees' debut loomed in the mid-'90s and Rhino Records (who had reissued the group's back catalog in the 1980s) assumed full control of the group's filmed and recorded legacy and began a series of definitive reissues, another reunion tour was proposed, and the talks led to Dolenz, Jones, Nesmith, and Tork getting together to jam for the fun of it. They enjoyed the process enough that they decided to record a new album, and Justus, released in October 1996, became the first Monkees album written, performed, and produced solely by the four members of the band. The four Monkees appeared in a television special tied into the album's release (called Hey Hey, We're the Monkees), and they were set to take part in a world concert tour to promote the record. However, after a string of dates in the United Kingdom in 1997, Nesmith dropped out, and while the tour went on without him, the other three did little to hide their disappointment with Nesmith in the press. Another tour by the three-piece Monkees took place in 2001, but Tork left the show before the final dates; Tork told reporters he'd quit, while Dolenz and Jones said he'd been fired. Since then, Dolenz, Jones, and Tork have all toured as solo acts; Nesmith, meanwhile, released a solo album in 2006, Rays, and has taken up writing fiction, having penned two novels, The Long Sandy Hair of Neftoon Zamora and The American Gene.", "Hey hey, The Monkees announced a 50th anniversary album and tour\nHey hey, The Monkees announced a 50th anniversary album and tour\n2.5k\nThe Monkees: Davy Jones, Peter Tork, Mike Nesmith and Mickey Dolenz.\nImage: Michael Ochs Archives/Getty Images\n2016-02-05 21:29:45 UTC\nHere they come ... 50 years later.\nThe Monkees — the greatest fake band ever assembled for a madcap TV show — will celebrate the 50th anniversary of the series this summer with a new album, titled Good Times!, and a lengthy North American tour kicking off May 18 in Fort Myers, Florida, Rolling Stone reported Friday.\nGood Times!, produced by Adam Schlesinger (Fountains of Wayne), will be comprised of new original songs, including tracks written in the 1960s that were never recorded and the late Davy Jones singing a cover of Neil Diamond's \"Love to Love\" that was recorded in the '60s.\nThe Monkees: Mike Nesmith, Peter Tork, Davy Jones and Mickey Dolenz in 1967, London.\nImage: Michael Putland/Getty Images\nThe June 10 release will also feature many guests including Noel Gallagher, Rivers Cuomo, Ben Gibbard and more.\nIt's true! GOOD TIMES! and a tour are coming! Read @TheMickyDolenz1 exclusive interview at @RollingStone - https://t.co/WA8uYwDnWD\nSee also: Chris Martin's daughter Apple warned him of the terrors of becoming a meme\nThis is the version of The Monkees featuring original members Mickey Dolenz and Peter Tork, but not Mike Nesmith, who briefly toured with them from 2011 to 2014. But he's \"always invited,\" Micky Dolenz tells Rolling Stone, \"and at times he has blessed us with his presence ... I sure hope he does show up at some point and sing a couple of songs with us.\"\n\"Peter (Tork, below right) and I do a lovely acoustic portion of the show, like we're sitting around a campfire. Our vocal blend has become very, very interesting,\" Dolenz told Rolling Stone.\nThe Monkees perform at Eventim Apollo Hammersmith in London on Sep. 4, 2015.\nImage: Rex Features via AP Images/Associated Press\nHere's the list of tour dates and locations:\nMay 18 - Fort Myers, FL @ Barbara B. Mann Performing Arts Hall\nMay 19 - Melbourne, FL @ King Center for the Performing Arts\nMay 20 - Tampa, FL @ Ruth Eckerd Hall\nMay 21 - Atlanta, GA @ Frederick Brown Jr. Amphitheater\nMay 24 - Charlotte, NC @ Blumenthal PAC - Belk Theater\nMay 26 - Washington, DC @ Warner Theatre\nMay 27 - Boston, MA @ The Wilbur Theatre\nMay 28 - Philadelphia, PA @ Keswick Theatre\nMay 29 - Red Bank, NJ @ Count Basie Theatre\nJune 1 - New York, NY @ The Town Hall\nJune 3 - Toronto, ON @ Casino Rama\nJune 4 - Windsor, ON @ The Colosseum at Caesars Windsor\nJune 5 - Cleveland, OH @ Hard Rock Live Northfield Park\nJune 7 - Fort Wayne, IN @ Foellinger Theatre\nJune 10 - Louisville, KY @ Louisville Palace Theatre\nJune 12 - Indianapolis, IN @ Murat Theatre at Old National Centre\nJune 14 - Dayton, OH @ Rose Music Center at The Heights\nJune 28 - Dallas, TX @ AT&T PAC – Winspear Opera House\nJune 30 - Tulsa, OK @ Hard Rock Hotel & Casino\nJuly 1 - Mayetta, KS @ Prairie Band Casino & Resort\nJuly 16 - Hampton Beach, NH @ Hampton Beach Casino Ballroom\nJuly 22 - Hot Springs, AR @ Oaklawn Racing and Gaming\nSeptember 15 - Phoenix, AZ @ Mesa Arts Center\nSeptember 16 - Los Angeles, CA @ Pantages Theatre\nSeptember 17 - Las Vegas, NV @ Primm Valley Casino Resorts\nSeptember 20 - San Francisco, CA @ The Warfield\nSeptember 21 - Modesto, CA @ Gallo Center For The Arts\nSeptember 23 & 24 - Lincoln City, OR @ Chinook Winds Casino Resort\nSeptember 25 - Seattle, WA @ The Moore Theatre\nOctober 1 - Biloxi, MS @ Hard Rock Live\nOctober 22 - Paso Robles, CA @ Vina Robles Amphitheatre\nOctober 29 - Shippensburg, PA @ H. Ric Luhrs PAC", "The Monkees Live on TV 2016 I'm A Believer / Good Times! - YouTube\nThe Monkees Live on TV 2016 I'm A Believer / Good Times!\nWant to watch this again later?\nSign in to add this video to a playlist.\nNeed to report the video?\nSign in to report inappropriate content.\nRating is available when the video has been rented.\nThis feature is not available right now. Please try again later.\nPublished on Jun 4, 2016\nFor the first time since Davy Jones died in 2012 of a heart attack, The Monkees original members Micky Dolenz and Peter Tork sing on live TV. I'm A Believer and She Makes Me Laugh was performed on GMA the morning of June 1, 2016.\nIn 1967, The Monkees sold more records than The Beatles and The Rolling Stones combined. Jimi Hendrix Experience was the opening act on The Monkees sixties national tour.\n‘I’m A Believer’ from ‘More of the Monkees’ (1967) is The Monkees biggest and most enduring hit, staying at Billboard Hot 100 No. 1 for seven weeks. The Monkees most identifiable song was written by a young Neil Diamond, but the group made it their own thanks to the dynamic vocals of Mickey Dolenz. As the featured single from the band's second album, 'More Of The Monkees' was one of the biggest selling pop/rock albums of the '60's, sitting atop the Billboard 200 album charts for 18 weeks.\nIn celebration of the 50th anniversary of the launch of The Monkees, Micky Dolenz, Peter Tork and Michael Nesmith released \"Good Times,\" the band's first album in 20 years. \"If I had known I was going to live this long, I would have taken better care of myself,\" Mickey Dolenz joked.\nThe Monkees' first studio album in 20 years was released May 27, 2016. \"Good Times!\" celebrates the band's 50th anniversary and features new contributions from surviving members Michael Nesmith, Micky Dolenz and Peter Tork. CD also includes tunes written especially for the project by various respected modern-rock artists.\nMike Nesmith said he was pleasantly surprised with \"Good Times!\" \"I thought it came out great, and the songs that people have been writing for it I thought were great,\" noted Nesmith. \"It just came together like an ordinary record, but because it was our 50th [anniversary], we knew it was gonna be kind of a touchstone, so everybody had high hopes for it,\" he continued. \"And then when it came out like it did, it was like, 'Holy smokes, this actually…sounds good!' And so, we were thrilled.\"\nThe album includes tunes written by Weezer's Rivers Cuomo, Oasis' Noel Gallagher, The Jam's Paul Weller, XTC's Andy Partridge and Death Cab for Cutie's Ben Gibbard. Nesmith said he especially liked Gibbard's contribution, \"Me and Magdelana,\" as well as a track that Weller and Gallagher co-wrote, \"Birth of an Accidental Hipster.\"\nOn \"Me and Magdelana,\" Nesmith trades lead vocals with Dolenz. He said that working with his old band mate on the parts for that song, and other tracks, was one of the things he most enjoyed about making the album. \"It was very easy 'cause we worked together for so long,\" he pointed out, adding that \"having the different writers gave us so many more things to say and so many more opportunities at a good time. Ha! No pun intended.\"\n\"Good Times!\" certainly shares many elements with The Monkees' classic 1960s material, including infectious melodies and jangly guitars. Still, Nesmith feels that the new album is more than a trip down memory lane. \"The thing that I think works so good about the new record is that it really is in the moment,\" he insisted. \"It's happening right now. These are real people, right now, singing it in this real time.\"\nThe Monkees 50th Anniversary 2016 North America Tour Dates:\nMay 18 - Fort Myers, FL @ Barbara B. Mann Performing Arts Hall\nMay 19 - Melbourne, FL @ King Center for the Performing Arts\nMay 20 - Tampa, FL @ Ruth Eckerd Hall\nMay 21 - Atlanta, GA @ Frederick Brown Jr. Amphitheater\nMay 24 - Charlotte, NC @ Blumenthal PAC - Belk Theater\nMay 26 - Washington, DC @ Warner Theatre\nMay 27 - Boston, MA @ The Wilbur Theatre\nMay 28 - Philadelphia, PA @ Keswick Theatre\nMay 29 - Red Bank, NJ @ Count Basie Theatre\nJune 1 - New York, NY @ The Town Hall\nJune 3 - Toronto, ON @ Casino Rama\nJune 4 - Windsor, ON @ The Colosseum at Caesars Windsor\nJune 5 - Cleveland, OH @ Hard Rock Live Northfield Park\nJune 7 - Fort Wayne, IN @ Foellinger Theatre\nJune 10 - Louisville, KY @ Louisville Palace Theatre\nJune 11th - Hammond, IN @ The Venue at Horseshoe Casino\nJune 12 - Indianapolis, IN @ Murat Theatre at Old National Centre\nJune 14 - Dayton, OH @ Rose Music Center at The Heights\nJune 28 - Dallas, TX @ AT&T PAC – Winspear Opera House\nJune 30 - Tulsa, OK @ Hard Rock Hotel & Casino\nJuly 1 - Mayetta, KS @ Prairie Band Casino & Resort\nJuly 16 - Hampton Beach, NH @ Hampton Beach Casino Ballroom\nJuly 22 - Hot Springs, AR @ Oaklawn Racing and Gaming\nSeptember 14 - Tucson, AZ @ Fox Tucson Theater\nSeptember 15 - Phoenix, AZ @ Mesa Arts Center\nSeptember 16 - Los Angeles, CA @ Pantages Theatre\nSeptember 17 - Las Vegas, NV @ Primm Valley Casino Resorts\nSeptember 20 - San Francisco, CA @ The Warfield\nSeptember 21 - Modesto, CA @ Gallo Center For The Arts\nSeptember 23 & 24 - Lincoln City, OR @ Chinook Winds Casino Resort\nSeptember 25 - Seattle, WA @ The Moore Theatre\nOctober 1 - Biloxi, MS @ Hard Rock Live\nOctober 22 - Paso Robles, CA @ Vina Robles Amphitheatre\nOctober 29 - Shippensburg, PA @ H. Ric Luhrs PAC\nCategory", "The Monkees Announce Summer U.S. Tour Dates | Billboard\nThe Monkees Announce Summer U.S. Tour Dates\nCOMMENTS\nFollowing the Monkees' string of tour dates with Michael Nesmith last fall, the group has announced a 24-show summer run, with surviving members Nesmith, Micky Dolenz and Peter Tork at the helm.\n\"A Midsummer's Night With the Monkees\" kicks off on July 15 in Port Chester, N.Y., and will run through Aug. 18. Pre-sale ticket packages for all shows go on sale this Wednesday (May 1).\nThe Monkees' late 2012 reunion tour marked Nesmith's first U.S. shows with the group since 1970. Although last year's tour was highlighted by tributes to Davy Jones, who passed away in February 2012, Dolenz tells Rolling Stone that the group's set list will be slightly different this summer.\n\"This time we probably won't lean so heavily on the David situation,\" says Dolenz. \"I think we have to move on. Everybody has to move on. He'll always be remembered and acknowledged, but possibly not as much as on that particular tour. We will, of course, still perform 'Daydream Believer' and all the other hits.\"\nAccording to a press release, the upcoming shows will also encompass \"rare films and one-of-a-kind photographs,\" along with the group's classic hits. The Monkees' last new album came in 1996, with \"JustUs.\"\nHere are the Monkees' upcoming U.S. tour dates:\nJuly 15: Port Chester, NY (The Capitol Theatre)\nJuly 16: Boston, MA (Citi Performing Arts Center)\nJuly 17: Red Bank, NJ (Count Basie Theatre)\nJuly 19: Westbury, NY (NYCB Theatre At Westbury)\nJuly 20: Philadelphia, PA (The Mann Center)\nJuly 21: Washington, DC (The Warner Theatre)\nJuly 23: Raleigh, NC (Memorial Auditorium)\nJuly 24: Nashville, TN (Ryman Auditorium)\nJuly 26: St. Augustine, FL (St. Augustine Amphitheatre)\nJuly 27: Boca Raton, FL (Mizner Park Amphitheatre)\nJuly 28: Clearwater, FL (Ruth Eckerd Hall)\nJuly 31: Austin, TX (The Long Center)\nAug. 1: Houston, TX (Arena Theatre)\nAug. 2: Grand Prairie, TX (Verizon Theatre)\nAug. 3: Tulsa, OK (Brady Theater)\nAug. 5: Denver, CO (Paramount Theatre)  \nAug. 9: Mesa, AZ (Mesa Arts Center)\nAug. 10: Henderson, NV (Green Valley Events Center)\nAug. 11: San Diego, CA (Humphreys)\nAug. 12: Long Beach, CA (Terrace Theatre)\nAug. 14: Saratoga, CA (Mountain Winery)\nAug. 15: Napa, CA (Uptown Theatre)  \nAug. 17: Seattle, WA (Benaroya Hall)\nAug. 18: Portland, OR (Arlene Schnitzer Concert Hall)", "THE MONKEES LET THE GOOD TIMES! ROLL WITH NEW ALBUM AND TOUR FOR 50TH ANNIVERSARY | Warner Music Canada\nTHE MONKEES LET THE GOOD TIMES! ROLL WITH NEW ALBUM AND TOUR FOR 50TH ANNIVERSARY\nFebruary 09 2016\nTHE MONKEES LET THE GOOD TIMES! ROLL WITH NEW ALBUM AND TOUR FOR 50TH ANNIVERSARY\n \nThe Legendary Group To Release First New Album In Nearly 20 Years, Including Tracks Written By Rivers Cuomo, Ben Gibbard, And Andy Partridge\n \nThe Album Also Features Previously Unreleased 1960s Recordings Of Songs Written By Neil Diamond, Harry Nilsson, And Others That Have Been Revisited\nAnd Completed In New Monkees Sessions\n \nGood Times! Will Be Available From Rhino On June 10\n \nMicky Dolenz And Peter Tork Will Launch A North American Tour On May 18\n \nLOS ANGELES – The Monkees are ready to have some fun this year as the iconic band celebrates its 50th anniversary with a tour and the group’s first new album in 20 years, appropriately titled GOOD TIMES!.\n \nGOOD TIMES! features all three surviving band members – Micky Dolenz, Michael Nesmith, and Peter Tork. The unmistakable voice of the late Davy Jones is also included with a vintage vocal featured on one song. To produce the new album, the band found the perfect musical co-conspirator in Grammy® and Emmy®-winning songwriter Adam Schlesinger (Fountains Of Wayne, Ivy). GOOD TIMES! will be available June 10 on CD  and digitally, with a vinyl version coming out on July 1.\n \nMuch like The Monkees’ early albums, GOOD TIMES! features tracks written specifically for the band by some of the music world’s most gifted songwriters, including Rivers Cuomo (Weezer), Ben Gibbard (Death Cab for Cutie), Andy Partridge (XTC), and Zach Rogue (Rogue Wave). The album also includes songwriting contributions by Nesmith (“I Know What I Know”) and Tork as well as producer Schlesinger.\n \nTo help bring the anniversary full circle, The Monkees completed songs for GOOD TIMES! that were originally recorded and written for the group during the 60s, including “Love To Love” by Neil Diamond, which features a vintage vocal by Jones. Harry Nilsson wrote the title track “Good Times!” which he recorded at a session with Nesmith in January 1968. The production was never completed, so the band returned to the original session tape (featuring Nilsson’s guide vocal) and have created a duet with his close friend Dolenz. “Good Times!” will mark the first time Dolenz and Nilsson have sung together since Dolenz’ May 1973 single “Daybreak.” Other vintage 1960’s tracks included on GOOD TIMES! feature L.A.’s famed “Wrecking Crew” of session musicians.\n \n“This is one of the most exciting Monkee projects I’ve been involved in for decades!” says Dolenz. “Working with Adam Schlesinger has been a pure delight and the opportunity to sing a duet with my old buddy, Harry Nilsson, is just beyond cool!”\n \nIn addition to the new album, Dolenz and Tork will launch a Monkees 50th Anniversary Tour on May 18. The jaunt boasts nearly 50 North American dates through the end of the year including a homecoming gig at the Pantages Theater in Los Angeles on September 16.  Tickets go on sale February 12 and all tickets purchased through Ticketmaster will come with a digital download of GOOD TIMES!.\n \nIn other Monkees news, the band will release the entire series of “The Monkees” television show on Blu-ray for the very first time. All 58 episodes have been painstakingly restored in high-definition from the original film negatives. The 10-disc Blu-ray collection also includes the 1968 cult-classic “Head,” along with many never-before-seen outtakes from the film.\n \nLimited to 10,000 individually numbered pieces, the set will be available April 29 and can be purchased exclusively at Monkees.com for $199.98.\n \nDuring the band’s time together, The Monkees amassed a dozen Top 40 hits, including a trio of tunes that soared to #1. Between September 1966 and December 1967, “Last Train To Clarksville,” “I’m A Believer,” and “Daydream Believer” collectively occupied the top position for 12 weeks. Sales of their LPs were more phenomenal still: The Monkees occupied the #1 position for 13 consecutive weeks, and More Of The Monkees for 18 weeks. Both Headquarters and Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd. went to the top as well, for a four-in-a-row feat in the incomprehensible space of 13 months. The final tally: 16 million albums and 7.5 million singles sold in a mere 2 1/2 years.\n \nPartial Track Listing (with songwriters noted)\nFinal Version To Be Announced Soon\n \n“You Bring The Summer” (Andy Partridge)\n“Terrifying” (Zach Rogue)\n“She Makes Me Laugh” (Rivers Cuomo)\n“Love To Love” (Neil Diamond)\n“I Know What I Know” (Michael Nesmith)\n \n18    Fort Myers, FL                 Barbara B. Mann Performing Arts Hall\n19    Melbourne, FL                 King Center for the Performing Arts\n20    Tampa, FL                        Ruth Eckerd Hall\n21    Atlanta, GA                      Frederick Brown Jr. Amphitheater\n24    Charlotte, NC                   Blumenthal PAC - Belk Theater\n26    Washington, DC               Warner Theatre\n27    Boston, MA                      The Wilbur Theatre\n28    Philadelphia, PA               Keswick Theatre\n29    Red Bank, NJ                   Count Basie Theatre\n \n1      New York, NY                 The Town Hall\n3      Toronto, ON                     Casino Rama - Entertainment Centre\n4      Windsor, ON                    The Colosseum at Caesars Windsor\n5      Cleveland, OH                 Hard Rock Live Northfield Park\n7      Fort Wayne, IN                Foellinger Theatre\n11    Hammond, IN                  The Venue At Horseshoe Casino\n10    Louisville, KY                  Louisville Palace Theatre\n12    Indianapolis, IN               Murat Theatre at Old National Centre\n14    Dayton, OH                      Rose Music Center at The Heights\n28    Dallas, TX                        AT&T PAC – Winspear Opera House\n30    Tulsa, OK                         Hard Rock Hotel & Casino – The Joint\n \n1      Mayetta, KS                     Prairie Band Casino & Resort – Grand Lakes Ballroom\n16    Hampton Beach, NH        Hampton Beach Casino Ballroom\n22    Hot Springs, AR               Oaklawn Racing and Gaming – Finish Line Theater\n \n14    Tucson, AZ                      Fox Tucson Theatre\n15    Phoenix, AZ                     Mesa Arts Center – Ikeda Theater\n16    Los Angeles, CA              Pantages Theatre\n17    Las Vegas, NV                 Primm Valley Casino Resorts – Star of the Desert Arena\n20    San Francisco, CA            The Warfield\n21    Modesto, CA                    Gallo Center For The Arts\n23    Lincoln City, OR              Chinook Winds Casino Resort\n24    Lincoln City, OR              Chinook Winds Casino Resort\n25    Seattle, WA                      The Moore Theatre\n \n1      Biloxi, MS                        Hard Rock Live Biloxi\n22    Paso Robles, CA              Vina Robles Amphitheatre\n29    Shippensburg, PA             Shippensburg University – H. Ric Luhrs PAC", "Monkees - Pop-Cult.Com\nClassic 60's Toys\nThe Monkees\nOn the 8th of September, 1965, an advertisement was run in The Daily Variety in Los Angeles which read: 'Madness!! Auditions. Folk & Roll Musicians-Singers for acting roles in new TV series. Running Parts for 4 insane boys, age 17-21. Want spirited Ben Frank's-types. Have courage to work. Must come down for interview.' 437 young hopefuls auditioned and the final four who were chosen became The Monkees.\nThe four Monkees were Michael Nesmith (born 30th December 1942 in Houston, Texas), Peter Tork (born Peter Halsten Thorkelson on 13th February 1942 in Washington DC), Micky Dolenz (born George Michael Dolenz on 8th March 1945 in Los Angeles) and Davy Jones (born 30th December 1945 in Manchester, England). Michael and Peter were already musicians and Micky and Davy had experiences with fame as child stars. Michael had released records under the name of Michael Blessing and Peter was a folk musician. Micky, using the name Braddock, had stared in the 1950's television series Circus Boy, and Davy had been Ena Sharples' grandson in Coronation Street and starred in stage musicals such as Pickwick and Oliver!\nThe pilot episode, filmed in October and broadcast the following month, proved a success with teenagers. The show was a half-hour situation comedy concerned with the life of an up and coming rock band. The Beatles were the main influence, as the show was inspired by The Beatles Debut film A Hard Days Night. The TV network NBC had found a winner. In almost three years the group had filmed 58 episodes of the series, made a feature film and sold more than 16 million albums and 7.5 million singles.\nOriginally the idea was that the show focused on the struggles of the band with a song or two per episode. Musicians were hired to play the music and The Monkees only sang. Songwriters such as Goffin and King, Neil Sedaka, Neil Diamond, and Harry Nilsson were hired to write the songs while the boys were busy filming the series.\nThe first episode premiered on the NBC network on 12 September 1966, at the same time as Star Trek. Initial ratings were low as viewers became used to the humor, but the response from teenage America was enough to ensure the series lasted for one season. Soon enough, the show clocked approximately ten million viewers per week.\nMost of The Monkees' fans refused to believe that they were a pre-fabricated band. So when the first single 'Last Train to Clarksville' was released in 1966 it reached number one in the charts and earned The Monkees their first of many Gold Discs. In November their self titled album was released and was also a success, staying at the top of the LP charts for 13 weeks.\nBoth Michael Nesmith and Peter Tork protested to the fact that they were not allowed to play their own music and soon Micky Dolenz and Davy Jones joined them. By the end of '67 the popularity of the show was enough that the group were able to negotiate their artistic freedom. The Monkees entered the recording studios as a band for the first time and came up with their third album Headquarters. This album proved their musical abilities. Inspired by their efforts, the Monkees became a live act and toured the world. Their live appearances in concerts in Hawaii and Britain caused riots and 'Monkeemania' was born.\nThe last episode was aired in the US on 25 March 1968, and the end of the show saw the end of The Monkees as a band. The group featured in the film Head co-produced by Jack Nicholson and Bob Rafelson however the film failed to win critical acclaim. Peter Tork was the first member to leave the band to pursue a solo career. The remaining members continued as a trio, but by 1970 The Monkees disbanded. Mike Nesmith started a successful solo career and Mickey and Davy joined up with Tommy Boyce and Bobby Hart for a little while during the seventies.\nThe TV series still enjoys many reruns and is almost as popular as it was in the sixties. The Monkees briefly reunited in the mid 1980's and again in 1996, when they embarked on a world tour to mark their thirtieth anniversary. Many of the Monkees' hits have been covered by artists such as The Sex Pistols, EMF (With Reeves and Mortimer) and Ant & Dec.\nSite and all content Copyrighted 2012 T Frye." ] }

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{ "description": [ "There are interesting parallels between the sinking of the Lusitania in WW1 and ... British ship sunk in ... 1,200 lives — including 128 Americans — with ...", "The sinking of a passenger ship and the loss of 1,195 lives ... British luxury liner sunk by German submarine ... The Germans claimed in 1915 that the Lusitania ...", "After the Lusitania was sunk by a German U-boat on May 7, 1915, ... by a German U-boat on May 7, 1915, the loss of American ... including 128 Americans.", "... statement issued after the sinking of the Lusitania (18th May, 1915) ... and sunk by a German submarine. ... coast with the loss of 1,198 lives, including 128 ...", "German East Africa Campaign - German supply ship Kronburg, ex-British SS Rubens ... 5 lives lost including master ... SS Arndale was the first ship sunk; ...", "... of the British liner the 'Lusitania' by a German submarine on the 7th May 1915. ... loss of 128 Americans in the ... 1915, this ship sunk due to a German U-boat ...", "... Germans sink American merchant ship on Jan 28, ... including 128 Americans. ... 1915 Germans sink American merchant ship;", "... the loss of 128 Americans in the disaster, ... 1915: RMS Lusitania sunk by a German submarine. ... This extremely large ship was too fast for German submarine.", "The British liner Lusitania is sunk by a U-Boat with the loss of 1,198 civilians, including 128 American lives, ... 19/08/1915: Two Americans die in sinking of ship ..." ], "filename": [ "107/107_3879.txt", "127/127_3880.txt", "99/99_3881.txt", "189/189_3882.txt", "91/91_3883.txt", "116/116_3885.txt", "26/26_3886.txt", "170/170_3887.txt", "33/33_3888.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 ], "title": [ "On the Sinking of the Lusitania vs the Athenia", "Lusitania | Article about Lusitania by The Free Dictionary", "Lusitania Sunk by German U-Boat - history1900s.about.com", "The Lusitania - Spartacus Educational", "Ships sunk in 1915 - Naval History.Net", "Lusitania Sunk By German U Boat on Pinterest | May 1, The ...", "Germans sink American merchant ship - Jan 28, 1915 ...", "RMS Lusitania on Pinterest | German Submarines, Ships and ...", "World War 1 - 1915 Timeline - worldwar-1.net" ], "url": [ "http://thomascsanger.com/war-history/parallels-between-the-sinking-of-the-lusitania-and-the-athenia/", "http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Lusitania", "http://history1900s.about.com/cs/worldwari/p/lusitania.htm", "http://spartacus-educational.com/FWWlusitania.htm", "http://www.naval-history.net/WW1NavyBritishBVLSaRN1504.htm", "https://www.pinterest.com/jmrazdrh/lusitania-sunk-by-german-u-boat/", "http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/germans-sink-american-merchant-ship", "https://www.pinterest.com/Zerokilleroppel/rms-lusitania/", "http://www.worldwar-1.net/world-war-1-timelines/world-war-1-1915/world-war-1-1915-index.htm" ], "search_context": [ "On the Sinking of the Lusitania vs the Athenia\nSS Athenia , War History — September 1, 2014\nParallels Between the Sinking of the Lusitania and the Athenia\nSeventy-five years ago this week, September 3, 1939, a German U-boat torpedoed and sank the British passenger liner Athenia in the opening hours of World War II. This tragic event is the common thread that links the nine people who are the subject of my prospective historical novel, Without Warning . Despite its historic significance as the first British ship sunk in the war, Athenia’s anniversary is likely to pass with little fanfare. Why is it that people generally are more familiar with the sinking of the  Lusitania , a passenger ship sunk during World War I, than with Athenia? That is the question I want to explore with this blog.\nThere are interesting parallels between the two ships. Both were British owned and built in shipyards on Scotland’s River Clyde. Both were involved in the trans-Atlantic passenger trade. Both were torpedoed by German U-boats early in their respective wars, and at the time of their attacks, both U-boats were supposedly governed by “prize rules” that forbade attacking passenger ships. Finally, both attacks resulted in the loss of American lives, yet the United States remained a neutral country for two more years after each of the sinkings.\nBut that is where the parallels end. Lusitania was a larger and more famous ship than Athenia, having briefly held the record for the fastest Atlantic crossing from Britain to the United States. She carried nearly 2,000 passengers and crew to Athenia’s 1,418. When Lusitania sank on May 7, 1915, she did so within 20 minutes and took almost 1,200 lives — including 128 Americans — with her to the bottom of the Celtic Sea.\nMore famously, however, historians generally connect Lusitania’s sinking with America’s entry into World War I almost two years later. While Germany and the United States exchanged heated words at the time and President Woodrow Wilson demanded an apology from the German government, there was no broad sentiment in America for entering the war. The Germans argued (and Lusitania’s manifest showed) that the ship carried war material, a fact Germany maintained, which made Lusitania a legitimate wartime target. Before the sinking, Germany announced in February, 1915, that the waters around the British Isles were a war zone and that allied shipping would be sunk without giving any warning. Indeed, the German government placed ads in American newspapers warning passengers not to sail on the Lusitania.\nContinued anger in America and other neutral countries with Germany’s U-boat tactics led the Germans to relent in September, stating they would stop attacks on passenger liners. In January, 1917, however, Germany announced it would resume unrestricted submarine warfare, and the announcement helped push U.S. public opinion over the edge. America declared war on Germany in April, 1917.\nWhen England declared war on Germany on September 3, 1939, less than ten hours elapsed before Athenia was torpedoed. In dramatic contrast with Lusitania’s quick demise, Athenia stayed afloat for 14 hours, which allowed her crew to deploy all the ship’s lifeboats. As a result, the death toll from the U-boat attack was 112 passengers and crew, including 30 Americans. While Lusitania had lost 61% of her passengers and crew, Athenia’s toll was only 8%, a factor that may partly account for some people diminishing Athenia’s significance.\nThe brazen attack without warning on the defenseless Athenia, which carried no guns or munitions of any sort, led the British and her allies to once again condemn German U-boat tactics. This time around, however, Germany denied responsibility for the sinking. Nazi propaganda settled on the story that Winston Churchill had planted a bomb on board the ship in order to kill Americans and bring the U.S. into the war on the side of the British. The Nazis maintained their denial throughout the war.\nOn the eve of war in 1939, America had once again declared its neutrality. The bitter experience of the First World War made isolationist sentiment even stronger this time around. America was much more cautious than Britain in assigning blame for sinking Athenia and conducted lengthy Congressional hearings to determine if U.S. citizens should seek reparations from Germany. In December, 1941, when the United States entered World War II, following Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor, no one suggested U.S. participation had anything to do with the loss of American lives aboard Athenia two years earlier.\nIt might be said that with 55 million people killed, the overall horror of World War II eclipsed the terrors experienced by Athenia’s passengers that night 75 years ago. And yet, their civilian status proved emblematic of the vast majority of the war’s victims that followed. May their heroism and sacrifice never be forgotten.\n \nPhoto: By George Grantham Bain [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons", "Lusitania | Article about Lusitania by The Free Dictionary\nLusitania | Article about Lusitania by The Free Dictionary\nhttp://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Lusitania\nAlso found in: Dictionary , Thesaurus , Wikipedia .\nRelated to Lusitania: titanic\nLusitania\n(lo͞osĭtān`ēə), Roman province in the Iberian Peninsula. As constituted (c.A.D. 5) by Augustus it included all of modern central Portugal as well as much of W Spain. The province took its name from the Lusitani, a group of warlike tribes who, despite defeats, resisted Roman domination until their great leader, Viriatus Viriatus\n, d. 139 B.C., leader of the Lusitani (see Lusitania). One of the survivors of the massacre of the Lusitani by the Roman praetor Servius Sulpicius Galba, Viriatus rose as a popular leader and persuaded his countrymen to resist Roman rule.\n..... Click the link for more information. , was killed (139 B.C.) by treachery. In the 1st cent. B.C. they joined in supporting Sertorius Sertorius, Quintus\n, d. 72 B.C., Roman general. He was a general under Marius but did not take part in Marius' proscriptions. Sertorius was appointed governor of Farther Spain in 83 B.C. but fled to Africa to escape the reprisals of Sulla. He later was summoned (80 B.C.\n..... Click the link for more information. , who set up an independent state in Spain. The old identification of Portugal with Lusitania and of the ancestors of the Portuguese with the Lusitanians (hence Camões's great epic was entitled Os Lusíadas) is now largely ignored, but the creation of Lusitania may have had a faint echoing effect in the setting up of the separate kingdom of Portugal many centuries later.\nLusitania,\nliner under British registration, sunk off the Irish coast by a German submarine on May 7, 1915. In the sinking, 1,198 persons lost their lives, 128 of whom were U.S. citizens. A warning to Americans against taking passage on British vessels, signed by the Imperial German Embassy, appeared in morning papers on the day the vessel was scheduled to sail from New York, but too late to accomplish its purpose. The vessel was unarmed, though the Germans made a point of the fact that it carried munitions for the Allies. The considerable sympathy for Germany that had previously existed in the United States to a large extent disappeared after the disaster, and there were demands from many for an immediate declaration of war. President Wilson chose the course of diplomacy and sent Germany a strong note asking for \"reparation so far as reparation is possible.\" Germany refused to accept responsibility for the act in an argumentative reply, but issued secret orders to submarine commanders not to attack passenger ships without warning. After prolonged negotiations, Germany finally conceded its liability for the sinking of the Lusitania and agreed to make reparations and to discontinue sinking passenger ships without warning. The immediate crisis between the United States and Germany subsided. The incident, however, contributed to the rise of American sentiment for the entry of the United States into World War I, with recruitment posters two years later urging potential enlistees to \"Remember the Lusitania!\"\nBibliography\nSee studies by A. and M. Hoehling (1956), C. L. Droste (1972), C. Simpson (1973), T. Bailey (1975), D. Ramsay (2001), D. Preston (2002), and E. Larson (2015).\nThe RMS Lusitania is shown here docked in New York City in 1910. Its sinking in 1915 by a German torpedo was a key event in convincing the United States to enter World War I. Some say Winston Churchill actually helped make the attack possible in order to bring America into the war.\nLusitania\nA number of historians still insist that the nearly 1,200 lives lost aboard the RMS Lusitania were sacrificed to the gods of war in an effort to embroil the United States in World War I.\nThe Lusitania was an ocean liner of the British Cunard Steamship Line that was torpedoed by a German U-boat on May 7, 1915, within sight of the southern coast of Ireland. The sinking of a passenger ship and the loss of 1,195 lives was instrumental in causing the United States to enter World War I and to declare war on Germany and its allies. For over ninety years, the question has been argued whether Winston Churchill, as Lord of the British Admiralty, manipulated events to arrange for the liner’s sinking in order to create an incident that would convince the United States to participate in the conflict against Germany.\nThe Lusitania and its sister ship, the Mauretania, were considerably smaller and less luxurious than the Olympic and Britannic of the rival White Star Line, but they were much faster and enabled Cunard to provide a weekly transatlantic departure schedule with just two vessels. When the Lusitania sank, she was on her 202d crossing of the Atlantic.\nShortly after World War I began, the British established a blockade of Germany that was eventually responsible for the death by starvation, malnutrition, and disease of 750,000 Germans. Germany’s only hope of destroying the blockade was to sink as many warships as possible, and the feared U-boats were very effective in striving to attain that goal. The Lusitania, a luxury passenger liner and cargo ship, was immune from attack, as were all passenger ships—unless they were suspected of violating the agreement that such vessels would not transport ammunition and explosives to Great Britain.\nGerman intelligence had suspected the fast-moving ships of the Cunard Line of carrying contraband munitions, and the German embassy in the United States issued a public warning to travelers intending to embark for Great Britain that a state of war existed between Germany and its allies and Great Britain and its allies, and the “zone of war” included the waters adjacent to the British Isles. Vessels flying the British flag were “liable to destruction in those waters,” and passengers who chose to travel on the ships of Great Britain or its allies must “do so at their own risk.” It was later learned that some of the wealthiest and most influential passengers had been warned that a U-boat attack was likely against the Lusitania.\nCaptain Walther Schweiger, commander of submarine U-20, released one torpedo at a distance of seven hundred yards and saw it strike the Lusitania and trigger a second violent explosion. Upon seeing the second explosion, Schweiger felt justified in torpedoing the passenger vessel, for it was obviously carrying munitions under assumed cargo designations. The Lusitania rolled over and sank in about eighteen minutes. Rescuers from Queenstown, Ireland, managed to save 734 from the cold seawater.\nThe Germans had guessed correctly, for the Lusitania, under the descriptions of bales of fur and boxes of cheese, carried in its hold millions of rounds of rifle ammunition, 1,250 cases of shrapnel shells, and forty-six tons of aluminum powder for the Woolrich Arsenal. The British and American governments accused the U-boat of having launched a second torpedo at the sinking passenger ship, but the Germans steadfastly denied doing so, claiming the munitions on board had caused the second explosion.\nIf Churchill had engineered the destruction of one of Britain’s finest ships and of 1,195 lives (among them 128 Americans) in a sacrificial act intended to bring the United States into the war, he had succeeded, for the Yanks saw the sinking of the Lusitania as another barbaric attack by the “Huns.”\nConspiracy theorists counter that the British Admiralty, under Churchill’s direction, was well aware that the German U-boat command had issued a warning to all passenger ships that they must travel at their own risk. The Admiralty was also informed that the U-boat responsible for sinking two ships in recent days was still lurking in the waters off the southern coast of Ireland, the path the Lusitania was scheduled to travel. In spite of this knowledge, the Admiralty issued no special warnings to the Lusitania, offered no escort to port, and did not send any destroyers to search for the German submarine. It seems apparent to some researchers that there was a conspiracy to place the Lusitania in jeopardy in order to incite the Americans to enter the war.\nHowever, U.S. isolationist policies continued to maintain their hold on Congress until February 1917, when the German admiral Alfred von Tirpitz announced that U-boats would begin attacking all shipping in the North Atlantic, regardless of national or political allegiance. On February 3 the U.S. broke off diplomatic relations with Germany. On that same day a U-boat sunk the U.S. liner Housatonic off the coast of Sicily. On March 18, German submarines sank three U.S.-registered vessels, the City of Memphis, the Vigilante, and the Illinois, without giving any type of warning. On April 2 President Woodrow Wilson argued that the “world must be safe for democracy,” and on April 6 Congress approved a declaration of war against Germany.\nLusitania\nBritish luxury liner sunk by German submarine in World War I. [Br. Hist.: EB (1963) XX, 518]", "Sinking of the Lusitania\nSinking of the Lusitania\nDisasters & Tragedy\nSinking of the Lusitania\nIllustration of the sinking of the Lusitania in 1915.  Picture from the National Defence, courtesy of the Canadian Navy.\nUpdated January 01, 2016.\nWhat Was the Sinking of the Lusitania?\nOn May 7, 1915, the British ocean liner RMS Lusitania, which primarily ferried people and goods across the Atlantic Ocean between the United States and Great Britain, was torpedoed by a German U-boat and sunk. Of the 1,959 people on board, 1,198 died, including 128 Americans. The sinking of the Lusitania enraged Americans and hastened the United States' entrance into World War I .\nDates: Sunk May 7, 1915\nAlso Known As: Sinking of the RMS Lusitania\nBe Careful!\nSince the outbreak of World War I, ocean voyage had become dangerous. Each side hoped to blockade the other, thus prevent any war materials getting through. German U-boats (submarines) stalked British waters, continually looking for enemy vessels to sink.\nThus all ships headed to Great Britain were instructed to be on the lookout for U-boats and take precautionary measures such as travel at full speed and make zigzag movements. Unfortunately, on May 7, 1915, Captain William Thomas Turner slowed the Lusitania down because of fog and traveled in a predictable line.\ncontinue reading below our video\n4 Tips for Improving Test Performance\nTurner was the captain of the RMS Lusitania, a British ocean liner famous for its luxurious accommodations and speed capability. The Lusitania was primarily used to ferry people and goods across the Atlantic Ocean between the United States and Great Britain. On May 1, 1915, the Lusitania had left port in New York for Liverpool to make her 202nd trip across the Atlantic. On board were 1,959 people, 159 of whom were Americans.\nSpotted By a U-Boat\nApproximately 14 miles off the coast of Southern Ireland at Old Head of Kinsale, neither the captain nor any of his crew realized that the German U-boat, U-20, had already spotted and targeted them. At 1:40 p.m., the U-boat launched a torpedo. The torpedo hit the starboard (right) side of the Lusitania. Almost immediately, another explosion rocked the ship.\nAt the time, the Allies thought the Germans had launched two or three torpedoes to sink the Lusitania. However, the Germans say their U-boat only fired one torpedo. Many believe the second explosion was caused by the ignition of ammunition hidden in the cargo hold. Others say that coal dust, kicked up when the torpedo hit, exploded. No matter what the exact cause, it was the damage from the second explosion that made the ship sink.\nThe Lusitania Sinks\nThe Lusitania sunk within 18 minutes. Though there had been enough lifeboats for all passengers, the severe listing of the ship while it sunk prevented most from being launched properly. Of the 1,959 people on board, 1,198 died. The toll of civilians killed in this disaster shocked the world.\nAmericans Are Angry\nAmericans were outraged to learn 128 U.S. civilians were killed in a war in which they were officially neutral. Destroying ships not known to be carrying war materials countered generally accepted international war protocols.\nThe sinking of the Lusitania heightened tensions between the U.S. and Germany and, coupled with the Zimmermann Telegram , helped sway American opinion in favor of joining the war.\nThe Shipwreck\nIn 2008, divers explored the wreck of the Lusitania, situated eight miles off the coast of Ireland. On board, the divers found approximately four million U.S.-made Remington .303 bullets. The discovery supports the German's long-held belief that the Lusitania was being used to transport war materials. The find also supports the theory that it was the explosion of munitions on board that caused the second explosion on the Lusitania.", "The Lusitania\nThe Lusitania\nReferences\nOn 4th February, 1915, Admiral Hugo Von Pohl , sent a order to senior figures in the German Navy: \"The waters round Great Britain and Ireland, including the English Channel, are hereby proclaimed a war region. On and after February 18th every enemy merchant vessel found in this region will be destroyed, without its always being possible to warn the crews or passengers of the dangers threatening. Neutral ships will also incur danger in the war region, where, in view of the misuse of neutral flags ordered by the British Government, and incidents inevitable in sea warfare, attacks intended for hostile ships may affect neutral ships also.\" (1)\nSoon afterwards the German government announced an unrestricted warfare campaign. This meant that any ship taking goods to Allied countries was in danger of being attacked. This broke international agreements that stated commanders who suspected that a non-military vessel was carrying war materials, had to stop and search it, rather than do anything that would endanger the lives of the occupants.\nThis message was reinforced when the German Embassy issued a statement on its new policy: \"Travellers intending to embark for an Atlantic voyage are reminded that a state of war exists between Germany and her allies and Great Britain and her allies; that the zone of war includes the waters adjacent to the British Isles; that in accordance with the formal notice given by the Imperial German Government, vessels flying the flag of Great Britain or any of her allies are liable to destruction in those waters; and that travellers sailing in the war zone in ships of Great Britain or her allies do so at their own risk.\" (2)\nSinking of the Lusitania\nThe Lusitania, was at 32,000 tons, the largest passenger vessel on transatlantic service, left New York harbour for Liverpool on 1st May, 1915. It was 750ft long, weighed 32,500 tons and was capable of 26 knots. On this journey the ship carried 1,257 passengers and 650 crew.\nMost of the passengers were aware of the risks they were taking. Margaret Haig Thomas , was the daughter of David Alfred Thomas , who had been sent by David Lloyd George to the United States to arrange the supply of munitions for the British armed forces. Margaret later recalled that in New York City during the weeks preceding the voyage \"there was much gossip of submarines\". It was \"stated and generally believed that a special effort was to be made to sink the great Cunarder so as to inspire the world with terror\". On the morning that the Lusitania set sail the warning that had been issued by the German Embassy on 22nd April 1915, was \"printed in the New York morning papers directly under the notice of the sailing of the Lusitania\". Margaret commented that \"I believe that no British and scarcely any American passengers acted on the warning, but we were most of us very fully conscious of the risk we were running.\" (3)\nAt 1.20pm on 7th May 1915, the U-20, only ten miles from the coast of Ireland , surfaced to recharge her batteries. Soon afterwards Captain Schwieger, the commander of the German U-Boat , observed the Lusitania in the distance. Schwieger gave the order to advance on the liner. The U20 had been at sea for seven days and had already sunk two liners and only had two torpedoes left. He fired the first one from a distance of 700 metres. Watching through his periscope it soon became clear that the Lusitania was going down and so he decided against using his second torpedo.\nWilliam McMillan Adams was travelling with his father. \"I was in the lounge on A Deck when suddenly the ship shook from stem to stem, and immediately started to list to starboard. I rushed out into the companionway. While standing there, a second, and much greater explosion occurred. At first I thought the mast had fallen down. This was followed by the falling on the deck of the water spout that had been made by the impact of the torpedo with the ship. My father came up and took me by the arm. We went to the port side and started to help in the launching of the lifeboats.\"\nAdams soon discovered that there was a major problem with the lifeboats: \"Owing to the list of the ship, the lifeboats had a tendency to swing inwards across the deck and before they could be launched, it was necessary to push them over the side of the ship... It was impossible to lower the lifeboats safely at the speed at which the Lusitania was still going. I saw only two boats launched from this side. The first boat to be launched, for the most part full of women, fell sixty or seventy feet into the water, all the occupants being drowned. This was owing to the fact that the crew could not work the davits and falls properly, so let them slip out of their hands, and sent the lifeboats to destruction.\" (4)\nMargaret Haig Thomas was also unable to get into a lifeboat: \"It became impossible to lower any more from our side owing to the list on the ship. No one else except that white-faced stream seemed to lose control. A number of people were moving about the deck, gently and vaguely. They reminded one of a swarm of bees who do not know where the queen has gone. I unhooked my skirt so that it should come straight off and not impede me in the water. The list on the ship soon got worse again, and, indeed, became very bad. Presently the doctor said he thought we had better jump into the sea. I followed him, feeling frightened at the idea of jumping so far (it was, I believe, some sixty feet normally from A deck to the sea), and telling myself how ridiculous I was to have physical fear of the jump when we stood in such grave danger as we did. I think others must have had the same fear, for a little crowd stood hesitating on the brink and kept me back. And then, suddenly, I saw that the water had come over on to the deck. We were not, as I had thought, sixty feet above the sea; we were already under the sea. I saw the water green just about up to my knees. I do not remember its coming up further; that must all have happened in a second. The ship sank and I was sucked right down with her.\" (5)\nWar Propaganda\nOf the 2,000 passengers on board, 1,198 were drowned, among them 128 Americans. (6) The German newspaper Die Kölnische Volkszeitung supported the decision to sink the Lusitania: \"The sinking of the giant English steamship in a success of moral significance which is still greater than material success. With joyful pride we contemplate this latest deed of our Navy. It will not be the last. The English wish to abandon the German people to death by starvation. We are more humane. we simply sank an English ship with passengers, who, at their own risk and responsibility, entered the zone of operations.\" (7)\nNew York Times (8th May, 1915)\nThe German foreign secretary, Gottlieb von Jagow , issued a statement where he attempted to defend the sinking of the Lusitania. \"The Imperial Government must specially point out that on her last trip the Lusitania, as on earlier occasions, had Canadian troops and munitions on board, including no less than 5,400 cases of ammunition destined for the destruction of brave German soldiers who are fulfilling with self-sacrifice and devotion their duty in the service of the Fatherland. The German Government believes that it acts in just self-defense when it seeks to protect the lives of its soldiers by destroying ammunition destined for the enemy with the means of war at its command.\" (8)\nBritish government poster (May, 1915)\nThe sinking of the Lusitania had a profound impact on public opinion in the United States . The German government apologized for the incident, but claimed its U-boat only fired one torpedo and the second explosion was a result of a secret cargo of heavy munitions on the ship. If this was true, Britain was guilty of breaking the rules of warfare by using a civilian ship to carry ammunition. British authorities rejected this charge and claimed that the second explosion was caused by coal dust igniting in the ship's almost empty bunkers.\nBernard Partridge , Take Up the Sword of Justice (1915)\nSome newspapers in the United States called on President Woodrow Wilson to declare war on Germany. However, he refused to do this as he wanted \"to preserve the world's respect by abstaining from any course of action likely to awaken the hostility of either side in the war, and so to keep the United States free to undertake the part of peacemaker\". (9) However, when it became clear that he intended to keep out of the First World War for economic reasons. (10) The British government decided to use the sinking of the Lusitania to recruit men into the armed forces and published several posters in 1915.\nThe Aftermath\nSince the sinking of the Lusitania there has been great debate about the morality of the unrestricted warfare campaign. Howard Zinn , the author of A People's History of the United States (1980), has argued that it was not a German atrocity: \"It was unrealistic to expect that the Germans should treat the United States as neutral in the war when the U.S. had been shipping great amounts of war materials to Germany's enemies... The United States claimed the Lusitania carried an innocent cargo, and therefore the torpedoing was a monstrous German atrocity. Actually, the Lusitania was heavily armed: it carried 1,248 cases of 3-inch shells, 4,927 boxes of cartridges (1,000 rounds in each box), and 2,000 more cases of small-arms ammunition. Her manifests were falsified to hide this fact, and the British and American governments lied about the cargo.\" (11)\nGreg Bemis purchased the Lusitania. He was interviewed about this in 2002 and he explained why he believed that the ship carried munitions. \"The fact is that the ship sank in 18 minutes. That could only happen as the result of a massive second explosion. We know there was such an explosion, and the only thing capable of doing that is ammunitions. It's virtually impossible to get coal dust and damp air in the right mixture to explode, and none of the crew who were working in the boiler rooms and survived say anything about a boiler exploding. \" (12)\nIn 2014 a government document was published that indicated that Zinn and Bernis were right that the ship was used to transport munitions. In 1982 it was announced that attempts would be made to salvage the ship. This created panic in Whitehall. Noel Marshall , the head of the Foreign Office's North America department, admitted on 30th July 1982: \"Successive British governments have always maintained that there was no munitions on board the Lusitania (and that the Germans were therefore in the wrong to claim to the contrary as an excuse for sinking the ship). The facts are that there is a large amount of ammunition in the wreck, some of which is highly dangerous. The Treasury have decided that they must inform the salvage company of this fact in the interests of the safety of all concerned. Although there have been rumours in the press that the previous denial of the presence of munitions was untrue, this would be the first acknowledgement of the facts by HMG.\" (13)\nPrimary Sources\n(1) Admiral Hugo Von Pohl , Chief of Marine Staff (4th February, 1915)\nThe waters round Great Britain and Ireland, including the English Channel, are hereby proclaimed a war region.\nOn and after February 18th every enemy merchant vessel found in this region will be destroyed, without its always being possible to warn the crews or passengers of the dangers threatening.\nNeutral ships will also incur danger in the war region, where, in view of the misuse of neutral flags ordered by the British Government, and incidents inevitable in sea warfare, attacks intended for hostile ships may affect neutral ships also.\n(2) Statement issued by the German Embassy on 22nd April 1915.\nTravellers intending to embark for an Atlantic voyage are reminded that a state of war exists between Germany and her allies and Great Britain and her allies; that the zone of war includes the waters adjacent to the British Isles; that in accordance with the formal notice given by the Imperial German Government, vessels flying the flag of Great Britain or any of her allies are liable to destruction in those waters; and that travellers sailing in the war zone in ships of Great Britain or her allies do so at their own risk.\n(3) Margaret Haig Thomas , This Was My World (1933)\nIn New York, during the weeks preceding the last voyage of the Lusitania, there was much gossip of submarines. It was freely stated and generally believed that a special effort was to be made to sink the great Cunarder so as to inspire the world with terror. She was at that time the largest passenger boat afloat. The few pre-war passenger boats of greater tonnage had been commandeered for war service of various kinds.\nOn Saturday, May 1st (the day on which the Lusitania was to sail), in order that there might be no mistake as to German intentions, the German Embassy at Washington issued a warning to passengers couched in general terms, which was printed in the New York morning papers directly under the notice of the sailing of the Lusitania. The first-class passengers, who were not due on board till about ten o'clock, had still time after reading the warning, unmistakable in form and position, to cancel their passage if they chose. For the third-class passengers it came too late. As a matter of fact, I believe that no British and scarcely any American passengers acted on the warning, but we were most of us very fully conscious of the risk we were running. A number of people wrote farewell letters to their home folk and posted them in New York to follow on another vessel.\n(4) William McMillan Adams was an American passenger aboard the Lusitania when it was torpedoed on 7th May 1915.\nI was in the lounge on A Deck when suddenly the ship shook from stem to stem, and immediately started to list to starboard. I rushed out into the companionway. While standing there, a second, and much greater explosion occurred. At first I thought the mast had fallen down. This was followed by the falling on the deck of the water spout that had been made by the impact of the torpedo with the ship. My father came up and took me by the arm. We went to the port side and started to help in the launching of the lifeboats. Owing to the list of the ship, the lifeboats had a tendency to swing inwards across the deck and before they could be launched, it was necessary to push them over the side of the ship. While working there, the staff Captain told us that the boat was not going to sink, and ordered the lifeboats not to be lowered. He also asked the gentlemen to help in clearing the passengers from the boat deck (A Deck). it was impossible to lower the lifeboats safely at the speed at which the Lusitania was still going. I saw only two boats launched from this side. The first boat to be launched, for the most part full of women, fell sixty or seventy feet into the water, all the occupants being drowned. This was owing to the fact that the crew could not work the davits and falls properly, so let them slip out of their hands, and sent the lifeboats to destruction. I said to my father \"We shall have to swim for it. We had better go below and get our lifebelts.\nWhen we got down to Deck D, our cabin deck, we found it was impossible to leave the stairs, as the water was pouring in at all the port holes. Finally, we reached the boat deck again, this time on the starboard side, and after filling a lifeboat with women and children, we jumped into it. The lifeboat was successfully lowered until we were about twelve feet from the water, when the man at the bow davit lost his nerve, and let the rope go. Most of the occupants were thrown into the water, but we, being in the stern, managed to stay in. The lifeboat was full of water, but the sailors said it would float if only we could get it away from the Lusitania which was now not far from sinking. My father threw off his overcoat, and worked like a slave trying to help loose the falls from the boat. This, however, was impossible. B. Deck was then level with the water, and I suggested to my father we should climb up and get into another lifeboat. He, however, looked up, saw the Lusitania was very near its end, and was likely to come over on us, and pin us beneath. He shouted to me to jump, which I did. We were both swimming together in the water, a few yards from the ship, when something separated us. That was the last I saw of him.\nAfter about an hour I was helped on to a collapsible boat which was upside down. It was at this time that we saw smoke coming towards us on the horizon out to sea, but as soon as the funnel was just in sight, it went away again from us. This must have been one of the boats that the German submarine stopped from coming to our rescue.\n(5) Margaret Haig Thomas , This Was My World (1933)\nIt became impossible to lower any more from our side owing to the list on the ship. No one else except that white-faced stream seemed to lose control. A number of people were moving about the deck, gently and vaguely. They reminded one of a swarm of bees who do not know where the queen has gone.\nI unhooked my skirt so that it should come straight off and not impede me in the water. The list on the ship soon got worse again, and, indeed, became very bad. Presently the doctor said he thought we had better jump into the sea. I followed him, feeling frightened at the idea of jumping so far (it was, I believe, some sixty feet normally from \"A\" deck to the sea), and telling myself how ridiculous I was to have physical fear of the jump when we stood in such grave danger as we did. I think others must have had the same fear, for a little crowd stood hesitating on the brink and kept me back. And then, suddenly, I saw that the water had come over on to the deck. We were not, as I had thought, sixty feet above the sea; we were already under the sea. I saw the water green just about up to my knees. I do not remember its coming up further; that must all have happened in a second. The ship sank and I was sucked right down with her.\nThe next thing I can remember was being deep down under the water. It was very dark, nearly black. I fought to come up. I was terrified of being caught on some part of the ship and kept down. That was the worst moment of terror, the only moment of acute terror, that I knew. My wrist did catch on a rope. I was scarcely aware of it at the time, but I have the mark on me to this day. At first I swallowed a lot of water; then I remembered that I had read that one should not swallow water, so I shut my mouth. Something bothered me in my right hand and prevented me striking out with it; I discovered that it was the lifebelt I had been holding for my father. As I reached the surface I grasped a little bit of board, quite thin, a few inches wide and perhaps two or three feet long. I thought this was keeping me afloat. I was wrong. My most excellent lifebelt was doing that. But everything that happened after I had been submerged was a little misty and vague; I was slightly stupefied from then on.\nWhen I came to the surface I found that I formed part of a large, round, floating island composed of people and debris of all sorts, lying so close together that at first there was not very much water noticeable in between. People, boats, hencoops, chairs, rafts, boards and goodness knows what besides, all floating cheek by jowl. A man with a white face and yellow moustache came and held on to the other end of my board. I did not quite like it, for I felt it was not large enough for two, but I did not feel justified in objecting. Every now and again he would try and move round towards my end of the board. This frightened me; I scarcely knew why at the time (I was probably quite right to be frightened; it is likely enough that he wanted to hold on to me). I summoned up my strength - to speak was an effort - and told him to go back to his own end, so that we might keep the board properly balanced. He said nothing and just meekly went back. After a while I noticed that he had disappeared.\n(6) Gottlieb von Jagow , statement issued after the sinking of the Lusitania (18th May, 1915)\nLastly, the Imperial Government must specially point out that on her last trip the Lusitania, as on earlier occasions, had Canadian troops and munitions on board, including no less than 5,400 cases of ammunition destined for the destruction of brave German soldiers who are fulfilling with self-sacrifice and devotion their duty in the service of the Fatherland. The German Government believes that it acts in just self-defense when it seeks to protect the lives of its soldiers by destroying ammunition destined for the enemy with the means of war at its command.\n(7) Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg speech in the Reichstag on the sinking of the Lusitania (19th August, 1915)\nFor our and other peoples' protection we must gain the freedom of the seas, not as England did, to rule over them, but that they should serve equally all peoples. We will be and will remain the shield of peace and freedom of big and small nations.\n(8) The Manchester Guardian (10th May 1915)\nThe death roll in the Lusitania disaster is still not certainly known. About 750 persons were rescued, but of these some 50 have died since they were landed. Over 2,150 men, women and children were on the liner when she left New York, and since the living do not number more than 710, the dead cannot be fewer than 1,450.\nWhat the American people think of the crime is plain. Their newspapers are violent in denunciation; the public, except for the German-Americans, who have celebrated the event as a great and typical victory for their native country, are enraged. How President Wilson regards the affair no one knows. A semi-official statement issued from the White House says he knows the nation expects him to act with deliberation as well as firmness.\nIt should be remembered that the United States have many and peculiar difficulties of their own, and that Dr. Wilson personally will go to almost any length before he consents to a breach with Germany. His fixed aim is to preserve the world's respect by abstaining from any course of action likely to awaken the hostility of either side in the war, and so to keep the United States free to undertake the part of peacemaker.\nThroughout the world the news has been heard with horror. In Norway, Sweden, Holland, Spain and Italy, as well as in the territories of the Allied Powers, the newspapers express an unhesitating condemnation. Even journals who regard Germany as a friend have no excuse to offer. In several quarters the British Navy is sharply criticised. Why, it is asked, were not the submarines known to be off the Irish coast hunted down? Why was the liner not escorted into safety? These questions, which are to be found here and there in the neutral press, have been put also by many among the survivors. Possibly an official answer will be made in due course.\nIn Germany and Austria the people are undisguisedly delighted. They see in the sinking of the liner a fulfilment of all their boasts about the submarine blockade, which has hitherto signally failed to win any military or naval advantage. The newspapers seek to find an excuse in the Lusitania's armament. Their charge is false. Both the Admiralty and the Cunard company declare positively that the ship carried no guns. She had never done so, and the Government, although they had the right to employ her, had never called for her services. She was a genuine non-combatant merchant vessel.\nSurvivors tell the most terrible stories of their adventures. Some say the crew behaved bravely, others make no mention of such a thing, but all agree that few of the lifeboats were launched, that the ship went down quickly, and that hundreds were sucked under with her. Several survivors were drawn by the rush of water into the funnels, to be thrown to the surface a few moments later. Two torpedoes struck the liner, and she sank with half an hour of the first blow. Because of an injury to the engines it was not possible to stop the propellers at once, and the ship did not lose way until ten minutes had passed. During those precious ten minutes no boats could be launched from the moving vessel.\n(9) The Great World War: Volume III (1917)\nThe Lusitania was 790 feet long, 88 feet broad, and her gross tonnage was 32,500. There was, of course, one way in which she might be made available for Admiralty service. Though she was built as a swift passenger-ship, and a very large proportion of her space was occupied by engines and cabins, and her actual capacity was small in comparison to her tonnage, still she could carry a good deal, and her speed, 26.6 knots at her best, would enable her to escape the pursuit of most cruisers. These qualities would make her valuable as a carrier of ammunition.\nWhen the war broke out the Admiralty did not call on the company to hand the Lusitania over to them for service. She continued to be employed as a passenger-ship. The German Government has maintained, and continued to maintain, that the British Admiralty was guilty of what would have been a singularly mean device. It alleged, and went on alleging, that though the Lusitania continued to run as a passenger-ship she was loaded with contraband in the form of explosives, that the travellers who crossed the Atlantic in her were simply a blind, and that they were, in fact, allowed to embark in ignorance of the danger they were running, and in the hope that their presence would save the ship from attack.\nThe Germans quoted the undoubted fact that the Lusitania was warned at an earlier stage of the war to hoist the American flag when approaching the coast of Ireland as a proof that she was really in the service of the Admiralty. This assertion was firmly denied both at home and in America, and it was impossible to believe that the German Government possessed evidence of the truth of its charge. If it had, it possessed an easy means of both stopping the Lusitania and discrediting the British Admiralty. The laws of the United States forbid the carrying of large quantities of explosives in passenger ships. Had the German Government held even prima facie evidence that explosives were being smuggled on board contrary to the United States law it would have taken the correct legal steps to call the offenders to account. It had every reason for taking this course, since a demonstration that the British Admiralty was making a gross and most insulting abuse of the hospitality of the port of New York must have produced an impression highly favour- able to Germany on public opinion in America. There can be but one explanation of the failure of the German Embassy at Washington to avail itself of so effective a weapon; and it is, of course, that there was no proof of the alleged violation of neutrality and American Law.\n(10) Greg Bemis purchased the Lusitania in 1968. He was interviewed about the disaster in an article published in the Sunday Times (5th May 2002)\nThe fact is that the ship sank in 18 minutes. That could only happen as the result of a massive second explosion. We know there was such an explosion, and the only thing capable of doing that is ammunitions. It's virtually impossible to get coal dust and damp air in the right mixture to explode, and none of the crew who were working in the boiler rooms and survived say anything about a boiler exploding. I don't think there's any question that there was a steamline explosion, but that wouldn't have damaged the ship to the point where it sunk in 18 minutes. It's blarney, part of another cover story.\n(11) Howard Zinn , A People's History of the United States (1980)\nIt was unrealistic to expect that the Germans should treat the United States as neutral in the war when the U.S. had been shipping great amounts of war materials to Germany's enemies. In early 1915, the British liner Lusitania was torpedoed and sunk by a German submarine. She sank in eighteen minutes, and 1,198 people died, including 124 Americans. The United States claimed the Lusitania carried an innocent cargo, and therefore the torpedoing was a monstrous German atrocity. Actually, the Lusitania was heavily armed: it carried 1,248 cases of 3-inch shells, 4,927 boxes of cartridges (1,000 rounds in each box), and 2,000 more cases of small-arms ammunition. Her manifests were falsified to hide this fact, and the British and American governments lied about the cargo.", "Ships sunk in 1915\nFriday 2 April\nEnglish Channel\nLOCHWOOD, Admiralty collier, 2,042/1900, Constantine & Pickering SS Co, Middlesbrough-reg, 21 crew, Mr T Scott, from Barry with 3,200t coal, steaming at 8kts in misty weather with sea rough, strong WSW wind. U.24 (Rudolf Schneider) sighted on reverse course on port beam about 1�m distant, turned away, hoisted Norwegian ensign and went to full speed. U-boat followed, fired a first torpedo at 1745 and a second at 1815, then approached within hailing distance, ordered Lochwood to stop and gave the crew 10min to abandon ship, while doing so a third torpedo hit port-side abaft the engine-room. U.24 made off at 1900 and Lochwood sank at 1930, 25 miles SW of Start Point, Devon (wi - in 49.54.30N, 04.04W) (+L/Lr/te/un/wi)\n \nWestern Front - Battle of the Woevre to 15th\n \nFriday 9 April\nAuxiliary Patrol - British order for 50 American-built motor launches (ML.1-50) placed with Elco of Bayonne, NY through Canadian Vickers; further orders reached ML.580\n \nSunday 11 April\nGerman auxiliary cruiser Kronprinz Wilhelm entered Newport News (Va) in poor mechanical condition, interned on 27th\nEnglish Channel\nSarnia, Admiralty armed boarding steamer, 1,498/1910, hired 14/11/14, 2-12pdr, Cdr H Muir RNR. At 0700 Brixham smack Addax reported seeing a U-boat chasing a steamer half an hour earlier, at 0730 Sarnia sighted the French SS Frederic Franck 3�m off with crew in boats and U.24 (Rudolf Schneider)  alongside. Sarnia approached, the U-boat submerged, and Sarnia circled the steamer firing at the periscope. Around 0820 a first torpedo was evaded, then a second. Having called for destroyer help, she continued circling, firing at and attempting to ram the periscope until 1020 when the U-boat made off; the French steamer was only damaged (Mn/D)\n \nMonday 12 April\nMesopotamian Campaign - Turkish attacks on Kurnah/Al Qurnah to 14th held by British/Indian forces, Turks retreating along River Euphates towards Nasiriya pursued by vessels of the River Flotilla.\n \nWednesday 14 April\nGerman East Africa Campaign - German supply ship Kronburg, ex-British SS Rubens detained at Hamburg 8/14, now carrying supplies for light cruiser K�nigsberg still lying in the Rufuji River delta, sunk by old light cruiser Hyacinth in the Indian Ocean\n \nSaturday 17 April\nSW Scotland\nVirginian, Admiralty armed merchant cruiser, 10,760/1905, hired 13/11/14, 10th CS. Ran ashore in Clyde opposite Govan Ferry, blocked river and delayed armed merchant cruiser Oropesa leaving for her patrol (Mn/D)\nDardanelles Campaign\n \nGallipoli - click to enlarge\nE.15 (below, sister-boat E.4 - Navy Photos), submarine, E-class, 667/807t, 23/4/14, 1-12pdr/5-18in tt with 10 torpedoes, 15kts/9kts, 30 crew, Pennant No.I.95, Harwich until 1915, then to Mediterranean, Lt-Cdr Theodore Brodie, first Allied attempt to break through Dardanelles to reach Sea of Marmara since failure of French Saphir on 15 January, departed Mudros night of 16th carrying former British Vice-Consul at Chanak, now Lt Palmer RNVR. The submerged submarine was swept by a strong current into shoal water and grounded, undamaged S of Kephez Point light at around 0600 on the 17th (Cn/D/He – 15th) only a few hundred yards from Fort Dardanos, fired on by the Fort's guns before they realised she was aground, one shell killed Lt Brodie as he climbed out of the conning tower, another burst in an ammonia tank or battery compartment and asphyxiated and killed five crew; with the captain lost, survivors took to water and taken prisoner. Turkish attempts to salvage her started with a torpedo boat trying to pull her off, this was thwarted by bombing attacks, and the decision taken to destroy E.15 where she lay. Submarine B.6 went in but because of heavy fire, failed to hit her with two torpedoes.\nThat night - the 17th still - destroyers Scorpion and Grampus could not find her because of screening searchlights. Next morning, B.11 failed in its search because of fog, and that afternoon battleships Majestic and Triumph tried to hit her with big guns from within the Dardanelles, but as the shore defences prevented them getting any nearer than 12,000yds, they had to give up. That night - the 18th (Cn - 16th) - a picket boat each from Majestic and Triumph fitted with 14in torpedo dropping gear were sent in under the command of Lt-Cdr Robinson of Vengeance, the officer who had already displayed much gallantry destroying guns on shore in February. Creeping forward in pitch darkness, the boats aproached Kephez Point, when searchlights caught them and heavy gunfire followed. Neither was hit, a searchlight accidentally illuminated E.14 and Majestic's boat launched her torpedo which may have found the target; shortly hit by a shell , she began to sink. Triumph also fired hers, rescued Majestic's crew and with only one man lost, returned safely. Next morning, the 19th, E.15 was reported destroyed (+J/Rn/C/Cn/D/He/bw/dk/dx/ke/md; ADM.1/8418/90)\n \nMonday 19 April\nNorth Sea\nMAYFAIR, naval motor boat No.1, hired 1914, Lt Edward Martin RNVR. Darkened and on patrol in Firth of Forth, W of Inchkeith in approaches to Rosyth, spotted at 2033 by also darkened and patrolling torpedo boat TB.32 which put engines full astern and helm hard a starboard, but hit Mayfair the starboard side, sinking her; no lives lost, all crew picked up by TB.32’s boat(s). Mayfair continued to be listed until 1919, either a clerical error or she was possibly salvaged (He/D only; ADM.137/107, ADM.53/64641)\noff NW Scotland\nRHODESIA (1), Admiralty trawler, 155/1899, Hull Steam Fishing & Ice, Hull-reg H443, hired 1/15 as auxiliary patrol vessel, Admiralty No.1215, Skipper Philip Marr RNR (wi - A Gibson, Captain). Wrecked near Stornaway, Isle of Lewis (He/wi - on Obb Rock, S of Tulm Is, South Harris, in 57.41.20N, 06.20.40W); no lives lost (+Lr/C/D/He/dk/hw/wi)\n \nWestern Front - Second Battle of Ypres to 25 May\n \nSaturday 24 April\nWestern Front - Second Battle of Ypres, St. Julien to 4 May\nMesopotamian Campaign - Turkish attack towards Ahwaz in Persia, to the NE of Basra, held by British/Indian forces\nNorth Sea\nUndaunted, light cruiser, Arethusa-class, 4,400t, 3rd DF leader and Landrail, destroyer, L-class, c1,300t, 3-4in/1-12pdr/4-21in tt, 3rd DF, Harwich Force sailed on the 23rd with carrier Empress for a seaplane raid on the German coast, good weather lasted until around 0500 on the 24th when dense fogbanks were encountered near the take-off position. During manoeuvres, Landrail hit Undaunted in the engine-room at 18kts holing her badly, Landrail lost 20-30ft of her forecastle, and both had their wireless knocked out, making it difficult to inform Cdre Tyrwhitt in Arethusa. Undaunted made her way home with 3ft of water in the engine-room, Landrail was towed stern-first by destroyer Mentor and then light cruiser Aurora, both having towing-hawsers part twice in rising seas. At 1830 and drifting close to Terschelling on a lee shore, Arethusa, after her own two failed attempts took up the tow and headed for Yarmouth at 4kts, reaching there at 2100 on the 26th, 71 hours after the collision. Two tugs took Landrail to Chatham where repairs took 5 weeks. Their last collision has been exactly one month before, on 24 March! (Cn/D/dd/gr/ty)\n \nSunday 25 April\nGallipoli Campaign - The Gallipoli \"military\" as distinct from the Dardanelles \"naval\" campaign started with Allied landings around the southern Gallipoli Peninsula\nGallipoli Campaign\n \nGallipoli and area - click to enlarge\nFrom south round to the west, French troops landed near Kum Kale as a diversion, British 29th Division landed at \"S\"-Morto Bay, \"V\"-Sedd el Bahr or Cape Helles, \"W\"-Tekke Burnu, \"X\"-a mile north of Tekke Burnu and Y-beaches, and the two ANZAC divisions further north still at Z-beach north of Gaba Tepe, all, except the French on the European shore. A diversionary demonstration was made off Bulair at the neck of the Peninsular, and follow-up troops landing in the south included a Royal Marine brigade, the Royal Naval Division and an Indian brigade.\nThe landings required about 200 transports, supported by a fleet of 16 British battleships, 9 cruisers, 24 destroyers, 8 submarines including Australian AE.2, 2 French battleships, 3 cruisers, 5 destroyers, 4 submarines, Russian cruiser Askold, auxiliaries and minesweepers all under the command of Vice-Adm de Robeck, with Cdre Keyes as Chief of Staff.\nShips taking part included (those in italics incurred casualties – either killed in action or died of wounds on this date – and may have been damaged. See note at end of entry):\nFleet Flagship – dreadnought Queen Elizabeth\nFirst Squadron (Main British landings, S to Y beaches) – battleships Swiftsure (2nd flag), Albion, Lord Nelson, Implacable, Vengeance, Prince George (attached to French landings), Goliath, Cornwallis, cruisers Minerva, Euryalus (flag), Talbot, Dublin, and six fleet minesweepers.\nSecond Squadron (Anzac Cove landings) – battleships Queen (flag), London, Prince of Wales, Triumph, Majestic, cruiser Bacchante, submarine depot ship Adamant, seaplane carrier Ark Royal, balloon ship Manica, destroyers Beagle, Bulldog, Foxhound, Scourge, Chelmer, Colne, Ribble, Usk, and four trawlers.\nThird Squadron (feint attack on Bulair) – battleship Canopus, cruisers Dartmouth, Doris, and two destroyers.\nFourth Squadron (cruisers and trawlers attached to First) – cruisers Sapphire, Amethyst, and 12 trawlers.\nFifth Squadron (including minesweepers and netlayers) – battleship Agamemnon, 10 destroyers, three French minesweepers, two netlaying trawlers.\nSixth Squadron (French landings) – two French battleships, three French cruisers, seven destroyers and five torpedo boats.\nSeventh Squadron (Smyrna blockade) – four destroyers and armed yacht Triad.\nMany of the troops were landed ashore in ship's boats from battleships and by destroyers, the only specialist assault ship was SS River Clyde:\nRiver Clyde, landing assault ship, ex-collier, 3,913/1905, Ormond Cook & Co, Glasgow, purchased 12/4/15, converted by Cdr Unwin of minesweeping gunboat Hussar to land 2,500 troops directly ashore. Ports were cut in River Clyde's side, she towed a steam hopper port side and four lighters alongside, two on either bow, material was carried for a permanent pier and armoured machine-gun positions mounted on the forecastle. In operation, River Clyde was to be grounded, the hopper steam past, ground itself and drop down a gangway, troops would leave through the ports on each side, enter one lighter, cross to the second to reach the hopper and then ashore.\nBeached just before 0700 under \"murderous fire\" at the Seddul Bahr end of V-beach (the other end was Cape Helles), the hopper grounded too far from the shore for the gangway to reach and the front lighter swung away, only 200 troops reached the land in the first three hours, leaving many others dead and wounded. Even this small success was only made possible by Cdr Unwin and members of the crew who in full view of the Turks, secured and held the lighters and hopper as the troops passed over. Cdr Unwin stood in the water holding lines and although wounded, later rescued other wounded from the shore by boat, Midshipman Drewry in command of the hopper was also wounded but carried on until Midshipman Malleson took over, AB William stayed in the water holding the pontoon fast until he was killed and Seaman Samson worked on the lighters all day before being badly wounded. The main body of troops only landed that night. Mid George Leslie Drewry RNR (from Hussar), Mid Wilfred St Aubyn Malleson (battleship Cornwallis), Seaman George McKenzie Samson RNR (Hussar), Cdr Edward Unwin (Hussar), AB William Charles William RFR (Hussar) posthumously, were all awarded the Victoria Cross. River Clyde was later salvaged, sold 1920, renamed Angela, not broken up until 1966 (Rn/C/dx/mf/ms/vc)\nBeagle, Bulldog (above - Navy Photos), Foxhound, Scourge, G-class, c1,100t, 1-4in/3-12pdr/2-18in tt and Chelmer, Colne, Ribble, Usk, E-class, c630t, 4-12pdr, 2-18in tt, destroyers taking part in landings on Z-beach, later known as Anzac Cove, with 2nd Squadron (Rear-Adm Thursby). Four thousand men of 3rd Australian Brigade carried as an advanced guard by battleships Queen (flag), Prince of Wales, London and six of the destroyers, rest of the Anzac Corps in transports anchored offshore, cover provided by battleships Triumph, Majestic and cruiser Bacchante. Sixteen laden ship's lifeboats were towed in by picket boats, followed by equally-laden destroyers towing more lifeboats for their troops to disembark in; landing started around 0430, destroyers came under heavy machine gun and rifle fire. Many troops killed on the decks, crews suffered casualties. By 1400, 12,000 troops of 1st Australian Division were ashore with two batteries of Indian artillery, and within 24 hours, the 2nd Australian Division including a New Zealand Brigade had joined them (Rn/Cn/D/dd)\nTwo more G-class destroyers, 5th DF Mediterranean Fleet, temporarily equipped as minesweepers, also hit by Turkish shore fire, probably other destroyers damaged as well at other times:\nMosquito, heavy casualties including First Lt killed (dk – only man killed) (Cn/D/dd/dk)\nRacoon, Lt-Cdr A Muller. Date uncertain, sometime after 25 April - hit in one her boilers off Seddul Bahr (Rn/Cn/D/mf)\nNote: Kindell lists the following warship casualties on the 25th. It is not known if all those who died of wounds were wounded on this day or previously:\nDreadnought Queen Elizabeth (1 kia); battleships Agamemnon (3 dow), Albion (2 dow), Canopus (3 kia), Cornwallis (15 kia), Implacable (2 kia), Lord Nelson (4 kia), Prince George (1 kia), Prince of Wales (1 dow), Queen (1 kia), Swiftsure (1 dow), Triumph (1 dow), Vengeance (1 kia); armoured cruisers Bacchante (1 kia, 1 dow), Euryalus (6 kia); destroyers Chelmer (1 kia), Mosquito (1 kia); assault ship River Clyde (1 kia); despatch boat Osiris (1 kia, 1 dow); and submarine depot ship Adamant (1 kia).\nMore men from some of these ships died of wounds over the succeeding days, but again, it is not known how many of them were wounded on the 25th. It is assumed all these warships may have been damaged to some, mainly small, extent, although some of the casualties may have occurred ashore, during ship-to-shore operations or while serving in other ships e.g. AB William Williams of HMS Hussar awarded the Victoria Cross posthumously in action with River Clyde. Royal Navy Division losses on the day were 13, with many more sadly to come (dk)\nMonday 26 April\nGallipoli Campaign\nThe British Y-beach was evacuated and the French withdrew from the Asiatic shore to reinforce the British right inland of De Totts battery\n \nTuesday 27 April\nVictoria Cross - Lt-Cdr Edward Courtney Boyle (CO, HM S/M E.14) arrived in the Sea of Marmara on the 27th at the start of a successful patrol, returning on 18 May in time to brief Lt-Cdr Nasmith of E.11. Lt-Cdr Boyle was awarded the VC for this and two further patrols\nGallipoli Campaign\nBALMEDIE, Admiralty trawler, 205/1906, Balgownie Steam Trawl Fishing Co, Aberdeen-reg A113, hired 8/14 as minesweeper, Admiralty No.350, Skipper George Reynolds RNR. In collision, sank in the Dardanelles (C - off); no lives lost (+Lr/C/D/He/dk)\nScorpion and Wolverine, destroyers, G-class, c,1,100t, 1-4in/3-12pdr/2-18in tt, 5th DF Mediterranean Fleet, two of nine temporarily-equipped minesweeping destroyers, sweeping some way inside the Straits to allow the battleships to reach bombardment positions, sweep wires passed and drawing apart. Turkish 4.1in shore batteries opened fire, Wolverine hit on bridge, Scorpion by shell in seaman’s messdeck which started a fire, soon put out; Wolverine lost Cdr O Prentis her captain, a sub-lieutenant RNR and coxswain (dk – on the 28th, probably night of 27th/28th). There were a few shrapnel holes in Scorpion (Lt-Cdr A B Cunningham - “ABC” of WW2 fame) soon repaired by destroyer depot ship Blenheim. Over the succeeding days, more destroyers were hit and damaged (Cn/D/cu/dd/dk)\n \nWednesday 28 April\nDiplomatic Incidents - US merchant ship Cushing bombed by German aircraft in North Sea\nGallipoli Campaign - First Battle of Krithia; 3rd Royal Marine Battalion landed, Royal Marine Corps Memorable Date - GALLIPOLI\nAtlantic off NW Scotland\nMany supply ships especially colliers were needed for Admiral Jellicoe's Grand Fleet; some were lost as they passed up the western British Isles:\nMOBILE, Admiralty collier, 1,950/1914, Furness, Withy & Co, West Hartlepool-reg, Mr W Fortune, Barry for Scapa Flow with coal. Captured by U.30 (Erich von Rosenberg-Grusczyski), sunk with bombs 25 miles NW of Butt of Lewis, Outer Hebrides (wi - by gunfire, in 58.48N, 06.50W) (+L/Mn/Rn/te/un/wi)\nGallipoli Campaign\nAlbion, battleship, Canopus-class, 14,300t, 4-12in/12-6in, above Morto Bay on European side off Kereves Dere, providing gunfire support for French forces, shortly after noon, about to be relieved by Lord Nelson. Hit and damaged by Turkish shellfire, leaking and retired to Mudros for three days for repairs (Rn/D/Cn)\n \nAtlantic off W Ireland\nAnother Grand Fleet supply ship, this time lost off the Irish coast:\nCHERBURY, Admiralty collier, 3,220/1911, Cherbury SS Co (T L Duff & Co), Glasgow-reg, 25 crew, Mr James Davidson, Barry south-about Ireland for Cromarty with 5,100t coal. Submarine sighted 4 miles off at 1900, 10min later as Cherbury continued to zig-zag three shells fired, after another 10 to 12 miles a torpedo was fired and missed, then U.30 (Kurt Wippern) came up to within 150yd and signalled abandon ship, Cherbury hove to and complied. A party of Germans boarded, took the ship’s papers and navigational equipment, placed three scuttling charges below, sinking her around 2025, 27 miles WNW of Eagle Is, off Co Mayo (L - 13 miles NNW of; wi - in 54.21N, 10.18W); crew rowed to Eagle Is LH, next morning proceeded to Scotsport and Belmullet. Note: “Wreck Index” describes the first sighting of the U-boat as 27 miles WNW of Eagle Is, followed by a 10 to 12 miles chase (+L/Lr/Mn/Rn/te/un/wi)\n \nFriday 30 April\nVictoria Cross - L/Cpl Walter Richard Parker RMLI (Portsmouth Battalion, RN Division), to 1 May, Gallipoli, stretcher bearer, also carried ammunition and supplies to isolated position under intense enemy fire and cared for wounded\nAtlantic off SW Ireland\nFULGENT, Admiralty collier, 2,008/1910, Westoll Line/James Westoll, Sunderland-reg, collier No.151, presumably Pennant No.Y3.151, 20 crew, Mr C Brown, from Cardiff south-about Ireland for Scapa Flow with 2,750t coal. U.30 (Kurt Wippern) (L/Mn - U.7 but sunk 21 January 1915; ge - U.23) surfaced close astern at 0900 and fired one shot, collier went to full speed, attempted to keep the U-boat astern, but quickly overhauled on the port quarter, second shell hit bridge, engines stopped and ship abandoned. U.30 used the port-side boat to put a scuttling crew on board, charges sank her at 0945, 20 miles WNW from Blasket islands, N entrance to Dingle Bay (L/te/un - 45 miles NW of Skellig Rocks; wi - in 52.10.10N, 11.10W); man at the wheel killed and master badly wounded by second shell, 14 men took to the starboard boat with the master while the rest took the port, the boats stayed together all through the 30th and into the 31st then became separated during the night. The survivors, excluding the master who died two hours after being taken off, were picked up the SS’s Tosto and Angle, and landed at Galway and Kilrush on 1 May (+L/Lr/Mn/ge/te/un/wi)\nGallipoli Campaign\nAE.2, Australian submarine, E-class, 655/796t, 1913, 1-12pdr/4-18in tt with 8 torpedoes, 15/9kts, 30 crew, to Mediterranean 3/15, Lt-Cdr Henry Stoker, first Australian/British submarine to break through the Dardanelles to the Sea of Marmara reaching there on the 26th, now heading for Gulf of Atarki, SW part of Marmara to rendezvous with E.14 which had followed AE.2 in. Sighted Turkish gunboat, lost control and came to the surface only 100yds off, Sultan Hissar (French-built 38m-type torpedo boat Sultanhissar) launched torpedoes which missed, then opened fire making a number of hits, AE.2 surfaced to allow the crew to get off, then scuttled near the island of Marmara (C - hit by shore batteries); all crew saved, 4 ratings died as POW's in 1916. Wreck believed found in 1999 at 240ft (+J/C/Cn/D/He/bw/dk/dx/ke/on/www; ADM.137/2077)\n \n \nSaturday 1 May\nU-Boat Warfare - First US ship attacked without warning, tanker Gulflight carrying oil from Port Arthur for Rouen, torpedoed and damaged by U.30 off Scillies, Captain and two crew killed. More strong US protests followed; UB.3 went missing in Aegean Sea during the month\nNorth Sea\nOld destroyers Recruit and Brazen were on patrol off the Galloper Lightvessel in the Thames Estuary, while Yarmouth trawlers Columbia, Barbados, Miura, Chirsit were searching for a reported U-boat off North Hinder. Recruit was torpedoed and sunk at 1120 by a UB-boat, and about the same time a torpedo was fired at Columbia off the mouth of the Scheldt, probably by another UB. The trawlers continued their search and by 1500 were back at North Hinder when they were attacked by small German TB's A.2 and A.6, a new type based at Zeebrugge and sent overland in sections for assembly at Antwerp. Four torpedoes were fired and Columbia sank, followed by a 20 minute gun action between the TB's and the three surviving trawlers. The Germans then headed back at the sight of Harwich destroyers Laforey, Leonadis, Lawford, Lark coming out in reponse to the loss of Recruit, chased and sank both by gunfire:\nRECRUIT (1), destroyer, C-class, 425t, 1896, 1-12pdr/5-6pdr/2-18in tt, 30kts, c63 crew, Pennant No.N.60, Nore Defence Flotilla, Cdr Charles Wrightson. Torpedoed amidships at 1120 by UB.6 (Erich Haecker) (Cn/D - by UB.16), broke in two and sank quickly near Galloper LV (Rn - c30 miles SW of North Hinder LV; ge/un - 30 miles SW of the Galloper), reportedly the first warship sunk by a Flanders Flotilla submarine; 39 ratings lost (He – 34, ke - 43), four officers and 22 men saved by passing Dutch steamer (+J/Rn/C/Cn/D/He/ap/dk/dx/ge/ke/un; ADM1/8420/114, ADM.1/8420/117)\nCOLUMBIA, Admiralty trawler, 266/1886, Hellyers Steam Fishing, Hull-reg H42, presented (presumably as a private gift) 9/14 as auxiliary patrol vessel, Admiralty No.200, Canadian Lt-Cdr Walter Hawthorn RNR. Torpedoed shortly after 1500, probably by first torpedo fired by A.6 off North Hinder LV (ap - 4 miles NW of; D - nearby Thornton Ridge; H/L/C - Foreness, near North Foreland, Kent); total of 3 officers and 13 ratings lost, Barbados searched for survivors without success, later discovered one had been rescued by Miura. According to German reports, Lt Hawthorn and two men were picked up as POW’s, but lost when A.2 and A.6 were sunk (+L/Lr/C/D/He/ap/dk/ge; ADM.1/8420/116)\nBarbados, Admiralty trawler, (C - 211/1905; D - 183/1907), Hull-reg H.938, hired 10/14 as minesweeper, 1-6pdr AA, Lt Sir James Domville. Second torpedoes fired by A.2 and A.6 missed, then badly damaged by gunfire as Chirsit and Miura came up from some way off; Lt Domville and the skipper wounded. Note: The Colledge tonnage and build date apply to a second trawler named Barbados employed as BDV according to Dittmar & Colledge (C/D/ap)\n \nEastern Front - Gorlice-Tarnow offensive to late June\nGallipoli Campaign\nAlbion, battleship, Canopus-class, 14,300t, 4-12in/12-6in, just returned from repairing damage sustained on 28 April, providing gunfire support with Agamemnon, Goliath, Prince George and Vengeance off southern beachheads, operating on French right. Hit badly by Turkish gunfire from Asiatic shore in evening, retired to Mudros again to make good the damage; one man DOW on this date, not known if he was wounded at this time. Next day Prince George, Majestic-class, c16,000t, 4-12in/12-6in, was holed on the waterline by a 6in shell from the Asiatic batteries, had to leave for Mudros, and then for Malta to dock (Rn/D/da)\n \nThursday 6 May\nGallipoli Campaign - Second Battle of Krithia to 8th; Sub-Lt Arthur Walderne St Clair Tisdall RNVR (Anson Battalion, RN Division) killed ashore on 6th, awarded Victoria Cross for gallantry.\nNorth Sea\nTwo sorties towards the German coast were thwarted by dense fog and resultant collisions involving three destroyers:\nComet and Nemesis, H-class, 970t, 2nd DF Grand Fleet, two of eight destroyers escorting minelayer Orvieto from Scapa into Heligoland Bight. In collision, Nemesis \"seriously damaged\"; no casualties (D/gf/gr)\nLennox, L-class, c1,300t, 3rd DF, with Harwich Force of light cruisers and destroyers escorting seaplane carriers for attempted raid, fog so thick twice had to anchor. Lennox rammed by one of the carriers and Force recalled; no casualties (D/ty)\nWestern Mediterranean\nTB.92, torpedo boat, Thornycroft 140ft-type, 130t, 1894, 3-3pdr/3-14in tt, Gibraltar Patrol, with one or more TB's watching area to east of Gibraltar for expected U-boats entering the Mediterranean, sighted submarine. Torpedo fired at TB.92, 40 miles W of Alboran island, submarine dived and two attempts made to ram. Believed to be U.21 which left the Ems on 25 April, reaching Cattaro on 13 May (Rn/Cn/ge)\n \nFriday 7 May\nU-boat Warfare - Sinking of British liner Lusitania with the loss of 785 passengers including 124 US citizens caused major US-German diplomatic row with United States; notes of protest issued on 14 May, 9 June and 21 July 1915 about U-boat policy. Germany claimed the liner had been an armed merchant cruiser, was believed to be a troop transport and carrying a small quantity of ammunition, but immense diplomatic damage had been done. The Kaiser shortly banned attacks on large passenger ships\nBelgian Coast\nMAORI, destroyer, F-class, 1,030t, 1909, 2‑4in/2‑18in tt, 33kts, 68 crew, Pennant No.H.16, 6th DF Dover Patrol, Lt-Cdr or Cdr Benjamin Barrow, with sister ship Crusader (Lt-Cdr Maxwell) reconnoitring Belgian coast, between Hayst and Blankenberge, to lay marks in preparation for shoot by battleship Venerable. Conditions misty and did not clear until mid-afternoon. Around 1515, steering SE at 18 knots. Mined at low water under her starboard quarter, spotted and hit by German shell-fire, sank 2 miles NW of Weilingen LV, near Zeebrugge (He - around 51.21.1N, 03.06.9E), crew got away in their boats, Crusader lowered a boat but her commander decided to retire because of the intense shore fire, and left the boat behind; no lives lost in Maori, 7 officers and 87 ratings reached shore to become POW's, Crusader's boat crew also taken prisoner (+J/Rn/C/Cn/D/He/dk/dp/dq/ge/ke; ADM.156/145, ADM.1/8420/124)\n \nSaturday 8 May\nNorth Sea\nLimewold, armed trawler, 189/1898, Grimsby-reg, hired 12/14, 1-6pdr, CO on shore sick, Acting Skipper C Bond i/c, on patrol. Shell burst close to the bows at 0430, 20 miles E of Peterhead, submarine spotted one and half miles away right astern and closing fast, turned and returned fire, claimed hit on waterline abreast of conning tower with fifth shot when range down to 600yds, submarine submerged (Mn/D)\nAdmiralty collier (and one steamship) captured and torpedoed by U.9 (Johannes Spiess):\nDON (2), Admiralty collier, 939/1892, Lancashire & Yorkshire Railway Co, Goole-reg, Mr W Adron, sailing Cromarty for Blyth in ballast. Sank around 0440, 7 miles E of Coquet Isle, off Amble (wi - in 55.21N, 01.20W) (+L/Lr/te/un/wi)\n \nWestern Front - Second Battle of Ypres, Aubers\nSuez Canal area\nFANNY, tug, no further information, probably civilian vessel but crew included at least three ratings from armoured cruiser HMS Euryalus. Lost in accidental sinking; three ratings drowned, two of them buried at Ismailia, near Suez (dk)\n \nMonday 10 May\nNorth Sea\nDominion, battleship, King Edward VII-class, returning to Rosyth after cruise in northern North Sea with rest of 3rd BS, also 3rd CS, all Grand Fleet, divisions in line ahead, zigzagging at 15kts, had not yet met screening destroyers. (ge - 8th; Cn - May 1916) - unsuccessfully attacked by U.39 about 100 miles ENE of Firth of Forth, two torpedoes missed (Cn/D/gf/ge)\n \n \nGallipoli - click to enlarge\nGOLIATH, battleship, Canopus-class, 14,300t, 1898, 4-12in/12-6in/12-12pdr/4-18in tt, 18 kts, c750 crew, Pennant No.N.54, 8th BS Channel Fleet 8/14, later to Mediterranean, Capt Thomas Shelford. French forces under heavy attack inland of S-Beach, night of 12th/13th, Goliath and Cornwallis providing gunfire support, both anchored in exposed position in Morto Bay off Seddul Bahr village, Cornwallis astern of Goliath, destroyers Beagle, Bulldog, Pincher, Scorpion, Wolverine on patrol, night very dark, foggy around midnight, attacks were suspected. Turkish destroyer Muavenet-i-Miliet, partly German-manned and commanded by Lt-Cdr Rudoph Firle came down the Dardanelles, avoided Bulldog and Beagle around 0100, spotted the battleships and came round Eski Hissarlik Point under De Totts battery, challenged by Goliath at 0115 but steamed ahead and fired all three torpedo tubes as Goliath opened fire, one torpedo hit abreast fore turret, a second by the foremost funnel, and the third near after turret, ship immediately began listing badly to port and soon on beam ends, turned turtle, floated for a few minutes, then went down bow first; 505 lives lost - 20 officers including her Captain, 479 ratings and 4 canteen staff, 2 ratings DOW (Cn/He/ke - 570 men lost, 180 survivors). Wolverine and Scorpion tried to cut off the torpedo boat as it headed back up the Straits but failed (+J/Rn/C/Cn/D/He/dk/dx/ke/mf; ADM.116/1446)\n \nWestern Front - Second Battle of Ypres, Festubert to 25th\nNorth Channel\nBERKSHIRE (2), Admiralty trawler, 133/1897, North Lincolnshire Steam Fishing, Grimsby-reg GY398, hired 1915 (D - 12/14) as patrol vessel, 1-4in, Admiralty No.995, Skipper Herbert Percy Fleet RNR (wi - A Bland, Captain). In collision with armed yacht Valiant II (1,885grt), sank at 1900 off Cushendall, Red Bay, Co Antrim (He - 6 miles E of Tor Cor Point, in Red Bay; wi - in 55.05N, 06W); no lives lost, crew rescued by armed trawler Alsatian (+Lr/C/D/dk/wi; ADM.137/114, ADM.137/623)\n \nWestern Front - Second Battle of Artois (or Souchez, or Vimy Ridge) to 30 June\n \nMonday 17 May\nNorth Sea\nGerman minefield covering a large area S of 56N, E of 02.30E in the Dogger Bank area laid by old light cruiser Hamburg; two U-boats and a large destroyer took part, supported by High Seas Fleet battlecruisers. To prevent its early discovery, four trawlers on fishing grounds in NW Dogger Bank area were captured by torpedo boat(s) and their crews taken prisoner.\n \nWednesday 19 May\nVictoria Cross - Lt-Cdr Martin Eric Nasmith (CO, HM S/M E.11) ordered to 'Go and run amuck in the Marmara', reached the Sea of Marmara on the 19th at the start of successful patrol through to early June, followed by two more. Awarded VC for his exploits\n \nSouth African Campaign - South Africans captured Windhoek, German South-West Africa\n \nSaturday 22 May\nNorth Sea\nRifleman, destroyer, H-class, 2nd DF Grand Fleet, with other destroyers carrying out contraband control duties E and SE of Pentland Firth because of a U-boat threat to the usual armed boarding steamers. Grounded in fog, needed docking for repairs (Cn/D/gf/gr)\nGallipoli Campaign\nAlbion, battleship, Canopus-class, 14,300t, 4-12in/12-6in, providing gunfire support off the Anzac beachhead just south of Anzac Cove. Ran aground off Gabe Tepe on 22nd, under close-range fire by Turkish shore batteries and frequently hit, towed off by sister-ship Canopus on 23rd, left for Malta for repairs; reportedly one man killed and ten wounded, believed from Albion. Kindell only lists two Albion casualties around this time -  two men wounded in a shore party on the 22nd who DOW on the 23rd (Cn/D/da/dk/mf)\n \nItaly declared war on Austria-Hungary\n \nWestern Front - Second Battle of Ypres, Bellewaarde to 25th\n \nGallipoli - click to enlarge\nFirst U-boat attacks on ships off Gallipoli by U.21 (Lt-Cdr Otto Hersing):\nVengeance, battleship, Canopus-class, zigzagging up from Mudros to meet sister-ship Canopus and relieve her as gunfire support ship off Anzac Cove, submarines were expected in the area and a periscope was spotted at 0730 off the Dardanelles entrance, it was also seen heading north and at one point passed between battleships Swiftsure and Agamemnon, then disappeared, sea calm and visibility good. Due east of Cape Kephalo, Imbros island at 1000, Vengeance spotted a torpedo coming towards her from shorewards, swung clear and continued on to Gaba Tepe. Alarms and sightings continued during the morning (Rn/D/ge)\nTRIUMPH, battleship, Swiftsure-class, 11,985t, building as Chilean Libertad, launched 1903, purchased by Admiralty before completion, 4-10in/14-7.5in/14-14pdr/2-18in tt, 20kts, c700 crew, China Station 8/14, later to Mediterranean, Capt Maurice Fitzmaurice, providing gunfire support for Anzac beachhead, under way off Gaba Tepe with nets down, light guns manned and watertight doors closed, destroyer Chelmer patrolling round her at 15kts. Periscope sighted at 1225 on Triumph's starboard beam, Chelmer dashed for it, Triumph started firing but a a minute later a torpedo fired by U.21 (J - U.51) passed through the nets and hit her, almost immediately took on 10� list and continued to heel over. Chelmer came under her stern walk to take off a large number of men, capsized 10min after being hit, floated bottom-up for 30min then sank bow first just NW of Gaba Tepe off Ari Burnu/Anzac Cove. The scene was apparently so dramatic and unexpected, ANZAC and Turkish troops reportedly stopped fighting and stood to watch her end; 3 officers and 52 ratings lost (Rn/Cn/He/ke - 3 officers, 70 men lost, over 500 survivors). With the U-boat threat, continuous battleship support was no longer possible, a severe blow to the Australian and New Zealand troops (+J/Rn/C/Cn/D/He/dk/ke/mf; ADM.116/1444)\n \nWednesday 26 May\nNaval Aviation - Maiden flight of larger non-rigid C-class Coastal airship at RNAS Station, Kingsnorth, Kent, designed for extended anti-submarine patrols\n \nThursday 27 May\nNorth Sea\nPRINCESS IRENE, minelayer, 6,000/1914, one of two new ferries/liners built for Canadian Pacific Railway, converted by Denny, now 5,934grt, 2-4.7in/2-12pdr/2-6pdr AA/500 mines, 23kts, commissioned 20/1/15, Pennant No.P.47, (Commanding officer: Rn - Cdr T H M Maurice; He - Capt Mervyn Cobbe; ke - Capt M Cole), started to lay minefield NW of Heligoland on 8th/9th with sister ship Princess Margaret, now in River Medway, either alongside or mooored off Sheerness, undergoing repairs and mines, some reportedly with defective pistols, being primed. Major explosion amidships at 1108, followed by more as mines detonated, ship destroyed; at least 358 lives lost - 30 officers, 210 crew, 5 ratings from Chatham base HMS Pembroke, 36 merchant seamen and more than 77 civilians in the dockyard including at least 70 dockyard workers - 21 skilled labourers, 44 shipwrights and 5 yard boys (He – 51 crew, 78 dockyard workers and 6 men in Steam Pinnace 263 lying alongside; ke - 51 crew plus 77 civilian workers killed, 2 crew plus 1 civilian survived) (+J/Rn/Cn/D/He/dk/dx/ke; ADM.116/1445, ADM.1/8422/147)\noff NW Scotland\nROLULU, Admiralty trawler, 170/1909, George F Sleight, Grimsby-reg GY399, hired 4/15 as auxiliary patrol vessel, Admiralty No.1468, Skipper James Hodson RNR. Hebrides area, ran aground on Obb Rock, S of Tulm Is, South Harris in bad weather and wrecked, listed heavily to port but stern remained above water long enough for crew to be taken off; no lives lost (+Lr/C/D/He/dk; ADM.137/117)\nGallipoli Campaign\nMAJESTIC, battleship, Majestic-class, 16,060t, 1895, 4-12in/12-6in/16-12pdr/12-3pdr/5-18in tt, 17kts, c757 crew, Pennant No.D.04, Capt Henry Talbot, flagship of Rear-Adm Nicholson from 26th, providing gunfire support in Cape Helles area (J/He/ke - off W-beach), at anchor among unloading transports with torpedo nets out, as close inshore as possible, destroyers patrolling off shore. Periscope of U.21 (Otto Hersing) (J - U.23) spotted at 0645, 400 yds away on port beam, opened fire immediately but torpedo had already been fired, went right through the nets and hit amidships, second soon followed, ship capsized in 7min off Cape Helles (da - could be seen from V-beach; ke - W shore of Cape Helles; mf - W of Sedd-el-Bahr village; Cn - off Gaba Tepe near Anzac Cove); 42 ratings and 2 canteen staff lost, killed by the explosion or entangled in nets (Rn/Cn/He/ke - 40 casualties; 737 survivors). Sank in only 54ft of water, rested on foremast with fore-end of keel and bottom awash before disappearing under during the November storms. The withdrawal of bombarding battleships following the sinking of Goliath, Triumph and Majestic was a major victory for the Turks (+J/Rn/C/Cn/D/He/da/dk/ke/mf/un; ADM.1/8422/144, ADM.116/1443)\n \nEnglish Channel\nAdmiralty collier (and two steamships) captured and sunk by U.41 (Claus Hansen):\nSPENNYMOOR, Admiralty collier, 2,733/1915, Moor Line, Newcastle-reg, sailing Sunderland for Cardiff with pit timber, on maiden voyage. (L - 27th) - Sunk by torpedo 50 miles SW�W of Start Point (L - 50 miles SW by W of); 5 lives lost including master (+L/te/un)\n \nSunday 30 May\nAegean Sea\nMERION, Admiralty-owned dummy capital ship No 14, battlecruiser “Tiger”, ex-transatlantic liner, 11,621/1902, International Navigation, Liverpool-reg, conversion ordered 21/10/14, hired 1/12/14, converted at Harland & Wolff, Belfast with wood & canvas superstructure and guns, heavily ballasted to approximate proportions of a battlecruiser, armed with 1-3pdr, ready early 1915, based in Aegean from February 1915, heading for Mudros. (un – 29th) - Torpedoed by UB.8 (Ernst von Voight), sank off Mudros, island of Lemnos (D/dx - off Strati Is, S of Lemnos); 2 RNR officers and 2 MMR ratings killed. Note - C/D list her as purchased 30/5/15, the date of her loss; md - Lt von Voight reported attacking a large three funnelled ship at dusk, hit her with one torpedo abreast the forward funnel, but did not see her sink, nor did he identify her as a possible “battlecruiser”. Presumably torpedoed on the 29th, sank on the 30th (Lr/C/Cn/D/dk/dx/md/un/wd)\n \n \nJUNE 1915\nU-boat Warfare - first U-boat mines laid off English coast by Flanders-based UC-boats; first intimation off North Foreland on 1st when HMS Mohawk was mined, then more discovered off Harwich & Dover on 18th\nEnglish Channel\nHelper, paddle minesweeper, ex-tug, 173/1873, hired 1/4/15. June - In collision with armed trawler Fane 269grt off Portland (D/gr)\noff W Scotland\nKing Orry, Admiralty armed boarding vessel, 1,877/1913, hired 29/10/14. June - Ran aground in the Sound of Islay, refloated (D/gr)\n \nTuesday 1 June\nDover Straits\nMohawk, destroyer, F-class, 864t, 6th DF Dover Patrol, on patrol off North Foreland near NW end of net area. Saw mines close to her, could not get clear because of strong east-going tide, damaged in first UC-boat-laid field (UC.11 (Walter Gottfried Schmidt) in south entrance to Downs) in the Channel area, towed into Dover with upper deck almost level with the water; 5 ratings lost (Rn/Cn/dk/dp/ge/un)\n \nWednesday 2 June\nNorth Sea\nArethusa, light cruiser, Arethusa-class, broad pendant, Harwich Force, on patrol with Undaunted on the lookout out for Zeppelins attacking England, light cruisers each carrying a seaplane. Sighted Zeppelin, seaplane took off but forced to return, opened fire on Zeppelin which made off. Several hours later, German seaplane came out of the clouds and dropped three bombs without hitting Arethusa (Rn/Cn/D/ty)\n \nThursday 3 June\nEastern Front - Recapture of PrzemysI\nMesopotamian Campaign - British-Indian forces advancing up the River Tigris from Kurnah/Al Qurnah captured Amara (note: not Kut al Imara/Amara or just Kut), sloops Clio, Espiegle, Lawrence (RIM) and Odin, armed tug Comet, armed launches Lewis Pelly, Miner, Shaitan, Sumana and stern wheelers Muzaffari/Mozaffir, Shushan took part\nNorth Atlantic\nAlcantara, Admiralty armed merchant cruiser, 15,831/1914, hired 10/3/15. Collided with and sank trawler Kathleen 198grt (D/gr)\n \nGallipoli Campaign - Third Battle of Krithia\n \nU.14 sunk by trawler Oceanic II in North Sea off Peterhead\nAtlantic off SW Ireland\nInawilliam, or Ina Williams, Admiralty trawler, 337/1913, hired 4/15, 1-12pdr, Sub-Lt Nettleingham RNR, steaming towards Cahirmore Signal Station, few miles west of Berehaven. Large submarine came to the surface 1 or 2 miles away on port beam, Inawilliam, now 11 miles W of Mizen Head, headed for the U-boat which fired 4 or 5 rounds, then a torpedo which just missed, trawler fired back, hit her once or twice as she submerged and escaped (D/Mn)\n \nSunday 6 June\nAegean Sea\nIMMINGHAM, Admiralty store carrier, ex-passenger steamer, 2,083/1906, Great Central Railway, Grimsby-reg, hired as accommodation ship 10/14, RFA store carrier from 4/15, Pennant No.Y8.50, described as \"errand boy\" between Imbros island and Mudros during Gallipoli campaign. In collision with hired screw minesweeper Reindeer 1,101grt, sank off Mudros, Lemnos island. Owners claimed �100,000 compensation but only awarded �45,000 by the Admiralty (+Lr/C/Cn/D/ns)\n \nMonday 7 June\nGerman Minefield - Auxiliary minelayer Meteor laid large minefields on the 7th/8th along the North Russian Murman coast at the entrance to the White Sea to interrupt the flow of munitions to, and cargoes from Russia. SS Arndale was the first ship sunk; three more went down in the same month. Six Lowestoft minesweeping trawlers arrived in July to sweep them, and continued until November\nZeppelin Airwar - RNAS aircraft of No.1 Sqdn bombed and destroyed Army airship LZ.38 (Production No. LZ.38) in her shed at Bruxelles Evere, Belgium; Victoria Cross - Flight Sub Lt Reginald Alexander John Warneford RNAS (also No.1 Sqdn), destroyed German Zeppelin LZ.37 (Production No. LZ.37) in the air near Ghent, Belgium. He was killed in a plane crash ten days later\nOrkneys\nDuke of Albany, Admiralty armed boarding vessel, 1,997/1907, hired 30/10/14, returning to Scapa in thick fog. Grounded on Lother Rock in the Pentland Firth at 0400, refloated with considerable damage seven days later (D/gf/gr)\n \nSt George's Channel area\nAdmiralty collier (and two schooners) sunk by U.35 (Waldemar Kophamel) off The Smalls:\nSTRATHCARRON, 4,347/1912, Strathcarron SS Co, Glasgow-reg, sailing Barry for Truro with coal. Torpedoed by U.35, 60 miles W of Lundy Is, off Devon (L - in 51.05N, 06.10W) (+L/Lr/te/un)\n \nWednesday 9 June\n Mediterranean\nSCHIEHALLION, Admiralty trawler, 198/1903, Aberdeen-reg A905, Grampian Steam Fishing, hired 8/14 as minesweeper, Admiralty No.352, Skipper Thomas Barlow RNR. Mined and sunk, no other details; no lives lost (+L/Lr/C/D/He/dk)\nAdriatic Sea\nDublin, light cruiser, Chatham-class, 6,000t, 8-6in/4-3pdr/2-21in tt, based at Brindisi from 5/15, Capt Kelly, steaming at high speed with strong escort of French and Italian destroyers off N Albanian coast. Torpedoed by Austrian submarine U.IV (Rudolph Singule) near San Giovanni di Medua, soon worked up to 17kts, got back to Brindisi, but out of action for some time; 13 ratings lost (Rn/Cn/D/dk/ge/md/nw/un)\n \nThursday 10 June\nNorth Sea\nTwo torpedo boats, ex-Cricket-class coastal destroyers, c400t, 1907, 26kts, 2-12pdr/3-18in tt, 35 crew, serving with Nore Local Defence Flotilla. Sailed from Harwich at midnight on the 9th, on patrol off Thames estuary, searching for reported submarines with three other TB’s and five destroyers; both mined, laid by UC.11 (Walter Gottfried Schmidt) two days earlier (H/J/tn - torpedoed):\nTB.12, ex-Moth, Lt Edward Bulteel, near the Sunk LV at 1530 when there was a large explosion under her bows, believed torpedoed at the time (He/un – confirmed mined). Stayed afloat as other TB's came to her rescue, crew abandoned her when TB.10 came alongside, taken in tow, but now TB.10 suffered an explosion and sank. Trawler took over the tow of TB.12, assisted by destroyer Cynthia, progressed slowly while the TB gradually settled, sinking at 1055 (presumably on the 11th) in 51.44.40N 01.26E. Lt Bulteel and 22 ratings lost (+J/Rn/C/Cn/D/He/dk/sc/tn/un; ADM.156/15)\nTB.10, ex-Greenfly, Lt-Cdr John McLeod RN. Alongside TB.12, trying to take her in tow, then believed torpedoed herself at 1610 and broke in half, the two halves rising vertically before sinking off the Sunk LV (He/un – confirmed mined); 22 ratings lost, one more DOW (+J/Rn/C/Cn/D/He/dk/sc/tn/un; ADM.156/15)\n \nSaturday 12 June\nNorth Sea\nDESABLA, Admiralty chartered red-ensign oiler, 6,047/1913, Bank Line, Glasgow-reg (wi - Admiralty oiler transport No 63, presumably Y7.63), Mr F Cowley, Port Arthur for Hull with linseed/oil (wi - crude oil). U.17 (Hans Walther) sighted astern overtaking rapidly, started shelling continuously from 0720, engines stopped and crew abandoned ship by 0820 during which time the U-boat stood-by. Torpedo fired at 0830, but as she refused to sink, a boarding party placed explosive scuttling charges, by 1230 the submarine had submerged and Desabla was sinking fast 12 miles E of Todhead Point, S of Stonehaven, Kincardine (L - 38 miles ENE of May Is, Firth of Forth; te - 15 miles E of; wi - 13.5 miles ESE of Stonehaven, in 56.54.54N, 01.47.18W); survivors picked up by armed trawlers at 1530 (+L/Lr/D/te/un/wi)\n \nSunday 13 June\nAtlantic off SW England\nPELHAM, collier (wi - Admiralty collier transport No.604), 3,534/1906, Thompson SS Co, Sunderland-reg, 26 crew, Malta for Barry Roads in water ballast. U.35 (Waldemar Kophamel) appeared on the surface half a mile away, opened fire, ship turned away and went to full speed but hit repeatedly, engines stopped and ship abandoned. Germans placed bombs which sank her sometime after 1545, 30 miles NW of the Scillies (L - 30 miles N of; wi - in 50.16N, 06.55W;); survivors picked up by drifter Our Allies, landed in Newlyn on 16th at 0145 (+L/te/un/wi)\n \nMonday 14 June\nAtlantic off NW Scotland\nIndia, Admiralty armed merchant cruiser, 10th CS, heading for Clyde to coal. Torpedo fired at her in 59.20N, 07.52W, missed (D/Mn)\n                                                                                             \nSaturday 19 June\nNorth Sea\nBirmingham, light cruiser, Birmingham-class, 2nd LCS Grand Fleet, with sister-ship Nottingham, 3rd CS including Argyll and Roxburgh and just four screening destroyers making sweep from Rosyth across North Sea between the 18th and 21st. Attacked by U.32 without success, one of a series of attacks by four U-boats - see 20th (Rn/Cn/D/gf)\nLiberty, destroyer, L-class, 3rd DF, with Harwich Force on patrol for Zeppelins attacking England. Liberty stopped to pick up a dog that had fallen overboard, bombed and nearly hit by a German seaplane (Cn/ty)\n \nSunday 20 June\nNorth Sea\nArgyll and Roxburgh, armoured cruisers, Devonshire-class, 10,850t, 4-7.5in/6-6in, 3rd CS, Nottingham, light cruiser, Birmingham-class, 2nd LCS, all Grand Fleet, as the 3rd CS sweep continued, more torpedo attacks took place: Roxburgh, Argyll and Nottingham all missed by U.17, Nottingham missed for a second time by U.6. Before the latter attack, Roxburgh (Capt C Foot), zigzagging at high speed was hit well forward in the bows by U.38 (Max Valentiner) (Cn - U.39) at 1400 in 56.47N, 00.38E, maintained speed at 14kts returning to Rosyth, met by destroyers of 1st DF and escorted in. Considerably damaged, repairs were not completed until April 1916 (Rn/Cn/D/ge/gf/un)\n \nEastern Front - Austrians captured Lemberg\nEnglish Channel\nQUAIL III (He – Quail II), Admiralty trawler, 162/1897, Kelsall Brothers & Beeching, Hull-reg H236, hired 1915 (D - 11/14; He - 1914) as minesweeper, 2-3pdr, Pennant No.645. (Other sources – 23 June, perhaps because her loss was close to midnight on the 22nd) - In collision with tug Bulldog, sank at 2340, 7 miles SW of Portland Bill, Dorset (wi - in 50.30N, 02.30W), no lives lost (+Lr/C/D/He/dk/fd/hw/wi; ADM.137/126)\n \nWednesday 23 June\nItalian Front - First Battle of the Isonzo to 7 July\nU.40 sunk by decoy combination trawler Taranaki/submarine C.24 off Aberdeen, first success by decoy ship against a U-boat\nAtlantic off NW Scotland\nBush, Admiralty trawler, 221/1908, Milford-reg, hired 5/15, 1-12pdr, Skipper G King, on patrol off Hebrides about 8 miles NNW of Butt of Lewis, two drifters fishing nearby, wind blowing hard, \"considerable sea\". Shell landed nearby and submarine sighted, returned fire, third shot fell near the U-boat which submerged, Bush slightly damaged by the six shells fired at her; Admiralty awarded �60 to the crew (D/Mn)\n \nFriday 25 June\nAegean Sea\nHeroic, Admiralty armed boarding steamer, 1,869/1906, hired 18/11/14, 2-12pdr, believed blockading Turkish coast, lowered two boats under command of Lt Macdonald and Sub-Lt William to examine five schooners at 1350. Maxim fire opened up from shore on the boats at 1400, boats recalled and covering fire given, men picked up and boats hoisted in around 1430, no doctor aboard, headed back and anchored by HMS Vengeance to transfer wounded; 3 ratings DOW (pg - 12 wounded, AB Wilson died). \"Dardanelles: A Midshipman's Diary\" reports for 26 June that \"several Greek schooners have been seized and brought in (to Mudros) recently by our cruisers and boarding steamers in charge of a midshipman\" (D/da/dk/pg)\nGallipoli Campaign - Sea of Marmara\nE.12, submarine, E-class, 667/807t, 5/9/14, 1-6pdr/5-18in with 10 torpedoes, Lt-Cdr Bruce, penetrated Dardanelles and now operating in eastern part of Sea of Marmara after spending two days repairing main engines, entered Gulf of Mudania and came across two small steamers towing five sailing vessels, turned out to be decoy vessels. Only 10yds from first steamer when a bomb was thrown which failed to explode, fired on with rifles and small masked gun, two towed vessels joined in and tried to foul E.12's propellers. E.12 returned fire, got clear and sank the two steamers and two of the towed sailing vessels. Engine problems now returned; one rating slightly wounded (Rn/Cn/md)\n \nWestern Front - Battle of the Argonne to 4 July\n \nSt George's Channel\nAdmiralty squadron supply ship (and two, probably three other vessels) attacked by U.24 (Rudolf Schneider):\nINDRANI (2), 3,640/1888, Donaldson Line (Donaldson Bros, managers), Glasgow-reg, hired 4/8/14 as RFA, probably not commissioned, Pennant No.Y9.7, sailing Glasgow for Montreal with general cargo. Captured by U.24, sunk by torpedo 40 miles W of The Smalls, E of Milford Haven (L/te/un/wi - 36 miles SW of Tuskar Rock, off Rosslare; L/te/wi - also in 51.45N, 06.50W) (+L/Lr/C/D/te/un/wi)", "1000+ images about Lusitania Sunk By German U Boat on Pinterest | Warfare, Boats and Steamers\nForward\nThe ship Lusitania, departed from New York May 1, 1915 and sunk by the Germans on May 7, 1915 while the Lusitania was on it's way to Liverpool. 1,198 of the people aboard the Lusitania died out of the 1,925 people on the ship. 128 of them were US citizens. Germany sunk the Lusitania wanting to cut off all war supplies to Great Britain. This was one of the factors leading the U.S. into ww1.\nSee More", "Germans sink American merchant ship - Jan 28, 1915 - HISTORY.com\nGermans sink American merchant ship\nShare this:\nGermans sink American merchant ship\nAuthor\nGermans sink American merchant ship\nURL\nPublisher\nA+E Networks\nIn the country’s first such action against American shipping interests on the high seas, the captain of a German cruiser orders the destruction of the William P. Frye, an American merchant ship.\nThe William P. Frye, a four-masted steel barque built in Bath, Maine, in 1901 and named for the well-known Maine senator William Pierce Frye (1830-1911), was on its way to England with a cargo of wheat. On January 27, it was intercepted by a German cruiser in the South Atlantic Ocean off the Brazilian coast and ordered to jettison its cargo as contraband. When the American ship’s crew failed to fulfill these orders completely by the next day, the German captain ordered the destruction of the ship.\nAs the first American merchant vessel lost to Germany’s aggression during the Great War, the William P. Frye incident sparked the indignation of many in the United States. The German government’s apology and admission of the attack as a mistake did little to assuage Americans’ anger, which increased exponentially when German forces torpedoed and sank the British-owned ocean liner Lusitania on May 7, 1915, killing more than 1,000 people, including 128 Americans. The U.S., under President Woodrow Wilson, demanded reparations and an end to German attacks on all unarmed passenger and merchant ships. Despite Germany’s initial assurances to that end, the attacks continued.\nIn early February 1917, when Germany announced a return to unrestricted submarine warfare, the U.S. broke off diplomatic relations with the country. By the end of March, Germany had sunk several more passenger ships with Americans aboard and Wilson went before Congress to ask for a declaration of war on April 2, which was made four days later. The first American ships arrived in Europe within a week, marking a decisive end to U.S. neutrality.\nRelated Videos", "1000+ images about RMS Lusitania on Pinterest | Days in, New york and British\nForward\nThere was one torpedo shot. Lusitania’s survivors tell of seeing the torpedo come at them through the water. The torpedo hit on the starboard side, just behind the bridge. Passengers and crew were shocked that the Germans would have the gall to attack a ship that wasn’t part of the military, knowing it was carrying civilians, most importantly, Americans. When the torpedo hit, the damage didn’t seem to be too severe at first.lusitania_2898342k Then there was a second, enormous explosion. To…\n2", "World War 1 - 1915 Timeline - worldwar-1.net\nAllied offensive in Artois and Champagne begins.\n15/01/1915\nJapan's makes 21 demands on China.\n19/01/1915\nFirst German zeppelin air raid on England.\n \n04/02/1915\nGermany declares a submarine blockade of Great Britain. Any ship approaching England is considered a legitimate target.\n07/02/1915\nSecond Battle of Masurian Lakes begins.\n19/02/1915\nBritish naval units bombard Turkish forts in the Dardenelles.\n21/02/1915\nRussians lose the Second Battle of Masurian Lakes, suffering heavy loses in the process.\n \n01/03/1915\nAmerican citizen die as the British liner Falaba, becomes the first passenger ship to be sunk by U-boats. Captain George Van Horn Moseley of U.S. War College Divison suggests a plan for universal military training to the Chief of Staff.\n11/03/1915\nBritain announces a blockade of all German ports.\n30/03/1915\nAllied offensive in Artois and Champagne ends.\nMar 1915\n \n22/04/1915\nThe Second Battle of Ypres begins. Poison gas is used for the first time by Germans in an attack on the Canadian sector.\n23/04/1915\nAllied forces make landings an Gallipoli, Turkey.\n26/04/1915\nFrance, Russia, Italy and Britain conclude secret Treaty of London.\nApr 1915\nThe Germans, focusing on Eastern Front, launch an offensive against the Russians breaking through Gorlice-Tarnow in Poland.\n \nAustro-German offensive begins into Russian Poland.\n05/05/1915\nSecond Battle of Ypres ends.\n07/05/1915\nThe British liner Lusitania is sunk by a U-Boat with the loss of 1,198 civilians, including 128 American lives, creating a US-German diplomatic crisis.\n09/05/1915\nSecond Battle of Artois begins.\n23/05/1915\nIgnoring treaty agreements with the Central Powers, Italy declares war on Austria-Hungary.\n25/05/1915\nBritish Prime Minister Asquith reorganises his Liberal government as a coalition of the parties.\n \n29/06/1915\nThe Italians launch an unsuccessful attack against Austro-Hungary at what will be called the 1st Battle of Isonzo. There will be 12 in total.\n \n21/07/1915\nPresident Wilson sends notes to Secretary of War Garrison and Secretary of Navy Daniels directing them to draft a defense program.\n \nTwo Americans die in sinking of ship Arabic, off the coast Ireland by a U-boat.\n21/08/1915\nThe Washington Post carries story that General Staff are planning to send a force of 1 million soldiers overseas.\n24/08/1915\nAnother U.S paper, this time the Baltimore Sun carries the story that General Staff is planning to send a million soldiers overseas. The War College Division denies the allegations in Washington Post and Baltimore Sun. The American General Staff, in response to request from Secretary of War Lindley M. Garrison, devotes much of the year to preparing the \"Statement of a Proper Military Policy for the United States\".\n30/08/1915\nResponding to American demands, Germany stops sinking ships without warning.\n31/08/1915\nThe Germans end their offensive against the Russians having forced Russia out of much of Poland. The Gallipoli debacle ends, with the Turkish siege of the remaining Allied forces.\n \nTsar Nicholas takes commands of Russian armies.\n15/09/1915\nBritish forces use gas in battle near Loos, but shifting winds cause 60,000 British casualties.\n22/09/1915\nThe Second Battle of Champagne begins.\nSep 1915\nBattles of Artois starts. Battle of Loos starts.\n \nAnglo-French force lands at Salonika in Greece.\nOct 1915\nBattles of Artois & Champagne ends. Battle of Loos ends. Austro-German-Bulgarian forces invade Serbia, expelling the Serbian army from the country\n \nHenry Ford's peace ship, Oskar II, begins its voyage to Europe.\n \n15/12/1915\nGeneral Sir Douglas Haig takes Field Marshal Sir John French's position as Commander-in Chief of the British Forces in France. This also gave him control of the Canadian Forces in Europe.\n28/12/1915" ] }

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{ "description": [ "The History of Video and Related ... the first video tape recorder ... Ampex sold the first VTR for $50,000 in 1956.The first VCassetteR or VCR were sold by Sony ...", "VCR and Home Video History . ... (Video cassette recorders), there were machines called VTRs ... World's First VTR Intended for Home Use-- Developed by SONY in 1964 ...", "Recording Technology History ... Public address amplifiers and speakers developed by AT&T since 1916 were used at the ... first Ampex video tape recorder, ...", "50 Years of the Video Cassette Recorder. ... Ampex released the world’s first magnetic tape video recorder, ... and the first models were only compatible with ...", "The History of Magnetic Recording by ... other kinds of magnetic recorders were being developed in ... decade. The first \"instant replay\" on ...", "History of the digital camera ... the first video tape recorder ... transmitting and printing electronic still video images. In 1990, Kodak developed the Photo CD ..." ], "filename": [ "164/164_1356195.txt", "49/49_1893137.txt", "174/174_183645.txt", "74/74_1356175.txt", "113/113_1893158.txt", "180/180_947347.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8 ], "title": [ "The History of Video Recorders - Video Tape and Camera", "TV History: VCR And Home Video History - The First 75 Years", "Recording Technology History - Audio Engineering Society", "50 Years of the Video Cassette Recorder - WIPO", "The History of Magnetic Recording - Audio Engineering Society", "About: Inventors—History of the Digital Camera" ], "url": [ "http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blvideo.htm", "http://www.tvhistory.tv/VCR%20History.htm", "http://www.aes.org/aeshc/docs/recording.technology.history/notes.html", "http://www.wipo.int/wipo_magazine/en/2006/06/article_0003.html", "http://www.aes.org/aeshc/docs/recording.technology.history/magnetic4.html", "http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bldigitalcamera.htm" ], "search_context": [ "The History of Video Recorders, Video Tape and Television\nBy Mary Bellis\nUpdated August 21, 2016.\nCharles Ginsburg led the research team at Ampex Corporation in developing one of the first practical videotape recorders or VTRs in 1951. It captured live images from television cameras by converting the information into electrical impulses and saving the information on magnetic tape. By 1956, VTR technology was perfected and in common use by the television industry.\nBut Ginsburg wasn’t done yet. He led the Ampex research team in developing a new machine that could run the tape at a much slower rate because the recording heads rotated at high speed. This allowed the necessary high-frequency response. He became known as the \"father of the video cassette recorder.” Ampex sold the first VTR for $50,000 in 1956, and the first VCassetteRs -- or VCRs -- were sold by Sony in 1971.\nThe Early Days of Video Recording\nFilm was initially the only medium available for recording television programs -- magnetic tape was considered, and it was already being used for sound, but the greater quantity of information carried by the television signal demanded new studies.\nA number of American companies began investigating this problem during the 1950s. \nTape Recording Technology\nAudio and video magnetic recording has had a greater impact on broadcasting than any other development since the invention of radio/TV transmission itself. Video tape in a large cassette format was introduced by both JVC and Panasonic around 1976. This was the most popular format for home use and for video store rentals for many years until it was replaced by CDs and DVDs. VHS stands for Video Home System.\nThe First Television Cameras\nAmerican engineer, scientist and inventor Philo Taylor Farnsworth devised the television camera in the 1920s, although he would later declare that \"there's nothing on it worthwhile.\" It was an “image dissector” that converted a captured imagine into an electrical signal.\nFarnsworth was born in 1906 on Indian Creek in Beaver County, Utah. His parents expected him to become a concert violinist but his interests drew him to experiments with electricity. He built an electric motor and produced the first electric washing machine his family ever owned at the age of 12. He then went on to attend Brigham Young University where he researched television picture transmission. Farnsworth had already conceived of his idea for television while in high school, and he cofounded Crocker Research Laboratories in 1926 which he later renamed Farnsworth Television, Inc. He then changed the name again to Farnsworth Radio and Television Corporation in 1938.\nFarnsworth was the first inventor to transmit a television image comprised of 60 horizontal lines in 1927. He was only 21 years old. The image was a dollar sign.\nOne of the keys to his success was the development of the dissector tube that essentially translated images into electrons that could be transmitted to a TV. He filed for his first television patent in 1927. He had already won an earlier patent for his image dissection tube, but he lost later patent battles to RCA, which owned the rights to many of inventor  Vladimir Zworkyin’s  TV patents.\nFarnsworth went on to invent over 165 different devices. He held over 300 patents by the end of his career, including a number of significant television patents -- although he was not a fan of what his discoveries had wrought. His final years were spent battling depression and alcohol. He died on March 11, 1971, in Salt Lake City, Utah.\nDigital Photography and Video Stills\nDigital camera technology is directly related to and evolved from the same technology that once recorded  television  images. Both television/video cameras and digital cameras use a CCD or charged coupled device to sense light color and intensity.\nA still video or digital camera called the Sony Mavica single-lens reflex was first demonstrated in 1981. It used a fast-rotating magnetic disc that was two inches in diameter and could record up to 50 images formed in a solid-state device inside the camera. The images were played back through a television receiver or monitor, or they could be printed out.\nAdvancements in Digital Technology \nNASA converted from using analog to digital signals with their space probes to map the surface of the moon in the 1960s, sending digital images back to earth. Computer technology was also advancing at this time and NASA used computers to enhance the images that the space probes were sending. Digital imaging had another government use at the time – in spy satellites.\nGovernment use of digital technology helped advance the science of digital imaging, and the private sector also made significant contributions. Texas Instruments patented a filmless electronic camera in 1972, the first to do so. Sony released the Sony Mavica electronic still camera in August 1981, the first commercial electronic camera. Images were recorded onto a mini disc and placed into a video reader that was connected to a television monitor or color printer. The early Mavica cannot be considered a true digital camera, however, even though it started the digital camera revolution. It was a video camera that took video freeze-frames.\nThe First Digital Cameras \nSince the mid-1970s, Kodak has invented several solid-state image sensors that \"convert light to digital pictures\" for professional and home consumer use. Kodak scientists invented the world's first megapixel sensor in 1986, capable of recording 1.4 million pixels that could produce a 5 x 7 inch digital photo-quality print. Kodak released seven products for recording, storing, manipulating, transmitting and printing electronic still video images in 1987, and in 1990, the company developed the Photo CD system and proposed \"the first worldwide standard for defining color in the digital environment of computers and computer peripherals.\" Kodak released the first professional digital camera system (DCS), aimed at photojournalists in 1991, a Nikon F-3 camera equipped with a 1.3 megapixel sensor.\nThe first digital cameras for the consumer market that would work with a home computer via a serial cable were the Apple QuickTake camera in 1994, the Kodak DC40 camera in 1995, the Casio QV-11 also in 1995, and Sony's Cyber-Shot Digital Still Camera in 1996. Kodak entered into an aggressive co-marketing campaign to promote its DC40 and to help introduce the idea of digital photography to the public. Kinko's and Microsoft both collaborated with Kodak to create digital image-making software workstations and kiosks which allowed customers to produce photo CD discs and add digital images to documents. IBM collaborated with Kodak in making an Internet-based network image exchange.\nHewlett-Packard was the first company to make color inkjet printers that complemented the new digital camera images. The marketing worked and now digital cameras are everywhere.", "VCR History\nVCR and Home Video History \nVTR vs VCR\nBefore the days of VCRs (Video cassette recorders), there were machines called VTRs (Video tape recorders).\nThe VTRs -- video tape recorders -- were similar to reel-to-reel audio tapes, with large spools of multi-track magnetic tapes, from 1/2\" to 2\" wide by 7,000 feet long, moving at high lineal tape speed (20 to 30 feet per second for the early machines).  This high speed was necessary to fit all of the black and white picture information onto the tape.\nExperimentation with magnetic tape recording of video signals began just post World-War II.  Prototype machines were built in the early 1950s.  The first practical, commercial broadcast quality video recorder was released by Ampex in 1956.  The model VR-1000  cost $50,000 and used 2\" wide videotape. KING-TV in Seattle got Serial Number 1. (CBS in Hollywood had earlier received the first production prototype, the VRX-1000.)\nWorld's First Broadcast via Videotape  --  CBS airing of the Douglas Edward and the News program on November 30, 1956, from New York. CBS Television City in Hollywood replayed the broadcast three hours after it was received on the West Coast.  The show was in black and white (the VR-1000 was designed for B&W - it could not handle color broadcasts).\nWorld's First All-Transistor VTR (Video Tape Recorder) -- RCA's 1962 release of the TR-22 -- Commercial Use Only\nWorld's First VTR Intended for Home Use -- Developed by SONY in 1964 -- CV-2000 (only a few hundred were sold)\n        Size: 10-3/4\" High x 17\" Wide x 15.5\" Deep.  Tape: 1/2\" reel-to-reel, 1 hour max. record at 7-1/2 ips.\nWorld's First Video Cassette Recorder (for home use)  --  Phillips Model 1500 \n         Introduced in England in 1972 -- 22\" Wide x 6.5\" High x 15\" Deep\nFirst VHS VCR --  JVC's  HR-3300 -- Introduced in the Fall of 1977  -- featured a 2 hour recording time.\nWorld's First HD-Compatible Digital VCR in U.S. Market (July 1999) --  Panasonic PV HD-1000\n(30K)", "Recording Technology History\nRecording Technology History\non lateral groove\nEdison ad from LC\n1877 - Edison made the first recording of a human voice (\"Mary had a little lamb\") on the first tinfoil cylinder phonograph Dec. 6 (the word \"Halloo\" may have been recorded in July on an early paper model derived from his 1876 telegraph repeater) and filed for an American patent Dec. 24. John Kruesi built this first practical machine Dec. 1-6 from a sketch given to him by Edison that was made Nov. 29 (not on \"Aug. 12\" that Edison mistakenly wrote on another sketch in 1917). When Kruesi heard Edison's first words Dec. 6, he exclaimed \"Gott in Himmel!\" (but these words for \"God in Heaven\" were not recorded and thus have been forgotten). Others before Edison had tried to record sound, but Edison and his tinfoil phonograph were the first to succeed.\n1878- Edison was granted patent 200,521 on Feb. 19 for a phonograph using cylinders wrapped with tinfoil with 2-3 min. capacity. None of these early fragile tinfoils have survived, but after Edison experimenters used different recording materials, such as the lead cylinder of Frank Lambert that is known today as the oldest surviving playable cylinder (\"One o'clock, Two o'clock\"), and the brass discs of Augustus Stroh in England (\"mama\" and \"papa\").\n1881 - Charles Tainter at the Volta Lab made the first lateral-cut records , but without any practical machine to play them back.\n1885 - A second type of phonograph was invented by Chichester Bell and Charles Tainter; they were granted patent 341,214 on a machine that they called the \"Graphophone\" using wax-coated cylinders incised with vertical-cut grooves; see photos from Smithsonian and the essay Tainter and the Graphophone.\n1887 - A third type of phonograph was invented by Emile Berliner; he was granted patent 372,786 for a \"Gramophone\" using a non-wax disc photo-engraved with a lateral-cut groove; see pictures of the three rival phonographs.\n1887 - Edison filed an application Nov. 26 for patent 386,974 on an improved phonograph using a battery-powered electrical motor and wax cylinders, but neither he nor the graphophone inventors were able to mass-produce copies.\n1888 - Emile Berliner demonstrated an improved early gramophone May 16 at the Franklin Institute using a flat 7-inch disk with lateral-cut grooves on one side only, hand-cranked at 30 rpm with 2-min. capacity; Berliner was the first to mass-produce hard rubber vulcanite copies from a zinc master disk.\n1889 - The Columbia Phonograph Co. was organized January 15 by Edward D. Easton with rights to market a treadle-powered graphophone; however, Easton would have more success selling music rather than business machines, especially cylinders of the popular United State Marine Band under John Philip Sousa . Easton produced the first record catalog in 1890, a one-page list of Edison and Columbia cylinders.\nCylinder vs. Disc\n1890 - The first \"juke box\" was the coin-operated cylinder phonograph with 4 listening tubes that earned over $1000 in its first 6 months of operation starting the previous November 23 in San Francisco's Palais Royal Saloon, setting off a boom in popularity for commercial nickel phonographs that kept the industry alive during the Depression Nineties.\n1893 - Emile Berliner finally began to succeed with his new U. S. Gramophone Company; in 1894 he made and sold 1000 machines (some electric-powered, most hand-powered, but no spring motor yet) and 25,000 records (7-inch hard rubber discs). The Berliner Gramophone Co. was incorprated Oct. 8, 1895, and Berliner discovered in 1896 that shellac from the Duranoid Co. was better than hard rubber for records; Frank Seaman created the National Gramophone Co. Oct. 19, 1896.\n1894 - in December, Guglielmo Marconi made radio history when at the age of 20 he invented his spark transmitter with antenna at his home in Bologna, Italy. He took his \"Black Box\" to Britain in Feb. 1896 and although it was broken by custom officials, he filed for British Patent number 12039 on June 2, 1896, and began to build a world empire of Marconi companies.\n1896 - Eldridge Johnson improved the gramophone with a motor designed by Levi Montross and his own patent 601,198 filed Aug. 19, 1897, for a simple and inexpensive machine that became the most popular disc phonograph by 1900; he then merged his Consolidated Talking Machine Co. with Berliner's company to create the Victor Talking Machine Co. in 1901 with the \"little nipper\" dog as trademark.\n1897 - shellac discs replaced vulcanite, but the typical heavy steel stylus tracking at 9 oz. caused heavy wear; with the introduction of low-cost talking machines such as the Columbia Eagle graphophone and the Edison Gem cylinder and the Berliner improved gramophone , strong growth in sales began of commercial cylinders and discs, mostly classical and Tin Pan Alley songs.\n1898 - Valdemar Poulsen patented in Denmark on Dec. 1 the first magnetic recorder, called the \"telegraphone,\" using steel wire; he exhibited his device at the Paris Exposition in 1900 and formed the American Telegraphone Co. in Nov. 1903 after Congress validated his American patent 661,619.\nIndestructible cylinder case,\nsee record labels\n1900 - Thomas Lambert developed a successful method of mass-duplicating \"indestructible\" cylinders of celluloid; his patent 645,920 described making a copper negative matrix by electrolysis from a wax master, and using heat and pressure to \"mould\" durable celluloid copies from the matrix. Although Lambert's patent was upheld by the courts, Edison would use expensive lawsuits to drive Lambert's company and the Indestructible Phonograph Record Company out of business by 1907.\n1902 - Edison introduced \"Gold Molded\" cylinders for $.50 each with an improved hard wax surface and able to be mass-produced by a molding process; in Europe \"Red Seal\" 10-inch discs with 4-minute capacity were sold for $1.00, each featuring famous European artists, such as tenor Enrico Caruso and baritone Mattia Battistini. The first Red label records were made in Russia by Fedor Chaliapan, singer for the Imperial Opera, who recorded 10 records for Fred Gaisberg and the Gramophone Co. April 11 in Milan; Victor began to import these celebrity labels in 1903 and became the leading seller of classical music records. The 10-inch disc would quickly become more popular that the previous 7-inch standard disc that could only play for 2-3 minutes.\n1903 - Eldridge Johnson began to sell the Victor IV phonograph, the first model equipped with his tapered tone arm, patent 814,786 filed Feb. 12.\n1904 - The Odeon label was created in Germany by the International Talking Machine Co. to sell double-sided discs that Zonophone had pioneered in South America in 1902, based on patent 749,092 by Ademor Petit, yet it was still impossible to put an entire symphony on a single disc that could play both sides for no more than 10 minutes. HMV in England recorded in 1903 the first complete opera, Verdi's \"Ernani\" on 40 single-sided discs. Odeon pioneered something called the \"album\" in 1909 when it released the \"Nutcracker Suite\" by Tchaikovsky on 4 double-sided discs in a specially-designed package.\n1906 - Columbia announced in July the Velvet-Tone thin and flexible laminated shellac record with paper core, following the proposal of Marconi who had visited the Bridgeport plant of the American Graphophone Company. This record had less surface noise than regular shellac records.\n1906 - Victor introduced the first all-enclosed cabinet phonograph that by 1907 was being widely advertised as the \"Victrola\" upright with enclosed tapered horn; Victor would spend $50,000,000 on print advertsing and $17,000,000 on catalogs and brochures by 1929, creating the generic name victrola that is applied to all phonograph players designed as furniture.\n1906 - William Randolph Hearst in October began to use cylinder recordings of his speeches in the election campaign for governor of New York. The wax graphophone masters were made by Columbia in New York City, electroplated and molded, played at public meetings and distributed to libraries for public check out.\nDictaphone 1907\nsee pictures\n1907 - The Dictaphone Corporation was organized when the Columbia Graphophone Co. sold its business machine division.\n1908 - John Lomax, on his first trip west, recorded a black saloon keeper in San Antonio singing \"Home on the Range\" on an Edison cylinder and the lyrics were written down and published in the book \"Cowboy Songs and Frontier Ballads\" by Lomax in 1910 and the song became a national favorite; Lomax and his son Alan would record 10,000 songs for the Library of Congress Archive of the American Folk Song.\n1910 - John McCormack signed his recording contract with the Victor Co. that would result in hundreds of recordings made over the next 20 years.\n1911 - Edwin S. Pridham and Peter L. Jensen in Napa, California, invented a moving-coil loudspeaker they called the \"Magnavox\" that was used by Woodrow Wilson in San Diego in 1919.\n1912 - Edison introduced celluloid blue Amberol cylinders that played for 4 minutes. When played with a diamond stylus, the new cylinder had low surface noise that resulted in higher acoustic quality than flat discs.\n1913 - Edison finally conceded victory to the flat disc when he began to sell the Diamond-Disc players and recordings. The Diamond discs had a surface of Condensite plastic laminated to a solid core and a thickness of 1/4 inch. Condensite was a resin plastic like Bakelite, the first artificial plastic patented in 1909 by Leo Baekeland. The players used the same Diamond Point Reproducer used in the Blue Amberols but tracked at heavier force; see pictures of the Diamond Disc phonographs.\n1914 vacuum tube by AT&T came from radio\n1914 - ASCAP founded to enforce 1909 Copyright Act.\n1915 - U.S. Navy seized Telefunken radio station at Sayville, Long Island, that was using Telegraphone wire recorders to send high speed transmissions to Germany.\n1915 - Edison suggested in 1915 that the U.S. create a Naval Research Laboratory - picture of Edison sculpted from life.\n1916 - Theodore Case founded his Case Research Laboratory in Auburn, New York, to develop a sound-on-film recording system for motion pictures to compete with Edison's sound-on-cylinder system; Case and Earl Sponable developed the Thalofide photo-electric cell used by the Navy in WWI to transmit secret messages by infrared light.\n1917 - Over There recording written by George M. Cohan, performed by Billy Murray. \"Written in 1917 and introduced by the famous singer Nora Bayes, this World War I hit became the anthem for America's war effort.\" (from Library of Congress )\n1918 - first wartime actuality sound recording of gas shell bombardment.\n1918 - Poulsen's 1898 Denmark patent expired; Germany developed improvements to the wire telegraphone; see picture.\nNew Popular Music\nColumbia Grafonola ad from Literary Digest, 1919/09/27\n1917 - The first \"Jazz\" record \"Livery Stable Blues\" was recorded by the all-white Original Dixieland Jass Band from New Orleans, according to The Origins of Big Band Music. Jazz recordings stimulated the recording of the blues, first popularized by vaudeville performer Ma Rainey who became the first successful blues singer in 1902 and later recorded 100 songs 1923-1928 for Paramount as the \"Mother of the Blues,\" by black composer W. C. Handy in 1911, and by Mamie Smith who recorded the first vocal blues song, \"Crazy Blues\" in 1920, on the Okeh label.\n1919 - Gennett Record Company in Indiana began to make lateral-cut records and was sued by Victor. Smaller labels such as Okeh, Vocalian, Compo joined Gennett in defending its claim that lateral-cut was in the public domain. Gennett won case 1921 before Judge Learned Hand and won appeal 1922 before Judge Augustus Hand, cousin of Learned. Gennett became one of the largest record producers in the nation, releasing some of the earliest jazz records of Jelly Roll Morton and opened the gates for smaller independent companies to record their own records.\nearly RCA radios, from NMAH\n1920 - David Sarnoff in January proposed in a 28-page memo the \"Sales of Radio Music Box for Entertainment Purposes\" and led RCA into cross-licensing patents with AT&T and Westinghouse and to leadership in the broadcasting and recording industries by the end of the decade.\n1920 - KDKA in Pittsburg inaugurated commercial radio when it was the first radio station to receive its commercial call letters from the Department of Commerce Oct. 27; it began regular scheduled broadcasting Nov. 2 with the returns of the presidential election, and continued broadcasting every evening from 8:30-9:30 pm.\n1921 - Public address amplifiers and speakers developed by AT&T since 1916 were used at the Armistice Day ceremonies at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Arlington Cemetery.\n1921 - majority record sales began decline from $106 million high due to the growth of live radio, but new kinds of minority music become popular.\nBessie Smith, from LC\n1921 - The Coon-Sanders Novelty Orchestra in Kansas City recorded \"Some Little Bird\" for Columbia, began regular radio broadcasts Nov. 1922 on the clear channel station WDAF, and recorded 65 songs for Victor 1924-32, becoming one of the nation's most popular big bands of the Jazz Age.\n1923 - Bessie Smith's first record \"Down-Hearted Blues\" was an important landmark on The Blue Highway, selling 750,000 copies for the Columbia label in one year, and making Smith the \"Empress of the Blues.\" Her recording of Handy's classic \"St. Louis Blues\" with Louis Armstrong on cornet for Columbia in 1925 was one of the finest records of the era, and led her to star in the 1929 RCA Photophone two-reel sound film St. Louis Blues with an all African American cast.\n1923 - New York's WHN broadcast of the influential big band led by Fletcher Henderson.\n1923 - Fiddlin' John Carson's \"Little Old Log Cabin in the Lane\" became the first hit country record.\n1924 - Chicago's WLS started the National Barn Dance radio show.\n1925 - The Rice-Kellogg research paper was published, establishing the basic principle of the direct-radiator loudspeaker with a small coil-driven mass-controlled diaphragm in a baffle with a broad midfrequency range of uniform response. On Nov. 28, WSM in Nashville (\"We Shield Millions\" slogan of owner Edwin Craig's National Life and Accident Insurance Co.) began its Barn Dance radio show (hosted by George D. Hay who had previously hosted the WLS Barn Dance show) that in 1927 became the Grand Ole Opry broadcast from WSM's Studio B on the new NBC network. The Grand Ole Opry moved to the the Ryman Auditorium in 1943 and with the Acuff-Rose1942 studio and WSM's 1947 Castle Studio would attract recording companies to Nashville's Music Row.\nBing Crosby in 1939\nElectrical Era pictures\n1926 - Bing Crosby recorded his first record \"I've Got the Girl\" with an old carbon mic; hired by Paul Whiteman to sing with Harry Barris and Al Rinker as \"The Rhythm Boys\" and began to use the new microphones developed by Bell Labs that encouraged the \"crooner\" sound when held close to the singer's mouth; see Der Bingle Technology for Harry Lillis Crosby's influence on records, radio, movies, audio and video tape recording. He is the No. 1 recorder of songs (1600 songs on 400 million records); the No. 1 recorded song in history remains White Christmas (35+ million copies sold since 1942); the first pop singer to win an Academy Award for Best Actor (in the 1944 film Going My Way); the No. 1 film box office star 1944-49; the No. 1 radio star 1931-1957.\n1927 - Ralph Peer held recording sessions on State Street in Bristol TN for the Victor company using the new electrical recording equipment made by Western Electric. The Bristol sessions have been recognized as \"Big Bang of Country Music\" that helped to launch the careers of the Carter Family and Jimmie Rodgers, the first commercially successful modern country music artists.\n1929 - Paul Whiteman's Old Gold Special was the first national big band promotional road show.\nElectric Era Replaces Acoustic Era - see pictures and articles\n1925 - first electrically-recorded discs and Orthophonic phonographs go on sale, using Western Electric system developed at AT&T's Bell Labs over the previous 10 years, making it now possible to record whole orchestras and symphonies and even sound motion pictures (see Sound Recording Research at Bell Labs ).\n1925 - Warner Bros. joined Walter J. Rich to create the Vitaphone Co. and in October began making experimental sound pictures in the Warner Vitagraph studio in Brooklyn.\n1926 - Vitaphone Co. signed a contract April 20 with AT&T to develop sound pictures using the electrical recording system of Western Electric, using 16-inch acetate-coated shellac discs at the new recording speed of 33 1/3 rpm in synch with film reel by electric motors; Warner Bros. moved the Vitaphone studio to the Manhattan Opera House in May and made some short subject musical films such as Volga Boatman on May 24 before releasing Don Juan on Aug. 6, the first full-length film with sound recorded for the musical scenes.\n1926 - Charles Brush sold the first piezo-electric featherweight stylus.\n1927 - On Jan. 1, Western Electric created Electrical Research Products, Inc. (ERPI) to license motion picture technology to the motion picture producers and exhibitors; Fox had acquired a Western Electric license in Dec. 1926 to use the AT&T electrical sound system in ts theaters to show Fox Movietone newsreels made with the rival sound-on-film method, starting Apr. 20 with marching West Point cadets;\ncondenser mic 1928 from Neumann History\nin July, Warner Bros. moved the Vitaphone production to Hollywood in the first studio built for sound; The Jazz Singer premiered Oct. 6, the first commercial sound film with spoken dialogue.\n1927 - Automatic Music Instrument Co. of Grand Rapids (AMI) introduced the all-electric coin-operated phonograph, the \"juke box,\" to replace coin-operated pianos, but few built before 1934.\n1928 - Georg Neumann started his microphone company in Berlin and began production of the CMV3 \"Neumann Bottle\" condenser microphone.\n1928 - John Baird in England developed an early form of mechanical television and recorded moving images and sound on Phonovision wax discs but Vladimir Zworykin in the U.S. and Manfred von Ardenne in Germany perfected the cathode ray tube for electronic television by 1929.\n1929 - RCA began making \"transcription\" discs of vinyl \"Victrolac\"* from optical soundtracks for radio stations to play on the air; Magnavox developed the hum-bucking coil that reduced loudspeaker hum; final production of Edison cylinders and discs; merger of RCA and Victor.   *Sometimes incrorrectly spelled \"Vitrolac\".\n1930 - Bing Crosby recorded his first solo \"I Surrender, Dear\" and became the nation's most famous crooner; signed by Bill Paley to CBS in 1931 and sponsored by G.W. Hill's Cremo Cigars; more radio stations began to play records of all kinds.\nThuras loudspeaker 1933, from AT&T Archives\n1930 - Albert L. Thuras filed patent No. 1,869,178 on Aug. 15, 1930, granted July 26, 1932, for the bass-reflex principle, and worked at Bell Labs on other designs significant in loudspeaker history\n1931 - RCA tried to market coarse groove discs of \"Victrolac\"* vinyl plastic that ran at 33-1/3 rpm \"professional\" speed, but it failed to replace popular 78 rpm consumer speed; however, the professional transcription disc coated with cellulose acetate remained the standard transcription disc for radio station recording until magnetic tape was adopted in 1948. *Sometimes incorrectly spelled \"Vitrolac\".\n1931 - In April Leopold Stokowski with his Philadelphia Orchestra used the vertical-cut recorder equipped with a new moving coil pickup with sapphire stylus developed at Bell Labs by Arthur C. Keller to improve the dynamic range of cellulose acetate discs pressed from gold-sputtered wax masters. When Stokowski later at Bell Labs in New York City heard the record of a performance of the \"Roman Carnival\" by Berlioz made on Dec. 1, 1931, he said it was the finest recording he had ever heard.\n1931 - Empire State Building opened May 31 in New York City with music piped into its elevators, lobbies, observatories.\n1931 - The EMI studio that opened Nov. 12 at Abbey Road in London, was the largest sound recording studio in the world; Louis Sterling hired Alan Blumlein to install Blumlein's own electrical recording system and Sterling stopped paying royalties to Western Electric. Alan Blumlein patented the \"binaural\" (stereo) recording method in England.\nMusic for the Masses\nRock-Ola 12-selection mechanism used in juke boxes\n1933 - Homer Capehart sold Simplex changer mechanism to Wurlitzer, sold juke boxes to distributors who installed music systems in post-Prohibition grilles and taverns.\n1934 - first U.S. advertisement for \"High Fidelity\" records; Duo Junior record player attachment for radios sold for $16.50.\n1934 - Rock-Ola, Seeburg, Wurlitzer introduced multiple-selection nickel juke boxes; number installed in U.S. increased from 25,000 to 300,000 by 1939; Bing Crosby became #1 selection, spurring sales of his 35-cent Decca label songs.\n1934 - Signal Corps General George Squier founded Muzak to sell recorded music to homes in Cleveland for $1.50 per month on 3 channels.\n1934 - Swing music began in December with Benny Goodman on NBC's Let's Dance.\nElvis at White House from National Security Archive\n1935 - Hit Parade sponsored by G.W. Hill's Lucky Strike\n1935 - New York's WNEW is first music and news radio station; Martin Block was one of the first disc jockeys in his Make Believe Ballroom and earned $500,000.\n1935 - Elvis Presley was born January 8 and died in 1977 after selling 41 million albums, recording 107 Top-40 hit songs, making 33 movies, and shook hands with President Richard Nixon (photo at right of meeting 12/21/71) However, Bing Crosby who also died in 1977 recorded 1600 hit songs, sold 500 million records, made 61 movies, but probably never shook Nixon's hand.\n1942 - Armed Forces Radio Service created to distribute programs to soldiers overseas. By January 1946, 1030 vinylite 16-inch transcription discs of 8240 popular and classical songs had been produced as part of the Basic Music Library for the AFRS.\n1928 - Dr. Fritz Pfleumer patent in Germany for application of magnetic powders to strip of paper or film.\n1931 - Pfleumer and AEG begin to construct the first magnetic tape recorders.\n1932 - BASF of I.G. Farben joined with AEG of Telefunken to develop magnetic tape recording using Pfleumer patent; by 1934, BASF is able to manufacture reels of plastic-based tape.\n1935 - first public demonstration of BASF/AEG \"Magnetophone\" at Berlin Radio Fair.\n1936 - first BASF/AEG tape recording on Nov.19 of live concert by Sir Thomas Beecham.\n1939 - independent invention of the wire recorder in U.S. by Marvin Camras at Armour Research Foundation and sold to military during World War II; wire recorders such as the Webster pictured at right were popular with amateurs until the late 1950s.\n1940 - David Sarnoff of RCA installed first secret recording devices in the White House for 11 weeks, from June to October, using the same optical Phonofilm method used in RKO films.\n1941 - The quality of the Magnetophone in Germany dramatically improved with the use of high frequency biasing developed by Weber and Von Braunmuhl at AEG.\n1944 - 3M Co. (Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing) began tape coating experiments in U.S. under Ralph J. Oace.\nTape Recording Comes to America\n1945 - Signal Corps Captain John Mullin found Magnetophones at Radio Frankfurt in Germany and 1000-meter reels of 6.5mm ferric-coated BASF tape with 20-min capacity; he mailed 2 machines to U.S. with 50 reels of tape, and after the war worked on them to improve the electronics.\nCrosby with early Ampex home model ca. 1948, from Ampex Corp.\none of the first RCA 45 rpm players, from the Smithsonian\nElvis statue on Beale Street in Memphis\nSoundmirror tape recorder by the Brush Development Co.\n1946 - Mullin demonstrated Magnetophones at San Francisco Institute of Radio Engineers on May 16, and Harold Lindsay told Ampex boss Alexander M. Poniatoff who began work on developing a U.S.-made magnetic tape recorder.\n1947 - Mullin demonstrated Magnetophones to Bing Crosby Enterprises in June. NBC had refused to record his show, Bing moved to ABC with Philco sponsor in the fall, brought with him Mullin's Magnetophones to tape his new season shows and dub to 16-inch transcription disc for broadcast starting Oct. 1 - see Der Bingle Technology article on Bing Crosby.\n1948 - 1st U.S.-made Ampex Model 200 tape recorders arrived for Crosby show #27 along with 3M Scotch 111 gamma ferric oxide coated acetate tape.\nWar of the Speeds\n1948 - Columbia introduced on June 21 the first 12-inch 33-1/3 rpm micro-groove LP vinylite record with 23-minute per side capacity, developed by Peter Goldmark in 1947, using players made by Philco.\n1949 - RCA Victor introduced 7-inch 45 rpm micro-groove \"Extended Play\" vinylite record and player; article from RCA Review, later records made of polystyrene. In September, Capitol became the first major label to support all three recording speeds of 78, 45, 33-1/3 rpm.\n1951 - war of the speeds ended as Victor sold LPs and Columbia sold 45s.\nRock and Roll\n1947 - Big 6 record companies controlled majority industry: Columbia, Victor, Decca, Capitol, MGM, Mercury; but teenagers rejected majority music style, giving opportunity to the rise of new small independent labels.\n1947 - Roy Brown recorded one of the earliest \"rock and roll\" songs Good Rocking Tonight on DeLuxe label, although the name was common in early blues recordings such as Trixie Smith's 1922 My Man Rocks Me With One Steady Roll.\n1949 - Todd Storz of Omaha's KOWH created Top 40 after observing customers in a bar play the same juke box selection over and over.\n1950 - Muddy Waters recorded Rollin' Stone for the Aristocrat label of Leonard and Phil Chess on Maxwell Street in Chicago, at the end of Highway 61, \"the road to freedom\" followed by many black blues singers from the Miss. Delta to Chicago. Waters electrified the blues and helped create rock and roll.\n1951- Sam Phillips in his studio in Memphis used his Ampex 350 tape machine to record Rocket 88, written by Ike Turner, sung by Jackie Brenston, and sold to Leonard and Phil Chess in Chicago who released it as the 78 rpm Chess record #1458. The sale of this master tape allowed Phillips to start his own Sun Records label.\n1952 - Alan Freed started Moondog's Rock and Roll Party in Cleveland after visit to Leo Mintz's record store.\n1953 - Elvis Presley in the summer made his first recording (a personal disc for himself, not for his mother's birthday that was in the spring) at the Sun studio of Sam Phillips in Memphis; the second recording by Elvis at Sun was That's All Right released July 19, 1954, taped on the two Ampex 350 recorders Phillips used to create the \"slapback\" audio delay that became a trademark sound of Sun records.\n1954 - Bill Haley recorded rhythmic Shake, Rattle and Roll and Rock Around the Clock on Decca, due to the success in 1953 of his first national rock hit Crazy Man Crazy on Essex label.\n1955 - Sam Phillips on Nov. 10 sold his recording contract with Elvis to RCA and Colonel Tom Parker for $35,000.\n1956 - Elvis Presley recorded Heartbreak Hotel on January 10 in Nashville at his first session for RCA in the RCA Studio on 1525 McGavock Street, and A Big Hunk o' Love June 10, 1958, in the new Studio B on Music Row. According to the Elvis Presley Studio Recordings RCA erased most of its tapes from the 1950s for later reuse, but a good transfer of the original, spliced A Big Hunk o' Love master can be found on the CD \"All Time Greatest Hits\", PD90100(2)\nFrom Stereo to Cassette\n1945 - Paul Klipsch patented the Klipschorn folded horn speaker. The innovations in speakers and amplifiers and tape recorders after World War II contributed to the birth of a\"Hi Fi\" era that produced stereo and transistor radios and cassette tape players.\n1949 - Magnecord added a 2nd head to its PT-6 tape recorder (the mono model was first introduced at the May 1948 NAB show) to create one of the first open reel stereo tape recorders; see tape recorder ads. Willi Studer in Herisau, Switzerland, made his first Dynavox tape recorder that evolved into the Revox A36 by 1953, and after moving to a new factory in Regensdorf near Zurich in 1960, began to produce the 2 and 4-track Revox D36.\n1949 - Frank H. McIntosh and Gordon J. Gow sold the first McIntosh 50W1 Unity Coupled Amplifier, producing 50 watts at less than 1% distortion from 20 Hz to 20,000Hz.\n1951 - Stefan Kudelski in Switzerland built the first Nagra portable, self-contained tape recorder with wind-up motor, and Max Grundig in Germany introduced the Reporter tape recorder.\n1954 - Acoustic Research introduced the small AR-1 bookshelf loudspeaker that used the acoustic suspension principle developed by company co-founders Edgar Villchur and Henry Kloss. This was soon followed by the $89 AR-2 and by the AR-3 with improved domed tweeters in 1958.\n1954 - RCA Victor sold the first prerecorded open reel stereo tapes for $12.95.\n1954 - Regency TR-1, first transistor portable radio introduced by I.D.E.A. Co. of Indianapolis - see note on the\nChrysler Imperial 1956, from the Imperial Home Page )\nquestion of who made the first such radio.\n1956 - The Chrysler Imperial 16-2/3 rpm record player with 7-inch ultramicrogroove records developed by Peter Goldmark.\n1957 - May 28 the National Academy of Recording Arts & Sciences was founded in Hollywood by Paul Weston of Columbia, Lloyd Dunn of Capitol, Sonny Burke of Decca, Jesse Kaye of MGM and Henri Rene and Dennis Farnon of RCA Victor, with Jim Conkling of Columbia as its first president, and began to grant the annual Grammy Awards in 1959 for the best recordings and performers of 1958. Tom Stockham received the first Technical Grammy Award in 1994.\n1958 - world standard for stereo records established, and first stereo LPs sold; new generation of Hi-Fi components adopt stereo. Koss introduced stereo headphones.\nstereo 'phones 1958, from Koss Museum\n1959 - Seeburg sold the \" Background Music System \" with 16-2/3 rpm records.\n1962 - Henry Kloss introduced the KLH Model 11 portable stereo, the first transistorized record player, with the changer/amplifier and two speakers folding into a three-piece suitcase. Kloss had left his previous partner Edgar Villchur at Acoustic Research and founded KLH in 1957 with Malcolm Low and J. Anton Hofmann.\n1963 - Philips demonstrated its first compact audio cassette using high-quality BASF polyester 1/8-inch tape that ran at 1-7/8 ips; sold the next year in the U.S. with the Norelco Carry-Corder dictation machine, but the demand for blank tape used for personal music recording was unanticipated by Philips.\n1966 - U.S. cars equipped with 8-track stereo cartridge tape players developed by William Lear (who founded the Learjet aviation company in 1962), Ampex, and RCA.\n1969 - Dolby Noise Reduction introduced for pre-recorded tapes.\nVideo Tape Recording\nfirst Ampex video tape recorder, 1956, from History of Television\n1950 - \"Jack Mullin, then Bing Crosby's recordist and chief engineer, began working at the newly established electronics division of Crosby Enterprises to develop a magnetic TV recorder\" - from Tape Recorder History by Jerry Whitaker.\n1951 - Ampex team led by Charles Ginsburg began work on a video tape recorder (VTR) in October; Bing Crosby Enterprises demonstrated an experimental 12-head VTR at 100 ips.\n1953 - Vladimir K. Zworykin and RCA Labs demonstrated Dec. 1 a longitudinal VTR running very fast at 360 ips over 3 heads with AM sound.\n1956 - Ampex demonstrated first practical quadraplex VTR at Chicago NAB show April 14, using 2-inch wide 3M tape at 15 ips over rotating head assembly recording at a slant on tape surface with AM sound; over next 4 years sold 600 units at $75,000 each, mostly to big network stations.\n1956 - CBS broadcast the first network television show with videotape Nov. 30, Douglas Edwards and the News, for West Coast delayed broadcast.\n1957 - Ampex and RCA pooled patents to develop compatible color and B&W VTR.\n1959 - first mobile Ampex VTR unit.\n1959 - Toshiba in September demonstrated prototype helical scan model VTR-1, with 2-inch tape running at 15 ips over just one head. After the demonstration, Sony began to develop the helical scan VTR.\n1960 - Ampex shared VTR patents with Sony and Sony shared transistorized circuitry with Ampex.\n1961 - JVC (founded as the American-owned Victor Co. of Japan in 1946, but owned by Matsushita since 1953) demonstrated helical scan color VTR with 2 heads.\n1961 - Sony marketed helical scan VTR, the PV100, adopted by American Airlines in 1964 for in-flight movies; Ampex sued Sony in 1966.\n1963 - Sony marketed first home VTR for $995, open reel 1/2-inch helical scan deck.\n1964 - Ampex joined with Toshiba to market U.S.-designed VTRs in Japan.\nPhilips cassette\n1965 - Sony introduced first consumer 1/2-inch format helical scan VTR and priced under $3000. Philips introduced the compact cassette for consumer audio recording and playback on small portable machines such as the Norelco Carry-Corder 150.\n1967 - In March, the Ampex HS-100 color video magnetic disc recorder is used for rapid playback in normal, slow, or stop action, at the ABC \"World Series of Skiing\" in Vail, Colorado, marking the beginning of \"instant replay\" on commercial television.\n1968 - CBS introduced EVR using film in a cassette; 20th Century Fox agreed to sell movies in EVR; but the format faced growing competition by 1972 from videocassette formats introduced by RCA, Sony, Ampex and Avco, all seeking to develop a new consumer market for home VCRs.\n1969 - RCA demonstrated SelectaVision that played pre-recorded cassettes but did not record.\n1969 - Sony introduced first videocassette, the 3/4-inch U-Matic one-hour tape, available in U.S. by 1971. For the first time, Sony allowed other manufacturers to sell machines that could play the cassette, and thus succeeded in establishing a world standard for the 3/4-inch videocassette.\n1970 - Ampex introduced the Instavision that it had developed with Toshiba; N.V. Philips introduced its own videocassette recorder (VCR) format in Europe; AVCO introduced a solid state compact Cartrivision VCR.\n1972 - Phillips demonstrated a laserdisc playback-only deck.\n1972 - Sears and Wards sold CartriVision, but too many competing VCR formats caused all to fail by 1973.\nBetamax Battles\n1975 - Sony introduced in November in the U.S. the Betamax consumer VCR (console only) for $2295 with one-hour 1/2-inch tape cassettes for $15.95. Sony sought to created a standardized format, as it had done with the U-matic in 1969, by getting 7 other companies to agree to produce machines that would play the Beta cassettes.\n1976 - JVC introduced in October in Japan the VHS format VCR for $885.\n1976 - Sony introduced a Betamax VCR deck for $1300 and began aggressive advertising claiming that it \"can actually videotape something off one channel while you're watching another channel\" and \"build a library of your favorite shows.\" MCA/Universal and Disney filed lawsuit finally won by Sony in 1984.\n1977 - RCA announced in March it would sell VHS with 4-hour tapes.\n1978 - Pioneer developed the LaserDisc that was first used by General Motors to train Cadillac salesmen. Pioneer began selling home LaserDisc players in 1980.\n1979 - Sony introduced Betascan in April that allowed visible picture while fast-forwarding.\nSony Walkman\n1979 - Sony introduced the TPS-L2 Walkman portable audio cassette player, inaugurating a new era of personal music listening; the Sony family of portable personal music players would grow to include over 500 models, from the original pocket-sized 14-oz Walkman to the D-88 Pocket DiscMan of 1988 to the DAT Walkman TCD-D3 of 1991 to the MiniDisc of 1992 to the digital Discman of 1999. According to Sony's press release, in the 20-year history of the Walkman devices, 100 million units were sold in the U.S. creating a $1 billion industry. By 1983, more pre-recorded audio cassettes (236 million) were sold than LPs, a decline in the big vinyl discs that was accelerated in the 1980s by the compact disc digital revolution.\n1980 - Sony introduced first consumer video camcorder.\n1983 - Sony introduced the Beta HiFi VCR with high-quality FM sound.\n1985 - Sony introduced the 8-mm format in April; the VHS group, led by JVC, brought out a compact version of VHS, known as VHS-C, but it only recorded for 20 minutes.\n1988 - Super-VHS video format equalled 8-mm in picture quality but not in sound quality.\n1989 - Sony introduced the Hi8 video format and the Sony CCD-V99 camcorder.\nSony's first CD player\n1982 - first digital audio 5-inch CD discs marketed, merging the consumer music industry with the computer revolution\n1985 - Sony and Philips produced the standard for Compact Disc Read Only Memory (CD-ROM) computer discs that would use the same laser technology as the audio CD.\n1987 - Digital Audio Tape (DAT) players introduced\n1988 - for the first time, CD sales surpassed LP sales, leaving CD and cassette as the two dominant consumer formats; more than 1/2 of TV households own a VCR; the first transatlantic fiber-optic cable carried up to 37,000 telephone transmissions and began to replace satellites for telephone communication.\n1990 - Canada began digital radio that used the L-band .\n1993 - Digital HDTV Grand Alliance in October selected Dolby AC-3 to provide digital surround sound for the emerging technology of digital television .\n1994 - Global Big 6 control $30 billion record industry: Philips (owns Polygram, A&M, Mercury, Island), Sony (owns CBS Records), Matsushita (owns MCA, Geffen), Thorn-EMI (owns Capitol, Virgin), Time Warner, and Bertelsmann (owns RCA Records)\n1995 - By September, all companies in the DVD consortium agreed to DVD standards.\n1996 - DVD players started selling in Japan, and began in 1997 selling in the U.S.\n1997 - San Diego's MP3.com was founded in November by Michael Robertson; Another digital pioneer company was founded in San Diego in August 1998, Packetvideo, that became a leader in cell phone mobilemedia.\n1998 - Jonell Polansky produced the first 24-bit 48-track digital recording session at Ocean Way on Nashville's Music Row\n1998 - Aug. 6 the first HDTV set went on sale for $5,499 to the public in San Diego, a 56-inch Panasonic set that was developed at the company's research and development center in San Diego and manufactured in Tijuana.\n1998 - The Last Broadcast premiered Oct. 19 as \"the first desktop feature film\" produced and exhibited digitally, co-sponsored by Texas Instruments using its DLP digital cinema projector.\n1999 - TiVo and Philips announced March 31 in a press release shipments of \"the first personal TV system.\"\nApple's iPod\nThe 5 largest record companies in the U.S. controlled 84% of the 755 million albums sold in the U.S. in 1999: 26.3% by Seagram's Universal (owns MCA, Polygram), 16.2% by Sony Music (owns Columbia), 16% by Bertelsmann's BMG (owns RCA Victor), 15.7% by Time Warner's Warner Music, 9.4% by EMI.\n2000 - Disney released on Jan. 1 Fantasia/2000 in the IMAX film format with 6-channel digital sound.\n2001 - Apple Computer introduced on Oct. 23 the iPod portable music player.\n2002 - Annual world production of DVD-Video discs surpassed VHS cassettes, according to IRMA industry statistics: DVD increased from 1.08 billion in 2001 to 1.74 billion in 2002; VHS declined from 1.533 billion in 2001 to 1.33 billion in 2002.\n2003 - DVD-Video rentals increased 51.2% and VHS rentals dropped 29% from the previous year; DVD-Video sales increased 42.2% to $12.1 billion and VHS sales dropped 34.8% to $2.4 billion, according to Video Store Magazine.\n2004 - The first HD car radio was sold Jan. 5 in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, according to the iBiquity Digital Corp. press release, \"the biggest revolution in radio since the advent of FM broadcasting more than fifty years ago.\"\n2005 - Apple introduced on Jan. 11 the iPod Shuffle solid-state music player.", "50 Years of the Video Cassette Recorder\n50 Years of the Video Cassette Recorder\nNovember 2006\nApril 14, 1956. Ampex’s Charles Anderson described the scene when the VRX-1000 unveiling ceremony was played back to the audience moments after the event: \"There was a deafening silence. Then came a roar. People started to swarm back around the machine.\" (Courtesy TV Technology)\nPress Play\nInvented in 1956, the technology which produced the video cassette recorder (VCR) is already at the end of its days. But in its 50 years life span the VCR revolutionized the movie industry, changed television-watching habits, triggered the first \"format wars,\" and raised new copyright questions, establishing jurisprudence on fair use.\nWhen television first took off in the 1950s, the only means of preserving video footage was through kinescope, a process in which a special motion picture camera photographed a television monitor. Kinescope film took hours to develop and made for poor quality broadcasts. So most television networks just made live broadcasts direct from the studio. But in countries with several time zones, live broadcast was a problem. In the U.S., for example, the 6 p.m. news broadcast in New York, if aired direct, would be on at 3 p.m. Pacific time in Los Angeles. The only solutions were to repeat the live broadcast three hours later for LA, or to develop the kinescope film of the first broadcast and rush to air it on time. There was a pressing need for new recording technology.\nThe big electronic companies of the day raced to develop the technology, working on recorders that used magnetic tape. The Ampex Corporation, however, working in secrecy, based its research on a rotating head design, which had been patented by an Italian inventor in 1938 for use in audio recordings. After several failed attempts, and having abandoned the project altogether at one point, Ampex released the world’s first magnetic tape video recorder, the VRX-1000, in April 1956. It caused a sensation. But with a price tag of US$50,000 (equivalent to some US$325,000 today), expensive rotating heads that had to be changed every few hundred hours, and the need for a highly skilled operator, it was far from a consumer item.\nThe orders from the television networks, however, came pouring in. CBS was the first to use the new technology, airing Douglas Edwards and the News on November 30, 1956, from New York then replaying the broadcast from its Hollywood studios a few hours later. From that day on, Edwards never had to repeat a broadcast, and television changed forever.\nFast-forward to home video\nThe other companies abandoned their research and followed Ampex’s lead. RCA pooled patents with Ampex and licensed in the Ampex technology. The new goal was to develop a video machine for home use. It had to be solid, low-cost and easy to operate.\nSony released a first home model in 1964, followed by Ampex and RCA in 1965. While these machines, and those that followed over the next 10 to 15 years, were much less expensive than the VRX-1000, they remained beyond the means of the average consumer, and were bought primarily by wealthy customers, businesses and schools. But the consumer electronics industry could feel the first tremors of VCR revolution and everyone wanted a piece of the pie. Fortunes were sunk into further research and development.\nThe competition between the companies led to the release of three different, mutually incompatible VCR formats: Sony’s Betamax in 1975, JVC’s VHS in 1976, and the Philips V2000 in 1978. Two of these would come head-to-head in the 1980s in what became known as the first Format War.\nBefore the technology battle could begin, however, the consumer electronics industry had to find an answer to a more pressing problem: content. Where would it come from? What would people watch on their VCRs? At this stage, the industry regarded the VCR’s television recording feature as a bonus option of little utility to the average home user. – Why, they asked, would anyone want to record a TV show and watch it later? They thought movie videos would provide an answer to the content problem. But the studios had something to say about that.\nQuote…Unquote\nWhen giving testimony in front of the U.S. Congress in 1982, Jack Valenti, then President of the Motion Picture Association of America, famously stated: \"I say to you that the VCR is to the American film producer and the American public as the Boston strangler is to the woman home alone.\"\nHe need not have worried. In 2001, the best year on record for the home video industry, the Video Software Dealers’ Association reported that U.S. consumers spent a whopping US$7 billion on video rentals and US$4.9 billion on video purchases\n \nPause – The copyright challenge\nHome video sent the movie industry into a spin. Television had already stolen a big part of their market, and they saw the VCR as a massive new threat. Copyright, they argued, was at stake. Did not the mere recording of a television show constitute an infringement of the copyright owner’s rights over reproduction? The studios took the issue to court. In 1976, the year after Sony’s release of the Betamax VCR, Universal City Studios and the Walt Disney Company sued Sony, seeking to have the VCR impounded as a tool of piracy.\nNew communications technology – then as now – has always challenged previous assumptions and jurisprudence in the area of copyright. Just as the printing press, by making possible the mass reproduction of books, led to the first copyright laws, and cinematography raised the question of authors’ rights to derivative works, now it was the turn of the VCR. The first court decision in 1979 went against the studios, ruling that use of the VCR for non-commercial recording was legal. The studios appealed and the decision was overturned in 1981. Sony then took the case to the U.S. Supreme Court.\nIn a landmark judgement in 1984, the Supreme Court ruled that the home recording of television programs for later viewing constituted \"fair use.\"1 An important factor in the Court’s reasoning was that \"time-shifting\" – i.e. recording a program to watch it at another time – did not represent any substantial harm to the copyright holder, nor did it diminish the market for the product.\nBy then, the VCR had become a popular consumer product, and, contrary to their fears, the film studios found themselves to be major beneficiaries of the technology as the sale and rental of movie videos began generating huge new revenue streams. In 1986 alone, home video revenues added more than US$100 million of pure profit to Disney’s bottom line. The television stations, on the other hand, having found that the \"useless\" recording option was a big hit with viewers, faced a different problem. They had to find new ways to keep their advertisers happy now that viewers could fast-forward through the commercial breaks.\nBetamax versus VHS: the battle to set the standard\nMeanwhile, the format war between VHS and Betamax was underway. When Sony released Betamax, they were confident in the superiority of their technology and assumed that the other companies would abandon their formats and accept Betamax as the industry-wide technical standard. They were wrong. On their home turf in Japan, JVC refused to comply and went to market with their VHS format. In the European market, Philips did not play along either, but technical problems were to take Philips out of the fight almost before it began.\nFrom where Sony stood, the only clear advantage of the VHS format was its longer recording time. So, Sony doubled the Betamax recording time. JVC followed suit. This continued until recording times were no longer an issue for potential customers, and marketing overtook superior technology as the key to the battle.\nThe two companies were on a par for several years until JVC’s VHS format pulled ahead. This was due in part to JVC’s broader licensing policy. Counting on increased royalties to make money on their VHS machines, JVC licensed the technology to big consumer electronics companies like Zenith and RCA. As a result, VHS machines became more abundant on the market and prices fell, increasing their consumer appeal.\nAt about the same time in the early 1980s, video rental shops started springing up on every street corner. Early on, the video shop owners recognized that they would have to make VCRs available for cheap rental to attract a larger client base. The high-quality Betamax machines were more expensive, harder to repair, and the first models were only compatible with certain television sets. So VHS became the obvious choice for the rental shops. The domino effect – greater availability of VHS machines leading to more VHS video releases – eventually squeezed out Betamax.\nPress eject\nTechnology, of course, did not stand still. Already by 2003 DVD sales had overtaken those of the VCR, signaling the dying days of magnetic tape. Video rental shops, sensitive to market trends, switched to DVD, accelerating the demise of the VCR. And so it continues, as providers of the latest digital video recorders, of film streaming to mobile telephones and of other new technologies tumble over each other to offer consumers ever more options.\nNor have all related copyright issues been resolved. The digital revolution of communications media will continue to pose new challenges for copyright. Complex questions ranging from the use of digital rights management, to the exceptions and limitations that define fair use of copyrighted works, continue to fuel international debate in policy and legal norm-setting fora, so contributing to the ongoing evolution of copyright law and practice.\nFair Use, Fair Dealing, Statutory Exceptions\nA crucial element of copyright law concerns the exceptions which limit its reach, i.e. the various uses of copyrighted works that do not \"conflict with a normal exploitation of the work,\" nor \"unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the author,\" as stated in the Berne Convention, and which give the public a certain leeway in making free use of the work.\nSuch uses are commonly enumerated as fair dealing categories in some common law jurisdictions, and as statutory limitations and exceptions to copyright in civil jurisdictions. In addition, there is a concept known as fair use. Established in the legislation of the United States of America, the fair use doctrine allows the use of works without the authorization of the rights owner, taking into account factors such as: the nature and purpose of the use, including whether it is for commercial purposes; the nature of the work; the amount of the work used in relation to the work as a whole; and the likely effect of its use on the potential commercial value of the work.\nThe interpretation of exceptions has changed over time, as in the VCR case, and will continue to evolve as new technologies open up new possibilities.\nExceptions may exist in various areas, such as:\npublic performance, e.g. for music played in religious services;\nbroadcasting, e.g. for the television transmission of an art work caught on film incidentally during a news report;\nreproduction, e.g. the VCR \"time-shifting\" exception; or copies of a small part of a work made by a teacher to illustrate a lesson; or quotations from a novel, play or movie.", "The History of Magnetic Recording\nThe History of Magnetic Recording\nThe History of Magnetic Recording by Steven Schoenherr, University of San Diego, Nov. 5, 2002\nThe history of magnetic recording began with the telegraph. When Samuel F. B. Morse sent an electrical signal for \"What hath God wrought!\" over a wire from Washington to Baltimore in 1844, he created a new technology and industry. Over the years, inventors sought to improve the telegraph. Alexander Graham Bell at the 1876 World's Fair in Philadelphia unveiled to the public a device that for the first time turned mechanical sound waves into electrical current and back again. He spoke into a microphone and his voice came out from a vibrating diaphragm speaker. The telephone was an instant success, won a prize at the Fair, launched what would become the world's largest communication company, and influenced countless others to improve the technology of sound recording. Thomas Edison was influenced by Bell's work to create the cylinder phonograph in 1877. When Oberlin Smith visited Edison's lab at Menlo Park NJ in early 1878, he was inspired to improve the phonograph by a different method, using a magnetizing coil to record sound on wire rather than Edison's method of using a needle to etch a wavy groove on a wax cylinder. He did not succeed, but wrote an accurate description in a memorandum Sept. 23, 1878, and wrote an article for Electrical World in Sept. 1888 that was also published in French by La Lumiere Electrique. The idea was in the air. (1)\nValdemar Poulsen in Denmark would succeed in 1898 where Smith had failed. He built and patented the first working magnetic recorder called the Telegraphone Poulsen had become a telephone engineer at the Copenhagen Telephone Company in 1893 and began to experiment with magnetism to record telephone messages. By 1899 he filed U.S. patent 661,619 for a vertical wire-covered cylinder, and in 1900 demonstrated improved drum and horizontal wire cylinder models at the 1900 Paris Exhibition. While making these improved models, Poulsen and his partner Peder O. Pedersen discovered the application of a direct current to the recording head, called dc bias, and improved the sound quality on a steel tape version of the Telegraphone. At the Paris fair, Poulsen recorded the voice of Emperor Franz Joseph, today preserved in the Danish Museum of Science and Technology as the oldest magnetic sound recording. Poulsen stopped his work on magnetic recording and turned to radio after 1902, and only a small number of his machines were made in Denmark and Germany. The American Telegraphone Company acquired the patent rights in 1905 and made dictating machines, selling 50 to the Du Pont Company. However, the signal remained weak without amplification and the wire spools became twisted and were unreliable. The wax cylinder phonographs of the rival Ediphone and Dictaphone companies were cheaper and more reliable. By 1918, the company went into receivership and stopped manufacturing after 1924. (2)\nThe U. S. Navy discovered a new use for the Telegraphone in World War I. In 1914 Germany used wire recorders purchased from the American Telegraphone Company to transmit high-speed wireless telegraph messages to German submarines in the Atlantic. Only another Telegraphone operating at high speed could record the messages and make them intelligible at a slower speed. Charles Apgar, an employee of the American Marconi Company, was operating an amateur radio station W2MN and had developed an amplifier using a DeForest Audion tube. He picked up the German radio transmissions, amplified them through a loudspeaker and recorded them on Dictaphone cylinders and gave them to the government. Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels ordered the Navy to seize the German radio station in Sayville NY on July 8, 1915, to stop the use of its Telegraphones by German spies. The Naval Research Laboratory in Washington began research on magnetic recording with 4 Telegraphones purchased from the American Telegraphone Company. In 1921 W. L. Carlson and Glenn L. Carpenter filed for patent 1,640,881 on the application of ac bias to the record head to improve the quality of telegraph signals. But as Poulsen had discovered, magnetic recording was not yet practical and ac bias would be forgotten when the Navy ended its experiments. (3)\nMagnetic recording was improved in Germany after World War I. Kurt Stille had bought a Telegraphone in 1903 for his experiments, and by 1924 began sales of an improved wire recorder with an electronic amplifier to be used as a dictation machine. In 1928 he formed the Echophone Company with Karl Bauer and contracted with Ferdinand Schuchard AG and its talented engineer Semi Begun to manufacture the Dailygraph, the first cassette magnetic recorder. In 1932 International Telephone and Telegraph bought Stille's companies and merged them into C. Lorenz AG. Begun developed the Textophone dictation machine in 1933 and the Lorenz company sold thousands to Hitler's Nazi government. Begun also developed the Stahltone-Bandmaschine steel tape recorder in 1935 for mobile radio broadcasting. The RRG state radio service used Begun's machines at the 1936 winter Olympic games, but by that time the young Jewish engineer had decided to immigrate to the U.S. (4)\nThe German engineer Fritz Pfleumer discovered a different method of magnetic recording. While relaxing in a Paris caf- on a business trip in 1927 for the Universelle Company that made cigarette machines, he thought of coating paper tape with iron oxide in the same way that he had been coating cigarette paper with bronze powder lacquer. His German patent for \"sounding paper\" was granted Jan. 1, 1928, but his tape recorder tore up the paper tape and was only used to demonstrate the potential of tape for editing and reuse. Hermann Bucher, Chairman of the Board of Directors of AEG took a personal interest in this potential and signed a contract with Pfleumer Nov. 28, 1932, to develop a recorder. Theo Volk led the AEG team that worked with Pfleumer and with another team led by chemist Friedrich Matthias of BASF, a subsidiary of the I. G. Farben chemical giant. AEG had expertise in producing high-frequency coils filled with carbonyl iron powder supplied by BASF, and I.G. Farben also produced films and plastics and a variety of coated materials. The partnership created by Bucher and Pfleumer because both were music lovers, would become one of the greatest corporate research and development triumphs of the century. Over the next three years, the teams perfected a tape and recorder that became the standard design for the industry for the next 30 years. Eduard Schuller patented in 1933 the ring-shaped magnetic head that was one of the team's most important inventions. Previous heads were shaped like phonograph needles or chisel and damaged the soft tape. Schuller's ring focused a strong magnetic field on a small area of tape without touching the surface. Matthias developed a two-layer magnetic tape, bonding a top layer of carbonyl iron powder with a base layer of cellulose acetate, similar to the kind of layered safety film made by Agfa for photography. Measuring and testing devices were invented to evaluate the performance of the recorders built by AEG. A tape drive system of capstans and motors and brakes had to be created, and everything had to work with the electronics of amplifiers and speakers. Finally, the Magnetophone K1 debuted at the Berlin Radio Fair in August 1935. (5)\nThe Magnetophone appeared at a time in the 1930s when other kinds of magnetic recorders were being developed in Britain, the United States, and Japan. Ludwig Blattner had bought the rights to a steel tape device from Kurt Stille in 1929 that became the Blattnerphone. The BBC needed a recorder for its shortwave radio Empire Service that could broadcast the same program at different times throughout the British Empire, and improved the dc motor of the Blattnerphone with a synchronous ac motor and reduced the steel tape width to 3 mm. The BBC would use these improved steel tape recorders from 1932 to 1936. The Marconi Wireless Company also improved the Blattnerphone for sale to radio stations in Canada, Australia, France, Poland, and Egypt. In 1935, the BBC and Marconi and Stille Inventions Ltd. joined to develop an improved Marconi-Stille recorder with a signal-to-noise ration of 45 dB. However, the steel tape was persistent problem. It took two people to mount the 2700-meter reels that weighed 35 kg, and the brittle tape broke so frequently that the Marconi-Stille recorders came with a built-in spot welder. In the United States, Clarence Hickman at Bell Labs developed a steel tape telephone recorder but Bell did not market the machine outside the company. Semi Begun developed the Soundmirror steel tape recorder in early 1939 at the Brush Development Company in Cleveland, Ohio, that would be used by the military. Marvin Camras invented an improved recording head for wire in 1939 at the Armour Research Foundation in Chicago, and added his rediscovery of ac bias in 1940 for the Model 50 commercial wire recorder introduced in 1940. Kenzo Nagai in Japan also rediscovered ac bias in 1938 and patented its application to voice recording. His work would stimulate the Japanese consumer electronics industry after World War II. (6)\nThe German Magnetophone had advantages over all other magnetic recorders. It was portable (the \"K\" stood for \"Koffer\" or portable case in the K1 model of 1935) and was self-contained with its own amplifier and speaker. It was cheaper and more reliable than the steel wire and tape machines. It was financed and manufactured by large and powerful corporations in Germany. The Germany military adopted a field version called the Tonschreiber, or \"sound writer,\" and AEG made a very small spring-driven model C and a model D for war correspondents and a model F dictation machine. The models made for the German Navy were the RE-3 and the R-26. BASF developed a factory to mass-produce the reels of acetate tape, replacing the carbonyl iron coating (light gray in color) with magnetite (black). BASF tested the new tape by recording a concert by Thomas Beecham and the London Philharmonic Orchestra Nov. 19, 1939, at the factory in Ludwigshafen. But the quality of the tape recording that still used dc bias was not good. BASF improved the tape in 1939 with a new formulation of gamma ferric oxide (reddish-brown). The German broadcasting group RRG joined the AEG-BASF partnership and worked to improve its quality. RRG engineer Walter Weber re-discovered ac biasing in April 1940 and the Magnetophone demonstrated to journalists in Berlin June 10, 1941, produced a 60 dB dynamic range and the 50-10,000 kHz frequency response. The model K7 in 1943 had synchronous motors to reduce wow and flutter and could even record in stereo. The tape speed of 30 ips (77 cms) became the standard for future speeds of 15, 7.5, 3.75 and 1.875 ips. Karl Schwarz of the Klangfilm company in Berlin developed a magnetic film stock tape that allowed sound to be recorded on the new color film from Agfa. Although an accidental explosion destroyed the Ludwigshafen tape manufacturing plant in July 1943, the production was taken over by the Agfa plant in Wolfen. A new plant was built in Aschbach neat Ludwigshafen to make the Type L tape with a polyvinyl chloride plastic base that increased sensitivity by 10 dB. (7)\nMajor John T. Mullin brought the Magnetophone to America at the end of the war. He was an electrical engineer in the Signal Corps assigned to investigate radar interference in Britain. As he listened to hours of music broadcast from Germany each night, he wondered how full orchestras could be playing symphonies at all hours of the night. The quality was equal to live radio, and was better than shellac records. On a trip to Radio Frankfurt he discovered the secret: Magnetophones with ac biasing. He studied the circuitry of these machines, and sent 2 old machines with dc biasing home to San Francisco with 50 reels of BASF Type L tape. He modified the electronics of the old machines to add dc biasing and demonstrated them May 16, 1946, to the Institute of Radio Engineers in San Francisco. Harold Lindsay heard this demonstration and told Mullin about the Ampex Corporation that had been founded by Alexander Matthew Poniatoff in 1944 (the name came from his initials plus \"ex\" to avoid using the same name AMP already taken by the Aircraft Marine Products company). Ampex Electrical and Manufacturing Company built high quality motors and generators that used Alnico 5 magnets from the GE, but with the war ended Poniatoff was looking for a new product. Mullin provided Ampex with some information about his Magnetophone but was also supplying information to Col. Richard Ranger in New Jersey who was developing his own tape recorder. Ampex used the FIAT reports of the U.S. Government Intelligence Agency Reports on German industries to gain more information to develop its own tape recorder design. (8)\nBing Crosby opened the floodgates for magnetic tape recording in the broadcast industry. Despite the network prohibition of recordings, during the war years some radio stations had started using Brush and Armour wire recorders for broadcasting news events and for west coast delayed time. The new ABC network allowed Bing Crosby to record his \"Philco Radio Time\" show in the fall of 1946 on transcription discs but these were difficult to edit. Crosby's technical producer Murdo McKenzie learned about Mullin's Magnetophone, now called the Magnetrack for a motion picture film recording business he started with W. A. Palmer in Hollywood. In August 1947 McKenzie arranged three different recordings of Crosby's first Philco show of the 1947-48 season: by Mullin, Ranger, and transcription disc. Mullin's tape recording was superior and won the contract to record and edit Crosby's radio shows. Ampex was finishing its prototype of the Model 200 tape recorder and Mullin used the first two models as soon as they were built. Crosby invested $50,000 in the Ampex company to expand production, and Bing Crosby Enterprises became its West coast distributor. The radio networks and the leading recording studios adopted the recorders. Ampex later boasted that the tape recorder and the LP \"gave birth to the high fidelity era.\" (9)\nAmpex was not alone. During World War II, Semi Begun at the Brush company developed a ring-type recording head under contract with the Office of Scientific Research and Development. This ring worked best with coated tape and with Gerard Foley of the Batelle Memorial Institute developed paper and acetate tapes coated with alnico and magnetite powders. Brush approached a number of companies, including the Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing company, to manufacture the tape. In 1944, Ralph Oace at 3M solved the problem of coating a paper base with the magnetite powder, but the war ended the funding for the project. The Shellmar company manufactured the paper magnetite tape in 1946 for the Brush Soundmirror tape recorder and also a 5-inch magnetic disk for the Brush Mail-A-Voice disk recorder that sold for only $40. The experiments of Oace and the FIAT reports of the German BASF tapes caused the 3M company to create a magnetic tape laboratory in 1946. This lab discovered that needle-shaped acicular particles of gamma ferric oxide produced better coercivity (350 oersteds) than the cube-shaped particles of magnetite used by Brush (150 oersteds). 3M introduced the Type 100 paper tape (black oxide) in 1947, and the popular Type 111 acetate tape (red oxide) in 1948 that Bing Crosby used to record his Philco show with the new Ampex 200 tape recorders. By 1948 the American tape recorder industry was firmly established. The Magnecord company introduced the PT-6 professional recorder for $750, far less than the Ampex models, and a stereo model in 1949. (10)\nThe motion picture industry was quick to adopt the tape recorder for its ability to edit sounds during production, and for the improved quality of sound during exhibition. This is Cinerama premiered Sept. 30, 1952, at the Broadway Theater in New York and would play for 122 weeks. This 3-projector system designed by Fred Waller used a wide curved screen and a separate 7-track magnetic soundtrack designed by Hazard E. Reeves for specially equipped theaters. The Robe premiered Sept. 16, 1953, at the Roxy in New York in Cinemascope by Twentieth Century Fox with 4-track magnetic soundtrack on the edge of each 35mm cellulose tri-acetate filmstrip. Oklahoma! premiered Oct. 10, 1955, at the Rivoli Theater in New York in 65mm Todd-AO with a separate 6-track magnetic soundtrack system designed by Westrex and Ampex, running at 5400 inches per second (ips) in synch with the film projector running at 8415 ips (30 fps). Michael Todd joined with Joe Schenck of Fox and George Skouras of United Artists Theatre Circuit to form the Magna Theatre Corporation for production and distribution of Todd-AO films. (11)\nThe emerging computer industry saw magnetic recording as a solution to the problems of data storage and speed. In 1937, Victor Atanasoff considered a variation of Poulsen's magnetic drum as a possible memory device for his early ABC electronic computer. However, he could not afford the vacuum tubes necessary to amplify the magnetic pulses, and decided to use non-magnetic capacitors on the drum. In 1947, William C. Morris led a group of engineers at Engineering Research Associates (ERA) in Minneapolis that had worked on Project Goldberg for the Navy to develop a computer that could solve cryptographic problems. They built the first magnetic drum out of recording tape from a captured German Magnetophone recorder and heads from a Brush wire recorder. The strips of tape would not stick to the aluminum drum, so they spray-painted an iron oxide emulsion obtained from 3M in Minneapolis directly onto the surface of the drum. John Coombs reported their success at the Chicago National Electronics Conference in November 1947. The drum was 5 inches in diameter and revolved at 3000 rpm, recording at a density of 230 bits per inch with a rigid head mounted only .001 inch from the surface of the drum. Howard Aiken at Harvard was also experimenting with a magnetic drum on the Mark II computer in 1947, and he would make the drum the key feature of his improved Mark III computer in 1948. Harry Huskey would use a magnetic drum in this design of the Standards Eastern Automatic Computer for the National Bureau of Standards in 1948. Arnold D. Booth in Britain built a magnetic drum for the Automatic Relay Computer in 1948 and would install a drum in the Manchester \"baby\" computer in 1949. The ERA would build the Atlas computer in 1948 with a magnetic drum 8.5 inches in diameter with 200 read/write heads and a capacity of 16,384 words of 24-bit length. The ERA would patent its drum design in 1948, including the so-called \"sprocket track\" that was a control track to map the addresses of data in the storage tracks. The access speed and large capacity of magnetic drums exceeded all other forms of computer memory in use during the decade after World War II, such as the CRT and the mercury delay line. It would remain the preferred computer memory until the faster magnetic core devices became available in the late 1950s. (12)\nThe magnetic drum was fast but did not have the large capacity needed for data storage. John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert began work in 1943 on ENIAC at the University of Pennsylvania for the U.S. Army. It was not finished during the war but in 1946 they started the Electronic Control Co. and received grant from National Bureau of Standards to build a ENIAC-type computer with magnetic tape input/output, renamed UNIVAC in 1947 but the project ran out of money. The two scientists formed Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation (EMCC) in Dec. 1947 and developed by 1949 the BINAC stored-program computer for Northrop Aircraft, with mercury delay line memory and a primitive magnetic tape drive. Remington Rand bought EMCC in Feb. 1950 and provided funds to finish UNIVAC March 30, 1951. It announced on June 14, 1951, the sale of UNIVAC I to the Census Bureau. It was the first commercial computer to feature a magnetic tape storage system that consisted of eight UNISERVO tape drives standing separate from the CPU and control console on the other side of a garage-size room. Each tape drive was six feet high and three feet wide, used 1/2-inch metal tape of nickel-plated bronze 1200 feet long, recorded data on eight channels at 100 inches per second with a transfer rate of 7,200 characters per second. The complete UNIVAC system weighed 29,000 pounds, included 5200 vacuum tubes, and an offline typewriter-printer UNIPRINTER with an attached metal tape drive. Later, a punched card-to-tape machine was added to read IBM 80-column and Remington Rand 90-column cards. The UNIVAC I was used in November 1952 to calculate the presidential election returns and successfully predict the winner, although it was not trusted by the TV networks who refused to use the prediction. Magnetic tape systems became the standard data storage system in the 1950s. The SAGE aircraft-warning system was the largest vacuum tube computer system ever built. It began in 1954 at MIT's Lincoln Lab with funding from the Air Force. The first of 23 Direction Centers went online in Nov. 1956, and the last in 1962. Each Center had two 55,000-tube computers known as \"Clyde\" that weighed 275 tons and had magnetic core memory, magnetic drum and magnetic tape storage, graphics display, and were connected by one of the first computer networks. (13)\nAt IBM in 1952, Arthur J. Critchlow began the Source Recording project at the new IBM research lab in San Jose, California, under the direction of Reynold B. Johnson. The purpose was to find a better method than punched cards or drums or tape to store and access information. They read an article by Jacob Rabinow at the National Bureau of Standards in the August 1952 issue of Electrical Engineering about \"The Notched-Disk Memory\" that stored magnetic pulses on thin metal disks mounted vertically in a doughnut-shaped ring. Each disk had a notch to align magnetic read/write heads. Critchlow adopted this magnetic disk idea in February 1953 and Johnson began work at San Jose on a 50-disk system with the capacity of 50,000 punched cards, or 4 million characters. In April 1953, William A. Goddard headed a team of 4 engineers to develop the disk device. In May, he adopted the \"air head\" method of maintaining a uniform head-surface gap of .002 inch using a forced air cushion. In June a successful test was completed with the airhead reading a writing digital data on the surface of a 16-inch aluminum disk sprayed with iron oxide paint. By October, spray paint was replaced by spin coating, and a servo-controlled cable-and-pulley carriage was used to successfully locate random tracks on the spinning disk. In February 1954, data was being transferred to and from a card reader. During 1954 a Model II was designed and built with a 50-disk array mounted on a vertical shaft. This model was given its first public demonstration in May 1955 as the Random Access Memory Accounting Machine, or RAMAC. An improved Model II was demonstrated at the February 1956 Western Joint Computer Conference. Each disk was 24 inches in diameter and 0.1 inch thick and separated from other disks by 0.3-inch spacers. The disks revolved at 1200 rpm and were accessed by a single read/write head that moved up and down the stack of platters Each disk had 100 circular tracks with a density of 500 characters per track, recorded by IBM's NRZI variable density method of 100 bits per inch on the inner track and 55 bits per inch on the outer track. This was the equivalent of storing 5 MB on a magnetic drum 13 inches diameter and 42 feet long. The disk array became the IBM 350 Disk Storage, and deliveries to customers began in June 1956 for a monthly lease of $750. The IBM 1301 Disk Storage was announced June 2, 1961. Each module had 25 disks and could store 28 MB. Up to 10 modules could be added to a computer for a maximum of 280 MB. Each disk had 50 tracks per inch with 520 bits per inch density, rotating at 1800 rpm. This was first used in the SABRE airline reservation system in 1961 that used 6 magnetic drums and 16 modules of the 1301 Disk Storage unit. The drums only had capacity for 1.1 MB each, but were 20 times faster in access time. In September 1963, the 1302 Disk Storage increased capacity 4 times by doubling the tracks per inch and the bits per track. The 1316 Disk Pack announced October 11, 1962, (at first called the 1311 Disk Storage Drive) was a removable pack of 6 disks, with a capacity of 2 MB, and popular with smaller computers and a versatile storage medium. (14)\nThe computer and the transistor in the 1950s joined with the automobile and the teenager to create a new generation of stereo \"Hi-Fi\" components. Magnetic tape and FM radio made possible a new quality of sound. The tape recorder industry quickly expanded in Europe and Asia after the war. In Britain, EMI used the German design to produce the BTR1 for its Abbey Road studio in November 1947. The Grundig Company in Germany was started by radio dealer Max Grundig after World War II to produce radio repair instruments. It expanded into radio set production, making the Heinzelmann in 1946 and the Grundig Boy in 1949 that was one of the first portable cabinet radios. Grundig took over the Lumophon factory in Nuremberg and in 1951 began production of its first tape recorder, the Reporter 300. Willi Studer in Zurich produced his first recorder, the Dynavox, in 1949 and the Studer 27 in 1951 and the Revox A77 in 1967. Stefan Kudelski, a physics student in Switzerland, built the Nagra I portable tape recorder with wind-up motor in 1951 used by the Everest explorer Raymond Lambert and by the deep-sea bathyscaph Trieste. In Japan, Sony ( then called Totsuko) in 1950 sold its first G-type tape recorder in Tokyo at a price of $400 but it weighed over 100 lbs. Masaru Ibuka and Akio Morita licensed transistor technology from Western Electric in 1953, and began a consumer electronics revolution with transistor radios, TVs (the TV8-301 of 1960 was nicknamed \"Kennedy's dog\" because JFK kept a set near him), and the first all-transistor tape recorder in 1961. (15)\nThe videotape recorder would become one of Sony's greatest successes, but it began as another example of the influence of Bing Crosby. John Mullin at Bing Crosby Enterprises demonstrated an experimental 12-head VTR at 100 ips in 1951. The Ampex team led by Charles Ginsburg began work on VTR in October 1951. Ray Dolby, 19, dropped out of school to join the project and helped the team demonstrate the first system Nov. 19, 1952, but with a poor picture. A second system in March 1953 used 4 heads rather than 3 but problems continued with \"venetian blinds\" effect due to discontinuous recording from one head to the next. By 1954, the Ampex team included with Charles E. Anderson, Shelby Henderson, Fred Pfost, and Alex Maxey. By Feb. 1955 Anderson designed an FM circuit; Ray Dolby rejoined the team after his stint in the Army and designed a multivibrator modulator by Feb. 25; Maxey discovered how to vary tape tension and Pfost developed a new sandwich-type magnetic head. The improved model was shown in Feb. 1956 to Bill Lodge of CBS and other TV people in preparation for the first public demonstration in April. The Mark IV went on public display April 16, 1956, at the Chicago convention of the National Association of Radio and Television Broadcasters, the same day that Ray Dolby demonstrated the older Mark III in Redwood City. The Mark IV, later renamed the VRX-1000, used 2-inch wide 3M tape at 15 ips over rotating head assembly recording at a slant on tape surface with AM sound. During the next 4 weeks, Ampex took orders worth $4.5 million, and took out a trademark on the name \"videotape\" for its recorder. CBS used a new Ampex VTR for the delayed broadcast of \"Douglas Edwards and the News\" Nov. 30, 1956. Color videotape was used to record the Nixon-Khrushchev Kitchen Debate in Moscow in 1959. (16)\nColor was not the only new development in 1959. Toshiba in September demonstrated prototype helical scan model VTR-1, with 2-inch tape running at 15 ips over just one head. After the demonstration, Sony began to develop the helical scan VTR. Sony persuaded Ampex to share its VTR patents and Sony shared transistorized circuitry with Ampex. In1961, JVC (founded as the American-owned Victor Co. of Japan in 1946, but owned by Matsushita since 1953) demonstrated helical scan color VTR with 2 heads to compete with Sony's PV100 that was adopted by American Airlines in 1964 for in-flight movies. Helical scan technology held great promise for its potential to reduce the size of tape machines and permit slow motion and stop action effects, but not for another decade. The first \"instant replay\" on commercial television in March1967 at the ABC \"World Series of Skiing\" in Vail, Colorado, was not by videotape but with the Ampex HS-100 color video magnetic disk recorder. Sony tried to develop a consumer VTR in the 1960s, but the open-reel machines were too large and complicated and expensive. (17)\nThe answer to these problems came from Holland. In 1965, the Philips company introduced the compact cassette for consumer audio recording and playback on small portable machines such as the Norelco Carry-Corder 150. Philips intended the cassette to be used for business dictation, and had no idea that it would appeal more to consumers who wanted a simple method to record music. The cassette used 1/8-in. tape with 4-tracks running at 1-7/8 ips, allowing 30 or 45 minutes of stereo music per side, and most importantly, was only 1/4 the size of other cassette systems. Earl \"Madman\" Muntz in California had become successful putting the 4-track Fidelipac in his cars, and William Lear modified the Muntz player with new small record heads from Nortronic to create the 8-track player in 1964, adopted by RCA and Ford. These players were fine for cars and Learjets, but too large to carry in your pocket. The Philips compact cassette would soon dominate the world market and push the 8-track players into the dustbin of history. (18)\nThe cassette format became the basis of the videotape revolution in the 1970's. Sony introduced the 3/4-inch U-matic VCR in the U.S. in 1971, and for the first time, allowed other manufacturers to sell machines that could play the cassette, and thus succeeded in establishing a world standard for the 3/4-inch videocassette. In 1975 Sony introduced in the U.S. the Betamax consumer VCR console for $2295 with one-hour 1/2-inch tape cassettes for $15.95. Sony sought to create a standardized format, as it had done with the U-matic, by getting other companies to produce machines that would play the Beta cassettes, but refused to license the cassettes themselves. The next year JVC introduced the VHS format and a VCR for only $885 and licensed the technology to other companies. Sony would lose the \"Betamax War\" with VHS, but it would triumph with the Walkman portable audio cassette player in 1979. The TPS-L2 inaugurated a new era of personal music listening. The Sony family of portable personal music players would grow to include over 500 models, from the original pocket-sized 14-oz Walkman to the D-88 Pocket DiscMan of 1988 to the DAT Walkman TCD-D3 of 1991 to the MiniDisc of 1992 to the digital Discman of 1999. According to Sony, in the 20-year history of the Walkman devices, 100 million units were sold in the U.S. creating a $1 billion industry. (19)\nThe transformation of the credit card created a multibillion-dollar industry. IBM had perfected in the 1960s a method of adhering a magnetic stripe to the surface of a plastic credit card. This stripe could have multiple tracks and allow read and write operations from special machines capable of decoding binary data. American Airlines and American Express first used striped cards for ticketing at O'Hare Airport in Chicago. The first of three tracks on early credit cards was used by the airline industry. The second track contained identifying information such as account numbers and names. The third track was read-write and could hold the balance of an account. The American Banking Association approved use of the magnetic stripe in 1971 but most banks resisted its use. In 1972, Dee W. Hock, president of National BankAmericard Inc. (NBI, later to be called Visa), adopted the magnetic stripe for its new Uni-Card division in competition with the cards of the nation's largest banks, including Bank of America and Citibank. Eventually, the banks followed his lead and made the magnetic stripe common on all credit cards. (20)\nOne of the most significant developments of the 1970s was the floppy disk. The engineers at IBM who had developed RAMAC and the early disk drives understood their significance. In late 1967, a group known as \"Dirty Dozen\" left the IBM research lab in San Jose to found Information Storage Systems (ISS) that sold disk drives through Telex. They were followed during next three years by over 200 other engineers who would leave IBM for the new disk drive companies like Memorex and Shugart Associates. After the departure of the Dirty Dozen, IBM assigned David I. Noble the job of designing a cheap and simple device to load operating code into large computers. Called the Initial Control Program Load, it was supposed to cost only $5 and have a capacity of 256 KB. During 1968 Noble experimented with tape cartridges, RCA 45-rpm records, dictating belts, a magnetic disk with grooves developed by Telefunken, but finally created his own solution -- the floppy disk. Called the \"Minnow,\" it was a plastic disk 8 inches in diameter, 1.5 mm thick, coated on one side with iron oxide, attached to a foam pad and designed to rotate on a turntable driven by an idler wheel. A read-only magnetic head was moved over the disk by solenoids and read data from tracks prerecorded on the disk at a density of 1100 bits per inch. The disk was \"hard-sectored\" with 8 holes around the center to mark the beginning of data sectors. At first, its capacity was only 81.6 KB, but by Feb. 1969 he had doubled the thickness of the plastic base to 3 mm and coated both sides to add more capacity. In June 1969, the Minnow was added to the IBM System 370 and soon began to be used by other divisions in IBM. In 1970, the name was changed to Igar and Noble had a staff of 25 engineers to help him make improvements. By 1971, Igar became the 33FD disk drive and the 8-inch floppy disk became the Type 1 diskette. The speed was 360 rpm, with head access time of 50 milliseconds. The 8 hard sector holes were replaced by a single index hole for \"soft sectors\" or \"IBM sectoring\" across 77 tracks. In 1976 the 43FD disk drive was sold with dual heads to read and write to both sides of the diskette. A new model 53FD was added in 1976 that used modified frequency modulation to record double-density on both sides, resulting in a capacity of 1200 KB. (21)\nThe floppy disk emerged from IBM at the same time the microprocessor emerged from Intel. When the first Altair and Imsai microcomputers came on the market in 1974 using the 8080 processor, there were no peripherals available to store data or even display words on a CRT screen. The only input/output device was a Teletype. There wasn't even an operating system for these new computers. In 1975, Alan Shugart produced an 8-inch floppy disk to hold 800k that offered for the first time a low-cost drive for the emerging personal computer market. In 1976, Jim Adkisson, a Shugart engineer, sat down for lunch with a customer who complained that the 8-inch drive was too big for the personal computer. When Adkisson asked what the size should be, the customer pointed to a napkin on the table and said, \"About that size.\" Adkisson returned to the Shugart lab with the napkin and designed the 5.25-inch floppy drive, introduced in 1976 as the model SA400 with a capacity of 110 KB. The model became one of Shugart's best sellers, with shipments the rose to 4000 drives per day. The company turned to Matsushita in Japan to help make the drives, starting that company on its rise to becoming the largest floppy drive manufacturer in the world. Sony developed a 3.5-inch floppy drive by 1980 and began a two-year effort to make it the U.S. floppy disk standard. Sony declared that its new drive was smaller, faster, better protected, and could fit in a shirt pocket. A group of U. S. disk manufacturers opposed the new standard. The group was led by Shugart Associates and Control Data, and included Verbatim, Micro Peripherals, Dysan and Tabor. They sought to keep the standard 8-inch and 5.25-inch disks made by U.S. companies since IBM introduced the floppy disk in 1971. However, no American company had a product equal to the Japanese diskette. Sales of the 3.5-inch floppy began to surpass the 5.25-inch version by 1989, and Japanese companies would drive most U.S. disk producers out of the market. (22)\nThe Digital revolution of the 1980s continued the use of the cassette and disk and magnetic tape. In1986 Sony/Philips introduced Digital Audio Tape, or DAT, as a result of efforts of the 81-member firm R-DAT consortium to develop a recordable version of the optical compact disc. Because of copyright problems, electronics firms delayed development of consumer products and DAT remained a high-priced professional medium. In 1991 the Alesis Corporation of Los Angeles introduced its new ADAT machine that recorded 8 tracks of digital audio to a standard S-VHS videocassette using the same helical scan technology that created the videocassette boom in the 1970s. With a list price of $3995, and cassettes at $15, the ADAT made multitrack digital recording affordable for the small studio, with the ability to connect together up to 16 ADATs for a total of 128 synchronized tracks. 20,000 were sold in its first year from October 1992 to November 1993 and 80,000 sold by 1998. The Electronic Musician declared in Oct. 1992 that \"ADAT is more than a technological innovation; it's a social force.\" In 1992 Sony began sales of the MiniDisc that had been announced May 30, 1991. The MD was a recordable magneto-optical disc encased in a plastic cartridge with the same 74-minute capacity as the CD but at half the size and with greater compression. The MD was intended to replace the CD and the compact cassette. Sales of cassette tapes began to decline in1989, and Sony felt that the compact cassette system was nearing the end. In1993 the Tascam division of Teac introduced in February the DA-88 digital 8-track recorder for $4,499, the first modular digital multitrack (MDM) recorder to use the Hi-8 videotape. In1997 sales began of the Digital Video cassettes following the DV and miniDV standard introduced by Panasonic & Sony. In 1999 Panasonic announced Digital-VHS (DVHS), the first VCR capable of recording all 18 Digital TV format including HDTV. Just as computers continued to use magnetic hard disks to store data, audio recording continued to use magnetic tape and cassettes for the new era of digital sound. (23)\nNOTES:\n1. On Morse and the telegraph see Lewis Coe (1993; on Bell and the telephone see Robert Bruce (1990). On Oberlin Smith see Mark Clark \"The Magnetic Recording Industry\" (1992) and his Chapter 2 of Magnetic Recording: the First 100 Years, edited by Daniel et. al. (1999).\n2. On Poulsen see Begun's Chapter 1 (1949), and Mark Clark \"The Magnetic Recording Industry\" (1992) and his Chapter 3 of Magnetic Recording: the First 100 Years (1999).\n3. On Sayville and the Navy, see Morton (1995) pp. 89-90.\n4. On Stille and Begun see Begun's Chapter 1 (1949) and Mark Clark's Chapter 4 of Magnetic Recording: the First 100 Years (1999).\n5. On Pfleumer see Friedrich Engel's Chapter 5 of Magnetic Recording: the First 100 Years (1999).\n6. On steel tape in the 1930s, see Begun's Chapter 1 (1949), Morton Chapter 3 (1995).\n7. On the German Magnetophone see Friedrich Engel's Chapter 5 of Magnetic Recording: the First 100 Years (1999) that used primary documents of BASF (now EMTEC).\n8. On Mullin see Nmungwun's Chapter 4 (1989) that used primary documents of Ampex and interviews with Mullin; see also the Mullin videotape from the Audio Engineering Society.\n9. On Crosby see Nmungwun's Chapter 4 (1989); the Mullin videotape (1989); Schoenherr \"Der Bingle Technology\" (2002); Ampex quote from Perry (1967).\n10. On Begun see Begun's Chapter 1 (1949) ; Beverley Gooch's Chapter 6 of Magnetic Recording: the First 100 Years (1999); letter from Ralph J. Oace to Bert S. Groves, Jan. 31, 1964.\n11. On motion picture sound see Belton (1992).\n12. On the magnetic drum see Schoenherr \"The Magnetic Drum\" (2003).\n13. On UNIVAC see Gray (2001); on SAGE see Spicer (2000) and Schoenherr \"The SAGE Air Defense\" (2000).\n14. On RAMAC see Johnson (1989); Schoenherr \"The Floppy Disk\" (2003).\n15. On tape recorders see Angus (1984); Grundig history (2002); Nagra history (2002); Sony history (2002); Studer history (2002).\n16. On the VTR see Nmungwun's Chapter 6 (1989); Ginsburg (1957).\n17. On helical scan, see Nmungwun's Chapter 7 (1989); Schoenherr \"Television Instant Replay\" (2002).\n18. On the cassette see Morton's Chapter 8 \"The Eight Track Tape Cartridge\" in his \"History of Magnetic Recording\" (1995).\n19. On the Walkman see David Frith (1999).\n20. On Dee Hock and the credit card, see Mandell (1990).\n21. On the floppy disk see Schoenherr \"The Floppy Disk\" (2003) .\n22. On Shugart see Schoenherr \"The Floppy Disk\" (2003).\n23. On the digital revolution, see Schoenherr \"The Digital Revolution\" (2001).\nBIBLIOGRPAHY:\nAngus, Robert. \"History of Magnetic Recording,\" Audio, September 1984, pp. 33-39.\nBegun, Semi Joseph. Magnetic Recording. New York: Rinehart, 1949.\nBelton, John. \"1950s Magnetic Sound: The Frozen Revolution,\" in Rick Altman. Sound Theory/Sound Practice. NY: Routledge, 1992.\nBruce, Robert V. Alexander Graham Bell and the Conquest of Solitude. Boston: Little, Brown, 1973.\nClark, Mark H. \"The Magnetic Recording Industry, 1878-1960: an international study in business and technological history.\" Ph. D. thesis, University of Delaware, 1992.\nCoe, Lewis. The Telegraph: A History of Morse's Invention and Its Predecessors in the United States. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 1993.\nCoe, Lewis. The Telephone and its Several Inventors: a History. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., 1995.\nDaniel, Eric D., C. Denis Mee, Mark H. Clark, eds. Magnetic Recording: the First 100 Years. New York: IEEE Press, 1999.\nFrith, David. \"Sony Walkman Personal Stereo Turns 20 Years Old; The Evolution of Portable Audio's Past, Present and Digital Future,\" PR Newswire , April 5, 1999.\nGinsburg, Charles P. \"The Birth of Videotape Recording.\" paper presented at SMPTE annual meeting Oct. 5, 1957.\nGray, George. \"The UNIVAC Solid State Computer.\" Unisys History Newsletter. Volume 1, Number 2, December 1992 (revised 1999). http://www.cc.gatech.edu/services/unisys-folklore/dec92-v1n2.html (1999).\nGray, George. \"UNIVAC I: The First Mass-Produced Computer.\" Unisys History Newsletter, Volume 5, Number 1, January 2001. http://www.cc.gatech.edu/gvu/people/randy.carpenter/folklore/v5n1.html (2001).\nGrundig history. http://www.grundig.de/presse.grundig/informationen/history.html (2002)\nJohnson, Rey. \"The First Disk File.\" paper presented at the DataStorage '89 Conference, San Jose CA, September 19, 1989. http://www.mdhc.scu.edu/100th/reyjohnson.htm (2002\nKoss history. http://www.koss.com (2002)\nMandell, Lewis. The Credit Card Industry: A History. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1990.\nMorton, David Lindsay, Jr. \"The History of Magnetic Recording in the United States, 1888-1978,\" Ph.D. thesis, Georgia Institute of Technology, 1995.\nMullin, John T. \"An Afternoon with John T. Mullin.\" videotape, New York: Audio Engineering Society, 1989.\nNagra history. http://www.nagra.com/nagraaudio/pages/intro.htm (2002)\nNmungwun, Aaron. Video Recording Technology. Hillsdale, New Jersey: L. Erlbaum Associates, 1989.\nPerry, Gregg. \"Twenty Years of Magnetic Recording.\" Ampex press release, Oct. 1, 1967.\nSchoenherr, Steven. \"The SAGE Air Defense.\" sage.html (2000)\nSchoenherr, Steven. \"The Digital Revolution.\" digitalrev.html (2001)\nSchoenherr, Steven. \"Television Instant Replay.\" television8.html (2002)\nSchoenherr, Steven. \"Der Bingle Technology.\" ready.to.wear, May 1, 1996, revised for Recording Technology History. derbingle.html (2002).\nSchoenherr, Steven. \"The Floppy Disk\" in John L. Heilbron, ed., The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.\nSchoenherr, Steven. \"The Magnetic Drum\" in John L. Heilbron, ed., The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.\nSony history. http://www.sony.net/Fun/SH/1-1/h1.html (2002).\nSpicer, Dag. \"Dr. Strangelove Meets IBM: The SAGE System.\" Dr. Dobbs History of Computing #1. http://ftp.ddj.com/articles/2000/0085/0085a/0085a.htm (2000).\nStuder history. http://www.studer.ch/company12.htm (2002).\n\"History of Magnetic Recording\" presented at IEEE Magnetics Society Seminar, UCSD, Nov. 5, 2002.\nABOUT AES\nThe Audio Engineering Society's mission is to promote the science and practice of audio by bringing leading people and ideas together.", "Digital Camera - A History\nBy Mary Bellis\nUpdated August 16, 2016.\nThe history of the digital camera dates back to the early 1950s. Digital camera technology is directly related to and evolved from the same technology that recorded  television  images.\nDigital Photography and the VTR\nIn 1951, the first video tape recorder (VTR) captured live images from television cameras by converting the information into electrical impulses (digital) and saving the information onto magnetic tape. Bing Crosby laboratories (the research team funded by Crosby and headed by engineer John Mullin) created the first early VTR and by 1956, VTR technology was perfected (the VR1000 invented by Charles P. Ginsburg and the Ampex Corporation) and in common use by the television industry. Both television/video cameras and digital cameras use a CCD (Charged Coupled Device) to sense light color and intensity.\nDigital Photography and Science\nDuring the 1960s, NASA converted from using analog to digital signals with their space probes to map the surface of the moon (sending digital images back to earth).\nComputer technology was also advancing at this time and NASA used computers to enhance the images that the space probes were sending.\nDigital imaging also had another government use at the time that being spy satellites. Government use of digital technology helped advance the science of digital imaging, however, the private sector also made significant contributions. Texas Instruments patented a film-less electronic camera in 1972, the first to do so. In August, 1981, Sony released the Sony Mavica electronic still camera, the camera which was the first commercial electronic camera. Images were recorded onto a mini disc and then put into a video reader that was connected to a television monitor or color printer. However, the early Mavica cannot be considered a true digital camera even though it started the digital camera revolution. It was a video camera that took video freeze-frames.\nKodak\nSince the mid-1970s, Kodak has invented several solid-state image sensors that \"converted light to digital pictures\" for professional and home consumer use. In 1986, Kodak scientists invented the world's first megapixel sensor, capable of recording 1.4 million pixels that could produce a 5x7-inch digital photo-quality print. In 1987, Kodak released seven products for recording, storing, manipulating, transmitting and printing electronic still video images. In 1990, Kodak developed the Photo CD system and proposed \"the first worldwide standard for defining color in the digital environment of computers and computer peripherals.\" In 1991, Kodak released the first professional digital camera system (DCS), aimed at photojournalists. It was a Nikon F-3 camera equipped by Kodak with a 1.3 megapixel sensor.\nDigital Cameras for Consumers\nThe first digital cameras for the consumer-level market that worked with a home computer via a serial cable were the Apple QuickTake 100 camera (February 17 , 1994), the Kodak DC40 camera (March 28, 1995), the Casio QV-11 (with LCD monitor, late 1995), and Sony's Cyber-Shot Digital Still Camera (1996).\nHowever, Kodak entered into an aggressive co-marketing campaign to promote the DC40 and to help introduce the idea of digital photography to the public. Kinko's and Microsoft both collaborated with Kodak to create digital image-making software workstations and kiosks which allowed customers to produce Photo CD Discs and photographs, and add digital images to documents. IBM collaborated with Kodak in making an internet-based network image exchange. Hewlett-Packard was the first company to make color inkjet printers that complemented the new digital camera images.\nThe marketing worked and today digital cameras are everywhere." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Spy_Hook.txt", "Spy_Line.txt" ], "title": [ "Spy Hook", "Spy Line" ], "wiki_context": [ "Spy Hook is a 1988 spy novel by Len Deighton. It is the first novel in the second of three trilogies about Bernard Samson, a middle-aged and somewhat jaded intelligence officer working for the British Secret Intelligence Service (MI6). Spy Hook is part of the Hook, Line and Sinker trilogy, being succeeded by Spy Line and Spy Sinker. This trilogy is preceded by the Game, Set and Match trilogy and followed by the final Faith, Hope and Charity trilogy. Deighton's novel Winter (1987) is a prequel to the nine novels, covering the years 1900-1945 and providing the backstory to some of the characters.\n\nPlot summary\n\nThe novel begins with Bernard Sampson visiting his old friend and ex-SIS colleague in Washington named Jim Prettyman as part of an investigation regarding some missing funds. Soon after, Prettyman is murdered in a mugging.\n\nAll his allies start losing interest in the investigation, and after digging deeper Bernard is sent to America once again, where it is revealed that Brett has not indeed died (as hinted at the end of the first trilogy, and discussed in this book.) but is in fact in rehabilitation. Bernard returns to Europe, where he confronts a man called \"Dodo\" and is saved from an untimely death by Prettyman, who it turns out has gone under \"deep-cover\".\n\nBernard then takes his evidence to the Director General, who in a surprise turn of events orders his arrest, which thanks to some quick thinking by Werner Volkmann, Bernard evades for the while.\n\nThe novel concludes with Bernard seeking an explanation from Frank Harrington, before disappearing into the night.", "Spy Line is a 1989 spy novel by Len Deighton. It is the second novel in the second of three trilogies about Bernard Samson, a middle-aged and somewhat jaded intelligence officer working for the British Secret Intelligence Service (MI6). Spy Line is part of the Hook, Line and Sinker trilogy, being preceded by Spy Hook and followed Spy Sinker. This trilogy is preceded by the Game, Set and Match trilogy and followed by the final Faith, Hope and Charity trilogy. Deighton's novel Winter (1987) is a prequel to the nine novels, covering the years 1900-1945 and providing the backstory to some of the characters.\n\nPlot summary\n\nThe novel starts with Bernard Samson in hiding in Berlin after the events in the first book of the series. He is soon found by the SIS and is invited by Frank Harrington to sit in on a debriefing of an undercover agent, where it is revealed that Eric Stinnes has been smuggling drugs into East Germany.\n\nBernard is eventually recalled to London, and sent on a mission to Vienna to pick up a package from a stamp auction. This is revealed to be a Russian passport, which he uses to meet his wife Fiona, whom it is now revealed is a double agent (It is not made clear for how long Bernard knew this).\n\nFinally, Fiona attempts to escape from East Germany, whereupon Eric Stinnes, and Fiona's sister Tessa are both killed. Bernard and Fiona escape back to the other side of the wall and are transported to America for debriefing." ] }

{ "description": [ "Read a free sample or buy Spy Sinker by ... The long-awaited reissue of the final part of the classic spy trilogy, HOOK, LINE and ... which was published ..." ], "filename": [ "178/178_3925.txt" ], "rank": [ 1 ], "title": [ "Spy Sinker by Len Deighton on iBooks - itunes.apple.com" ], "url": [ "https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/spy-sinker/id387707375?mt=11&ign-mpt=uo%3D4" ], "search_context": [ "Spy Sinker by Len Deighton on iBooks\nSunday Express\nAbout the author\nBorn in London, Len Deighton served in the RAF before graduating from the Royal College of Art (which recently elected him a Senior Fellow). While in New York City working as a magazine illustrator he began writing his first novel, The Ipcress File, which was published in 1962. He is now the author of more than thirty books of fiction and non-fiction. At present living in Europe, he has, over the years, lived with his family in ten different countries from Austria to Portugal.\nFrom Publishers Weekly\nAug 29, 1990 – The final volume in Deighton's hook, line and sinker espionage trilogy will likely disappoint even his staunchest fans with its passionless, unsuspenseful scenario for explaining the political liberation of Eastern Europe at the end of the '80s. Bernard Sampson, protagonist of the earlier books, here steps backstage as his wife, Fiona, defects to East Germany after being groomed as a double agent. In place, Fiona is set to implement a plan facilitating the westward defection of East German professionals, leaving a gap in the economic structure which is expected to defeat the Communist regime. Fiona's abandonment of her husband and two young children occurs with little drama or conflict, and is a move no more convincing than the doubts Deighton later visits upon her. The plan conceived by Bret Rensselaer, deputy controller of European economics for Britain's SIS, to dismantle the Wall is intriguing and plausible, but its fictional execution is without force. At his best with action scenes, Deighton gives us too few; only those that begin and end his tale ring with excitement and suspense. 250,000 first printing; $250,000 ad/promo.\n© Publishers Weekly" ] }

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{ "description": [ "... it wasn't until 1950 that the modern credit card was ... store credit accounts, a credit card that could ... were unable to pay him ...", "Are credit cards widely accepted at local establishments? ... We were making a lot of electronic ... We've just used credit cards for hotels and rental ..." ], "filename": [ "43/43_3973.txt", "104/104_3975.txt" ], "rank": [ 2, 4 ], "title": [ "First Modern Credit Card Introduced - About.com Education", "Are credit cards widely accepted at local establishments ..." ], "url": [ "http://history1900s.about.com/od/1950s/a/firstcreditcard.htm", "https://www.tripadvisor.com/ShowTopic-g150809-i66-k1883918-Are_credit_cards_widely_accepted_at_local_establishments-Cozumel_Yucatan_Peninsula.html" ], "search_context": [ "The History of the Credit Card\nThe first credit card.  Courtesy of Diners Club.\nUpdated October 19, 2015.\nCharging for products and services has become a way of life. No longer do people bring cash when they buy a sweater or a large appliance, they charge it. Some people do it for the convenience of not carrying cash; others \"put it on plastic\" so they can purchase an item they can not yet afford. The credit card that allows them to do this is a twentieth century invention.\nAt the beginning of the twentieth century, people had to pay cash for almost all products and services.\nAlthough the early part of the century saw an increase in individual store credit accounts, a credit card that could be used at more than one merchant was not invented until 1950. It all started when Frank X. McNamara and two of his friends went out to supper.\nThe Famous Supper\nIn 1949, Frank X McNamara, head of the Hamilton Credit Corporation, went out to eat with Alfred Bloomingdale, McNamara's long-time friend and grandson of the founder of the Bloomingdale's store, and Ralph Sneider, McNamara's attorney.\ncontinue reading below our video\n4 Tips for Improving Test Performance\nThe three men were eating at Major's Cabin Grill, a famous New York restaurant located next to the Empire State Building , to discuss a problem customer of the Hamilton Credit Corporation.\nThe problem was that one of McNamara's customers had borrowed some money but was unable to pay it back. This particular customer had gotten into trouble, when he had lent a number of his charge cards (available from individual department stores and gas stations) to his poor neighbors who needed items in an emergency. For this service, the man required his neighbors to pay him back the cost of the original purchase plus some extra money. Unfortunately for the man, many of his neighbors were unable to pay him back within a short period of time and he was then forced to borrow money from the Hamilton Credit Corporation.\nAt the end of the meal with his two friends, McNamara reached into his pocket for his wallet so that he could pay for the meal (in cash). He was shocked to discover that he had forgotten his wallet. To his embarrassment, he then had to call his wife and have her bring him some money. McNamara vowed never to let this happen again.\nMerging the two concepts from that dinner, the lending of credit cards and not having cash on hand to pay for the meal, McNamara came up with a new idea - a credit card that could be used at multiple locations. What was particularly novel about this concept was that there would be a middleman between companies and their customers.\nPrev", "Are credit cards widely accepted at local establishments? - Cozumel Forum - TripAdvisor\nAre credit cards widely accepted at local establishments? - Cozumel Forum\nReview a place you’ve visited\nJOIN\nAre credit cards widely accepted at local establishments?\nIn cooperation with:\nWhich Cozumel hotels are on sale?\nmm/dd/yyyy mm/dd/yyyy\nAre credit cards widely accepted at local establishments?\nApr 09, 2008, 1:01 PM\nWe do not like to carry a lot of cash and/or pay ATM fees. We do like to eat at local restaurants. Also we are renting a car for the week and plan doing many activities all around the island. Will I have trouble with my credit cards being accepted? I understand that at a roadside stand or when buying small goods at a store that does not get many tourists’ I will need cash, but as a general rule of thumb are credit cards widely accepted?\nThanks, Chuck\nTravelers interested in this topic also viewed...\nShow Prices\n1. Re: Are credit cards widely accepted at local establishments?\nApr 09, 2008, 1:14 PM\nNone of the beach bars on the east side accept credit cards. I'm not sure about the west side beach bars like CnC's or Mia.\nYou'll be able to rent a car with a credit card, but some places will want to charge 5-7% to use a credit card. In addition, some credit card companies are now charging a \"conversion fee\" of 1.5% So you'll pay a penalty for credit cards.\nMost of the major restaurants do accept credit cards: Prima, La Choza , Guidos, La Morena , etc. The smaller places do not. Look for the posted signs if they don't- nothing like washing dishes all night long.\nMost of the larger retail stores accept credit cards. Chedraui's accepts credit cards and they have English language ATM's.\nStill, your best bet is a couple of hundred in US cash and then pull money out of the ATM as you need it. I think $3000 pesos ($280 usd) cost me $3-4 dollars in fees so the cost was cheaper than my credit card company mark up.\nAlso- most USD are exchanged at 10:1 at bars and restuarants. It's not the best exchange rate you can get. The ATM is the best exchange rate followed by the cambios. Traveler's checks get a poor exchange rate at the cambios. Whatever you do, don't use the AMEX exchange in Customs. They have the worst exchange on the island.\nBe sure to call your credit card company before you leave the US so they know your purchases are legit. We were making a lot of electronic purchases one day when they thought our credit card had been stolen. They put a freeze on it. Fortunately, we had a second card to use while the first one was being unfrozen.\nReport inappropriate content\n2. Re: Are credit cards widely accepted at local establishments?\nApr 09, 2008, 1:30 PM\nOn the off chance that you use Bank of America, there is a bank there, Sandander (sp?), that is affiliated with them and you won't pay a fee at their ATM. We do business with Cozumel Sailing and they've told me that, while they'll take credit cards, they don't like to because of some kind of high surcharge that they have to pay. I don't remember exactly what the ATM fees are in Cozumel but I'm thinking they weren't any higher than the fees you pay here if you use an ATM not affiliated with your bank. We've just used credit cards for hotels and rental cars and use ATM's for everything else.\nOne attraction mentioned in this post\n3. Re: Are credit cards widely accepted at local establishments?\nApr 09, 2008, 2:07 PM\nI have been told that the businesses can be hit with up to 15% in merchant fees, so they will either add that into the transaction or be very reluctant to accept a card.\nA much bigger issue which I haven't seen any complaints about in quite a while but will caution you to be aware of is the prices shown on your credit card receipt. Prices in Coz should be in Pesos with about a 10 to 1 ratio. There have been a few messages here (a long time ago mind you) where after the bill was done the amount was billed back in US dollars at home. Make sure the receipt clearly says Pesos.\nReport inappropriate content" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "Ursula_Andress.txt" ], "title": [ "Ursula Andress" ], "wiki_context": [ "Ursula Andress (born 19 March 1936) is a Swiss film and television actress, former model and sex symbol, who has appeared in American, British and Italian films. She is best known for her breakthrough role as Bond girl Honey Ryder in the first James Bond film, Dr. No. She later starred as Vesper Lynd in the Bond-parody Casino Royale. Her other films include Fun in Acapulco, She, The Blue Max, Perfect Friday, The Sensuous Nurse, Slave of the Cannibal God, The Fifth Musketeer and Clash of the Titans.\n\nBackground \n\nAndress, the third of six children, was born in Ostermundigen, Canton of Bern, Switzerland to Anna, a gardener, and Rolf Andress, a German diplomat who was expelled from Switzerland for political reasons. He disappeared during World War II. She has a brother and four sisters.\n\nAt 18, Andress left Switzerland and went to Rome, Italy where she was a walk-on in three nondescript Italian films. Within a year she came to California and was signed to a contract with Paramount Pictures, but the contract resulted in no acting roles due to her inability to learn English at the time. \n\nCareer \n\nAndress became famous as Honey Ryder, a shell diver and James Bond's woman of desire in Dr. No (1962), the first Bond movie. In what became an iconic moment in cinematic and fashion history, she rose out of the Caribbean Sea in a white bikini sporting a large diving knife on her hip. Due to her heavy Swiss-German accent, her character's voice was provided by Nikki van der Zyl, while the calypso was sung by Diana Coupland. The scene made Andress a \"quintessential\" Bond girl. Andress later said that she owed her career to that white bikini: \"This bikini made me into a success. As a result of starring in Dr. No as the first Bond girl, I was given the freedom to take my pick of future roles and to become financially independent.\" The bikini she wore in the film sold at auction in 2001 for £41,125 ($59,755). In 2003, in a UK Survey by Channel 4, her entrance in Dr. No was voted #1 in \"the 100 Greatest Sexy Moments\". Andress won the Golden Globe Award for New Star of the Year in 1964 for her appearance in the film. \n\nAndress co-starred with Elvis Presley in the 1963 musical film Fun in Acapulco, with Frank Sinatra and Dean Martin in 4 for Texas (1963), opposite Marcello Mastroianni in The 10th Victim (1965), alongside John Richardson in She (1965), and as the countess in The Blue Max (1966). She also appeared in the Bond satire Casino Royale (1967) as Vesper Lynd, an occasional spy who persuades Evelyn Tremble, played by Peter Sellers, to carry out a mission. Later, she worked with fellow former Bond girls Claudine Auger in Anyone Can Play (1968), Barbara Bach in Stateline Motel (1975), and Luciana Paluzzi in The Sensuous Nurse (1975).\n\nIn 1965, she posed nude for Playboy; it would be the first of seven times she was pictured in the magazine over the next fifteen years. When asked why she had agreed to do the Playboy shoot, Andress replied coolly, \"Because I'm beautiful.\" She went on to appear nude or semi-nude in nearly all of her film roles between 1969 and 1979, earning her the nickname \"Ursula Undress.\" \n\nOther films from this period of her career include the West African diamond-searching adventure The Southern Star (1969) with George Seagal, the crime caper Perfect Friday (1970) with Stanley Baker and David Warner, the western Red Sun (1972) with Charles Bronson and Alain Delon, as Joséphine de Beauharnais in the swashbuckling spoof The Loves and Times of Scaramouche (1976) with Michael Sarrazin, the cult favorite Slave of the Cannibal God (1978) with Stacey Keach, and as Louise de La Vallière in The Fifth Musketeer (1979) with Beau Bridges.\n\nShe played Aphrodite in 1981's Clash of the Titans, where she worked with Laurence Olivier. During the making of the film, Andress linked up with leading man Harry Hamlin, who became the father of her child. In 1982, she portrayed Mabel Dodge in the adventure-drama film Red Bells. On television, she participated in the 1986 Emmy-winning miniseries Peter the Great, and joined the cast of the primetime soap opera Falcon Crest for a three-episode arc in 1988 as an exotic foreigner who assists David Selby in retrieving Dana Sparks from a white slave ring.\n\nSince the beginning of the 1990s, her acting appearances have been rare. In 1995, Andress was chosen by Empire magazine as one of the \"100 Sexiest Stars in film history.\" Her last role to date was playing \"Madonna\" in the low-budget 2005 Swiss feature ' (English title: The Bird Preachers).\n\nPersonal life \n\nAndress dated film icon James Dean shortly before his death in 1955. That same year, she began an affair with actor/director John Derek, a married father-of-two who walked out on his wife, Pati Behrs, and their family to be with 19-year-old Andress. They wed in 1957 in Las Vegas, but divorced in 1966 after she became involved with Jean-Paul Belmondo while filming Up to His Ears. Her relationship with Belmondo ended in 1972. Andress also dated Ryan O'Neal, Marcello Mastroianni, and John DeLorean. One of her longest romances was with Fabio Testi. The two lived together for several years and had a torrid love scene in Stateline Motel.\n\nAndress was in a relationship with American actor Harry Hamlin after meeting on the set of Clash of the Titans in 1979. She gave birth to their son, Dimitri Hamlin, on 19 May 1980. Although an engagement was announced, the couple never married. They broke up in 1983. Andress then dated Brazilian soccer player Paulo Roberto Falcão, realtor Stan Herman (second ex-husband of her close friend Linda Evans ) and singer Julio Iglesias. In 1986 she began a long-term relationship with Fausto Fagone, a student. They were reported to have broken up in 1994. \n\nOn 18 May 2006, on the occasion of the inauguration of the Swiss Consulate General in Scotland, Andress celebrated her 70th birthday on board the Royal Yacht Britannia in Edinburgh in the company of an international crowd of celebrities.\n\nFilmography" ] }

{ "description": [ "... Ursula Andress was born in the Swiss canton of Berne on March ... Linda Evans drove Ursula to the hospital the day she gave birth to hers and Harry Hamlin's ...", "Ursula Andress is a Swiss actress and sex symbol of the 1960s who is best known for her role as Bond girl Honey ... Born: 19 March 1936, Ostermundigen, Switzerland.", "Ursula Andress, Actress: ... Ursula Andress was born in the Swiss canton of Berne on March 19, 1936, one of six children in a strict German Protestant family.", "Get Ursula Andress's biography, pictures, ... Country Switzerland Ethnicity White Height ... Ursula was born in Berne, ...", "Urged by Her 28-Year-Old Lover, Harry Hamlin, Ursula Andress Faces ... to me,\" exults Ursula Andress, the Swiss-born actress and ... Country; Moms & Babies ...", "Ursula Andress Popularity # 15338 Most Popular Person # 38 Born on March 19 # 20 80 Year Old # 15 Born in Switzerland # 1 Person Named Ursula # 2 Actress From ..." ], "filename": [ "21/21_4020.txt", "72/72_4021.txt", "107/107_4024.txt", "31/31_4025.txt", "90/90_4028.txt", "76/76_4029.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 1, 4, 5, 8, 9 ], "title": [ "Ursula Andress - Biography - IMDb", "Ursula Andress - James Bond Wiki - Wikia", "Ursula Andress - IMDb", "Ursula Andress | Chickipedia", "Urged by Her 28-Year-Old Lover, Harry Hamlin, Ursula ...", "Ursula Andress - Bio, Facts, Family | Famous Birthdays" ], "url": [ "http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000266/bio", "http://jamesbond.wikia.com/wiki/Ursula_Andress", "http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000266/", "http://www.mademan.com/chickipedia/ursula-andress/", "http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20076404,00.html", "http://www.famousbirthdays.com/people/ursula-andress.html" ], "search_context": [ "Ursula Andress - Biography - IMDb\nUrsula Andress\nBiography\nShowing all 59 items\nJump to: Overview  (3) | Mini Bio  (1) | Spouse  (1) | Trade Mark  (4) | Trivia  (34) | Personal Quotes  (15) | Salary  (1)\nOverview (3)\n5' 5\" (1.65 m)\nMini Bio (1)\nThe quintessential jet-set Euro starlet, Ursula Andress was born in the Swiss canton of Berne on March 19, 1936, one of six children in a strict German Protestant family. Although often seeming icily aloof, a restless streak early demonstrated itself in her personality, and she had an impetuous desire to explore the world outside Switzerland. (For instance, she was tracked down by Interpol for running away from boarding school at 17 years old.) The stunning young woman found work as an art model in Rome and did walk-ons in three quickie Italian features before coming to the Hollywood. At 19, she met fading matinée idol John Derek , who left his first wife and two children to marry Ursula in 1957, despite the fact that she only spoke a few words of English at the time, and persuaded the new bride to put her acting ambitions on hold for a few years.\nThe year 1962 saw the virtually unknown Swiss beauty back on the set, playing a small role in the first movie version of Ian Fleming 's fanciful \"James Bond\" espionage novels, Dr. No (1962), opposite Sean Connery . Because her Swiss/German accent was so strong, Andress' entire performance had to be dubbed by a voiceover artist. Nevertheless, her striking beauty and smoldering screen presence made a strong impression on moviegoers, immediately establishing her as one of the most desired women in the world and as an ornament to put on-screen alongside some of the most bankable talent of the era, such as Elvis Presley in Fun in Acapulco (1963) and Dean Martin in 4 for Texas (1963). In 1965, she was one of several European starlets to co-star in What's New Pussycat (1965) -- a film that perhaps sums up mid-'60s pop culture better than any other -- written by Woody Allen , starring Allen and Peter Sellers , with music by Burt Bacharach , a title song performed by Tom Jones and much on-screen sexual romping.\nAndress appeared in many more racy-for-their time movies in both the United States and Europe from the mid-'60s to the late '70s, including The 10th Victim (1965), in which she wears a famously ballistic bra; The Blue Max (1966), where she is aptly cast as the sultry, insatiable wife of an aristocratic World War I German general; the James Bond satire Casino Royale (1967); the excellent crime caper Perfect Friday (1970); Red Sun (1971), as a foul-mouthed prostitute taken hostage by outlaws; The Sensuous Nurse (1975), as a bombshell nurse hired to titillate a doddering millionaire to death; the notorious The Mountain of the Cannibal God (1978), in which she is stripped and slathered in orange paint by a pair of nubiles; and The Fifth Musketeer (1979), in the role of King Louis XIV's alluring mistress.\nUnmarried since 1966 when she'd divorced Derek after falling in love with French actor Jean-Paul Belmondo on the Malaysian set of Up to His Ears (1965), Andress played the field for years, reportedly involved at various times with a host of others including (but by no means limited to) Ryan O'Neal , Marcello Mastroianni , Dennis Hopper and Fabio Testi . In 1979, she began what would be a long-term romance with Harry Hamlin , her handsome young co-star from Clash of the Titans (1981) (in which she was cast, predictably, as \"Aphrodite\"). While subsequently traveling in India, Andress' belly began to swell out of her clothing, and she felt very nauseous. What at first seemed a severe case of \"Delhi Belly\" turned out to be pregnancy, her first and only, at age 43. She and Hamlin named the child, who was born in 1980, Dimitri Hamlin .\nAfter the birth of her son, Andress scaled back her career, which now focused mostly on slight European films and occasional television roles, as she was raising Dimitri in Rome. Her relationship with Hamlin ended in 1983, and she last worked on a film in 2005.\n- IMDb Mini Biography By: Larry-115\nSpouse (1)\nSeductive deep voice\nTrivia (34)\nWas once engaged to Fabio Testi .\nChosen by Empire magazine as one of the 100 Sexiest Stars in film history (#53). [August 1995]\nLived with Jean-Paul Belmondo from 1965 to 1972.\nIs the only actress to appear in a canon Bond movie ( Dr. No (1962)), an unofficial Bond film ( Casino Royale (1967)) and also appear as a character in a Bond novel (\"On Her Majesty's Secret Service\").\nIs fluent in English, French, German, Italian and Swiss-German.\nHer voice was dubbed by Nikki Van der Zyl in Dr. No (1962), She (1965), The Blue Max (1966) and Casino Royale (1967) because of her strong accent.\nHer younger sister, Kàtey Andress, unsuccessfully attempted to start a modeling career.\nA contract she signed with Paramount Pictures in the mid-'50s resulted in no acting roles due to her lack of attendance in the speech class they had arranged for her.\nOn May 18, 2006, she celebrated her 70th birthday aboard the Royal Yacht Britannia in the company of an international crowd of celebrities in Edinburgh, Scotland.\nIs Swiss-German.\nEx-stepmother of Sean Catherine Derek .\nBorn to Rolf Andress, a German diplomat who had disappeared during World War II, and his French wife Anna, a gardener.\nLinda Evans drove Ursula to the hospital the day she gave birth to hers and Harry Hamlin 's son, Dimitri Hamlin , while Linda's personal assistant located Harry on the set of King of the Mountain (1981) and brought him there in time for the event.\nDescribed her wedding to John Derek a nightmare, marrying him in a small Las Vegas chapel with a cab driver as their best man and a ring that did not fit.\nStudied painting, sculpture and dance in Paris.\nGrew up in Ostermundingen, a city in the district of Berne, like TV host Michelle Hunziker and Lauriane Gilliéron , a former Miss Switzerland, who both attended her 70th birthday party.\nOn September 30, 1955, shortly before his death, James Dean asked her to go with him to San Francisco in his Porsche 550 Spyder. But after talking to John Derek , he realized that she was having an affair with the latter, so Dean left Los Angeles without her.\nDeveloped reputation as a serial homewrecker after being named correspondent for the divorces between John Derek and Pati Behrs , Jean-Paul Belmondo and Elodie Constant , and Ryan O'Neal and Leigh Taylor-Young . (Fellow Bond girl Lana Wood had actually invaded the last marriage before Andress came along, but the press placed the blame on her nonetheless.) She unapologetically explained \"When you are in love, you are in love. That's all that matters.\".\nWas the original choice for the role of Sophie in Sophie's Choice (1982) but Meryl Streep , who went on to receive a Best Actress Oscar for her performance, was cast instead.\nHas been linked romantically with automobile designer John DeLorean , singer Julio Iglesias , Brazilian soccer player Paulo Roberto Falcão , American actors Dennis Hopper and Ryan O'Neal , Austrian actor Helmut Berger , French actor Daniel Gélin , Italian actors Gerardo Amato , Marcello Mastroianni and Franco Nero , real estate developer Stan Herman (second ex-husband of Linda Evans ) as well as Ricci Martin (son of Dean Martin ), Nels Van Patten (son of Dick Van Patten ), Lorenzo Ruspoli, hairdresser Claudio Belfiore and former Sicilian regional assembly member Fausto Fagone, who was a 20-year-old economics student when Andress began a five-year relationship with him in 1986.\nThe third of six children. She has a brother, Arthur and four sisters, Erica, Kàtey, Charlotte and Ruth.\nMade a fortune dabbling in the stock market.\nRuns painting and furniture auctions.\nOnetime boyfriend Nels Van Patten is the brother-in-law of daytime soap star Eileen Davidson , who appears on The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills (2010) with Lisa Rinna , the current wife of Ursula's ex Harry Hamlin .\nAn occasional photographer, some of her pictures have been featured in Elle and Paris Match.\nSelling her Beverly Hills home for $2.5 million. [September 2016]\nPersonal Quotes (15)\nI have no problem with nudity. I can look at myself. I like walking around nude. It doesn't bother me. I see all the people walking around nude; it doesn't bother me.\nI was under contract to Paramount. They wanted to make me into somebody which I was not. So I got so scared and rebelled, so they threw me out of the studio, because I never went to school. I never went to the diction of the English, to acting school, because I was so scared because I saw them ... and I couldn't live up to it. So I chose to run away.\nIt's a mystery. All I did was wear this bikini in Dr. No (1962) - not even a small one - and whoosh! Overnight, I made it.\nTo me, it's much more moral to live with the man you love, without signing a piece of paper, than to live legally in an atmosphere of boredom which can eventually turn to hate.\nWhen I love a man, I live only for him. I become his slave.\nWhat I look for in a man isn't printable! I wouldn't want to shatter my cool Swiss image.\n[People magazine, 12/29/80] I'm nearly having a nervous breakdown. I am Swiss, and I want everything precise, clean, perfect. Everybody is furious with me; I have no time for anybody. I cry every day, I'm so upset. A baby takes 24 hours out of every 24 hours -- I never imagined it would be so time-consuming. Never, never!\nI was unfaithful to my husband because of my love for Jean-Paul. It is the only time I have been unfaithful to the man I loved, and I wouldn't do it again.\nHonestly, I feel so lucky I have had such a lucky life. Everything I've ever wanted, I've had. And now I have my own baby.\n[on Harry Hamlin ] I wanted him, and I knew I could have him, but I had no idea it would last more than a night or two. You can never prejudge a man.\n[self-description of her upbringing] Like medieval times. I wasn't allowed to talk at the table unless I was addressed. I was not allowed to see boys or go to dances until I was 17.\nI have always been a gypsy, dreaming about curiosity and dreaming about traveling.\n[her criteria for choosing a project] It has to be art or else I am not interested. There is no shortage of good actors, there is a shortage of good films because they are very costly, but I did my work, and now I only do things for art.\nI did enjoy London in the '60s. Everything was fun, it was a happy town, an English town, but now there are no English there!\nThe world has become so small today. It is so sad that everything is becoming the same, and different traditions and cultures are all disappearing. I want to see different cultures, and different traditions, and my favorite places are villages which do not have high-rise houses or cement-block flats, but villages that are confined in a wall with their traditions intact. (Nov. '08)\nSalary (1)", "Ursula Andress | James Bond Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia\nCasino Royale (1967 film)\nUrsula Andress is a Swiss actress and sex symbol of the 1960s who is best known for her role as Bond girl Honey Ryder in the first James Bond film, Dr. No (1962), for which she won a Golden Globe. She later starred as Vesper Lynd in the 1967 Bond-parody Casino Royale . For her role in Dr. No, Andress won the Golden Globe Award for New Star of the Year in 1964.\nContents\n[ show ]\nDr. No\nAndress became famous for her portrayal of Honey Ryder , a shell diver and James Bond 's object of desire in the very first Bond film, Dr. No (1962). In a well-known scene, she rises out of the Caribbean Sea in a white bikini. The iconic scene made Andress the quintessential Bond girl , inspiring every bikini-clad Bond girl to come, including Halle Berry , who in Die Another Day emerges from the sea in a similar fashion.\nTrivia\nTwo weeks before filming was due to start, the part of Honey Ryder was still to be cast. The producers then saw a photograph that actor John Derek had taken of his wife, Ursula Andress, and offered her the part without even meeting her. Some sources claim that the photograph allegedly featured Andress in a wet T-shirt competition. Andress, who wasn't overly interested in acting at the time, only agreed to do it when family friend Kirk Douglas read the script and urged her to take it on.\nDue to Andress' heavy Swiss-German accent, Honey Ryder's voice was provided by Nikki van der Zyl , while the calypso was sung by Diana Coupland .\nThe bikini Andress wore in Dr. No was sold at auction in 2001 for a whopping £35,000. [1]\nIn 2003, in a UK Survey by Channel 4, Andress' entrance in Dr. No was voted #1 in \"the 100 Greatest Sexy Moments\". [2]\nAndress was apparently paid $6000 for appearing in Dr. No. She had a salary of $1000 per week for six weeks work.", "Ursula Andress - IMDb\nIMDb\nActress\nThe quintessential jet-set Euro starlet, Ursula Andress was born in the Swiss canton of Berne on March 19, 1936, one of six children in a strict German Protestant family. Although often seeming icily aloof, a restless streak early demonstrated itself in her personality, and she had an impetuous desire to explore the world outside Switzerland. (For... See full bio »\nBorn:\na list of 29 people\ncreated 01 Feb 2013\na list of 30 people\ncreated 31 Oct 2013\na list of 37 people\ncreated 07 Feb 2014\na list of 30 people\ncreated 11 Apr 2014\na list of 30 images\ncreated 10 Aug 2015\nDo you have a demo reel?\nAdd it to your IMDbPage\nHow much of Ursula Andress's work have you seen?\nUser Polls\nWon 1 Golden Globe. Another 2 nominations. See more awards  »\nKnown For\nCasino Royale Vesper Lynd (007)\n(1967)\n 1986 Peter the Great (TV Mini-Series)\nAthalie\n 2016 Corazón de... (TV Series)\nHerself\n 2016 Belmondo par Belmondo (TV Movie documentary)\nHerself\n 2008 Vivement dimanche (TV Series)\nHerself\n 2006 Menschen (TV Series documentary)\nHerself\n 2005 C'est au programme (TV Series documentary)\nHerself\n 2004 ¿Dónde estás, corazón? (TV Series)\nHerself\n 2003 100 Greatest Sexy Moments (TV Movie documentary)\nHerself\n 2003 Intimate Portrait (TV Series documentary)\nHerself\n 2002 James Bond: A BAFTA Tribute (TV Movie documentary)\nHerself\n 2002 Bond Girls Are Forever (TV Movie documentary)\nHerself\n 2002 V Graham Norton (TV Series)\nHerself\n 2000 Harry Saltzman: Showman (Video documentary short)\nHerself\n 2000 Inside 'Diamonds Are Forever' (Video documentary short)\nHerself\n 2000 Terence Young: Bond Vivant (Video documentary short)\nHerself\n 2000 Inside 'Dr. No' (Video documentary short)\nHerself\n 1999 So Graham Norton (TV Series)\nHerself\n 1996 What's the Bet? (TV Series)\nHerself\n 1995 Si on chantait (TV Series)\nHerself\n 1995 Willemsens Woche (TV Series)\nHerself\n 1995 Wetten, dass..? (TV Series)\nHerself\n 1993 Momentos de Glória (TV Series)\nHerself (1993)\n 1992 Primero izquierda (TV Series)\nHerself\n 1990 This Is Your Life (TV Series documentary)\nHerself\n 1989 Hollywood on Horses (Video documentary)\nHerself\n 1987 Àngel Casas Show (TV Series)\nHerself\n 1983 Carnival in Rio (TV Movie documentary)\nHerself - at Carnival\n 1983 Hour Magazine (TV Series)\nHerself\n 1982 The 54th Annual Academy Awards (TV Special documentary)\nHerself - Co-Presenter: Best Film Editing\n 1976 Numéro 1 (TV Series)\nHerself\n 1971 Jerry Visits (TV Series)\nHerself\n 1970 Gala de l'union (TV Series)\nHerself\n 1967 What's My Line? (TV Series)\nHerself - Mystery Guest\n 1965 Flashes Festival (Documentary short)\nHerself\n 1965 Pariser Journal (TV Series documentary)\nHerself\n 1965 Cinépanorama (TV Series documentary)\nHerself\n 1965 The 'She' Story (Documentary short)\nHerself\n 1964 Fractured Flickers (TV Series)\nHerself - Guest\n- Episode #1.25 (1964) ... Herself - Guest\nHide \n 2016 Inside Edition (TV Series documentary)\nHerself\n 2015 Inside Spectre with Richard Wilkins (TV Movie documentary)\nHerself\n 2012 Top Gear (TV Series)\nHoney Ryder\n 2011 Celebrity Naked Ambition (TV Movie documentary)\nHerself\n 2008 Vita da Star: Cristiano Malgioglio (TV Movie documentary)\nHerself\n 2007 La rentadora (TV Series)\nHerself\n 2003 Diva Graham Norton (TV Movie)\nHerself\n 2002 Best Ever Bond (TV Movie documentary)\nHerself (uncredited)\n 1995 Behind the Scenes with 'Goldfinger' (Video documentary short)\nHerself\n 1982 Famous T & A (Video documentary)\nSusan Stevenson\nPersonal Details\nPublicity Listings:\n2 Print Biographies | 2 Portrayals | 1 Interview | 4 Articles | 62 Pictorials | 114 Magazine Cover Photos | See more »\nHeight:\nDid You Know?\nPersonal Quote:\nI have no problem with nudity. I can look at myself. I like walking around nude. It doesn't bother me. I see all the people walking around nude; it doesn't bother me. See more »\nTrivia:\nHas been linked romantically with automobile designer John DeLorean , singer Julio Iglesias , Brazilian soccer player Paulo Roberto Falcão , American actors Dennis Hopper and Ryan O'Neal , Austrian actor Helmut Berger , French actor Daniel Gélin , Italian actors Gerardo Amato , Marcello Mastroianni and Franco Nero , real estate developer Stan Herman (second ex-husband of Linda Evans ) as well as Ricci ... See more »\nTrademark:\nPlatinum blonde hair See more »\nNickname:", "Ursula Andress | Chickipedia\nForgot password? Create account\nUrsula Andress\nIf I still consider Raquel Welch as my favorite starlet of the sixties, I must admit that Ursula Andress is somewhere in the Top 5. Maybe her icy distance will always be responsible for not reaching numero uno.\nDETAILS\nAdd\nIf I still consider Raquel Welch as my favorite starlet of the sixties, I must admit that Ursula Andress is somewhere in the Top 5. Maybe her icy distance will always be responsible for not reaching numero uno. But do YOU care about my feelings? Everyone can recognize Ursula and men don't care if she's friendly or not: we just want to see the pictures! Like Raquel, Ursula didn't make a career of shooting fantasy pictures, but her small contribution remains memorable. Where to begin? Her birthday? How original! Let's go:\nUrsula was born in Berne, Switzerland, on March 19th, 1936. So she recently turned 71 and can now benefit from reduction prices to any theater showing her movies. Her father Rolf is German and mother Anna is Swiss. She has six siblings, the oldest two being born in Germany while she in the others in Switzerland due to political issues concerning her father. Her wandering spirit came alive very quickly and at the tender age of 15, she went AWOL with a French actor, who took her to Rome. Though she had the permission of her mother, her grandfather was not pleased and called Interpol to the rescue! But when sanity finally prevailed, Ursula's movie career began in the prestigious Cinecitta studios, as an extra for some minor films, mainly light comedies on the saucy side.\nAn unexpected meeting would take place with none other than Marlon Brando. The future Colonel Kurtz advised her to take a chance in Hollywood and even contacted some studio big cheeses for her. It's in London that Ursula obtained a studio contract, which shipped her to the U.S. Oddly, she seemed more or less inclined to follow in the then star-system of Hollywood, as young actresses were trained in diverse aspects of movie work. Also, Ursula didn't seem to bother in learning the full subtleties of the English language. Before returning to Europe, she heard that Columbia was interested in her. Oh, and there's even an alleged liaison with James Dean... it was whispered that she was with the future doomed star when he bought the car that would cost him his life...\nSoon after, Ursula met John Derek, an actor ten years her senior. She stopped any professional activity after their marriage in 1957, buying out her Columbia contract, even if she hadn't shot any picture for the studio. To this day, it's still astonishing to admire Derek's taste in women, as his two future wives (Linda Evans and Bo Derek) looked almost exactly like his first one, by their figures and features. Hum... He was considered as a \"Tony Curtis/Cornel Wilde\" type, an handsome actor that never became a major star. But he was one of the first actor to became a director, mostly working out of mainstream projects.\nIn 1962, the first film in what would become one of the most popular movie franchise of all time arrived on the big screen: Dr. No, a James Bond adventure with Ursula as the ultimate Bond Girl, considered his best female partner to this day. The sight of her character, Honeychile Ryder, wearing that astonishing white bikini still makes hearts beat faster. There's a nostalgic nod to this scene in Bond's 2003 adventure, Die Another Day, with Halle Berry wearing a variation of that famous costume. Despite being dubbe and a false suntan (not to mention a $10,000 salary), Ursula Andress became the stuff of legends and the Connery/Andress couple the perfect one. Her name would soon be known around the world. We expected nothing less than a spectacular career. Once again, hmmmm...\nWell, 1963 started well enough. No one complained to witness Ursula and Anita Ekberg sharing the screen in a western called 4 for Texas, with Frank Sinatra and Dean Martin as cowboys (?). Needless to say, the King would be the next logical partner as Ursula joined Elvis for Fun in Acapulco (the movie where he plays a traumatized circus acrobat!). The next year, she worked for the first time with her husband in Nightmare in the Sun (and another member of the Rat Pack, Sammy Davis Jr.).\n1965 remains another excellent year. Ursula is at the top of her beauty for the comedy What's New Pussycat?, with a memorable theme song by Tom Jones and the on-screen talent of Peter Sellers, Peter O'Toole and Woody Allen. Then came The Tenth Victim (a sci-fi flick) with Marcello Mastroianni (still in a black suit and shades, wow) where Ursula wears the infamous bra that shoots bullets, a scene impossible to forget when you're an impressionable teenage boy. The same year, She appeared on movie screens, an Hammer Studios production, with the perfect choice of Ursula as Ayesha, She Who Must Be Obeyed... gaaah! To finish 1965, Ursula found a lover when shooting the French comedy Les tribulations d'un chinois en Chine by Philippe de Brocca, no less than the movie's male star, Jean-Paul Belmondo.\nConsequently in 1966, her marriage with Derek became no more, as she finished working for him in Once Before I Die, Belmondo probably laughing his ass off. She would later reveal that Derek was the man of her life. A tumultuous seven-year relationship soon developed. Ursula would even hurt herself with a razor as she ran after Bebel to punish him for some alleged romantic betrayal. Who can deny that her main priority in life was not her career? Future years would prove this very fact. She would soon after flirt with Warren Beatty, Ryan O'Neal and Fabio Testi. Meanwhile, she found the time to appear in a James Bond parody, Casino Royale, and a peculiar western in need of rediscovery, Red Sun, with Charles Bronson, Alain Delon and Toshiro Mifune. The scene where she's tied up and left to roast in the burning sun remains memorable.\nUrsula preferred to work almost exclusively in Europe by the mid-70s, principally in Italy (if we exclude Stateline Motel in 1975, shot in Montreal). At 42 years of age, Ursula appeared in a cannibal horror film, Slave of the Cannibal God, but known by many other titles. You'll never be the same after seeing Ursula naked and tied up to a tree, as she is covered with some gelatinous putty for some future sacrificial rite, all this coming for Sergio Martino's camera (there's an unwatchable scene with a monkey being eaten by a snake for real, though). Believe it or not, I saw this picture on commercial TV, at a time when we weren't victims of insipid made-for-TV fare or continuous infomercials. A sudden nostalgia for this kind of late show grips me, all of a sudden.\nIn 1979, while shooting Clash of the Titans, Ursula fell in love with the picture's main hero, played by actor Harry Hamlin (she portrayed the goddess Aphrodite). He's 27, she's 43. Nevertheless, he's the man that gave her a child, their son Dimitri Alexandre, in May 1980. She would soon throw Hamlin out the front door, in pursuit of more short-lived liaisons. The rest of her career consists of some European productions (often for television), not well-known to her North American fans.\nUrsula Andress was more often than not faking at being an actress, which didn't bother her the least. Plunged by fate in that kind of living, she used the fame as an excuse to meet numerous famous men. In the majority of her roles, she always talked softly, offering an impassive face close to being merely inexpressive. Oddly, for an allegedly \"Ice Maiden\", she inspired a lot of wet dreams in the last 40 years. Recent photographs proved that she can still take her place with other ageless Sirens. Is this due to the famous Ayesha legend, as she can escape the ravages of time? Or again, is it Aphrodite's doing?\nUrsula Andress on the Web\nUrsula Andress | Flickr - Photo Sharing! Ursula Andress. ... your comment? Follow Alvaro Tapia alvaro tapia hidalgo Member since 2007. Taken on January 7, 2014; 946 Views; 0 Galleries · alvaro tapia hidalgo's... (2,399) · 130114 · Lou Reed · Ursula Andress · 060114a · 060114 ...\nUrsula Andress Plastic Surgery Before And After Photo There must be a certain alarm that goes off in the minds of aging supermodels that screams “let's get plastic surgery” as they get older! Supermodel after supermodel, when she reaches middle-age, has suddenly reappeared ...", "Urged by Her 28-Year-Old Lover, Harry Hamlin, Ursula Andress Faces Motherhood at 44\nUrged by Her 28-Year-Old Lover, Harry Hamlin, Ursula Andress Faces Motherhood at 44\nEmail\nLove affairs and husbands can end, but a child is forever.\nIt is the most important thing that ever happened to me,” exults Ursula Andress, the Swiss-born actress and seven-time Playboy plaything. At the ripe age of 44, she is expecting her first baby in mid-May. “Let’s say I had an incredible life up until today, and now I think it’s time for a change.”\nThe father is Pasadena-born actor Harry Hamlin, 28, who starred in Movie, Movie and the NBC miniseries Studs Lonigan. They became lovers while working on the movie Clash of the Titans, to be released next year (Harry plays Perseus; Ursula, Aphrodite). After the wrap they vacationed in Egypt, where Ursula suffered with what she thought was the Nile version of “Delhi Belly.” Instead she discovered, to her astonishment, that she was pregnant.\nThe decision to have the child was made with Hamlin’s support. “Ursula is from another planet. She will never lose her love of living,” chimes in her adoring man. “She has more energy than 12 people, and she loves like no one else.” Adds Ursula: “He is very excited about the baby and is very strict about me, more strict than I am.” They are planning on marriage in the near future, “but not where you get married in a dismal legal building,” interjects Harry. “It is important for the child,” explains Ursula, who is contemplating a U.S. ceremony. “With the world situation I would like the baby to have the choice of both American and Swiss citizenship.”\nThough known for her calculation, Andress did not fall for Hamlin because of his nationality or to be part of the older woman-younger man trend. “Sex comes with love, and I’m not just choosing it by age,” she asserts. “I’m not having a sex affair; I’m having a love affair. A love affair is something completely different every time,” she continues. “I’m not an animal that says I will only have sex with somebody that’s younger or only with blonds. Anyway, what is 40? It depends on the way you live. If you get drunk and take a lot of drugs you will probably already be destroyed at 30,” she figures.\nWhile pregnant, Ursula has followed no special diet, but drinks milk, eats more eggs and takes vitamins. Though an active sportswoman, she is aware that “at my age my muscles and my bones won’t give so easily. I’m very narrow in the pelvis and I’ve got such strong muscles—we don’t know if everything will give.” Because the baby is large, a cesarean is likely. She frankly found birth classes “terrifying.” “I’m going to learn how to breathe and that’s it,” she says. She would like to nurse her child for at least three weeks, “to give him antibodies and good things so he can build up his resistance, because I’m going to run around the world and he’ll have to be pretty strong.” (As is recommended for mothers over 35, she took the amniocentesis test, which determined that the fetus was healthy—and a boy.)\nThe indefatigable Andress concedes that her 20 extra pounds tire her. “I come home, put my feet up and fall asleep with my boots on,” she laughs. “I can feel the baby move; he’s pushing on my liver all the time. While I’m running around he’s quiet, but when I’m lying down in bed I feel him jumping,” she observes. “I think he’s happy when I’m running around, and that’s good because he’s getting training for what life is going to be.”\nBorn in Bern (her father worked for the government), Ursula had four sisters and one brother. She was raised strictly—”with absolutely rigid discipline, like medieval times. I wasn’t allowed to talk at the table unless I was addressed,” she recalls. “I was not allowed to see boys or go to dances until I was 17.” At 18 she took off for Rome, where she appeared in three quickie Italian films. That led to a contract with Paramount and to Hollywood. There she met and married fledgling actor John Derek. “I always look for a man who will help me, that I can learn from,” she explains. “John will teach you only the best and try to get the best out of you as he does now with Bo.”\nIn 1962 Ursula played the wet bikini role in Dr. No, which launched the James Bond craze. Her marriage, however, dissolved. “I couldn’t lie to John,” she says of her indiscretions. “I was taken by curiosity while John is not one who plays around.” They still remain close, and when Ursula broke her arm two years ago, “Bo came every day and took me to therapy,” says Ursula. “I hope for Bo’s sake she will stay with John.”\nAndress was back in Rome for most of her pregnancy to buy baby things, such as a $3,000 antique carousel horse, and to ready a new apartment in the suburbs. “I said to Harry, leave,” she says. “I do it myself. Every day there is something wrong and having somebody with you slows you down.” Now, however, Ursula is settled for the moment in Harry’s one-bedroom cottage overlooking Laurel Canyon. (She owns a house in Beverly Hills, now rented, and places in Ibiza and Switzerland.) Although he has assembled the bassinet Ursula brought from Rome, Hamlin admits everything is up in the air: “We may move to another house in Los Angeles or we may live in another country.” A serious dramatic actor, he is a Yale graduate who studied with the ACT rep company in San Francisco and is currently working with Lee Strasberg. Ursula wisely understands that “there is nothing constant in acting, so I can’t restrict him. He has to have the freedom to move.”\nOvernight the once flighty sex goddess who refused even to take on the responsibility of pets has been transformed into a concerned earth mother. “I’ve got to think of everything: schools, the wills, all that,” she notes. Harry speaks for both of them when he says: “With the baby, I feel that I am taking off my training wheels and getting into the mainstream of life.”\nShow Full Article", "Ursula Andress - Bio, Facts, Family | Famous Birthdays\nUrsula Andress\nActress Born In Switzerland#2\nAbout\nActress who made a real splash with her portrayal of Honey Rider in the 1962 James Bond film Dr. No, which starred" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "CBS.txt", "Walter_Cronkite.txt" ], "title": [ "CBS", "Walter Cronkite" ], "wiki_context": [ "CBS (an initialism of the network's former name, the Columbia Broadcasting System) is an American commercial broadcast television network that is a flagship property of CBS Corporation. The company is headquartered at the CBS Building in New York City with major production facilities and operations in New York City (at the CBS Broadcast Center) and Los Angeles (at CBS Television City and the CBS Studio Center).\n\nCBS is sometimes referred to as the \"Eye Network\", in reference to the company's iconic logo, in use since 1951. It has also been called the \"Tiffany Network\", alluding to the perceived high quality of CBS programming during the tenure of its founder William S. Paley. It can also refer to some of CBS's first demonstrations of color television, which were held in a former Tiffany & Co. building in New York City in 1950. \n\nThe network has its origins in United Independent Broadcasters Inc., a collection of 16 radio stations that was purchased by Paley in 1928 and renamed the Columbia Broadcasting System. Under Paley's guidance, CBS would first become one of the largest radio networks in the United States, and eventually one of the Big Three American broadcast television networks. In 1974, CBS dropped its former full name and became known simply as CBS, Inc. The Westinghouse Electric Corporation acquired the network in 1995, renamed its corporate entity to the current CBS Broadcasting, Inc. in 1997, and eventually adopted the name of the company it had acquired to become CBS Corporation. In 2000, CBS came under the control of Viacom, which was formed as a spin-off of CBS in 1971. In late 2005, Viacom split itself into two separate companies, and re-established CBS Corporation – through the spin-off of its broadcast television, radio and select cable television and non-broadcasting assets – with the CBS television network at its core. CBS Corporation is controlled by Sumner Redstone through National Amusements, which also controls the current Viacom.\n\nCBS continues to operate the CBS Radio network, which now mainly provides news and features content for its portfolio of owned-and-operated radio stations in large and mid-sized markets, and affiliated radio stations in various other markets. The television network has more than 240 owned-and-operated and affiliated television stations throughout the United States.\n\nHistory\n\nRadio years\n\nThe origins of CBS date back to January 27, 1927, with the creation of the \"United Independent Broadcasters\" network in Chicago by New York City talent-agent Arthur Judson. The fledgling network soon needed additional investors though, and the Columbia Phonograph Company, manufacturers of Columbia Records, rescued it in April 1927; as a result, the network was renamed the \"Columbia Phonographic Broadcasting System\" on September 18 of that year. Columbia Phonographic went on the air on September 18, 1927, with a presentation by the Howard Barlow Orchestra from flagship station WOR in Newark, New Jersey, and fifteen affiliates. \n\nOperational costs were steep, particularly the payments to AT&T for use of its land lines, and by the end of 1927, Columbia Phonograph wanted out.Barnouw, Tower, p. 223 In early 1928 Judson sold the network to brothers Isaac and Leon Levy, owners of the network's Philadelphia affiliate WCAU, and their partner Jerome Louchenheim. None of the three were interested in assuming day-to-day management of the network, so they installed wealthy 26-year-old William S. Paley, son of a Philadelphia cigar family and in-law of the Levys, as president. With the record company out of the picture, Paley quickly streamlined the corporate name to \"Columbia Broadcasting System\". He believed in the power of radio advertising since his family's \"La Palina\" cigars had doubled their sales after young William convinced his elders to advertise on radio.Barnouw, Tower, p. 224 By September 1928, Paley bought out the Louchenheim share of CBS and became its majority owner with 51% of the business. Page numbers in this article refer to the first paperback edition, May 1981\n\nTurnaround: Paley's first year\n\nDuring Louchenheim's brief regime, Columbia paid $410,000 to A.H. Grebe's Atlantic Broadcasting Company for a small Brooklyn station, WABC (no relation to the current WABC), which would become the network's flagship station. WABC was quickly upgraded, and the signal relocated to 860 kHz.Bergreen, p. 56. The station changed frequencies again, to 880 kHz, in the Federal Communications Commission (FCC)'s 1941 reassignment of stations; in 1946, WABC was renamed WCBS. The physical plant was relocated also – to Steinway Hall on West 57th Street in Manhattan, where much of CBS's programming would originate. By the turn of 1929, the network could boast to sponsors of having 47 affiliates.Bergreen, p. 59\n\nPaley moved right away to put his network on a firmer financial footing. In the fall of 1928, he entered into talks with Adolph Zukor of Paramount Pictures, who planned to move into radio in response to RCA's forays into motion pictures with the advent of talkies.Bergreen, p. 61 The deal came to fruition in September 1929: Paramount acquired 49% of CBS in return for a block of its stock worth $3.8 million at the time. The agreement specified that Paramount would buy that same stock back by March 1, 1932 for a flat $5 million, provided CBS had earned $2 million during 1931 and 1932. For a brief time there was talk that the network might be renamed \"Paramount Radio\", but it only lasted a month – the 1929 stock market crash sent all stock value tumbling. It galvanized Paley and his troops, who \"had no alternative but to turn the network around and earn the $2,000,000 in two years.... This is the atmosphere in which the CBS of today was born.\" The near-bankrupt movie studio sold its CBS shares back to CBS in 1932.Barnouw, Tower, p. 261 In the first year of Paley's watch, CBS's gross earnings more than tripled, going from $1.4 million to $4.7 million.Halberstam, David (1979). The Powers That Be. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-7-02-527021-2. p. 25\n\nMuch of the increase was a result of Paley's second upgrade to the CBS business plan – improved affiliate relations. There were two types of program at the time: sponsored and sustaining, i.e., unsponsored. Rival NBC paid affiliates for every sponsored show they carried and charged them for every sustaining show they ran. It was onerous for small and medium stations, and resulted in both unhappy affiliates and limited carriage of sustaining programs. Paley had a different idea, designed to get CBS programs emanating from as many radio sets as possible:Halberstam, p. 25 he would give the sustaining programs away for free, provided the station would run every sponsored show, and accept CBS's check for doing so.Barnow, Golden, p. 57 CBS soon had more affiliates than either NBC Red or NBC Blue. \n\nPaley was a man who valued style and taste,Halberstam, pp. 26–27 and in 1929, once he had his affiliates happy and his company's creditworthiness on the mend, he relocated his concern to sleek, new 485 Madison Avenue, the \"heart of the advertising community, right where Paley wanted his company to be\"Bergreen, p. 60 and where it would stay until its move to its own Eero Saarinen-designed headquarters, the CBS Building, in 1965. When his new landlords expressed skepticism about the network and its fly-by-night reputation, Paley overcame their qualms by inking a lease for $1.5 million.\n\nCBS takes on the Red and the Blue (1930s)\n\nSince NBC was the broadcast arm of radio set manufacturer RCA, its chief David Sarnoff approached his decisions as both a broadcaster and as a hardware executive; NBC's affiliates had the latest RCA equipment, and were often the best-established stations, or were on \"clear channel\" frequencies. Yet Sarnoff's affiliates were mistrustful of him. Paley had no such split loyalties: his – and his affiliates' – success rose and fell with the quality of CBS programming.\n\nPaley had an innate, pitch-perfect, sense of entertainment, \"a gift of the gods, an ear totally pure\",Halberstam, p. 26 wrote David Halberstam. \"[He] knew what was good and would sell, what was bad and would sell, and what was good and would not sell, and he never confused one with another.\"Halberstam, p. 24 As the 1930s loomed, Paley set about building the CBS talent stable. The network became the home of many popular musical and comedy stars, among them Jack Benny, (\"Your Canada Dry Humorist\"), Al Jolson, George Burns & Gracie Allen, and Kate Smith, whom Paley personally selected for his family's La Palina Hour because she was not the type of woman to provoke jealousy in American wives.Bergreen, p. 69 When, on a mid-ocean voyage, Paley heard a phonograph record of a young unknown crooner, he rushed to the ship's radio room and \"cabled\" New York to sign Bing Crosby immediately to a contract for a daily radio show. \n\nWhile the CBS prime-time lineup featured music, comedy and variety shows, the daytime schedule was a direct conduit into American homes – and into the hearts and minds of American women; for many, it was the bulk of their adult human contact during the course of the day. CBS time salesmen recognized early on that this intimate connection could be a bonanza for advertisers of female-interest products.Bergreen, p. 63 Starting in 1930, astrologer Evangeline Adams would consult the heavens on behalf of listeners who sent in their birthdays, a description of their problems – and a box-top from sponsor Forhan's toothpaste.Barnouw, Tower, p. 240 The low-key murmuring of smooth-voiced Tony Wons, backed by a tender violin, \"made him a soul mate to millions of women\"Barnouw, Tower, pp. 240–241 on behalf of the R. J. Reynolds tobacco company, whose cellophane-wrapped Camel cigarettes were \"as fresh as the dew that dawn spills on a field of clover\".Barnouw, Tower, p. 241 The most popular radio-friend of all was M. Sayle Taylor, The Voice Of Experience, though his name was never uttered on air. Women mailed descriptions of the most intimate of relationship problems to The Voice in the tens of thousands per week; sponsors Musterole ointment and Haley's M–O laxative enjoyed sales increases of several hundred percent in just the first month of The Voice Of Experiences run.Barnouw, Tower, p. 242\n\nAs the decade progressed, a new genre joined the daytime lineup: serial dramas – soap operas, so named for the products that sponsored them, by way of the ad agencies that actually produced them. Although the form, usually in quarter-hour episodes, proliferated widely in the mid- and late 1930s, they all had the same basic premise: that characters \"fell into two categories: 1) those in trouble and 2) those who helped people in trouble. The helping-hand figures were usually older.\"Barnouw, Golden, p. 96 At CBS, Just Plain Bill brought human insight and Anacin pain reliever into households; Your Family and Mine came courtesy of Sealtest Dairy products; Bachelor's Children first hawked Old Dutch Cleanser, then Wonder Bread; Aunt Jenny's Real Life Stories was sponsored by Spry Vegetable Shortening. Our Gal Sunday (Anacin again), The Romance of Helen Trent (Angélus cosmetics), Big Sister (Rinso laundry soap) and many others filled the daytime ether. \n\nThanks to its daytime and primetime schedules, CBS prospered in the 1930s. In 1935, gross sales were $19.3 million, yielding a profit of $2.27 million.Barnouw, Golden, p. 62 By 1937, the network took in $28.7 million and had 114 affiliates, almost all of which cleared 100% of network-fed programming, thus keeping ratings, and revenue, high. In 1938, CBS even acquired the American Record Corporation, parent of its one-time investor Columbia Records. \n\nIn 1938, NBC and CBS each opened studios in Hollywood to attract the entertainment industry's top talent to their networks – NBC at Radio City on Sunset Boulevard and Vine Street, CBS two blocks away at Columbia Square.Bergreen, p. 99\n\nCBS launches an independent news division\n\nThe extraordinary potential of radio news showed itself in 1930, when CBS suddenly found itself with a live telephone connection to a prisoner called \"The Deacon\" who described, from the inside and in real time, a riot and conflagration at the Ohio Penitentiary; for CBS, it was \"a shocking journalistic coup\".Bergreen, p. 105 Yet as late as 1934, there was still no regularly scheduled newscast on network radio: \"Most sponsors did not want network news programming; those that did were inclined to expect veto rights over it.\"Barnouw, Golden, p. 17 There had been a longstanding wariness between radio and the newspapers as well; the papers had rightly concluded that the upstart radio business would compete with them on two counts – advertising dollars and news coverage. By 1933, they fought back, many no longer publishing radio schedules for readers' convenience, or allowing \"their\" news to be read on the air for radio's profit.Barnouw, Golden, p. 18 Radio, in turn, pushed back when urban department stores, newspapers' largest advertisers and themselves owners of many radio stations, threatened to withhold their ads from print.Barnouw, Golden, p. 22 A short-lived attempted truce in 1933 even saw the papers proposing that radio be forbidden from running news before 9:30 a.m., and then only after 9:00 p.m. – and that no news story could air until it was 12 hours old.Barnouw, Golden, p. 21\n\nIt was in this climate that Paley set out to \"enhance the prestige of CBS, to make it seem in the public mind the more advanced, dignified and socially aware network\".Bergreen, p. 90 He did it through sustaining programming like the New York Philharmonic, the thoughtful drama of Norman Corwin – and an in-house news division to gather and present news, free of fickle suppliers like newspapers and wire services. In the fall of 1934, CBS launched an independent news division, shaped in its first years by Paley's vice-president, former New York Times columnist Ed Klauber, and news director Paul White. Since there was no blueprint or precedent for real-time news coverage, early efforts of the new division used the shortwave link-up CBS had been using for five yearsBarnouw, Tower, pp. 245–246 to bring live feeds of European events to its American air.\n\nA key early hire was Edward R. Murrow in 1935; his first corporate title was Director of Talks. He was mentored in microphone technique by Robert Trout, the lone full-time member of the News Division, and quickly found himself in a growing rivalry with boss White.Bergreen, p. 107 Murrow was glad to \"leave the hothouse atmosphere of the New York office behind\"Bergreen, p. 109 when he was dispatched to London as CBS's European Director in 1937, a time when the growing Hitler menace underscored the need for a robust European Bureau. Halberstam described Murrow in London as \"the right man in the right place in the right era\".Halberstam, p. 38 Murrow began assembling the staff of broadcast journalists – including William L. Shirer, Charles Collingwood, Bill Downs, and Eric Sevareid – who would become known as \"Murrow's Boys\". They were \"in [Murrow's] own image, sartorially impeccable, literate, often liberal, and prima donnas all\".Bergreen, p. 110 They covered history in the making, and sometimes made it themselves: on March 12, 1938, Hitler boldly annexed nearby Austria and Murrow and Boys quickly assembled coverage with Shirer in London, Edgar Ansel Mowrer in Paris, Pierre Huss in Berlin, Frank Gervasi in Rome and Trout in New York.Barnouw, Golden, p. 78 This bore the News Round-Up format, which is still ubiquitous today in broadcast news.\n\nMurrow's nightly reports from the rooftops during the dark days of the London Blitz galvanized American listeners: even before Pearl Harbor, the conflict became \"the story of the survival of Western civilization, the most heroic of all possible wars and stories. He was indeed reporting on the survival of the English-speaking peoples.\"Halberstam, p. 39 With his \"manly, tormented voice\",Bergreen, p. 112 Murrow contained and mastered the panic and danger he felt, thereby communicating it all the more effectively to his audience. Using his trademark self-reference \"This reporter\",Barnouw, Golden, p. 140 he did not so much report news as interpret it, combining simplicity of expression with subtlety of nuance. Murrow himself said he tried \"to describe things in terms that make sense to the truck driver without insulting the intelligence of the professor\". When he returned home for a visit late in 1941, Paley threw an \"extraordinarily elaborate reception\"Bergreen, p. 114 for Murrow at the Waldorf-Astoria. Of course, its goal was more than just honoring CBS's latest \"star\" – it was an announcement to the world that Mr. Paley's network was finally more than just a pipeline carrying other people's programming: it had now become a cultural force in its own right.Bergreen, pp. 114–115\n\nOnce the war was over and Murrow returned for good, it was as \"a superstar with prestige and freedom and respect within his profession and within his company\".Halberstam, p. 40 He possessed enormous capital within that company, and as the unknown form of television news loomed large, he would spend it freely, first in radio news, then in television, taking on Senator Joseph McCarthy first, then eventually William S. Paley himself,Barnouw, Golden, p. 276 and with a foe that formidable, even the vast Murrow account would soon run dry.\n\nPanic: The War of the Worlds radio broadcast\n\nOn October 30, 1938, CBS gained a taste of infamy when The Mercury Theatre on the Air broadcast a radio adaptation of H. G. Wells's The War of the Worlds, performed by Orson Welles. Its unique format, a contemporary version of the story in the form of faux news broadcasts, had panicked many listeners into believing invaders from Mars were actually invading and devastating Grover's Mill, New Jersey, despite three disclaimers during the broadcast that it was a work of fiction. The flood of publicity after the broadcast had two effects: an FCC ban on faux news bulletins within dramatic programming, and sponsorship for The Mercury Theatre on the Air – the former sustaining program became The Campbell Playhouse to sell soup.Barnouw, Golden, p. 88 Welles, for his part, summarized the episode as \"the Mercury Theater's own radio version of dressing up in a sheet and jumping out of a bush and saying 'Boo!'\"Bergreen, p. 96\n\nCBS recruits Edmund A. Chester\n\nBefore the onset of World War II, in 1940, CBS recruited Edmund A. Chester from his position as Bureau Chief for Latin America at the Associated Press to serve as Director of Latin American Relations and Director of Short Wave Broadcasts for the CBS radio network. In this capacity, Mr. Chester coordinated the development of the Network of the Americas (La Cadena de las Americas) with the Department of State, the Office for Inter-American Affairs (as chaired by Nelson Rockefeller) and Voice of America. This network provided vital news and cultural programming throughout South America and Central America during the crucial World War II era and fostered diplomatic relations between the United States and the less developed nations of the continent. It featured such popular radio broadcasts as Viva América which showcased leading musical talent from both North and South America, accompanied by the CBS Pan American Orchestra under the musical direction of Alfredo Antonini. The post-war era also marked the beginning of CBS's dominance in the field of radio as well. \n\nZenith of network radio (1940s)\n\nAs 1939 wound down, Bill Paley announced that 1940 would \"be the greatest year in the history of radio in the United States.\"Barnouw, Golden, p. 139 He turned out to be right by more than anyone could imagine: the decade of the 1940s would indeed be the apogee of network radio by every gauge. Nearly 100% of the advertisers who made sponsorship deals in 1939 renewed their contracts for 1940; manufacturers of farm tractors made radios standard equipment on their machines.Barnouw, Golden, p. 138 Wartime rationing of paper limited the size of newspapers – and effectively advertisements – and when papers turned them away, they migrated to radio sponsorship.Barnouw, Golden, p. 165 A 1942 act by Congress made advertising expenses a tax benefit and that sent even automobile and tire manufacturers – who had no products to sell since they had been converted to war production – scurrying to sponsor symphony orchestras and serious drama on radio.Barnouw, Golden, p. 166 In 1940, only one-third of radio programs were sponsored, while two-thirds were sustaining; by the middle of the decade, the statistics had swapped – two out of three shows now had cash-paying sponsors and only one-third were sustaining.Bergreen, p. 167\n\nThe CBS of the 1940s was vastly different from that of the early days; many of the old guard veterans had died, retired or simply left the network.Bergreen, p.168 No change was greater than that in Paley himself: he had become difficult to work for, and had \"gradually shifted from leader to despot\". He spent much of his time seeking social connections and in cultural pursuits; his \"hope was that CBS could somehow learn to run itself\". His brief to an interior designer remodeling his townhouse included a requirement for closets that would accommodate 300 suits, 100 shirts and had special racks for a hundred neckties.Halberstam, p. 31\n\nAs Paley grew more remote, he installed a series of buffer executives who sequentially assumed more and more power at CBS: first Ed Klauber, then Paul Kesten, and finally Frank Stanton. Second only to Paley as the author of CBS's style and ambitions in its first half-century, Stanton was \"a magnificent mandarin who functioned as company superintendent, spokesman, and image-maker\".Bergreen, p. 169 He had come to the network in 1933 after sending copies of his Ph.D. thesis \"A Critique Of Present Methods and a New Plan for Studying Radio Listening Behavior\" to CBS top brass and they responded with a job offer.Bergreen, p. 170 He scored an early hit with his study \"Memory for Advertising Copy Presented Visually vs. Orally,\" which CBS salesmen used to great effect bringing in new sponsors. In 1946, Paley appointed Stanton as President of CBS and promoted himself to Chairman. Stanton's colorful, but impeccable, wardrobe – slate-blue pinstripe suit, ecru shirt, robin's egg blue necktie with splashes of saffron – made him, in the mind of one sardonic CBS vice-president, \"the greatest argument we have for color television\".Bergreen, p. 171\n\nDespite the influx of advertisers and their cash, or perhaps because of them, the 1940s were not without bumps for the radio networks. The biggest challenge came in the form of the FCC's chain broadcasting investigation – the \"monopoly probe\", as it was often called.Barnouw, Golden, p. 168 Though it started in 1938, the investigation only gathered steam in 1940 under new-broom chairman James L. Fly.Barnouw, Golden, pp. 168–169 By the time the smoke had cleared in 1943, NBC had already spun off its Blue Network, which became the American Broadcasting Company (ABC). CBS was also hit, though not as severely: Paley's brilliant 1928 affiliate contract which had given CBS first claim on local stations' air during sponsored time – the network option – came under attack as being restrictive to local programming.Barnouw, Golden, p. 171 The final compromise permitted the network option for three out of four hours during certain dayparts, but the new regulations had virtually no practical effect, since most all stations accepted the network feed, especially the sponsored hours that earned them money. Fly's panel also forbade networks from owning artists' representation bureaus, so CBS sold its bureau to Music Corporation of America and it became Management Corporation of America.Barnouw, Golden, p. 172\n\nOn the air, the war had an impact on almost every show. Variety shows wove patriotism through their comedy and music segments; dramas and soaps had characters join the service and go off to fight. Even before hostilities commenced in Europe, one of the most played songs on radio was Irving Berlin's \"God Bless America\", popularized by CBS personality Kate Smith.Barnouw, Golden, p. 155 Although an Office of Censorship sprang up within days of Pearl Harbor, censorship would be totally voluntary. A few shows submitted scripts for review; most did not.Barnouw, Golden, p. 156 The guidelines that the Office did issue banned weather reports (including announcement of sports rainouts), news about troop, ship or plane movements, war production and live man-on-the-street interviews. The ban on ad-libbing caused quizzes, game shows and amateur hours to wither for the duration.\n\nSurprising was \"the granite permanence\" of the shows at the top of the ratings.Barnouw, Golden, p. 284 The vaudevillians and musicians who were hugely popular after the war were the same stars who had been huge in the 1930s: Jack Benny, Bing Crosby, Burns and Allen, and Edgar Bergen all had been on the radio almost as long as there had been network radio.Barnouw, Golden, p. 285 A notable exception to this was relative newcomer Arthur Godfrey who, as late as 1942, was still doing a local morning show in Washington, D.C.Bergreen, p. 179 Godfrey, who had been a cemetery-lot salesman and a cab driver, pioneered the style of talking directly to the listener as an individual, with a singular \"you\" rather than phrases like \"Now, folks...\" or \"Yes, friends...\".Bergreen, p. 180 His combined shows contributed as much as 12% of all CBS revenues; by 1948, he was pulling down $500,000 a year.\n\nIn 1947, Paley, still the undisputed \"head talent scout\" of CBS, led a much-publicized \"talent raid\" on NBC. One day, while Freeman Gosden and Charles Correll were hard at work at NBC writing their venerable Amos and Andy show, a knock came on the door; it was Paley himself, with an astonishing offer: \"Whatever you are getting now I will give you twice as much.\"Bergreen, p. 181 Capturing NBC's cornerstone show was enough of a coup, but Paley repeated in 1948 with longtime NBC stars Edgar Bergen, Charlie McCarthy and Red Skelton, as well as former CBS defectors Jack Benny, radio's top-rated comedian, and Burns and Allen. Paley achieved this rout with a legal agreement reminiscent of his 1928 contract that caused some NBC radio affiliates to jump ship and join CBS. CBS would buy the stars' names as a property, in exchange for a large lump sum and a salary.Barnouw, p. 245 The plan relied on the vastly different tax rates between income and capital gains, so not only would the stars enjoy more than twice their income after taxes, but CBS would preclude any NBC counterattack because CBS owned the performers' names.\n\nAs a result of this, Paley got in 1949 something he had sought for 20 years: CBS finally beat NBC in the ratings.Bergreen, p. 183 But it was not just to one-up rival Sarnoff that Paley led his talent raid; he, and all of radio, had their eye on the coming force that threw a shadow over radio throughout the 1940s – television.\n\nPrime time radio gives way to television (1950s)\n\nFrank Stanton, President 1946-1971;\nLouis G. Cowan, President 1957-1959;\nJames Thomas Aubrey, President 1959-1965\n\nIn the spring of 1940, CBS staff engineer Peter Goldmark devised a system for color television that CBS management hoped would leapfrog the network over NBC and its existing black-and-white RCA system.Bergreen, p. 153. Goldmark also invented the 33-1/3 r.p.m. microgroove Long-Play phonograph record that made the RCA-Victor 78s quickly obsolete. The CBS system \"gave brilliant and stable colors\", while NBC's was \"crude and unstable but 'compatible'\".Barnouw, Golden, p. 243 Ultimately, the FCC rejected the CBS system because it was incompatible with RCA's; that, and the fact that CBS had moved to secure many UHF, not VHF, television licenses, left CBS flatfooted in the early television age.Bergreen, pp. 155–157. Shortly after ruling in favor of NBC, FCC chairman Charles Denny resigned from the FCC to become vice president and general counsel of NBC: Barnouw, Golden, p. 243 In 1946, only 6,000 television sets were in operation, most in greater New York City where there were already three stations; by 1949, the number had increased to 3 million sets, and by 1951, had risen to 12 million.Bergreen, pp. 158–159 64 American cities had television stations, though most of them only had one.Barnouw, Golden, p. 295\n\nRadio continued to be the backbone of the company, at least in the early 1950s, but it was \"a strange, twilight period\". NBC's venerable Fred Allen saw his ratings plummet when he was pitted against upstart ABC's game show Stop The Music!; within weeks, he was dropped by longtime sponsor Ford Motor Company and was shortly gone from the scene.Barnouw, Golden, pp. 287–288 Radio powerhouse Bob Hope's ratings plunged from a 23.8 share in 1949 to 5.4 in 1953.Barnouw, Golden, p. 288 By 1952, \"death seemed imminent for network radio\" in its familiar form;Barnouw, Golden, p. 290 most telling of all, the big sponsors were eager for the switch.\n\nGradually, as the television network took shape, radio stars began to migrate to the new medium. Many programs ran on both media while making the transition. The radio soap opera The Guiding Light moved to television in 1952 and ran another 57 years; Burns & Allen, back \"home\" from NBC, made the move in 1950; Lucille Ball a year later; Our Miss Brooks in 1952 (though it continued simultaneously on radio for its full television life). The high-rated Jack Benny Program ended its radio run in 1955, and Edgar Bergen's Sunday night show went off the air in 1957. When CBS announced in 1956 that its radio operations had lost money, while the television network had made money,Bergreen, p. 230 it was clear where the future lay. When the soap opera Ma Perkins went off the air on November 25, 1960, only eight, relatively minor series remained. Prime time radio ended on September 30, 1962, when Yours Truly, Johnny Dollar and Suspense aired for the final time.\n\nCBS's radio programming after 1972\n\nThe retirement of Arthur Godfrey in April 1972 marked the end of long-form programming on CBS radio; programming thereafter consisted of hourly news summaries and news features, known in the 1970s as Dimension, and commentaries, including the Spectrum series that evolved into the \"Point/Counterpoint\" feature on the television network's 60 Minutes and First Line Report, a news and analysis feature delivered by CBS correspondents. The network also continued to offer traditional radio programming through its weeknightly CBS Radio Mystery Theater, the lone sustained holdout of dramatic programming, from 1974 to 1982, though shorter runs were given to the General Mills Radio Adventure Theater and the Sears Radio Theater in the 1970s; otherwise, most new dramatic radio was carried on public and to some extent religious stations.Dunning, p. 143 The CBS Radio Network continues to this day, offering hourly newscasts, including its centerpiece CBS World News Roundup in the morning and evening, weekend sister program CBS News Weekend Roundup, the news-related feature segment The Osgood File, What's In the News, a one-minute summary of one story, and various other segments such as commentary from Seattle radio personality Dave Ross, tip segments from various other sources, and technology coverage from CBS Interactive property CNET.\n\nCBS is the last of the original Big Four radio networks to continue to be owned by its founding company, although the CBS parent itself ceased to exist when it was acquired by Westinghouse Electric in 1995, CBS radio continues to be operated by CBS. In contrast, ABC Radio was sold to Citadel Broadcasting in 2007 (and is now a part of Cumulus Media) while Mutual (now defunct) and NBC Radio were acquired by Westwood One in the 1980s (Westwood One and CBS were under common ownership from 1993 to 2007; the former would be acquired outright by Dial Global in October 2011).\n\nTelevision years: expansion and growth\n\nCBS's involvement in television dates back to the opening of experimental station W2XAB in New York City on July 21, 1931, using the mechanical television system that had been more-or-less perfected in the late 1920s. Its initial broadcast featured New York Mayor Jimmy Walker, Kate Smith, and George Gershwin. The station boasted the first regular seven-day broadcasting schedule in American television, broadcasting 28 hours a week.\n\nAnnouncer-director Bill Schudt was the station's only paid employee; all other talent was volunteer. W2XAB pioneered program development including small-scale dramatic acts, monologues, pantomime, and the use of projection slides to simulate sets. Engineer Bill Lodge devised the first synchronized sound wave for a television station in 1932, enabling W2XAB to broadcast picture and sound on a single shortwave channel instead of the two previously needed. On November 8, 1932, W2XAB broadcast the first television coverage of presidential election returns. The station suspended operations on February 20, 1933, as monochrome television transmission standards were in flux, and in the process of changing from a mechanical to an all-electronic system. W2XAB returned to the air with an all-electronic system in 1939 from a new studio complex in Grand Central Station and a transmitter atop the Chrysler Building, broadcasting on channel 2. W2XAB transmitted the first color broadcast in the United States on August 28, 1940. \n\nOn June 24, 1941, W2XAB received a commercial construction permit and program authorization as WCBW. The station went on the air at 2:30 p.m. on July 1, one hour after rival WNBT (channel 1, formerly W2XBS and now WNBC), making it the second authorized fully commercial television station in the United States. The FCC issued permits to CBS and NBC at the same time, and intended WNBT and WCBW to sign on simultaneously on July 1, so no one station could claim to be the \"first\".\n\nDuring the World War II years, commercial television broadcasting was reduced dramatically. Toward the end of the war, commercial television began to ramp up again, with an increased level of programming evident from 1944 to 1947 on the three New York television stations which operated in those years (the local stations of NBC, CBS and DuMont). But as RCA and DuMont raced to establish networks and offer upgraded programming, CBS lagged, advocating an industry-wide shift and restart to UHF for their incompatible (with black and white) color system; the FCC putting an indefinite \"freeze\" on television licenses that lasted until 1952 also did not help matters. Only in 1950, when NBC was dominant in television and black and white transmission was widespread, did CBS begin to buy or build their own stations (outside of New York City) in Los Angeles, Chicago and other major cities. Up to that point, CBS programming was seen on such stations as KTTV in Los Angeles, which CBS – as a bit of insurance and to guarantee program clearance in that market – quickly purchased a 50% interest in that station, partnering with the Los Angeles Times newspaper. CBS then sold its interest in KTTV (now the West Coast flagship of the Fox network) and purchased outright Los Angeles pioneer station KTSL in 1950, renaming it KNXT (after CBS's existing Los Angeles radio property, KNX), later to become KCBS-TV. In 1953, CBS bought pioneer television station WBKB in Chicago, which had been signed on by former investor Paramount Pictures (and would become a sister company to CBS again decades later) as a commercial station in 1946, and changed that station's call sign to WBBM-TV, moving the CBS affiliation away from WGN-TV.\n\nWCBS-TV would ultimately be the only station (as of 2013) built and signed on by CBS. The rest of the stations would be acquired by CBS, either in an ownership stake or outright purchase. In television's early years, the network bought Washington, D.C. affiliate WOIC (now WUSA) in a joint venture with The Washington Post in 1950, only to sell its stake to the Post in 1954 due to then-tighter FCC ownership regulations. CBS would also temporarily return to relying on its own UHF technology by owning WXIX in Milwaukee (now CW affiliate WVTV) and WHCT in Hartford, Connecticut (now Univision affiliate WUVN), but as UHF was not viable for broadcasting at the time (due to the fact that most television sets of the time were not equipped with UHF tuners), CBS decided to sell those stations off and affiliate with VHF stations WITI and WTIC-TV (now WFSB), respectively (ironically, CBS would later be forced back onto UHF in Milwaukee due to the affiliation agreement with New World Communications that resulted in WITI disaffiliating from the network in 1994 to join Fox; it is now affiliated with WDJT-TV in that market). More long-term, CBS bought stations in Philadelphia (WCAU, now owned by NBC) and St. Louis (KMOX-TV, now KMOV), but CBS would eventually sell these stations off as well; before buying KMOX-TV, CBS had attempted to purchase and sign on the channel 11 license in St. Louis, now KPLR-TV. \n\nCBS did attempt to sign on a station in Pittsburgh after the \"freeze\" was lifted, as that city was then the sixth-largest market but only had one commercial VHF station in DuMont-owned WDTV, while the rest were either on UHF (the modern-day WPGH-TV and WINP-TV) or public television (WQED). Although the FCC turned down CBS's request to buy the channel 9 license in nearby Steubenville, Ohio and move it to Pittsburgh (that station, initially CBS affiliate WSTV-TV, is now NBC affiliate WTOV-TV), CBS did score a major coup when Pittsburgh-based Westinghouse Electric (a co-founder of NBC with RCA) bought WDTV from struggling DuMont and opted to affiliate the now-recalled KDKA-TV with CBS instead of NBC (like KDKA radio) due to NBC extorting and coercing Westinghouse to trade KYW radio and WPTZ (now KYW-TV) for Cleveland stations WTAM, WTAM-FM (now WMJI), and WNBK (now WKYC); the trade ended up being reversed in 1965 by order of the FCC and the United States Department of Justice after an eight-year investigation. Had CBS not been able to affiliate with KDKA-TV, it would have affiliated with eventual NBC affiliate WIIC-TV (now WPXI) once it signed on in 1957 instead. This coup would eventually lead to a much stronger relationship between Westinghouse and CBS decades later.\n\nProgramming (1945-1970)\n\nThe \"talent raid\" on NBC of the mid-1940s had brought over established radio stars, who became stars of CBS television programs as well. One reluctant CBS star refused to bring her radio show, My Favorite Husband, to television unless the network would recast the show with her real-life husband in the lead.\n\nI Love Lucy debuted in October 1951, and was an immediate sensation, with 11 million out of a population of 15 million Television sets watching (73% share). Paley and network president Frank Stanton had so little faith in the future of Lucille Ball's series, that they granted her wish and allowed her husband, Desi Arnaz, to take financial control of the comedy's production. This was the making of the Ball-Arnaz Desilu empire, and became the template for series production to this day; it also served as the template for some television conventions that continue to exist including the use of a multiple cameras to film scenes, the use of a studio audience and the airing of past episodes for syndication to other television outlets. \n\nAs television came to the forefront of American entertainment and information, CBS dominated television as it once had radio. In 1953, the CBS television network would make its first profit, and would maintain dominance on television between 1955 and 1976 as well. By the late 1950s, the network often controlled seven or eight of the slots on the \"top ten\" ratings list with well-respected shows like Route 66.\n\nDuring the Presidency of James T. Aubrey (1958-1965), CBS was able to balance prestigious television projects (befitting the Tiffany Network image), with more low culture, broad appeal programs. So the network had challenging fare like The Twilight Zone (1959 TV series), The Defenders (1961 TV series), and East Side/West Side, as well as The Andy Griffith Show, The Beverly Hillbillies, Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C., and Gilligan's Island. \n\nThis success would continue for many years, with CBS being bumped from first place only due to the rise of ABC in the mid-1970s. Perhaps because of its status as the top-rated network, during the late 1960s and early 1970s CBS felt freer to gamble with controversial properties like the Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour and All in the Family (and its many spinoffs) during this period.\n\nProgramming: \"Rural purge\" and success in the 1970s and early-mid 1980s (1971–86)\n\nBy the end of the 1960s, CBS was very successful in television ratings, but many of its shows (including The Beverly Hillbillies, Mayberry R.F.D., Petticoat Junction, Hee Haw and Green Acres) were appealing more to older and more rural audiences and less to the young, urban and more affluent audiences that advertisers sought to target. Fred Silverman (who would later head ABC, and then later NBC) made the decision to cancel most of those otherwise hit shows by mid-1971 in what became colloquially referred to as the \"Rural Purge\", with Green Acres cast member Pat Buttram remarking that the network cancelled \"anything with a tree in it\". \n\nWhile the \"rural\" shows got the axe, new hits, like The Mary Tyler Moore Show, All in the Family, The Bob Newhart Show, Cannon, Barnaby Jones, Kojak and The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour took their place on the network's schedule and kept CBS at the top of the ratings through the early 1970s. The majority of these hits were overseen by then East Coast vice president Alan Wagner. 60 Minutes also moved to the 7:00 p.m. Eastern Time slot on Sundays in 1976 and became the first ever prime time television news program to enter the Nielsen Top 10 in 1978.\n\nOne of CBS's most popular shows during the period was M*A*S*H, a dramedy that ran for 11 seasons from 1972 to 1983 and was based on the hit Robert Altman film; as with the film, the series was set during the Korean War in a Mobile Army Surgical Hospital. The 2½-hour series finale, in its initial airing on February 28, 1983, had peak viewership of up to 125 million Americans (77% of all television viewership in the U.S. that night), which established it as the all-time most watched single U.S. television episode; it also held the ubiquitous distinction of having the largest single-night primetime viewership of any television program in U.S. history until it was surpassed by the Super Bowl, which have taken the record consistently since 2010 (through the annual championship game's alternating telecasts by CBS and rival networks Fox and NBC).\n\nSilverman also first developed his strategy of spinning new shows off from established hit series while at CBS, with Rhoda and Phyllis spun from The Mary Tyler Moore Show, Maude and The Jeffersons spun from All in the Family and Good Times from Maude. After Silverman's departure, CBS dropped behind ABC for second place in the 1976–77 season, but still rated strongly, based on its earlier hits and some new ones: One Day at a Time, Alice, Lou Grant, WKRP in Cincinnati, The Dukes of Hazzard (a suspiciously \"rural\" series) and, the biggest hit of the early 1980s, Dallas, the latter of which holds the record for the all-time most watched non-series finale single U.S. television episode - the November 21, 1980 primetime telecast of the resolution episode of the internationally prominent \"Who Shot J.R.?\" cliffhanger.\n\nBy 1982, ABC had run out of steam, NBC was in dire straits with many failed programming efforts greenlighted by Silverman during his tenure as network president (a four-year run which began in 1978), and CBS once more nosed ahead, courtesy of the major success of Dallas (and its spin-off Knots Landing), as well as hits in Falcon Crest, Magnum, P.I., Simon & Simon and 60 Minutes. CBS also acquired the broadcast rights to the NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament in 1982 (taking over for NBC), which the network has broadcast every March since. CBS was takeover the Dennis B. Kane's production company and formed new company CBS/Kane Productions International (CKPI). The network managed to pull out a few new hits over the next couple of years – namely Kate & Allie, Newhart, Cagney & Lacey, Scarecrow and Mrs. King, and Murder, She Wrote – however, this resurgence would be short-lived. CBS had become mired in debt as a result of a failed takeover effort by Ted Turner, which CBS chairman Thomas Wyman successfully helped to fend off. The network sold its St. Louis owned-and-operated station KMOX-TV, and allowed the purchase of a large portion of its shares (under 25 percent) by Loew's Inc. chairman Laurence Tisch. Consequently, collaboration between Paley and Tisch led to the slow dismissal of Wyman, with Tisch taking over as chief operating officer, and Paley returning as chairman.\n\nProgramming: Tiffany Network in distress (1986–2002)\n\nBy the end of the 1987–88 season, CBS had fallen to third place behind both ABC and NBC for the first time, and had some major rebuilding to do.\n\nIn 1984, The Cosby Show and Miami Vice debuted on NBC and immediately garnered high ratings, helping to bring that network back to first place by the 1985–86 season with a slate that included several other hits (such as Amen, Family Ties, Cheers, The Golden Girls, L.A. Law and 227). ABC had in turn also rebounded with hits such as Dynasty, Who's the Boss?, Hotel, Growing Pains, The Wonder Years, and Roseanne. \nIronically, some of the groundwork had been laid as CBS fell in the ratings, with hits Simon & Simon, Falcon Crest, Murder, She Wrote, Kate & Allie and Newhart still on the schedule from the most recent resurgence, and future hits Designing Women, Murphy Brown, Jake and the Fatman and newsmagazine 48 Hours having debuted during the late 1980s. The network was also still getting decent ratings for 60 Minutes, Dallas and Knots Landing; however, the ratings for Dallas were a far cry from what they were in the early 1980s. During the early 1990s, the network would bolster its sports lineup by obtaining the broadcast television rights to Major League Baseball from ABC and NBC and the Winter Olympics from ABC.\n\nUnder network president Jeff Sagansky, the network was able to earn strong ratings from new shows Diagnosis: Murder, Touched by an Angel, Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman, Walker, Texas Ranger, and a resurgent Jake and the Fatman during this period, and CBS was able to reclaim the first place crown briefly, in the 1992–93 season; however, a drawback for the network during this time-frame was that its programming slate skewed towards an older demographic than ABC, NBC or even Fox, with its relatively limited presence at that time; a joke even floated around that CBS was \"the network for the living dead\" during this period. In 1993, the network made a breakthrough in establishing a successful late-night talk show franchise to compete with NBC's The Tonight Show when it signed David Letterman away from NBC after the Late Night host was passed over as Johnny Carson's successor on Tonight in favor of Jay Leno.\n\nDespite having success with Late Show with David Letterman, 1993 saw the network suffer to a time where television changed forever. The network lost the rights to two major sports leagues: the network terminated its contract with Major League Baseball (after losing approximately US$500 million over a four-year span), with the league reaching a new contract with NBC and ABC. Then on December 17 of that year, in a move that surprised many media analysts and television viewers, Fox – then a fledgling network that in its then-seven years on the air had begun to accrue several popular programs in the Nielsen Top 20 alongside its established counterparts – outbid CBS for the broadcast rights to the National Football Conference, stripping the elder network of National Football League game telecasts for the first time since CBS began broadcasting games from the pre-merger NFL in 1955; Fox bid $1.58 billion for the NFC television rights, significantly higher than CBS' reported offer of $290 million to retain the contract. \n\nThe acquisition of the NFC rights, which took effect with the 1994 NFL season, and which led to CBS being nicknamed \"Can't Broadcast Sports\", resulted in Fox striking a series of affiliation deals with longtime affiliates of each of the Big Three networks; CBS bore the brunt of the switches, with many of its existing affiliates being lured away by Fox (especially those owned by New World Communications, which Fox struck its largest affiliation deal with) while most of the stations that CBS ended up affiliating with to replace the previous affiliates it lost to Fox were former Fox affiliates and independent stations, most of which had limited to no local news presence prior to joining CBS. The network attempted to fill the loss of NFL by going after the rights to the National Hockey League; however, when CBS countered with a bid, Fox also outbid the network for the NHL rights. \n\nThe loss of the NFL, along with an ill-fated effort to court younger viewers, led to a drop in CBS' ratings. One of the shows that was affected was the Late Show with David Letterman, which saw its viewership decline in large part due to the affiliation switches, at times even landing in third place in its timeslot behind ABC's Nightline; as a result, NBC's The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, which the Late Show often dominated over during the first two years of that show's run, became the top-rated late-night talk show. Still, CBS was able to produce some hits during the mid-1990s, such as The Nanny, JAG (which moved to the network from NBC), Cosby, Cybill, Touched by an Angel and Everybody Loves Raymond.\n\nCBS attempted to court families on Fridays with the launch of a family-oriented comedy block, the \"CBS Block Party\", in the 1997–98 season (consisting of Family Matters, Step by Step, Meego and The Gregory Hines Show, all but the latter coming from Miller-Boyett Productions, which had maintained a relationship with ABC during the late 1980s and 1990s). The lineup failed to compete against ABC's \"TGIF\" lineup (which saw its own viewership erode that season): Meego and Hines were cancelled by November, while Family Matters and Step by Step were put on hiatus and ended their runs in the summer of 1998. That winter, CBS aired its last Olympic Games to date with its telecast of the 1998 Winter Games in Nagano; NBC, which had already held the rights to the Summer Olympics since 1988, took over coverage of the Winter Olympics beginning with the 2002 Games.\n\nThe building blocks for the network's return to the top of the ratings were put in place in 1997, when CBS regained the NFL through its acquisition of the broadcast television rights to the American Football Conference (stripping that package from NBC after 32 years), effective with the 1998 season. The contract was struck shortly before the AFC's emergence as the dominant NFL conference over the NFC, spurred in part by the turnaround of the New England Patriots in the 2000s. With the help of the AFC package, CBS surpassed NBC for first place in the 1999–2000 season; however, it was beaten by ABC the following year. The network gained additional hits in the late 1990s and early 2000s with series such as The King of Queens, Nash Bridges, Judging Amy, Becker and Yes, Dear.\n\nProgramming: Return to first place and rivalry with Fox (2002–present)\n\nAnother turning point for CBS came in the summer of 2000 when it debuted the summer reality shows Survivor and Big Brother, which became surprise summer hits for the network. In January 2001, CBS debuted the second season of Survivor after its broadcast of Super Bowl XXXV and scheduled it on Thursdays at 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time; it also moved the investigative crime drama CSI (which had debuted that fall in the Friday 9:00 p.m. time slot) to follow Survivor at 9:00 p.m. on Thursdays. The pairing of the two shows was both able to chip away at and eventually beat NBC's Thursday night lineup, and attract younger viewers to the network.\n\nDuring the 2000s, CBS found additional successes with a slew of police procedurals (several of which were produced by Jerry Bruckheimer) including Cold Case, Without a Trace, Criminal Minds, NCIS and The Mentalist, along with CSI spinoffs CSI: Miami and CSI: NY as well as sitcoms Still Standing, Two and a Half Men, How I Met Your Mother, The New Adventures of Old Christine, Rules of Engagement and The Big Bang Theory. The network's programming slate, buoyed largely by the success of CSI, briefly led the network to retake first place in the ratings from NBC in the 2002–03 season. The decade also saw CBS finally make ratings headway on Friday nights, a perennial weak spot for the network, with a focus toward drama series such as Ghost Whisperer and the relatively short-lived but critically acclaimed Joan of Arcadia.\n\nCBS became the most watched American broadcast television network once again in the 2005–06 season, an achievement that the network proclaimed in on-air promotions as being \"America's Most Watched Network\" (a term it would use again in the 2011–12 season). This lasted until the 2007–08 season, when Fox overtook CBS for first, becoming the first non-Big Three network to earn the title as the most watched network overall in the United States; despite CBS' continued strong lineup, Fox's first-place finish that season was primarily due to its reliance on American Idol (the longest reigning #1 prime time U.S. television program from 2004 to 2011). CBS retook its place as the top-rated network in the 2008–09 season, where it has remained every season since. Fox and CBS, both having ranked as the highest rated of the major broadcast networks during the 2000s, tend to nearly equal one another in the 18–34, 18–49 and 25–54 demographics, with either network alternating in placing first in either of these groups by very close margins. NCIS, which has been the flagship of CBS' Tuesday lineup for much of its run, became the network's highest-rated drama by the 2007–08 season.\n\nThe 2010s saw additional hits for the network including drama series The Good Wife; police procedurals Person of Interest, Blue Bloods, Elementary, Hawaii Five-0 and NCIS spin-off NCIS: Los Angeles; reality series Undercover Boss; and sitcoms 2 Broke Girls and Mike & Molly. The Big Bang Theory, one of several sitcoms from veteran writer/producer Chuck Lorre, started off with modest ratings but saw its viewership skyrocket (earning per episode ratings of up to 17 million viewers) to become the top-rated network sitcom in the U.S. by the 2010–11 season, as well as the second most watched U.S. television program starting from the 2013-14 season, when the series became the anchor of the network's Thursday lineup. Meanwhile, the Lorre-produced series it overtook for the position, Two and a Half Men, saw its ratings decline to respectable levels for its final four seasons following the 2011 firing of original star Charlie Sheen (due to a dispute with Lorre) and the addition of Ashton Kutcher as its primary lead.\n\nUntil 2012, CBS ranked in second place among adults 18-49, but after the ratings declines Fox experienced during the 2012–13 fall season, the network was able to take the top spot in the demographic as well as in total viewership (for the fifth year in a row) by the start of 2013. At the end of the 2012–13 season, the tenth season of NCIS took the top spot among the season's most watched network programs, which gave CBS its top-rated show after American Idol ended its eight-year nationwide primetime lead (with NBC Sunday Night Football taking over the top spot from Idol the year before and from NCIS the year after), for the first time since the 2002–03 season (when CSI: Crime Scene Investigation led Nielsen's seasonal prime time network ratings).\n\nThe strength of its 2013–14 slate led to a surplus of series on CBS' 2014–15 schedule, with 21 series held over from the previous season, along with eight new series including moderate hits in Madam Secretary, NCIS: New Orleans and Scorpion. Also, midseason hits The Odd Couple reboot and CSI spinoff CSI: Cyber. The network also expanded its NFL coverage through a partnership with NFL Network to carry Thursday Night Football games during the first eight weeks of the NFL season. \n\nCBS television news operations\n\nUpon becoming commercial station WCBW in 1941, the pioneer CBS television station in New York City broadcast two daily news programs, at 2:30 and 7:30 p.m. weekdays, anchored by Richard Hubbell. Most of the newscasts featured Hubbell reading a script with only occasional cutaways to a map or still photograph. When Pearl Harbor was bombed on December 7, 1941, WCBW (which was usually off-the-air on Sundays to give the engineers a day off), took to the air at 8:45 p.m. that evening with an extensive special report. The national emergency even broke down the unspoken wall between CBS radio and television. WCBW executives convinced radio announcers and experts such as George Fielding Elliot and Linton Wells to come down to the station's Grand Central Station studios during the evening, and give information and commentary on the attack. Although WCBW's special report that night lasted less than 90 minutes, that special broadcast pushed the limits of live television in 1941 and opened up new possibilities for future broadcasts. As CBS wrote in a special report to the FCC, the unscheduled live news broadcast on December 7 \"was unquestionably the most stimulating challenge and marked the greatest advance of any single problem faced up to that time\". Additional newscasts were scheduled in the early days of the war.\n\nIn May 1942, WCBW (like almost all television stations) sharply cut back its live program schedule and cancelled its newscasts, as the station temporarily suspended studio operations, resorting exclusively to the occasional broadcast of films. This was primarily due to the fact that much of the staff had either joined the service or were redeployed to war-related technical research, and to prolong the life of the early, unstable cameras which were now impossible to repair due to the lack of parts available during wartime. In May 1944, as the war began to turn in favor of the Allies, WCBW reopened its studios and resumed production of its newscasts, which were briefly anchored by Ned Calmer, and then by Everett Holles. After the war, WCBW (which changed its call letters to WCBS-TV in 1946) introduced expanded news programs on its schedule – first anchored by Milo Boulton, and later by Douglas Edwards. On May 3, 1948, Edwards began anchoring CBS Television News, a regular 15-minute nightly newscast on the rudimentary CBS television network, including WCBS-TV. Airing every weeknight at 7:30 p.m., it was the first regularly scheduled, network television news program featuring an anchor (the nightly Lowell Thomas NBC radio network newscast was simulcast on television locally on NBC's WNBT (now WNBC) for a time in the early 1940s and Hubbell, Calmer, Holles and Boulton on WCBW in the early and mid-1940s, but these were local television broadcasts seen only in the New York City market).\n\nThe NBC television network's offering at the time NBC Television Newsreel (premiering in February 1948) was simply film footage with voice narration to provide illustration of the stories.\n\nIn 1949, CBS offered the first live television coverage of the proceedings of the United Nations General Assembly. This journalistic tour-de-force was under the direction of Edmund A. Chester, who was appointed to the post of Director for News, Special Events and Sports at CBS Television in 1948.\n\nIn 1950, the nightly newscast was retitled Douglas Edwards with the News, and the following year, it became the first news program to be broadcast on both coasts, thanks to a new coaxial cable connection, prompting Edwards to use the greeting, \"Good evening everyone, coast to coast\" to begin each edition. The broadcast was renamed the CBS Evening News when Walter Cronkite replaced Edwards in 1962. Edwards remained with CBS News as anchor/reporter for various daytime television and radio news broadcasts until his retirement on April 1, 1988.\n\nColor technology (1953–1967)\n\nAlthough CBS Television was the first with a working color television system, the network lost out to RCA in 1953, due in part because the CBS color system was incompatible with existing black-and-white sets. Although RCA – then-parent company of NBC – made its color system available to CBS, the network was not interested in boosting RCA's profits and televised only a few specials in color for the rest of the decade.\n\nThe specials included the Ford Star Jubilee programs (which included the first telecast ever of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM)'s 1939 film classic The Wizard of Oz) as well as the 1957 telecast of Rodgers and Hammerstein's Cinderella; Cole Porter's musical version of Aladdin; and Playhouse 90s only color broadcast, the 1958 production of The Nutcracker, featuring choreography by George Balanchine. The Nutcracker telecast was based on the famous production staged annually since 1954 in New York, and performed by the New York City Ballet. CBS would later show two other versions of the ballet, a semi-forgotten one-hour German-American version hosted by Eddie Albert, shown annually for three years beginning in 1965, and the well-loved Mikhail Baryshnikov production from 1977 to 1981 (this production later moved to PBS).\n\nBeginning in 1959, The Wizard of Oz, now telecast by CBS as a family special in its own right (after the cancellation of Ford Star Jubilee), became an annual tradition on color television. However, it was the success of NBC's 1955 telecast of the musical Peter Pan, starring Mary Martin, the most watched television special of its time, that inspired CBS to telecast The Wizard of Oz, Cinderella and Aladdin.\n\nFrom 1960 to 1965, the CBS television network limited its color broadcasts to only a few special presentations such as The Wizard of Oz, and only then if the sponsor would pay for it. Red Skelton was the first CBS host to telecast his weekly programs in color, using a converted movie studio, in the early 1960s; he tried unsuccessfully to persuade the network to use his facility for other programs, and was then forced to sell it. Color was being pushed hard by rival NBC; even ABC had several color programs, beginning in the fall of 1962; however, those were limited because of financial and technical issues that the network was going through at the time. One particularly notable television special aired by CBS during this era was the Charles Collingwood-hosted tour of the White House with First Lady Jackie Kennedy, which was broadcast in black-and-white.\n\nBeginning in 1963, at least one CBS show, The Lucy Show, began filming in color at the insistence of its star and producer Lucille Ball; she realized that color episodes would command more money when they were eventually sold into syndication, but even it was broadcast in black and white through the end of the 1964–65 season. This would all change by the mid-1960s, when market pressure forced CBS Television to begin adding color programs to its regular schedule for the 1965–66 season and complete the transition to the format during the 1966–67 season. By the fall of 1967, nearly all of CBS's television programs were in color, as was the case with those aired by NBC and ABC. A notable exception was The Twentieth Century, which consisted mostly of newsreel archival footage, though even this program used at least some color footage by the late 1960s.\n\nIn 1965, CBS telecast a new color version of Rodgers and Hammerstein's Cinderella. This version, starring Lesley Ann Warren and Stuart Damon in the roles formerly played by Julie Andrews and Jon Cypher, was shot on videotape rather than being telecast live, and would become an annual tradition on the network for the next nine years.\n\nIn 1967, NBC outbid CBS for the rights to the annual telecast of The Wizard of Oz, with the film moving to NBC beginning the following year. However, the network quickly realized their mistake in allowing what was then one of its prime ratings winners to be acquired by another network, and by 1976, CBS reacquired the television rights to the film, with the network continuing to broadcast it through the end of 1997. CBS aired The Wizard of Oz twice in 1991, in March and again the night before Thanksgiving. Thereafter, it was broadcast on the night before Thanksgiving.\n\nBy the end of the 1960s, CBS was broadcasting virtually its entire programming lineup in color.\n\nConglomerate\n\nPrior to the 1960s, CBS's acquisitions had been related mainly to its broadcasting business; these had included the purchases of American Record Corporation and Hytron. During the 1950s and early 1960s, CBS operated a CBS-Columbia division, manufacturing phonographs, radios and television sets; however, the company had problems with product quality, which partly hindered any possibility of success in that field. In 1955, CBS purchased animation studio Terrytoons Inc. from its founder Paul Terry, not only acquiring Terry's backlog of cartoons for the network but continuing the studio's ongoing contract to provide theatrical cartoons for 20th Century Fox well into the 1960s.\n\nDuring the 1960s, CBS began an effort to diversify its portfolio, and looked for suitable investments. In 1965, it acquired electric guitar maker Fender from Leo Fender, who agreed to sell his company due to health problems. The purchase also included that of Rhodes electric pianos, which had already been acquired by Fender. This and other acquisitions led to a restructuring of the corporation into various operating groups and divisions; the quality of the products manufactured by these acquired companies fell dramatically, resulting in the terms \"pre-CBS\" to refer to products of higher, sought after quality and \"CBS\" for products of mass-produced lower quality.\n\nIn other diversification attempts, CBS would buy (and later sell) a varied number of other properties including sports teams (especially the New York Yankees baseball club), book and magazine publishers (Fawcett Publications including Woman's Day, and Holt, Rinehart and Winston), map-makers and toy manufacturers (Gabriel Toys, Child Guidance, Wonder Products, Gym Dandy and Ideal). CBS developed an early home video system called EVR (Electronic Video Recording), but was never able to launch it successfully.\n\nAs William Paley aged, he tried to find the one person who could follow in his footsteps. However, numerous successors-in-waiting came and went. By the mid-1980s, investor Laurence Tisch had begun to acquire substantial holdings in CBS. Eventually he gained Paley's confidence, and with his support, took control of CBS in 1986. Tisch's primary interest was turning profits. When CBS faltered, underperforming units were given the axe. Among the first properties to be jettisoned was the Columbia Records group, which had been part of the company since 1938. In 1986, Tisch also shut down the CBS Technology Center in Stamford, which had started in New York City in the 1930s as CBS Laboratories and evolved to be the company's technology research and development unit.\n\nColumbia Records\n\nColumbia Records was a record label acquired by CBS in 1938. In 1962, CBS launched CBS Records International to market Columbia recordings outside of North America, where the Columbia name was controlled by other entities. In 1966, CBS Records was made a separate subsidiary of Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc. CBS sold the CBS Records Group to Sony on November 17, 1987, initiating the Japanese buying spree of U.S. companies (such as MCA, Pebble Beach Co., Rockefeller Center and the Empire State Building) that continued into the 1990s. The record label company was rechristened Sony Music Entertainment in 1991, as Sony had a short term license on the CBS name.\n\nSony purchased from EMI its rights to the Columbia Records name outside the U.S., Canada, Spain and Japan. Sony now uses Columbia Records as a label name in all countries except Japan, where Sony Records remains their flagship label. Sony acquired the Spanish rights when Sony Music merged with Bertelsmann subsidiary BMG in 2004 as Sony BMG, co-owned by Sony and Bertelsmann; Sony bought out BMG's share in 2008. CBS Corporation formed a new record label named CBS Records in 2006.\n\nPublishing\n\nCBS entered the publishing business in 1967 by acquiring Holt, Rinehart & Winston, a publisher of trade books and textbooks as well as the magazine Field & Stream. The following year, CBS acquired the medical publishing company Saunders and merged it into Holt, Rinehart & Winston. In 1971, CBS acquired Bond/Parkhurst, the publisher of Road & Track and Cycle World. CBS greatly expanded its magazine business by purchasing Fawcett Publications in 1974, bringing in such magazines as Woman's Day. In 1984, it acquired the majority of the publications owned by Ziff Davis.\n\nCBS sold its book publishing businesses in 1985. The educational publishing division, which retained the Holt, Rinehart & Winston name, was sold to Harcourt Brace Jovanovich; the trade book division, renamed Henry Holt and Company, was sold to the West German publisher Holtzbrinck. CBS exited the magazine business through the sale of the unit to its executive Peter Diamandis, who later sold the magazines to Hachette Filipacchi Médias in 1988, forming Hachette Filipacchi Media U.S.\n\nCBS Musical Instruments division\n\nForming the CBS Musical Instruments division, the company also acquired Fender (1965–1983), Electro-Music Inc. (Leslie speakers) (1965–1980), Rogers Drums (1966–1983), Steinway pianos (1972–), Gemeinhardt flutes, Lyon & Healy harps (in the late 1970s), Rodgers (institutional) organs, and Gulbransen home organs. The company's last musical instrument manufacturer purchase was its 1981 acquisition of the assets of then-bankrupt ARP Instruments, a developer of electronic synthesizers.\n\nBetween 1965 and 1985, the quality of Fender guitars and amplifiers declined significantly. Encouraged by outraged Fender fans, CBS Musical Instruments division executives executed a leveraged buyout in 1985 and created Fender Musical Instruments Corporation. At the same time, CBS divested itself of Rodgers, along with Steinway and Gemeinhardt, all of which were purchased by Steinway Musical Properties. The other musical instrument manufacturing properties were also liquidated.\n\nFilm production\n\nCBS made a brief, unsuccessful move into film production in the late 1960s, through the creation of Cinema Center Films. This profit-free unit was shut down in 1972; the distribution rights to the Cinema Center library today rest with Paramount Pictures for home video (via CBS Home Entertainment) and theatrical release, and with CBS Television Distribution for television syndication (most other ancillary rights remain with CBS). The studio released such films as the 1969 Steve McQueen drama The Reivers and the 1970 Albert Finney musical Scrooge.\n\nTen years after Cinema Center ceased operations, in 1982, CBS made another attempt at a venture in the film industry, in a joint venture with Columbia Pictures and HBO called TriStar Pictures. Despite releasing such box office successes as The Natural, Places in the Heart and Rambo: First Blood Part II, CBS felt the studio was not making a profit and in 1985, sold its stake in TriStar to Columbia Pictures' then-corporate parent The Coca-Cola Company. \n\nIn 2007, CBS Corporation announced its intent to get back into the feature film business, slowly launching CBS Films and hiring key executives in the spring of 2008 to start up the new venture. The CBS Films name was actually used previously in 1953, when it was briefly used for CBS's distributor of off-network and first-run syndicated programming to local television stations in the United States and internationally.\n\nHome video\n\nCBS entered into the home video market, when it partnered with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer to form MGM/CBS Home Video in 1978; the joint venture was dissolved by 1982. CBS later partnered with another studio, 20th Century Fox, to form CBS/Fox Video. CBS's duty was to release some of the film title released by TriStar Pictures under the CBS/Fox Video label.\n\nGabriel Toys\n\nCBS entered the video game market briefly, through its acquisition of Gabriel Toys (renamed CBS Toys), publishing several arcade adaptations and original titles under the name \"CBS Electronics\", for the Atari 2600, and other consoles and computers; it also produced one of the first karaoke recording/players. CBS Electronics also distributed all Coleco-related video game products in Canada, including the ColecoVision. CBS later sold Gabriel Toys to View-Master, which eventually ended up as part of Mattel.\n\nNew owners\n\nBy the early 1990s, profits had fallen as a result of competition from cable television and video rentals, and in consequence of the high cost of programming. About 20 former CBS affiliates switched to the rapidly rising Fox network in the mid-1990s, while many television markets across the United States (KDFX in Palm Springs, California and KECY in Yuma, Arizona were reportedly the first to switch in August 1994) lost their CBS affiliate for a while. The network's ratings were acceptable, but it struggled with an image of stodginess. Laurence Tisch lost interest and sought a new buyer.\n\nWestinghouse Electric Corporation\n\nIn the mid-1990s, CBS formed an affiliate relationship with Westinghouse Electric Corporation as a partial result of losing many longtime affiliates owned by New World Communications through an affiliation agreement with Fox that New World signed in May 1994. The New World deal resulted in CBS affiliating with UHF stations in Detroit and Cleveland – former Fox affiliate WOIO and low-rated ethnic independent WGPR-TV (now WWJ-TV), the latter of which was purchased by the network – after a failed attempt to woo the respective longtime ABC affiliates in those markets, WXYZ-TV and WEWS-TV (the latter of which had previously been a CBS affiliate from 1947 to 1955) to respectively replace departing affiliates WJBK and WJW-TV, a situation that the E. W. Scripps Company actually used as leverage to sign a group-wide affiliation deal with ABC that kept the network on WXYZ and WEWS. \n\nIncluded in the Scripps deal was Baltimore NBC affiliate WMAR-TV (which had been affiliated with CBS from 1948 to 1981), displacing longtime ABC affiliate WJZ-TV, despite the fact that Westinghouse-owned WJZ-TV had long been the Baltimore market's dominant station while WMAR-TV had long been in a distant third and even nearly lost its license in 1991. This did not sit well with Westinghouse, who even before the New World deal was already seeking a group-wide affiliation deal of its own, but accelerated the process after the Scripps-ABC agreement. \n\nIn 1994, Westinghouse signed a long-term deal to affiliate all five of its television stations with CBS. Of the other four stations, two of the stations (KPIX in San Francisco and KDKA-TV in Pittsburgh) were already longtime affiliates of the network, while two others (KYW-TV in Philadelphia and WBZ-TV in Boston) were longtime affiliates of NBC. The network decided to sell off existing O&O in Philadelphia, WCAU, which would eventually be purchased by NBC, despite at the time being much higher rated locally than KYW-TV. While WJZ-TV and WBZ-TV switched to CBS in January 1995, the swap was delayed in Philadelphia when CBS discovered that an outright sale of channel 10 would have forced it to pay massive taxes on the proceeds from the deal. To solve this problem, CBS, NBC and Group W entered into a complex ownership/affiliation deal in the summer of 1995. NBC traded KCNC-TV in Denver and KUTV in Salt Lake City to CBS in return for WCAU, which for legal reasons would be an even trade. CBS then traded controlling interest in KCNC and KUTV to Group W in return for a minority stake in KYW-TV. As compensation for the loss of stations, NBC and CBS traded transmitter facilities in Miami, with NBC-owned WTVJ moving to channel 6 and CBS-owned WCIX moving to channel 4 as WFOR-TV. \n\nOn August 1, 1995, Westinghouse Electric Company acquired CBS outright for $5.4 billion. As one of the major broadcasting group owners of commercial radio and television stations (as Group W) since 1920, Westinghouse sought to transition from a station operator into a major media company with its purchase of CBS. Except for KUTV (which CBS sold to Four Points Media Group in 2007, and is now owned by the Sinclair Broadcast Group), all of the stations involved in the initial Westinghouse deal as well as WWJ-TV remain owned-and-operated stations of the network to this day.\n\nWestinghouse's acquisition of CBS had the effect of suddenly turning the combined company's all-news radio stations in New York City (WCBS and WINS) and Los Angeles (KNX and KFWB) from bitter rivals to sister stations. While KFWB switched from all-news to news/talk in 2009, WINS and WCBS remain all-news stations, with WINS (which pioneered the all-news format in 1965) concentrating its news coverage on the five core New York City boroughs and WCBS, with its much more powerful signal, covering the surrounding tri-state metropolitan area. In Chicago, the situation started out with Westinghouse's WMAQ beginning to feature long-form stories and discussions about the news, along with a business news focus to differentiate from WBBM until 2000, when an FCC ownership situation had CBS Radio deciding to move its all sports WSCR to WMAQ's signal to sell off the former WSCR facility.\n\nIn 1997, Westinghouse acquired the Infinity Broadcasting Corporation, owner of more than 150 radio stations, for $4.9 billion. Also that year, Westinghouse created CBS Cable, a division formed through the acquisition of two existing cable channels from the Gaylord Entertainment Company (The Nashville Network (now Spike) and Country Music Television) and starting a new one (CBS Eye on People, which was later sold to Discovery Communications). CBS also owned the Spanish-language news network CBS Telenoticias.\n\nFollowing the Infinity purchase, operation and sales responsibilities for the CBS Radio Network was handed to Infinity, which turned management over to Westwood One, a major radio program syndicator that Infinity managed which had previously purchased the Mutual Broadcasting System, NBC's radio networks and the rights to use the \"NBC Radio Networks\" name. For a time, CBS Radio, NBC Radio Networks and CNN's radio news services were all under the Westwood One umbrella. , Westwood One continues to distribute CBS radio programming, but as a self-managed company that put itself up for sale and found a buyer for a significant amount of its stock.\n\nAlso in 1997, Westinghouse changed its name to CBS Corporation, and corporate headquarters were moved from Pittsburgh to New York City. To underline the change in emphasis, all non-entertainment assets were put up for sale. Another 90 radio stations were added to Infinity's portfolio in 1998 with the acquisition of American Radio Systems Corporation for $2.6 billion.\n\nIn 1999, CBS paid $2.5 billion to acquire King World Productions, a television syndication company whose programs included The Oprah Winfrey Show, Jeopardy! and Wheel of Fortune. By the end of 1999, all pre-CBS elements of Westinghouse's industrial past (beyond retaining rights to the name for brand licensing purposes) were gone.\n\nViacom\n\nBy the 1990s, CBS had become a broadcasting giant; however, in 1999, entertainment conglomerate Viacom – a company that ironically was created by CBS in 1952 as CBS Films, Inc. to syndicate old CBS series and was spun off under the Viacom name in 1971 – announced it was taking over its former parent in a deal valued at $37 billion. Following completion of this effort in 2000, Viacom became the second-largest entertainment company in the world. Coincidentally, Viacom had purchased Paramount Pictures, which had once invested in CBS, in 1994.\n\nCBS Corporation and CBS Studios\n\nHaving assembled all the elements of a communications empire, Viacom found that the promised synergy was not there; in 2005, Viacom announced that it would split the company into two separately operated but commonly controlled entities. CBS became the center of a new company, CBS Corporation. The legal successor to the old Viacom, the company's properties included the broadcasting entities (CBS and UPN, the latter of which later merged with Time Warner-owned The WB to form The CW; the Viacom Television Stations Group, which became CBS Television Stations; and CBS Radio); Paramount Television's production operations (now known as CBS Television Studios); Viacom Outdoor advertising (renamed CBS Outdoor); Showtime Networks; Simon & Schuster; and Paramount Parks, which the company sold in May 2006. The other company, which retained the Viacom name, kept Paramount Pictures, assorted MTV Networks, BET Networks, and Famous Music (the latter of which was sold to Sony/ATV Music Publishing in May 2007).\n\nAs a result of the Viacom/CBS corporate split, as well as other acquisitions over recent years, CBS (under the moniker CBS Studios) owns a massive film and television library spanning nine decades; these include not acquired material from Viacom and CBS in-house productions and network programs, as well as programs originally aired on competing networks. Shows and other material in this library include among others, I Love Lucy, The Honeymooners, The Twilight Zone, Hawaii Five-O (both the original and current remake), Gunsmoke, The Fugitive, The Love Boat, Little House on the Prairie (U.S. television rights only), Cheers, Becker, Family Ties, Happy Days and its spin-offs, The Brady Bunch, Star Trek, The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles (distribution rights on behalf of copyright holder Lucasfilm), Evening Shade, Duckman, CSI: Crime Scene Investigation and its spin-offs, the CBS theatrical library (including My Fair Lady and Scrooge), and the entire Terrytoons library from 1921 forward.\n\nBoth CBS Corporation and the new Viacom are owned by National Amusements, the Sumner Redstone-owned company that controlled the original Viacom prior to the split. As such, Paramount Home Media Distribution (formerly Paramount Home Entertainment) continues to handle DVD and Blu-ray distribution for the CBS library.\n\nProgramming\n\n, CBS provides 87½ hours of regularly scheduled network programming each week. The network provides 22 hours of prime time programming to affiliated stations Monday through Saturdays from 8:00–11:00 p.m. Eastern and Pacific (7:00–10:00 p.m. in all other time zones) and Sundays from 7:00–11:00 p.m. (6:00–10:00 p.m. elsewhere).\n\nDaytime programming is also provided from 10:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m. weekdays (with a half-hour break at 12:00 p.m. Eastern/Pacific for CBS stations to air local newscasts or syndicated programs; usage of the 10:00 a.m. and 2:00 p.m. hours for network programming vary depending on the affiliate and on time zone) featuring the game shows The Price Is Right and Let's Make a Deal, soap operas The Young and the Restless and The Bold and the Beautiful, and talk show The Talk. CBS News programming includes CBS This Morning from 7:00 to 9:00 a.m. weekdays and Saturdays; nightly editions of CBS Evening News (whose weekend editions are occasionally subject to abbreviation or preemption due to sports telecasts overrunning into the program's timeslot), the Sunday political talk show Face the Nation, early morning news programs Up to the Minute and CBS Morning News and the newsmagazines 60 Minutes, CBS News Sunday Morning and 48 Hours. Late nights feature the weeknight talk shows The Late Show with Stephen Colbert and The Late Late Show with James Corden.\n\nSports programming is also provided weekend afternoons at any time between 12:00 and 7:00 p.m. (9:00 a.m.-4:00 p.m. Pacific Time). Due to the unpredictable length of sporting events, CBS will occasionally delay scheduled primetime programs to allow the programs to air in their entirety (this is particularly prevalent on Sunday evenings during the NFL season, on weeks when CBS is scheduled to broadcast a late afternoon game). In addition to rights to sports events from the NFL, PGA and NCAA among other major sports organizations, CBS broadcasts the CBS Sports Spectacular, a sports anthology series which fills certain weekend afternoon time slots prior to – or in some cases, in lieu of – a major sporting event.\n\nDaytime\n\nCBS's daytime schedule (the longest among the major networks, in terms of total time, at 4½ hours) is the home of the long-running game show The Price Is Right, which began production in 1972 and is the longest continuously running daytime game show on network television. After being hosted by Bob Barker for 35 years, the show has been hosted since 2007 by actor/comedian Drew Carey. The network is also home to the current incarnation of Let's Make a Deal, hosted by singer/comedian Wayne Brady, which originated in 1964 on NBC and was revived by CBS in 2009 (after a 19-year absence as a regular series). , CBS is the only commercial broadcast network that continues to broadcast daytime game shows. Notable game shows that once aired as part of the network's daytime lineup include Match Game, Tattletales, The $10/25,000 Pyramid, Press Your Luck, Card Sharks, Family Feud and Wheel of Fortune. Past game shows that have had both daytime and prime time runs on the network include Beat the Clock, To Tell the Truth and Password. Two long-running prime time-only games were the panel shows What's My Line? and I've Got a Secret.\n\nThe network is also home to The Talk, a panel talk show similar in format to ABC's The View, which debuted in October 2010 (, the program is hosted by moderator Julie Chen, series creator/executive producer Sara Gilbert, Sharon Osbourne, Aisha Tyler and Sheryl Underwood).\n\n, CBS Daytime airs two daytime soap operas each weekday: the hour-long series The Young and the Restless and half-hour series The Bold and the Beautiful. CBS has aired the most soap operas out of the Big Three networks, carrying 3½ hours of soaps on its daytime lineup from 1982 to 2009. After Guiding Light ended in September 2009, ABC overtook CBS as the network with the most daily hours dedicated to soap operas; however, CBS reclaimed this distinction in January 2012, following the conclusion of two of ABC's three remaining soap operas, All My Children and One Life to Live, which were cancelled the year before. Other than Guiding Light, notable daytime soap operas that once aired on CBS include As the World Turns, Love of Life, Search for Tomorrow, The Secret Storm, The Edge of Night and Capitol.\n\nChildren's programming\n\nCBS broadcast the live-action series Captain Kangaroo on weekday mornings from 1955 to 1982, and on Saturdays through 1984. From 1971 to 1986, CBS News produced a series of one-minute segments titled In the News, which aired between other Saturday morning programs. Otherwise, in regards to children's programming, CBS has aired mostly animated series for children, such as reruns of Mighty Mouse, Bugs Bunny and Tom and Jerry cartoons, as well as the original version of Scooby-Doo, Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids, Jim Henson's Muppet Babies, Garfield and Friends, and the 1987 Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles. In 1997, CBS premiered Wheel 2000 (a children's version of the syndicated game show Wheel of Fortune), which aired simultaneously on the Game Show Network.\n\nIn September 1998, CBS began contracting the time period out to other companies to provide programming and material for its Saturday morning schedule. The first of these outsourced blocks was the CBS Kidshow, which ran until 2000 and featured programming from Canadian studio Nelvana (such as Anatole, Mythic Warriors, Rescue Heroes and Flying Rhino Junior High). \n\nAfter its agreement with Nelvana ended, the network then entered into a deal with Nickelodeon (which by the time of the deal was a corporate sister to CBS, through the latter's then parent company Viacom, as a result of its 2000 merger with CBS Corporation) to air programming from its Nick Jr. block beginning in September 2000, under the banner Nick Jr. on CBS. From 2002 to 2005, live-action and animated Nickelodeon series aimed at older children also aired as part of the block, under the sub-brand Nick on CBS.\n\nFollowing the Viacom-CBS split that resulted in the network deciding to discontinue the Nickelodeon content deal, in March 2006, CBS entered into a three-year agreement with DIC Entertainment (which was acquired later that year by the Cookie Jar Group, which assumed the rights to the deal) to program the Saturday morning time slot, as part of a deal which included distribution of select tape delayed Formula One auto races. The KOL Secret Slumber Party on CBS replaced Nick Jr. on CBS that September, with the inaugural lineup featuring two new first-run live-action programs, one animated series that originally aired in syndication in 2005 and three shows produced prior to 2006. In mid-2007, KOL (the children's service of AOL) withdrew sponsorship from CBS's Saturday morning block, which was subsequently renamed KEWLopolis. Complimenting CBS's 2007 lineup was Care Bears, Strawberry Shortcake and Sushi Pack. On February 24, 2009, it was announced that CBS renewed its contract with Cookie Jar for another three seasons, running through 2012. On September 19, 2009, KEWLopolis was renamed Cookie Jar TV. \n\nOn July 24, 2013, CBS entered into an agreement with Litton Entertainment (which already programmed a syndicated Saturday morning block exclusive to ABC stations and would later produce a block for CBS sister network The CW that debuted the following year) to launch a new Saturday morning block featuring live-action reality-based lifestyle, wildlife and sports series. The Litton-produced \"CBS Dream Team\" block, which is aimed at teenagers 13 to 16 years old, debuted on September 28, 2013, replacing Cookie Jar TV. \n\nSpecials\n\nAnimated primetime holiday specials\n\nCBS was the original broadcast network home of the animated primetime holiday specials based on the Peanuts comic strip, beginning with A Charlie Brown Christmas in 1965. Over 30 holiday Peanuts specials (each for a specific holiday such as Halloween) were broadcast on CBS from that time until 2000, when the broadcast rights were acquired by ABC. CBS also aired several primetime animated specials based on the works of Dr. Seuss (Theodor Geisel), beginning with How the Grinch Stole Christmas in 1966, as well as several specials based on the Garfield comic strip during the 1980s (which led to Garfield getting his own Saturday morning cartoon on the network, Garfield and Friends, which ran from 1988 to 1995). Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer, produced in stop motion by the Rankin/Bass studio, has been another annual holiday staple of CBS since 1972; however, that special originated on NBC in 1964. As of 2011, Rudolph and Frosty the Snowman are the only two pre-1990 animated specials remaining on CBS; the broadcast rights to the Charlie Brown specials and The Grinch are now held by ABC, while that network's cable sister ABC Family owns the rights to the Garfield specials.\n\nAll of these animated specials, from 1973 to 1990, began with a fondly remembered seven-second animated opening sequence, in which the words \"A CBS Special Presentation\" were displayed in colorful lettering (the ITC Avant Garde typeface, widely used in the 1970s, was used for the title logo). The word \"SPECIAL\", in all caps and repeated multiple times in multiple colors, slowly zoomed out from the frame in a spinning counterclockwise motion against a black background, and rapidly zoomed back into frame as a single word, in white, at the end; the sequence was accompanied by a jazzy though majestic up-tempo fanfare with dramatic horns and percussion (which was edited incidental music from the CBS crime drama Hawaii Five-O, titled \"Call to Danger\" on the Capitol Records soundtrack LP). This opening sequence appeared immediately before all CBS specials of the period (such as the Miss USA pageants and the annual presentation of the Kennedy Center Honors), in addition to animated specials (this opening was presumably designed by, or under the supervision of, longtime CBS creative director Lou Dorfsman, who oversaw print and on-air graphics for CBS for nearly 30 years, replacing William Golden, who died in 1959).\n\nClassical music specials\n\nCBS was also responsible for airing the series of Young People's Concerts conducted by Leonard Bernstein. Telecast every few months between 1958 and 1972, first in black-and-white and then broadcast in color beginning in 1966, these programs introduced millions of children to classical music through the eloquent commentaries by Maestro Bernstein. The specials were nominated for several Emmy Awards, and were among the first programs ever broadcast from Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts.\n\nOver the years, CBS has broadcast three different productions of Tchaikovsky's famous ballet The Nutcracker – two live telecasts of the George Balanchine New York City Ballet production in 1957 and 1958 respectively, a little-known German-American filmed production in 1965 (which was subsequently repeated three times and starred Edward Villella, Patricia McBride and Melissa Hayden), and beginning in 1977, the Mikhail Baryshnikov staging of the ballet, starring the Russian dancer along with Gelsey Kirkland – a version that would become a television classic, and remains so today (the broadcast of this production later moved to PBS).\n\nIn April 1986, CBS presented a slightly abbreviated version of Horowitz in Moscow, a live piano recital by legendary pianist Vladimir Horowitz, which marked Horowitz's return to Russia after more than 60 years. The recital was televised as an episode of CBS News Sunday Morning (televised at 9:00 a.m. Eastern Time in the U.S., as the recital was performed simultaneously at 4:00 p.m. in Russia). It was so successful that CBS repeated it a mere two months later by popular demand, this time on videotape, rather than live. In later years, the program was shown as a standalone special on PBS; the current DVD of the telecast omits the commentary by Charles Kuralt, but includes additional selections not heard on the CBS telecast.\n\nIn 1986, CBS telecast Carnegie Hall: The Grand Reopening in primetime, in what was now a rare move for a commercial broadcast network, since most primetime classical music specials were relegated to PBS and A&E by this time. The program was a concert commemorating the re-opening of Carnegie Hall after its complete renovation. It featured, along with luminaries such as Leonard Bernstein, popular music artists such as Frank Sinatra.\n\nCinderella\n\nIn order to compete with NBC, which produced the now-legendary televised version of the Mary Martin Broadway production of Peter Pan, CBS responded with a musical production of Cinderella, with music composed by Richard Rodgers and a book and lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II. Based upon the classic French fairy tale of the same title, it is the only Rodgers and Hammerstein musical ever to have been written for television. It was originally broadcast live in color on CBS on March 31, 1957 as a vehicle for Julie Andrews, who played the title role; that broadcast was seen by over 100 million people. It was subsequently remade by CBS in 1965, with Lesley Ann Warren, Stuart Damon, Ginger Rogers and Walter Pidgeon among its stars; the remake also included a new song, \"Loneliness of Evening\", which was originally composed in 1949 for South Pacific, but was not performed in that musical. This version was rebroadcast several times on CBS into the early 1970s, and is occasionally broadcast on various cable networks to this day; both versions are available on DVD.\n\nNational Geographic\n\nCBS was also the original broadcast home for the primetime specials produced by the National Geographic Society. The Geographic series in the U.S. started on CBS in 1964, before moving to ABC in 1973 (the specials subsequently moved to PBS – under the production of Pittsburgh member station WQED – in 1975 and NBC in 1995, before returning to PBS in 2000). The specials have featured stories on many scientific figures such as Louis Leakey, Jacques Cousteau and Jane Goodall, that not only featured their work but helped make them internationally known and accessible to millions. A majority of the specials were narrated by various actors, notably Alexander Scourby during the CBS run. The success of the specials led in part to the creation of the National Geographic Channel, a cable channel launched in January 2001 as a joint venture between the National Geographic Society and Fox Cable Networks. The specials' distinctive theme music, by Elmer Bernstein, was also adopted by the National Geographic Channel.\n\nOther notable specials\n\nFrom 1949 to 2002, the Pillsbury Bake-Off, an annual national cooking contest, was broadcast on CBS as a special. Hosts for the broadcast included Arthur Godfrey, Art Linkletter, Bob Barker, Gary Collins, Willard Scott (although under contract with CBS' rival NBC) and Alex Trebek.\n\nThe Miss USA beauty pageant aired on CBS from 1963 to 2002; during a large portion of that period, the telecast was often emceed by the host of one of the network's game shows. John Charles Daly hosted the show from 1963 to 1966, succeeded by Bob Barker from 1967 to 1987 (at which point Barker, an animal rights activist who eventually convinced producers of The Price Is Right to cease offering fur coats as prizes on the program, quit in a dispute over their use), Alan Thicke in 1988, Dick Clark from 1989 to 1993, and Bob Goen from 1994 to 1996. The pageant's highest viewership was recorded in the early 1980s, when it regularly topped the Nielsen ratings on the week of its broadcast. Viewership dropped sharply throughout the 1990s and 2000s, from an estimated viewership of 20 million to an average of 7 million from 2000 to 2001. In 2002, Donald Trump (owner of the Miss USA pageant's governing body, the Miss Universe Organization) brokered a new deal with NBC, giving it half-ownership of the Miss USA, Miss Universe and Miss Teen USA pageants and moving them to that network as part of an initial five-year contract, which began in 2003 and ended in 2015 after 12 years amid Trump's controversial remarks about Mexican immigrants during the launch of his 2016 campaign for the Republican Presidential nomination. \n\nOn June 1, 1977, it was announced that Elvis Presley had signed a deal with CBS to appear in a new television special. Under the agreement, CBS would videotape Presley's concerts during the summer of 1977; the special was filmed during Presley's final tour at stops in Omaha, Nebraska (on June 19) and Rapid City, South Dakota (on June 21 of that year). CBS aired the special, Elvis in Concert, on October 3, 1977, nearly two months after Presley's death in his Graceland mansion on August 16.\n\nStations\n\n, CBS has 16 owned-and-operated stations, and current and pending affiliation agreements with 222 additional television stations encompassing 49 states, the District of Columbia, two U.S. possessions, Bermuda and St. Vincent and the Grenadines. The network has a national reach of 96.37% of all households in the United States (or 301,123,135 Americans with at least one television set). Currently, New Jersey, New Hampshire and Delaware are the only U.S. states where CBS does not have a locally licensed affiliate (New Jersey is served by New York City O&O WCBS-TV and Philadelphia O&O KYW-TV; Delaware is served by KYW and Salisbury, Maryland affiliate WBOC-TV; and New Hampshire is served by Boston O&O WBZ-TV and Burlington, Vermont affiliate WCAX-TV).\n\nAs a newer broadcast network, CBS maintains affiliations with low-power stations (broadcasting either in analog or digital) in a few markets, such as Harrisonburg, Virginia (WSVF-CD), Palm Springs, California (KPSP-CD) and Parkersburg, West Virginia (WIYE-LD). In some markets, including both of those mentioned, these stations also maintain digital simulcasts on a subchannel of a co-owned/co-managed full-power television station. CBS also maintains a sizeable number of subchannel-only affiliations, the majority of which are with stations in cities located outside of the 50 largest Nielsen-designated markets; the largest CBS subchannel affiliate by market size is KOGG in Wailuku, Hawaii, which serves as a repeater of Honolulu affiliate KGMB (the sister station of KOGG parent KHNL).\n\nMedia General is the largest operator of CBS stations by numerical total, owning 26 CBS affiliates; Tegna Media is the largest operator of CBS stations in terms of overall market reach, owning 11 CBS-affiliated stations (including affiliates in the larger markets in Houston, Tampa and Washington, D.C.).\n\nRelated services\n\nVideo-on-demand services\n\nCBS provides video on demand access for delayed viewing of the network's programming through various means, including via its website at CBS.com; the network's apps for iOS, Android and newer version Windows devices; a traditional VOD service called CBS on Demand available on most traditional cable and IPTV providers; and through content deals with Amazon Video (which holds exclusive streaming rights to two CBS drama series, Extant and Under the Dome) and Netflix. Notably, however, CBS is the only major broadcast network that does not provide recent episodes of its programming on Hulu (sister network The CW does offer its programming on the streaming service, albeit on a one-week delay after becoming available on the network's website on Hulu's free service, with users of its subscription service being granted access to newer episodes of CW series eight hours after their initial broadcast), due to concerns over cannibalizing viewership of some of the network's most prominent programs; however, episode back catalogs of certain past and present CBS series are available on the service through an agreement with CBS Television Distribution. \n\nUpon the release of the app in March 2013, CBS restricted streaming of the most recent episode of any of the network's program on its streaming app for Apple iOS devices until eight days after their initial broadcast, in order to encourage live or same-week (via both DVR and cable on demand) viewing; programming selections on the app were limited until the release of its Google Play and Windows 8 apps in October 2013, expanded the selections to include full episodes of all CBS series to which the network does not license the streaming rights to other services. \n\nCBS All Access\n\nOn October 28, 2014, CBS launched CBS All Access, an over-the-top subscription streaming service – available for $5.99 per month – that allows users to view past and present episodes of CBS shows. Announced on October 16, 2014 (one day after HBO announced the launch of its over-the-top service HBO Now) as the first OTT offering by an USA broadcast television network, the service initially encompassed the network's existing streaming portal at CBS.com and its mobile app for smartphones and tablet computers; CBS All Access became available on Roku on April 7, 2015, and on Chromecast on May 14, 2015. In addition to providing full-length episodes of CBS programs, the service allows live programming streams of local CBS affiliates in 124 markets reaching 75% of the United States (including stations owned by Tribune Broadcasting, Sinclair Broadcast Group, Hearst Television, Tegna Media, Nexstar Broadcasting Group, Media General, Meredith Corporation, Griffin Communications, Raycom Media, Capitol Broadcasting Company and Cox Media Group); however due to the absence of streaming rights, certain sports events (such as NFL game telecasts) are not streamed on the service. Owned-and-operated stations of the network owned by CBS Television Stations were the first stations to offer streams of their programming on the service.\n\nThe most recent episodes of the network's shows are usually made available on CBS.com and CBS All Access the day after their original broadcast. In addition, CBS All Access provides complete back catalogs of most of its current series (with the exception of certain series, such as The Big Bang Theory, to which CBS does not hold streaming rights as the show is produced by Warner Bros.) as well as a wide selection of episodes of classic series from the CBS Television Distribution program library – including shows previously owned by Paramount Television prior to CBS' acquisition of its program library through the CBS-Viacom split (including the complete episode catalog of shows like Star Trek, Cheers, MacGyver, Twin Peaks and CSI: Miami) to subscribers of the service. CBS All Access also carries behind-the-scenes features from CBS programs and special events, and (beginning with the 17th season in June 2015) live feeds and special content from the reality series Big Brother.\n\nOn November 2, 2015, it was announced that the first CBS All Access original series will be a new Star Trek series in January 2017, which will be unrelated to the 2016 feature film Star Trek Beyond. \n\nOn May 18, 2016, it was announced that The Good Wife would get a spin-off series that would be released exclusively on CBS All Access in spring 2017. \n\nCBS HD\n\nCBS's master feed is transmitted in 1080i high definition, the native resolution format for CBS Corporation's television properties. However, seven of its affiliates transmit the network's programming in 720p HD, while seven others carry the network feed in 480i standard definition either due to technical considerations for affiliates of other major networks that carry CBS programming on a digital subchannel or because a primary feed CBS affiliate has not yet upgraded their transmission equipment to allow content to be presented in HD.\n\nCBS began its conversion to high definition with the launch of its simulcast feed, CBS HD, on September 1998 at the start of the 1998–99 season. That year, the network aired the first NFL game ever broadcast in high-definition, with the telecast of the New York Jets–Buffalo Bills game on November 8. The network gradually converted much of its existing programming from standard-definition to high definition beginning with the 2000–01 season, with select shows among that season's slate of freshmen scripted series being broadcast in HD from their debuts. The Young and the Restless became the first daytime soap opera to broadcast in HD on June 27, 2001. \n\nCBS' 14-year conversion to an entirely high definition schedule ended in 2014, with Big Brother and Let's Make a Deal becoming the final two network series to convert from 4:3 standard definition to HD (in contrast, NBC, Fox and The CW were already airing their entire programming schedules – outside of Saturday mornings – in high definition by the 2010–11 season, while ABC was broadcasting its entire schedule in HD by the 2011–12 midseason). All of the network's programming has been presented in full HD since then (with the exception of certain holiday specials produced prior to 2005 – such as the Rankin-Bass specials – which continue to be presented in 4:3 SD, although some have been remastered for HD broadcast).\n\nBrand identity\n\nLogos\n\nThe CBS television network's initial logo, used from the 1940s to 1951, consisted of an oval spotlight which shone on the block letters \"C-B-S\". The present-day Eye device was conceived by William Golden, based on a Pennsylvania Dutch hex sign as well as a Shaker drawing (while commonly attributed to Golden, there is speculation that at least some design work on the symbol may have been done by another CBS staff designer, Georg Olden, one of the first African-Americans to attract some attention in the postwar graphic design field). The Eye device made its broadcast debut on October 20, 1951. The following season, as Golden prepared a new \"ident\", CBS President Frank Stanton insisted on keeping the Eye device and using it as much as possible (Golden died unexpectedly in 1959, and was replaced by one of his top assistants, Lou Dorfsman, who would go on to oversee all print and on-air graphics for CBS for the next 30 years).\n\nThe CBS eye has since become an American icon. While the symbol's settings have changed, the Eye device itself has not been redesigned in its entire history. As part of a new graphical identity created by Trollbäck + Company that was introduced by the television network in 2006, the eye was placed in a \"trademark\" position on show titles, days of the week and descriptive words, an approach highly respecting the value of the design. The logo is alternately known as the Eyemark, which was also the name of CBS's domestic and international syndication divisions in the mid-to-late 1990s before the King World acquisition and Viacom merger.\n\nThe eye logo has frequently been copied or borrowed by television networks around the world. Notable examples include the Austrian Broadcasting System (ORF), which formerly used a red version of the eye logo; Associated Television (ATV) in the United Kingdom; Frecuencia Latina in Peru; Fuji Television in Japan; Rede Bandeirantes and Rede Globo in Brazil; and Saeta TV Channel 10 in Uruguay.\n\nThe network celebrated the 60th anniversary of the introduction of the Eye logo in October 2011, featuring special IDs shown during the network's prime time lineup of logo versions from previous CBS image campaigns. \n\nImage campaigns\n\n1980s\n\nThrough the years, CBS has developed several notable image campaigns, and several of the network's most well-known slogans were introduced in the 1980s. The \"Reach for the Stars\" campaign used during the 1981–82 season feature a space theme used to capitalize on both CBS's stellar improvement in the ratings and the historic launch of the space shuttle Columbia. 1982's \"Great Moments\" juxtaposed scenes from classic CBS programs such as I Love Lucy with scenes from the network's then-current classics such as Dallas and M*A*S*H. From 1983 to 1986, CBS (by now firmly atop the ratings) featured a campaign based on the slogan \"We've Got the Touch\". Vocals for the campaign's jingle were contributed by Richie Havens (1983–84; one occasion in 1984–85) and Kenny Rogers (1985–86).\n\nThe 1986–87 season ushered in the \"Share the Spirit of CBS\" campaign, the network's first to completely use computer graphics and DVE effects. Unlike most network campaign promos, the full-length version of \"Share the Spirit\" not only showed a brief clip preview of each new fall series, but also utilized CGI effects to map out the entire fall schedule by night. The success of that campaign led to the 1987–88 \"CBS Spirit\" (or \"CBSPIRIT\") campaign. Like with its predecessor campaign, most \"CBSpirit\" promos utilized a procession of clips from the network's programs. However, the new graphic motif was a swirling (or \"swishing\") blue line, that was used to represent \"the spirit.\" The full length promo, like the previous year, had a special portion that identified new fall shows, but the mapped-out fall schedule shot was abandoned.\n\nFor the 1988–89 season, CBS unveiled a new image campaign, officially known as \"Television You Can Feel\", but more commonly identified as \"You Can Feel It On CBS\". The goal was to convey a more sensual, new-age image through distinguished, advanced-looking computer graphics and soothing music, backgrounding images and clips of emotionally powerful scenes and characters. However, it was this season in which CBS began its ratings freefall, the deepest in the network's history. CBS ended the decade with \"Get Ready for CBS,\" introduced with the 1989–90 season. The initial version was a very ambitious campaign that attempted to elevate CBS out of last place (among the major networks); the motif centered around network stars interacting with each other in a remote studio set, getting ready for photo and television shoots, as well as for the new season on CBS. The high-energy promo song and the campaign's practices saw many customized variations by all of CBS' owned-and-operated stations and affiliates, which participated in the campaign per a network mandate. In addition, for the first time in history, CBS became the first broadcast network to partner with a national retailer (in this case, Kmart) to encourage viewership, with the \"CBS/Kmart Get Ready Giveaway\".\n\n1990s\n\nFor the 1990–91 season, the campaign featured a new jingle performed by The Temptations, which offered an altered version of their hit \"Get Ready\". The early 1990s featured less-than-memorable campaigns, with simplified taglines such as \"This is CBS\" (1992) and \"You're On CBS\" (1995). Eventually, the promotions department gained momentum again late in the decade with \"Welcome Home to a CBS Night\" (1996–1997), simplified to Welcome Home (1997–1999) and succeeded by the spin-off campaign \"The Address is CBS\" (1999–2000). During the 1992 season for the end-of-show network identification sequence, a three-note sound mark was introduced, which was eventually adapted into the network's IDs and production company vanity cards following the closing credits of most of its programs during the \"Welcome Home\" era.\n\n2000s\n\nThroughout the first decade of the 21st century, CBS's ratings resurgence was backed by the network's \"It's All Here\" campaign (which introduced updated versions of the 1992 sound mark used during certain promotions and production company vanity cards during the closing credits of programs); in 2005, the network's strategy led to the proclamation that it was \"America's Most Watched Network\". The network's 2006 campaign introduced the slogan \"We Are CBS\", with Don LaFontaine providing the voiceover for the IDs (as well as certain network promos) during this period. In 2009, the network introduced a campaign entitled \"Only CBS,\" in which network promotions proclaim several unique qualities it has (the slogan was also used in program promotions following the announcement of the timeslot of a particular program). The \"America's Most Watched Network\" was re-introduced by CBS in 2011, used alongside the \"Only CBS\" slogan. \n\nPromos\n\nEspecially during the 1960s, CBS as well as its two major network competitors, NBC, and ABC, utilized elaborate promos during the summer months to promote their upcoming fall schedules. In 1961, CBS took the unusual step of airing a program titled CBS Fall Preview Special: Seven Wonderful Nights, using stars of several CBS shows – such as Ed Sullivan (The Ed Sullivan Show), Rod Serling (The Twilight Zone), and Raymond Burr and Barbara Hale (Perry Mason) – to promote the upcoming fall lineup, instead the network's continuity announcers, showing previews of the entire lineup for one specific day of the week. Fall preview specials hosted by network stars would become commonplace among the broadcast networks in subsequent years.\n\nInternational broadcasts\n\nCBS programs are shown outside the United States, through various branded international networks and content agreements, and in two North American countries, through U.S.-based CBS stations.\nIndia\n\nIn India, CBS network programming is carried in Dish TV, Airtel, Reliance, DD Free Dish, Sun Direct Ability in All India\n\nCanada\n\nIn Canada, CBS network programming is carried on cable, satellite and IPTV providers in Canada through affiliates and owned-and-operated stations of the network that are located within proximity to the Canada–United States border (such as KIRO-TV/Seattle, KDLH/Duluth, Minnesota, WWJ-TV/Detroit and WIVB-TV/Buffalo, New York), some of which may also be receivable over-the-air in parts of southern Canada depending on the signal coverage of the station. Most programming is generally the same as it airs in the United States; however, some CBS programming on U.S.-based affiliates permitted for carriage by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission by Canadian cable and satellite providers are subject to simultaneous substitutions, a practice in which a pay television provider supplants an American station's signal with a feed from a Canadian station/network airing a particular program in the same time slot to protect domestic advertising revenue.\n\nMexico\n\nCBS programming is available in Mexico through affiliates in markets located within proximity to the Mexico–United States border (such as KSWT/Yuma, Arizona; KVTV/Laredo, Texas; KDBC-TV/El Paso, Texas; KGBT-TV/Harlingen, Texas; and KFMB-TV/San Diego), whose signals are readily receivable over-the-air in border areas of northern Mexico.\n\nGuam\n\nIn the U.S. territory of Guam, the network is affiliated with low-power station KUAM-LP in Hagåtña. Entertainment and non-breaking news programming is shown day and date on a one-day tape delay, as Guam is located on the west side of the International Date Line (for example, NCIS, which airs on Tuesday nights, is carried Wednesdays on KUAM-LP, and is advertised by the station as airing on the latter night in on-air promotions), with live programming and breaking news coverage airing as scheduled, meaning live sports coverage often airs early in the morning.\n\nEurope\n\nCBS News programs are broadcast for a few hours a day on Orbit News in Europe, Africa and the Middle East. Sky News broadcasts the CBS Evening News on its channels serving the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand and Italy.\n\nUnited Kingdom\n\nOn September 14, 2009, the international arm of CBS, CBS Studios International, reached a joint venture deal with Chellomedia to launch six CBS-branded channels in the United Kingdom – which would respectively replace Zone Romantica, Zone Thriller, Zone Horror and Zone Reality, as well as timeshift services Zone Horror +1 and Zone Reality +1 – during the fourth quarter of that year. On October 1, 2009, it was announced that the first four channels, CBS Reality, CBS Reality +1, CBS Drama and CBS Action, would launch on November 16 – respectively replacing Zone Reality, Zone Reality +1, Zone Romantica and Zone Thriller. On April 5, 2010, Zone Horror and Zone Horror +1 were rebranded as Horror Channel and Horror Channel +1. \n\nAustralia\n\nIn Australia, Network Ten (which CBS owns 33% of its shares) maintains a distribution agreement with CBS Television Distribution that gives the network rights to carry programs such as Entertainment Tonight, Dr. Phil, Late Show with Stephen Colbert, NCIS and Scorpion. Nine Network maintains the rights to story content sourced from 60 Minutes, used on the domestic program of the same title, while reports provided by Network Ten are used in the United States by CBS for supplementary coverage of Australian topics. Network Ten's sister digital channels One and Eleven also carry CBS programming.\n\nAsia\n\nBermuda\n\nIn Bermuda, CBS maintains an affiliation with Hamilton-based ZBM-TV, locally owned by Bermuda Broadcasting Company.\n\nHong Kong\n\nIn Hong Kong, the CBS Evening News was broadcast live during the early morning hours on ATV; networks in that country maintains agreement to rebroadcast portions of the program 12 hours after the initial broadcast to provide additional content in the event that their affiliates have insufficient news content to fill time during their local news programs.\n\nPhilippines\n\nIn the Philippines, the CBS Evening News is broadcast on satellite network Q-TV (a sister channel of GMA Network), while CBS This Morning is shown in that country on the Lifestyle Network. The Late Show with David Letterman is broadcast by Studio 23 and Maxx, which are both owned by ABS-CBN. 60 Minutes is currently broadcast on CNN Philippines (formerly Talktv, Solar News Channel and 9TV ) as a part of their Stories block, which includes documentaries and is broadcast on Wednesday at 8:00 p.m. before CNN Philippines Nightly News with replays in a capacity as a stand-alone program on Saturdays at 8:00 a.m. & 5:00 pm and Sundays at 6:00 a.m, all in local time (UTC + 8).\n\nIndia\n\nIn India, CBS maintained a brand licensing agreement with Reliance Broadcast Network Ltd. for three CBS-branded channels: Big CBS Prime, Big CBS Spark and Big CBS Love. These channels were shut down in late November 2013.\n\nControversies\n\nBrown & Williamson interview\n\nIn 1995, CBS refused to air a 60 Minutes segment that featured an interview with a former president of research and development for Brown & Williamson, the U.S.'s third largest tobacco company. The controversy raised questions about the legal roles in decision-making and whether journalistic standards should be compromised despite legal pressures and threats. The decision nevertheless sent shockwaves throughout the television industry, the journalism community, and the country. This incident was the basis for the 1999 Michael Mann-directed drama film, The Insider.\n\nBernard Goldberg\n\nIn 2001, Bernard Goldberg, who served as a correspondent for CBS News for 28 years, authored Bias: A CBS Insider Exposes How the Media Distort the News. The book heavily criticized the media, and some CBS anchors and correspondents in particular (such as Dan Rather). Goldberg accused CBS of having a liberal bias in most of their news coverage; Goldberg now works as a commentator for Fox News.\n\nSuper Bowl XXXVIII halftime show incident\n\nIn 2004, the Federal Communications Commission imposed a record $550,000 fine, the largest fine ever for a violation of federal decency laws, against CBS for an incident during its broadcast of Super Bowl XXXVIII in which singer Janet Jackson's right breast (which was partially covered by a piece of nipple jewelry) was briefly and accidentally exposed by guest performer Justin Timberlake at the end of a duet performance of Timberlake's 2003 single \"Rock Your Body\" during the halftime show (produced by then sister cable network MTV). Following the incident, CBS apologized to its viewers and denied foreknowledge of the incident, which was televised live. The incident resulted in a period of increased regulation of broadcast television and radio outlets (including self-imposed content regulation by networks and syndicators), which raised concerns surrounding censorship and freedom of speech, and resulted in the FCC voting to increase its maximum fine for indecency violations from US$27,500 to US$325,000. In 2008, a Philadelphia federal court annulled the fine imposed on CBS, labelling it \"arbitrary and capricious\". \n\nKillan documents controversy\n\nOn September 8, 2004, less than two months before the Presidential election in which he defeated Democratic candidate John Kerry, CBS aired a controversial episode of 60 Minutes Wednesday, which questioned then-President George W. Bush's service in the Air National Guard in 1972 and 1973. Following allegations of forgery, CBS News admitted that four of the documents used in the story had not been properly authenticated and admitted that their source, Bill Burkett, had admitted to having \"deliberately misled\" a CBS News producer who worked on the report, about the documents' origins out of a confidentiality promise to the actual source. The following January, CBS fired four people connected to the preparation of the segment. Former CBS news anchor Dan Rather filed a $70 million lawsuit against CBS and former corporate parent Viacom in September 2007, contending the story, and his termination (he resigned as CBS News chief anchor in 2005), were mishandled. Parts of the suit were dismissed in 2008; subsequently in 2010, the entire suit was dismissed and Rather's motion to appeal was denied. \n\nJohn Batiste firing\n\nIn 2007, retired Army Major Gen. and CBS News consultant John Batiste appeared in a political ad for VoteVets.org that was critical of President George W. Bush and the war in Iraq. Two days later, CBS stated that appearing in the ad violated Batiste's contract with the network, which was terminated as a result. \n\nHopper controversy\n\nIn January 2013, CNET named Dish Network's \"Hopper with Sling\" digital video recorder as a nominee for the CES \"Best in Show\" award (which is decided by CNET on behalf of its organizers, the Consumer Electronics Association), and named it the winner in a vote by the site's staff. However, CBS division CBS Interactive disqualified the Hopper, and vetoed the results as CBS was in active litigation with Dish Network over its AutoHop technology (which allows users to skip commercial advertisements during recorded programs). CNET announced that it would no longer review any product or service provided by companies that CBS Corporation was in litigation with. The \"Best in Show\" award was instead given to the Razer Edge tablet. On January 14, 2013, CNET editor-in-chief Lindsey Turrentine said in a statement that its staff was in an \"impossible\" situation due to the conflict of interest posed by the lawsuit, and promised to prevent a similar incident from occurring again. The conflict also prompted the resignation of CNET senior writer Greg Sandoval. As a result of the controversy, the CEA announced on January 31, 2013 that CNET will no longer decide the CES Best in Show award winner due to the interference of CBS (with the position being offered to other technology publications), and the \"Best in Show\" award was jointly awarded to both the Hopper with Sling and Razer Edge. \n\nPresidents of CBS Entertainment", "Walter Leland Cronkite, Jr. (November 4, 1916 – July 17, 2009) was an American broadcast journalist, best known as anchorman for the CBS Evening News for 19 years (1962–81). During the heyday of CBS News in the 1960s and 1970s, he was often cited as \"the most trusted man in America\" after being so named in an opinion poll. He reported many events from 1937 to 1981, including bombings in World War II; the Nuremberg trials; combat in the Vietnam War; the Dawson's Field hijackings; Watergate; the Iran Hostage Crisis; and the assassinations of President John F. Kennedy, civil rights pioneer Martin Luther King, Jr., and Beatles musician John Lennon. He was also known for his extensive coverage of the U.S. space program, from Project Mercury to the Moon landings to the Space Shuttle. He was the only non-NASA recipient of a Moon-rock award. Cronkite is well known for his departing catchphrase \"And that's the way it is,\" followed by the broadcast's date.\n\nEarly life and education \n\nWalter Leland Cronkite, Jr., was born on November 4, 1916, in Saint Joseph, Missouri, the son of Helen Lena (née Fritsche; August 1892 – November 1993), and Dr. Walter Leland Cronkite (September 1893 – May 1973), a dentist. He had remote Dutch ancestry on his father's side, the family surname originally being Krankheyt. \n\nCronkite lived in Kansas City, Missouri, until he was ten, when his family moved to Houston, Texas. He attended junior high school at Lanier Junior High School (now Lanier Middle School) and high school at San Jacinto High School, where he edited the high school newspaper. He was a member of the Boy Scouts. He attended college at the University of Texas at Austin (UT), entering in the Fall term of 1933, where he worked on the Daily Texan and became a member of the Nu chapter of the Chi Phi Fraternity. He also was a member of the Houston chapter of DeMolay, a Masonic fraternal organization for boys. While attending UT, Cronkite had his first taste of performance, appearing in a play with fellow student Eli Wallach.\n\nCareer \n\nHe dropped out of college in his junior year, in the fall term of 1935, after starting a series of newspaper reporting jobs covering news and sports. He entered broadcasting as a radio announcer for WKY in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. In 1936, he met his future wife, Mary Elizabeth Maxwell (known by her nickname \"Betsy\"), while working as the sports announcer for KCMO (AM) in Kansas City, Missouri. His broadcast name was \"Walter Wilcox\". He would explain later that radio stations at the time did not want people to use their real names for fear of taking their listeners with them if they left. In Kansas City, he joined the United Press in 1937. He became one of the top American reporters in World War II, covering battles in North Africa and Europe. \n\nWith his name now established, he received a job offer from Edward R. Murrow at CBS News to join the Murrow Boys team of war correspondents, relieving Bill Downs as the head of the Moscow bureau. CBS offered Cronkite $125 a week along with \"commercial fees\" amounting to $25 for almost every time Cronkite reported on air. Up to that point, he had been making $57.50 per week at UP, but he had reservations about broadcasting. He initially accepted the offer. When he informed his boss Harrison Salisbury, UP countered with a raise of $17.50 per week; Hugh Baillie also offered him an extra $20 per week to stay. Cronkite ultimately accepted the UP offer, a move which angered Murrow and drove a wedge between them that would last for years. \n\nCronkite was one of eight journalists selected by the United States Army Air Forces to fly bombing raids over Germany in a B-17 Flying Fortress part of group called the Writing 69th, and during a mission fired a machine gun at a German fighter. He also landed in a glider with the 101st Airborne in Operation Market Garden and covered the Battle of the Bulge. After the war, he covered the Nuremberg trials and served as the United Press main reporter in Moscow from 1946 to 1948. \n\nEarly years at CBS \n\nIn 1950, Cronkite joined CBS News in its young and growing television division, again recruited by Murrow. Cronkite began working at WTOP-TV, the CBS affiliate in Washington, D.C.. He originally served as anchor of the network's 15-minute late-Sunday-evening newscast Up To the Minute, which followed What's My Line? at 11:00 pm ET from 1951 through 1962.\n\nAlthough it was widely reported that the term \"anchor\" was coined to describe Cronkite's role at both the Democratic and Republican National Conventions, marking the first nationally televised convention coverage, other news presenters bore the title before him. Cronkite anchored the network's coverage of the 1952 presidential election as well as later conventions. In 1964 he was temporarily replaced by the team of Robert Trout and Roger Mudd; this proved to be a mistake, and Cronkite returned to the anchor chair for future political conventions. \n\nFrom 1953 to 1957, Cronkite hosted the CBS program You Are There, which reenacted historical events, using the format of a news report. His famous last line for these programs was: \"What sort of day was it? A day like all days, filled with those events that alter and illuminate our times ... and you were there.\" In 1971, the show was revived and redesigned to attract an audience of teenagers and young adults on Saturday mornings. He also hosted The Twentieth Century, a documentary series about important historical events of the century comprised almost exclusively of newsreel footage and interviews. It became a long-running hit (it was renamed The 20th Century in 1967). Cronkite also hosted It's News to Me, a game show based on news events.\n\nDuring the presidential elections of 1952 and 1956 Cronkite hosted the CBS news-discussion series Pick the Winner.\n\nAnother of his network assignments was The Morning Show, CBS' short-lived challenge to NBC's Today in 1954. His on-air duties included interviewing guests and chatting with a lion puppet named Charlemane about the news. He considered this discourse with a puppet as \"one of the highlights\" of the show. He added, \"A puppet can render opinions on people and things that a human commentator would not feel free to utter. I was and I am proud of it.\" Cronkite also angered the R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company, the show's sponsor, by grammatically correcting its advertising slogan. Instead of saying \"Winston tastes good like a cigarette should\" verbatim, he substituted \"as\" for \"like.\" \n\nHe was the lead broadcaster of the network's coverage of the 1960 Winter Olympics, the first-ever time such an event was televised in the United States. He replaced Jim McKay, who had suffered a mental breakdown. \n\nAnchor of the CBS Evening News \n\nOn April 16, 1962, Cronkite succeeded Douglas Edwards as anchorman of the CBS Evening News (initially Walter Cronkite with the News), a job in which he became an American icon. The program expanded from 15 to 30 minutes on September 2, 1963, making Cronkite the anchor of American network television's first nightly half-hour news program. \n\nDuring the early part of his tenure anchoring the CBS Evening News, Cronkite competed against NBC's anchor team of Chet Huntley and David Brinkley, who anchored the Huntley-Brinkley Report. For most of the 1960s, the Huntley-Brinkley Report had more viewers than Cronkite's broadcast. This began to change in the late 1960s, as RCA made a corporate decision not to fund NBC News at the levels CBS funded CBS News. Consequently, CBS News acquired a reputation for greater accuracy and depth in its broadcast journalism. This reputation meshed nicely with Cronkite's wire service experience, and in 1967 the CBS Evening News began to surpass The Huntley-Brinkley Report in viewership during the summer months.\n\nIn 1969, during the Apollo 11 (with co-host and former astronaut Wally Schirra) and Apollo 13 moon missions, Cronkite received the best ratings and made CBS the most-watched television network for the missions. In 1970, when Huntley retired, the CBS Evening News finally dominated the American TV news viewing audience. Although NBC finally settled on the skilled and well-respected broadcast journalist John Chancellor, Cronkite proved to be more popular and continued to be top-rated until his retirement in 1981.\n\nOne of Cronkite's trademarks was ending the CBS Evening News with the phrase \"...And that's the way it is,\" followed by the date. Keeping to standards of objective journalism, he omitted this phrase on nights when he ended the newscast with opinion or commentary. Beginning with January 16, 1980, Day 50 of the Iran hostage crisis, Cronkite added the length of the hostages' captivity to the show's closing in order to remind the audience of the unresolved situation, ending only on Day 444, January 20, 1981. \n\nHistoric moments as anchor \n\nKennedy's assassination\n\nCronkite is vividly remembered for breaking the news of the death of President John F. Kennedy on Friday, November 22, 1963. Cronkite had been standing at the United Press International wire machine in the CBS newsroom as the bulletin of the President's shooting broke and he clamored to get on the air to break the news as he wanted CBS to be the first network to do so. \n\nThere was a problem facing the crew in the newsroom, however. There was no television camera in the studio at the time as the technical crew was working on it. Eventually the camera was retrieved and brought back to the newsroom. Because of the magnitude of the story and the continuous flow of information coming from various sources, time was of the essence and the camera would take at least twenty minutes to become operational under normal circumstances. The decision was made to dispatch Cronkite to the CBS Radio Network booth to report the events and play the audio over the television airwaves while the crew worked on the camera to see if they could get it set up quicker.\n\nMeanwhile, CBS was ten minutes into its live broadcast of the soap opera As the World Turns (ATWT), which had begun at the very minute of the shooting. A \"CBS News Bulletin\" bumper slide abruptly broke into the broadcast at 1:40 pm EST. Over the slide, Cronkite began reading what would be the first of three audio-only bulletins that were filed in the next twenty minutes: \n\nWhile Cronkite was reading this bulletin, a second one arrived, mentioning the severity of Kennedy's wounds:\n\nJust before the bulletin cut out, a CBS News staffer was heard saying \"Connally too,\" apparently having just heard the news that Texas Governor John Connally had also been shot while riding in the presidential limousine with his wife Nellie and Mr. and Mrs. Kennedy.\n\nCBS then rejoined the telecast of ATWT during a commercial break, which was followed by show announcer Dan McCullough's usual fee plug for the first half of the program and the network's 1:45 pm station identification break. Just before the second half of ATWT was to begin, the network broke in with the bumper slide a second time. This bulletin saw Cronkite report in greater detail about the assassination attempt on the President, while also breaking the news of Governor Connally's shooting.\n\nCronkite then recapped the events as they had happened: that the President and Governor Connally had been shot and were in the emergency room at Parkland Hospital, and no one knew their condition as yet. CBS then decided to return to ATWT, which was now midway through its second segment.\n\nThe cast had continued to perform live while Cronkite's bulletins broke into the broadcast, unaware of the unfolding events in Dallas. ATWT then took another scheduled commercial break. The segment before the break would be the last anyone would see of any network's programming until Tuesday, November 26. During the commercial, the bumper slide interrupted the proceedings again and Cronkite updated the viewers on the situation in Dallas. This bulletin went into more detail than the other two, revealing that Kennedy had been shot in the head, Connally in the chest. Cronkite remained on the air for the next ten minutes, continuing to read bulletins as they were handed to him, and recapping the events as they were known. He also related a report given to reporters by Texas Congressman Albert Thomas that the President and Governor were still alive, the first indication of their condition. At 2:00 EST, with the top of the hour station break looming, Cronkite told the audience that there would be a brief pause so that all of CBS' affiliates, including those in the Mountain and Pacific time zones which were not on the same schedule, could join the network. He then left the radio booth and went to the anchor desk in the newsroom.\n\nWithin twenty seconds of the announcement, every CBS affiliate except Dallas' KRLD (which was providing local coverage) was airing the network's feed. The camera was finally operational by this time and enabled the audience to see Cronkite, who was clad in shirt and tie but without his suit coat, given the urgent nature of the story. Cronkite reminded the audience, again, of the attempt made on the life of the President and tossed to KRLD news director Eddie Barker at the Dallas Trade Mart, where Kennedy was supposed to be making a speech before he was shot. Barker relayed information that Kennedy's condition was extremely critical. Then, after a prayer for Kennedy, Barker quoted an unofficial report that the President was dead but stressed it was not confirmed.\n\nAfter several minutes, the coverage came back to the CBS newsroom where Cronkite reported that the President had been given blood transfusions and two priests had been called into the room. He also played an audio report from KRLD that someone had been arrested in the assassination attempt at the Texas School Book Depository. Back in Dallas Barker announced another report of the death of the President, mentioning that it came from a reliable source. Before the network left KRLD's feed for good, Barker first announced, then retracted, a confirmation of Kennedy's death.\n\nCBS cut back to Cronkite reporting that one of the priests had administered last rites to the president. In the next few minutes, several more bulletins reporting that Kennedy had died were given to Cronkite, including one from CBS's own correspondent Dan Rather that had been reported as confirmation of Kennedy's demise by CBS Radio. As these bulletins came into the newsroom, it was becoming clearer that Kennedy had in fact lost his life. Cronkite, however, stressed that these bulletins were simply reports and not any official confirmation of the President's condition; some of his colleagues recounted in 2013 that his early career as a wire service reporter taught him to wait for official word before reporting a story. Still, as more word came in, Cronkite seemed to be resigned to the fact that it was only a matter of time before the assassination was confirmed. He appeared to concede this when, several minutes after he received the Rather report, he received word that the two priests who gave the last rites to Kennedy told reporters on the scene that he was dead. Cronkite said that report \"seems to be as close to official as we can get\", but would not declare it as such. Nor did he do so with a report from Washington, DC that came moments later, which said that government sources were now reporting the President was dead (this information was passed on to ABC as well, which took it as official confirmation and reported it as such; NBC did not report this information at all and chose instead to rely on reports from Charles Murphy and Robert MacNeil to confirm their suspicions).\n\nAt 2:38 pm EST, while filling in time with some observations about the security presence in Dallas, which had been increased due to a disastrous visit by United Nations Ambassador Adlai Stevenson to the city earlier in 1963, Cronkite was handed a new bulletin. After looking it over for a moment, he took off his glasses, and made the official announcement:\n\nAfter making that announcement, Cronkite paused briefly, put his glasses back on, and swallowed hard to maintain his composure. With noticeable emotion in his voice he intoned the next sentence of the news report:\n\nWith emotion still in his voice and eyes watering, Cronkite once again recapped the events after collecting himself, incorporating some wire photos of the visit and explaining the significance of the pictures now that Kennedy was dead. He reminded the viewers that Vice President Johnson was now the President and was to be sworn in (which had occurred just as Cronkite received the bulletin confirming the President's death), that Governor Connally's condition was still unknown, and that there was no report of whether the assassin had been captured. He then handed the anchor position to Charles Collingwood, who had just entered the newsroom, took his suit coat, and left the room for a while.\n\nAt about 3:30 pm EST, Cronkite came back into the newsroom to relay some new information. The two major pieces of information involved the Oath of Office being administered to Vice President Johnson, which officially made him the thirty- sixth President, and that Dallas police had arrested a man named Lee Harvey Oswald whom they suspected had fired the fatal shots. After that, Cronkite left again to begin preparing for that night's CBS Evening News, which he returned to anchor as normal. For the next three days, along with his colleagues, Cronkite continued to report segments of uninterrupted coverage of the assassination, including the announcement of Oswald's death on Sunday. The next day, on the day of the funeral, Cronkite concluded the CBS Evening News with the following assessment about the events of the last four dark days:\n\nReferring to his coverage of Kennedy's assassination, in a 2006 TV interview with Nick Clooney, Cronkite recalled:\n\"I choked up, I really had a little trouble...my eyes got a little wet...[what Kennedy had represented] was just all lost to us. Fortunately, I grabbed hold before I was actually [crying].\" \n\nIn a 2003 CBS special commemorating the 40th anniversary of the assassination, Cronkite recalled his reaction upon having the death confirmed to him, he said:\n\nVietnam War \n\nIn mid-February 1968, on the urging of his executive producer Ernest Leiser, Cronkite and Leiser journeyed to Vietnam to cover the aftermath of the Tet Offensive. They were invited to dine with General Creighton Abrams, the current commander of all forces in Vietnam, whom Cronkite knew from World War II. According to Leiser, Abrams told Cronkite, \"we cannot win this Goddamned war, and we ought to find a dignified way out.\" \n\nUpon return, Cronkite and Leiser wrote separate editorial reports based on that trip. Cronkite, an excellent writer, preferred Leiser's text over his own.\nOn February 27, 1968, Cronkite closed \"Report from Vietnam: Who, What, When, Where, Why?\" with that editorial report:\n\nFollowing Cronkite's editorial report, President Lyndon Johnson is claimed by some to have said, \"If I've lost Cronkite, I've lost Middle America.\" This account has been questioned in a book on journalistic accuracy. At the time the editorial aired, Johnson was in Austin, Texas attending Texas Governor John Connally's birthday gala and was giving a speech in his honor.\n\nIn his book This Just In: What I Couldn't Tell You on TV, CBS News correspondent Bob Schieffer, who was serving as a reporter for the Fort Worth Star-Telegram when Cronkite's editorial aired, acknowledged that Johnson did not see the original broadcast but also defended the allegation that Johnson had made the remark. According to Schieffer, Johnson's aide George Christian \"told me that the President apparently saw some clips of it the next day\" and that \"That's when he made the remark about Cronkite. But he knew then that it would take more than Americans were willing to give it.\" When asked about the remark during a 1979 interview, Christian claimed he had no recollection about what the President had said. In his 1996 memoir A Reporter's Life, Cronkite claimed he was at first unsure about how much of an impact his editorial report had on Johnson's decision to drop his bid for re-election and that he was eventually convinced the President made the statement when fellow journalist, and former aide to Johnson, Bill Moyers told him that \"the president flipped off the set and said 'If I've lost Cronkite, I've lost Middle America.\" \n\nSeveral weeks later, Johnson, who sought to preserve his legacy and was now convinced his declining health could not withstand growing public criticism, announced he would not seek reelection.\n\nDuring the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, Cronkite was anchoring the CBS network coverage as violence and protests occurred outside the convention, as well as scuffles inside the convention hall. When Dan Rather was punched to the floor (on camera) by security personnel, Cronkite commented, \"I think we've got a bunch of thugs here, Dan.\"\n\nOther historic events \n\nThe first publicly transmitted, live trans-Atlantic program, was broadcast via the Telstar satellite on July 23, 1962, at 3:00 pm EDT, and Cronkite was one of the main presenters in this multinational broadcast. The broadcast was made possible in Europe by Eurovision and in North America by NBC, CBS, ABC, and the CBC. The first public broadcast featured CBS's Cronkite and NBC's Chet Huntley in New York, and the BBC's Richard Dimbleby in Brussels. Cronkite was in the New York studio at Rockefeller Plaza as the first pictures to be transmitted and received were the Statue of Liberty in New York and the Eiffel Tower in Paris. The first segment included a televised major league baseball game between the Philadelphia Phillies and the Chicago Cubs at Wrigley Field. From there, the video switched first to Washington, D.C.; then to Cape Canaveral, Florida; then to Quebec City, Quebec, and finally to Stratford, Ontario. The Washington segment included a press conference with President Kennedy, talking about the price of the American dollar, which was causing concern in Europe. This broadcast inaugurated live, intercontinental news coverage, which was perfected later in the sixties with Early Bird and other Intelsat satellites.\n\nGeneral of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower returned to his former Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF) headquarters for an interview by Cronkite on the CBS News Special Report D-Day + 20, telecast on June 6, 1964.\n\nCronkite is also remembered for his coverage of the United States space program, and at times was visibly enthusiastic, rubbing his hands together on camera with a smile and uttering, \"Whew...boy\" on July 20, 1969, when the Apollo 11 lunar landing mission put the first men on the Moon. \n\nAccording to the 2006 PBS documentary on Cronkite, there was \"nothing new\" in his reports on the Watergate affair; however, Cronkite brought together a wide range of reporting, and his credibility and status is credited by many with pushing the Watergate story to the forefront with the American public, ultimately resulting in the resignation of President Richard M. Nixon on August 9, 1974. Cronkite had anchored the CBS coverage of Nixon's address, announcing his impending resignation, the night before. \n\nThe January 22, 1973, broadcast of The CBS Evening News saw Cronkite break the news of the death of another notable American political figure. At approximately 6:38 pm Eastern Time, while a pre-recorded report on the Vietnam peace talks in Paris that were reported as having been successful was being played for the audience, Cronkite received a telephone call in the studio while off camera from Tom Johnson, who was the spokesman for former President Lyndon B. Johnson and who at the time was also in charge of KTBC, Austin, Texas' then-CBS affiliate which the former President owned. During the course of the conversation, the production staff cut away from the report back to the live camera in studio as Cronkite was still on the phone. After he was made aware that he was back on camera, Cronkite held up a finger to let everyone watching know he required a moment to let Johnson finish talking. Once Cronkite got what he needed, he thanked Johnson and asked him to stay on the line. He then turned to the camera and began to relay what Johnson had said to him.\n\nDuring the final ten minutes of that broadcast, Cronkite reported on the death, giving a retrospective on the life of nation's 36th president, and announced that CBS would air a special on Lyndon Johnson later that evening. This story was re-told on a 2007 CBS-TV special honoring Cronkite's 90th birthday. \n\nNBC-TV's Garrick Utley, anchoring NBC Nightly News that evening, also interrupted his newscast in order to break the story, doing so about three minutes after Cronkite on CBS. The news was not reported on that night's ABC Evening News, which was anchored by Howard K. Smith and Harry Reasoner, because ABC at the time fed their newscast live at 6:00 pm Eastern instead of 6:30 to get a head start on CBS and NBC for those stations that aired ABC Evening News live (although not every affiliate did) \n\nOn December 10, 1963, Cronkite introduced The Beatles to the United States by airing a four-minute story about the band on CBS Evening News. This was originally broadcast on November 22, 1963, on the CBS Morning News, and was going to be shown again on the CBS Evening News, but the assassination of John F. Kennedy prevented the broadcast at that time. \n\nRetirement \n\nOn February 14, 1980, Cronkite announced that he intended to retire from the CBS Evening News; at the time, CBS had a policy of mandatory retirement by age 65. Although sometimes compared to a father figure or an uncle figure, in an interview about his retirement he described himself as being more like a \"comfortable old shoe\" to his audience. His last day in the anchor chair at the CBS Evening News was on March 6, 1981; he was succeeded the following Monday by Dan Rather. \n\nCronkite's farewell statement:\n\nOther activities \n\nReporting \n\nAs he had promised on his last show as anchor in 1981, Cronkite continued to broadcast occasionally as a special correspondent for CBS, CNN, and NPR into the 21st century; one such occasion was Cronkite anchoring the second space flight by John Glenn in 1998 as he had Glenn's first in 1962. In 1983, he reported on the British General Election for the ITV current affairs series World In Action, interviewing, among many others, the victorious Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher. Cronkite hosted the annual Vienna New Year's Concert on PBS from 1985 to 2008, succeeded by Julie Andrews in 2009. For many years, until 2002, he was also the host of the annual Kennedy Center Honors.\n\nIn 1998, Cronkite hosted the 90-minute documentary, Silicon Valley: A 100 Year Renaissance, produced by the Santa Clara Valley Historical Association. The film documented Silicon Valley's rise from the origin of Stanford University to the current high-technology powerhouse. The documentary was broadcast on PBS throughout the United States and in 26 countries. Prior to 2004, he could also be seen in the opening movie 'Back to Neverland' shown in the Walt Disney World attraction, The Magic of Disney Animation, interviewing Robin Williams as if he is still on the CBS News channel, ending his on-camera time with his famous catchphrase. In the featurette, Cronkite describes the steps taken in the creation of an animated film, while Robin Williams becomes an animated character (and even becomes Walter Cronkite, impersonating his voice). He also was shown inviting Disney guests and tourists to the Disney Classics Theater.\n\nOn May 21, 1999, Walter Cronkite participated in a panel discussion on Integrity in the Media with Ben Bradlee and Mike McCurry at the Connecticut Forum in Hartford, Connecticut. Cronkite provided a particularly funny anecdote about taking a picture from a house in Houston, Texas, where a newsworthy event occurred and being praised for getting a unique photograph, only to find out later that the city desk had provided him with the wrong address. \n\nVoice-overs \n\nCronkite narrated the IMAX film about the Space Shuttle, The Dream is Alive, released in 1985. From May 26, 1986, to August 15, 1994, he was the narrator's voice in the EPCOT Center attraction, Spaceship Earth, at Walt Disney World. He provided the pivotal voice of Captain Neweyes in the 1993 animated film We're Back: A Dinosaur's Story, delivering his trademark line at the end. In 1995, he made an appearance on Broadway, providing the voice of the titular book in the 1995 revival of How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying.\n\nCronkite was a finalist for NASA's Journalist in Space program, which mirrored the Teacher in Space Project, an opportunity that was suspended after the Challenger disaster in 1986. He recorded voice-overs for the 1995 film Apollo 13, modifying the script he was given to make it more \"Cronkitian.\" In 2002, Cronkite was the voice of Benjamin Franklin in the educational television cartoon Liberty's Kids, which included a news segment ending with the same phrase he did back on the CBS Evening News. His distinctive voice provided the narration for the television ads of the University of Texas at Austin, his alma mater, with its 'We're Texas' ad campaign. \n\nCronkite voiced Tim's grandpa in the BrainPOP episode about aging.[http://www.brainpop.com/health/geneticsgrowthanddevelopment/aging/ BrainPOP|Health|Learn about Aging]\n\nHe held amateur radio operator license KB2GSD and narrated a 2003 American Radio Relay League documentary explaining amateur radio's role in disaster relief. the video tells Amateur Radio's public service story to non-hams, focusing on ham radio's part in helping various agencies respond to wildfires in the Western US during 2002, ham radio in space and the role Amateur Radio plays in emergency communications. \"Dozens of radio amateurs helped the police and fire departments and other emergency services maintain communications in New York, Pennsylvania and Washington, DC,\" narrator Cronkite intoned in reference to ham radio's response on September 11, 2001. Unusually, Cronkite was a Novice-class licensee—the entry level license—for his entire, and long, tenure in the hobby.\n\nOn February 15, 2005, he went into the studio at CBS to record narration for WCC Chatham Radio, a documentary about Guglielmo Marconi and his Chatham station, which became the busiest ship-to-shore wireless station in North America from 1914 to 1994. The documentary was directed by Christopher Seufert of Mooncusser Films and premiered at the Chatham Marconi Maritime Center in April 2005. In 2006, Cronkite hosted the World War One Living History Project, a program honoring America's final handful of veterans from the First World War. The program was created by Treehouse Productions and aired on NPR on November 11, 2006. In May 2009, Legacy of War, produced by PBS, was released. Cronkite chronicles, over archive footage, the events following World War II that resulted in America's rise as the dominant world power. \n\nPrior to his death, \"Uncle Walter\" hosted a number of TV specials and was featured in interviews about the times and events that occurred during his career as America's \"most trusted\" man. In July 2006, the 90-minute documentary Walter Cronkite: Witness to History aired on PBS. The special was narrated by Katie Couric, who assumed the CBS Evening News anchor chair in September 2006. Cronkite provided the voiceover introduction to Couric's CBS Evening News, which began on September 5, 2006. Cronkite's voiceover was notably not used on introducing the broadcast reporting his funeral – no voiceover was used on this occasion.\n\nTV and movie appearances \n\nCronkite made a cameo appearance on a 1974 episode of The Mary Tyler Moore Show, in which he met with Lou Grant in his office. Ted Baxter, who at first tried to convince Cronkite that he (Baxter) was as good a newsman as Eric Sevareid, pleaded with Cronkite to hire him for the network news, at least to give sport scores, and gave an example: \"The North Stars 3, the Kings Oh!\" Cronkite turned to Grant and said, \"I'm gonna get you for this!\" Cronkite later said that he was disappointed that his scene was filmed in one take, since he had hoped to sit down and chat with the cast.\n\nIn the late 1980s and again in the 1990s, Cronkite appeared on the news-oriented situation comedy Murphy Brown as himself. Both episodes were written by the Emmy-award winning team of Tom Seeley and Norm Gunzenhauser. In 1991, he hosted on A&E the TV documentary Dinosaur!, not related to the documentary of the same title hosted by Christopher Reeve on CBS six years earlier. In 1995, he narrated the World Liberty Concert held in the Netherlands.\n\nCronkite appeared briefly in the 2005 dramatic documentary The American Ruling Class written by Lewis Lapham, the 2000 film Thirteen Days, reporting on the Cuban missile crisis, and provided the opening synopsis of the American Space Program leading to the events in Apollo 13 for the Ron Howard film of the same name.\n\nPolitical activism \n\nCronkite wrote a syndicated opinion column for King Features Syndicate. In 2005 and 2006, he contributed to The Huffington Post. Cronkite was the honorary chairman of The Interfaith Alliance. In 2006, he presented the Walter Cronkite Faith and Freedom Award to actor and activist George Clooney on behalf of his organization at its annual dinner in New York. \n\nCronkite was a vocal advocate for free airtime for political candidates. He worked with the Alliance for Better Campaigns and Common Cause, for instance, on an unsuccessful lobbying effort to have an amendment added to the McCain-Feingold-Shays-Meehan Campaign Finance Reform Act of 2001 that would have required TV broadcast companies to provide free airtime to candidates. Cronkite criticized the present system of campaign finance which allows elections to \"be purchased\" by special interests, and he noted that all the European democracies \"provide their candidates with extensive free airtime.\" \"In fact,\" Cronkite pointed out, \"of all the major nations worldwide that profess to have democracies, only seven – just seven – do not offer free airtime\" This put the United States on a list with Ecuador, Honduras, Malaysia, Taiwan, Tanzania, and Trinidad and Tobago. Cronkite concluded that \"The failure to give free airtime for our political campaigns endangers our democracy.\" During the elections held in 2000, the amount spent by candidates in the major TV markets approached $1 billion. \"What our campaign asks is that the television industry yield just a tiny percentage of that windfall, less than 1 percent, to fund free airtime.\"\n\nHe was a member of the Constitution Project's bipartisan Liberty and Security Committee. He also supported the nonprofit world hunger organization Heifer International.\n\nIn 1998, he supported President Bill Clinton during Clinton's impeachment trial. He was also a proponent of limited world government on the American federalist model, writing fund-raising letters for the World Federalist Association (now Citizens for Global Solutions). In accepting the 1999 Norman Cousins Global Governance Award at the ceremony at the United Nations, Cronkite said:\n\n\"It seems to many of us that if we are to avoid the eventual catastrophic world conflict we must strengthen the United Nations as a first step toward a world government patterned after our own government with a legislature, executive and judiciary, and police to enforce its international laws and keep the peace. To do that, of course, we Americans will have to yield up some of our sovereignty. That would be a bitter pill. It would take a lot of courage, a lot of faith in the new order. But the American colonies did it once and brought forth one of the most nearly perfect unions the world has ever seen.\" \n\nCronkite contrasted his support for accountable global government with the opposition to it by politically active Christian fundamentalists in the United States:\n\n\"Even as with the American rejection of the League of Nations, our failure to live up to our obligations to the United Nations is led by a handful of willful senators who choose to pursue their narrow, selfish political objectives at the cost of our nation’s conscience. They pander to and are supported by the Christian Coalition and the rest of the religious right wing. Their leader, Pat Robertson, has written that we should have a world government but only when the messiah arrives. Any attempt to achieve world order before that time must be the work of the Devil! Well join me... I'm glad to sit here at the right hand of Satan.\"\n\nIn 2003, Cronkite, who owned property on Martha's Vineyard, became involved in a long-running debate over his opposition to the construction of a wind farm in that area. In his column, he repeatedly condemned President George W. Bush and the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Cronkite appeared in the 2004 Robert Greenwald film Outfoxed, where he offered commentary on what he said were unethical and overtly political practices at the Fox News Channel. Cronkite remarked that when Fox News was founded by Rupert Murdoch, \"it was intended to be a conservative organization – beyond that; a far-right-wing organization\". In January 2006, during a press conference to promote the PBS documentary about his career, Cronkite said that he felt the same way about America's presence in Iraq as he had about their presence in Vietnam in 1968 and that he felt America should recall its troops. \n\nCronkite spoke out against the War on Drugs in support of the Drug Policy Alliance, writing a fundraising letter and appearing in advertisements on behalf of the DPA. In the letter, Cronkite wrote: \"Today, our nation is fighting two wars: one abroad and one at home. While the war in Iraq is in the headlines, the other war is still being fought on our own streets. Its casualties are the wasted lives of our own citizens. I am speaking of the war on drugs. And I cannot help but wonder how many more lives, and how much more money, will be wasted before another Robert McNamara admits what is plain for all to see: the war on drugs is a failure.\"\n\nPersonal life \n\nCronkite was married for nearly sixty-five years to Mary Elizabeth 'Betsy' Maxwell Cronkite (January 25, 1916 – March 15, 2005), from March 30, 1940, until her death from cancer. They had three children: Nancy Cronkite, Mary Kathleen (Kathy) Cronkite, and Walter Leland (Chip) Cronkite III (who is married to actress Deborah Rush).\nA grandson, Walter Cronkite IV, now works at CBS. \n\nIn late 2005, Cronkite began dating opera singer Joanna Simon, Carly Simon's older sister. Of their relationship, Cronkite stated in an interview for the New York Post in January 2006: \"We are keeping company, as the old phrase used to be.\" \n\nCronkite was an accomplished sailor and enjoyed sailing coastal waters of the United States in his custom-built 48-foot Sunward \"WYNTJE\". Cronkite was a member of the United States Coast Guard Auxiliary, with the honorary rank of commodore. Throughout the 1950s, he was an aspiring sports car racer, even racing in the 1959 12 Hours of Sebring. \n\nCronkite was reported to be a fan of the game Diplomacy, which was John F. Kennedy's and Henry Kissinger's favorite game. \n\nDeath \n\nIn June 2009, Cronkite was reported to be terminally ill. He died on July 17, 2009, at his home in New York City, at the age of 92. He is believed to have died from cerebrovascular disease. \nCronkite's funeral took place on July 23, 2009, at St. Bartholomew's Church in midtown Manhattan, New York. At his funeral, his friends noted his love of music, including, recently, drumming. He was cremated and his remains buried next to his wife, Betsy, in the family plot at Mount Moriah Cemetery in Kansas City. \n\nLegacy \n\nPublic credibility and trustworthiness \n\nFor many years, until a decade after he left his post as anchor, Cronkite was considered one of the most trusted figures in the United States. For most of his 19 years as anchor, he was the \"predominant news voice in America.\" Affectionately known as \"Uncle Walter,\" he covered many of the important news events of the era so effectively that his image and voice are closely associated with the Cuban missile crisis, the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, the Vietnam War, the Apollo 11 Moon landing, and the Watergate scandal. USA Today wrote that \"few TV figures have ever had as much power as Cronkite did at his height.\" Enjoying the cult of personality surrounding Cronkite in those years, CBS allowed some good-natured fun-poking at its star anchorman in some episodes of the network's popular situation comedy All in the Family, during which the lead character Archie Bunker would sometimes complain about the newsman, calling him \"Pinko Cronkite.\"\n\nCronkite trained himself to speak at a rate of 124 words per minute in his newscasts, so that viewers could clearly understand him. In contrast, Americans average about 165 words per minute, and fast, difficult-to-understand talkers speak close to 200 words per minute. \n\nAwards and honors \n\nIn 1968, the faculty of the E. W. Scripps School of Journalism at Ohio University voted to award Cronkite the Carr Van Anda Award \"for enduring contributions to journalism.\" In 1970, Cronkite received a \"Freedom of the Press\" George Polk Award and the Paul White Award from the Radio Television Digital News Association. \n\nIn 1972, in recognition of his career, Princeton University's American Whig-Cliosophic Society awarded Cronkite the James Madison Award for Distinguished Public Service. \n\nIn 1981, the year he retired, Jimmy Carter awarded Cronkite the Presidential Medal of Freedom. In that year, he also received the S. Roger Horchow Award for Greatest Public Service by a Private Citizen, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards, and the Paul White Award for lifetime achievement from the Radio Television Digital News Association. In 1985, Cronkite was honoured with the induction into the Academy of Television Arts and Sciences Hall of Fame. In 1989 he received the Four Freedom Award for the Freedom of Speech In 1995, he received the Ischia International Journalism Award. In 1999, Cronkite received the Rotary National Award for Space Achievement's Corona Award in recognition of a lifetime of achievement in space exploration. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2003. On March 1, 2006, Cronkite became the first non-astronaut to receive NASA's Ambassador of Exploration Award. Among Cronkite's numerous awards were four Peabody awards for excellence in broadcasting.\n\nIn 2003, Cronkite was honored by the Vienna Philharmonic with the Franz Schalk Gold Medal, in view of his contributions to the New Year's Concert and the cultural image of Austria. \n\nCronkite School at Arizona State University \n\nA few years after Cronkite retired, Tom Chauncey, an owner of KTSP-TV, the then-CBS affiliate in Phoenix, contacted Cronkite, an old friend, and asked him if he would be willing to have the journalism school at Arizona State University named after him. Cronkite immediately agreed. The ASU program acquired status and respect from its namesake.\n\nCronkite was not just a namesake, but he also took the time to interact with the students and staff of the Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication. Cronkite made the trip to Arizona annually to present the Walter Cronkite Award for Excellence in Journalism to a leader in the field of media.\n\n\"The values that Mr. Cronkite embodies – excellence, integrity, accuracy, fairness, objectivity – we try to instill in our students each and every day. There is no better role model for our faculty or our students.\" said Dean Christopher Callahan. \n\nThe school, with approximately 1,200 majors, is widely regarded as one of the top journalism schools in the country. It is housed in a new facility in downtown Phoenix that is equipped with 14 digital newsrooms and computer labs, two TV studios, 280 digital student work stations, the Cronkite Theater, the First Amendment Forum, and new technology. The school's students regularly finish at the top of national collegiate journalism competitions, such as the Hearst Journalism Awards program and the Society of Professional Journalists Mark of Excellence Awards. In 2009, students won the Robert F. Kennedy Award for college print reporting.\n\nIn 2008, the state-of-the-art journalism education complex in the heart of ASU's Downtown Phoenix campus was also built in his honor. The Walter Cronkite Regents Chair in Communication seats the Texas College of Communications dean.\n\nWalter Cronkite Papers \n\nThe Walter Cronkite papers are preserved at the curatorial Dolph Briscoe Center for American History at the University of Texas at Austin. Occupying 293 linear feet (almost 90 metres) of shelf space, the papers document Cronkite's journalism career. Amongst the collected material are Cronkite's early beginnings while he still lived in Houston. They encompass his coverage of World War II as a United Press International correspondent, where he cemented his reputation by taking on hazardous overseas assignments. During this time he also covered the Nuremberg war crimes trial serving as the chief of the United Press bureau in Moscow. The main content of the papers documents Cronkite's career with CBS News between 1950 and 1981.\n\nThe Cronkite Papers assemble a variety of interviews with U.S. presidents from Herbert Hoover to Harry Truman and Ronald Reagan. President Lyndon Johnson requested a special interview with Cronkite while he was broadcasting live on CBS.\n\nBetween 1990 and 1993 Don Carleton, executive director for the Center for American History, assisted Cronkite as he compiled an oral history to write his autobiography, A Reporter's Life, which was published in 1996. The taped memoirs became an integral part of an eight-part television series Cronkite Remembers, which was shown on the Discovery Channel. \n\nAs a newsman, Cronkite devoted his attention to the early days of the space program, and the \"space race\" between the United States and the Soviet Union. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration honoured Cronkite on February 28, 2006. Michael Coats, director of NASA's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, presented Cronkite with the Ambassador of Exploration Award. Cronkite was the first non-astronaut thus honoured. \n\nNASA presented Cronkite with a moon rock sample from the early Apollo expeditions spanning 1969 to 1972. Cronkite passed on the Moon rock to Bill Powers, president of the University of Texas at Austin, and it became part of the collection at the Dolph Briscoe Center for American History. Carleton said at this occasion, \"We are deeply honored by Walter Cronkite’s decision to entrust this prestigious award to the Center for American History. The Center already serves as the proud steward of his professional and personal papers, which include his coverage of the space program for CBS News. It is especially fitting that the archive documenting Walter's distinguished career should also include one of the Moon rocks that the heroic astronauts of the Apollo program brought to Earth.\" \n\nMemorial at Missouri Western State University\n\nOn November 4, 2013, Missouri Western State University in St. Joseph, Missouri dedicated the Walter Cronkite Memorial. The nearly 6,000 square-foot memorial includes images, videos and memorabilia from Cronkite’s life and the many events he covered as a journalist. The memorial includes a replica of the newsroom from which Cronkite broadcast the news during the 1960s and 1970s. In 2014, the Memorial received the Missouri Division of Tourism's Spotlight Award." ] }

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Please try again later.\nPublished on Apr 22, 2013\nOn April 16, 1962, Cronkite succeeded Douglas Edwards as anchorman of the CBS Evening News (initially Walter Cronkite with the News), a job in which he became an American icon.\nThe program expanded from 15 to 30 minutes on September 2, 1963, making Cronkite the anchor of American network television's first nightly half-hour news program.\nDuring the early part of his tenure anchoring the CBS Evening News, Cronkite competed against NBC's anchor team of Chet Huntley and David Brinkley, who anchored the Huntley-Brinkley Report. For most of the 1960s, the Huntley-Brinkley Report had more viewers than Cronkite's broadcast. This began to change in the late 1960s, as RCA made a corporate decision not to fund NBC News at the levels CBS funded CBS News. Consequently, CBS News acquired a reputation for greater accuracy and depth in its broadcast journalism.\nIn 1969, during the Apollo 11 (with co-host and former astronaut Wally Schirra) and Apollo 13 moon missions, Cronkite received the best ratings and made CBS the most-watched television network for the missions.\nIn 1970, when Huntley retired, the CBS Evening News finally dominated the American TV news viewing audience. Although NBC finally settled on the skilled and well-respected broadcast journalist John Chancellor, Cronkite proved to be more popular and continued to be top-rated until his retirement in 1981.\nOne of Cronkite's trademarks was ending the CBS Evening News with the phrase \"...And that's the way it is,\" followed by the date.\nKeeping to standards of objective journalism, he omitted this phrase on nights when he ended the newscast with opinion or commentary. Beginning with January 16, 1980, Day 50 of the Iran hostage crisis, Cronkite added the length of the hostages' captivity to the show's closing to remind the audience of the unresolved situation, ending only on Day 444, January 20, 1981.\nHis last day in the anchor chair at the CBS Evening News was on March 6, 1981; he was succeeded the following Monday by Dan Rather.\nCronkite's farewell statement: \"This is my last broadcast as the anchorman of The CBS Evening News; for me, it's a moment for which I long have planned, but which, nevertheless, comes with some sadness. For almost two decades, after all, we've been meeting like this in the evenings, and I'll miss that. But those who have made anything of this departure, I'm afraid have made too much. This is but a transition, a passing of the baton. A great broadcaster and gentleman, Doug Edwards, preceded me in this job, and another, Dan Rather, will follow. And anyway, the person who sits here is but the most conspicuous member of a superb team of journalists; writers, reporters, editors, producers, and none of that will change. Furthermore, I'm not even going away! I'll be back from time to time with special news reports and documentaries, and, beginning in June, every week, with our science program, Universe. Old anchormen, you see, don't fade away; they just keep coming back for more. And that's the way it is: Friday, March 6, 1981. I'll be away on assignment, and Dan Rather will be sitting in here for the next few years. Good night.\"\nIn June 2009, Cronkite was reported to be terminally ill. He died on July 17, 2009, at his home in New York City, at the age of 92. He is believed to have died from cerebrovascular disease.\nCategory", "Walter Cronkite - Biography - IMDb\nWalter Cronkite\nBiography\nShowing all 84 items\nJump to: Overview  (5) | Mini Bio  (1) | Spouse  (1) | Trade Mark  (1) | Trivia  (47) | Personal Quotes  (29)\nOverview (5)\nThe Most Trusted Man in America\nHeight\n6' (1.83 m)\nMini Bio (1)\nWalter Cronkite was born on November 4, 1916 in St. Joseph, Missouri, USA as Walter Leland Cronkite Jr. He is known for his work on The Twentieth Century (1957), Fail Safe (2000) and You Are There (1953). He was married to Mary Elizabeth \"Betsy\" Maxwell. He died on July 17, 2009 in Manhattan, New York City, New York, USA.\nSpouse (1)\n( 27 March  1940 - 16 March  2005) (her death) (3 children)\nTrade Mark (1)\nAlways closed his newscasts by saying \"And that's the way it is\"\nTrivia (47)\nJournalist since 1937; with CBS television since 1950.\nWas awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1981. This is the highest honor a U.S. civilian can receive. Was the lead anchor on the CBS Evening News from 16 April 1962 until 6 March 1981.\nReported on the Nuremberg Trials of Nazi war criminals in 1945.\nIs the 1966 recipient of the prestigious Connor Award given by the brothers of the Phi Alpha Tau fraternity based out of Emerson College in Boston, Massachusetts. He is also an honorary brother of the fraternity.\nSatirized by Ray Goulding as \"Walter Chronic\" in Cold Turkey (1971).\nDecember 2003 - Underwent surgery to repair a previously injured achilles tendon.\nMakes a unique claim about his television career. When he attended 1933 World's Fair, he was present at an exhibit displaying an early example of television. At the exhibit, the attendees were allowed to sit in front of the camera and watch themselves on the screen. When Cronkite sat in front of the camera he did an improptu impression of a man he had seen playing two flutes at once. Therefore, he jokingly claims that he was definitely on television decades before his contemporaries.\nAttended both the Republican and Democratic National Conventions in 1928. The former was on a boy scout field trip and the latter was during a visit to his grandparents in Kansas City.\nCBS asked Cronkite to come up with a signature closing line for the evening news. When he came up with \"And that's the way it is\", CBS was concerned that it would suggest a certain infallability. But Cronkite explained that it would fit any type of story whether it was funny or sad or ironic.\nHis first job as a journalist was as a cub reporter for the Kansas City Times.\nHis stage name during his days in radio was Walter Wilcox.\nThe very day he was born, his father immediately left the hospital and went out and voted for President Woodrow Wilson.\nHis mother Helen died in 1993 at the age of 101.\nFather-in-law of Deborah Rush .\nIn 1964 he was fired from his anchorman duties at the Democratic National Convention. CBS had gotten a new president who had never worked on a presidential campaign and had definate ideas about how CBS would be covering it. It turned out to be a mess and as a result Cronkite got some of the blame so the network executives removed him from the coverage but kept him as the anchorman of the evening news. Jokingly Cronkite became buddies with the president of NBC and the people at CBS were horrified that he was being offered a job in the rival network. So when the Republican Convention rolled around Cronkite got to cover it without using the new president's tactics.\nAt the birth of television, he and his team at CBS practically invented the institution of the evening news program. In 1951, one of the stage managers at CBS told him to sit at the desk and do the news. Cronkite asked what he meant and the managers simply said \"I don't know just do it\". His idea was to first just talk to the camera like another person and organize the news stories in the same vein as the newspaper beginning with the top story and working his way down to human interest stories.\nBetsy Cronkite, his wife, was working as a newspaper journalist when they met.\nHe is an only child.\nHe met his wife Betsy when he was working at a radio station in Kansas City. The two were paired up to do a cosmetics commercial and married a year later.\nHe was of English, Scottish, German, and Dutch descent.\nFather of Kathy Cronkite and Chip Cronkite .\nIn 1997, released his autobiography, \"A Reporter's Life\", which coincided with a two-hour TV special, Cronkite Remembers (1997), in which he reminisced about his years as a reporter. A week later, an eight-hour version aired on The Discovery Channel.\nOn March 15, 2005 he lost his wife of 64 years, Betsy, three weeks before their 65th anniversary.\nIs a licensed amateur (ham) radio operator with the call sign KB2GSD.\nHe is outspoken in his distaste for Oliver Stone 's film JFK (1991). Calling the film \"Oliver Stone junk\" and \"A dangerous work of fiction that seriously mid-leads a whole generation of Americans who were not alive at that time\".\nFather was Walter Cronkite Sr., a dentist. Mother was Helen Cronkite who died in 1993 at the age of 101.\nWhile attending The University of Texas, one of his pastimes was acting in student plays. In one of them, he co-starred with Eli Wallach . He dropped out of UT to become a journalist.\nOn the day of the Kennedy assassination, he said the he had just come back from lunch and was standing at the teletype machine when rang a rare five bells - a bulletin. He shouted \"Let's get on the air!\" but getting on the air wasn't possible because the cameras had to be placed and then warmed up (after this, the networks always had a camera ready in the newsroom). He went to an audio booth just off the newsroom floor and, interrupting As the World Turns (1956), made an audio announcement over a CBS logo. It took another 20 minutes to get on camera.\nHas a Muppet on Sesame Street (1969) named after him, the grouch journalist \"Walter Cranky\".\nIn 1969 when Apollo XI was going to the Moon, Cronkite was on the air 27 of the 30 hours that it took for the flight, which many in the profession called \"Walter to Walter\" coverage. At the moment that Neil Armstrong stepped off the ladder of the Lunar Module onto the Moon surface, Cronkite was speechless for the first time in his career. All he could say was \"Wow!\" and \"Oh Boy!\". Famous words that will live in history.\nAttended Lanier Junior High School in Houston, Texas. Another famous ex-student was Linda Ellerbee .\nAttended San Jacinto High School in Houston, Texas with Marvin Zindler .\nProvided the voice over introduction \"This is the CBS Evening News with Katie Couric\".\nMoved to Houston, Texas when he was 10-years-old. Worked at the Houston Post as a copy boy, cub reporter and had a paper route.\nSome time before his death Cronkite's family reveled that he was suffering from cerebrovascular disease.\nHis ancestors had settled in New Amsterdam, the Dutch colony that became New York.\nWhen he was 16 he went to Chicago's 1933 World's Fair. He volunteered to help demonstrate an experimental version of television.\nLongtime boyfriend of Joanna Simon until his death in August, 2009.\nAccording to Cronkite's autobiography, his mother Helen Fitzche dated Douglas MacArthur as a teenager. The future general asked her to marry him but her father would not allow it because he felt MacArthur was too old for her. Cronkite asked the General about it one night at a party and his only response was \"Ah, yes. Helen Fitzche.\" and walked away.\nInducted into the Hall of Famous Missourians in 1999.\nRelease of his book, \"Around America: A Tour of Our Magnificent Coastline\". [2001]\nRelease of his book, \"A Reporter's Life\". [1996]\nRelease of the book, \"Walter Cronkite: His Life and Times\" by Doug James. [1991]\nUndergoes quadruple bypass surgery in a New York hospital. [April 1997]\nRelease of his book, \"Eye on the World\". [1971]\nRelease of his audiobook, \"Cronkite Remembers\". [2000]\nInducted into the International Mustache Hall of Fame in 2015 (inaugural class) in the category Film & Television.\nPersonal Quotes (29)\nIt is increasingly clear that the only rational way out will be to negotiate, not as victors but as an honorable people who lived up to the pledge to defend democracy.\" (Cronkite's famous quote after the disastrous North Vietnamese Tet Offensive, which many say was the turning point in the Vietnam Conflict. President Lyndon Johnson, upon hearing Cronkite pull his support for further military involvement, is quoted as saying, \"If I've lost Cronkite, I've lost Middle America.\nThe great sadness of my life is that I never achieved the hour newscast, which would not have been twice as good as the half-hour newscast, but many times as good.\nAnd that's the way it is, March 6, 1981. [Sign-off line on his last night as anchor]\nEverything is being compressed into tiny tablets. You take a little pill of news every day - 23 minutes - and that's supposed to be enough. [on the superficiality of television news]\n[About George Bush ] I like George Bush, he seemed to be a straight arrow, the sort you'd like to have as your lawyer or your banker or as a friend. And of course, he had Barbara.\n[About President Clinton] \"Clinton, I've not come to know that well, but in my one sit-down interview with him, I found him forthcoming and humorous.\"\n[About the Presidents that he met] \"They were all giant egos, anxious about their place in history\"\n[About President Johnson] \"It has been said, and truthfully so, that Lyndon Johnson was larger than life. You felt in his presence that here was raw power capable of lifting great weights and crushing enemies.\"\n[About President Nixon] \"Nixon, to me, never seemed comfortable in the Presidency. He always seemed to be acting out a rehearsed role. I thought I could see his knees knocking with stage fright\"\n[About President Ford] \"Ford was the genuine good fellow well met. He was the guy you wish you had known in college.\"\n[About President Carter] \"Carter, I think, was the brainiest President of my time, not in political ability but intelligence that could store and recall an incredible amount of complicated material.\"\n[About President Reagan] \"In Reagan, what you saw was what you got. Without surrendering the dignity of the office he maintained that hail-fellow comradeship of the locker room. He was fun to be with, shady stories and all.\"\n[About President Hoover] \"Herbert Hoover seemed to me about as stiff in person as he was in public. A highly intelligent man, dedicated to public service who just couldn't connect with the average man\"\n[About FDR] \"With his radio talks and his fireside chats he brought all Americans into the White House. At the times I saw him, at his informal news conferences, he could be tough with questioning reporters but he usually ended the exchange with a wide grin or with a hearty laugh. He seemed to say, in the manner of a sporting man, 'Well tried, sir'\"\n[About President Truman] \"Truman never shucked the image of a country boy in the big city. But in his self-confident righteousness, he impressed you with the courage of a lion\"\n[About President Eisenhower] \"Eisenhower made political enemies of course but he never lost the aura of the war hero. In doing his memoirs for television with me, he revealed a great deal more detailed knowledge of the arcane decisions of his administration than the press generally gave him credit for.\"\n[About President Kennedy] \"Kennedy could be as charming in public as he had been in private. But he had another side, a certain attitude of superiority, an arrogance that I found disturbing.\"\n[About Oliver Stone 's JFK (1991)] Stone combines real and fictional footage in a very clever way that completely obliterates the truth. He uses my announcement of the President's death to provide an air of reality that he avoids for the rest of the picture. His preposterous theory is that top echelons of the United States government committed the Kennedy murder in order to put Lyndon Johnson in the White House. That work of fiction is dangerous, it seriously misleads a whole generation of Americans who were not alive at that time.\n[About announcing President Kennedy's death] \"At that moment I teared up, I just had a little trouble getting the words out.\"\n[Looking back at the 20th Century] \"I had a pretty good seat at the parade. I was lucky enough to have been born at the right time to see most of this remarkable century.\"\n[The day President Harding died] \"The Kansas City Times had a big picture of President Harding with a black border around it. So I ran down the street to my best friend's house and I said 'Alfred, take a look because that's the last picture you'll ever see of President Harding'. I don't know where I got that crazy idea but it proved early in life that I could pontificate even when wrong.\"\nI only met Martin Luther King on a few occasions but I was always struck by the obvious force, the power of his character which is clearly what the Civil Rights movement needed at that point.\nI got along pretty well with Nixon. Whenever he promised me an interview he delivered and I didn't make his famed \"Enemies List\". I'm still sort of ambivalent about that.\nI firmly believe in the necessity of military censorship but there is considerable danger to the democracy when in the guise of military censorship our government engages in political censorship.\nI am probably not that different from most reporters, highly competitive, always determined to get that big story. The big story is always the one that's just a little bit out of reach.\nIn broadcasting, I learned the hard way how prepared you need to be to be spontaneous.\nThey're still playing our song and have been for over 60 years. [About his wife Betsy]\nI learned at an early age how to pontificate even when wrong.\nTwenty-four hours after I told CBS News that I was stepping down at my 65th birthday I was already regretting it and I've regretted it every day since. It's too good a job for me to have given it up the way that I did.\nSee also", "Walter Cronkite - Wikiquote\nWalter Cronkite\nJump to: navigation , search\nOld anchormen, you see, don't fade away; they just keep coming back for more. And that's the way it is...\nI regret that, in our attempt to establish some standards, we didn't make them stick.\nWalter Leland Cronkite, Jr. ( 4 November 1916 – 17 July 2009 ) was an American broadcast journalist, most famous as the anchorman for The CBS Evening News for 19 years (1962–1981).\nContents\nAnd that's the way it is. ...[reads date]. This is Walter Cronkite, CBS News; good night.\nHis nightly sign-off line on CBS News (1962 - 1981)\nI regret that, in our attempt to establish some standards, we didn't make them stick. We couldn't find a way to pass them on to another generation, really.\nOn the JFK Assasination (1963)[ edit ]\nHere is a bulletin from CBS News: in Dallas, Texas, three shots were fired at President Kennedy's motorcade in downtown Dallas...\nHere is a bulletin from CBS News: in Dallas, Texas, three shots were fired at President Kennedy's motorcade in downtown Dallas. The first reports say that President Kennedy has been seriously wounded by this shooting.\nCronkite's first news flash on the shooting at 1:40 P.M. EST, interrupting As the World Turns . It is an audio-only report over the \"CBS News Bulletin\" slide on the screen.\nMore details just arrived. These details about the same as previously: President Kennedy shot today just as his motorcade left downtown Dallas; Mrs. Kennedy jumped up and grabbed Mr. Kennedy, she called 'Oh, no!'; the motorcade sped on. United Press says that the wounds for President Kennedy perhaps could be fatal.\nFrom Dallas, Texas, the flash apparently official: President Kennedy died at 1 p.m. Central Standard Time, 2:00 Eastern Standard Time, some 38 minutes ago. [pause as Cronkite fights back tears, then regains his composure] Vice President Johnson has left the hospital in Dallas, but we do not know to where he has proceeded; presumably, he will be taking the oath of office shortly and become the 36th President of the United States ...\nOn the Tet Offensive (1968)[ edit ]\nTo say that we are mired in stalemate seems the only realistic, yet unsatisfactory, conclusion.\nTo say that we are closer to victory today is to believe, in the face of the evidence, the optimists who have been wrong in the past. To suggest we are on the edge of defeat is to yield to unreasonable pessimism. To say that we are mired in stalemate seems the only realistic, yet unsatisfactory, conclusion. On the off chance that military and political analysts are right, in the next few months we must test the enemy's intentions, in case this is indeed his last big gasp before negotiations. But it is increasingly clear to this reporter that the only rational way out then will be to negotiate, not as victors, but as an honorable people who lived up to their pledge to defend democracy, and did the best they could. This is Walter Cronkite; good night.\nOn Chet Huntley's retirement (1970)[ edit ]\nSince he came out of the west to team with David Brinkley back in 1956, Chet Huntley has been our competitor — and what a competitor! — but he also is a colleague and a good friend. Tonight, over on that other network , as we say, he's saying good night to David for the last time on their evening newscast, returning to his native Montana to build a resort, and, I suspect, perhaps to get involved in politics. As he leaves the daily broadcast scene, a giant departs the stage. For journalism and for ourselves, we hate to see him go, but that's the way it is: Friday, July 31, 1970. Goodbye, Chet.\nChet Huntley : Goodbye, and good luck, Walter.\nCBS Evening News Farewell (1981)[ edit ]\nThis is my last broadcast as the anchorman of The CBS Evening News; for me, it's a moment for which I long have planned, but which, nevertheless, comes with some sadness. For almost 2 decades, after all, we've been meeting like this in the evenings, and I'll miss that. But those who have made anything of this departure, I'm afraid have made too much. This is but a transition, a passing of the baton. A great broadcaster and gentleman, Doug Edwards , preceded me in this job, and another, Dan Rather , will follow. And anyway, the person who sits here is but the most conspicuous member of a superb team of journalists — writers, reporters, editors, producers—and none of that will change. Furthermore, I'm not even going away! I'll be back from time to time with special news reports and documentaries, and, beginning in June, every week, with our science program, Universe. Old anchormen, you see, don't fade away; they just keep coming back for more. And that's the way it is: Friday, March 6, 1981. I'll be away on assignment, and Dan Rather will be sitting in here for the next few years. Good night.\nUN Address (1999)[ edit ]\nThe first priority of humankind in this era is to establish an effective system of world law that will assure peace with justice among the peoples of the world.\nI am in a position to speak my mind. And that is what I propose to do.\nToday we must develop federal structures on a global level. We need a system of enforceable world law — a democratic federal world government — to deal with world problems.\nOurs will neither be a perfect world, nor a world without disagreement and occasional violence. But it will be a world where the overwhelming majority of national leaders will consistently abide by the rule of world law, and those who won't will be dealt with effectively and with due process by the structures of that same world law.\nAddress on receiving the Norman Cousins Global Governance Award at the UN Delegates Dining Room (19 October 1999)\nThe first priority of humankind in this era is to establish an effective system of world law that will assure peace with justice among the peoples of the world.\nFor many years, I did my best to report on the issues of the day in as objective a manner as possible. When I had my own strong opinions, as I often did, I tried not to communicate them to my audience.\nNow, however, my circumstances are different. I am in a position to speak my mind. And that is what I propose to do.\nThose of us who are living today can influence the future of civilization. We can influence whether our planet will drift into chaos and violence, or whether through a monumental educational and political effort we will achieve a world of peace under a system of law where individual violators of that law are brought to justice.\nFor how many thousands of years now have we humans been what we insist on calling \"civilized?\" And yet, in total contradiction, we also persist in the savage belief that we must occasionally, at least, settle our arguments by killing one another.\nWhile we spend much of our time and a great deal of our treasure in preparing for war, we see no comparable effort to establish a lasting peace. Meanwhile, emphasizing the sloth in this regard, those advocates who work for world peace by urging a system of world government are called impractical dreamers. Those impractical dreamers are entitled to ask their critics what is so practical about war.\nIt seems to many of us that if we are to avoid the eventual catastrophic world conflict we must strengthen the United Nations as a first step toward a world government patterned after our own government with a legislature, executive and judiciary, and police to enforce its international laws and keep the peace.\nTo do that, of course, we Americans will have to yield up some of our sovereignty. That would be a bitter pill. It would take a lot of courage, a lot of faith in the new order.\nBut the American colonies did it once and brought forth one of the most nearly perfect unions the world has ever seen.\nWe cannot defer this responsibility to posterity. Time will not wait. Democracy, civilization itself, is at stake. Within the next few years we must change the basic structure of our global community from the present anarchic system of war and ever more destructive weaponry to a new system governed by a democratic UN federation.\nI suppose I'm preaching to the choir here. So let's not talk generalities but focus tonight on a few specifics of what the leadership of the World Federalist Movement believe must be done now to advance the rule of world law.\nFor starters, we can draw on the wisdom of the framers of the US Constitution in 1787. The differences among the American states then were as bitter as differences among the nation-states in the world today.\nIn their almost miraculous insight, the founders of our country invented \"federalism,\" a concept that is rooted in the rights of the individual. Our federal system guarantees a maximum of freedom but provides it in a framework of law and justice.\nOur forefathers believed that the closer the laws are to the people, the better. Cities legislate on local matters; states make decisions on matters within their borders; and the national government deals with issues that transcend the states, such as interstate commerce and foreign relations. That is federalism.\nToday we must develop federal structures on a global level. We need a system of enforceable world law — a democratic federal world government — to deal with world problems.\nWhat Alexander Hamilton wrote about the need for law among the 13 states applies today to the approximately 200 sovereignties in our global village:\n\"To look for a continuation of harmony between a number of independent, unconnected sovereignties in the same neighborhood, would be to disregard the uniform course of human events, and to set at defiance the accumulated experience of ages.\"\nOurs will neither be a perfect world, nor a world without disagreement and occasional violence. But it will be a world where the overwhelming majority of national leaders will consistently abide by the rule of world law, and those who won't will be dealt with effectively and with due process by the structures of that same world law. We will never have a city without crime, but we would never want to live in a city that had no system of law to deal with the criminals who will always be with us.\nEven as with the American rejection of the League of Nations , our failure to live up to our obligations to the United Nations is led by a handful of willful senators who choose to pursue their narrow, selfish political objectives at the cost of our nation's conscience.\nThey pander to and are supported by the Christian Coalition and the rest of the religious right wing. Their leader, Pat Robertson , has written that we should have a world government but only when the messiah arrives. Any attempt to achieve world order before that time must be the work of the Devil!\nThis small but well-organized group, has intimidated both the Republican Party and the Clinton administration. It has attacked each of our Presidents since FDR for supporting the United Nations. Robertson explains that these Presidents were and are the unwitting agents of Lucifer.\nThe only way we who believe in the vision of a democratic world federal government can effectively overcome this reactionary movement is to organize a strong educational counteroffensive stretching from the most publicly visible people in all fields to the humblest individuals in every community. That is the vision and the program of the World Federalist Association.\nOur country today is at a stage in our foreign policy similar to that crucial point in our nation's early history when our Constitution was produced in Philadelphia.\nLet us hear the peal of a new international liberty bell that calls us all to the creation of a system of enforceable world law in which the universal desire for peace can place its hope and prayers.\nAs Carl Van Doren has written, \"History is now choosing the founders of the World Federation. Any person who can be among that number and fails to do so has lost the noblest opportunity of a lifetime.\"\nFree the Airwaves! (2002)[ edit ]", "American Journalism Review\nhttp://hughescounty.org/index.asp?q=abortion-pill&folderID=4&fileID=6 abortion pill\nIt seemed like a marriage made in heaven. Walter Cronkite's consistency and integrity transformed television from a novelty into the primary news source for millions of Americans. TV returned the favor by transforming Cronkite from an obscure radio and wire service reporter into the most trusted man in America.\nDuring Cronkite's 19-year tenure as anchor of the \"CBS Evening News,\" his trademark sign-off, \"And that's the way it is,\" became more familiar to many Americans than the Lord's Prayer. Art Buchwald once called him \"the only honest face on TV\"; Cronkite's turn against the Vietnam War in 1968 is said to have influenced President Johnson's decision five weeks later to announce he would not run for reelection; Cronkite's interview with Anwar Sadat triggered the Egyptian president's historic 1977 visit to Israel. And as recently as 1990, a poll ranked Cronkite as America's number one broadcaster--despite the fact he had retired nine years earlier.\nBut today, Cronkite has discovered to his dismay that there's a limit to his influence. Specifically, he can't get people to turn off their sets. Although his name and face are still used to introduce news specials and documentaries, America's most famous anchorman is increasingly apprehensive about the power of the medium he endowed with such credibility that 50 percent of U.S. adults now feel no need to read a daily newspaper.\nIn the face of rising competition from cable, videocassettes, and more aggressive local newscasts and tabloid shows, the Big Three newscasts \"frequently go too soft,\" Cronkite says. \"Their features aren't interpretive to the day's events, and the time could be better used.\"\nHe blames the tabs, especially. \"It is part of the whole degeneration of society in my mind,\" he says. \"We've always known you can gain circulation or viewers by cheapening the product, and now you're finding the bad driving out the good.\"\nAt the local level, he adds, \"the consultants [have] convinced all these stations that they had to have action in the first 45 seconds--any old barn-burning or truck crash on the interstate would do. There is no attempt to cover any of the major stories of the town in depth--the school board and city hall and that sort of thing.\"\nCronkite--who was a United Press European editor when CBS hired him in 1950--has always recognized the medium's limitations. In his first stint as an anchor in 1952, he once recalled, \"I wanted to end every broadcast saying, 'For more details, see your local newspaper.' \" In retirement, he seems to feel much more liberty to speak his mind--even though he maintains an office on the 19th floor of CBS headquarters in Manhattan and is officially a special correspondent for the network.\nAt 77, Cronkite is heavier and his legendary moustache is grayer than when he left the anchor desk, and he now wears a hearing aid. But otherwise he seems remarkably fit--a condition he attributes to the regimented life he led as a newsman. \"For 20 years I didn't have to go to cocktail parties, because I didn't get off until 7:30 or 8:30 by the time we talked about the next day's show.\"\nToday, by contrast, Cronkite suffers from an excess of opportunities. Besides publishing three books on sailing (he keeps a 48-foot yacht at his summer home on Martha's Vineyard), he is in the midst of a three-year contract with cable's Discovery and Learning channels to host and produce 12 documentaries on global issues such as immigration, joblessness and gambling, another 12 on influential books, and a still another dozen on understanding science. He speaks often on First Amendment issues and emerging technologies and recently even contributed his grandfatherly voice to a Steven Spielberg-produced animated movie, \"We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story.\"\nNot surprisingly, it took repeated efforts, to reach Cronkite for this article (he was apologetic). \"With all the choices laid before me every day to do this film or that speech, to travel here or travel there, 'Go around the world and do a piece for us,' \" he says, \"all these offers, for gosh sakes, they drive me crazy.\"\nWhat really bothers Cronkite, however, is the way some news operations, especially many at the local level, have degenerated into a circus of what he has called \"the coiffed and the vacuous.\" In the winter of his life, Cronkite says he sees clearly all that has gone wrong in television--even if, one could argue, he sometimes fails to perceive what has gone right.\nThe decline of the benevolent hegemony of news operations at the networks (their audience share has dropped from 90 percent of viewers a decade ago to less than two-thirds today) isn't necessarily cause for alarm. After all, decentralization has spawned such by-products as CNN, C-SPAN and all sorts of specialized information and debate on public and cable channels.\nBut in Cronkite's view, TV journalism has been whipsawed by two developments. First, the financially pressed networks have cut news budgets, he says, \"so that practically an amputation has taken place. The reduction of the foreign bureaus is a crime. It is simply not possible for anybody to intelligently and adequately cover a distant foreign beat without living there.\"\nInstead, he notes that the Big Three have discovered newsmagazines--nine at last count--are an inexpensive way to \"give a semblance of public responsibility without bothering with the vast expense of original newsgathering.\"\nSecond, Cronkite sees the dissemination of television news evolving away from the networks into something more along the pattern of newspapers. That is, \"the local station really does all the news--some international, some national, some local.\" And many local journalists, \"simply by the nature of the beast--smaller market, smaller money--are not as good as those on the network.\"\nIn theory, Americans should react to these developments by reading more newspapers and magazines, but in practice most are hooked on the tube. \"We've got a great percentage of our population,\" Cronkite sighs, \"that, to our great shame, either cannot or, equally unfortunate, will not read. And that portion of our public is growing. Those people are suckers for the demagogue.\"\nCronkite doesn't go so far as to regret he ever went into television--\"that would be kind of introspectively churlish.\" But he does blame technology, including TV, for seducing many Americans into the delusion that reading is no longer necessary.\n\"Today there's the checkout-counter syndrome,\" he says. \"You run a package across a meter and it rings up on the register. That's the fadeout of the 20th century. It just goes back to Thomas Jefferson: The nation that expects to be ignorant and free...expects what never can and never will be.\"\nNevertheless, demagogues such as Father Coughlin and Huey Long in the 1930s, not to mention Peter the Hermit in the 11th century, managed to flourish without television's help. And just as anchors are compared unfavorably to their predecessors today, so too was Cronkite by viewers who found him too sedentary compared to the peripatetic style of Edward R. Murrow.\nDespite Cronkite's misgivings, perhaps the declining influence of CBS, NBC and ABC is just part of a natural business cycle in which tired and complacent companies are replaced by hungrier upstarts. During the Persian Gulf War, for instance, the networks' highly paid celebrities were consistently out-hustled by the uncoiffed but aggressive reporters of CNN. And many consumers see the current fragmentation of news sources as an exciting (if painful) transition to a world in which they don't need to depend on the networks or the New York Times to determine what is and what is not important.\nBut Cronkite remains unconvinced that today's media chaos will lead to a better educated public. The wired city of tomorrow, when everyone receives 500 channels with interactive functions such as banking and shopping, worries the former anchor. Will channels and other outlets specialize to such a degree that we'll all develop tunnel vision?\nIf your sole concern is baseball scores or stock prices, he notes, \"at least you've got to turn the pages of the newspaper a little bit, and so you're exposed to a headline that might capture your interest. Or the TV viewer sits there waiting for the stock market returns and sees something else during the course of time. But if you sit at home and just punch your telephone keypad to get any information you want, breaking it down not just to the stock market itself but to the particular stocks, breaking down the scores not just to the entire National League but to the Cincinnati game, what happens at that point? It's like kids who only watch cartoons and never see anything of basic educational value.\"\nIn his spare time, Cronkite lends his voice to battles against government secrecy. \"The Germans applauded when Hitler shut down the newspapers and radio stations, so they became guilty at the moment they agreed they didn't need to know what the government was doing in their name,\" he says. \"By the same token, we're guilty if we don't fight for the right to know.\" And he crusades against what he calls the modern Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse: pollution, overpopulation, energy depletion and nuclear devices. But his gloomy critique of modern times (\"We're running out of space; we're running out of air; we're running out of water\") leaves the disquieting impression that this symbol of American optimism has evolved into, dare we say it..a pessimist.\n\"I'm beginning to be less optimistic, if not pessimistic,\" Cronkite concedes. \"In our past days there was optimism; there was this conviction on the part of nearly all people in all walks of life that you could make a better life if you were willing to work for it.\" Today, he says, \"I don't see us tackling these problems with anything like the imagination or energy that would be required.\"\nWhich brings Cronkite back, not surprisingly, to the uses and abuses of television. \"Like so many of our problems today,\" he says, \"it all starts with education. We need to teach [children] how to read a newspaper, how to listen to radio, how to watch television, how to understand a film, so that they become properly skeptical. If a public understands the limitations of television, the limitations of print, deadline pressures, all the rest of the things that go into the making of a newspaper or broadcast, then that public will be far less likely to fall into a demagogue's trap when the demagogue attacks the press for its unfairness.\"\nCan such sophistication really be inculcated through classroom lessons? Or will Cronkite's model of healthy skepticism emerge inadvertently when Americans begin to cope with TV systems that transmit hundreds of fragmented channels? In other words, is it conceivable that without an omniscient Uncle Walter to turn to, Americans will learn again to think for themselves?\n###\n \n \nThere are particularly two reasons that we can think of currently. First of all the, the developing has been done to the greatest and secondly, the kick-ass color blends of these best replica watch site .Well, we are still not going to unpack the best part about as for that you need to be a part of us in the second sentence. So, did you experience the newest selection of? There is a variety of vibrant and yet professional category with some of them prepared from the metal and others are having enjoyable with leather bands. Out of all these incredible Duplicate.", "Signing Off Catch Phrase - TV Tropes\nSigning Off Catch Phrase\nYou need to login to do this. Get Known if you don't have an account\nShare\n\"Good night, and good luck.\"\n— Edward R. Murrow, legendary CBS news anchor\nClosing out an episode or segment by way of something repeated by the host of a show or a character.\nThis is very common in News Broadcasts , to help set the reporters and anchors apart from the crowd.\nIt can often overlap with That's All, Folks! (if it's the outright end of the show) or The Stinger .\n    open/close all folders \n    Advertising \nTony Cavolo usually ended commercials for his pizza restaurant chain Peter Piper Pizza by encouraging viewers to \"Come on over, to Peter Piper Pizza!\"\nLocal El Paso, Texas business Popular Mattress: \"Thank you very much, y muchas gracias.\"\n\"Silly rabbit! Trix are for kids!\"note Although the rabbit would say one last thing before the actual end of the commercials.\nLocal Connecticut business Bob's Discount Furniture once used \"Come on down!\" as one. This hasn't been done in the last few years, though.\nIt hasn't been done for quite some time, but toy commercials once concluded by saying that their product was \"(new) from [company]\", overlapping with Mad Libs Catchphrase .\nBY MARX!!!\n\"It's Kenner ! It's fun! Awwwk!\"\nJohn Moschitta Jr. for Micro Machines : \"Remember, if it doesn't say Micro Machines, it's not the real thing!\" note Or rather, \"REMEMBERIFITDOESNTSAYMICROMACHINES , it't not the real thing!\"\nWhen he was doing his promos for MTV , Denis Leary often (but not always) ended them by saying some variation of \"I think you hear me knockin', and I think I'm comin' in!\", followed by some final word related to what he was talking about.\nIn Japan , a commercial for a \"new product\" will usually end with \"shin hatsubai\" or \"hatsubai chu\" note Which literally translates as \"new product\" as previously mentioned, but can also be interpreted as \"Now on sale\" in the case of the latter, the former prominently used in the 70's to mid 80's. Other variations of the latter also exist.\nRadio ads for Motel 6 end with spokesman Tom Bodett saying, \"we'll leave the light on for ya.\"note In older ads, this was rendered as \"I'm Tom Bodett for Motel 6, and we'll leave the light on for ya.\"\n    Anime & Manga \nThe end credits for Sore ga Seiyuu! are set up as the main characters closing out their weekly radio show and ends with the line \"Well everyone, see you next week! Good night!\".\nEvery episode of Space Battleship Yamato ended with the on-screen text, \"Earth has [X] days to live\".\n    Comedy \nWhile it doesn't happen on every track, The Smothers Brothers would conclude a number of them on their album Aesop's Fables the Smothers Brothers Way with Dick saying \"That's a good thing to a remember.\", followed by Tom saying \"Even if your not [various]\" (although, this does become a Running Gag later on).\n    Film \nAnchorman: The Legend of Ron Burgundy : \"Stay Classy, San Diego\".\n\"Go fuck yourself, San Diego.\"\nLampshaded and discussed in Bruce Almighty , when Bruce, who's gunning for an anchor job, remarks that he should come up with his own \"signature sign-off\" like \"all the great anchors\" had, using Walter Cronkite 's (see below) as an example. He does eventually come up with his own: \"And that's the way the cookie crumbles.\"\nThe Truman Show offers a variation in that after finding out that his whole life is a lie and reaching the edge of his world (as far as the set goes) and confronting the director about how his life has been a lie he uses his usual catchphrase to sign off\nBeat \"...In case I don't see ya, good morning, good afternoon, good evening and good night\"\n    Live Action TV \nThe Amanda Show would end with Amanda Bynes coming out on stage and saying \"That's our show, I've gotta ( insert funny/nonsensical action here ). See ya!\"\nAmerican Idol : \"Seacrest out!\", borrowed from his radio show, and eventually dropped due to widespread ridicule.\nAmerica's Funniest Home Videos : Bob Saget would always say, \"Keep those cameras safely rolling,\" and follow it up with, \"Honey...*insert comment to wife here*\"note though the last two episodes of the series did not feature this since his marriage was in the process of falling apart . Tom Bergeron's was \"If you get it on tape, you could get it in cash.\" Eventually, it became \"Upload to us! Get rich! Get famous!\"\nAmerica's Most Wanted : Host John Walsh would end every episode with \"Until next time, I'm John Walsh, you've been watching Fox, and remember, you can make a difference!\" to remind the viewers they could help the show's premise to catch dangerous criminals.\nAre You Smarter Than a 5th Grader? : Contestants would be prompted to say \"My name is [X], and I am not smarter than a fifth grader.\" (Or \"am smarter than a fifth grader\" if they managed to win the top prize.) A number of contestants would insert their occupation or one of their accomplishments in the middle (probably in an attempt to save face in the case of losing), in the form of \"My name is [X], and I may be [Y], but I am not smarter than a fifth grader.\"\nBill Nye the Science Guy would almost always end an episode in the same place the episode started . He'd also add \"Well, that's our show! Thanks for watching! Now, if you'll excuse me, I've got to go [do some activity related to the episode's subject].\"\nKristen Holt/Kristen Adams on G4's Cheat! would end every episode with \"Until next time I'm Kristen Holt and you've been cheating.\" When the show was cancelled and demoted to a segment on X-Play she still ended the segment with the same sign off.\nDuring Charles Osgood's tenure as host from 1994 to 2016 on CBS News Sunday Morning, he would always sign off with \"Please join us again next Sunday morning. Until then, I'll see you on the radio.\". Once Jane Pauley succeeded him, she instead signs off with \"Please join us when our trumpet sounds again next Sunday morning.\".\nConcentration : Hugh Downs and Bob Clayton signed off with \"So long, and thanks for playing Concentration!\"\nThe Daily Show : \"Here it is, your moment of zen.\" Stewart joked that he wanted \"Keep fucking that chicken\" to be his Signing Off Catch Phrase , but Ernie Anastos stole it. On Stewart's last-ever episode of the show, he instead closed with, \"Here it is, my moment of zen,\" with said moment turning out to be Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band giving the show a Dance Party Ending to \"Land of Hope and Dreams\" and \"Born to Run\".\nDave Allen At Large: \"Good night, thank you, and may your God go with you.\"\n\"For now, Dick Clark ,\" *salute* \"so long!\"\nThe syndicated U.S. edition of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? with Cedric The Entertainer as host had him signing off with \"Watch your wallet!\".\nThe Wil Wheaton Project: \"Until next time-play more games!\"\nLes Nessman of WKRP in Cincinnati eventually ended his news broadcasts with, \"This is Les Nessman, saying, 'May the good news be yours.'\" (A sign-off borrowed from real-life Miami news anchor Ralph Renick.)\nX-Play had \"Game Over\" for a while.\nTom Kennedy: \"It's not what you say that counts, it's what You Don't Say! !\"\nZacherley would end shows with \"Good night, whatever you are!\", in mockery of Jimmy Durante (see below.)\nMost Game Shows end with the announcer saying \"This has been a *name of production company * production.\"\nMark Lamarr used to end Never Mind the Buzzcocks with the Mad Libs Catchphrase \"I've been Mark Lamarr, and [song lyric beginning \"I\", possibly misquoted]\":\nI've been Mark Lamarr, and I ain't afraid of no ghosts.\nI've been Mark Lamarr, and I'm gonna party like it's 1998.\nI've been Mark Lamarr, but I've never been to me.\n    News \nFor many years on ABC's 20/20 , one of the anchors, usually Hugh Downs, ended each broadcast by saying, \"We're in touch, so you'll be in touch.\"\nABC's Nightline ends with something to the effect of, \"Watch Good Morning America tomorrow. They're working while you're sleeping.\"\nWalter Winchell always began\n, \"Good evening, Mr. and Mrs. North and South America and all the ships at sea! Let's go to press!\" and ended with \"And so, with lotions of love note His sponsor was Jergens, which still makes a full line of creams and moisturizers. this is your New York correspondent, Walter Winchell, who knows that all the lights on Broadway are never as bright as the candle in the window when you come home!\" When he was in Florida, he would say \"Miami Beach\" instead of New York.\nMost broadcasts of the Philippine evening newscast TV Patrol ends with one of the anchors (Mostly Ted Failon or Noli De Castro) saying \"Maraming Salamat at Magandang gabi, Bayan!\" note  Thank you and Good night, Nation! In recent times, this is after the last talks between the anchors related to the last report of that episode.\nDuring World War II , news broadcasts kind of suspended the greetings/signoff thing as the news roundup came into being and reporters in key hotspots just gave matter-of-fact accounts of what they saw and heard. CBS' Roger Mudd has more about this in his book The Place To Be.\n     Podcasts \nThe Scathing Atheist and its multiple spinoff shows have some unique ones. At the end of headlines, Heath is prone to shouting the names of games. This started with \"Jumanji!\", usually, and then moved on to \"Boggle!\" or \"Scrabble!\"\nHeath Enwright lampshades this by ending every episode of the Skepticrat with \"Catchphrase Signoff.\"\nThe signoff for God Awful Movies are variations on a man from Brooklyn telling you to go fuck yourself .\n     Professional Wrestling \nSome pro wrestlers do this at the end of their promos. Examples:\nHulk Hogan : Whatcha gonna do when Hulkamania runs wild on YOU? (among many variations)", "CBS Evening News - Season 2009 - TV.com\nCBS Evening News - Season 2009\nFollow\nDaily 6:30 PM on CBS Premiered Sep 02, 1963 In Season\nUSER EDITOR\n12/31/09\n0.0\nThursday: A U.S.-born cleric is tied to the Christmas Day terror attempt; Also, President Obama reviews top-government intelligence reports on suspect Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab; And, celebrating New Year's Eve around the world.\n12/30/09\n0.0\nWednesday: A suicide bomber strikes inside a U.S. base in Afghanistan. At least eight Americans are killed; Plus, Dutch and U.S. officials are in a dispute over why body scans weren't already being used in the Netherlands.\n12/29/09\n0.0\nTuesday: President Obama is demanding answers on why authorities missed signs before the Christmas Day terror attempt; Plus, An aspiring filmmaker lost his job as an ad executive and creates a film about it.\n12/28/09\n0.0\nMonday: Abdulmutallab's email trail leads back to boarding school, where he started painting an online portrait of alienation; Plus, Yemen is becoming a home to a growing branch of al Qaeda.\n12/27/09\n0.0\nSunday: Terror suspect Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab is out of the hospital and in federal custody; Plus, Some of the most famous photographs ever taken are being tinged by controversy and nagging doubts.\n12/26/09\n0.0\nSaturday: Officials are learning more about suspected terrorist Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab and the substance he used to try to bring down a plane; Plus, 3 Modern Wise Men Want 'Peace on Earth.'\n12/25/09\n0.0\nFriday: An attempted act of terror on board a Delta Airlines plane, as an alleged al-Qaeda collaborator sets off an explosive; Also, President Obama raises airport security; And, deployed troops and Christmas.\n12/24/09\n0.0\nThursday: The U.S. Senate passes historic health care reform legislation; Also, Pope Benedict XVI is attacked during a Christmas Eve Vatican ceremony; And, communities set up Christmas trees on a budget.\n12/23/09\n0.0\nWednesday: An American Airlines flight came extremely close to ending in tragedy as the jet skidded off the runway; Plus, Holiday travel plans for travelers are about to be ruined thanks to another wicked storm.\n12/22/09\n0.0\nTuesday: The family of a man hailed as a national hero in Mexico's drug war was executed just hours after he was laid to rest; Plus, Nationwide, small business bankruptcy filings are up 44 percent.\n12/21/09\n0.0\nMonday: New time restrictions set for airlines keeping passengers on the tarmac; Also, remembering what many consider one of the worst decades in modern history; And, Rwandan women unite to weave their way out of poverty.\n12/19/09\n0.0\nSaturday: A huge snow storm is sweeping through the U.S. hurting holiday travel and shopping; Plus, Senate Democrats say they have rounded up the 60th vote for the health care reform bill.\nEpisode 20091217\n0.0\nThursday: Liberals divided over the Obama administration; Also, U.S. military drones hacked by Iraqi insurgents; And, one woman inspires many by finding smiles in the unlikeliest of places.\n12/16/09\n0.0\nWednesday: Congress gets closer to passing historic health care reform legislation; Also, hate crimes escalate in small town America; And, why big banks are eager to pay back government stimulus funds.\n12/15/09\n0.0\nTuesday: President Obama claims he has a solution to the Guantanamo Bay Problem; Plus, economic and emotional pressures are behind a surge in teenage runaways.\n12/14/09\n0.0\nMonday: Two of the TARP program's largest recipients both claimed an air of deep appreciation towards taxpayers; Plus, Researchers raise troubling new questions about the safety of CT scans.\n12/13/09\n0.0\nSunday: White House advisors say putting Americans back to work is their top priority; Plus, Britain Government has taken action against big bank bonuses by announcing a plan to tax them to the hilt.\n12/12/09\n0.0\nSaturday: Tiger Woods learned one of his major sponsors is phasing out his commercials; Plus, Pakistani police question five young American Muslims suspected of making contact with a Taliban recruiter.\n12/11/09\n0.0\nFriday: 5 Americans are suspected of terrorism in Pakistan; Also, an exclusive report on the looming drug war violence in Tijuana; And, Samoan children illegally adopted in the U.S.\n12/9/09\n0.0\nWednesday: Congress reconsiders the controversial public health care option; Also, 5 Americans arrested over terrorism charges; And, an NFL athlete's daughter faces the ultimate fight.\n12/8/09\n0.0\nTuesday: An interview with U.S. forces leader in Iraq, Gen. Ray Odierno; Also, American officials warn Afghan President Karzai to take more action; And, why global warming may actually help Greenland.\n12/7/09\n0.0\nMonday: The EPA releases a monumental warning on greenhouse gas emissions; Also, a Chicago man is charged with aiding the Mumbai terror attacks; And, Steve Hartman's \"Assignment America.\"\n12/1/09\n0.0\nTuesday: President Obama announces his strategy for the war in Afghanistan; a suspected cop killer is fatally shot; and military families ready themselves for an increase in deployments.\n11/30/09\n0.0\nMonday: President Obama will defend his decision to send 30,000 more troops to Afghanistan in his upcoming speech; Plus, as 4 slain police officers were mourned, the search continues for the suspect of the murders.\n11/27/09\n0.0\nFriday: Customers race for bargains on this Black Friday; Also, Secret Service admits error after a couple crashes a White House dinner party; Also, a drama teacher conveys \"The American Spirit.\"\n11/26/09\n0.0\nThursday: The holiday shopping season is off to an early start as some stores are opening their doors on Thanksgiving Day; Plus, how U.S. troops celebrated their Thanksgiving.\n11/25/09\n0.0\nWednesday: Toyota announces its largest recall ever amid deadly accidents involving faulty pedals; Also, a holiday travel myth debunked; And, a gourmet chef helps the needy with his \"American Spirit.\"\n11/24/09\n0.0\nTuesday: Pres. Obama says that he has decided on a strategy for the war in Afghanistan; Also, a Belgium man was conscious while supposedly in a coma for 23 years; And, sea lions invade San Francisco.\n11/23/09\n0.0\nMonday: The largest crib recall in U.S. history after a series of alarming infant deaths; Also, Pres. Obama faces increased opposition from the American public; And, Steve Hartman's \"Assignment America.\"\n11/21/09\n0.0\nSaturday: The hotly debated discussion over health care reform has just heated up even more; Plus, Protests broke out at many Calif. College Campuses following a steep hike in tuition.\n11/20/09\n0.0\nFriday: Guidelines are revised this week alone concerning female cancer screenings; Also, suicide epidemic at a French corporation; And, a black teen overcomes adversity with \"The American Spirit.\"\n11/18/09\n0.0\nWednesday: Controversy over a federal report on mammograms; Also, Pres. Obama says he would fire anyone on his staff who revealed Afghan War details; And, the reemergence of China's Silk Road.\n11/17/09\n0.0\nTuesday: Pres. Obama visits China while his approval ratings decline back in the U.S.; Also, a controversial report on mammograms stirs debate; And, America's skyrocketing obesity trend.\n11/15/09\n0.0\nSunday: President Obama arrived in China on his first official visit and his visit may highlight a different relationship with China; Plus, the H1N1 Virus Death Toll Quadruples.\n11/14/09\n0.0\nSaturday:President Obama arrived in Singapore, calling himself the first \"Pacific President\"; Plus, Officials are having their say regarding the case of accused 9/11 plotters standing trial in New York.\n11/13/09\n0.0\nFriday: Alleged 9/11 masterminds will be tried in New York City; Also, NASA says that water has been discovered under the Moon's surface; And, a blind rower exhibits the \"American Spirit.\"\n11/12/09\n0.0\nThursday: A new CDC report reveals thousands of Americans have died from H1N1 virus; Also, Pres. Obama asks for new Afghan War strategies; And, employers cut down on worker web use.\n11/11/09\n0.0\nWednesday: Pres. Obama ventures into new ground at Arlington Cemetery on Veterans Day; Also, new details emerge about the alleged Ft. Hood shooter; And, one soldier defies the odds.\n11/10/09\n0.0\nTuesday: A poignant memorial service for those killed during the Ft. Hood shooting; Also, H1N1 virus outbreak in Afghanistan; Plus, rape kits nationwide go untested.\n11/9/09\n0.0\nMonday: The investigation continues into the Ft. Hood shooting rampage; Also, why many U.S. rape cases are not prosecuted; And, Steve Hartman's \"Assignment America.\"\n11/8/09\n0.0\nSunday: The health care debate will move to the U.S. Senate, where approval is far from guaranteed; Plus, The abortion debate heated up in the halls of Capitol Hill and on the House floor itself.\n11/7/09\n0.0\nSaturday: After months of town hall debates, health reform had a big test on the floor of the House of Representatives; Plus, Ft. Hood survivor, Corporal Nathan Hewitt speaks in a CBS News exclusive.\n11/6/09\n0.0\nFriday: The aftermath of the Ft. Hood army base massacre, as questions remain as to why a soldier opened fire on his own; Also, the unemployment rate soars above ten percent; And, Katie Couric meets \"Precious.\"\n11/2/09\n0.0\nMonday: Struggling automaker Ford gets a jump start; Also, an exclusive interview with former Vice President Al Gore about climate change reform; Also, Steve Hartman's \"Assignment America.\"\n10/31/09\n0.0\nSaturday: The growing business of haunted houses, scaring visitors for fun, and profit; Plus, Afghanistan election appears to be in jeopardy as there may be a boycott at the polls.\n10/29/09\n0.0\nThursday: The U.S. economy faces a rebound from the recession; Also, President Obama present at the return of 18 Americans killed in Afghanistan; And, a nationwide teen heroin epidemic emerges.\n10/28/09\n0.0\nWednesday: Taliban insurgents launch a deadly attack on a U.N. site in Afghanistan; Also, an update on the young victims facing the H1N1 virus; And, the \"American Spirit\" reaches Ethiopia.\n10/27/09\n0.0\nTuesday: U.S. soldier casualties increase amid insurgent ambushes in Afghanistan; Also, automaker Ford gets a jump start; And, the highly anticipated Michael Jackson documentary, \"This Is It.\"\n10/26/09\n0.0\nMonday: Two Northwest Airlines pilots told investigators that they did not fall asleep; Plus, American officials in Afghanistan are now investigating a series of U.S. helicopter crashes in the region.\n10/25/09\n0.0\nSunday: Two car bomb explosions in Baghdad killed more than 130 people and injured dozens; Plus, \"Paranormal Activity\" was made on an extremely low-budget but the payoff has been huge.\n10/24/09\n0.0\nSaturday: The government stepped up the fight against H1N1, declaring the virus a national emergency; Plus, There's a high tech renaissance in a city laid low by the recession.\n10/21/09\n0.0\nWednesday: The White House aims to cut bonuses for Wall Street firms which received stimulus tax-payer dollars; Also, Mexican drug cartels operating in Atlanta; And, reform in the Catholic Church.\n10/18/09\n0.0\nSunday: There is still no winner in the disputed Afghan election and pressure is mounting on President Karzai; Plus, the price of Gold is soaring and investors are rushing to this precious commodity.\n10/17/09\n0.0\nSaturday: The death toll from H1N1 continues to rise especially among children and teens; Plus, Scientists have released disturbing new findings about the shrinking polar ice cap.\n10/16/09\n0.0\nFriday: The number of U.S. fatalities due to the dreaded H1N1 virus continues to rise; Also, questions remain over the so-called \"balloon boy,\"; And, Afghanistan runoff election likely.\n10/12/09\n0.0\nMonday: After months of cooperation, health insurance officials now say the Senate's reform plan will not work; Also, a potential H1N1 vaccine shortage; And, Steve Hartman's \"Assignment America.\"\n10/11/09\n0.0\nSunday: New evidence that the H1N1 is especially dangerous for young people is making parents desperate for vaccine; Also, dozens of gun shows are welcoming buyers with no questions asked.\n10/9/09\n0.0\nFriday: Strong reactions throughout the world as U.S. President Barack Obama is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize; Also, more homeowners now face foreclosure; And, biking for a dream.\n10/7/09\n0.0\nWednesday: A special edition concerning \"The Road Ahead\" for the U.S. war in Afghanistan; Also, Chicago teen murders reach epidemic levels.\n10/5/09\n0.0\nMonday: A special edition of the \"CBS Evening News\" featuring exclusive in-depth coverage of the ongoing war between the U.S. and Taliban forces in Afghanistan.\n10/4/09\n0.0\nSunday: U.S. forces are hunting down a terrorist network in Afghanistan, while 8 Americans die at a remote outpost; Plus, after earthquakes struck the island of Sumatra. International aid is arriving.\nEpisode 20091001\n0.0\nThursday: Thousands of people missing or dead after devastating quakes and tsunamis throughout Samoa and Indonesia; Also, tensions ease slightly during summit between U.S. and Iranian officials.\n9/30/09\n0.0\nWednesday: Hundreds feared dead after a massive earthquake strikes Indonesia and a tsunami hits the Samoan islands; Also, celebrating the 70th anniversary of \"The Wizard of Oz.\"\n9/29/09\n0.0\nTuesday: An earthquake triggers a deadly tsunami in American Somoa; Also, concerns over the safety of the new H1N1 vaccine; And, inside Madeleine Albright's unique collection.\n9/28/09\n0.0\nMonday: Iran's missile test heightens tensions abroad; Also, officials from France and Poland defend arrested filmmaker Roman Polanski; And, President Obama's Chicago bid for the 2016 Olympics.\n9/26/09\n0.0\nSaturday: Iran recently said it would allow U.N. inspectors inside its underground plant; Also, Feds are trying to figure out how the life of a one-time street vendor led to terrorism.\n9/24/09\n0.0\nThursday: A new revolutionary vaccine may prevent contraction of HIV; Also, FBI officials claim to have thwarted two separately planned bomb attacks against the U.S.\n9/23/09\n0.0\nWednesday: World leaders converge for a crucial United Nations summit; Also, Libyan leader Moammar Gadhafi; And, Katie Couric's exclusive interview with Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.\n9/20/09\n0.0\nSunday: 3 men have been arrested on charges due to false statements to the FBI in the terrorism investigation; Plus, A racy radio program about women's issues in Afghanistan is angering the Taliban.\n9/17/09\n0.0\nThursday: Pres. Obama revises prior Bush administration plans to monitor Iran's missile defense program; Also, police arrest suspect in Yale murder investigation; And, honoring a fallen soldier.\n9/16/09\n0.0\nWednesday: Republicans and Democrats aim for a bi-partisan health care reform effort; Also, Pres. Obama may send thousands of more troops to Afghanistan; Also, a 92-year-old British music sensation.\n9/15/09\n0.0\nTuesday: S.C. Republican Rep. Joe Wilson accused of racism after heckling Pres. Obama; Also, officials prepare to release an H1N1 vaccine; And, rescuing marine life.\n9/14/09\n0.0\nMonday: President Obama travels to Wall Street and advises caution to investors; Plus, an exclusive interview with U.S. Treasury Sec. Timothy Geithner; Also, murder at Yale University.\n9/12/09\n0.0\nSaturday: A large outpouring of anger against the Obama administration took place from the White House to the Capitol; Also, The search continues for Yale Student, Annie Le, who vanished unexpectedly.\n9/11/09\n0.0\nFriday: The U.S. mourns on the 8th anniversary of the September 11th attacks; Also, CNN sets off a false alarm; And, Steve Hartman's \"Assignment America.\"\n9/9/09\n0.0\nWednesday: Pres. Obama delivers a special prime time address to Congress in order to tackle health care reform; Also, a special tribute to CBS News legend Walter Cronkite.\n9/8/09\n0.0\nTuesday: The battle over health care reform is moving into a new phase; Plus, Health officials say anti-virals should be reserved for people at higher risk of complications.\n9/7/09\n0.0\nMonday: After many setbacks with the healthcare debate, President Obama turned to his union supporters; Also, The men involved in a foiled plot to blow up U.S.-bound airliners were convicted today.\n9/2/09\n0.0\nWednesday: The Securities and Exchange Commission is heavily criticized for its investigation of Wall Street swindler Bernie Madoff; Also, U.S. troops face growing offensive from the Taliban.\n8/29/09\n0.0\nSaturday: Hundreds of mourners were gathered at a Boston church to pay their last respects to the late Ted Kennedy; Also, firefighters are battling CA wildfires, and some are raging near Los Angeles.\n8/27/09\n0.0\nA special tribute at the John F. Kennedy presidential Library in Boston to honor Edward Kennedy; Also, A 29-year-old claimed to be a 1991 kidnap victim.\nEpisode 20090826\n0.0\nWednesday: A special tribute to the influential and historic U.S. Senator Edward M. Kennedy, who has died at the age of 77 after a battle with brain cancer.\n8/25/09\n0.0\nPres. Obama nominates Federal Reserve chairman Ben Bernanke for a second term; Also, a new British PSA sends a graphic message about texting and driving; And, more violence emerges in Afghanistan.\n8/24/09\n0.0\nMonday: A criminal investigation opens concerning the alleged CIA torture techniques while interrogating suspected terrorists; Also, pop icon Michael Jackson's death ruled a homicide.\n8/23/09\n0.0\nSunday: Although Hurricane Bill never threatened, swimmers are to stay out of the ocean; Also, The Blue Angels at the air show never fail to wow the crowds; Plus, wildfires are burning through Athens\n8/22/09\n0.0\nSaturday: The alleged bomber of Pan Am 103 was released in order to pave the way for British business deals; Plus, Critics say Obama hasn't done a good job explaining why health reform is needed.\n8/20/09\n0.0\nThursday: Scotland officials release the terminally-ill convicted terrorist behind the infamous Lockerbie bombing; Also, school officials concerned over H1N1 virus; And, two friends set out on an unusual humanitarian mission.\n8/19/09\n0.0\nWednesday: Legendary TV news producer, and \"60 Minutes\" creator, Don Hewitt dies at the age of 86; Also, Democrats and progressives strike back in the health care debate.\n8/18/09\n0.0\nTuesday: Taliban forces try to hinder voters in Afghanistan; Also, abusive debt collectors targeted by U.S. lawmakers; And, providing clean water to villages in Africa.\n8/17/09\n0.0\nMonday: Pres. Obama faces growing skepticism over health care reform; Also, violence escalates between U.S. and Taliban forces in Afghanistan; And, the blind sports broadcaster.\n8/15/09\n0.0\nSaturday: California wildfires have threatened hundreds of homes, as thousands of residents evacuate; Plus, Obama heads off at Colorado to continue to push his health care reform.\n8/14/09\n0.0\nFriday: Following a fall from grace over a dog-fighting scandal, controversial football player Michael Vick will return to the NFL; Plus, Steve Hartman's \"Assignment America.\"\n8/13/09\n0.0\nThursday: More town hall riots ensue as conservatives voice their opposition to health care reform; Also, inside the ensuing battles between U.S. forces and the Taliban in Afghanistan.\n8/11/09\n0.0\nTuesday: Pres. Obama defends his healthcare plan amidst growing opposition from conservatives; Also, inside the racial tensions of a suburban N.Y. county; And, remembering Eunice Kennedy Shriver.\n8/10/09\n0.0\nMonday: The leaders of Canada, Mexico, and the U.S. meet for a summit on the H1N1 virus and to discuss other issues facing North America; Plus, inside a summer camp for youth with Down syndrome.\n8/9/09\n0.0\nSunday: Search crews finally hoisted what's left of the sightseeing helicopter out of the Hudson River; Also, President Obama will be in Mexico for a summit meeting with Mexican and Canadian leaders.\n8/6/09\n0.0\nThursday: The U.S. Senate votes to approve Sonia Sotomayor as the next Supreme Court Justice; Also, filmmaker John Hughes dead at 59; And, California sea lions at risk.\n8/5/09\n0.0\nWednesday: Bill Clinton's mission to N. Korea put him back on the front page, but it wasn't hastily arranged; Plus, As the unemployment rate rises, so does the homeless rate.\n8/4/09\n0.0\nTuesday: President Clinton met with N. Korea's leader Kim Jong II on what U.S officials said was a personal trip; Also, The Dept. of Transportation said Cash for Clunkers will not be discontinued.\n8/3/09\n0.0\nMonday: Ford is having their best numbers in years, which may be due to Ford not taking a government bailout; Also, 'Cash for Clunkers' will end if another $2 billion in funding is not approved.\n8/1/09\n0.0\nSaturday: Obama is spending much of his time explaining health reform repeatedly; Plus, Cash for clunkers was supposed to last, but reports claim that the money had run out in a week.\n7/28/09\n0.0\nTuesday: Police and federal agents raided the home of Dr. Conrad Murray; Studies show a significant shortage of primary care physicians in the U.S; Also, a Texas program lowers teen fatality rate.\n7/26/09\n0.0\nSunday: Sarah Palin will hand over the reins of power to Lt. Governor Sean Parnell; Also, Hillary Clinton is laying down the law, not just with Iran and North Korea, but here in the U.S.\n7/25/09\n0.0\nSaturday: Obama tried to regain momentum on health care by saying his plan will benefit small business owners; Also, the Henry Gates incident apparently drew a crowd, which could be a problem.\n7/24/09\n0.0\nFriday: After accusing a police sergeant of acting stupidly, the president has a very public change of heart; the auto trade-in plan takes a wrong turn; and a family reunion, 31 years later.\n7/21/09\n0.0\nTuesday: Katie Couric speaks with U.S. President Barack Obama about his fight for healthcare reform; Also, Ben Bernanke predicts imminent economic recovery; And; an artist risks her life for her work.\n7/16/09\n0.0\nThursday: Millions of middle class families now face home foreclosure; Also, the CBS News series \"Children of the Recession,\" And, the 40th anniversary of the Apollo moon landing.\n7/15/09\n0.0\nWednesday: CBS News medical correspondent Dr. Jon LaPook speaks with President Obama about health care reform; Also, the continuation of the CBS News series, \"Financial Family Tree.\"\n7/11/09\n0.0\nSaturday: While Obama visited Africa, he was blunt about the work that still needs to be done; plus, the U.S. is in need of troops; Also, an ancient car dealership closes in Illinois.\n7/9/09\n0.0\nThursday: General Motors prepares to exit bankruptcy; Also, Chicago cemetery workers accused of digging up bodies and reselling the plots; And, the rolling-skating babies video web craze.\n7/8/09\n0.0\nWednesday: Speculation grows over speculators who may be driving up the cost of oil; Plus, criticisms emerge against bottled water; And, Steve Hartman's \"Assignment America.\"\n7/6/09\n0.0\nMonday: Thousands of fans gather in Los Angeles for the highly-anticipated Michael Jackson tribute concert; Plus, Alaskan Gov. Sarah Palin's mysterious behavior after her resignation announcement.\n7/5/09\n0.0\nSunday: Ten days after the death of Michael Jackson, there has been still no letup in the worldwide tributes to the king of pop; Plus, President Obama is leaving on a weeklong foreign trip.\n7/4/09\n0.0\nSaturday: 223 years after our nation declared its independence, thousands traveled to Liberty Island; Plus, Michael Jackson fans are eager to attend his memorial service at the Staples Center\n7/3/09\n0.0\nFriday: Alaskan Governor Sarah Palin announces her surprising resignation; Michael Jackson's memorial date is confirmed; and possibly the most dangerous job in the world.\n7/1/09\n0.0\nWednesday: Inside Michael Jackson's Neverland estate; Also, prescription painkiller addiction emerges as a nationwide epidemic; And, revitalizing the healthcare industry.\n6/30/09\n0.0\nTuesday: The FDA warns against use of popular painkillers Vicodin and Percocet; And, Al Franken is declared Minnesota's new senator after a contentious 7-month battle.\n6/29/09\n0.0\nMonday: Disgraced financier Bernie Madoff is sentenced to 150 years in prison for his massive Ponzi scheme, the worst in history; Plus, Michael Jackson's estate now in question.\n6/28/09\n0.0\nSunday: Investigators say Dr. Murray, who was with Michael Jackson during his last moments, provided useful information; Also, Infomercial king, Billy Mays dies; Plus, Bernard Madoff Facing Judgment.\n6/27/09\n0.0\nSaturday: President Obama urged the Senate to pass a landmark bill dealing with climate change; Plus, Michael Jackson's family is confused, upset and angry, and wants answers.\n6/25/09\n0.0\nThursday: Michael Jackson, one of music's most influential singers, dies at the age of 50; 70's sex symbol Farrah Fawcett also dies, after losing her battle with anal cancer.\n6/24/09\n0.0\nWednesday: GOP South Carolina Gov. Mark Sanford admits to having an affair after mysteriously disappearing; Plus, Katie Couric's exclusive interview with former British P.M. Tony Blair.\n6/23/09\n0.0\nTuesday: Pres. Obama condemns the Iranian government over protester bloodshed; Also, newly released Nixon tapes reveal his shocking positions on social issues; And, a new series, \"Life After Debt.\"\n6/22/09\n0.0\nMonday: Two Washington, D.C. commuter trains collide, killing several passengers and leaving dozens of others injured; Also, government crackdown intensifies in Iran; And, an artist fights gloom over the recession.\n6/21/09\n0.0\nSunday: Iran's capital was quiet, but the crisis is far from over; June 21st is the start of summer, but where is the sun?; Plus, Author and dad, Michael Lewis tells us about paternal truths.\n6/20/09\n0.0\nSaturday: The violence on Iran's streets is still in full force; Plus The creative guru of Apple, Steve Jobs, has been on medical leave after recovering from a liver transplant.\n6/19/09\n0.0\nFriday: A CBS News exclusive interview with President Obama; Plus, how the stage is set for a showdown in Iran; And, Steve Hartman's \"Assignment America.\"\n6/18/09\n0.0\nThursday: A Continental Airlines pilot dies while in mid-flight; Plus, our continuing series \"Children Of The Recession.\"\n6/17/09\n0.0\nWednesday: Iranian protesters use Facebook, Twitter, and other social networking sites to stage demonstrations; Also, tracing the effects of the recession from one business to another.\n6/16/09\n0.0\nTuesday: Iranian Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khamenei announces an investigation after violent protests over the presidential election; Plus, a new perspective on global warming.\n6/12/09\n0.0\nFriday: Both major candidates each claim victory in the Iranian presidential election; Also, the U.N. imposes heavy sanctions on North Korea; And, Steve Hartman's \"Assignment America.\"\n6/10/09\n0.0\nWednesday: A security guard is shot to death as an 88-year-old white supremacist opens fire at the Holocaust Museum in Washington, D.C.; Also, a controversial program pays students for good grades.\n6/8/09\n0.0\nMonday: In a massive initiative, Pres. Obama proposes to save or create 600,000 jobs in the next 100 days; Also, the dangers of angioplasty; And, Disney finally features a black princess.\n6/4/09\n0.0\nThursday: Arabic communities react around the world to President Obama's groundbreaking diplomatic speech in Cairo; Also, actor David Carradine found dead in Bangkok; And, a W.W. II hero remembered.\n6/3/09\n0.0\nWednesday: As Pres. Obama travels to the Middle East to deliver a critical speech to the Arab World, Osama Bin Laden releases a new tape condemning the U.S. leader; Also, a new cancer drug for canines.\n6/2/09\n0.0\nTuesday: Pres. Obama reaches out to the Muslim World; Also, Brazilian officials say they have found debris from doomed Air France Flight 447; And, shocking calorie counts at many chain restaurants.\n5/12/09\n0.0\n\"Tuesday: Newly-released audio tapes suggest pilot error in the crash of Continental Flight 3407; Also, space shuttle Atlantis encounters a setback on a mission to fix the Hubble Space Telescope.\n5/8/09\n0.0\nFriday: Wildfires engulf Santa Barbara; Also, Pakistani civilians flee over fears of Taliban insurgents; And, Steve Hartman's \"Assignment America.\"\n5/7/09\n0.0\nThursday: The Fed released the results of its \"stress tests\" for major banks; Plus, the power of a Cherokee word helps heal a wounded Iraq veteran.\n5/6/09\n0.0\nWednesday: Katie Couric provides exclusive news coverage from Afghanistan; Also, automaker Ford announces innovative green technology investments; And, parrot mistreatment rampant in the U.S.\n4/29/09\n0.0\nWednesday: The recession deepens, but there are signs the worst may be over. And, on his 100th day in office, the President is optimistic.\n4/21/09\n0.0\n\"Tuesday: Pres. Obama says that Bush Administration officials may face charges for authorizing torture techniques; Also, an unlikely suspect is arrested in the \"Craigslist Murder.\"\n4/12/09\n0.0\n\"Bob Schieffer spoke to Mexican Ambassador Arturo Sarukhan about increasing border violence; a panel of journalists discussed the Somali pirates and Afghan war and Passover at the White House.\n4/10/09\n0.0\nFriday: An U.S. boat captain tries to escape his pirate captors off the coast of Somalia; Plus, feeding premature babies breast milk may be very beneficial; And, Steve Hartman's \"Assignment America.\"\n4/9/09\n0.0\nThursday: U.S. officials attempt to rescue an American boat captain held captive by Somali pirates; Also, the alarming suicide epidemic now facing the American military.\n4/7/09\n0.0\nTuesday: American troops in Baghdad receive surprise visit from Pres. Obama; Also, U.S. Attorney General David Holder defends Justice Department's prosecution of Sen. Ted Stevens.\n4/6/09\n0.0\nMonday: A deadly earthquake hits central Italy leaving at least 100 dead; New research could help erase one's traumatic memories; Plus, business is sweeter than ever for candy companies.\n4/5/09\n0.0\n\"Bob Schieffer spoke with Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner about economic recovery; CBS\\'s Lara Logan and The Washington Post\\'s Perry Bacon discussed world relations and Bob Schieffer\\'s royal amusement.\n4/3/09\n0.0\nFriday: A shooting rampage in Upstate New York leaves 14 dead, with no apparent motive; Plus, new research sugests that the human heart may be able to repair itself.\n4/3/09\n0.0\nFriday: A shooting rampage in Upstate New York leaves 14 dead, with no apparent motive; Plus, new research sugests that the human heart may be able to repair itself.\n3/31/09\n0.0\nTuesday: Katie Couric anchors a special edition of the \"CBS Evening News\" from London. World leaders gather in the U.K. for a historic G20 summit in order to address the global economic crisis.\n3/27/09\n0.0\nFriday: New details emerge in the Obama administration's plans to stop Al Qaeda; Plus, American life forever changed as a result of this recession; And, Steve Hartman's \"Assignment America.\"\n3/26/09\n0.0\nThursday: U.S. Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner proposes sweeping reform for a very troubled Wall Street; Plus, North Dakota faces devastating floods; And, bacon, bacon, bacon!\n3/22/09\n0.0\n\"Harry Smith spoke with Rep. Barney Frank and Sen. Charles Grassley about the outcome of AIG outrage; White House Economic Advisor Austan Goolsbee discussed banks and the state of Obama\\'s economy.\n3/20/09\n0.0\nFriday: Pres. Obama faces a tough week in office; Also, the U.S. and China face off at sea; And, Steve Hartman's \"Assignment America.\"\n3/19/09\n0.0\nThursday: More fallout for financially strapped AIG; Plus, Lara Logan's exclusive report on violence in Iraq; And, First Lady Michelle Obama reaches out to students in the D.C. area.\n3/18/09\n0.0\nWednesday: AIG's CEO says bonus money will be returned; Plus, the Mexican Drug War sparks danger for Spring Break '09; And, Katie Couric investigates convicted rapists serving in the U.S. military.\n3/17/09\n0.0\nTuesday: More uproar over AIG executives and their million-dollar bonuses; Plus, Katie Couric investigates female sex abuse in the military; And, an Irish tradition reaches New York City students.\n3/15/09\n0.0\n\"National Economic Council Director Lawrence Summers spoke about controversial AIG bonuses; The New York Times\\' Thomas Friedman discussed bank bailouts and Bob Schieffer talks trash.\n3/13/09\n0.0\nFriday: Wall Street finally scores a gain this week; Plus, comedian Jon Stewart faces off with CNBC's Jim Cramer; And, financial optimists in Steve Hartman's 'Assignment America'\n3/10/09\n0.0\nTuesday: A good day for Wall Street as the Dow soars up 380 points; Also, Bernie Madoff is set to agree to a 150 year prison sentence; And, Rush Limbaugh faces off with the White House.\n3/5/09\n0.0\nThursday: Pres. Obama aims for universal health care, with the help of other politicans; Plus, shares of Citigroup stocks sink below a dollar; And, the first 100 \"grays\" in office.\n3/4/09\n0.0\nWednesday: Pres. Obama promises an end to the days of wasteful spending; Plus, thousands of U.S. veterans documents mysteriously disappear; And; a 91-year-old grandma becomes an internet sensation.\n3/3/09\n0.0\nTuesday: Pres. Obama encourages economic optimism; Plus, an investigation into a charity's alleged jet corruption; And, forget elevators, a new U.K. building has full scale slides for adults.\n2/25/09\n0.0\nWednesday: Pres. Obama pushes for economic reform; Plus, officials investigate a plane crash near Amsterdam; Also, Mexican drug wars reach explosive levels.\n2/22/09\n0.0\n\"Bob Schieffer spoke with HUD Secretary Shaun Donovan about Obama\\'s Housing Plan; Governors from Ohio, Indiana and New Jersey discussed state budgets; and America looks the other way at its border.\n2/19/09\n0.0\nThursday: The FBI finds a missing Texas billionaire on the run from authorities; Pres. Obama travels to Canada; Plus, a 90-year-old man finds a new calling.\n2/15/09\n0.0\n\"Bob Schieffer spoke with President Obama\\'s Press Secretary Robert Gibbs about the stimulus; Rep. Barney Frank and Sen. Richard Shelby discussed bailouts; and Schieffer finally changed the subject.\n2/8/09\n0.0\n\"Bob Schieffer spoke with Republican Sen. John Mccain and Democratic Sen. Kent Conrad about President Obama\\'s stimulus plan and Economic Advisor Christina Romer discussed the bank bailouts.\n1/30/09\n0.0\nFriday: Republicans decry Pres. Obama's stimulus package; More trouble for Bernie Madoff and his family; Plus, Steve Hartman meets a very precocious porcupine.\n1/29/09\n0.0\nThursday: Pres. Obama blasts Wall Street bonuses; Gov. Blagojevich gets ousted from office by the Ill. Senate; plus, Katie Couric investigates domestic violence in the military.\n1/25/09\n0.0\n\"In a CBS exclusive interview with Vice President Joe Biden, Bob Schieffer discusses President Obama\\'s economic plan, the closing of Guantanamo Bay and continued violence in the Middle East.\n1/23/09\n0.0\nFriday: Pres. Obama meets opposition from Republicans over his stimulus package; plus, one of the biggest credit card scams in history; also, Steve Hartman's \"Assignment America.\"\n1/22/09\n0.0\nThursday: Pres. Obama orders the closing of the U.S. prison at Guantanamo; human rights organizations accuse Israel of committing war crimes; plus hospitals ask the underinsured for cash up front.\n1/21/09\n0.0\nWednesday: President Obama has a busy full first day in office; a new strategy for U.S. soldiers in Afghanistan; plus, a sinking economy forces students to get creative.\n1/18/09\n0.0\n\"Bob Schieffer spoke with Director Lawrence Summers, Slate magazine\\'s John Dickerson and Georgetown University\\'s Michael Eric Dyson about Barack Obama\\'s inauguration and his first steps as President.\n1/16/09\n0.0\nFriday: New details about the miraculous water landing of US Airways Flight 1549; more setbacks for the banking industry; plus, legendary cellist Yo-Yo Ma gets inspired by the Obama inauguration.\n1/15/09\n0.0\nThursday: A US Airways jet crashes into the Hudson River; talks of a cease fire in the Gaza Strip; plus, Elly Lilly's $1.4 billion crime.\n1/14/09\n0.0\nWednesday: Katie Couric speaks exclusively with President-elect Barack Obama; Osama Bin Laden releases a new audio tape condemning Pres. Bush; plus, Steve Hartman meets an unlikely marching band.\n1/13/09\n0.0\nTuesday: Portions of the nation reach 40 degrees below zero; Hamas supplies are smuggled underground from Egypt to Gaza; plus, more and more cases of stalking in the U.S.\n1/12/09\n0.0\nMonday: President Bush held his final news conference; Did banks know they would get a bailout before Congress was told? And, a most honored guest will attend President-elect Obama's inauguration.\n1/11/09\n0.0\n\"Bob Schieffer spoke with Sen. Dick Durbin and Roland Burris about Burris\\' controversial Senate nomination; Rep. John Boehner spoke on Obama\\'s tax plan and Bob Schieffer looks forward to new memories.\n1/8/09\n0.0\nThursday: President-elect Obama tells Congress that action must be taken immediately to stop recession, the U.N. suspends aid shipments to the Gaza Strip; plus, YouTube brings fame and fortune.\n1/4/09\n0.0\n\"Bob Schieffer spoke with Vice President Dick Cheney about controversial strategies utilized in the war with Iraq, homeland security and his power as vice president.\n1/1/09\n0.0\nThursday: Israeli warplanes kill a top Hamas leader; a bizarre bombing plot on New Year's Eve; and 2009 begins with a winter wallop.\n12/31/09\n0.0\nJeff Glor previews an upcoming story on the \"CBS Evening News\" about the recent, and perhaps surprising, drop in divorce rates despite tough economic times.\n12/30/09\n0.0\nAs we enter a new decade, CBS News takes a special look back at the most talked about moments of 2009; the highs, the lows and the controversies, Wednesday on the CBS Evening News.\n12/28/09\n0.0\nThe recent security changes at airports and on planes were sudden and strict. As Wyatt Andrews tells us, there were some major delays for passengers who were flying internationally.\n12/27/09\n0.0\nOne of the country's biggest electric utilities has received federal stimulus money for a pioneering project aimed at cutting harmful gas emissions before they pollute the planet. Cynthia Bowers has more.\n12/26/09\n0.0\nAuthorities in two other countries are working to fill in the background of the Christmas terror attack suspect and to determine if and where he might have been trained. Richard Roth reports.\n12/25/09\n0.0\nCBS News' Jeff Glor speaks with justice and homeland security correspondent Bob Orr about a suspect tied to al Qaeda who allegedly set off an explosive on board a Delta Airlines flight.\n12/25/09\n0.0\nWhile on vacation in Hawaii, President Obama has been 'actively monitoring' the situation involving a suspect who set off explosive substances while on a Delta Airlines flight. Chip Reid reports.\n12/23/09\n0.0\nKatie Couric previews an upcoming report of the CBS evening news about why some military women are at risk of losing custody of their children.\n12/22/09\n0.0\nSix weeks ago, Maj. Gen. Anthony Cucolo issued an order making pregnancy punishable by court martial for both men and women. Since then four women have become pregnant. David Martin reports.\n12/22/09\n0.0\nWhen production slowed down at a Colorado cabinet company, workers started making doll houses for those in need. Barry Peterson has more on this episode of \"American Spirit.\"\n12/22/09\n0.0\nTed Kennedy Jr. shares the story of his grandmother's foreign policy gaff during the Cuban missile crisis.\n12/21/09\n0.0\nHandcrafted baskets are a modern business, helping African people escape poverty. As Dave Price reports, these baskets on store shelves have an amazing story, beginning in the African nation Rwanda.\n12/20/09\n0.0\nSunday: One military family, with a loved one overseas, speaks of love, sacrifice and separation; Plus, The approach of the 2010 mid-term elections is creating anxiety among congressional Democrats.\n12/20/09\n0.0\nActress Brittany Murphy has died in Los Angeles at the age of 32. No cause of death has been announced for the star, She was 32.\n12/18/09\n0.0\nMany Republicans intentionally dragged out a debate on a defense spending bill, hoping that in turn would hold up the health care bill Democrats want to pass before Christmas. Nancy Cordes reports.\n12/18/09\n0.0\nA new report shows a striking rise in autism cases among children. We'll break down the numbers and look at what's behind the increase tonight on the CBS Evening News.\n12/18/09\n0.0\nA new study says that one of every hundred 8-year-olds was diagnosed with autism or a related disorder in 2006. That's a 57 percent jump from four years earlier. Dr. Jennifer Ashton reports.\n12/18/09\n0.0\nFriday: Congressional Republicans openly attempt to stall health care reform progress; Also, an alarming rise reported among autism cases in the U.S.; And, a doctor attempts to ease the adoption process with her \"American Spirit.\"\n12/17/09\n0.0\nAs some American senior citizens find it difficult to afford health care, many have moved to Mexico as an alternative for treatment and medicine. Kelly Cobiella reports from the town of Manzanillo.\n12/17/09\n0.0\nWhat began as a car accident outside his Florida home in the wee hours of black Friday . . . quickly turned into a black eye on the reputation of the world's top golfer. CBS News' John Bentley looks at the VIP lifestyle that landed Tiger in such hot water.\n12/16/09\n0.0\nAfter months of fierce bipartisan debate, congressional Democrats say they have nearly enough votes in order to enact health care reform legislation. Nancy Cordes reports from Capitol Hill.\n12/14/09\n0.0\nKatie Couric previews a CBS Evening News report on teenagers who run away or are kicked out of their homes, only to find more problems..\n12/14/09\n0.0\nA retired Scottish-born man should have died long ago. But after facing death on more than one occasion, he decided to share his secret to happiness ... music. Steve Hartman reports.\n12/14/09\n0.0\nPresident Obama told top executives of the nation's biggest banks that American taxpayers bailed them out, now it's time to start giving back. As Chip Reid reports, Obama was firm, but positive.\n12/14/09\n0.0\nPaul Samuelson, the foremost American economist of the 20th century has died. As Katie Couric reports, Samuelson died at his home in Belmont, Massachusetts, he was 94.\n12/11/09\n0.0\nA young football star is determined to repeat his father's success on the field, but not his mistakes away from the game. Jeff Glor reports on a strong bond between a father and son.\n12/11/09\n0.0\nAn adoption agency has stoked anguish among dozens of American families who may have unwittingly received Samoan children who were actually never orphans. Maureen Maher reports.\n12/10/09\n0.0\nThursday: President Obama defends U.S. foreign policy as he accepts a Nobel Peace Prize in Oslo; Plus, inside congressional wasteful spending; And, pets get saved thanks to the \"American Spirit.\"\n12/9/09\n0.0\nTwo new proposals have been announced which would effectively eliminate any tentative public option plan amid Congressional health care reform. Nancy Cordes reports from Capitol Hill.\n12/9/09\n0.0\nAs U.S. government stimulus dollars are dispersed to various organizations, some Republican lawmakers claim that these funds are being misused or wasted. Sharyl Attkisson investigates.\n12/8/09\n0.0\nKatie Couric previews the \"CBS Evening News\" report on Greenland's melting glaciers and the effect this will have on the rest of the world.\n12/7/09\n0.0\nIn a monumental first for the U.S. government, the Environmental Protection Agency has declared that greenhouses gases pose a significant health risk. Wyatt Andrews reports on this historic ruling.\n12/7/09\n0.0\nMarine Biologist, Anke Hofmeister speaks about how the reef has changed over time due to climate change. Also, 90% of coral species died due to rising sea water temperature.\n12/6/09\n0.0\nSunday: In a Calif. town, the war is part of everyday life since the Marine Corps base is close by; Plus, President Obama makes his way to Capitol Hill to rally Senate Democrats behind health care reform.\n12/5/09\n0.0\n\"48 Hours Mystery\" has been following the Amanda Knox case from the beginning. Peter Van Sant examines a key piece of evidence used to link the killing to Knox and her former boyfriend.\n12/5/09\n0.0\nSaturday: Amanda Knox is gearing up for an appeal following her conviction for the murder of her roommate; Plus, Hundreds rallied in NYC to protest plans to hold terrorism trials in a federal courthouse.\n12/5/09\n0.0\nAmerican college student Amanda Knox is gearing up for a long appeal process following her conviction for the murder of her British roommate Meredith Kercher. Allen Pizzey has the latest from Italy.\n12/4/09\n0.0\nFriday: American student Amanda Knox is found guilty of murder; many economists predict a turnaround in the job market; and, Warren Buffett's sister plans to give away her fortune.\n12/3/09\n0.0\nKatie Couric reports on the debate over re-confirming Fed chairman Ben Bernanke, a new report showing retail sales fell in November and more.\n12/2/09\n0.0\nIn the full interview, Secretary of State Hillary Clinton tells Katie Couric about President Obama's Afghanistan strategy. She said deploying more troops protects America and helps fight terrorism.\n12/1/09\n0.0\nAfter all speculation surrounding the Tiger Woods investigation, authorities declared the case closed with a simple moving violation. As Randall Pinkston reports, Woods was at fault in the crash\n12/1/09\n0.0\nAfter all speculation surrounding the Tiger Woods investigation, authorities declared the case closed with a simple moving violation. As Randall Pinkston reports, Woods was at fault in the crash\n11/30/09\n0.0\nWith rumors continuing to swirl about his accident, Tiger Woods remained out of sight again, communicating only through his Web site, reports Randall Pinkston.\n11/30/09\n0.0\nAs the city of Lakewood, Washington mourned the 4 slain police officers, the search continues for the suspect of the murders, who has a long criminal record. John Blackstone reports.\n11/29/09\n0.0\nSunday: Iran has defied the U.N. by declaring that it plans to build more uranium enrichment plants; Plus, Four police officers have been shot to death in what officers call 'a flat-out ambush.'\n11/29/09\n0.0\nFour police officers have been shot to death at a Seattle coffee shop in what officers call 'a flat-out ambush.' As Hattie Kauffman reports, officers are still trying to figure out details.\n11/29/09\n0.0\nIt has shaped up to be a busy week for President Obama, whose popularity still hovers just below the 50 percent mark. John Dickerson and Jeff Greenfield speak with Russ Mitchell.\n11/28/09\n0.0\nThe Silk Road, China's most notorious trade route for the last two millennia, now features thousands of miles of modern expressways. CBS News' Terry McCarthy reports from the oasis city of Turpan.\n11/28/09\n0.0\nSaturday: A mystery emerges over golf star Tiger Woods' car crash; Also, British officials launch an inquiry into the 2003 invasion of Iraq; And, a special tour along China's infamous Silk Road.\n11/26/09\n0.0\nAftershocks are still being felt from the new guidelines for mammograms. As the controversy heads to Congress, is it a question of cost versus care? Wyatt Andrews reports.\n11/26/09\n0.0\nIt is a tough holiday season for many Americans out of work. For young people, unemployment is higher as they try to start a career in the middle of a recession. Kelly Wallace reports.\n11/26/09\n0.0\nMany U.S. troops at war this Thanksgiving would give anything to be with their family, but there is still an important battle to fight. Mandy Clark has more on U.S. troops celebrating Thanksgiving at war.\n11/22/09\n0.0\nThe recent Senate votes have set the stage for a bruising battle over Health Care Reform. As Kimberly Dozier reports, a grueling debate has begun.\n11/21/09\n0.0\nA young pianist from California found his way to Carnegie Hall after years of practice and a talent far beyond his years. As Bill Whitaker reports, this little kid has big dreams.\n11/20/09\n0.0\nFrance Telecom is undergoing a major restructuring in which the goal is to cut billions of dollars in expenses. The process has led to an epidemic of suicide. Sheila MacVicar reports.\n11/20/09\n0.0\nIn this economy, states are trying to attract and retain businesses and the taxes they generate. An increasingly nasty border battle is raging between California and Nevada. Ben Tracy reports.\n11/20/09\n0.0\nPhones are ringing off the hook in many medical offices throughout the nation as the public reacts to two new guidelines this week concerning cancer screenings. Dr. Jon LaPook reports.\n11/19/09\n0.0\nThursday: A major health care reform milestone as the Senate passes legislation; Also, a computer glitch sparks airline delays nationwide; And, this year's hottest new toy.\n11/17/09\n0.0\nWhile President Obama continues to push China to open its markets to more American products, U.S. companies are already making large profits there. Celia Hatton reports.\n11/17/09\n0.0\nWhile the recession has noticeably limited the amount of funds donated to charities, Sharyl Attkisson reports the heads of many non-profits have actually received increased compensation.\n11/16/09\n0.0\nGeneral Motors is starting to see signs of stability after the company recently filed for bankruptcy. As Dean Reynolds reports, GM says it will soon be repaying its loans o the federal government.\n11/16/09\n0.0\nIn her new book, Sarah Palin claims that John McCain's campaign officials micromanaged her. Although McCain's camp has fired back, many Republicans view Palin favorably. Jeff Greenfield reports.\n11/16/09\n0.0\nIn Beijing, President Obama challenged China's government to allow unfettered access to the Internet. Chief White House correspondent Chip Reid reports.\n11/12/09\n0.0\nWhile President Obama departs for a four-nation trip to Asia, Katie Couric notes that his diplomatic visit could help to re-strengthen ties between the U.S. and Japan, which have recently been stained.\n11/11/09\n0.0\nAs the H1N1 flu continues to spread, for many of us it is a financial burden. As Jeff Glor reports, many small businesses aren't offering paid sick days, so they must keep germs to a minimum.\n11/10/09\n0.0\nControversy has erupted in the United Kingdom over Prime Minister Gordon Brown's letter to a mother whose son died in Afghanistan, as Brown's penmanship has come in to question. Richard Roth reports.\n11/8/09\n0.0\nThe fall of the Berlin Wall was a defining moment in history. World leaders have gathered for a recent celebration in Berlin to mark 20-years after the fall. Mark Phillips reports.\n11/8/09\n0.0\nIn Fort Hood, Texas, the shadow of the recent armed attack still hangs heavy over military families and civilians alike. As Don Teague reports, their future means trying to move on from tragedy.\n11/7/09\n0.0\nWith the H1N1 flu now widespread in the U.S., many Americans who want the vaccine say the Government's message is garbled and ever-changing. Hari Sreenivasan reports on this growing confusion.\n11/5/09\n0.0\nRestrictions placed on sex offenders will be tightened next year when all states will be required to closely track sex offenders and inform the public about the most violent. Bill Whitaker reports.\n11/5/09\n0.0\nThursday: An American soldier opens fire on his own, killing at least 12 and severely injuring dozens more at the Ft. Hood army base in Texas.\n11/5/09\n0.0\nKatie Couric speaks with CBS News' David Martin at the Pentagon and correspondent Don Teague, reporting from the Ft. Hood army base in Texas.\n11/4/09\n0.0\nWednesday: A grizzly murder case unfolds after several bodies are discovered in a Cleveland home; Plus, a massive oil-spill off the coast of Australia; And, one boy's mission to end bullying.\n11/3/09\n0.0\nCBS News senior political correspondent Jeff Greenfield, along with \"Face The Nation\" host and chief Washington correspondent Bob Schieffer, provide analysis of this year's key political races.\n11/3/09\n0.0\nOnce thought to be a virus targeting young people, a new study finds that the H1N1 virus can be just as deadly for all age groups, particularly seniors. Dr. Jon LaPook reports.\n11/3/09\n0.0\nTuesday: Several key elections throughout the nation may reveal America's attitudes towards the Obama administration; Also, H1N1 and the elderly; And, broadcast news gets a hip-hop remix.\n11/3/09\n0.0\nAn audio technology known as \"autotune\" helps singers hit perfect notes on their songs and even live shows. Nancy Cordes reports the trend is even a sensation on YouTube.\nEpisode 1102\n0.0\nWednesday: Toyota announces its largest recall ever amid deadly accidents involving faulty pedals; Also, a holiday travel myth debunked; And, a gourmet chef helps the needy with his \"American Spirit.\"\n11/1/09\n0.0\nSunday: Turmoil continues in Afghanistan as Abdullah withdraws from the run-off election; Plus, with children at a high risk from the H1N1 virus parents weigh the pro's and con's of vaccination.\n11/1/09\n0.0\nA celebration in New York marked the first quarter century of The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. As Anthony Mason reports, the main attraction was some all-star fund-raising concerts.\n10/31/09\n0.0\nSecretary of State Hillary Clinton was in the Middle East making another push for new peace talks. From there she flew to Jerusalem for talks with Israeli leaders. Wyatt Andrews has more.\n10/30/09\n0.0\nAlthough billions of federal stimulus dollars have been allocated to the education sector, Ben Tracy reports that many schools, especially in California, still face financial peril.\n10/27/09\n0.0\nAuthor Sapphire talks about the new movie \"Precious\" inspired by her novel \"Push,\" the process of casting the lead actress Gabourey Sidibe, and the inspirational message of the story.\n10/27/09\n0.0\nSapphire speaks about casting Gabourey Sidibe as the lead actress in the new movie \"Precious,\" which was based on her novel \"Push,\" and what she was looking for during the interview process.\n10/26/09\n0.0\nThe Republican Party is looking for a few good men, and there is growing concern among some GOP leaders about this message. Katie Couric comments.\n10/25/09\n0.0\nAs President Obama Declared the H1N1 virus a National Emergency, many question what will this declaration mean for doctors on the front lines of the flu fight? Randall Pinkston has the latest.\n10/24/09\n0.0\nThe treasury department took aim at seven companies that have not paid back their Federal Bailout money. Jeff Glor is joined by Managing Director of Zephyr Management, James Awad.\n10/24/09\n0.0\nMichigan officials confirmed that Detroit will host the 6th annual Stem Cell Summit next year. As Jim Axelrod reports, this is part of Detroit's effort to market itself as a high-tech center.\n10/23/09\n0.0\nFriday: National Transportation Safety Board announces a probe after two pilots fly plane 150 miles past arrival airport; And, an 11-year-old highlights \"The American Spirit.\"\n10/23/09\n0.0\nPresident Obama is raising eyebrows and the ire some of journalists with his feud against the Fox News Channel. Jeff Greenfield reports.\n10/23/09\n0.0\nAs Secretary of State, Hillary Clinton's approval rating is at 65 percent, higher than both Michelle and President Barack Obama's. Katie Couric comments that even conservatives are changing their tune.\n10/22/09\n0.0\nThursday: A CBS News Exclusive report investigates DEA raids on Mexican drug cartels operating in Atlanta; Also, an alarming teen suicide trend emerges; And, Twitter brings notice to snack carts.\n10/21/09\n0.0\nOver 600 schools have closed for at least a day because of the thousands of students affected by H1N1. As Dean Reynolds reports, H1N1 is taking a toll on children and their education.\n10/21/09\n0.0\nNearly half a millennium after Anglicans split with the Roman Catholic Church, the Vatican wants them back. As Jim Axelrod reports, the Catholic Church will make it easier for Anglicans to convert.\n10/20/09\n0.0\nKatie Couric and author Rosalind Wiseman discuss the delicate balance between between kind of keeping an eye on kids, but also respecting their privacy.\n10/20/09\n0.0\nIreland has long been associated with the art of matchmaking, as CBS News' Mark Phillips reports. In fact, couples are still connecting and finding love in pubs to this day across the Emerald Isle.\n10/20/09\n0.0\nTuesday: Alarming trends emerge as most H1N1 hospital patients are under 25; Also, Hamid Karzai agrees to a run-off election; And, finding love in Ireland.\n10/19/09\n0.0\nMonday: Colorado police now say that the \"balloon boy\" incident was in fact a hoax; Also, landmark reform for U.S. medical marijuana laws; And, Steve Hartman's \"Assignment America.\"\n10/18/09\n0.0\nFears are heightening over the H1N1 flu virus and the damage it can inflict on the lungs. As Hari Sreenivasan reports, the 12th child has died in just one week.\n10/17/09\n0.0\nThe more America learns about the Balloon escapade over Colorado, the more puzzling it becomes. As Rick Salinger reports, the Colorado father recently promised a 'big announcement.'\n10/16/09\n0.0\nFor the past year, air fares nationwide have been reduced as a result of the recession. But, as Nancy Cordes reports, this is about to change as prices continue to rise for the upcoming holiday season.\n10/15/09\n0.0\nThursday: A media frenzy erupts after a 6-year-old boy was feared lost on a helium balloon 1,200 ft. above ground; Also, a wave of violence sweeps Pakistan; And, war stories from Afghanistan.\n10/15/09\n0.0\nCBS News teams recount their experiences in war-torn Afghanistan. Hear from Randall Pinkston, Lara Logan, Jim Axelrod and more.\n10/15/09\n0.0\nKatie Couric says \"Whatever!\" to some of the most, like...you know...irritating words and phrases in the English language.\n10/14/09\n0.0\nRep. Debbie Wasserman Schultz had breast cancer at age 41. After revealing her very personal story, there's no telling how many lives she saved because of it. Nancy Cordes reports.\n10/14/09\n0.0\nWednesday: Wall Street's big milestone after the Dow surges to over 10,000 points; Also, women continue to struggle for freedom in Afghanistan; And, a U.S. Congresswoman battles breast cancer.\n10/13/09\n0.0\nTuesday: A momentous turning point for health care reform as a Senate committee passes new legislation; Also, surprising new data about the H1N1 virus; And, President Obama's link to a fallen soldier.\n10/13/09\n0.0\nThe first injectable doses of the H1N1 vaccine has arrived the U.S. The CDC released surprising data that deepens the mystery of why H1N1 makes people sicker than others. Dr. Jon LaPook reports.\n10/12/09\n0.0\nThe insurance industry has released a report suggesting that the current health care reform legislation will raise premiums. But, as Chip Reid reports, the White House argues otherwise.\n10/12/09\n0.0\nNearly two months after the presidential election in Afghanistan, evidence has emerged suggesting that the counting of the ballots may have been tampered or falsified. David Martin reports.\n10/11/09\n0.0\nAfter decades of helping out readers everywhere, some glossy magazines are disappearing from American life. As Michelle Miller reports, some magazine issues may be coming to your computers.\n10/8/09\n0.0\nWhite House officials say esident Obama's strategy will be to defeat al Qaeda in Pakistan, while downplaying the need to completely eliminate the Taliban in Afghanistan. Chip Reid reports.\n10/8/09\n0.0\nCBS News' Bianca Solorzano discusses the latest study which indicates that airlines, while frequently slapping fees on travelers, have increased times for flight delays.\n10/7/09\n0.0\nPakistan's border is home to thousands of Taliban and al Qaeda fighters who often cross into Afghanistan to attack American forces. Terry McCarthy reports from Pakistan's Swat Valley.\n10/6/09\n0.0\nKatie Couric discusses that Gen. McChrystal is taking heat for expressing his view that the situation in Afghanistan is deteriorating. The White House should remain open to all informed opinions.\n10/6/09\n0.0\nWith increasing political and public pressure, President Barack Obama now faces a difficult decision regarding U.S. troop deployment levels in Afghanistan. Chip Reid reports.\n10/6/09\n0.0\nTuesday: The continuation of the CBS News special series, \"The Road Ahead,\" featuring in-depth coverage of the U.S. war in Afghanistan; Plus, Secretary of State Hillary Clinton.\n10/5/09\n0.0\nAs U.S. military forces continue to fight in Afghanistan, CBS News takes an in-depth look at the covert operations of the Taliban, one of America's greatest enemies. Lara Logan reports from Kabul.\n10/3/09\n0.0\nSaturday: The disaster of the Indonesian earthquake unfolds as officials report the quake destroyed 4 villages; Plus, A cloud has been cast over the hopes that an economic recovery is underway.\n10/2/09\n0.0\nJoe Halderman, an Emmy nominated winning producer for 48 Hours, was arraigned on charges of first degree grand larceny after threatening late night TV host David Letterman. Jeff Glor reports.\n10/1/09\n0.0\nAfter the Cash-for-Clunkers program ended, car sales dropped drastically nationwide. But, as CBS News national correspondent Dean Reynolds reports, there may still be some bright signs ahead.\n10/1/09\n0.0\nU.S. Airways Captain \"Sully\" Sullenberger has returned to the skies, along with co-pilot Jeffrey Skiles, on the exact route they were supposed to fly before the infamous \"Miracle on the Hudson.\" Jeff Glor reports.\n9/30/09\n0.0\nThree munchkins from the cast of \"The Wizard of Oz\" talk to Kelly Wallace about the long-lasting success of the film.\n9/30/09\n0.0\nSeventy years after \"The Wizard of Oz\" rose to fame, the film is still maintaining its popularity among children. Kelly Wallace reports.\n9/30/09\n0.0\nPresident Obama and his aides are seriously debating future troop deployment in Afghanistan, as the top-ranking U.S. general in that country has asked for more soldiers. David Martin reports.\n9/30/09\n0.0\nDespite extensive research, and growing public interest, scientists say that powerful tsunami waves still remain a mystery. CBS News' John Blackstone reports from Menlo Park, Calif.\n9/29/09\n0.0\nStudies show that texting or using a cell-phone while driving is like having a blood-alcohol level of .08%. As Daniel Seiberg reports, despite all the laws and summits, real solution lies in our hands.\n9/29/09\n0.0\nHoward Krongar's job was to investigate alleged misconduct at the U.S. embassy in Kabul. Sharyl Attkisson reports on how one of his personal relationships may have prevented him from doing so.\n9/29/09\n0.0\nThe credit card industry got a bill of its own after 800 pages of rules spelling out the credit card reforms President Obama signed into law. Jim Axelrod reports on this monumental change.\n9/29/09\n0.0\nTina Brown, founder of The Daily Beast, tells Katie Couric she expects a new golden age of journalism as the era of online media matures. Watch more at @KatieCouric on CBSNews.com.\n9/28/09\n0.0\nKelly Wallace speaks about the growing tensions over Iranian missiles. Iran's leaders insist their nuclear program is only for energy production, but world leaders are ready to react to a military threat.\n9/28/09\n0.0\nAfter more than 30 years as a fugitive, famed director, Roman Polanksi is behind bars for raping a 13-year-old girl. As Ben Tracy reports, it's becoming an international tug-of-war.\n9/27/09\n0.0\nNY Governor Paterson dug in his heels in the face of the White House pressure to quit the 2010 election. As Hari Sreenivasan reports, a photo op barely disguised the rift between Obama and Paterson.\n9/27/09\n0.0\nSunday: Iran recently tested several missiles and plans to test medium and long range missiles as well; Plus, a determined paraplegic continues to climb Africa's highest mountain.\n9/26/09\n0.0\nAccused terrorist, Najibullah Zazi is in prison facing a court hearing. Investigators are trying to figure out how the life of a one-time street vendor led to this moment. Hari Sreenivasan reports.\n9/26/09\n0.0\nThe long captivity of Jaycee Duggard has many wondering how sex offenders are able to go unnoticed. As Ben Tracy reports, some offenders are accused of going to great lengths to commit their crimes.\n9/25/09\n0.0\nFriday: Widespread surprise as President Obama delivers claim that Iran secretly holds a second nuclear test facility; Also, Pittsburgh G20 summit ends as leaders announce financial reform.\n9/25/09\n0.0\nPresident Barack Obama surprised many throughout the international community over his allegations that Iran has been operating a second secret nuclear test facility. Chip Reid reports.\n9/24/09\n0.0\nUCLA freshman held the biggest, one-day volunteer campaign that any school has ever done. Bill Whitaker reports on their day of service.\n9/23/09\n0.0\nIn part one of an exclusive interview with Katie Couric, Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad speaks about his country's nuclear ambitions.\n9/23/09\n0.0\nIn part two of an exclusive interview with Katie Couric, Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad speaks about Iranian protests and his comments regarding the Holocaust.\n9/23/09\n0.0\nLibyan leader Muammar Qaddafi went to New York to address leaders at the United Nations during a special summit. As Jim Axelrod reports, Qaddafi has drawn considerable controversy during his visit.\n9/23/09\n0.0\nDuring an exclusive interview with Katie Couric, Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad said that officials in his nation have in fact been willing to comply with nuclear weapons inspections.\n9/22/09\n0.0\nKatie Couric comments on the frustration of getting a doctor's appointment. If Congress extends health insurance to more Americans, getting a doctor's appointment may become even more difficult.\n9/22/09\n0.0\n9/21/09\n0.0\nDenver, Colo. resident Najibullah Zazi and his father, along with a suspect in Queens, N.Y., have all been accused of lying to the FBI and maintaining ties with al Qaeda. Armen Keteyian reports.\n9/21/09\n0.0\nThe top-ranking U.S. commander in Afghanistan has told President Obama that the war could be lost if more American troops are not soon deployed there. David Martin reports from the Pentagon.\n9/21/09\n0.0\nMonday: The FBI launches a massive probe after the arrest of three al Qaeda terror suspects; Also, an exclusive interview with the Foreign Minister of Pakistan; Plus, Steve Hartman's \"Assignment America.\"\n9/20/09\n0.0\nA paralyzed man is determined to conquer Africa's legendary Mt. Kilimanjaro. As Karen Brown reports, this man takes the phrase, \"climb every mountain\" literally.\n9/20/09\n0.0\nA controversial radio program about women's issues in Afghanistan is angering the Taliban and waging a new kind of battle to win hearts and minds. Mandy Clark reports on the 'Radio Wars'.\n9/19/09\n0.0\nSaturday: An expanded tax credit plan could be just the bump the housing market needs; Also, Californians continue to battle against seals for beach rights; Plus, Stock Market on a Rebound.\n9/18/09\n0.0\nFriday: New regulations for the banking industry; Also, Pres. Obama prepares for a full-out multi-network TV media blitz in order to sell his health care reform legislation; And, Steve Hartman's \"Assignment America.\"\n9/18/09\n0.0\nKatie Couric spoke to Bob Schieffer of 60 Minutes about his interview with President Obama. The discussion included the health care debate and funding without raising taxes for the middle class.\n9/18/09\n0.0\nA tax of one cent per ounce on soft drinks could be a major source of revenue for health care reform. Katie Couric comments on the explosive moment for the soda industry.\n9/18/09\n0.0\nSeveral graduate students from Yale University spoke with CBS News about the campus-wide reaction to the murder of their peer, Annie Le.\n9/18/09\n0.0\nNew regulations on compensation for key bank employees wouldn't set caps on salaries, but would force banks to abandon bonus plans that encourage excessive risk taking. Anthony Mason reports.\n9/17/09\n0.0\nAn arrest has been made in the murder of Yale grad student Annie Le. Raymond Clark III is in police custody on $3 million bail. Randall Pinkston is following the investigation.\n9/16/09\n0.0\nKatie Couric speaks about the impact of the late Crystal Lee Sutton, whose fight to unionize Southern textile plants with low pay and poor conditions was dramatized in the film \"Norma Rae.\"\n9/16/09\n0.0\nThe FBI has searched the home of an alleged terrorist who may be involved in one of the biggest terror investigations since 9/11. As Bob Orr reports, the FBI still lacks hard intelligence.\n9/15/09\n0.0\nIn Rep. Joe Wilson's South Carolina district, the majority of his constituents are staunch, white Republicans. Mark Strassmann reports on accusations racial overtures fueled Wilson's comment.\n9/15/09\n0.0\nA playful Hawaiian seal is loved by many, but he eventually could turn dangerous as he continues to grow. As John Blackstone reports, a wildlife rescue team is hoping this seal can beat the odds.\n9/14/09\n0.0\nLaw enforcement officials say they have discovered the body of 24-year-old Yale University student Annie Le. As Randall Pinkston reports, police believe that Le was murdered by an acquaintance.\n9/12/09\n0.0\nIt seems as if nobody dislikes Derek Jeter. He is a player who sets an example of excellence and professionalism that stretches far beyond sports. Jeff Glor reports on his remarkable feat.\n9/12/09\n0.0\nA new policy of honesty and apology health policy has proven to be a shrewd business practice for one hospital system. As Priya David reports, this policy has worked wonders against malpractice suits.\n9/11/09\n0.0\nPresident Obama's had just left 9/11 ceremonies at the Pentagon when a nearby Coast Guard routine drill was mistaken for an anniversary terrorist attack in a CNN on air report. Bob Orr reports.\n9/10/09\n0.0\nFollowing his prime time Congressional address, President Obama has seized on renewed interest in his plans for health care reform. Chip Reid reports on the ongoing campaign for new legislation.\n9/10/09\n0.0\nRepresentative Joe Wilson, R-S.C., is in the penalty box after yelling \"you lie\" during President Obama's speech to Congress. Katie Couric comments on Wilson's outburst.\n9/9/09\n0.0\nGOP leaders have said there's a possibility of a compromise on health care reform but only if President Obama focuses on areas of broad bipartisan agreement. Nancy Cordes reports.\n9/9/09\n0.0\nAddressing Congress over the controversy surrounding health care reform, Pres. Obama said that everyone in the United States will be required to hold basic health insurance.\n9/9/09\n0.0\nIn a special congressional address, President Barack Obama commended Sen. Ted Kennedy, who recently died at age 77, and his lifelong devotion towards health care reform.\n9/7/09\n0.0\nViolence was a concern heading into the Afghan election, but now it has switched to vote rigging. As Mandy Clark reports, there are accusations that supporters cheated the election by different means.\n9/6/09\n0.0\nSince the mid-90's, nutrition facts were on the side of food products. Now, some packaged foods are getting new front-of-the-box labels. Randall Pinkston reports on this 'smart choices program'.\n9/6/09\n0.0\nA nationally broadcasted speech by President Obama to schools has caused controversy. The complaints have caused some school districts to decide they won't carry the speech. Don Teague reports.\n9/6/09\n0.0\nThe debate on Capitol Hill is heating up again, as President Obama will take his health care case directly to Congress and the American people. Kimberly Dozier has the latest.\n9/6/09\n0.0\nSunday: President Obama will take his health care case directly to Congress and the American people; Also, As Washington gets back to work, the Obama Administration is set to have a busy autumn.\n9/5/09\n0.0\nAs government pushes to launch 45 million doses of the H1N1 vaccine, many families are wondering if the vaccine is completely safe. Michelle Miller reports.\n9/5/09\n0.0\nOne Dutch community made an attempt to change the rules of the road by implementing no traffic lights or street signs. Mark Phillips has the story of a Dutch town's shared roadway.\n9/5/09\n0.0\nAt Washington's State's main campus, back to school means back to bed. The H1N1 virus has hit two thousand students. As Mark Strassmann reports, schools hope the vaccine will help when it arrives.\n9/5/09\n0.0\nThe Calif. central valley grows many U.S. agricultural products. However, a drought has set off a battle for the water left, and provided a study of climate change dilemmas. Seth Doane reports.\n9/5/09\n0.0\nThe NATO Commander in Afghanistan acknowledged that civilians were harmed during the recent airstrike. As Elizabeth Palmer reports, the incident is another blow to the NATO unity.\n9/5/09\n0.0\nSaturday: The H1N1 virus has hit two thousand students, and many question if the future vaccine is safe; Plus, Calif. Officials said they have clear evidence of arson in the station fire North of L.A.\n9/4/09\n0.0\nFriday: The growing U.S. unemployment rate leaves jobless nationwide to resort to drastic measures; Also, social conservatives outraged over a White House staffer's remarks.\n9/4/09\n0.0\nAfter the credit crisis erupted last September, monthly job losses quickly deepened hitting a low of 700,000. But as Anthony Mason reports, they've now returned to levels before the panic.\n9/4/09\n0.0\nA U.S. air strike aimed at a group of Taliban fighters resulted in the deaths of Afghan civilians. Elizabeth Palmer reports on the resulting pressure put on America's top commander in Afghanistan.\n9/3/09\n0.0\nThe CDC reported that with school back in session there has been an increase in H1N1 cases among young people. Dr. Jennifer Ashton reports that the CDC stressed the mildness of the cases.\n9/3/09\n0.0\nThe House Foreign Relations Committee is investigating whether a percentage of the money the U.S. is spending in Afghanistan is going straight to the Taliban. Nancy Cordes reports.\n9/2/09\n0.0\nA new report finds gross incompetence by the Securities and Exchange Commission in allowing Bernie Madoff's crimes to remain undetected. Armen Keteyian reports.\n9/1/09\n0.0\nTuesday: Wildfires cause severe damage throughout Los Angeles County; Also, an exclusive report on alleged U.S. security hazing in Afghanistan; And, Bernie Madoff's sons under scrutiny.\n9/1/09\n0.0\nPhillip Garrido was sentenced to a 50-year sentence in 1976, but was paroled 11 years into his sentence. As Hattie Kauffman reports, this is raising serious questions about the parole process.\n8/31/09\n0.0\nMonday: A special exclusive report from Afghanistan; Also, four years later, Katrina victims still confined to FEMA trailers; And, a new sensor in sports helmets.\n8/31/09\n0.0\nIn the case of Jaycee Dugard, some people think the parole officer who regularly visited the property should have discovered the secret backyard prison. As John Blackstone reports, questions remain.\n8/30/09\n0.0\nSunday: In California, authorities are pleading with residents to evacuate as wildfires continue; Plus, A man who has spent his years since retiring from space exploration as an artist\n8/29/09\n0.0\nThe solved kidnapping case of Jaycee Dugard stunned the nation. As John Blackstone reports, anger is growing that authorities missed opportunities in the past to crack this case.\n8/29/09\n0.0\nSenator Ted Kennedy was the baby of the family who eventually became the patriarch. As Jeff Glor reports, a patriarch is the role Ted Kennedy was perfectly suited for.\n8/28/09\n0.0\nAt a memorial service in Boston, Sen. Orrin Hatch (R-Utah) discussed his late friend, Sen. Edward \"Ted\" Kennedy. Despite their ideological differences, the two shared a friendship.\n8/28/09\n0.0\nDuring the memorial service for Senator Edward Kennedy at the JFK presidential Library, Senator Christopher J. Dodd (D-Conn.) shared his personal memories and admiration for his close friend and colleague.\n8/28/09\n0.0\nCBS News radio correspondent Carrie McCormick was injured while on assignment in Afghanistan, as Harry Smith reports. McCormick injured in an IED blast while traveling with U.S. soldiers.\n8/26/09\n0.0\nThe assassinations of Ten Kennedy's brothers meant that their lives will always be measured in terms of possibilities, but for Ted, his triumphs can be measured in full. Jeff Greenfield Reports.\n8/24/09\n0.0\nPro golfer J.P. Hayes turned himself in after he unwittingly used a non-regulation prototype ball for two shots in the PGA tournament. Mark Strassmann reports.\n8/24/09\n0.0\nKatie Couric speaks with James Bamford, an author and CIA intelligence expert, about the latest reports alleging torture by CIA officials during the interrogations of alleged terror suspects.\n8/22/09\n0.0\nOne of the youngest detainees at Guantanamo Bay prison will likely be returned to Afghanistan. Lara Logan tells us the story of a soldier who broke ranks over Guantanamo and followed his conscience.\n8/22/09\n0.0\nMartha's Vineyard is not only the current vacation spot of Barack Obama, but also one of the most culturally diverse places in the nation. Randall Pinkston reports.\n8/18/09\n0.0\nU.S. Marines are going town by town in Helmand Providence trying to flush out the Taliban before Thursday's elections. Lara Logan reports.\n8/17/09\n0.0\nAs Central Texas is suffers from its worst drought in history, snakes search for water in yards, agriculture losses could top $4 billion, and dried-up lakes become attractions. Don Teague reports.\n8/17/09\n0.0\nThe Spanish voice of Tampa Bay Rays baseball, Enrique \"The Volcano\" Oliu was born blind. Kelly Cobiella reports on the sports broadcaster's gift to explain a game he has never seen.\n8/17/09\n0.0\nUp to 60,000 Americans have canceled their AARP memberships due to anger over the group's position on health care. As Sharyl Attkisson reports, many are switching to a 'conservative alternative.'\n8/17/09\n0.0\nCBS News Investigative Correspondent Sharyl Attkisson spoke with AARP Senior Vice President for Social Impact Cheryl Matheis about the AARP's position on health care reform.\n8/17/09\n0.0\nAs Republican and Democratic lawmakers continue to debate the Obama administration's public health care option, Nancy Cordes reports that a co-operative plan may serve as an effective compromise.\n8/16/09\n0.0\nPresident Obama claims that just streamlining hospital practices could help pay for health reform. Randall Pinkston shows us a hospital that where improved care and savings go hand in hand.\n8/15/09\n0.0\nCash for Clunkers has been an extreme success. Automakers continue to boost production, but some dealerships still await their reimbursements. Terrell Brown reports.\n8/14/09\n0.0\nAfter serving 18 months in federal prison for running a dog fighting ring out of his Virginia home, Michael Vick rejoins the NFL with a two-year deal with the Philadelphia Eagles. Jeff Glor reports.\n8/13/09\n0.0\nMore and more Americans are caught in a mortgage squeeze where their monthly payment goes up, but the value of their home goes down. Ben Tracy reports.\n8/13/09\n0.0\nAs President Obama continues to defend healthcare reform, White House officials respond with an email campaign for supporters. Sharyl Attkisson reports.\n8/13/09\n0.0\nBenjamin Franklin famously wrote that \"nothing is certain except death and taxes.\" Katie Couric takes a look at how proposed healthcare reform is treating life's certainties.\n8/12/09\n0.0\nWednesday: Conservative outrage and death threats towards Democratic congressman continues over Pres. Obama's proposed health care reform; Also, the U.S. launches a new offensive against Taliban forces in Afghanistan.\nFriday\nNo results found.\nImportant: You must only upload images which you have created yourself or that you are expressly authorised or licensed to upload. By clicking \"Publish\", you are confirming that the image fully complies with TV.com’s Terms of Use and that you own all rights to the image or have authorization to upload it.\nPlease read the following before uploading\nDo not upload anything which you do not own or are fully licensed to upload. The images should not contain any sexually explicit content, race hatred material or other offensive symbols or images. Remember: Abuse of the TV.com image system may result in you being banned from uploading images or from the entire site – so, play nice and respect the rules!\nChoose background:" ] }

{ "aliases": [ "Cronkite, Walter Leland, Jr.", "Old Ironpants", "Walter Cronkite Jr.", "And that's the way it is", "Walter Leland Cronkite, Jr.", "Walter conkrite", "Walter Cronkite", "Walter L. Cronkite Jr.", "Walter Leland Cronkite", "Walter Conkrite", "Walter Leland Cronkite Jr.", "Walter Kronkite" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "walter l cronkite jr", "walter kronkite", "walter cronkite", "walter leland cronkite jr", "and that s way it is", "old ironpants", "cronkite walter leland jr", "walter leland cronkite", "walter conkrite", "walter cronkite jr" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "and that s way it is", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "And that's the way it is" }

{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Let_Your_Love_Flow.txt" ], "title": [ "Let Your Love Flow" ], "wiki_context": [ "\"Let Your Love Flow\" is the title of a pop song written by Larry E. Williams, a former roadie for Neil Diamond, and made popular by the American country music duo The Bellamy Brothers. Diamond was initially offered the opportunity to record the song, but he declined. The song was first recorded by Gene Cotton prior to the Bellamy Brothers, but Cotton never secured the rights.\n\nThe song was a crossover hit in the United States, reaching Number One on the 1976 Billboard Hot 100 charts, #2 on Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks, and #21 on Hot Country Singles. It was also an international hit, landing on the charts in the UK, Scandinavia and West Germany, where the Bellamy Brothers' record spent five weeks at #1. In 2008, the song re-entered the UK Singles Chart following its appearance in an advertisement in the United Kingdom for Barclaycard, where it peaked at #21. \n \nIn other media, it was used in the 1980 Tatum O'Neal film Little Darlings, the 2008 period drama Swingtown, and season 2 episode 'No Room at the Inn' of the HBO series The Leftovers.\n\nThe song has been covered by numerous other artists, most notably Joan Baez, who included it on her 1979 Honest Lullaby album. Another re-recording by the Bellamy brothers with Gölä is included on the album The Greatest Hits Sessions. \"Ein Bett im Kornfeld\", a German language adaptation of the song recorded by Jürgen Drews, spent eleven weeks at #1 in West Germany in 1976. \n\nChart performance\n\n*AFeaturing Gölä." ] }

{ "description": [ "Music From Commericals of the ... Brothers's \"Let Your Love Flow\" ... above saying, \"Fall in Love on $1 a Day.\" We also have pages on this topic ...", "\"Let Your Love Flow\" is the title of a pop song written by Larry E. Williams, a former roadie for Neil Diamond, and made popular by the American country ...", "The Bellamy Brothers singing \"Let Your Love Flow\" on German TV in th 1970s. Skip ... 58 videos Play all Song List for 70s Soft Rock Hits & Hits ...", "The Bellamy Brothers has 990 songs. ... I Hit the Jackpot. Forever. ... Let Your Love Flow & Other Number One Hits. Let's Fall in Love Again.", "Bad Songs of the '70s ... Bellamy Brothers \"Let Your Love Flow\" ... A lot less funny than his ANIMAL HOUSE cameo where he sang 'I gave my love a chicken that had no ...", "... listen free to Bellamy Brothers: Let Your Love Flow, Redneck Girl & more. The Bellamy Brothers started their musical career at the end of the 1960s. ... 70s ..." ], "filename": [ "154/154_2384405.txt", "77/77_2866616.txt", "160/160_2866617.txt", "13/13_2866619.txt", "120/120_1327.txt", "129/129_2866620.txt" ], "rank": [ 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8 ], "title": [ "in the 70s - Music From Commericals of the Seventies", "Let Your Love Flow - Bellamy Brothers Lyrics - YouTube", "Let Your Love Flow - YouTube", "The Bellamy Brothers Lyrics - Lyrics.com - your music ...", "Bad Songs of the Seventies - furious.com", "Bellamy Brothers — Free listening, videos, concerts, stats ..." ], "url": [ "http://www.inthe70s.com/generated/commericalmusic.shtml", "http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J4Bl_VQ2inM", "http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WKSNHcsqqKM", "http://www.lyrics.com/thebellamybrothers", "http://www.furious.com/perfect/badsongs.html", "http://www.last.fm/music/Bellamy+Brothers" ], "search_context": [ "in the 70s - Music From Commericals of the Seventies\nMusic From Commericals of the Seventies\nThis is a list of the popular 70s songs used in commercials during the 70s along with a description of the commercial and what people thought of it.\nWe also have pages on this topic devoted to the 80s and 90s\nABC using Orleans's \"Still The One\"\nWas used to promote the ABC schedule (circa 1977).\nAT&T 00 Info using Pilot's \"Magic\"\nApplebee's using Seduction's \"It Takes Two\"\nUsed to promote \"Take any two you want\".\nBuick using Edgar Winter Group's \"Frankenstein\"\nA Buick SUV (what's Buick doing with SYVs) drives out of the castle...and it's Tiger Woods driving it!\nBurger King using Van McCoy's \"The Hustle\"\nUsed to plug their new chicken sandwiches.\nCadillac using Led Zeppelin's \"Rock and Roll\"\nThe caddy comercials always use Led Zeppelin. When the camera pans inside the car it's quiet, peaceful, when camera pans outside of the car it's Led Zeppelin.\nCapital One using Kool and the Gang's \"Jungle Boogie\"\nChevrolet using Spinners's \"I`ll be around\"\nchevy uses the low riders and the spinners to introduce the new chevy\nClarinex using The Who's \"\"Overture\" Tommy\"\nCoca Cola using Hilltop Singers's \"I'd Like To Teach The World To Sing\"\nThis was a classic in the early 70's. Coke changed the title to \"I'd Like To Buy The World A Coke\"\nCoke using Dottie West 's \"Country Sunshine\"\nCoke Commercial with a car coming down a country road.\nCompaq Presario using Harry Chapin's \"Cat's in the Cradle\"\nThe use of \"Cat's in the Cradle\" is very clever in this 2003 commercial. Normally, this song gives me goosebumps and makes me teary-eyed. But using it in this ad, it makes me laugh. A mother takes a picture of her little boy, and then plugs the camera into the computer to upload the picture. However, the picture takes eons to upload, and when her son comes into the kitchen, he asks good old mom for her car keys. But, by the time the picture is FINALLY uploaded, the son, now 40 years old, asks mom if there's anything to eat. Yikes!\nDiGiorno Pizza using Donna Summer's \"Hot Stuff\"\nA guy jumps to an incredibly lame version of Hot Stuff. It was probably recorded with a $3.98 budget.\nDiet Coke using Donna Summer's \"Love To Love You Baby\"\nA cover version is used in this ad, which has been seen in the UK.\nDiet Coke using LaBelle's \"Lady Marmalade\"\nThis has been aired in the UK.\nDiet Coke using Brothers Johnson's \"Strawberry Letter 23\"\nthe girl is on a train and she opens the bottle and the rest is just the best memory hit you could imagine\nFord Vehicles using Queen's \"We Will Rock You\"\nThe Fox And The Hound Video using Queen's \"You're My Best Friend\"\nThis commercial has only been on the air a couple of times but I have noticed that they used Queen's song You're my best friend.\nGatorade using The Monks's \"Monk Time\"\nAn absurd 60's garage band's song is used in the current Is It In You? campaign.\nGeico Direct Insurance using Dan Hill's \"Sometimes When We Touch\"\nA woman has a good old time with the Geico gecko.\nGeneral Motors using The Ides of March's \"Vehicle\"\nGM's new cars for the 2002 year are shown. Curiously, it runs the second verse of Vehicle (\"...I'll take you to Hollywood.\")\nGeneral Motors using Grand Funk Railroad's \"We're An American Band\"\nHR BLOCK using BEATLES's \"Taxman\"\nORWELLIAN MEN IN SUOITS WITH BRIEFCASES OMINOUSLY STALKING THE STARK, DARK CITY PRIOR TO APRIL 15TH\nHanes Her Way using King Harvest's \"\"dancing In The Moonlight\"\"\nI believe this commercial aired around late 2001 or early 2002. Hanes Her Way wanted to change the usual look of their underware by making them look like something out of Victoria's Secret. The commercial had a woman jumping on a trampoline in the middle of the night doing back flips. I thought it was a very creative :-)\nHeinz Ketchup using Carly Simon's \"Anticipation\"\nAs the ketchup slowly pours out of the bottle, you hear the song \"Anticipation.\" To this day I refer to the song as the \"Heinz Ketchup\" song.\nHonda Motorcycles using Lou Reed's \"Walk on the Wild Side\"\nHydro 1 using The Who's \"I Can See For Miles\"\nIs NOTHING sacred anymore?\nHyundai cars using Jethro Tull's \"Thick as a Brick\"\nIan Anderson re-recorded the first bit of TaaB for the commerical. No vocals - just the catchy flute.\nKellogg's Special K Red Berries using Brothers Johnson's \"Strawberry Letter #23\"\nMakes sense, doesn't it?\nKodak using The Sandpipers's \"Come Saturday Morning\"\nCommerical featured a grandad and small grandson on a day out. The ad was for kodak film.\nLevis Jeans using Bellamy Brothers's \"Let Your Love Flow\"\nGreat\nMicrosoft using Rolling Stones's \"Start Me Up\"\nMitsubishi using Curtis Mayfield's \"Superfly\"\nMountain Dew using Queen's \"Bohemian Rhapsody\"\nThe commercial spoofs the video for the song, and the song's lyrics have been changed to sing the praises of Mountain Dew. The four singers grab cans of Dew that have been flying through the air and no one can catch them except for the singers.\nThe NFL using Harry Chapin's \"Cat's in the Cradle\"\nA father is teaching his son about football. Love that Joe Namath Fu Manchu (complete with Jets uniform) mustache!\nNestle Toll House Cookies using KC And The Sunshine Band's \"(Shake, Shake, Shake) Shake Your Booty\"\"\nInstead of \"Shake Your Booty\", it says \"Bake Bake Bake...Bake Bake Bake...Toll House Cookies.\"\nNike using John Lennon and the Plastic Ono Band's \"Instant Karma\"\nCommerical starts with black woman track athlete running on a running track. As the the camera zooms on the woman's shoes we can see she is wearing Nike shoes with the \"swoosh\". Commerical ends with Nike trademark and the song chrous \"And we all shine on . .\"\nNike using Nick Drake's \"Know\"\nDrake's repeating/hypnotic guitar riff used to sell athletic shoes.\nNissan Maxima using The Who's \"Won't Get Fooled Again\"\nLost respect for the Who after this commercial aired.\"\nNissan Pathfinder using Heart's \"Barracuda\"\nThe Pathfinder slides own like a slalom skier as Barracuda plays.\nNissan Pathfinder using The Who's \"Baba O'Reilly\"\nPathfinders playing polo...I wonder if the next Who song for Nissan will be \"Goin' Mobile\"\nNortel Networks using John Lennon's \"Come Together\"\nI can't think of a better way to describe this horrible imitation except AWEFUL and it doesn't even sound a damned thing like him.\nNovell Networks using David Bowie's \"Changes\"\nTwo goldfish who live in separate bowls try to kiss one another.\nOffice Depot using Bachman-Turner Overdrive's \"Takin' Care of Business\"\nPaine Webber Financial Services using O'Jays's \"For The Love of Money\"\nPeople are aboard a train...in the middle The \"Money - Money - Money - Money - Money ... MONEY!\" is heard (the only part used in the ad).\nPantene Pro-V shampoo using Hot Chocolate's \"You Sexy Thing\"\nCan we get something more original?\nPepsi using Village People's \"YMCA\"\nThis was used during Super Bowl 1997. Instead of saying Y-M-C-A, the polar bears would go P-E-P-S-I\nPepsi One using Hues Corporation's \"Rock the Boat\"\nIt takes place on a boat rocking and rolling on the sea. There are a bunch of people sitting on a table with alternating cans of Coke and Pepsi One. As the boat rolls from side to side, the pop cans slide, and the people take a swig of what's in the can in front of them.\nPepsi-Cola using Hot Chocolate's \"You Sexy Thing\"\nA man ogles a bunch of bathing-suited women in an ad, and he joins them in what appears to be a hot tub. You Sexy Thing plays - and then stops - when the man is faced with the real world. Debuted at Super Bowl XXXV.\nPetsmart using Carole King's \"I Feel the Earth Move\"\nHoly cow, when I was little Carole King's album Tapestry was a touchstone of an era. Now one of its songs is being used to sell pet care? Gross!\nPhillips/Magnavox using Beatles?'s \"Have To Admit It's Getting Better?\"\nI'm ashamed that I can't be positive about the artist/title but I'm pretty sure. Aired '99/00 in North America\nRadio Shack using Marvin Gaye's \"What's Going On\"\nCover version all but ruined Marvin Gaye's masterpiece. I wonder how many people associate it now with Teri Hatcher than Gaye.\nSony Camcorders using Crosby Stills Nash and Young's \"Carry On\"\nThis is actually a GREAT commercial. Sony got a female vocalist (I think Alana Davis) to cover the song, and she did a wonderful job... the song goes on \"that's when I knew you were really gone\" while this millionaire old guy signs off a 20 million dollar (US) check for a trip into space on a Soyuz, they show him riding the train to Astrograd cosmodrome, then practicing in the Russians' neutral buoyancy pool - and as Alana goes into the crescendo \"caaarrry onnn.. love is coming, love is coming to us all\" and we see the guy in the space capsule, then he's in the Space Station taking pictures through a porthole window and the voice over goes \"When they ask you where all the money went, show them the pictures.\" Wonderful commercial, I'm very glad I taped it when recording programs.\nTaco Bell using Village People's \"Macho Man\"\nSome guy munching nachos and the song's lyrics changed to \"Nacho, Nacho Man\"\nUPS using Joe Walsh's \"Life's Been Good To Me\"\nWalsh appears in this one, singing a revamped (and lame) version of the song about Dale Jarrett. Runs during NASCAR races (as the Thorogood and Charlie Daniels versions).\nUPS using Charlie Daniels Band's \"The Devil Went Down to Georgia\"\nDaniels appears in this one, singing a revamped version of the song which mentions Dale Jarrett. Runs during NASCAR races.\nViagara using Queen's \"We Are The Champions\"\nVisa Check Card using Minnie Riperton's \"Lovin' You\"\nAt a Pittsburgh Steelers game, this song comes on over the intercom. The song is supposed to be \"Who Let the Dogs Out?\" by the Baha Men but the guy in charge of the music is trying to buy a copy of it with a check and the clerk is demanding to see some I. D. The clerk says, \"I don't care whose stadium security you work for! I got to see some I. D.!\"\nVolkswagon Cabrio using Nick Drake's \"Pink Moon\"\nA group of kids driving at night through the forest looking at the moon. They stop for a second and look at a party they were thinking about going to and then keep driving. Drake's beautiful song plays in the background. This song made Drake popular, something he had never been while he was alive.\nWeiners using Oscar Mayer's \"Oscar Mayer\"\nNeed the wav or MP3 of the orginal song in 1963. Not the one that has B.O.L.O.G.N.A in it. The tune is \" I wish I were an Oscar Mayer Weiner. That is what I really want to be. Cause if I were an Oscar Mayer Weiner... Everyone would be in love with me\". I have this song by the adult girls who sing it. Looking for the one that the little boy sings. Thanks!!\nWest Virginia Lottery using Village People's \"YMCA\"\nWhen the West Virginia lottery added two more drawings of its \"Cash 25\" game to the week, they used a song set to the tune of \"YMCA\" sung by lottery balls to promote the added drawings.\nWho Wants To Be a Millionaire using Chic's \"Le Freak\"\nHighlights of contestants going ape when they won.\nYamaha motorcycles using The Spinners's \"Could It Be I'm Falling in Love\"\nA couple of motorcycle-riding guys are at a diner, and they - and several more people - look outside, and they see a Yamaha with a slogan above saying, \"Fall in Love on $1 a Day.\"\nWe also have pages on this topic devoted to the 80s and 90s\nWould You Like To Add Something We Missed?\nPlease use the submission page to submit information to be used on this page.", "Let Your Love Flow - Bellamy Brothers Lyrics - YouTube\nLet Your Love Flow - Bellamy Brothers Lyrics\nWant to watch this again later?\nSign in to add this video to a playlist.\nNeed to report the video?\nSign in to report inappropriate content.\nRating is available when the video has been rented.\nThis feature is not available right now. Please try again later.\nPublished on Jan 25, 2013\n\"Let Your Love Flow\" is the title of a pop song written by Larry E. Williams, a former roadie for Neil Diamond, and made popular by the American country music duo The Bellamy Brothers (1976). It was offered to Neil Diamond first, but he turned it down.\nThis record was a crossover hit in the United States, reaching Number One on the 1976 Billboard Hot 100 charts, #2 on Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks, and #21 on Hot Country Singles. It was also an international hit, landing on the charts in the UK, Scandinavia and West Germany, where the Bellamy Brothers' record spent five weeks at #1 followed by \"Ein Bett im Kornfeld\", a German language adaptation of the song recorded by Jürgen Drews, which spent the next six weeks at #1. In 2008 the song was used in an advert in the United Kingdom for Barclaycard. Subsequently, the song re-entered the UK Singles Chart and peaked at #21. It appeared in the 1980 Tatum O'Neal film Little Darlings and the 2008 period drama Swingtown.\nThe song has been covered by numerous other artists, notably Joan Baez, who included it on her 1979 Honest Lullaby album. Another re-recording by the Bellamy brothers with Gölä is included on the album The Greatest Hits Sessions.\nThere's a reason for the sunshinin' sky\nAnd there's a reason why I'm feelin' so high\nMust be the season when that\nLove light shines all around us\nSo, let that feelin' grab you deep inside\nAnd send you reelin' where your love can't hide\nAnd then go stealin' through the\nMoonlit nights with your lover\nJust let your love flow like a mountain stream\nAnd let your love grow with the smallest of dreams\nAnd let your love show and you'll know what I mean\nIt's the season", "Let Your Love Flow - YouTube\nLet Your Love Flow\nWant to watch this again later?\nSign in to add this video to a playlist.\nNeed to report the video?\nSign in to report inappropriate content.\nRating is available when the video has been rented.\nThis feature is not available right now. Please try again later.\nUploaded on Mar 14, 2006\nThe Bellamy Brothers singing \"Let Your Love Flow\" on German TV in th 1970s.\nCategory", "The Bellamy Brothers Lyrics\nThe Bellamy Brothers\nThe Bellamy Brothers are an American pop and country music duo brothers David Milton Bellamy (born September 16, 1950) and Homer Howard Bellamy (born February 2, 1946), from Darby, Florida, United States. The duo had considerable musical success in the 1970s and 1980s, starting with the release of their crossover hit \"Let Your Love Flow\" in 1976, a Number One single on the Billboard Hot 100.", "Bad Songs of the Seventies\nbrought out violent thoughts of hatred, revenge, etc.\nreminded me how lame the radio and record companies are\ncould make me want to break my stereo\nwould make me leave a bar or club if they started playing it\nwould make me boo a band who started playing it\nsuspended my believe in a divine force that governs the universe\nI'm not saying that there weren't ANY good songs during the 70s but there was just a truck-load of waste back then. If anybody's stupid enough to think that ALL disco sucks, remember that it's just a bastard son of rhythm & blues just like rock'n'roll is- so they're related, see? Also, the 1970's definitely didn't have a monopoly on shitty music- there was tons of crap unleashed on us in the decade before and after and now also (there's a future article there somewhere). Clothes-pin anyone?\nI've bolded some of the major offenders, which doesn't mean I 'like' the others better but only that some of the songs are a higher grade of crap than the other manure here.\nAlso, if we've misquoted a lyric from one of these masterpieces, please let us know . We don't want to misrepresent great art!\nAbba \"Dancing Queen\"\n      Nostalgia for them was cute for a few seconds but get real- 'see that girl/watch that scene/diggin' the dancing queen'\nAbba \"Knowing Me, Knowing You\"\nAbba \"Take A Chance On Me\"\nAbba \"Waterloo\"\nAmbrosia \"How Much I Feel\"\nAmerica \"Horse With No Name\"\n      A Neil Young imitation in voice only\nAmerica \"Tin Man\"\n       'Oz never did give nothin' to the Tin Man/That he didn't, didn't already have'\nAmerica \"Ventura Highway\"\n      A George Harrison imitation- they flatter him\nAmerica \"Lonely People\"\nPaul Anka \"Having My Baby\"\n      Did someone say abortion?\nAtlanta Rhythm Section \"Imaginary Lover\"\n      Sorry guys but Muscle Shoals is a real rhythm section not you\nAtlanta Rhythm Section \"So Into You\"\nBad Company \"Rock and Roll Fantasy\"\n      The Kinks did a little better with this title- 'It's all part of my rock'n'roll dre-eams'\nBad Company \"Feel Like Makin' Love\"\n      At least this was better than the same title by Roberta Flack\nBee Gees \"How Deep Is Your Love?\"\nBee Gees \"Love You Inside Out\"\nBee Gees \"Stayin' Alive\"\nBee Gees \"Too Much Heaven\"\nBee Gees \"Tragedy\"\nBee Gees \"You Should Be Dancing\"\nBellamy Brothers \"Let Your Love Flow\"\n       'Like a bird on wing..'\nGeorge Benson \"This Masquerade\"\nChuck Berry \"My Ding A Ling\"\n       A shame that he had to finally go Number 1 with a kiddie song about his dick\nStephen Bishop \"On And On\"\n      A lot less funny than his ANIMAL HOUSE cameo where he sang 'I gave my love a chicken that had no bone'\nBlue Magic \"Side Show\"\nBlue Swede \"Hooked On A Feeling\"\n      Did these guys sound constipated or what? 'Ooga-choka!'\nBoney M \"Brown Girl in the Ring\"\nDebby Boone \"You Light Up My Life\"\n       'You give me hope/to car-ry on...'\nBread \"If\"\nBread \"Make It With You\"\n      David Gates did produced Capt. Beefheart once so he has SOME hip credentials\nJackson Browne \"Doctor, My Eyes\"\n      Really dopey title. It makes about as much sense as \"Toys 'R' Us.\"- Wes\nEric Burdon \"Spill The Wine\"\nGlen Campbell \"Rhinestone Cowboy\"\nCaptain and Tennille \"Do That To Me One More Time\"\nCaptain and Tennille \"Love Will Keep Us Together\"\nCaptain and Tennille \"Muskrat Love\"\n      If the Carpenters can be hip, why can't Toni?\nCaptain and Tennille \"Shop Around\"\n       They thought they could improve on Smokey?\nCaptain and Tennille \"The Way I Want To Touch You\"\nEric Carmen \"All By Myself\"\n      Cool enough for Greg Brady to sing\nCarpenters \"Close To You\"\n      I know Sonic Youth likes Karen but what about Richard?\nCarpenters \"For All We Know\"\nCarpenters \"Please Mr. Postman\"\nCarpenters \"Rainy Days And Mondays\"\nCarpenters \"Sing\"\n       'Sing/Sing a song'- now, that's deep...\nCarpenters \"Top Of The World\"\nCarpenters \"We've Only Just Begun\"\n      I am proud to say that I got through my newlywed years without once thinking of this song after our reception- Wes\nDavid Cassidy \"Cherish\"\nShaun Cassidy \"Da Doo Ron Ron\"\n      File under 'where are they now?'\nHarry Chapin \"Cat's In The Craddle\"\nHarry Chapin \"Taxi\"\nCher \"Gypsies, Tramps and Thieves\"\nCher \"Half-Breed\"\nChicago \"Baby What A Big Surprise\"\nChicago \"Color My World\"\n       I don't care how many times this was played as the slow dance at dances, I never got to like it- Wes\nChicago \"Does Anybody Know What Time It Is\"\nChicago \"If You Leave Me Now\"\n       'You'll take away the biggest part of me/Woo-hoo-hoo-hoo-hoo Baby, please don't go'\nChicago \"Make Me Smile\"\nChicago \"Saturday In the Park\"\nChicago \"25 Or 6 to 4\"\n      This actually rocked a little but still...\nEric Clapton \"Lay Down Sally\"\n       This guy definitely forgot this roots\nEric Clapton \"Promises\"\n      Painful to think about... 'Precious and few are moments sweet two can share'\nClimax Blues Band \"Couldn't Get It Right\"\nJoe Cocker \"You Are So Beautiful\"\n      A great blues singer but like Clapton...\nNatalie Cole \"I Got Love On My Mind\"\nCommodores \"Easy\"\n      A shame they didn't stick with 'Machine Gun' and 'Brick House'\nCommodores \"Lady\"\nCommodores \"Three Times A Lady\"\n       'You're once, twice, three times a lady'\n      But if it didn't exist we wouldn't have heard Eddie Murphy sing it as Buckwheat- Wes\nBill Conti \"Gonna Fly Now (Theme From Rocky)\"\n       A shame they wouldn't let the Feelies cover this for SOMETHING WILD\nRita Coolidge \"Higher and Higher\"\n      Jackie Wilson is doing somersults in his grave\nRita Coolidge \"We're All Alone\"\nCoven \"One Tin Soldier\"\nJim Croce \"I'll Have To Say I Love You In A Song\"\nJim Croce \"Time In A Bottle\"\nCrosby, Stills and Nash \"Just A Song Before I Go\"\n      Alright, as long as you leave\nBurton Cummings \"Stand Tall\"\nDaddy Dewdrop \"Chick A Boom (Don't Ya Jes' Love It)\"\nCharlie Daniels \"The Devil Went Down To Georgia\"\nMac Davis \"Baby Don't Get Hooked On Me\"\n       'I'll just use you / then I'll set you free-ee-ee'\nPaul Davis \"I Go Crazy\"\nSammy Davis Jr. \"The Candy Man\"\nDawn \"Knock Three Times\"\nDawn \"Tie A Yellow Ribbon\"\n      Really big during the Gulf War\nRick Dees and His Cast of Idiots \"Disco Duck\"\n       Using Daffy would have been much funnier than using Donald\n       At least nobody can claim the name of the band is fraudulent- Wes\nJohn Denver \"Rocky Mountain High\"\n      Even more country than Hank Williams at the time\nJohn Devner \"Sunshine On My Shoulder\"\n       I always thought this would be a good tune for post-operative lobotomites to learn- Wes\nJohn Denver \"Take Me Home Country Roads\"\nJohn Denver \"Thank God I'm A Country Boy\"\nNeil Diamond \"I Am I Said\"\n      The Monkees and UB40 do his material better than he does\nNeil Diamond \"Song Sung Blue\"\nDisco Tex and the Sex-O-Lettes \"Get Dancin\"\nBo Donaldson and the Haywoods \"Billy Don't Be A Hero\"\n      A bell-bottom soap opera- 'Come back and make me your wife'\nDoobie Brothers \"What A Fool Believes\"\nCarl Douglas \"Kung Fu Fighting\"\n       'It was as fast as lightening... In fact, it was a little bit fright-ening'\nDr. Hook \"Only 16\"\n      These guys were actually funny but maybe that was just Shel Silverstein\nDr. Hook \"Sharing The Night Together\"\nDr. Hook \"When You're In Love With A Beautiful Woman\"\n      For some reason this one gets my wife really angry, so it's valuable- Wes\nEagles \"Best of My Love\"\n       Rule of thumb- do not use 'wo-ho-ho' as a lyric\nEagles \"Hotel California\"\n       Part of their musical war with Steely Dan. Nice 'accent'\nEagles \"I Can't Tell You Why\"\nEagles \"Lying Eyes\"\nEagles \"New Kid In Town\"\nEagles \"Take It Easy\"\nEagles \"Take It To The Limit\"\nEagles \"Witchy Woman\"\nEdison Lighthouse \"Love Grows (Where My Rosemary Goes)\"\nElectric Light Orchestra \"Can't Get It Out Of My Head\"\nElectric Light Orchestra \"Shine A Little Love\"\nYvonne Elliman \"If I Can't Have You\"\n       '..I don't want nobody baby/Wo..oh..oh..'\nEmotions \"Best of My Love\"\nEngland Dan and John Ford Coley \"I'd Really Love To See You Tonight\"\nExile \"Kiss You All Over\"\n      This is supposed to be a country band, mind you\nFreddy Fender \"Before The Next Teardrop Falls\"\n       'Wasted Days and Wasted Nights' is Tex-Mex worthy of Sir Douglas but this is much too sentimental\nJay Ferguson \"Thunder Island\"\nFirefall \"Just Remember I Love You\"\n       'And it'll be alright...'\nRoberta Flack \"Feel Like Making Love\"\nRoberta Flack \"First Time Ever I Saw Your Face\"\nRoberta Flack \"Killing Me Softly\"\nRoberta Flack/Donny Hathaway \"The Closer I Get To You\"\nRoberta Flack/Donny Hathaway \"Where Is the Love\"\nFleetwood Mac \"Dreams\"\n       Stevie Nicks- the queen of bad rock soap operas\nFloaters \"Float On\"\n       'Longer than, there've been fishes in the ocean/I've been in love with you'\nForeigner \"Cold As Ice\"\n       'You're willing to sacrifice our love'\nForeigner \"Double Vision\"\nForeigner \"Feels Like The First Time\"\nFortunes \"Here Comes That Rainy Day Feeling Again\"\nFour Seasons \"Who Loves You\"\nFour Seasons \"December 1963 (Oh, What A Night)\"\n       'What a ver-y special time for me/What a la-dy, what a night'\nPeter Frampton \"I'm In You\"\nPeter Frampton \"Show Me The Way\"\n      Nice wah-wah vocals\nCrystal Gale \"Don't It Make My Brown Eyes Blue\"\nGallery \"(It's so) Nice To Be With You\"\n      'I love all the things you say and do'\nLeif Garrett \"I Was Made For Dancin'\"\n      I don't think so\nGloria Gaynor \"I Will Survive\"\nGloria Gaynor \"Never Can Say Goodbye\"\nDavid Geddes \"Run Joey Run\"\n       On par with 'Billy, Don't Be a Hero'\nAndy Gibb \"I Just Want To Be Your Everything\"\nAndy Gibb \"Love Is Thicker Than Water\"\n      Name recoginition always helps\nNick Gilder \"Hot Child In The City\"\n      'runnin' wild and looking pretty'\nAndrew Gold \"Lonely Boy\"\n      See what happens when you ditch Linda Ronstadt- you become Jerry Brown\nGrand Funk Railroad \"Closer To Home\"\nHenry Gross \"Shannon\"\nGuess Who \"Share The Land\"\nGuess Who \"These eyes\"\n      'You're a bitch girl/you're a rich bitch girl'\nHall & Oates \"Sara Smile\"\nHamilton, Joe Frank & Reynolds \"Don't Pull Your Love Out\"\nAlbert Hammond \"It Never Rains In Southern California\"\n      Thanks for the weather report but it does actually\nGeorge Harrison \"Give Me Love (Give Me Peace On Earth)\"\n      Didn't he learn anything from Monty Python?\nHeatwave \"Always and Forever\"\nDan Hill \"Sometimes When We Touch\"\n      Andrew Dice Clay did a funnier version\nHollies \"He Ain't Heavy\"\nHollies \"The Air That I Breathe\"\nEddie Holman \"Hey There Lonely Girl\"\n      Nice Four Seasons falsetto though\nClint Holmes \"Playground In My Mind\"\n      Even kids could see through this\nRupert Holmes \"Escape (The Pina Colada Song)\"\nThelma Houston \"Don't Leave Me This Way\"\nEngelbert Humperdinck \"After The Loving\"\n      '...I'm still in love with you'\nJanis Ian \"At Seventeen\"\nTerry Jacks \"Seasons In The Sun\"\n      'We had joy, we had fun... But the stars we could reach were just starfish on the beach'\nMichael Jackson \"Ben\"\nJefferson Starship \"Count On Me\"\n      Guess their vocal coach couldn't make this session\nJefferson Starship \"Miracles\"\n      Amazing to think they once said 'up against the wall motherfukcers' (or was that Pink Floyd?)\nJigsaw \"Sky High\"\nBilly Joel \"Just The Way You Are\"\nElton John \"Don't Let The Sun Go Down On Me\"\nElton John \"Someone Saved My Life Tonight\"\nElton John \"Sorry Seems To Be The Hardest Word\"\n      You SHOULD be sorry Elton- what happened to 'Saturday Night's Alright For Fighting'?\nElton John and Kiki Dee \"Don't Go Breaking My Heart\"\n      Not as fun as his remake with RuPaul\nRobert John \"Sad Eyes\"\nRickie Lee Jones \"Chuck E's In Love\"\n      Joni Mitchell as a fake boho ain't an appealing proposition\nKansas \"Carry On My Wayward Son\"\nKansas \"Dust In The Wind\"\n      I used to call it \"Ducks in the Wind\"- Wes\n      'All we are is dust in the wind'- wow, man...\nAndy Kim \"Rock Me Gently\"\nCarole King \"It's Too Late\"\nCarole King \"So Far Away\"\nKiss \"I Was Made For Loving You\"\n      Their attempt at disco\nKool and the Gang \"Too Hot\"\nVicki Lawrence \"The Night The Lights Went Out In Georgia\"\n      'don't trust your soul to no backwoods southern lawyer'\nNicolette Larson \"Lotta Love\"\n      She should know better than to try to go up against her old boss Neil Young\nGordon Lightfoot \"If You Could Read My Mind\"\n       'what a tale my thoughts could tell'\nGordon Lightfoot \"Sundown\"\nGordon Lightfoot \"Wreck Of The Edmund Fitzgerald\"\nLittle River Band \"Lonesome Loser\"\n       'Have you heard about the lonesome loser/beaten by the Queen of Hearts every time..'\nLittle River Band \"Reminiscing\"\nLobo \"I'd Love You To Want Me\"\nLobo \"Me And You And Dog Named Boo\"\n       'Travelin' an' livin' off the land'\nDave Loggins \"Please Come To Boston\"\nKenny Loggins \"Whenever I Call You Friend\"\nLoggins and Messina \"Your Mama Don't Dance\"\n      Newsflash: neither can you guys\nLooking Glass \"Brandy\"\nMelissa Manchester \"Don't Cry Out Loud\"\nMaria Maldaur \"Midnight At the Oasis\"\nChuck Mangioine \"Feels So Good\"\n      This guy was actually 'jazz'?\nBarry Manilow \"Can't Smile Without You\"\nBarry Manilow \"Copacabana\"\n      'At the Copa/Copacabana/The hottest spot North of Havana..'\nBarry Manilow \"It's A Miracle\"\nBarry Manilow \"I Write The Songs\"\n      Supposedly a Brian Wilson tribute- 'I am music'\nBarry Manilow \"Looks Like Me Made It\"\nBarry Manilow \"Mandy\"\n       'you came and you gave without taking'\nJohnny Mathis/Deneice Williams \"Too Much, Too Little, Too Late\"\nC.W. McCall \"Convoy\"\n      Good for a laugh but not for repeated listens: 'Eleven long-haired friends of Jesus in a chartreuse micro-bus'\nPaul McCartney/Wings \"My Love\"\nMarilyn McCoo and Billy Davis Jr. \"You Don't Have To Be A Star Baby\"\n      The title alone is putrid\nVan McCoy \"The Hustle\"\nMary McGregor \"Torn Between Two Lovers\"\n       'Loving both of you, is breaking all the rules'\nDon McLean \"American Pie\"\n      Why do people care what this really means?\nMeatloaf \"Paradise By The Dashboard Light\"\n       Scooter, how could you?\nMeatloaf \"Two Out Of Three Ain't Bad\"\nMeatloaf \"You Took The Words Right Out Of My Mouth\"\nMelanie \"Brand New Key\"\nEddie Money \"Baby Hold On\"\nMoody Blues \"Nights In White Satin\"\n       King Crimson should have stolen their mellotron\n       Note to wise-asses: this came out in the '60's but was also a hit in the '70's\nMocedades \"Eres Tu\"\nAnne Murray \"You Needed Me\"\nDavid Naughton \"Makin' It\"\nNew Seekers \"I'd Like To Teach The World To Sing\"\n      Good enough for Coca Cola\nNew Seekers \"Look What They've Done To My Song\"\nWayne Newton \"Daddy Don't You Walk So Fast\"\nOlivia Newton-John \"Have You Ever Been Mellow\"\nOlivia Newton-John \"Hopelessly Devoted To You\"\nOlivia Newton-John \"I Honestly Love You\"\nOlivia Newton-John \"Let Me Be There\"\n      If John Denver can be country, I guess she can too.\nMaxine Nightingale \"Right Back To Where We Started From\"\n      'Love is good/love can be strong'\nNilsson \"Without You\"\n      Harry was actually cool otherwise (really funny too) but a weepy ballad is too much to forgive\nKenny Nolan \"I Like Dreaming\"\n       'Sweet dream baby I love you'\nOcean \"Put Your Hand In The Hand\"\nAlan O'Day \"Undercover Angel\"\n      You'd think Elton's drummer would know more about dancin'\nOdyssey \"Native New Yorker\"\n       'I want to be your partner/Dance With Me/The music has just started...'\nOrleans \"Love Takes Time\"\nDonny Osmond \"Go Away Little Girl\"\n      A wiser future generation will vindicate Donny Osmond. You watch- Wes\nDonny Osmond \"Puppy Love\"\nDonny Osmond \"The 12th of Never\"\nMarie Osmond \"Paper Roses\"\nThe Osmonds \"Down By The Lazy River\"\nThe Osmonds \"One Bad Apple\"\n      This is what they tried to pit against the Jacksons?\nGilbert O'Sullivan \"Alone Again Naturally\"\n      Bad enough that he had to sue Biz Markie over this\nGilbert O'Sullivan \"Claire\"\nOzark Mountain Daredevils \"Jackie Blue\"\nPablo Cruise \"Love Will Find A Way\"\nPaper Lace \"The Night Chicago Died\"\n      'I heard my mama cry/I heard her pray...'\n       To think they wanted the city to have it as their song (about a massacre no less)\nDolly Parton \"Here You Come Again\"\nPartridge Family \"I Think I Love You\"\n      At least Danny's still funny\n      You're confusing pathetic with funny- Wes\nPeaches and Herb \"Reunited\"\nPeter Paul and Mary \"Leaving On A Jet Plane\"\n      Wow, talk about weepy\nPython Lee Jackson \"In A Broken Dream\"\n      Before Rod was Rod\nQueen \"We Are The Champions\"\n      Nice for sporting events but not much else\nGerry Rafferty \"Baker Street\"\nLou Rawls \"You'll Never Find Another Love Like Mine\"\n      Didn't Sam Cooke teach him anything?\nRaydio \"Jack and Jill\"\nChris Rea \"Fool If You Think It's Over\"\nHelen Reddy \"Ain't No Way To Treat A Lady\"\nHelen Reddy \"Angie Baby\"\nHelen Reddy \"I Am Woman\"\n      Lovely anthem but why should anyone listen?\nHelen Reddy \"I Don't Know How To Love Him\"\nHelen Reddy \"You and Me Against The World\"\nHelen Reddy \"Ruby Red Dress (Leave Me Alone)\"\nPaul Revere \"Indian Reservation\"\n      Proving once again that the best way not to help a group of people is to write a pop song about 'em- Wes\nCharlie Rich \"The Most Beautiful Girl In the World\"\n       He was much too good to try to go pop like this- great for weeping in your beer though\nCliff Richard \"Devil Woman\"\nCliff Richard \"We Don't Talk Anymore\"\nRighteous Brothers \"Rock and Roll Heaven\"\n       Wonder if Darby Crash is there\nMinnie Riperton \"Loving You\"\n       Screaming on a ballad? How punk\nKenny Rogers \"Lady\"\n      This was country too? No wonder he went into fried chicken\nKenny Rogers \"She Believes In Me\"\nRolling Stones \"Angie\"\n      Even Keith would nod off when they did this live\nLinda Ronstadt \"Blue Bayou\"\n      Roy knew how to yell out ballads but she didn't\nDiana Ross \"Theme From Mahagony (Do You Know Where You're Going To)\"\n      'Do you like the things that life is showing you?'\nDiana Ross \"Touch Me In The Morning\"\nTodd Rundgren \"Hello It's Me\"\nSamantha Sang \"Emotion\"\nLeo Sayer \"You Make Me Feel Like Dancing\"\nLeo Sayer \"When I Need You\"\nNeil Sedaka \"Bad Blood\"\n       Couldn't Elton John leave well enough alone?\nNeil Sedaka \"Laughter In The Rain\"\nBob Seger \"We've Got Tonight\"\n       This from an Ike and Tina fan who did 'Get Out of Denver'? 'Who needs tomor-row/why don't you stay?'\nSilver Convention \"Fly Robin Fly\"\nSilver Convention \"Get Up and Boogie\"\nSimon and Garfunkel \"Bridge Over Troubled Waters\"\nCarly Simon \"Anticipation\"\n      At least Heinz liked this... 'It's keepin' me wai-ai-ai-ting'\nCarly Simon \"Haven't Got The Time For The Pain\"\nCarly Simon \"Nobody Does It Better\"\n       007 deserved better than this\nCarly Simon \"That's The Way I've Always Heard It Should Be\"\nCarly Simon/James Taylor \"Mockingbird\"\nRex Smith \"You Take My Breath Away\"\nSniff and the Tears \"Driver's Seat\"\nDavid Soul \"Don't Give Up On Us Baby\"\n      Much cooler as Starsky or Hutch\nStarbuck \"Moonlight Feels Right\"\nStarland Vocal Band \"Afternoon Delight\"\n       'Sky rockets in flight...'\nStealers Wheel \"Stuck In The Middle With You\"\n      Do you really need a lame Dylan imitation, even if Quentin Tarentino digs it?\nCat Stevens \"Another Saturday Night\"\n      Sam Cooke necrophilia\nCat Stevens \"It's A Wild World\"\nCat Stevens \"Morning Has Broken\"\n       Only a special performer can get on Natalie Merchant's shitlist and want to kill Salman Rushdie\nRay Stevens \"Everything Is Beautiful\"\n      Anybody who can cluck like a chicken shouldn't bother with Barry Manilow\nAl Stewart \"Time Passages\"\nAl Stewart \"Year of the Cat\"\nJohn Stewart \"Gold\"\nRod Stewart \"D'Ya Think I'm Sexy\"\n      Forget the fact that he stole this from Jorge Ben- the answer to the title is no\nRod Stewart \"You're In My Heart\"\nStephen Stills \"Love The One You're With\"\n      A lovely hippie sentiment\nBarbra Streisand \"Evergreen (Theme From Star Is Born)\"\nBarbara Streisand \"The Way We Were\"\nBarbara Streisand and Neil Diamond \"You Don't Bring Me Flowers\"\n      Even a lounge act wouldn't sink to this pap 'You don't sing me love songs...'\nSweet \"Love Is Like Oxygen\"\nDonna Summer \"MacArthur's Park\"\n      Wasn't Richard Harris bad enough?\nSupertramp \"Goodbye Stranger\"\n      Wasn't it a little early to imitate the Bee Gees?\nSupertramp \"Logical Song\"\n10CC \"I'm Not In Love\"\nTavares \"Heaven Must Be Missing An Angel\"\n      Offensive just for the title- it sounds like a really bad pick-up line\nJames Taylor \"Fire and Rain\"\nJames Taylor \"How Sweet It Is\"\n       Worse than Marvin's version but it really gauls me to think that he made much more money off of it\nJames Taylor \"You've Got A Friend\"\nJohnnie Taylor \"Disco Lady\"\n      Surely a dip in his good standing as a soul man\nR. Dean Taylor \"Indiana Wants Me\"\nB.J. Thomas \"Another Somebody Done Somebody Wrong Song\"\n      'And make me feel at home/while I miss my baby/while I miss my baby'\nB.J. Thomas \"Raindrops Keep Falling On My Head\"\nThree Degrees \"When Will I See You Again\"\nThree Dog Night \"Black and White\"\n       Even worse than Stevie and McCartney trying to make a positive statement on race relations\nThree Dog Night \"Old Fashioned Love Song\"\nThree Dog Night \"The Show Must Go On\"\nToto \"Hold The Line\"\n       'Love isn't always on time..'\nJohn Travolta \"Let Her In\"\n      Barbarino sings\nJohn Travolta and Olivia Newton-John \"Summer Nights\"\nJohn Travolta and Olivia Newton-John \"You're The One That I Want\"\nAndrea True Connection \"More More More\"\nBonnie Tyler \"It's A Heartache\"\n      It's a headache\nFrankie Valli \"My Eyes Adored You\"\n       'Like a million miles away from me, you couldn't see...'\nFrankie Valli \"Swearin' To God\"\nVanity Fair \"Hitchin' A Ride\"\nGino Vannelli \"I Just Want To Stop\"\n       '...for your love'\nRandy Vanwarmer \"Just When I Needed You The Most\"\nVillage People \"In The Navy\"\n      Good for a laugh if you like camp but nothing you'd want to invest in\nVillage People \"Macho Man\"\nBobby Vinton \"My Melody Of Love\"\n      Well, at least he was multi-lingual\nJennifer Warnes \"Right Time Of The Night\"\nBob Welch \"Ebony Eyes\"\nAndy Williams \"Where Do I Begin (Theme From Love Story)\"\n      More important- when do you end?\nWings \"Goodnight Tonight\"\n       Paul goes disco- sounds like a lounge act\nWings \"Let 'Em In\"\n      Paul ought to know- he became the expert after divorcing Lennon (or vice versa)\nGary Wright \"Dream Weaver\"\n       Appropriately named- puts you to sleep 'I be-lieve we can make it through the ni-ight..'\nJohn Paul Young \"Love Is In The Air\"\nNow that you've been suitably sickened, you might want to see the professional, constructive criticism we've gotten over this article.\nThe URL for this page is http://www.furious.com/perfect/badsongs.html\nWitness the rest of PERFECT SOUND FOREVER", "Bellamy Brothers — Free listening, videos, concerts, stats and photos at Last.fm\nalt-country\nThe Bellamy Brothers started their musical career at the end of the 1960s. In 1968, they had their first official gig, playing a free show with their father at the Rattlesnake Roundup in San Antonio, Florida, USA. They kept playing throughout the South, often with already recognized musicians, such as Percy Sledge, Eddie Floyd and others. A couple of months later, the brothers moved up north, discovering the potentials of rock/country music in Atlanta, Georgia." ] }

{ "aliases": [ "Howard Bellamy", "Bellamy Brothers", "The Bellamy Brothers", "David M. Bellamy", "David Bellamy (singer)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "david bellamy singer", "howard bellamy", "bellamy brothers", "david m bellamy" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "bellamy brothers", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Bellamy Brothers" }

{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Mike_Tyson.txt", "Boxing.txt" ], "title": [ "Mike Tyson", "Boxing" ], "wiki_context": [ "Michael Gerard \"Mike\" Tyson (; born June 30, 1966) is an American former professional boxer. He held the undisputed world heavyweight championship and holds the record as the youngest boxer to win the WBC, WBA and IBF heavyweight titles at 20 years, 4 months, and 22 days old. Tyson won his first 19 professional bouts by knockout, 12 of them in the first round. He won the WBC title in 1986 after defeating Trevor Berbick by a TKO in the second round. In 1987, Tyson added the WBA and IBF titles after defeating James Smith and Tony Tucker. This made him the first heavyweight boxer to simultaneously hold the WBA, WBC and IBF titles, and the only heavyweight to successively unify them.\n\nIn 1988, Tyson became the lineal champion when he knocked out Michael Spinks in 91 seconds. Tyson successfully defended the world heavyweight championship nine times, including victories over Larry Holmes and Frank Bruno. In 1990, he lost his titles to underdog James \"Buster\" Douglas, by knockout in round 10. Attempting to regain the titles, he defeated Donovan Ruddock twice in 1991, but pulled out of a fight with undisputed heavyweight champion Evander Holyfield due to injury. In 1992, Tyson was convicted of rape and sentenced to six years in prison, but was released after serving three years. After his release, he engaged in a series of comeback fights. In 1996, he won the WBC and WBA titles after defeating Frank Bruno and Bruce Seldon by knockout. With his defeat of Bruno, Tyson joined Floyd Patterson, Muhammad Ali, Tim Witherspoon, Evander Holyfield, and George Foreman as the only men in boxing history to that point to have regained a heavyweight championship after having lost it. After being stripped of the WBC title, Tyson lost his WBA crown to Evander Holyfield in November 1996 by an eleventh-round TKO. Their 1997 rematch ended when Tyson was disqualified for biting part of Holyfield's ear off.\n\nIn 2002, he fought for the world heavyweight title at the age of 35, losing by knockout to Lennox Lewis. Tyson retired from professional boxing in 2006, after being knocked out in consecutive matches against Danny Williams and Kevin McBride. Tyson declared bankruptcy in 2003, despite having received over $30 million for several of his fights and $300 million during his career. At the time it was reported that he had approximately $23 million of debt. Tyson was well known for his ferocious and intimidating boxing style as well as his controversial behavior inside and outside the ring. Nicknamed \"Iron\", and \"Kid Dynamite\" in his early career and later known as \"The Baddest Man on the Planet\", Tyson is considered one of the best heavyweights of all time. He was ranked No. 16 on The Rings list of 100 greatest punchers of all time, and No. 1 in the ESPN.com list of \"The hardest hitters in heavyweight history\". Sky Sports rated him as \"the scariest boxer ever\" and described him as \"perhaps the most ferocious fighter to step into a professional ring.\" He has been inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame and the World Boxing Hall of Fame.\n\nEarly life\n\nTyson was born in Brooklyn, New York. He has an elder brother named Rodney (born c. 1961) and had an elder sister named Denise, who died of a heart attack at age 24 in February 1990.\n\nTyson's biological father is listed as \"Purcell Tyson\" (who was from Jamaica) on his birth certificate, but the man Tyson had known as his father was Jimmy Kirkpatrick. Kirkpatrick was from Grier Town, North Carolina (a predominantly black neighborhood that was annexed by the city of Charlotte), where he was one of the neighborhood's top baseball players. Kirkpatrick married and had a son, Tyson's half-brother Jimmie Lee Kirkpatrick, who would help to integrate Charlotte high school football in 1965. In 1959, Jimmy Kirkpatrick left his family and moved to Brooklyn, where he met Tyson's mother, Lorna Mae (Smith) Tyson. Mike Tyson was born in 1966. Kirkpatrick frequented pool halls, gambled and hung out on the streets. \"My father was just a regular street guy caught up in the street world\", Tyson said. Kirkpatrick abandoned the Tyson family around the time Mike was born, leaving Tyson's mother to care for the children on her own. Kirkpatrick died in 1992. \n\nThe family lived in Bedford-Stuyvesant until their financial burdens necessitated a move to Brownsville when Tyson was 10 years old. Tyson's mother died six years later, leaving 16-year-old Tyson in the care of boxing manager and trainer Cus D'Amato, who would become his legal guardian. Tyson later said, \"I never saw my mother happy with me and proud of me for doing something: she only knew me as being a wild kid running the streets, coming home with new clothes that she knew I didn't pay for. I never got a chance to talk to her or know about her. Professionally, it has no effect, but it's crushing emotionally and personally.\" \n\nThroughout his childhood, Tyson lived in and around high-crime neighborhoods. According to an interview in Details, his first fight was with a bigger youth who had pulled the head off one of Tyson's pigeons. Tyson was repeatedly caught committing petty crimes and fighting those who ridiculed his high-pitched voice and lisp. By the age of 13, he had been arrested 38 times. He ended up at the Tryon School for Boys in Johnstown, New York. Tyson's emerging boxing ability was discovered there by Bobby Stewart, a juvenile detention center counselor and former boxer. Stewart considered Tyson to be an outstanding fighter and trained him for a few months before introducing him to Cus D'Amato. Tyson dropped out of high school as a junior. He would later be awarded an honorary Doctorate in Humane Letters from Central State University in 1989. \n\nKevin Rooney also trained Tyson, and he was occasionally assisted by Teddy Atlas, although Atlas was dismissed by D'Amato when Tyson was 15. Rooney eventually took over all training duties for the young fighter. \n\nCareer\n\nAmateur career\n\nTyson won gold medals at the 1981 and 1982 Junior Olympic Games, defeating Joe Cortez in 1981 and beating Kelton Brown in 1982. Brown's corner threw in the towel in the first round. He holds the Junior Olympic record for quickest knockout (8 seconds). He won every bout at the Junior Olympic Games by knockout.\n\nHe fought Henry Tillman twice as an amateur, losing both bouts by decision. Tillman went on to win heavyweight gold at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. \n\nRise to stardom\n\nTyson made his professional debut as an 18-year-old on March 6, 1985, in Albany, New York. He defeated Hector Mercedes via a first round knockout. He had 15 bouts in his first year as a professional. Fighting frequently, Tyson won 26 of his first 28 fights by KO or TKO; 16 of those came in the first round. The quality of his opponents gradually increased to journeyman fighters and borderline contenders, like James Tillis, David Jaco, Jesse Ferguson, Mitch Green and Marvis Frazier. His win streak attracted media attention and Tyson was billed as the next great heavyweight champion. D'Amato died in November 1985, relatively early into Tyson's professional career, and some speculate that his death was the catalyst to many of the troubles Tyson was to experience as his life and career progressed. \n\nTyson's first nationally televised bout took place on February 16, 1986, at Houston Field House in Troy, New York against journeyman heavyweight Jesse Ferguson. Tyson knocked down Ferguson with an uppercut in the fifth round that broke Ferguson's nose. During the sixth round, Ferguson began to hold and clinch Tyson in an apparent attempt to avoid further punishment. After admonishing Ferguson several times to obey his commands to box, the referee finally stopped the fight near the middle of the sixth round. The fight was initially ruled a win for Tyson by disqualification (DQ) of his opponent. The ruling was \"adjusted\" to a win by technical knockout (TKO) after Tyson's corner protested that a DQ win would end Tyson's string of knockout victories, and that a knockout would have been the inevitable result. The rationale offered for the revised outcome was that the fight was actually stopped because Ferguson could not (rather than would not) continue boxing.\n\nOn November 22, 1986, Tyson was given his first title fight against Trevor Berbick for the World Boxing Council (WBC) heavyweight championship. Tyson won the title by second round TKO, and at the age of 20 years and 4 months became the youngest heavyweight champion in history. Tyson's dominant performance brought many accolades. Donald Saunders wrote: \"The noble and manly art of boxing can at least cease worrying about its immediate future, now [that] it has discovered a heavyweight champion fit to stand alongside Dempsey, Tunney, Louis, Marciano and Ali.\" \n\nBecause of Tyson's strength, many fighters were intimidated by him. This was backed up by his outstanding hand speed, accuracy, coordination, power, and timing. Tyson was also noted for his defensive abilities. Holding his hands high in the Peek-a-Boo style taught by his mentor Cus D'Amato, he slipped and weaved out of the way of the opponent's punches while closing the distance to deliver his own punches. One of Tyson's trademark combinations was a right hook to his opponent's body followed by a right uppercut to his opponent's chin; very few boxers would remain standing if caught by this combination. Lorenzo Boyd, Jesse Ferguson and Jose Ribalta were among the boxers knocked down by the combination.\n\nUndisputed champion\n\nExpectations for Tyson were extremely high, and he embarked on an ambitious campaign to fight all of the top heavyweights in the world. Tyson defended his title against James Smith on March 7, 1987, in Las Vegas, Nevada. He won by unanimous decision and added Smith's World Boxing Association (WBA) title to his existing belt. 'Tyson mania' in the media was becoming rampant. He beat Pinklon Thomas in May with a knockout in the sixth round. On August 1 he took the International Boxing Federation (IBF) title from Tony Tucker in a twelve round unanimous decision. He became the first heavyweight to own all three major belts – WBA, WBC, and IBF – at the same time. Another fight, in October of that year, ended with a victory for Tyson over 1984 Olympic super heavyweight gold medalist Tyrell Biggs by knockout in the seventh round. \n\nDuring this time, Tyson came to the attention of gaming company Nintendo. After witnessing one of Tyson's fights, Nintendo of America president Minoru Arakawa was impressed by the fighter's \"power and skill\", prompting him to suggest Tyson be included in the upcoming Nintendo Entertainment System port of the Punch Out!! arcade game. In 1987, Nintendo released Mike Tyson's Punch-Out!!, which was well received and sold more than a million copies. \n\nTyson had three fights in 1988. He faced Larry Holmes on January 22, 1988, and defeated the legendary former champion by a fourth round KO. This was the only knockout loss Holmes suffered in 75 professional bouts. In March, Tyson then fought contender Tony Tubbs in Tokyo, Japan, fitting in an easy two-round victory amid promotional and marketing work. \n\nOn June 27, 1988, Tyson faced Michael Spinks. Spinks, who had taken the heavyweight championship from Larry Holmes via a 15-round decision in 1985, had not lost his title in the ring but was not recognized as champion by the major boxing organizations. Holmes had previously given up all but the IBF title, and that was eventually stripped from Spinks after he elected to fight Gerry Cooney (winning by a 5th-round TKO) rather than IBF Number 1 Contender Tony Tucker, as the Cooney fight provided him a larger purse. However, Spinks did become the lineal champion by beating Holmes and many (including Ring magazine) considered him to have a legitimate claim to being the true heavyweight champion. The bout was, at the time, the richest fight in history and expectations were very high. Boxing pundits were predicting a titanic battle of styles, with Tyson's aggressive infighting conflicting with Spinks' skillful out-boxing and footwork. The fight ended after 91 seconds when Tyson knocked Spinks out in the first round; many consider this to be the pinnacle of Tyson's fame and boxing ability. Spinks, previously unbeaten, would never fight professionally again.\n\nControversy and upset\n\nDuring this period, Tyson's problems outside boxing were also starting to emerge. His marriage to Robin Givens was heading for divorce, and his future contract was being fought over by Don King and Bill Cayton. In late 1988, Tyson parted with manager Bill Cayton and fired longtime trainer Kevin Rooney, the man many credit for honing Tyson's craft after the death of D'Amato. Following Rooney's departure, critics alleged that Tyson began to use the Peek-a-Boo style sporadically. Tyson insisted he hadn't altered the style that made him a world champion. In 1989, Tyson had only two fights amid personal turmoil. He faced the popular British boxer Frank Bruno in February. Bruno managed to stun Tyson at the end of the 1st round, although Tyson went on to knock out Bruno in the fifth round. Tyson then knocked out Carl \"The Truth\" Williams in one round in July. \n\nBy 1990, Tyson seemed to have lost direction, and his personal life was in disarray amidst reports of less vigorous training prior to the Douglas match. In a fight on February 11, 1990, he lost the undisputed championship to Buster Douglas in Tokyo. Tyson was a huge betting favorite; indeed, the Mirage, the only casino to put out odds for the fight, made Tyson a 42/1 favorite. However, Douglas was at an emotional peak after losing his mother to a stroke 23 days prior to the fight; Douglas fought the fight of his life. Contrary to reports that Tyson was out of shape, it has been noted at the time of the fight that he had pronounced muscles, an absence of body fat and weighed 220 and 1/2 pounds, only two pounds more than he had weighed when he beat Michael Spinks 20 months earlier. Mentally, however, Tyson was unprepared. He failed to find a way past Douglas's quick jab that had a 12 in reach advantage over his own. Tyson did catch Douglas with an uppercut in the eighth round and knocked him to the floor, but Douglas recovered sufficiently to hand Tyson a heavy beating in the subsequent two rounds. (After the fight, the Tyson camp would complain that the count was slow and that Douglas had taken longer than ten seconds to get to his feet.) Just 35 seconds into the 10th round, Douglas unleashed a brutal uppercut, followed by a four-punch combination of hooks that sent Tyson to the canvas for the first time in his career. He was counted out by referee Octavio Meyran.\n\nThe knockout victory by Douglas over Tyson, the previously undefeated \"baddest man on the planet\" and arguably the most feared boxer in professional boxing at that time, has been described as one of the most shocking upsets in modern sports history. \n\nAfter Douglas\n\nAfter the loss, Tyson recovered with first-round knockouts of Henry Tillman and Alex Stewart in his next two fights. Tyson's victory over Tillman, the 1984 Olympic heavyweight gold medalist, enabled Tyson to avenge his amateur losses at Tillman's hands. These bouts set up an elimination match for another shot at the undisputed world heavyweight championship, which Evander Holyfield had taken from Douglas in his first defense of the title.\n\nTyson, who was the number one contender, faced number two contender Donovan \"Razor\" Ruddock on March 18, 1991, in Las Vegas. Ruddock was seen as the most dangerous heavyweight around and was thought of as one of the hardest punching heavyweights. Tyson and Ruddock went back and forth for most of the fight, until referee Richard Steele controversially stopped the fight during the seventh round in favor of Tyson. This decision infuriated the fans in attendance, sparking a post-fight melee in the audience. The referee had to be escorted from the ring. \n\nTyson and Ruddock met again on June 28 that year, with Tyson knocking down Ruddock twice and winning a 12 round unanimous decision. A fight between Tyson and Holyfield for the undisputed championship was scheduled for November 8, 1991 at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas, but Tyson pulled out after sustaining a rib cartilage injury during training.\n\nRape conviction, prison, and conversion\n\nTyson was arrested in July 1991 for the rape of 18-year-old Desiree Washington, Miss Black Rhode Island, in an Indianapolis hotel room. Tyson's rape trial took place in the Marion County superior court from January 26, 1992 to February 10, 1992.\n\nDesiree Washington testified that she received a phone call from Tyson at 1:36 am on July 19, 1991 inviting her to a party. Having joined Tyson in his limousine, Washington testified that Tyson made sexual advances towards her. She testified that upon arriving at his hotel room, Tyson pinned her down on his bed and raped her despite her pleas to stop. She ran out of the room and asked Tyson's chauffeur to drive her back to her hotel. Partial corroboration of Washington's story came via testimony from Tyson's chauffeur, Virginia Foster, who confirmed Desiree Washington's state of shock. Further testimony came from Thomas Richardson, the emergency room physician who examined Washington more than 24 hours after the incident and confirmed that Washington's physical condition was consistent with rape. \n\nUnder lead defense lawyer Vincent J. Fuller's direct examination, Tyson claimed that everything had taken place with Washington's full cooperation and he claimed not to have forced himself upon her. When he was cross-examined by lead prosecutor Gregory Garrison, Tyson denied claims that he had misled Washington and insisted that she wanted to have sex with him. Because of Tyson's hostile and defensive responses to the questions during cross-examination, some have speculated that his behavior made him unlikable to the jury who saw him as brutish and arrogant. Tyson was convicted on the rape charge on February 10, 1992 after the jury deliberated for nearly 10 hours. \n\nAlan Dershowitz, acting as Tyson's counsel, filed an appeal urging error of law in the Court's exclusion of evidence of the victim's past sexual conduct, the exclusion of three potential defense witnesses, and the lack of a jury instruction on honest and reasonable mistake of fact. The Indiana Court of Appeals ruled against Tyson in a 2–1 vote.\n\nOn March 26, 1992, Tyson was sentenced to six years in prison followed by four years on probation. In spite of being 25 years old at the time he committed the rape, he was assigned to the Indiana Youth Center (now the Plainfield Correctional Facility) in April 1992, and he was released in March 1995 after serving less than three years of his six-year sentence. Hakeem Olajuwon claims that during his incarceration, Tyson converted to Islam. \n\nDue to his conviction, Tyson is required to register as a tier II sex offender under federal law. \nAs of May, 2016, he is so registered, as Michael Tyson, in Henderson, Nevada.\n\nComeback\n\nAfter being paroled from prison, Tyson easily won his comeback bouts against Peter McNeeley and Buster Mathis Jr.. Tyson's first comeback fight grossed more than US$96 million worldwide, including a United States record $63 million for PPV television. The fight was purchased by 1.52 million homes, setting both PPV viewership and revenue records. The 89-second fight elicited criticism that Tyson's management lined up \"tomato cans\" to ensure easy victories for his return. TV Guide included the Tyson-McNeeley fight in their list of the 50 Greatest TV Sports Moments of All Time in 1998. \n\nTyson regained one belt by easily winning the WBC title from Frank Bruno in March 1996. It was the second fight between the two, and Tyson knocked Bruno out in the third round. Tyson added the WBA belt by defeating champion Bruce Seldon in one round in September that year. Seldon was severely criticized and mocked in the popular press for seemingly collapsing to innocuous punches from Tyson. \n\nTyson–Holyfield fights\n\nTyson vs. Holyfield I\n\nTyson attempted to defend the WBA title against Evander Holyfield, who was in the fourth fight of his own comeback. Holyfield had retired in 1994 following the loss of his championship to Michael Moorer. It was said that Don King and others saw former champion Holyfield, who was 34 at the time of the fight and a huge underdog, as a washed-up fighter. \n\nOn November 9, 1996, in Las Vegas, Nevada, Tyson faced Holyfield in a title bout dubbed \"Finally.\" In a surprising turn of events, Holyfield, who was given virtually no chance to win by numerous commentators, defeated Tyson by TKO when referee Mitch Halpern stopped the bout in round 11. Holyfield became the second boxer to win a heavyweight championship belt three times. Holyfield's victory was marred by allegations from Tyson's camp of Holyfield's frequent headbutts during the bout. Although the headbutts were ruled accidental by the referee, they would become a point of contention in the subsequent rematch. \n\nTyson vs. Holyfield II and aftermath\n\nTyson and Holyfield fought again on June 28, 1997. Originally, Halpern was supposed to be the referee, but after Tyson's camp protested, Halpern stepped aside in favor of Mills Lane. The highly anticipated rematch was dubbed The Sound and the Fury, and it was held at the Las Vegas MGM Grand Garden Arena, site of the first bout. It was a lucrative event, drawing even more attention than the first bout and grossing $100 million. Tyson received $30 million and Holyfield $35 million, the highest paid professional boxing purses until 2007. The fight was purchased by 1.99 million households, setting a pay-per-view buy rate record that stood until the May 5, 2007, De La Hoya-Mayweather boxing match. \n\nSoon to become one of the most controversial events in modern sports, the fight was stopped at the end of the third round, with Tyson disqualified for biting Holyfield on both ears. The first time Tyson bit him, the match was temporarily stopped. Referee Mills Lane deducted two points from Tyson and the fight resumed. However, after the match resumed, Tyson did it again; Tyson was disqualified and Holyfield won the match. One bite was severe enough to remove a piece of Holyfield's right ear, which was found on the ring floor after the fight. Tyson later stated that his actions were retaliation for Holyfield repeatedly headbutting him without penalty. In the confusion that followed the ending of the bout and announcement of the decision, a near riot erupted in the arena and several people were injured. \n\nAs a subsequent fallout from the incident, US$3 million was immediately withheld from Tyson's $30-million purse by the Nevada state boxing commission (the most it could legally hold back at the time). Two days after the fight, Tyson issued a statement, apologizing to Holyfield for his actions and asked not to be banned for life over the incident. Tyson was roundly condemned in the news media but was not without defenders. Novelist and commentator Katherine Dunn wrote a column that criticized Holyfield's sportsmanship in the controversial bout and charged the news media with being biased against Tyson. \n\nOn July 9, 1997, Tyson's boxing license was rescinded by the Nevada State Athletic Commission in a unanimous voice vote; he was also fined US$3 million and ordered to pay the legal costs of the hearing. As most state athletic commissions honor sanctions imposed by other states, this effectively made Tyson unable to box in the United States. The revocation was not permanent, as the commission voted 4–1 to restore Tyson's boxing license on October 18, 1998. \n\nDuring his time away from boxing in 1998, Tyson made a guest appearance at WrestleMania XIV as an enforcer for the main event match between Shawn Michaels and Steve Austin. During this time, Tyson was also an unofficial member of D-Generation X. Tyson was paid $3 million for being guest enforcer of the match at WrestleMania XIV. \n\n1999 to 2005\n\nAfter Holyfield\n\nIn January 1999, Tyson returned to the ring to fight the South African Francois Botha, in another fight that ended in controversy. While Botha initially controlled the fight, Tyson allegedly attempted to break Botha's arms during a tie-up and both boxers were cautioned by the referee in the ill-tempered bout. Botha was ahead on points on all scorecards and was confident enough to mock Tyson as the fight continued. Nonetheless, Tyson landed a straight right-hand in the fifth round that knocked out Botha. Critics noticed Tyson stopped using the bob and weave defense altogether following this return. \n\nLegal problems caught up with Tyson once again. On February 5, 1999, Tyson was sentenced to a year's imprisonment, fined $5,000, and ordered to serve two years probation and perform 200 hours of community service for assaulting two motorists after a traffic accident on August 31, 1998. He served nine months of that sentence. After his release, he fought Orlin Norris on October 23, 1999. Tyson knocked down Norris with a left hook thrown after the bell sounded to end the first round. Norris injured his knee when he went down and said he was unable to continue the fight. Consequently, the bout was ruled a no contest. \n\nIn 2000, Tyson had three fights. The first was staged at the MEN Arena, Manchester, England against Julius Francis. Following controversy as to whether Tyson should be allowed into the country, he took four minutes to knock out Francis, ending the bout in the second round. He also fought Lou Savarese in June 2000 in Glasgow, winning in the first round; the fight lasted only 38 seconds. Tyson continued punching after the referee had stopped the fight, knocking the referee to the floor as he tried to separate the boxers. In October, Tyson fought the similarly controversial Andrew Golota, winning in round three after Gołota was unable to continue due to a broken jaw. The result was later changed to no contest after Tyson refused to take a pre-fight drug test and then tested positive for marijuana in a post-fight urine test. Tyson fought only once in 2001, beating Brian Nielsen in Copenhagen with a seventh round TKO. \n\nLewis vs. Tyson\n\nTyson once again had the opportunity to fight for a heavyweight championship in 2002. Lennox Lewis held the WBC, IBF, IBO and Lineal titles at the time. As promising amateurs, Tyson and Lewis had sparred at a training camp in a meeting arranged by Cus D'Amato in 1984. Tyson sought to fight Lewis in Nevada for a more lucrative box-office venue, but the Nevada Boxing Commission refused him a license to box as he was facing possible sexual assault charges at the time. \n\nTwo years prior to the bout, Tyson had made several inflammatory remarks to Lewis in an interview following the Savarese fight. The remarks included the statement \"I want your heart, I want to eat your children.\" On January 22, 2002, the two boxers and their entourages were involved in a brawl at a New York press conference to publicize the planned event. A few weeks later, the Nevada State Athletic Commission refused to grant Tyson a license for the fight, forcing the promoters to make alternative arrangements. After multiple states balked at granting Tyson a license, the fight eventually occurred on June 8 at the Pyramid Arena in Memphis, Tennessee. Lewis dominated the fight and knocked out Tyson with a right hook in the eighth round. Tyson was respectful after the fight and praised Lewis on his victory. This fight was the highest-grossing event in pay-per-view history at that time, generating $106.9 million from 1.95 million buys in the USA.\n\nLate career, bankruptcy and retirement\n\nIn another Memphis fight on February 22, 2003, Tyson beat fringe contender Clifford Etienne 49 seconds into round one. The pre-fight was marred by rumors of Tyson's lack of fitness. Some said that he took time out from training to party in Las Vegas and get a new facial tattoo. This would be Tyson's final professional victory in the ring.\n\nIn August 2003, after years of financial struggles, Tyson finally filed for bankruptcy. In 2003, amid all his economic troubles, he was named by The Ring at number 16, right behind Sonny Liston, among the 100 greatest punchers of all time.\n\nOn August 13, 2003, Tyson entered the ring for a face-to-face confrontation against K-1 fighting phenom Bob Sapp immediately after Sapp's win against Kimo Leopoldo in Las Vegas. K-1 signed Tyson to a contract with the hopes of making a fight happen between the two, but Tyson's felony history made it impossible for him to obtain a visa to enter Japan, where the fight would have been most profitable. Alternative locations were discussed, but the fight ultimately failed to happen. \n\nOn July 30, 2004, Tyson faced British boxer Danny Williams in another comeback fight, this time staged in Louisville, Kentucky. Tyson dominated the opening two rounds. The third round was even, with Williams getting in some clean blows and also a few illegal ones, for which he was penalized. In the fourth round, Tyson was unexpectedly knocked out. After the fight, it was revealed that Tyson was trying to fight on one leg, having torn a ligament in his other knee in the first round. This was Tyson's fifth career defeat. He underwent surgery for the ligament four days after the fight. His manager, Shelly Finkel, claimed that Tyson was unable to throw meaningful right-hand punches since he had a knee injury. \n\nOn June 11, 2005, Tyson stunned the boxing world by quitting before the start of the seventh round in a close bout against journeyman Kevin McBride. In the 2008 documentary Tyson, he stated that he fought McBride for a payday, that he did not anticipate winning, that he was in poor physical condition and fed up with taking boxing seriously. After losing three of his last four fights, Tyson said he would quit boxing because he felt he had lost his passion for the sport. \n\nWhen Tyson fired everyone working for him and got new accountants in 2000, they prepared a statement showing he started the year $3.3 million in the hole but made $65.7 million. \"The problem was that I spent $62 million that year,' Tyson said, \"I just said to myself, Wow, this is over. Now I can go out and really have fun.\". In August 2007, Tyson pleaded guilty to drug possession and driving under the influence in an Arizona court, which stemmed from an arrest in December where authorities said Tyson, who has a long history of legal problems, admitted to using cocaine that day and to being addicted to the drug. \n\nExhibition tour\n\nTo help pay off his debts, Tyson returned to the ring in 2006 for a series of four-round exhibitions against journeyman heavyweight Corey \"T-Rex\" Sanders in Youngstown, Ohio. Tyson, without headgear at 5 ft 10.5 in and 216 pounds, was in great shape, but far from his prime against Sanders, with headgear at 6 ft 8 in and 293 pounds, a loser of his last seven pro bouts and nearly blind from a detached retina in his left eye. Tyson appeared to be \"holding back\" in these exhibitions to prevent an early end to the \"show\". \"If I don't get out of this financial quagmire there's a possibility I may have to be a punching bag for somebody. The money I make isn't going to help my bills from a tremendous standpoint, but I'm going to feel better about myself. I'm not going to be depressed\", explained Tyson about the reasons for his \"comeback\". \n\nLegacy\n\nA 1998 ranking of \"The Greatest Heavyweights of All-Time\" by Ring magazine placed Tyson at No.14 on the list. Despite criticism of facing underwhelming competition during his run as champion, Tyson's knockout power and intimidation factor made him the sport's most dynamic box office attraction. According to Douglas Quenqua of The New York Times, \"The [1990s] began with Mike Tyson, considered by many to be the last great heavyweight champion, losing his title to the little-known Buster Douglas. Seven years later, Mr. Tyson bit Evander Holyfield's ear in a heavyweight champion bout — hardly a proud moment for the sport.\" \n\nIn Ring Magazine's list of the 80 Best Fighters of the Last 80 Years, released in 2002, Tyson was ranked at No. 72. He is ranked No. 16 on Ring Magazines 2003 list of 100 greatest punchers of all time. \n\nOn June 12, 2011, Tyson was inducted to the International Boxing Hall of Fame alongside legendary Mexican champion Julio César Chávez, light welterweight champion Kostya Tszyu, and actor/screenwriter Sylvester Stallone. \n\nAfter professional boxing\n\nIn an interview with USA Today published on June 3, 2005, Tyson said, \"My whole life has been a waste – I've been a failure.\" He continued: \"I just want to escape. I'm really embarrassed with myself and my life. I want to be a missionary. I think I could do that while keeping my dignity without letting people know they chased me out of the country. I want to get this part of my life over as soon as possible. In this country nothing good is going to come of me. People put me so high; I wanted to tear that image down.\" Tyson began to spend much of his time tending to his 350 pigeons in Paradise Valley, an upscale enclave near Phoenix, Arizona. \n\nTyson has stayed in the limelight by promoting various websites and companies. In the past Tyson had shunned endorsements, accusing other athletes of putting on a false front to obtain them. Tyson has held entertainment boxing shows at a casino in Las Vegas and started a tour of exhibition bouts to pay off his numerous debts. \n\nOn December 29, 2006, Tyson was arrested in Scottsdale, Arizona, on suspicion of DUI and felony drug possession; he nearly crashed into a police SUV shortly after leaving a nightclub. According to a police probable-cause statement, filed in Maricopa County Superior Court, \"[Tyson] admitted to using [drugs] today and stated he is an addict and has a problem.\" Tyson pleaded not guilty on January 22, 2007 in Maricopa County Superior Court to felony drug possession and paraphernalia possession counts and two misdemeanor counts of driving under the influence of drugs. On February 8 he checked himself into an inpatient treatment program for \"various addictions\" while awaiting trial on the drug charges. \n\nOn September 24, 2007, Mike Tyson pleaded guilty to possession of cocaine and driving under the influence. He was convicted of these charges in November 2007 and sentenced to 24 hours in jail, 360 hours community service and 3 years probation. Prosecutors had requested a year-long jail sentence, but the judge praised Tyson for seeking help with his drug problems. On November 11, 2009, Mike Tyson was arrested after getting into a scuffle at Los Angeles International airport with a photographer. No charges were filed.\n\nTyson has taken acting roles in movies and television, most famously playing a fictionalized version of himself in the 2009 film The Hangover. Tyson has continued to appear in the WWE. \n\nIn September 2011, Tyson gave an interview in which he made comments about former Alaska governor Sarah Palin that included crude and violent descriptions of interracial sex. These comments were then reprinted on the Daily Caller website. Journalist Greta van Susteren criticized Tyson and the Daily Caller over the comments, which she described as \"smut\" and \"violence against women\". \n\nAfter debuting a one-man show in Las Vegas, Tyson teamed up with director Spike Lee and brought the show to Broadway in August 2012. In February 2013, Tyson took his one-man show Mike Tyson: Undisputed Truth on a 36-city, three-month national tour. Tyson talks about his personal and professional life on stage. The one-man show was aired on HBO on November 16, 2013.\n\nIn October 2012, Tyson launched the Mike Tyson Cares Foundation. The mission of the Mike Tyson Cares Foundation is to \"give kids a fighting chance\" by providing innovative centers that provide for the comprehensive needs of kids from broken homes.\n\nIn August 2013, Tyson teamed up with Acquinity Interactive CEO Garry Jonas to form Iron Mike Productions, a boxing promotions company, formerly known as Acquinity Sports.\n\nIn September 2013, Tyson was featured on a six-episode television series on Fox Sports 1 that documented his personal and private life entitled \"Being Mike Tyson\". \n\nIn November 2013, Tyson released his book Undisputed Truth, which also made it on The New York Times Best Seller list. An animated series named Mike Tyson Mysteries, featuring Tyson solving mysteries in the style of Scooby-Doo, premiered on Adult Swim in late October 2014. \n\nIn early March 2015, Tyson appeared on the track \"Iconic\" on Madonna's album Rebel Heart. Tyson says some lines at the beginning of the song. \n\nIn late March 2015, Ip Man 3 was announced. With Donnie Yen reprising his role as the titular character, Bruce Lee's martial arts master, Ip Man, while Mike Tyson has been confirmed to join the cast. Principal photography began on March 25, 2015, and was premiered in Hong Kong on 16 December 2015.\n\nPersonal life\n\nTyson resides in Seven Hills, Nevada. He has been married three times. He has fathered seven children, one deceased, by three women; in addition to his biological children, Tyson includes the oldest daughter of his second wife as one of his own. \n\nHis first marriage was to actress Robin Givens, from February 7, 1988 to February 14, 1989. Givens was famous for her work on the sitcom Head of the Class. Tyson's marriage to Givens was especially tumultuous, with allegations of violence, spousal abuse and mental instability on Tyson's part. Matters came to a head when Tyson and Givens gave a joint interview with Barbara Walters on the ABC TV newsmagazine show 20/20 in September 1988, in which Givens described life with Tyson as \"torture, pure hell, worse than anything I could possibly imagine.\" Givens also described Tyson as \"manic depressive\" on national television while Tyson looked on with an intent and calm expression. A month later, Givens announced that she was seeking a divorce from the allegedly abusive Tyson. They had no children but she reported having had a miscarriage; Tyson reports that she was never pregnant and only used that to get him to marry her. During their marriage, the couple lived in a mansion in Bernardsville, New Jersey. \n\nHis second marriage was to Monica Turner from April 19, 1997 to January 14, 2003. At the time of the divorce filing, Turner worked as a pediatric resident at Georgetown University Medical Center in Washington, D.C. She is the sister of Michael Steele, the former Lieutenant Governor of Maryland and former Republican National Committee Chairman. Turner filed for divorce from Tyson in January 2002, claiming that he committed adultery during their five-year marriage, an act that \"has neither been forgiven nor condoned.\" The couple had two children; son Amir, and daughter Rayna.\n\nOn May 25, 2009, Tyson's four-year-old daughter Exodus was found by her seven-year-old brother Miguel, unconscious and tangled in a cord, dangling from an exercise treadmill. The child's mother untangled her, administered CPR and called for medical attention. She died of her injuries on May 26, 2009. \n\nEleven days after his daughter's death, Tyson wed for the third time, to longtime girlfriend Lakiha \"Kiki\" Spicer, age 32, exchanging vows on Saturday, June 6, 2009, in a short, private ceremony at the La Bella Wedding Chapel at the Las Vegas Hilton. They have two children; daughter, Milan, and son, Morocco.\n\nTyson has been diagnosed with bipolar disorder. While on the American talk show The View in early May 2010, Tyson revealed that he is now forced to live paycheck to paycheck. He went on to say: \"I'm totally destitute and broke. But I have an awesome life, I have an awesome wife who cares about me. ... I'm totally broke. I had a lot of fun. It [going broke] just happened. I'm very grateful. I don't deserve to have the wife that I have; I don't deserve the kids that I have, but I do, and I'm very grateful.\"\n\nIn March 2011, Tyson appeared on The Ellen DeGeneres Show to discuss his new Animal Planet reality series, Taking on Tyson. In the interview with DeGeneres, Tyson discussed some of the ways he had improved his life in the past two years, including sober living and a vegan diet. However, in August 2013 he admitted publicly that he had lied about his sobriety and was on the verge of death from alcoholism. \n\nIn December 2013, during an interview with Fox News, Tyson talked about his progress with sobriety and how being in the company of good people has made him want to be a better and more humble person. Tyson also talked about religion and said that he is very grateful to be a Muslim and that he needs Allah. He also revealed that he is no longer vegan after four years.\n\nIn 2015, Tyson announced that he was supporting Donald Trump's presidential candidacy. \n\nIn popular culture\n\nAt the height of his fame and career in the late 1980s and throughout the 1990s, Tyson was one of the most recognized sports personalities in the world. Apart from his many sporting accomplishments, his outrageous and controversial behavior in the ring and in his private life has kept him in the public eye and in the courtroom. As such, Tyson has appeared in myriad popular media in cameo appearances in film and television. He has also been featured in video games and as a subject of parody or satire.\n\nThe Blackstreet single \"Booti Call\" was written about Tyson's rape trial and conviction. Boogie Down Productions' 1992 song \"Say Gal\" also addressed the rape trial. \n\nThe film Tyson was released in 1995 and was directed by Uli Edel. It explores the life of Mike Tyson, from the death of his guardian and trainer Cus D'Amato to his rape conviction. Tyson is played by Michael Jai White.\n\nPublished in 2007, author Joe Layden's book The Last Great Fight: The Extraordinary Tale of Two Men and How One Fight Changed Their Lives Forever, chronicled the lives of Tyson and Douglas before and after their heavyweight championship fight. The book received positive reviews and claimed the fight was essentially the beginning of the end of boxing's popularity in mainstream sports.\n\nIn 2008, the critically acclaimed documentary Tyson premiered at the annual Cannes Film Festival in France. The film was directed by James Toback and has interviews with Tyson and clips of his fights and from his personal life.\n\nThe Felice Brothers, a folk-rock band from Upstate New York, released a song on their 2011 album Celebration, Florida titled \"Cus's Catskill Gym\". The song tells the story, albeit briefly, of Mike Tyson and a few notable characters and moments in his life.\n\nHe is the titular character in Mike Tyson Mysteries, which started airing on October 27, 2014 on Adult Swim. \n\nProfessional boxing record\n\nTitles in boxing\n\n!colspan3 style\n\"background:#C1D8FF;\"|Amateur titles\n\n!colspan3 style\n\"background:#C1D8FF;\"|World titles\n\nPay-per-view bouts\n\nAwards and honors\n\nSource: \n\nBoxing\n\n*Ring magazine Prospect of the Year (1985)\n*2× Ring magazine Fighter of the Year (1986, 1988)\n*2× Sugar Ray Robinson Award winner (1987, 1989)\n*BBC Sports Personality of the Year Overseas Personality (1989)\n*International Boxing Hall of Fame inductee (Class of 2011)\n\nProfessional wrestling\n\n* WWE Hall of Fame (Class of 2012) \n\nActing\n\n* 2009 Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy (as a cast member of The Hangover)", "Boxing is a martial art and combat sport in which two people wearing protective gloves throw punches at each other for a predetermined set of time in a boxing ring.\n\nAmateur boxing is both an Olympic and Commonwealth sport and is a common fixture in most international games—it also has its own World Championships. Boxing is supervised by a referee over a series of one- to three-minute intervals called rounds. The result is decided when an opponent is deemed incapable to continue by a referee, is disqualified for breaking a rule, resigns by throwing in a towel, or is pronounced the winner or loser based on the judges' scorecards at the end of the contest. In the event that both fighters gain equal scores from the judges, the fight is considered a draw (professional boxing). In Olympic boxing, due to the fact that a winner must be declared, in the case of a draw - the judges use technical criteria to choose the most deserving winner of the bout.\n\nWhile people have fought in hand-to-hand combat since before the dawn of history, the origin of boxing as an organized sport may be its acceptance by the ancient Greeks as an Olympic game in BC 688. Boxing evolved from 16th- and 18th-century prizefights, largely in Great Britain, to the forerunner of modern boxing in the mid-19th century, again initially in Great Britain and later in the United States.\n\nHistory\n\nAncient history\n\nSee also Ancient Greek boxing\n\nThe earliest known depiction of boxing comes from a Sumerian relief in Iraq from the 3rd millennium BCE Later depictions from the 2nd millennium BC are found in reliefs from the Mesopotamian nations of Assyria and Babylonia, and in Hittite art from Asia Minor. The earliest evidence for fist fighting with any kind of gloves can be found on Minoan Crete (c.1650–1400 BCE), and on Sardinia, if we consider the boxing statues of Prama mountains (c. 2000–1000 BC).\n\nBoxing was a popular spectator sport in Ancient Rome. In order for the fighters to protect themselves against their opponents they wrapped leather thongs around their fists. Eventually harder leather was used and the thong soon became a weapon. The Romans even introduced metal studs to the thongs to make the cestus which then led to a more sinister weapon called the myrmex ('limb piercer'). Fighting events were held at Roman Amphitheatres. The Roman form of boxing was often a fight until death to please the spectators who gathered at such events. However, especially in later times, purchased slaves and trained combat performers were valuable commodities, and their lives were not given up without due consideration. Often slaves were used against one another in a circle marked on the floor. This is where the term ring came from. In AD 393, during the Roman gladiator period, boxing was abolished due to excessive brutality. It was not until the late 17th century that boxing re-surfaced in London.\n\nEarly London prize ring rules\n\nRecords of Classical boxing activity disappeared after the fall of the Western Roman Empire when the wearing of weapons became common once again and interest in fighting with the fists waned. However, there are detailed records of various fist-fighting sports that were maintained in different cities and provinces of Italy between the 12th and 17th centuries. There was also a sport in ancient Rus called Kulachniy Boy or \"Fist Fighting\".\n\nAs the wearing of swords became less common, there was renewed interest in fencing with the fists. The sport would later resurface in England during the early 16th century in the form of bare-knuckle boxing sometimes referred to as prizefighting. The first documented account of a bare-knuckle fight in England appeared in 1681 in the London Protestant Mercury, and the first English bare-knuckle champion was James Figg in 1719. This is also the time when the word \"boxing\" first came to be used. It should be noted, that this earliest form of modern boxing was very different. Contests in Mr. Figg's time, in addition to fist fighting, also contained fencing and cudgeling. On 6 January 1681, the first recorded boxing match took place in Britain when Christopher Monck, 2nd Duke of Albemarle (and later Lieutenant Governor of Jamaica) engineered a bout between his butler and his butcher with the latter winning the prize.\n\nEarly fighting had no written rules. There were no weight divisions or round limits, and no referee. In general, it was extremely chaotic. An early article on boxing was published in Nottingham, 1713, by Sir Thomas Parkyns, a successful Wrestler from Bunny, Nottinghamshire, who had practised the techniques he described. The article, a single page in his manual of wrestling and fencing, Progymnasmata: The inn-play, or Cornish-hugg wrestler, described a system of headbutting, punching, eye-gouging, chokes, and hard throws, not recognized in boxing today. \n\nThe first boxing rules, called the Broughton's rules, were introduced by champion Jack Broughton in 1743 to protect fighters in the ring where deaths sometimes occurred. Under these rules, if a man went down and could not continue after a count of 30 seconds, the fight was over. Hitting a downed fighter and grasping below the waist were prohibited. Broughton encouraged the use of 'mufflers', a form of padded bandage or mitten, to be used in 'jousting' or sparring sessions in training, and in exhibition matches.\n\nThese rules did allow the fighters an advantage not enjoyed by today's boxers; they permitted the fighter to drop to one knee to begin a 30-second count at any time. Thus a fighter realizing he was in trouble had an opportunity to recover. However, this was considered \"unmanly\" and was frequently disallowed by additional rules negotiated by the Seconds of the Boxers. Intentionally going down in modern boxing will cause the recovering fighter to lose points in the scoring system. Furthermore, as the contestants did not have heavy leather gloves and wristwraps to protect their hands, they used different punching technique to preserve their hands, because the head was a common target to hit full out. Almost all period manuals have powerful straight punches with the whole body behind them to the face (including forehead) as the basic blows. \n\nMarquess of Queensberry rules (1867)\n\nIn 1867, the Marquess of Queensberry rules were drafted by John Chambers for amateur championships held at Lillie Bridge in London for Lightweights, Middleweights and Heavyweights. The rules were published under the patronage of the Marquess of Queensberry, whose name has always been associated with them.\n\nThere were twelve rules in all, and they specified that fights should be \"a fair stand-up boxing match\" in a 24-foot-square or similar ring. Rounds were three minutes with one-minute rest intervals between rounds. Each fighter was given a ten-second count if he was knocked down, and wrestling was banned.\nThe introduction of gloves of \"fair-size\" also changed the nature of the bouts. An average pair of boxing gloves resembles a bloated pair of mittens and are laced up around the wrists. \nThe gloves can be used to block an opponent's blows. As a result of their introduction, bouts became longer and more strategic with greater importance attached to defensive maneuvers such as slipping, bobbing, countering and angling. Because less defensive emphasis was placed on the use of the forearms and more on the gloves, the classical forearms outwards, torso leaning back stance of the bare knuckle boxer was modified to a more modern stance in which the torso is tilted forward and the hands are held closer to the face.\n\nLate 19th and early 20th centuries\n\nThrough the late nineteenth century, the martial art of boxing or prizefighting was primarily a sport of dubious legitimacy. Outlawed in England and much of the United States, prizefights were often held at gambling venues and broken up by police. Brawling and wrestling tactics continued, and riots at prizefights were common occurrences. Still, throughout this period, there arose some notable bare knuckle champions who developed fairly sophisticated fighting tactics.\n\nThe English case of R v. Coney in 1882 found that a bare-knuckle fight was an assault occasioning actual bodily harm, despite the consent of the participants. This marked the end of widespread public bare-knuckle contests in England.\n\nThe first world heavyweight champion under the Queensberry Rules was \"Gentleman Jim\" Corbett, who defeated John L. Sullivan in 1892 at the Pelican Athletic Club in New Orleans. \n\nThe first instance of film censorship in the United States occurred in 1897 when several states banned the showing of prize fighting films from the state of Nevada, where it was legal at the time.\n\nThroughout the early twentieth century, boxers struggled to achieve legitimacy. They were aided by the influence of promoters like Tex Rickard and the popularity of great champions such as John L. Sullivan.\n\nRules\n\nThe Marquess of Queensberry rules have been the general rules governing modern boxing since their publication in 1867.\n\nA boxing match typically consists of a determined number of three-minute rounds, a total of up to 9 to 12 rounds. A minute is typically spent between each round with the fighters in their assigned corners receiving advice and attention from their coach and staff. The fight is controlled by a referee who works within the ring to judge and control the conduct of the fighters, rule on their ability to fight safely, count knocked-down fighters, and rule on fouls.\n\nUp to three judges are typically present at ringside to score the bout and assign points to the boxers, based on punches that connect, defense, knockdowns, and other, more subjective, measures. Because of the open-ended style of boxing judging, many fights have controversial results, in which one or both fighters believe they have been \"robbed\" or unfairly denied a victory. Each fighter has an assigned corner of the ring, where his or her coach, as well as one or more \"seconds\" may administer to the fighter at the beginning of the fight and between rounds. Each boxer enters into the ring from their assigned corners at the beginning of each round and must cease fighting and return to their corner at the signaled end of each round.\n\nA bout in which the predetermined number of rounds passes is decided by the judges, and is said to \"go the distance\". The fighter with the higher score at the end of the fight is ruled the winner. With three judges, unanimous and split decisions are possible, as are draws. A boxer may win the bout before a decision is reached through a knock-out ; such bouts are said to have ended \"inside the distance\". If a fighter is knocked down during the fight, determined by whether the boxer touches the canvas floor of the ring with any part of their body other than the feet as a result of the opponent's punch and not a slip, as determined by the referee, the referee begins counting until the fighter returns to his or her feet and can continue.\n\nShould the referee count to ten, then the knocked-down boxer is ruled \"knocked out\" (whether unconscious or not) and the other boxer is ruled the winner by knockout (KO). A \"technical knock-out\" (TKO) is possible as well, and is ruled by the referee, fight doctor, or a fighter's corner if a fighter is unable to safely continue to fight, based upon injuries or being judged unable to effectively defend themselves. Many jurisdictions and sanctioning agencies also have a \"three-knockdown rule\", in which three knockdowns in a given round result in a TKO. A TKO is considered a knockout in a fighter's record. A \"standing eight\" count rule may also be in effect. This gives the referee the right to step in and administer a count of eight to a fighter that he feels may be in danger, even if no knockdown has taken place. After counting the referee will observe the fighter, and decide if he is fit to continue. For scoring purposes, a standing eight count is treated as a knockdown.\n\nIn general, boxers are prohibited from hitting below the belt, holding, tripping, pushing, biting, or spitting. The boxer's shorts are raised so the opponent is not allowed to hit to the groin area with intent to cause pain or injury. Failure to abide by the former may result in a foul. They also are prohibited from kicking, head-butting, or hitting with any part of the arm other than the knuckles of a closed fist (including hitting with the elbow, shoulder or forearm, as well as with open gloves, the wrist, the inside, back or side of the hand). They are prohibited as well from hitting the back, back of the neck or head (called a \"rabbit-punch\") or the kidneys. They are prohibited from holding the ropes for support when punching, holding an opponent while punching, or ducking below the belt of their opponent (dropping below the waist of your opponent, no matter the distance between).\n\nIf a \"clinch\" – a defensive move in which a boxer wraps his or her opponents arms and holds on to create a pause – is broken by the referee, each fighter must take a full step back before punching again (alternatively, the referee may direct the fighters to \"punch out\" of the clinch). When a boxer is knocked down, the other boxer must immediately cease fighting and move to the furthest neutral corner of the ring until the referee has either ruled a knockout or called for the fight to continue.\n\nViolations of these rules may be ruled \"fouls\" by the referee, who may issue warnings, deduct points, or disqualify an offending boxer, causing an automatic loss, depending on the seriousness and intentionality of the foul. An intentional foul that causes injury that prevents a fight from continuing usually causes the boxer who committed it to be disqualified. A fighter who suffers an accidental low-blow may be given up to five minutes to recover, after which they may be ruled knocked out if they are unable to continue. Accidental fouls that cause injury ending a bout may lead to a \"no contest\" result, or else cause the fight to go to a decision if enough rounds (typically four or more, or at least three in a four-round fight) have passed.\n\nUnheard of these days, but common during the early 20th Century in North America, a \"newspaper decision (NWS)\" might be made after a no decision bout had ended. A \"no decision\" bout occurred when, by law or by pre-arrangement of the fighters, if both boxers were still standing at the fight's conclusion and there was no knockout, no official decision was rendered and neither boxer was declared the winner. But this did not prevent the pool of ringside newspaper reporters from declaring a consensus result among themselves and printing a newspaper decision in their publications. Officially, however, a \"no decision\" bout resulted in neither boxer winning or losing. Boxing historians sometimes use these unofficial newspaper decisions in compiling fight records for illustrative purposes only. Often, media outlets covering a match will personally score the match, and post their scores as an independent sentence in their report.\n\nProfessional vs. amateur boxing\n\nThroughout the 17th to 19th centuries, boxing bouts were motivated by money, as the fighters competed for prize money, promoters controlled the gate, and spectators bet on the result. The modern Olympic movement revived interest in amateur sports, and amateur boxing became an Olympic sport in 1908. In their current form, Olympic and other amateur bouts are typically limited to three or four rounds, scoring is computed by points based on the number of clean blows landed, regardless of impact, and fighters wear protective headgear, reducing the number of injuries, knockdowns, and knockouts. Currently scoring blows in amateur boxing are subjectively counted by ringside judges, but the Australian Institute for Sport has demonstrated a prototype of an Automated Boxing Scoring System, which introduces scoring objectivity, improves safety, and arguably makes the sport more interesting to spectators. Professional boxing remains by far the most popular form of the sport globally, though amateur boxing is dominant in Cuba and some former Soviet republics. For most fighters, an amateur career, especially at the Olympics, serves to develop skills and gain experience in preparation for a professional career.\n\nAmateur boxing\n\nAmateur boxing may be found at the collegiate level, at the Olympic Games and Commonwealth Games, and in many other venues sanctioned by amateur boxing associations. Amateur boxing has a point scoring system that measures the number of clean blows landed rather than physical damage. Bouts consist of three rounds of three minutes in the Olympic and Commonwealth Games, and three rounds of three minutes in a national ABA (Amateur Boxing Association) bout, each with a one-minute interval between rounds.\n\nCompetitors wear protective headgear and gloves with a white strip or circle across the knuckle. There are cases however, where white ended gloves are not required but any solid color may be worn. The white end just is a way to make it easier for judges to score clean hits. Each competitor must have their hands properly wrapped, pre-fight, for added protection on their hands and for added cushion under the gloves. Gloves worn by the fighters must be twelve ounces in weight unless, the fighters weigh under 165 pounds, thus allowing them to wear 10 ounce gloves. A punch is considered a scoring punch only when the boxers connect with the white portion of the gloves. Each punch that lands cleanly on the head or torso with sufficient force is awarded a point. A referee monitors the fight to ensure that competitors use only legal blows. A belt worn over the torso represents the lower limit of punches – any boxer repeatedly landing low blows below the belt is disqualified. Referees also ensure that the boxers don't use holding tactics to prevent the opponent from swinging. If this occurs, the referee separates the opponents and orders them to continue boxing. Repeated holding can result in a boxer being penalized or ultimately disqualified. Referees will stop the bout if a boxer is seriously injured, if one boxer is significantly dominating the other or if the score is severely imbalanced. Amateur bouts which end this way may be noted as \"RSC\" (referee stopped contest) with notations for an outclassed opponent (RSCO), outscored opponent (RSCOS), injury (RSCI) or head injury (RSCH).\n\nProfessional boxing\n\nProfessional bouts are usually much longer than amateur bouts, typically ranging from ten to twelve rounds, though four-round fights are common for less experienced fighters or club fighters. There are also some two- and three-round professional bouts, especially in Australia. Through the early twentieth century, it was common for fights to have unlimited rounds, ending only when one fighter quit, benefiting high-energy fighters like Jack Dempsey. Fifteen rounds remained the internationally recognized limit for championship fights for most of the twentieth century until the early 1980s, when the death of boxer Duk Koo Kim eventually prompted the World Boxing Council and other organizations sanctioning professional boxing to reduce the limit to twelve rounds.\n\nHeadgear is not permitted in professional bouts, and boxers are generally allowed to take much more damage before a fight is halted. At any time, the referee may stop the contest if he believes that one participant cannot defend himself due to injury. In that case, the other participant is awarded a technical knockout win. A technical knockout would also be awarded if a fighter lands a punch that opens a cut on the opponent, and the opponent is later deemed not fit to continue by a doctor because of the cut. For this reason, fighters often employ cutmen, whose job is to treat cuts between rounds so that the boxer is able to continue despite the cut. If a boxer simply quits fighting, or if his corner stops the fight, then the winning boxer is also awarded a technical knockout victory. In contrast with amateur boxing, professional male boxers have to be bare-chested. \n\nBoxing styles\n\nDefinition of style\n\n\"Style\" is often defined as the strategic approach a fighter takes during a bout. No two fighters' styles are alike, as it is determined by that individual's physical and mental attributes. Three main styles exist in boxing: outside fighter (\"boxer\"), brawler (or \"slugger\"), and Inside fighter (\"swarmer\"). These styles may be divided into several special subgroups, such as counter puncher, etc. The main philosophy of the styles is, that each style has an advantage over one, but disadvantage over the other one. It follows the rock-paper-scissors scenario - boxer beats brawler, brawler beats swarmer, and swarmer beats boxer. \n\nBoxer/out-fighter\n\nA classic \"boxer\" or stylist (also known as an \"out-fighter\") seeks to maintain distance between himself and his opponent, fighting with faster, longer range punches, most notably the jab, and gradually wearing his opponent down. Due to this reliance on weaker punches, out-fighters tend to win by point decisions rather than by knockout, though some out-fighters have notable knockout records. They are often regarded as the best boxing strategists due to their ability to control the pace of the fight and lead their opponent, methodically wearing him down and exhibiting more skill and finesse than a brawler. Out-fighters need reach, hand speed, reflexes, and footwork.\n\nNotable out-fighters include Muhammad Ali, Larry Holmes, Joe Calzaghe Wilfredo Gómez, \nSalvador Sanchez, Cecilia Brækhus, Gene Tunney, Ezzard Charles, Willie Pep, Meldrick Taylor, Ricardo Lopez, Floyd Mayweather, Roy Jones, Jr., Sugar Ray Leonard, Miguel Vazquez, Sergio \"Maravilla\" Martínez, Vitali Klitschko, Wladimir Klitschko, and Guillermo Rigondeaux. This style was also used by fictional boxer Apollo Creed.\n\nBoxer-puncher\n\nA boxer-puncher is a well-rounded boxer who is able to fight at close range with a combination of technique and power, often with the ability to knock opponents out with a combination and in some instances a single shot. Their movement and tactics are similar to that of an out-fighter (although they are generally not as mobile as an out-fighter), but instead of winning by decision, they tend to wear their opponents down using combinations and then move in to score the knockout. A boxer must be well rounded to be effective using this style.\n\nNotable boxer-punchers include Muhammad Ali, Wladimir Klitschko, Lennox Lewis, Joe Louis, Wilfredo Gómez, Oscar de la Hoya, Archie Moore, Miguel Cotto, Nonito Donaire, Sam Langford, Henry Armstrong, Sugar Ray Robinson, Tony Zale, Carlos Monzón, Alexis Argüello, Erik Morales, Terry Norris, Marco Antonio Barrera, Naseem Hamed and Thomas Hearns.\n\nCounter puncher\n\nCounter punchers are slippery, defensive style fighters who often rely on their opponent's mistakes in order to gain the advantage, whether it be on the score cards or more preferably a knockout. They use their well-rounded defense to avoid or block shots and then immediately catch the opponent off guard with a well placed and timed punch. A fight with a skilled counter-puncher can turn into a war of attrition, where each shot landed is a battle in itself. Thus, fighting against counter punchers requires constant feinting and the ability to avoid telegraphing one's attacks. To be truly successful using this style they must have good reflexes, a high level of prediction and awareness, pinpoint accuracy and speed, both in striking and in footwork.\n\nNotable counter punchers include Muhammad Ali, Vitali Klitschko, Evander Holyfield, Max Schmeling, Chris Byrd, Jim Corbett, Jack Johnson, Bernard Hopkins, Laszlo Papp, Jerry Quarry, Anselmo Moreno, James Toney, Marvin Hagler, Juan Manuel Márquez, Humberto Soto, Floyd Mayweather, Jr., Roger Mayweather, Pernell Whitaker, Sergio Gabriel Martinez and Guillermo Rigondeaux.\n\nCounter punchers usually wear their opponents down by causing them to miss their punches. The more the opponent misses, the faster they tire, and the psychological effects of being unable to land a hit will start to sink in. The counter puncher often tries to outplay their opponent entirely, not just in a physical sense, but also in a mental and emotional sense. This style can be incredibly difficult, especially against seasoned fighters, but winning a fight without getting hit is often worth the pay-off. They usually try to stay away from the center of the ring, in order to outmaneuver and chip away at their opponents. A large advantage in counter-hitting is the forward momentum of the attacker, which drives them further into your return strike. As such, knockouts are more common than one would expect from a defensive style.\n\nBrawler/slugger\n\nA brawler is a fighter who generally lacks finesse and footwork in the ring, but makes up for it through sheer punching power. Mainly Irish, Irish-American, Puerto Rican, Mexican, and Mexican-American boxers popularized this style. Many brawlers tend to lack mobility, preferring a less mobile, more stable platform and have difficulty pursuing fighters who are fast on their feet. They may also have a tendency to ignore combination punching in favor of continuous beat-downs with one hand and by throwing slower, more powerful single punches (such as hooks and uppercuts). Their slowness and predictable punching pattern (single punches with obvious leads) often leaves them open to counter punches, so successful brawlers must be able to absorb substantial amounts of punishment. However, not all brawler/slugger fighters are not mobile; some can move around and switch styles if needed but still have the brawler/slugger style such as Wilfredo Gómez, Prince Naseem Hamed and Danny García.\n\nA brawler's most important assets are power and chin (the ability to absorb punishment while remaining able to continue boxing). Examples of this style include George Foreman, Rocky Marciano, Julio Cesar Chavez, Roberto Duran, Danny García, Wilfredo Gómez, Sonny Liston, John L. Sullivan, Max Baer, Prince Naseem Hamed, Ray Mancini, David Tua, Arturo Gatti, Micky Ward, Brandon Ríos, Ruslan Provodnikov, Michael Katsidis, James Kirkland, Marcos Maidana, Jake Lamotta, Manny Pacquiao, and Ireland's John Duddy. This style of boxing was also used by fictional boxers Rocky Balboa and James \"Clubber\" Lang.\n\nBrawlers tend to be more predictable and easy to hit but usually fare well enough against other fighting styles because they train to take punches very well. They often have a higher chance than other fighting styles to score a knockout against their opponents because they focus on landing big, powerful hits, instead of smaller, faster attacks. Oftentimes they place focus on training on their upper body instead of their entire body, to increase power and endurance. They also aim to intimidate their opponents because of their power, stature and ability to take a punch.\n\nSwarmer/in-fighter\n\nIn-fighters/swarmers (sometimes called \"pressure fighters\") attempt to stay close to an opponent, throwing intense flurries and combinations of hooks and uppercuts. A successful in-fighter often needs a good \"chin\" because swarming usually involves being hit with many jabs before they can maneuver inside where they are more effective. In-fighters operate best at close range because they are generally shorter and have less reach than their opponents and thus are more effective at a short distance where the longer arms of their opponents make punching awkward. However, several fighters tall for their division have been relatively adept at in-fighting as well as out-fighting.\n\nThe essence of a swarmer is non-stop aggression. Many short in-fighters utilize their stature to their advantage, employing a bob-and-weave defense by bending at the waist to slip underneath or to the sides of incoming punches. Unlike blocking, causing an opponent to miss a punch disrupts his balance, permits forward movement past the opponent's extended arm and keeps the hands free to counter. A distinct advantage that in-fighters have is when throwing uppercuts where they can channel their entire bodyweight behind the punch; Mike Tyson was famous for throwing devastating uppercuts. Marvin Hagler was known for his hard \"chin\", punching power, body attack and the stalking of his opponents. Some in-fighters, like Mike Tyson, have been known for being notoriously hard to hit. The key to a swarmer is aggression, endurance, chin, and bobbing-and-weaving.\n\nNotable in-fighters include Julio César Chávez, Miguel Cotto, Joe Frazier, Danny García, Mike Tyson, Manny Pacquiao, Saúl Álvarez, Rocky Marciano, Jack Dempsey, Wayne McCullough, Gerry Penalosa, Harry Greb, David Tua, Ricky Hatton and Gennady Golovkin.\n\nCombinations of styles\n\nAll fighters have primary skills with which they feel most comfortable, but truly elite fighters are often able to incorporate auxiliary styles when presented with a particular challenge. For example, an out-fighter will sometimes plant his feet and counter punch, or a slugger may have the stamina to pressure fight with his power punches.\n\nStyle matchups\n\nThere is a generally accepted rule of thumb about the success each of these boxing styles has against the others. In general, an in-fighter has an advantage over an out-fighter, an out-fighter has an advantage over a brawler, and a brawler has an advantage over an in-fighter; these form a cycle with each style being stronger relative to one, and weaker relative to another, with none dominating, as in rock-paper-scissors. Naturally, many other factors, such as the skill level and training of the combatants, determine the outcome of a fight, but the widely held belief in this relationship among the styles is embodied in the cliché amongst boxing fans and writers that \"styles make fights.\"\n\nBrawlers tend to overcome swarmers or in-fighters because, in trying to get close to the slugger, the in-fighter will invariably have to walk straight into the guns of the much harder-hitting brawler, so, unless the former has a very good chin and the latter's stamina is poor, the brawler's superior power will carry the day. A famous example of this type of match-up advantage would be George Foreman's knockout victory over Joe Frazier in their original bout \"The Sunshine Showdown\".\n\nAlthough in-fighters struggle against heavy sluggers, they typically enjoy more success against out-fighters or boxers. Out-fighters prefer a slower fight, with some distance between themselves and the opponent. The in-fighter tries to close that gap and unleash furious flurries. On the inside, the out-fighter loses a lot of his combat effectiveness, because he cannot throw the hard punches. The in-fighter is generally successful in this case, due to his intensity in advancing on his opponent and his good agility, which makes him difficult to evade. For example, the swarming Joe Frazier, though easily dominated by the slugger George Foreman, was able to create many more problems for the boxer Muhammad Ali in their three fights. Joe Louis, after retirement, admitted that he hated being crowded, and that swarmers like untied/undefeated champ Rocky Marciano would have caused him style problems even in his prime.\n\nThe boxer or out-fighter tends to be most successful against a brawler, whose slow speed (both hand and foot) and poor technique makes him an easy target to hit for the faster out-fighter. The out-fighter's main concern is to stay alert, as the brawler only needs to land one good punch to finish the fight. If the out-fighter can avoid those power punches, he can often wear the brawler down with fast jabs, tiring him out. If he is successful enough, he may even apply extra pressure in the later rounds in an attempt to achieve a knockout. Most classic boxers, such as Muhammad Ali, enjoyed their best successes against sluggers.\n\nAn example of a style matchup was the historical fight of Julio César Chávez, a swarmer or in-fighter, against Meldrick Taylor, the boxer or out-fighter (see Julio César Chávez vs. Meldrick Taylor). The match was nicknamed \"Thunder Meets Lightning\" as an allusion to punching power of Chávez and blinding speed of Taylor. Chávez was the epitome of the \"Mexican\" style of boxing. Taylor's hand and foot speed and boxing abilities gave him the early advantage, allowing him to begin building a large lead on points. Chávez remained relentless in his pursuit of Taylor and due to his greater punching power Chávez slowly punished Taylor. Coming into the later rounds, Taylor was bleeding from the mouth, his entire face was swollen, the bones around his eye socket had been broken, he had swallowed a considerable amount of his own blood, and as he grew tired, Taylor was increasingly forced into exchanging blows with Chávez, which only gave Chávez a greater chance to cause damage. While there was little doubt that Taylor had solidly won the first three quarters of the fight, the question at hand was whether he would survive the final quarter. Going into the final round, Taylor held a secure lead on the scorecards of two of the three judges. Chávez would have to knock Taylor out to claim a victory, whereas Taylor merely needed to stay away from the Mexican legend. However, Taylor did not stay away, but continued to trade blows with Chávez. As he did so, Taylor showed signs of extreme exhaustion, and every tick of the clock brought Taylor closer to victory unless Chávez could knock him out.\nWith about a minute left in the round, Chávez hit Taylor squarely with several hard punches and stayed on the attack, continuing to hit Taylor with well-placed shots. Finally, with about 25 seconds to go, Chávez landed a hard right hand that caused Taylor to stagger forward towards a corner, forcing Chávez back ahead of him. Suddenly Chávez stepped around Taylor, positioning him so that Taylor was trapped in the corner, with no way to escape from Chávez' desperate final flurry. Chávez then nailed Taylor with a tremendous right hand that dropped the younger man. By using the ring ropes to pull himself up, Taylor managed to return to his feet and was given the mandatory 8-count. Referee Richard Steele asked Taylor twice if he was able to continue fighting, but Taylor failed to answer. Steele then concluded that Taylor was unfit to continue and signaled that he was ending the fight, resulting in a TKO victory for Chávez with only two seconds to go in the bout.\n\nEquipment\n\nSince boxing involves forceful, repetitive punching, precautions must be taken to prevent damage to bones in the hand. Most trainers do not allow boxers to train and spar without wrist wraps and boxing gloves. Hand wraps are used to secure the bones in the hand, and the gloves are used to protect the hands from blunt injury, allowing boxers to throw punches with more force than if they did not utilize them. Gloves have been required in competition since the late nineteenth century, though modern boxing gloves are much heavier than those worn by early twentieth-century fighters. Prior to a bout, both boxers agree upon the weight of gloves to be used in the bout, with the understanding that lighter gloves allow heavy punchers to inflict more damage. The brand of gloves can also affect the impact of punches, so this too is usually stipulated before a bout. Both sides are allowed to inspect the wraps and gloves of the opponent to help ensure both are within agreed upon specifications and no tampering has taken place.\n\nA mouth guard is important to protect the teeth and gums from injury, and to cushion the jaw, resulting in a decreased chance of knockout. Both fighters must wear soft soled shoes to reduce the damage from accidental (or intentional) stepping on feet. While older boxing boots more commonly resembled those of a professional wrestler, modern boxing shoes and boots tend to be quite similar to their amateur wrestling counterparts.\n\nBoxers practice their skills on two basic types of punching bags. A small, tear-drop-shaped \"speed bag\" is used to hone reflexes and repetitive punching skills, while a large cylindrical \"heavy bag\" filled with sand, a synthetic substitute, or water is used to practice power punching and body blows. In addition to these distinctive pieces of equipment, boxers also utilize sport-nonspecific training equipment to build strength, speed, agility, and stamina. Common training equipment includes free weights, rowing machines, jump rope, and medicine balls.\n\nBoxing matches typically take place in a boxing ring, a raised platform surrounded by ropes attached to posts rising in each corner. The term \"ring\" has come to be used as a metaphor for many aspects of prize fighting in general.\n\nTechnique\n\nStance\n\nThe modern boxing stance differs substantially from the typical boxing stances of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The modern stance has a more upright vertical-armed guard, as opposed to the more horizontal, knuckles-facing-forward guard adopted by early 20th century hook users such as Jack Johnson.\n\nFile:attitude_droite1.jpg|Upright stance\nFile:attitude_semi-enroulée1.jpg|Semi-crouch\nFile:attitude_enroulée1.jpg|Full crouch\n\nIn a fully upright stance, the boxer stands with the legs shoulder-width apart and the rear foot a half-step in front of the lead man. Right-handed or orthodox boxers lead with the left foot and fist (for most penetration power). Both feet are parallel, and the right heel is off the ground. The lead (left) fist is held vertically about six inches in front of the face at eye level. The rear (right) fist is held beside the chin and the elbow tucked against the ribcage to protect the body. The chin is tucked into the chest to avoid punches to the jaw which commonly cause knock-outs and is often kept slightly off-center. Wrists are slightly bent to avoid damage when punching and the elbows are kept tucked in to protect the ribcage. Some boxers fight from a crouch, leaning forward and keeping their feet closer together. The stance described is considered the \"textbook\" stance and fighters are encouraged to change it around once it's been mastered as a base. Case in point, many fast fighters have their hands down and have almost exaggerated footwork, while brawlers or bully fighters tend to slowly stalk their opponents.\n\nLeft-handed or southpaw fighters use a mirror image of the orthodox stance, which can create problems for orthodox fighters unaccustomed to receiving jabs, hooks, or crosses from the opposite side. The southpaw stance, conversely, is vulnerable to a straight right hand.\n\nNorth American fighters tend to favor a more balanced stance, facing the opponent almost squarely, while many European fighters stand with their torso turned more to the side. The positioning of the hands may also vary, as some fighters prefer to have both hands raised in front of the face, risking exposure to body shots.\n\nModern boxers can sometimes be seen tapping their cheeks or foreheads with their fists in order to remind themselves to keep their hands up (which becomes difficult during long bouts). Boxers are taught to push off with their feet in order to move effectively. Forward motion involves lifting the lead leg and pushing with the rear leg. Rearward motion involves lifting the rear leg and pushing with the lead leg. During lateral motion the leg in the direction of the movement moves first while the opposite leg provides the force needed to move the body.\n\nPunches\n\nThere are four basic punches in boxing: the jab, cross, hook and uppercut. Any punch other than a jab is considered a power punch. If a boxer is right-handed (orthodox), his left hand is the lead hand and his right hand is the rear hand. For a left-handed boxer or southpaw, the hand positions are reversed. For clarity, the following discussion will assume a right-handed boxer.\n\nFile:jab7.jpg|Jab\nFile:Drop3.jpg|Cross - in counter-punch with a looping\nFile:crochet1.jpg|Hook\nFile:uppercut2.jpg|Uppercut\n\n* Jab – A quick, straight punch thrown with the lead hand from the guard position. The jab is accompanied by a small, clockwise rotation of the torso and hips, while the fist rotates 90 degrees, becoming horizontal upon impact. As the punch reaches full extension, the lead shoulder can be brought up to guard the chin. The rear hand remains next to the face to guard the jaw. After making contact with the target, the lead hand is retracted quickly to resume a guard position in front of the face.\n** The jab is recognized as the most important punch in a boxer's arsenal because it provides a fair amount of its own cover and it leaves the least amount of space for a counter punch from the opponent. It has the longest reach of any punch and does not require commitment or large weight transfers. Due to its relatively weak power, the jab is often used as a tool to gauge distances, probe an opponent's defenses, harass an opponent, and set up heavier, more powerful punches. A half-step may be added, moving the entire body into the punch, for additional power. Some notable boxers who have been able to develop relative power in their jabs and use it to punish or 'wear down' their opponents to some effect include Larry Holmes and Wladimir Klitschko.\n* Cross – A powerful, straight punch thrown with the rear hand. From the guard position, the rear hand is thrown from the chin, crossing the body and traveling towards the target in a straight line. The rear shoulder is thrust forward and finishes just touching the outside of the chin. At the same time, the lead hand is retracted and tucked against the face to protect the inside of the chin. For additional power, the torso and hips are rotated counter-clockwise as the cross is thrown. A measure of an ideally extended cross is that the shoulder of the striking arm, the knee of the front leg and the ball of the front foot are on the same vertical plane. \n** Weight is also transferred from the rear foot to the lead foot, resulting in the rear heel turning outwards as it acts as a fulcrum for the transfer of weight. Body rotation and the sudden weight transfer is what gives the cross its power. Like the jab, a half-step forward may be added. After the cross is thrown, the hand is retracted quickly and the guard position resumed. It can be used to counter punch a jab, aiming for the opponent's head (or a counter to a cross aimed at the body) or to set up a hook. The cross is also called a \"straight\" or \"right\", especially if it does not cross the opponent's outstretched jab.\n* Hook – A semi-circular punch thrown with the lead hand to the side of the opponent's head. From the guard position, the elbow is drawn back with a horizontal fist (knuckles pointing forward) and the elbow bent. The rear hand is tucked firmly against the jaw to protect the chin. The torso and hips are rotated clockwise, propelling the fist through a tight, clockwise arc across the front of the body and connecting with the target.\n** At the same time, the lead foot pivots clockwise, turning the left heel outwards. Upon contact, the hook's circular path ends abruptly and the lead hand is pulled quickly back into the guard position. A hook may also target the lower body and this technique is sometimes called the \"rip\" to distinguish it from the conventional hook to the head. The hook may also be thrown with the rear hand. Notable left hookers include Joe Frazier , Roy Jones Jr. and Mike Tyson.\n\n* Uppercut – A vertical, rising punch thrown with the rear hand. From the guard position, the torso shifts slightly to the right, the rear hand drops below the level of the opponent's chest and the knees are bent slightly. From this position, the rear hand is thrust upwards in a rising arc towards the opponent's chin or torso.\n** At the same time, the knees push upwards quickly and the torso and hips rotate anti-clockwise and the rear heel turns outward, mimicking the body movement of the cross. The strategic utility of the uppercut depends on its ability to \"lift\" the opponent's body, setting it off-balance for successive attacks. The right uppercut followed by a left hook is a deadly combination employing the uppercut to lift the opponent's chin into a vulnerable position, then the hook to knock the opponent out.\n\nThese different punch types can be thrown in rapid succession to form combinations or \"combos.\" The most common is the jab and cross combination, nicknamed the \"one-two combo.\" This is usually an effective combination, because the jab blocks the opponent's view of the cross, making it easier to land cleanly and forcefully.\n\nA large, swinging circular punch starting from a cocked-back position with the arm at a longer extension than the hook and all of the fighter's weight behind it is sometimes referred to as a \"roundhouse,\" \"haymaker,\" or sucker-punch. Relying on body weight and centripetal force within a wide arc, the roundhouse can be a powerful blow, but it is often a wild and uncontrolled punch that leaves the fighter delivering it off balance and with an open guard.\n\nWide, looping punches have the further disadvantage of taking more time to deliver, giving the opponent ample warning to react and counter. For this reason, the haymaker or roundhouse is not a conventional punch, and is regarded by trainers as a mark of poor technique or desperation. Sometimes it has been used, because of its immense potential power, to finish off an already staggering opponent who seems unable or unlikely to take advantage of the poor position it leaves the puncher in.\n\nAnother unconventional punch is the rarely used bolo punch, in which the opponent swings an arm out several times in a wide arc, usually as a distraction, before delivering with either that or the other arm.\n\nAn illegal punch to the back of the head or neck is known as a rabbit punch.\n\nDefense\n\nThere are several basic maneuvers a boxer can use in order to evade or block punches, depicted and discussed below.\n\nFile:slip1.jpg|Slipping\nFile:slip2.jpg|Bobbing\nFile:blocage1.jpg|Blocking (with the arms)\nFile:protection passive1.jpg|Cover-Up (with the gloves)\nFile:neutraliser1.jpg|Clinching\nFile:pas de retrait.jpg|Footwork\nFile:retrait2.jpg|Pulling away\n\n* Slip – Slipping rotates the body slightly so that an incoming punch passes harmlessly next to the head. As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer sharply rotates the hips and shoulders. This turns the chin sideways and allows the punch to \"slip\" past. Muhammad Ali was famous for extremely fast and close slips, as was an early Mike Tyson.\n* Sway or fade – To anticipate a punch and move the upper body or head back so that it misses or has its force appreciably lessened. Also called \"rolling with the punch\" or \" Riding The Punch\".\n* Duck or break – To drop down with the back straight so that a punch aimed at the head glances or misses entirely.\n* Bob and weave – Bobbing moves the head laterally and beneath an incoming punch. As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer bends the legs quickly and simultaneously shifts the body either slightly right or left. Once the punch has been evaded, the boxer \"weaves\" back to an upright position, emerging on either the outside or inside of the opponent's still-extended arm. To move outside the opponent's extended arm is called \"bobbing to the outside\". To move inside the opponent's extended arm is called \"bobbing to the inside\". Joe Frazier, Jack Dempsey, Mike Tyson and Rocky Marciano were masters of bobbing and weaving.\n* Parry/block – Parrying or blocking uses the boxer's shoulder, hands or arms as defensive tools to protect against incoming attacks. A block generally receives a punch while a parry tends to deflect it. A \"palm\", \"catch\", or \"cuff\" is a defense which intentionally takes the incoming punch on the palm portion of the defender's glove.\n* The cover-up – Covering up is the last opportunity (other than rolling with a punch) to avoid an incoming strike to an unprotected face or body. Generally speaking, the hands are held high to protect the head and chin and the forearms are tucked against the torso to impede body shots. When protecting the body, the boxer rotates the hips and lets incoming punches \"roll\" off the guard. To protect the head, the boxer presses both fists against the front of the face with the forearms parallel and facing outwards. This type of guard is weak against attacks from below.\n* The clinch – Clinching is a form of trapping or a rough form of grappling and occurs when the distance between both fighters has closed and straight punches cannot be employed. In this situation, the boxer attempts to hold or \"tie up\" the opponent's hands so he is unable to throw hooks or uppercuts. To perform a clinch, the boxer loops both hands around the outside of the opponent's shoulders, scooping back under the forearms to grasp the opponent's arms tightly against his own body. In this position, the opponent's arms are pinned and cannot be used to attack. Clinching is a temporary match state and is quickly dissipated by the referee. Clinching is technically against the rules, and in amateur fights points are deducted fairly quickly for it. It is unlikely, however, to see points deducted for a clinch in professional boxing.\n\nLess common strategies\n\n* The \"rope-a-dope\" strategy : Used by Muhammad Ali in his 1974 \"the Rumble in the Jungle\" bout against George Foreman, the rope-a-dope method involves lying back against the ropes, covering up defensively as much as possible and allowing the opponent to attempt numerous punches. The back-leaning posture, which does not cause the defending boxer to become as unbalanced as he would during normal backward movement, also maximizes the distance of the defender's head from his opponent, increasing the probability that punches will miss their intended target. Weathering the blows that do land, the defender lures the opponent into expending energy while conserving his/her own. If successful, the attacking opponent will eventually tire, creating defensive flaws which the boxer can exploit. In modern boxing, the rope-a-dope is generally discouraged since most opponents are not fooled by it and few boxers possess the physical toughness to withstand a prolonged, unanswered assault. Recently, however, eight-division world champion Manny Pacquiao skillfully used the strategy to gauge the power of welterweight titlist Miguel Cotto in November 2009. Pacquiao followed up the rope-a-dope gambit with a withering knockdown.\n* Bolo punch : Occasionally seen in Olympic boxing, the bolo is an arm punch which owes its power to the shortening of a circular arc rather than to transference of body weight; it tends to have more of an effect due to the surprise of the odd angle it lands at rather than the actual power of the punch. This is more of a gimmick than a technical maneuver; this punch is not taught, being on the same plane in boxing technicality as is the Ali shuffle. Nevertheless, a few professional boxers have used the bolo-punch to great effect, including former welterweight champions Sugar Ray Leonard, and Kid Gavilan. Middleweight champion Ceferino Garcia is regarded as the inventor of the bolo punch.\n\nFile:contre_bolo1.jpg| Bolo punch\nFile:drop1.jpg| Overhand (overcut)\n\n* Overhand right : The overhand right is a punch not found in every boxer's arsenal. Unlike the right cross, which has a trajectory parallel to the ground, the overhand right has a looping circular arc as it is thrown over the shoulder with the palm facing away from the boxer. It is especially popular with smaller stature boxers trying to reach taller opponents. Boxers who have used this punch consistently and effectively include former heavyweight champions Rocky Marciano and Tim Witherspoon, as well as MMA champions Chuck Liddell and Fedor Emelianenko. The overhand right has become a popular weapon in other tournaments that involve fist striking.\n* Check hook : A check hook is employed to prevent aggressive boxers from lunging in. There are two parts to the check hook. The first part consists of a regular hook. The second, trickier part involves the footwork. As the opponent lunges in, the boxer should throw the hook and pivot on his left foot and swing his right foot 180 degrees around. If executed correctly, the aggressive boxer will lunge in and sail harmlessly past his opponent like a bull missing a matador. This is rarely seen in professional boxing as it requires a great disparity in skill level to execute. Technically speaking it has been said that there is no such thing as a check hook and that it is simply a hook applied to an opponent that has lurched forward and past his opponent who simply hooks him on the way past. Others have argued that the check hook exists but is an illegal punch due to it being a pivot punch which is illegal in the sport. Floyd Mayweather, Jr. employed the use of a check hook against Ricky Hatton, which sent Hatton flying head first into the corner post and being knocked down.\n\nRing corner\n\nIn boxing, each fighter is given a corner of the ring where he rests in between rounds for 1 minute and where his trainers stand. Typically, three men stand in the corner besides the boxer himself; these are the trainer, the assistant trainer and the cutman. The trainer and assistant typically give advice to the boxer on what he is doing wrong as well as encouraging him if he is losing. The cutman is a cutaneous doctor responsible for keeping the boxer's face and eyes free of cuts and blood. This is of particular importance because many fights are stopped because of cuts that threaten the boxer's eyes.\n\nIn addition, the corner is responsible for stopping the fight if they feel their fighter is in grave danger of permanent injury. The corner will occasionally throw in a white towel to signify a boxer's surrender (the idiomatic phrase \"to throw in the towel\", meaning to give up, derives from this practice). This can be seen in the fight between Diego Corrales and Floyd Mayweather. In that fight, Corrales' corner surrendered despite Corrales' steadfast refusal.\n\nMedical concerns\n\nKnocking a person unconscious or even causing concussion may cause permanent brain damage. There is no clear division between the force required to knock a person out and the force likely to kill a person. Since 1980, more than 200 amateur boxers, professional boxers and Toughman fighters have died due to ring or training injuries. In 1983, editorials in the Journal of the American Medical Association called for a ban on boxing. The editor, Dr. George Lundberg, called boxing an \"obscenity\" that \"should not be sanctioned by any civilized society.\" Since then, the British, Canadian and Australian Medical Associations have called for bans on boxing.\n\nSupporters of the ban state that boxing is the only sport where hurting the other athlete is the goal. Dr. Bill O'Neill, boxing spokesman for the British Medical Association, has supported the BMA's proposed ban on boxing: \"It is the only sport where the intention is to inflict serious injury on your opponent, and we feel that we must have a total ban on boxing.\" Opponents respond that such a position is misguided opinion, stating that amateur boxing is scored solely according to total connecting blows with no award for \"injury\". They observe that many skilled professional boxers have had rewarding careers without inflicting injury on opponents by accumulating scoring blows and avoiding punches winning rounds scored 10-9 by the 10-point must system, and they note that there are many other sports where concussions are much more prevalent. \n\nIn 2007, one study of amateur boxers showed that protective headgear did not prevent brain damage, and another found that amateur boxers faced a high risk of brain damage. The Gothenburg study analyzed temporary levels of neurofiliment light in cerebral spinal fluid which they conclude is evidence of damage, even though the levels soon subside. More comprehensive studies of neurologiocal function on larger samples performed by Johns Hopkins University and accident rates analyzed by National Safety Council show amateur boxing is a comparatively safe sport.\n\nIn 1997, the American Association of Professional Ringside Physicians was established to create medical protocols through research and education to prevent injuries in boxing. \n\nProfessional boxing is forbidden in Iceland, Iran, Saudi Arabia and North Korea. It was banned in Sweden until 2007 when the ban was lifted but strict restrictions, including four three-minute rounds for fights, were imposed. It was banned in Albania from 1965 till the fall of Communism in 1991; it is now legal there. Norway legalized professional boxing in December 2014.\n\nBoxing Hall of Fame\n\nThe sport of boxing has two internationally recognized boxing halls of fame; the International Boxing Hall of Fame (IBHOF) and the World Boxing Hall of Fame (WBHF), with the IBHOF being the more widely recognized boxing hall of fame. In 2013, The Boxing Hall of Fame Las Vegas opened in Las Vegas, NV founded by Steve Lott, former assistant manager for Mike Tyson \n\nThe WBHF was founded by Everett L. Sanders in 1980. Since its inception the WBHOF has never had a permanent location or museum, which has allowed the more recent IBHOF to garner more publicity and prestige. Among the notable names in the WBHF are Ricardo \"Finito\" Lopez, Gabriel \"Flash\" Elorde, Michael Carbajal, Khaosai Galaxy, Henry Armstrong, Jack Johnson, Roberto Durán, George Foreman, Ceferino Garcia and Salvador Sanchez. Boxing's International Hall of Fame was inspired by a tribute an American town held for two local heroes in 1982. The town, Canastota, New York, (which is about 15 mi east of Syracuse, via the New York State Thruway), honored former world welterweight/middleweight champion Carmen Basilio and his nephew, former world welterweight champion Billy Backus. The people of Canastota raised money for the tribute which inspired the idea of creating an official, annual hall of fame for notable boxers.\n\nThe International Boxing Hall of Fame opened in Canastota in 1989. The first inductees in 1990 included Jack Johnson, Benny Leonard, Jack Dempsey, Henry Armstrong, Sugar Ray Robinson, Archie Moore, and Muhammad Ali. Other world-class figures include Salvador Sanchez, Jose Napoles, Roberto \"Manos de Piedra\" Durán, Ricardo Lopez, Gabriel \"Flash\" Elorde, Vicente Saldivar, Ismael Laguna, Eusebio Pedroza, Carlos Monzón, Azumah Nelson, Rocky Marciano, Pipino Cuevas and Ken Buchanan. The Hall of Fame's induction ceremony is held every June as part of a four-day event. The fans who come to Canastota for the Induction Weekend are treated to a number of events, including scheduled autograph sessions, boxing exhibitions, a parade featuring past and present inductees, and the induction ceremony itself.\n\nThe Boxing Hall of Fame Las Vegas features the $75 million ESPN Classic Sports fight film and tape library and radio broadcast collection. The collection includes the fights of all the great champions including: Muhammad Ali, Mike Tyson, George Foreman, Roberto Duran, Marvin Hagler, Jack Dempsey, Joe Louis, Joe Frazier, Rocky Marciano and Sugar Ray Robinson. It is this exclusive fight film library that will separate the Boxing Hall of Fame Las Vegas from the other halls of fame which do not have rights to any video of their sports. The inaugural inductees included Muhammad Ali, Henry Armstrong, Tony Canzoneri, Ezzard Charles, Julio Cesar Chavez Sr., Jack Dempsey, Roberto Duran, Joe Louis, and Sugar Ray Robinson \n\nGoverning and sanctioning bodies\n\n; Governing Bodies\n* British Boxing Board of Control (BBBofC)\n* European Boxing Union\n* Nevada State Athletic Commission\n\n; Major Sanctioning Bodies\n* International Boxing Federation (IBF)\n* World Boxing Association (WBA)\n* World Boxing Council (WBC)\n* World Boxing Organization (WBO)\n\n;Amateur\n* International Boxing Association (AIBA; now also professional)\n\nBoxer rankings\n\nThere are various organizations and websites, that rank boxers in both weight class and pound-for-pound manner.\n* BoxRec ([http://boxrec.com/ratings.php ratings])\n* The Ring ([http://ringtv.craveonline.com/ratings ratings])\n* ESPN ([http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/boxing/columns/story?columnistrafael_dan&id\n6402207 ratings])\n* Transnational Boxing Rankings Board ([http://www.tbrb.org/all-rankings/ ratings])" ] }

{ "description": [ "CHATTER; Mike Tyson's Boxing License ... Should Mike Tyson have had his license to ... By giving Mr. Tyson a license to box in New Jersey, the state ...", "BOXING BOXING; Tyson Loses His Temper at His ... act if he were granted a New Jersey boxing license, Tyson ... New Jersey State boxing ...", "... A boxing instructor at a New York State correction facility ... revoked Mike Tyson's boxing license and fined him ... 1998 -- Applied for a boxing license in New ...", "... New York, on June 30, 1966, Mike Tyson became the ... Because of Indiana state laws, Tyson was ... In October 1998, Tyson's boxing license was ...", "New Adviser Finkel Could Help Punch Up Tyson ... Mike Tyson appears before the Nevada State ... Team Tyson to seek a New Jersey boxing license ...", "Mike Tyson, who hasn't fought ... has applied for a boxing license in New Jersey.Tyson's ... Tyson Applies For License In N.j. July 18, 1998 ...", "... when Mike Tyson applies to the New Jersey Athletic ... Tyson taking Jersey road Nevada objects to bid ... man Board of Control for a boxing license. ...", "Michael Gerard Tyson for the Nevada State Athletic ... medical input regarding Mr. Tyson's request for reinstatement of his boxing license. ... 1998 New Jersey ..." ], "filename": [ "32/32_4167.txt", "84/84_4168.txt", "133/133_4169.txt", "197/197_4171.txt", "130/130_4172.txt", "148/148_4173.txt", "129/129_4174.txt", "6/6_4176.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9 ], "title": [ "CHATTER - Mike Tyson's Boxing License - NYTimes.com", "BOXING - Tyson Loses His Temper at His License Hearing ...", "ESPN.com: BOXING - Mike Tyson timeline", "Mike Tyson - BoxRec Boxing Records", "New Adviser Finkel Could Help Punch Up Tyson's Credibility ...", "Tyson Applies For License In N.j. - tribunedigital ...", "Tyson taking Jersey road Nevada objects to bid to ...", "ESPN.com: BOXING - Transcript: Mike Tyson's medical evaluation" ], "url": [ "http://www.nytimes.com/1998/08/16/nyregion/chatter-mike-tyson-s-boxing-license.html", "http://www.nytimes.com/1998/07/30/sports/boxing-tyson-loses-his-temper-at-his-license-hearing.html", "http://static.espn.go.com/boxing/news/2002/0129/1319772.html", "http://boxrec.com/media/index.php/Mike_Tyson", "http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1998-09-17/sports/9809170105_1_boxing-license-new-jersey-boxing-nevada-state-athletic-commission", "http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1998-07-18/sports/9807180084_1_athletic-control-board-boxing-license-revoked", "http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1998-07-29/sports/1998210098_1_tyson-new-jersey-nevada-commission", "http://a.espncdn.com/boxing/s/1998/1013/23631.html" ], "search_context": [ "CHATTER; Mike Tyson's Boxing License - The New York Times\nThe New York Times\nN.Y. / Region |CHATTER; Mike Tyson's Boxing License\nSearch\nCHATTER; Mike Tyson's Boxing License\nAUG. 16, 1998\nShould Mike Tyson have had his license to fight in New Jersey approved by the state Athletic Control Board?\nA Concrete Thinker\nWhy is it inappropriate to bite off an opponent's ear while boxing? This is a ''sport'' where the goal is to beat one's opponent into unconsciousness so that he falls to the floor, at which point the beater and his fans wait excitedly to see if the opponent is hurt severely enough to remain on the floor during the referee's count.\nTyson has already been punished with jail for being a literal thinker. He does not and will never understand mixed messages, so don't punish him further.\nDORIS ROSE\nWhiting The Best\nGive Tyson his license. To me, boxing is synonymous with violence, and Mike Tyson is certainly as violent as they come. I abhor barbarity, but those who crave it may as well enjoy the top of the line.\nAUDREY CORN\nDenville\nFans Will Pay\nRegardless of whether Mike Tyson can fight, or even read for that matter, is of no concern to the promoters and fans of boxing. If enough enthusiasm is focused on his return to the ring, fans will be curious enough to watch the fight. Somehow everyone will make money except for the fans who pay $60 dollars or more to watch for three minutes of fist and fury.\nAdvertisement\nBronx, N.Y.\nJudge Him in the Ring\nTyson has paid millions for his mistake. He should be allowed to fight again. Latrell Sprewell (the strangler) has not paid as much. Only in the ring can Tyson now be judged.\nMANUEL GARCIA\nPittsburg, Calif.\nEmotional Instability\nNo one seems to be speaking of emotional instability in the case of Mike Tyson. He said he bit the ear of the other fighter because the other fighter made him mad. Normal, healthy people, including boxers, do not react that way. This was only one of many examples he has given to us. Do we need to be 'burned' twice to learn the lesson?\nKATHERINE PACHECO\nElizabeth\nWith the many stories about Mike Tyson's uncontrollable and sometimes violent behavior, it would have been very foolish for the state Athletic Control Board to give him a license to box in New Jersey. A sports figure often becomes the idol of youngsters. By giving Mr. Tyson a license to box in New Jersey, the state would be telling youngsters in an indirect way that these uncontrollable burts of anger are O.K.\nLAURA COBRINIK", "BOXING; Tyson Loses His Temper at His License Hearing - The New York Times\nThe New York Times\nSports |BOXING; Tyson Loses His Temper at His License Hearing\nSearch\nBOXING; Tyson Loses His Temper at His License Hearing\nBy TIMOTHY W. SMITH\nContinue reading the main story\nMike Tyson, displaying the same loss of control that compelled him to bite off a piece of Evander Holyfield's ear and led to his banishment from boxing, testified today before the State Athletic Control Board to apply for the reinstatement of his New Jersey boxing license.\nAccompanied by two lawyers and a parade of character witnesses, Tyson made his case inside the hearing room at the Richard J. Hughes Justice Complex here. But the efforts to portray him as a changed man who deserved the right to fight again may have been undercut by a moody appearance that ranged from a near-tearful apology to an angry outburst laced with an expletive.\nThe board did not rule on Tyson's petition, delaying a decision until it could convene in a private session on Aug. 6. The final ruling could come two days later on Aug. 8, although the board has 45 days to render a decision.\nTyson said he did not reapply for a license in Nevada, because he wanted to make a fresh start. But his adviser, Shelly Finkel, said Tyson might apply for a boxing license in other states in the future.\nContinue reading the main story\nFlanked by a gallery of reporters and friends, including his wife, Dr. Monica Tyson, and the boxer Larry Holmes, Tyson at first expressed remorse for biting Holyfield's ears in a heavyweight bout on June 28, 1997, an act that prompted Nevada to revoke his license. But Tyson said he did it only after constant head butting from Holyfield made his ''head foggy and incoherent'' and that he became ''desperate, irate and I just snapped. Nothing really mattered.''\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\nAt one point, Tyson seemed to choke back tears when talking about how his life had been irrevocably altered by the events on June 28.\n''I'm sorry for what I did,'' Tyson said. ''It will haunt me for the rest of my life.''\nWhen Michael Haas, an assistant Attorney General, asked Tyson if he thought he would ever commit a similar act if he were granted a New Jersey boxing license, Tyson said: ''I doubt it. My life has been devastated over this.''\nDr. Bertram Rotman, a Wayne, N.J., psychologist who evaluated Tyson for an hour on July 21, testified that he saw no reason why Tyson shouldn't get his license back, and Raymond A. Reddin, one of Tyson's lawyers, read a brief letter from Holyfield that said the fighter did not object to Tyson's getting a license from New Jersey. Although he slumped forward on the table occasionally, Tyson patiently sat through the three-and-a-half- hour proceeding, and withstood a 43-minute questioning from Haas before he snapped.\nMost of Haas's questions centered around Tyson's 1992 conviction in Indiana for the rape of Desiree Washington and the biting incident with Holyfield. Tyson, who was dressed in a dark gray pin-striped suit and wearing a black T-shirt, twice complained of the cold temperature in the room. But following the questioning from Haas, Tyson reached a slow boil. When Haas asked him if he wanted to make a final statement, Tyson declined, saying he was too angry to do so.\nA few minutes later as one of his lawyers, Anthony J. Fusco Jr., was delivering an impassioned closing statement Tyson couldn't contain his anger.\nPlease verify you're not a robot by clicking the box.\nInvalid email address. Please re-enter.\nYou must select a newsletter to subscribe to.\nSign Up\nPrivacy Policy\n''What he did was wrong,'' Fusco said. ''But how many times does one individual have to hear are you sorry for what you did?''\nTyson angrily interjected, agreeing with Fusco: ''You know what I mean, man? Why do I have to relive my . . . ''\nJust as Tyson uttered an expletive, Fusco reached over and stopped him and told the panel hearing the petition that Tyson was not angry at them, but was merely expressing the frustration that had built up in him during his exile from the ring.\nLater, in a hastily called news conference in the lobby of the Hughes Justice Complex, Tyson said he used the wrong choice of words when he told the panel that he was too angry to deliver a final statement in his own behalf. As for the outburst and the expletive, Tyson said: ''I never lost my cool. I was just expressing my hurt and frustration.''\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\nToday's public hearing, which drew a throng of fans and protesters from the New Jersey chapter of the National Organization for Women, attracted great news media interest, with television satellite broadcast trucks crowding the sidewalk outside the building and banks of television cameras corralled by wooden barricades inside. The proceeding was broadcast live by ESPN, CNN-SI and Fox News Network.\nLarry Hazzard, New Jersey State boxing commissioner, said the board decided to hold a public hearing on Tyson's request because it wanted to avoid the appearance that Tyson was getting a back-room deal.\nIf Tyson is allowed to return to boxing, it will be a boon to the casino economy in Atlantic City. Tyson hasn't held a New Jersey boxing license since 1991. His last bout in New Jersey came on Dec. 8, 1990, against Alex Stewart. Finkel said if Tyson gets his license back, his first bout would be in New Jersey.\nUnder state commission rules and New Jersey law, Tyson has to provide ''clear and convincing evidence of good character, honesty, responsibility and integrity'' in order to get a New Jersey boxing license. There was a videotaped statement attesting to Tyson's honesty and good character from Camille Ewald, the 93-year-old woman who ran the house in Catskill, N.Y., where Cus D'Amato trained the young Tyson. And there was an explanation from Chuck Wepner and Bobby Czyz as to why a boxer would do what Tyson did to Holyfield during a bout.\nCzyz, a television boxing analyst, described it as ''performance blackout.''\n''In a world title fight, if I hit an opponent and his eye fell out of his head, I'd eat it before he could pick it up and put it back in,'' Czyz said regarding the state of mind that boxers have during a title bout.", "ESPN.com: BOXING - Mike Tyson timeline\nMike Tyson timeline\nESPN.com news services\nA timeline surrounding the life and career of boxer Mike Tyson:\n1978 -- Arrested for purse snatching as a 12-year-old in Brooklyn and sent to Tryon School for Boys.\n1979 -- A boxing instructor at a New York State correction facility for boys brought Tyson to the attention of Cus D'Amato, who had guided Floyd Patterson to the heavyweight title.\n1982 -- Expelled from Catskill High School for a series of transgressions.\n1984 -- D'Amato becomes Tyson's legal guardian.\nNov. 4, 1985 -- D'Amato dies of pneumonia.\nMarch 6, 1985 -- In his professional debut, Tyson defeats Hector Mercedes in one round.\nNov. 22, 1986 -- Tyson knocks out Trevor Berbick in the second round, winning the WBC heavyweight title to become the youngest heavyweight champion in history at age 20.\nMarch 3, 1987 -- Tyson defeats James \"Bonecrusher\" Smith at Las Vegas to win the WBA heavyweight title.\nMay 30, 1987 -- Tyson knocks out Pinklon Thomas in the sixth round at Las Vegas to retain his WBA-WBC heavyweight titles.\nAug. 1, 1987 -- Tyson decisions Tony Tucker to retain the WBA--WBC heavyweight titles and win the IBF heavyweight title.\nOct. 16, 1987 -- Knocks out Tyrell Biggs in the seventh round in Atlantic City to retain the world heavyweight title.\nJan. 22, 1988 -- Tyson knocks out Larry Holmes in the fourth round to retain the world heavyweight title.\nFeb. 9, 1988 -- Actress Robin Givens and Tyson are married in New York.\nMarch 20, 1988 -- Tyson knocks out Tony Tubbs to retain the world heavyweight title.\nJune 17, 1988 -- Givens and her family go public with tales of beatings by Tyson.\nJune 27, 1988 -- Tyson sues manager Bill Cayton to break their contract, then knocks out Michael Spinks in 91 seconds to retain the world heavyweight title.\nJuly 27, 1988 -- Settles the Cayton suit out of court, reducing Cayton's managerial share from one-third to 20 percent of purses.\nAug. 23, 1988 -- Breaks a bone in his right hand in a 4 a.m. street brawl with professional fighter Mitch Green in Harlem.\nSept. 4, 1988 -- Tyson is knocked unconscious after driving his BMW into a tree. Three days later, the New York Daily News reports the accident was a \"suicide attempt\" caused by a \"chemical imbalance\" that made him violent and irrational.\nSept. 30, 1988 -- Givens says in a nationally televised interview that Tyson is a manic-depressive and that she is afraid of him. Tyson sits meekly next to her.\nOct. 7, 1988 -- Givens files for divorce.\nOct. 14, 1988 -- Tyson countersues Givens for divorce and annulment.\nOct. 26, 1988 -- Tyson becomes partners with Don King.\nDec. 12, 1988 -- Sandra Miller of New York sues Tyson for allegedly grabbing her, propositioning her and insulting her at a nightclub. A jury later finds Tyson guilty of battery, fining him only $100.\nDec. 15, 1988 -- Lori Davis of New York sues Tyson for allegedly grabbing her buttocks while she was dancing at the same nightclub on the same night as the incident with Miller.\nFeb. 14, 1989 -- Tyson and Givens are divorced in the Dominican Republic.\nFeb. 25, 1989 -- Tyson knocks out Frank Bruno to retain the world heavyweight title.\nApril 9, 1989 -- Accused of striking a parking attendant three times with an open hand outside a Los Angeles nightclub after the attendant asked Tyson to move his Mercedes--Benz out of a spot reserved for the club's owner. The charges are later dropped due to lack of witness cooperation.\nJuly 21, 1989 -- Tyson knocks out Carl \"The Truth\" Williams to retain the world heavyweight title.\nFeb. 11, 1990 -- In a stunning upset, Tyson is knocked out by James \"Buster\" Douglas in the 10th round and loses his world heavyweight title.\nNov. 1, 1990 -- A New York City civil jury finds Tyson committed battery in the Sandra Miller case, but Miller is awarded just $100 in damages because the jury decides Tyson's behavior was \"not outrageous.\"\nJune 28, 1991 -- In what would be his last fight before his legal problems, Tyson defeats Razor Ruddock in 12 rounds.\nJuly 18, 1991 -- Tyson meets Desiree Washington, a Miss Black America contestant, at a pageant rehearsal. They go to the boxer's hotel room in the early morning hours.\nJuly 22, 1991 -- Washington files a complaint with police accusing Tyson of rape.\nSept. 9, 1991 -- A special grand jury indicts Tyson on rape and three other charges. Two days later, he is booked in Indianapolis and released on $30,000 cash bond.\nFeb. 10, 1992 -- After nine hours of deliberation, Tyson is found guilty on one count of rape and two counts of deviate sexual conduct.\nMarch 26, 1992 -- Superior Court Judge Patricia Gifford sentences Tyson to 10 years in prison, suspending four. She orders him to serve the term immediately.\nMay 8, 1992 -- Tyson is found guilty of threatening a guard and disorderly conduct in prison, adding 15 days to his sentence.\nOct. 28, 1992 -- Tyson's father, Jimmy Kirkpatrick, dies in Brooklyn, N.Y. Tyson does not ask for a leave to attend the funeral.\nAug. 6, 1993 -- By a 2-1 vote, the Indiana Court of Appeals upholds Tyson's conviction.\nSept. 2, 1993 -- The Indiana Supreme Court denies Tyson's appeal without comment.\nMarch 25, 1995 -- Tyson is released from the Indiana Youth Center near Plainfield, Ind.\nAug. 19, 1995 -- Begins comeback with 89 seconds victory over Peter McNeeley in Las Vegas.\nDec. 16, 1995 -- Knocks out Buster Mathis, Jr. in third round in Philadelphia.\nMarch 16, 1996 -- Knocks out Frank Bruno in third round to win the WBC heavyweight title in Las Vegas.\nNov. 9, 1996 -- Loses to Evander Holyfield when referee Mitch Halpern stops the bout in the 11th round.\nJune 28, 1997 -- Tyson is disqualified after the third round of his rematch with Holyfield after he bites Holyfield twice, once on each ear. Tyson claims he was retaliating for a head butt inflicted by Holyfield that opened up a gash above his right eye. Referee Mills Lane ruled the butt was accidental.\nJuly 9, 1997 -- The Nevada State Athletic Commission, in a unanimous voice vote, revoked Mike Tyson's boxing license and fined him $3 million for biting Holyfield.\nOct. 16, 1997 -- Ordered to pay boxer Mitch Green $ 45,000 even though a jury ruled the former heavyweight champion was provoked into a Harlem street fight in 1988.\nOct. 29, 1997 -- Broke a rib and punctured a lung on his right side when his motorcycle skidded off a Connecticut highway after hitting a patch of sand.\nMarch 5, 1998 -- Filed a $100 million lawsuit in U.S. District Court in New York against Don King, accusing the promoter of cheating him out of tens of millions of dollars.\nMarch 9, 1998 -- Filed a lawsuit against former managers Rory Holloway and John Horne, claiming they betrayed him by arranging a deal that made King the former heavyweight champion's exclusive promoter.\nMarch 9, 1998 -- Sherry Cole and Chevelle Butts filed a $22 million lawsuit against Tyson claiming he verbally and physically abused them March 1 at a Washington bistro them at a restaurant after his sexual advances toward one of them were spurned.\nJuly 16, 1998 -- The 2nd U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals reinstated a $4.4 million award that a jury decided boxer Tyson owes former trainer Kevin Rooney for unjustly firing him.\nJuly 17, 1998 -- Applied for a boxing license in New Jersey.\nJuly 29, 1998 -- Appeared before the New Jersey Athletic Control Board to get a boxing license to resume his career. Tyson first choked back tears as he apologized for biting Evander Holyfield's ears. At the end of his 35-minute appearance, however, Tyson cursed in front of regulators after being continually questioned about biting Holyfield.\nAug. 13, 1998 -- On the eve of a meeting of the New Jersey Athletic Control Board, Tyson's advisers abruptly withdrew his application for a New Jersey boxing license.\nAug. 31, 1998 -- Was involved in a minor auto accident in Gaithersburg, Md., and had to be restrained by bodyguards from fighting the driver of the other car.\nSept. 2, 1998 -- Richard Hardick filed an assault charge against Tyson. Hardick says he was kicked in the groin by Tyson after his car rear-ended a Mercedes driven by Tyson's wife, Monica, on Aug. 31.\nSept. 3, 1998 -- Abmielec Saucedo filed a criminal assault against Tyson claiming Tyson punched him in the face as Saucedo talked with another driver following the accident of Aug. 31.\nOct. 13, 1998 -- The psychiatric report of Tyson is released. According to doctors who examined him for five days, the report states Tyson is depressed and lacks self-esteem, but is mentally fit to return to boxing. The psychiatrists believe Tyson most likely won't \"snap\" again as he did when he bit Holyfield.\nOct. 19, 1998 -- The Nevada Athletic Commission voted 4-1 to restore Tyson's boxing license, with the lone holdout commissioner James Nave.\nDec. 1, 1998 -- Tyson pleads no contest to misdemeanor assault for kicking and punching two motorists involved in the Aug. 31 auto accident in Maryland.\nJan. 16, 1999 -- Tyson knocked out Francois Botha in the fifth round. Tyson admitted to trying to break Botha's arm during the fight\nFeb. 5, 1999 -- Tyson was sentenced to two concurrent two-year sentences for assaulting two motorists after a traffic accident last summer. Judge Stephen Johnson suspended all but one year of jail time. Tyson was also fined $5,000 and sentenced to two years' probation after his release from jail. The decision could lead to more jail time for violating parole in Indiana.\nFeb. 20, 1999 -- Tyson was put in an isolation cell after a disturbance Saturday night at the Montgomery County Detention Center. Several TV stations in Washington reported that Tyson became upset, either in his cell or a break room, and threw a television set. The set narrowly missed jail guards, and there were no injuries. It was later reported that Tyson was taken off anti-depressants two days previous to this incident.\nFeb. 26, 1999 -- Tyson was allowed to step out of solitary confinement today and won back his privileges following an appeal of a disciplinary ruling, his lawyer said. Paul kemp said Tyson's punishment for throwing a television in a recreation room in jail on February 19 \"was reduced to time served and he was restored to regular privileges.\"\nOctober 24, 1999 -- vs. Orlin Norris Tyson hit Norris after the bell in the 1st round and the fight was declared a no contest\nDec. 10, 1999 -- Tyson won't have ferret neglect charges on his record. Authorities say they won't charge the former heavyweight champion with neglecting two ferrets at his Las Vegas home mostly because they don't know who was supposed to be taking care of the animals.\nFeb 8, 2000 -- Former heavyweight champion Mike Tyson reached a settlement Monday with two women who alleged the boxer assaulted them at a restaurant in the nation's capital, The Washington Post reported in its Tuesday and Chevelle Butts, both 33, filed the lawsuit in U.S. District Court in Greenbelt. They said they were in the Au Pied de Cochon restaurant in the city's Georgetown neighborhood on March, 1, 1998, when Tyson grabbed Cole and requested a sexual relationship. They alleged Tyson, who served time in an Indiana prison for a rape conviction, swore at Butts after learning she was a correctional officer. In papers filed by Tyson's lawyers, six witnesses said the boxer was verbally harassed by the women and was not abusive. Cole and Butts were seeking a total of $7.5 million in damages. Lawyers for both sides said they agreed to keep terms of the settlement confidential.\nMay 19, 2000 -- American boxer Mike Tyson's lawyer said that his client is determined to clear his name following allegations that the boxer hit a stripper in a Las Vegas nightclub. The dancer, Victoria Bianco, has filed a report on the alleged incident with local police who are now investigating her claim, according to the BBC reports on Friday. Bianco claims the former world heavyweight champion punched her in the chest and hurled expletives at her in a club where she was working as a topless dancer. Police were called to the scene, but after interviewing witnesses, including Tyson himself, they decided not to press charges.\nJune 27, 2000 -- A former topless dancer is seeking unspecified damages from heavyweight boxer Mike Tyson in connection with a May incident in which she says the boxer struck her while she was at work. In a lawsuit filed Friday, Victoria Bianco said Tyson struck her in the chest without provocation at Cheetah's, a topless club near downtown Las Vegas. The lawsuit has not been brought to court yet (as of Jan. 23, 2002).\nJune 24, 2000 -- vs. Lou Savarese. Tyson knocked the referee down in order to keep punching Savarese after the bout was stopped.\nAugust 22, 2000 -- Tyson was fined $187,500 for his behavior after his 38-second victory over Lou Savarese but escaped a ban from fighting again in Britain.\nJuly 29, 2001 -- Heavyweight boxer Mike Tyson continued preparations for his next fight Sunday in Phoenix while authorities in California continued investigating an allegation that he sexually assaulted Arlene Moorman, 50, at his rented home in the small mountain town of Big Bear City. Tyson, a former world champion who served three years in prison for a 1992 rape, has not been charged in the alleged incident, although San Bernardino County sheriff's investigators have indicated they wanted to question the boxer in the near future.\nAug. 18, 2001 -- California prosecutors have decided not to press charges against boxer Mike Tyson in connection with an alleged sexual assault on Arlene Moorman near Big Bear Lake.\nDec. 18, 2001 -- Police were today investigating claims that Mike Tyson assaulted an ex--boxer outside a New York nightclub. Retired heavyweight Mitchell Rose has filed a complaint, claiming Tyson attacked him after he made a joke about the former champion's entourage of women. Police in New York are investigating the claims but have not yet interviewed Tyson, a convicted rapist, or pressed any charges following the alleged incident early on Sunday morning.\nJan. 2, 2002 -- Mike Tyson checked out of a Havana hotel early Wednesday, a day after witnesses said he tossed glass Christmas ornaments at journalists trying to interview him. There were no reports of injuries, arrests or serious damage following the Tuesday evening dispute. The former heavyweight champion reportedly was headed to the airport for a flight on Air Jamaica after checking out at dawn, workers at the Hotel Melia Habana said.\nJan. 22, 2002 -- Tyson and Lennox Lewis come to blows during their scheduled TV press conference hyping their April 6th meeting. It was alleged that Tyson bit Lennox's leg during the melee.\nJan. 22, 20002 -- Police in Las Vegas said that they found evidence supporting a woman's claim she was raped by Tyson. The case is with the local district attorney's office, which will decide over the next weeks whether to charge Tyson.\nJan. 29, 2002 -- In a 4-1 vote, the Nevada Athletic Commission on Tuesday rejected Tyson's request to get his Nevada boxing license back.\n ESPN Tools", "Mike Tyson - BoxRec\nMike Tyson\nHall of Fame bio: click\nName: Mike Tyson\nBirth Name: Michael Gerard Tyson\nBorn: 1966-06-30\nBirthplace: Brooklyn, New York, USA\nHometown: Henderson, Nevada, USA\n4 of 6 amateur losses were classed as controversial decisions\n1981 United States Junior Olympic Heavyweight Champion. Results:\nJesus Esparza - RSC 1\n1981 Ernie Bennett - L 3\n1982 United States Junior Olympic Heavyweight Champion. Results:\nTito Llanes - RSC 1\nAl Evans - L RSC 3\n1983 National Golden Gloves Heavyweight Finalist. Results:\nRonald Williams - RSC 1\nKimmuel Odum - L DQ 2\n1983 Ohio State Fair Heavyweight Champion. Results:\n1983 United States Under-19 Heavyweight Champion, defeating Mark Scott by RSC 1\n1984 United States Under-19 Heavyweight Champion, defeating Orbit Pough by KO 1\n1984 National Golden Gloves Heavyweight Champion. Results:\n1984 United States Olympic Trials Heavyweight Finalist. Results:\nKelton Brown - KO 1\n1984 United States Olympic Box-Offs. Results:\nOlian Alexander - W 3\nHaakan Brock (Sweden) - W 3 (5-0)\nPreceded by:\nTyson wearing the WBA, WBC, and IBF heavyweight title belts.\nTyson vs. Trevor Berbick\nHas a record of 12-4 (10 KO) in world title fights.\nHas a record of 3-2 (3 KO) in lineal title fights.\nHas a record of 11-4-0-1 (9 KO) against former or current world titlists:\nNo Contest against Orlin Norris .\nHas a record of 3-4 (3 KO) against former or current lineal titlists:\nLost against James Douglas , Evander Holyfield (twice), and Lennox Lewis .\nHas a record of 7-0 (6 KO) against undefeated boxers:\nLost against Lennox Lewis and Evander Holyfield (twice).\nHas a record of 4-1 (4 KO) in fights outside his native United States.\nYear-By-Year Record\n1992-1994: Did not fight (served prison sentence)\n1995: 2(1)-0\n1998: Did not fight (boxing license suspended)\n1999: 1(1)-0-0-1\n(2) WBC Heavyweight Title (1986-1990; 9 defenses, 1996; 0 defenses)\n(2) WBA Heavyweight Title (1987-1990; 8 defenses, 1996; 0 defenses)\nIBF Heavyweight Title (1987-1990; 6 defenses)\nUnified & Undisputed Titles\nUnified Heavyweight Title (1996; WBC , WBA )\nThe Ring Magazine Titles\nNamed the 50th greatest boxer of all-time by ESPN in 2007.\nMike Tyson's World Tour\n\"Mike Tyson's World Tour,\" a series of four-round exhibitions bouts, was announced on September 28, 2006. Tyson said he anticipated taking the show to Europe, Asia and the Middle East. \"Mike Tyson's World Tour\" was shades of the 1930's exhibition tour by former World Heavyweight Champion Jack Dempsey .\nOn October 21, 2006, Tyson made the first and only stop of his exhibition tour in Youngstown, Ohio. Tyson and Corey Sanders boxed four two½ minute rounds. Tyson weighed 241½ lbs, while Sanders weighed 292½ lbs. Both boxers wore t-shirts, and Sanders wore headgear. Tyson dropped Sanders in the first round, but he didn't go for the knockout when Sanders got up. Later in the round, Tyson held Sanders up after landing another hard punch. The fans booed throughout the match. Promoter Sterling McPherson said afterwards, \"I don't know what people were looking for. We weren't trying to fool anyone or pull the wool over anyone's eyes. This was an exhibition. People boo at real fights... this isn't about him beating anybody up.\"\nPreceded by:", "New Adviser Finkel Could Help Punch Up Tyson's Credibility - tribunedigital-chicagotribune\nNew Adviser Finkel Could Help Punch Up Tyson's Credibility\nSeptember 17, 1998|By Michael Hirsley, Tribune Staff Writer.\nLAS VEGAS — When Mike Tyson appears before the Nevada State Athletic Commission on Saturday, if indeed he keeps the much-anticipated date to seek restoration of his boxing license, he will have a solid reputation in his corner.\nIt won't be his own, of course.\nAssault charges against Tyson stemming from an alleged altercation after a recent auto accident in Maryland won't convince the Nevada commissioners of his rehabilitation since June 1997. That's when they revoked his license for biting Evander Holyfield's ears, which disqualified him from a heavyweight title fight.\nThe respected reputation Tyson brings to his plea for reinstatement belongs to his latest adviser, Shelly Finkel.\nAs a multimillionaire who carried credentials as a civilized and successful rock music promoter to the world of boxing, Finkel has thrived in two cutthroat businesses.\nSo how did this 54-year-old \"adviser\" wind up in Tyson's camp?\n\"I've known Mike for 16 years, going back to when he was an amateur boxer,\" Finkel said. \"We've kept a relationship over the years. When (Don) King and Mike broke up, I thought it was time to rekindle our friendship.\"\nWhy? \"I just think he's an amazing person, the good and the not-so-good,\" Finkel said. \"He's a magnet for publicity . . . and a magnet for problems.\"\nThe magnetic fields of Tyson and Finkel, both born in Brooklyn neighborhoods, connected through Finkel's fondness for boxing after he'd been a successful music promoter. In 1973 he produced the biggest-ever rock concert, drawing 600,000 to Watkins Glen, N.Y.\nBoxing was the sport his father loved. One of the early fighters he managed was Mark Breland. When Breland was an amateur Golden Gloves star, he and Finkel befriended fellow amateur Tyson.\nThat acquaintance was renewed in February, Finkel coming to Tyson's side after the fighter split with previous co-managers John Horne and Rory Holloway. Finkel says his non-paying adviser role will be more like manager than promoter if Tyson regains a license to box. He says he doesn't know who would train or promote the ex-champion.\nKing? \"Not that I'm aware of,\" Finkel said cautiously. \"We don't think that will be the case.\"\nHe stopped short of admitting it was a strategic mistake for Team Tyson to seek a New Jersey boxing license rather than return to the scene of his biting transgression and face the Nevada commission that revoked Tyson's license. The East Coast strategy was dropped just before the New Jersey boxing commissioners were about to rule, following Tyson's less-than-impressive, expletive-inclusive appearance before them.\n\"When we decided not to go before New Jersey, that Nevada was the right thing to do, any other person would have gotten a blurb in sports,\" Finkel said. \"But Mike Tyson was front-page news.\"\nAnticipating Saturday's hearing, at which Tyson will be asked about the Maryland incident and the apparent New Jersey end-run as well as what happened in the ring more than a year ago, Finkel concedes: \"I see some difficulty. But I hope we can overcome it.\"\nAware that critics see Tyson as a fading fighter, if not a shot one, Finkel respectfully disagrees:\n\"I believe he can beat anyone out there if he really wants to do it. I think he lost some interest, he was knocking everyone out . . .\"\nThat is until Holyfield ended Tyson's comeback and re-ascension to the heavyweight throne with a stunning knockout in November 1996, a prelude to last June's ear-biting debacle.\nFinkel, whose camp includes veteran Pernell Whitaker, another rehabilitation project, plus young guns Zabdiel Judah, David Tua and Fernando Vargas, was once Holyfield's manager. King is now Holyfield's promoter.\nThat means if there is a Holyfield-Tyson III, each fighter could face a former ally in his opponent's corner. Finkel is not averse to the matchup.\n\"Evander is wonderful, but not like Mike,\" he said. \"There's no one like Mike.\"\nAnd there's no one in boxing quite like Shelly Finkel, who moved from Bruce Springsteen and the Eagles to Holyfield and Tyson. He says the two worlds aren't that different--Finkel could just as well be describing some rock stars' egotism when he says, \"In boxing, you get someone who didn't have adoration and financial rewards in his youth, and suddenly he has them both.\"\nIn the worlds of boxing and music, \"you're dealing with a lot of egos,\" Finkel said.\nMORE:", "Tyson Applies For License In N.j. - tribunedigital-chicagotribune\nTyson Applies For License In N.j.\nJuly 18, 1998|By Stephen Nidetz.\nMike Tyson, who hasn't fought since Nevada revoked his license for biting Evander Holyfield's ears during a championship bout last year, has applied for a boxing license in New Jersey.\nTyson's attorney, Anthony Fusco Jr., said the former heavyweight champion has strong ties to the state, where he once lived and made Atlantic City one of his favorite fighting venues. The state Athletic Control Board has scheduled a July 29 hearing in Trenton to consider the license application.\nNevada officials said they expect New Jersey and other states to continue to abide by their 1997 decision to revoke Tyson's license.\n- Ex-champ Tommy Morrison was charged with drunken driving, running a red light and driving with a revoked license in Broken Arrow, Okla.\nMORE:", "Tyson taking Jersey road Nevada objects to bid to circumvent ban - tribunedigital-baltimoresun\nTyson taking Jersey road Nevada objects to bid to circumvent ban\nJuly 29, 1998|By Alan Goldstein | Alan Goldstein,SUN STAFF\nA war between the states could be triggered in a Trenton, N.J., hearing room today, when Mike Tyson applies to the New Jersey Athletic Commission's three-man Board of Control for a boxing license.\nLast July, the former heavyweight champion's license was revoked indefinitely and he was fined $3 million by the Nevada State Athletic Commission for chomping Evander Holyfield's ear in their championship match in Las Vegas on June 28, 1997.\nTyson was eligible to appeal the revocation in Nevada this month, but, acting on the advice of his new managerial team headed by Shelly Finkel, he turned to New Jersey in an attempt to resume his ring career, which was first interrupted in 1992 by a three-year prison term for rape.\nFinkel, who once managed Holyfield's affairs, said he \"liked the odds better\" in New Jersey.\nThe Nevada Commission viewed the New Jersey hearing as an end run by Tyson to circumvent a federal law that requires the Association of Boxing Commissions (ABC) to recognize statewide suspensions.\n\"I feel like I'm at Fort Sumter,\" said Nevada commission executive director Marc Ratner.\n\"There can be a lot of interpretations, but in the spirit of the law, states should follow our revocation. Mike Tyson should take care of business here before going anywhere else. This could be the death knell for the ABC.\"\nJim Nave, a member of the Nevada board who voted to revoke Tyson's license, took a different stance.\nSaid Nave: \"In my opinion, this has nothing to do with the federal law. States honored suspensions and revocation before the federal law took effect. I don't know what the difference is now.\"\nRoger Shatzkin, a spokesman for New Jersey Attorney General Peter Verniero, said there is a difference between a suspension and a revocation.\n\"We don't think revocation is covered by [federal] law,\" he said. \"We are working within the boundaries of the law. This process is carefully measured. It is no rush to judgment.\"\nBut New York Attorney General Dennis Vacco told the New York hTC Post that he has told Verniero of his opposition to today's hearing in a letter.\nSaid Vacco: \"I would be offended if they actually licensed him or permitted him to box in New Jersey. It really undermines what we are trying to do.\"\nNevada chose to revoke rather than suspend Tyson's license in order to fine him 10 percent of his $30 million purse for the bout with Holyfield. The fight was stopped in the third round after Tyson bit Holyfield a second time.\nAnthony Fusco, a New Jersey attorney who will represent Tyson at the hearing, said that the fighter could have elected to apply for a license in any other state but Nevada, but opted to wait at least a calendar year.\nFinkel estimated Tyson has lost at least $25 million in potential ring revenue the past year. \"That's more than all the fines in the four major leagues,\" he said, adding that, in the past year, he has rejected lucrative offers for Tyson to fight in Germany, Russia and Canada.\nAn unfavorable political atmosphere helped persuade Tyson to steer clear of Nevada.\n\"We got intimations they [the Nevada commission] weren't going to OK Mike until January,\" said Jeff Wald, another member of Tyson's new advisory team. \"That, effectively, meant a two-year suspension. Mike's not getting younger [32]. He's got bills to pay.\"\nFusco insists Tyson is a changed man.\n\"We'll probably have witnesses and affidavits to indicate the positive things he has done,\" Fusco said. \"The public doesn't know about his family life. We're confident that the New Jersey board will see the good side of Mike Tyson.\"\nOn the surface, Tyson has attempted to mend his ways by severing his lengthy association with controversial promoter Don King and his two managers, John Horne and Rory Holloway.\nKing's backing led to combined $35 million exclusive deals with the Showtime cable network and the MGM Grand Hotel in Las Vegas. Tyson reportedly has earned $140 million since being released from prison in 1995.\nBut Tyson said half that money went to King and his managers, who were widely viewed as King's proxies. Last February, Tyson discovered he owed $7 million in taxes. He fired King and initiated a $100 million suit against the promoter, Horne and Holloway for mismanagement.\nBoxing promoter Dino Duva, a close associate of Finkel, said: \"My opinion is that Mike has served his penalty and has a right to get his license back and go on with his life.\"\nThe New Jersey Control Board is expected to take at least a month before ruling on Tyson's license application. Realistically, he would not be prepared to return to the ring until December.\nPub Date: 7/29/98", "ESPN.com: BOXING - Transcript: Mike Tyson's medical evaluation\nNeuropsychological evaluation\nCircumstances of the Evaluation:\nThis evaluation was requested by the Nevada State Athletic Commission in order to provide medical input regarding Mr. Tyson's request for reinstatement of his boxing license. Pursuant to your letter of September 21, 1998, we have completed an evaluation by a team of psychiatrists, psychologists, and neurologists. To the extent possible, we utilized the assessment measures which you requested. Where other measures were used, the reasons for their use will be discussed.\nMembers of the evaluation team:\nThe following individuals took direct part in the evaluation.\nThomas Deters, Ph.D, Neuropsychologist, Law and Psychiatry Service Massachusetts General Hospital and Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts\nDavid Henderson, MD, Psychiatrist, Massachusetts General Hospital and Freedom Trail Clinic, Boston, Massachusetts\nBarry D. Jordan, MD, Neurologist, Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science, Los Angeles, California\nDavid Medoff, Ph.D, Psychologist, Law and Psychiatry Service, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts\nJeremy D. Schmahmann, MD, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts\nRonald Schouten, MD, JD, Director, Law & Psychiatry Service, Massachusetts General Hospital\nSources of Information:\nThe following sources of information were relied upon in conducting this evaluation and in reaching the conclusions contained herein.\nMultiple formal interviews with Mr. Tyson over a five-day period, in addition to frequent contact wit Mr. Tyson and opportunities to observe him in the clinical setting over the course of five days. Dr. Schouten's interview time was six hours, Dr. Henderson's 1.5 hours, and Dr. Jordan's one hour. Drs. Deters and Madoff conducted additional clinical interviews as part of the testing.\nNeurological evaluation by Drs. Schmahmann and Jordan.\nPsychological testing by Dr. Medoff\nNeuropsychological testing by Dr. Deters\nTelephone conference between Dr. Schouten and Larry Curry, MSW.\nTelephone conference between Monica Tyson, MD and Dr. Schouten.\nElectroencephalogram (EEG)\n-- New Jersey Athletic Commission hearing on July 29, 1998\n-- Nevada Athletic Commission hearing on September 19, 1998\nWarning of Limitation on Confidentiality:\nAt the initiation of the evaluation, Mr. Tyson was informed that the contents of the evaluation would not be protected by the usual rules of confidentiality. He was further informed that he could refuse to answer any or all questions posed to him. Mr. Tyson expressed a clear understanding of these limitations and agreed to proceed. He indicated his ongoing understanding of these conditions throughout the evaluation process.\nRelevant history:\nMr. Tyson is a 32-year-old, African-American, married man. He has four children. Mr. Tyson spent his early childhood in Brooklyn, New York, where he attended school. Due to behavioral difficulties he was placed in a school in upstate New York. He reports receiving special education services because of these behavioral problems. At approximately age 12 he was taken into the home of Cus D'Amato and Camille Ewald where he came under Mr. D'Amato's tutelage and trained as a boxer. Mr. Tyson attended Catskill High School but left school after the 10th grade. He studied for the Graduate Equivalency Diploma but failed to pass the examination by a narrow margin.\nMr. Tyson became very close to Mr. D'Amato and Ms. Ewald. The relationship between these individuals and Mr. Tyson has been described by Mr. Tyson and others as a relationship between parents and a child. Mr. D'Amato died in 1985 and Mr. Tyson describes his reaction to Mr. D'Amato's death as that of a child losing a parent. He continues to maintain contact with Ms. Ewald and continues to support her. Mr. Tyson's biological parents are both deceased, as is his sister. He has one brother who lives in California.\nMr. Tyson gave a history of repeated head injuries as a child, including multiple episodes of loss of consciousness as a result of being struck with objects in fights. He denied any loss of consciousness as an adult and particularly denies loss of consciousness while boxing. He has no history of serious illness, surgeries, or seizures. There is no history of headache or other neurological difficulties. He denied current substance abuse, including steroids.\nIn 1992, Mr. Tyson's successful boxing career was interrupted by a prison sentence of six years. Mr. Tyson was released in three years due to a reduction in sentence for good behavior while incarcerated. Upon release from prison he returned to boxing. His career was once again interrupted on June 28, 1997. On that date, during a bout with Evander Holyfield, Mr. Tyson committed a major foul by biting Mr. Holyfield on the ear. After a two-point deduction, the fight resumed and Mr. Tyson again bit Mr. Holyfield. After the end of the round, Mr. Tyson was disqualified as a result of the second biting.\n \nMike Tyson following his psychological evaluation at Massachusetts General Hospital.\nAs part of the evaluation process, Mr. Tyson was asked about symptoms of depression and other illnesses at the time of the Holyfield fight. He reported that he was experiencing significant depression at the time, in the contest of multiple financial and personal problems. There was no indication that he was suffering symptoms of another psychiatric disorder at the time. He denied using steroids or other substances at the time. Immediately following the fight, Mr. Tyson explained in an interview that he had retaliated for the head-butting because he was concerned about his career being ended by repeated injury from head-butting, feared that he would lose his job and not be able to support his family, and was not being protected by the officials.\nWhen asked about the foul, Mr. Tyson reports that he was very angry because he felt he had been the victim of head-butting from Mr. Holyfield in their previous bout and nothing had been done. His head been cut in that fight, and was cut again in Tyson-Holyfield II. After protesting the head butt and getting no response, Mr. Tyson reported that he felt that this was no longer a prize fight, but had become a street fight. He reported that when that occurred, he simply \"snapped\" and retaliated against Mr. Holyfield by biting him. While he did not have perfect recall for all the events that occurred during this bout, there was no evidence from Mr. Tyson's account of the incident or from the videotape that the incident occurred during a dissociative state, psychotic episode, or in any other state of loss of awareness. Review of the tape indicates that the initial bite occurred after a few blows from Mr. Holyfield and immediately after another clashing of heads. This had been preceded by at least one head butt.\nMr. Tyson had his license revoked for life by the Nevada Athletic Commission after this incident. It is our understanding that he became eligible to apply for reinstatement after one year. This report is requested in connection with that application for reinstatement.\nSince the fight in June 1998, Mr. Tyson has asked Mr. Holyfield to forgive him, and Mr. Holyfield has written in support of Mr. Tyson's reinstatement. Mr. Tyson reported that the biting incident, and loss of his license, has ruined his career and his life. He expressed remorse about the incident, as well as great concern that he will not be able to fulfill his obligation to support his family if he cannot box. Mr. Tyson was adamant that he will never let anything like that happen again.\nMr. Tyson has changed his management team since June 1997. He feels that he was betrayed by members of that team and has has a civil lawsuit pending against them for monetary damages. He noted that \"people let me down. People I would have died for.\"\nAccording to Mr. Tyson, he underwent some psychological evaluation and some counseling as a child. The exact nature of those evaluations is unclear, and the records of the evaluations and any testing he may have had are not available at this time. Mr. Tyson reported that he has felt depressed all of his life. He received a diagnosis of Manic Depressive Illness several years ago and was placed on lithium carbonate, a mood stabilizer. He stated that this slowed him down considerably and that he stopped taking the medication after several doses.\nIn December of 1997, Mr. Tyson entered treatment with Richard Goldberg, MD, Professor and Chair of the Department of Psychiatry at Georgetown Medical School. Mr. Tyson saw Dr. Goldberg for seven or eight visits until Mr. Tyson relocated to Denver to begin training. He subsequently contacted Larry Curry, MSW, who is a psychotherapist with expertise in anger management and working with professional athletes. Mr. Tyson has been on an antidepressant medication prescribed by Dr. Goldberg; however, he reported that this has not been particularly helpful to him. He has had discussions with Dr. Goldberg about the possibility of increasing the dosage of this medication. The frequency of meetings between Mr. Tyson and Dr. Goldberg remains uncertain, as Mr. Tyson has relocated to Denver for the present time.\nThe relationship with Dr. Goldberg appears to be a solid one. Mr. Tyson reported that he derives great benefit from working with Dr. Goldberg and wishes to continue the relationship if at all possible. Mr. Tyson was particularly protective of that relationship and is hesitant to have the content of their discussions revealed in detail. Dr. Goldberg's findings on examination and his impressions of Mr. Tyson are similar to those derived by this evaluation team as outlined below. On September 29, the evaluation team received a copy of Dr. Goldberg's letter of July 21, 1998 to Attorney Fusco in which he indicated that Mr. Tyson suffers from \"dysthymic disorder (chronic depression) and issues related to his personality.\"\nMembers of the evaluation team reviewed the videotape of the July 27, 1998 New Jersey hearing. We noted that Mr. Tyson maintained excellent behavioral control during the course of the extensive and detailed questioning. He indicated that he did not want to speak any further because he was \"angry\" and did so in a calm voice. Mr. Tyson did raise his voice plaintively when Attorney Fusco began advocating for him, asking Mr. Fusco if he knew what Mr. Tyson meant. he subsequently used an expletive, wondering out loud what he was expected to do. It was the impression of the evaluation team the Mr. Tyson's behavior at the New Jersey hearing was not indicative of a significant problem with impulse control. In fact, we interpreted it as an example of reasonable control under significant pressure. Similarly, we found Mr. Tyson's behavior during the Nevada hearing on September 19, 1998 to be appropriate and evidence of good control under stress.\nSeveral incidents have occurred over the last months involving Mr. Tyson which have raised concerns about his impulse control and anger management. The evaluation team has reviewed testimony and evidence involving these incidents. The evidence regarding the restaurant incident in Washington, D.C, is consistent with Mr. Tyson's account that while words were exchanged between Mr. Tyson and a young woman in a restaurant, Mr. Tyson did not engage in any form of physical assault towards the individual. A second incident, involving a motor-vehicle accident in Gaithersburg, Maryland, was explained by Mr. Tyson in a manner consistent with his representations to others. No further details of that incident are outlined here in light of the fact that the alleged incident is potentially the subject of an ongoing criminal hearing." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Neil_Armstrong.txt" ], "title": [ "Neil Armstrong" ], "wiki_context": [ "Neil Alden Armstrong (August 5, 1930 – August 25, 2012) was an American astronaut and the first person to walk on the Moon. He was also an aerospace engineer, naval aviator, test pilot, and university professor. Before becoming an astronaut, Armstrong was an officer in the U.S. Navy and served in the Korean War. After the war, he earned his bachelor's degree at Purdue University and served as a test pilot at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) High-Speed Flight Station, where he logged over 900 flights. He later completed graduate studies at the University of Southern California.\n\nA participant in the U.S. Air Force's Man in Space Soonest and X-20 Dyna-Soar human spaceflight programs, Armstrong joined the NASA Astronaut Corps in 1962. He made his first space flight as command pilot of Gemini 8 in March 1966, becoming NASA's first civilian astronaut to fly in space. He performed the first docking of two spacecraft, with pilot David Scott. This mission was aborted after Armstrong used some of his reentry control fuel to prevent a dangerous spin caused by a stuck thruster, in the first in-flight space emergency.\n\nArmstrong's second and last spaceflight was as commander of Apollo 11, the first manned Moon landing mission in July 1969. Armstrong and Lunar Module pilot Buzz Aldrin descended to the lunar surface and spent two and a half hours outside the spacecraft, while Michael Collins remained in lunar orbit in the Command/Service Module. Along with Collins and Aldrin, Armstrong was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Richard Nixon. President Jimmy Carter presented Armstrong the Congressional Space Medal of Honor in 1978. Armstrong and his former crewmates received the Congressional Gold Medal in 2009.\n\nArmstrong died in Cincinnati, Ohio, on August 25, 2012, at the age of 82, after complications from coronary artery bypass surgery. \n\nEarly years\n\nNeil Armstrong was born on August 5, 1930, to Stephen Koenig Armstrong and Viola Louise Engel in Auglaize County, near Wapakoneta, Ohio. Hansen 2005, pp. 49–50. He was of Scottish, Irish, and German ancestry, and had two younger siblings, June and Dean. Stephen Armstrong worked as an auditor for the Ohio state government; the family moved around the state repeatedly after Armstrong's birth, living in 20 towns. Neil's love for flying grew during this time, having gotten off to an early start when his father took his two-year-old son to the Cleveland Air Races. When he was five, he experienced his first airplane flight in Warren, Ohio on July 20, 1936 when he and his father took a ride in a Ford Trimotor, also known as the \"Tin Goose\". \n\nHis father's last move was in 1944, back to Neil's birthplace, Wapakoneta, in Auglaize County. Armstrong attended Blume High School and took flying lessons at the grassy Wapakoneta airfield. He earned a student flight certificate on his 16th birthday, then soloed later in August; all before he had a driver's license. Armstrong was active in the Boy Scouts and earned the rank of Eagle Scout. As an adult, he was recognized by the Boy Scouts of America with its Distinguished Eagle Scout Award and Silver Buffalo Award. On July 18, 1969, while flying towards the Moon inside the Columbia, Armstrong greeted the Scouts: \"I'd like to say hello to all my fellow Scouts and Scouters at Farragut State Park in Idaho having a National Jamboree there this week; and Apollo 11 would like to send them best wishes\". Houston replied: \"Thank you, Apollo 11. I'm sure that, if they didn't hear that, they'll get the word through the news. Certainly appreciate that.\" Among the very few personal items that Neil Armstrong carried with him to the Moon and back was a World Scout Badge. \n\nIn 1947, at age 17, Armstrong began studying aeronautical engineering at Purdue University. He was the second person in his family to attend college. He was also accepted to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). The only engineer he knew (who had attended MIT) dissuaded him from attending, telling Armstrong that it was not necessary to go all the way to Cambridge, Massachusetts, for a good education. \n\nHis college tuition was paid for under the Holloway Plan. Successful applicants committed to two years of study, followed by two years of flight training and one year of service in the U.S. Navy as an aviator, then completion of the final two years of their bachelor's degree. Candidates had to promise to not marry until graduation, signed the \"Aviation Guarantee\" to serve on Active Duty for at least four years, and would not receive a promotion to Ensign until two years after they received their Midshipman's warrant.\n\nNavy service\n\nArmstrong's call-up from the Navy arrived on January 26, 1949, requiring him to report to Naval Air Station Pensacola for flight training at age 18. This lasted almost 18 months, during which he qualified for carrier landing aboard and . On August 16, 1950, two weeks after his 20th birthday, Armstrong was informed by letter that he was a fully qualified Naval Aviator. \n\nHis first assignment was to Fleet Aircraft Service Squadron 7 at NAS San Diego (now known as NAS North Island). Two months later he was assigned to Fighter Squadron 51 (VF-51), an all-jet squadron, and made his first flight in a jet, an F9F-2B Panther, on January 5, 1951. In June, he made his first jet carrier landing on and was promoted the same week from Midshipman to Ensign. By the end of the month, Essex had set sail with VF-51 aboard, bound for Korea, where its VF-51 would act as ground-attack aircraft. \n\nArmstrong first saw action in the Korean War on August 29, 1951, as an escort for a photo reconnaissance plane over Songjin. Five days later on September 3, he flew armed reconnaissance over the primary transportation and storage facilities south of the village of Majon-ni, west of Wonsan. While making a low bombing run at about 350 mph, Armstrong's F9F Panther was hit by anti-aircraft fire. While trying to regain control, he collided with a pole at a height of about 20 ft, which sliced off about three feet (1 m) of the Panther's right wing. Armstrong flew the plane back to friendly territory, but due to the loss of the aileron, ejection was his only safe option. He planned to eject over water and await rescue by Navy helicopters, and therefore flew to an airfield near Pohang, but his ejection seat was blown back over land. A jeep driven by a roommate from flight school picked Armstrong up; it is unknown what happened to the wreckage of No. 125122 F9F-2. \n\nArmstrong flew 78 missions over Korea for a total of 121 hours in the air, most of which were in January 1952. He received the Air Medal for 20 combat missions, a Gold Star for the next 20, and the Korean Service Medal and Engagement Star. Armstrong left the Navy at age 22 on August 23, 1952, and became a lieutenant (junior grade), in the U.S. Naval Reserve. He remained in the reserve for eight years, then resigned his commission on October 21, 1960. \n\nCollege years\n\nAfter his service with the Navy, Armstrong returned to Purdue, where his best grades came in the four semesters following his return from Korea. He had previously earned average marks, but his final GPA was 4.8 out of 6.0. He pledged the Phi Delta Theta fraternity after his return and he wrote and co-directed its musical as part of the all-student revue; he was also a member of Kappa Kappa Psi National Honorary Band Fraternity and a baritone player in the Purdue All-American Marching Band. Armstrong graduated in 1955 with a Bachelor of Science degree in Aeronautical Engineering.\n\nAfter returning to Purdue, he met Janet Elizabeth Shearon, who was majoring in home economics. According to the couple, there was no real courtship, and neither could remember the exact circumstances of their engagement, except that it occurred while Armstrong was working at the NACA's Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory. They were married on January 28, 1956, at the Congregational Church in Wilmette, Illinois. When he moved to Edwards Air Force Base, he lived in the bachelor quarters of the base, while Janet lived in the Westwood district of Los Angeles. After one semester, they moved into a house in Antelope Valley. Janet never finished her degree, a fact she regretted later in life. \n\nThe couple had three children together: Eric, Karen, and Mark. In June 1961, daughter Karen was diagnosed with a malignant tumor of the middle part of her brain stem; X-ray treatment slowed its growth, but her health deteriorated to the point where she could no longer walk or talk. Two-year-old Karen died of pneumonia, related to her weakened health, on January 28, 1962. \n\nArmstrong later completed his Master of Science degree in Aerospace Engineering at the University of Southern California in 1970. He would eventually be awarded honorary doctorates by several universities.\n\nTest pilot\n\nFollowing his graduation from Purdue, Armstrong decided to become an experimental research test pilot. He applied at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) High-Speed Flight Station at Edwards Air Force Base, which was later redesignated as the ‘‘NASA Neil A. Armstrong Flight Research Center’’ in 2014. Although the committee had no open positions, it forwarded his application to the Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory in Cleveland, where Armstrong began working in March 1955. Armstrong's stint at Cleveland lasted a couple of months, and by July 1955 he had returned to Edwards AFB for a new job. \n\nOn his first day at Edwards, Armstrong was tasked his first assignments, which were to pilot chase planes during releases of experimental aircraft from modified bombers. He also flew the modified bombers, and on one of these missions had his first flight incident at Edwards. On March 22, 1956, Armstrong was in a Boeing B-29 Superfortress, which was to air-drop a Douglas D-558-2 Skyrocket. He sat in the right-hand pilot seat while the left-hand seat commander, Stan Butchart, flew the B-29. \n\nAs they ascended to 30000 ft, the number-four engine stopped and the propeller began windmilling (rotating freely) in the airstream. Hitting the switch that would stop the propeller's spinning, Butchart found the propeller slowed but then started spinning again, this time even faster than the other engines; if it spun too fast, it would break apart. Their aircraft needed to hold an airspeed of 210 mph to launch its Skyrocket payload, and the B-29 could not land with the Skyrocket attached to its belly. Armstrong and Butchart brought the aircraft into a nose-down alignment to increase speed, then launched the Skyrocket. At the instant of launch, the number-four engine propeller disintegrated. Pieces of it damaged the number-three engine and hit the number-two engine. Butchart and Armstrong were forced to shut down the number-three engine, due to damage, and the number-one engine, due to the torque it created. They made a slow, circling descent from 30000 ft using only the number-two engine, and landed safely. \n\nAs a research pilot, Armstrong served as project pilot on the F-100 Super Sabre A and C variants, F-101 Voodoo, and the Lockheed F-104A Starfighter. He also flew the Bell X-1B, Bell X-5, North American X-15, F-105 Thunderchief, F-106 Delta Dart, B-47 Stratojet, KC-135 Stratotanker, and was one of eight elite pilots involved in the paraglider research vehicle program (Paresev).\n\nArmstrong's first flight in a rocket plane was on August 15, 1957, in the Bell X-1B, to an altitude of . The nose landing gear broke on landing, which had happened on about a dozen previous flights of the Bell X-1B due to the aircraft's design. He later flew the North American X-15 seven times; his penultimate flight reached an altitude of .\n\nArmstrong was involved in several incidents that went down in Edwards folklore and/or were chronicled in the memoirs of colleagues. The first occurred during his sixth X-15 flight on April 20, 1962, while Armstrong tested a self-adjusting control system. He flew to a height of over , (the highest he flew before Gemini 8), but the aircraft nose was held up too long during descent and the X-15 bounced off the atmosphere back up to . At that altitude, the air is so thin that aerodynamic surfaces have almost no effect. He flew past the landing field at Mach 3 (2000 mph) at over 100000 ft in altitude, and ended up 40 mi south of Edwards. After sufficient descent, he turned back toward the landing area, and barely managed to land without striking Joshua trees at the south end. It was the longest X-15 flight in both time and distance from the ground track. \n\nFour days later, Armstrong was involved in a second incident, when he flew for the only time with Chuck Yeager. Their job, flying a Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star, was to evaluate Smith Ranch Dry Lake for use as an emergency landing site for the X-15. In his autobiography, Yeager wrote that he knew the lake bed was unsuitable for landings after recent rains, but Armstrong insisted on flying out anyway. As they attempted a touch-and-go, the wheels became stuck and they had to wait for rescue. Armstrong tells a different version of events, where Yeager never tried to talk him out of it and they made a first successful landing on the east side of the lake. Then Yeager told him to try again, this time a bit slower. On the second landing, they became stuck and according to Armstrong, Yeager was in fits of laughter. \n\nMany of the test pilots at Edwards praised Armstrong's engineering ability. Milt Thompson said he was \"the most technically capable of the early X-15 pilots.\" Bill Dana said Armstrong \"had a mind that absorbed things like a sponge.\" Those who flew for the Air Force tended to have a different opinion, especially people like Yeager and Pete Knight, who did not have engineering degrees. Knight said that pilot-engineers flew in a way that was \"more mechanical than it is flying,\" and gave this as the reason why some pilot-engineers got into trouble: their flying skills did not come naturally. \n\nA few weeks later on May 21, 1962, Armstrong was involved in what Edwards' folklore called the \"Nellis Affair.\" He was sent in a Lockheed F-104 Starfighter to inspect Delamar Dry Lake in southern Nevada, again for emergency landings. He misjudged his altitude, and also did not realize that the landing gear had not fully extended. As he touched down, the landing gear began to retract; Armstrong applied full power to abort the landing, but the ventral fin and landing gear door struck the ground, damaging the radio and releasing hydraulic fluid. Without radio communication, Armstrong flew south to Nellis Air Force Base, past the control tower, and waggled his wings, the signal for a no-radio approach. The loss of hydraulic fluid caused the tail-hook to release, and upon landing, he caught the arresting wire attached to an anchor chain, and dragged the chain along the runway. \n\nIt took thirty minutes to clear the runway and rig an arresting cable and Armstrong telephoned Edwards and asked for someone to collect him. Milt Thompson was sent in an F-104B, the only two-seater available, but a plane Thompson had never flown. With great difficulty, Thompson made it to Nellis, but a strong crosswind caused a hard landing and the left main tire suffered a blowout. The runway was again closed to clear it, and Bill Dana was sent to Nellis in a T-33 Shooting Star, but he almost landed long—and the Nellis base operations office decided that to avoid any further problems, it would be best to find the three NASA pilots ground transport back to Edwards.\n\nArmstrong made seven flights in the X-15 from November 1960 to July 1962. He reached a top altitude of in the X-15-3, and a top speed of Mach 5.74 (3989 mph) in the X-15-1; he left the Dryden Flight Research Center with a total of 2,400 flying hours. Over his career, he flew more than 200 different models of aircraft.\n\nAstronaut career\n\nIn 1958, Armstrong had been selected for the U.S. Air Force's Man In Space Soonest program. In November 1960, he was chosen as part of the pilot consultant group for the X-20 Dyna-Soar, a military space plane under development by Boeing for the U.S. Air Force, and on March 15, 1962, he was selected by the U.S. Air Force as one of seven pilot-engineers who would fly the space plane when it got off the design board. \n\nIn the months after the announcement that applications were being sought for the second group of NASA astronauts, Armstrong became more and more excited about the prospects of both the Apollo program and of investigating a new aeronautical environment. Armstrong's astronaut application arrived about a week past the June 1, 1962, deadline. Dick Day, with whom Armstrong had worked closely at Edwards, saw the late arrival of the application and slipped it into the pile before anyone noticed. At Brooks Air Force Base at the end of June, Armstrong underwent a medical exam that many of the applicants described as painful and at times seemingly pointless. \n\nDeke Slayton called Armstrong on September 13, 1962, and asked whether he would be interested in joining the NASA Astronaut Corps as part of what the press dubbed \"the New Nine\"; without hesitation, Armstrong said yes. The selections were kept secret until three days later, although newspaper reports had been circulating since earlier that year that he would be selected as the \"first civilian astronaut.\" Armstrong was one of two civilian pilots selected for the second group; the other was Elliot See, also a former naval aviator. See was scheduled to command Gemini 9, but died in a T-38 crash in 1966 that also took the life of crewmate Charles Bassett. Armstrong was the first American civilian in space, but the first civilian was Valentina Tereshkova of the Soviet Union, nearly three years earlier. A textile worker and amateur parachutist, she was aboard Vostok 6 when it launched on June 16, 1963. \n\nGemini program\n\nGemini 8\n\nThe crew assignments for Gemini 8 were announced on September 20, 1965, with Armstrong as Command Pilot and David Scott as Pilot. Scott was the first member of the third group of astronauts to receive a prime crew assignment. The mission launched on March 16, 1966; it was to be the most complex yet, with a rendezvous and docking with the unmanned Agena target vehicle, the second American extra-vehicular activity (EVA) by Scott. In total, the mission was planned to last 75 hours and 55 orbits. After the Agena lifted off at 10 a.m. EST, the Titan II carrying Armstrong and Scott ignited at 11:41:02 am EST, putting them into an orbit from where they would chase the Agena. \n\nThe rendezvous and first-ever docking between two spacecraft was successfully completed after 6.5 hours in orbit. Contact with the crew was intermittent due to the lack of tracking stations covering their entire orbits. Out of contact with the ground, the docked spacecraft began to roll, and Armstrong attempted to correct this with the Orbital Attitude and Maneuvering System (OAMS) of the Gemini spacecraft. Following the earlier advice of Mission Control, they undocked, but found that the roll increased dramatically to the point where they were turning about once per second, which meant the problem was in their Gemini's attitude control. Armstrong decided the only course of action was to engage the Reentry Control System (RCS) and turn off the OAMS. Mission rules dictated that once this system was turned on, the spacecraft would have to reenter at the next possible opportunity. It was later thought that damaged wiring made one of the thrusters become stuck in the on position. \n\nThroughout the astronaut office there were a few people, most notably Walter Cunningham, who publicly stated that Armstrong and Scott had ignored the malfunction procedures for such an incident, and that Armstrong could have salvaged the mission if he had turned on only one of the two RCS rings, saving the other for mission objectives. These criticisms were unfounded; no malfunction procedures were written and it was possible to turn on only both RCS rings, not just one or the other. Gene Kranz wrote, \"the crew reacted as they were trained, and they reacted wrong because we trained them wrong.\" The mission planners and controllers had failed to realize that when two spacecraft are docked together, they must be considered to be one spacecraft. \n\nArmstrong himself was depressed that the mission had been cut short, canceling most mission objectives and robbing Scott of his EVA.\n\nGemini 11\n\nThe last assignment for Armstrong in the Gemini program was as the back-up Command Pilot for Gemini 11, announced two days after the landing of Gemini 8. Having trained for two flights, Armstrong was quite knowledgeable about the systems and was more in a teaching role for the rookie backup Pilot, William Anders. The launch was on September 12, 1966, with Pete Conrad and Dick Gordon on board, who successfully completed the mission objectives, while Armstrong served as CAPCOM.\n\nFollowing the flight, President Lyndon B. Johnson asked Armstrong and his wife to take part in a 24-day goodwill tour of South America. Also on the tour, which took in 11 countries and 14 major cities, were Dick Gordon, George Low, their wives, and other government officials. In Paraguay, Armstrong impressed dignitaries by greeting them in their local language, Guarani; in Brazil he talked about the exploits of the Brazilian-born Alberto Santos-Dumont, who was regarded as having beaten the Wright brothers with the first flying machine with his 14-bis. \n\nApollo program\n\nOn January 27, 1967, the date of the Apollo 1 fire, Armstrong was in Washington, D.C., with Gordon Cooper, Dick Gordon, Jim Lovell and Scott Carpenter for the signing of the United Nations Outer Space Treaty. The astronauts chatted with the assembled dignitaries until 6:45 p.m. when Carpenter went to the airport, and the others returned to the Georgetown Inn, where they each found messages to phone the Manned Spacecraft Center. During these telephone calls, they learned of the deaths of Gus Grissom, Ed White and Roger Chaffee. Armstrong and the group spent the rest of the night drinking scotch and discussing what had happened. \n\nOn April 5, 1967, the same day the Apollo 1 investigation released its report on the fire, Armstrong assembled with 17 other astronauts for a meeting with Deke Slayton. The first thing Slayton said was, \"The guys who are going to fly the first lunar missions are the guys in this room.\" According to Eugene Cernan, Armstrong showed no reaction to the statement. To Armstrong it came as no surprise—the room was full of veterans of Project Gemini, the only people who could fly the lunar missions. Slayton talked about the planned missions and named Armstrong to the backup crew for Apollo 9, which at that stage was planned to be a medium Earth orbit test of the Lunar Module-Command/Service Module combination. After design and manufacturing delays in the Lunar Module (LM), Apollo 9 and Apollo 8 swapped crews. Based on the normal crew rotation scheme, Armstrong would command Apollo 11. \n\nTo give the astronauts experience with how the LM would fly on its final landing descent, NASA commissioned Bell Aircraft to build two Lunar Landing Research Vehicles, later augmented with three Lunar Landing Training Vehicles (LLTV). Nicknamed the \"Flying Bedsteads\", they simulated the Moon's one-sixth of Earth's gravity by using a turbofan engine to support the remaining five-sixths of the craft's weight. On May 6, 1968, about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, Armstrong's controls started to degrade and the LLTV began banking. He ejected safely (later analysis suggested that if he had ejected half a second later, his parachute would not have opened in time). His only injury was from biting his tongue. Even though he was nearly killed, Armstrong maintained that without the LLRV and LLTV, the lunar landings would not have been successful, as they gave commanders valuable experience in the behavior of lunar landing craft. \n\nApollo 11\n\nAfter Armstrong served as backup commander for Apollo 8, Slayton offered him the post of commander of Apollo 11 on December 23, 1968, as Apollo 8 orbited the Moon. In a meeting that was not made public until the publication of Armstrong's biography in 2005, Slayton told him that although the planned crew was Armstrong as commander, lunar module pilot Buzz Aldrin and command module pilot Michael Collins, he was offering the chance to replace Aldrin with Jim Lovell. After thinking it over for a day, Armstrong told Slayton he would stick with Aldrin, as he had no difficulty working with him and thought Lovell deserved his own command. Replacing Aldrin with Lovell would have made Lovell the Lunar Module Pilot, unofficially the lowest ranked member, and Armstrong could not justify placing Lovell, the commander of Gemini 12, in the number 3 position of the crew. \n\nA March 1969 meeting between Slayton, George Low, Bob Gilruth, and Chris Kraft determined that Armstrong would be the first person on the Moon, in some part because NASA management saw Armstrong as a person who did not have a large ego. A press conference held on April 14, 1969, gave the design of the LM cabin as the reason for Armstrong's being first; the hatch opened inwards and to the right, making it difficult for the lunar module pilot, on the right-hand side, to exit first. Slayton added, \"Secondly, just on a pure protocol basis, I figured the commander ought to be the first guy out ... I changed it as soon as I found they had the time line that showed that. Bob Gilruth approved my decision.\" At the time of their meeting, the four men did not know about the hatch consideration. The first knowledge of the meeting outside the small group came when Kraft wrote his 2001 autobiography. \n\nOn July 16, 1969, Armstrong received a crescent Moon carved out of Styrofoam from the pad leader, Guenter Wendt, who described it as a key to the Moon. In return, Armstrong gave Wendt a ticket for a \"space taxi\" \"good between two planets\". \n\nVoyage to the Moon\n\nDuring the Apollo 11 launch, Armstrong's heart reached a top rate of 110 beats per minute. He found the first stage to be the loudest—much noisier than the Gemini 8 Titan II launch—and the Apollo CSM was relatively roomy compared to the Gemini capsule. This ability to move around was suspected to be the reason why none of the Apollo 11 crew suffered from space sickness, while members of previous crews did. Armstrong was especially happy, as he had been prone to motion sickness as a child and could experience nausea after doing long periods of aerobatics. \n\nThe objective of Apollo 11 was to land safely rather than to touch down with precision on a particular spot. Three minutes into the lunar descent burn, Armstrong noted that craters were passing about two seconds too early, which meant the Eagle would probably touch down beyond the planned landing zone by several miles. As the Eagles landing radar acquired the surface, several computer error alarms appeared. The first was a code 1202 alarm, and even with their extensive training, neither Armstrong nor Aldrin was aware of what this code meant. They promptly received word from CAPCOM Charles Duke in Houston that the alarms were not a concern; the 1202 and 1201 alarms were caused by an executive overflow in the lunar module computer. As described by Buzz Aldrin in the documentary In the Shadow of the Moon, the overflow condition was caused by his own counter-checklist choice of leaving the docking radar on during the landing process, so the computer had to process unnecessary radar data and did not have enough time to execute all tasks, dropping lower-priority ones. Aldrin stated that he did so with the objective of facilitating re-docking with the CM should an abort become necessary, not realizing that it would cause the overflow condition.\n\nWhen Armstrong noticed they were heading towards a landing area which he believed was unsafe, he took over manual control of the LM, and attempted to find an area which seemed safer, taking longer than expected, and longer than most simulations had taken. For this reason, there was concern from mission control that the LM was running low on fuel. Upon landing, Aldrin and Armstrong believed they had about 40 seconds worth of fuel left, including the 20 seconds worth of fuel which had to be saved in the event of an abort. During training, Armstrong had landed the LLTV with less than 15 seconds left on several occasions, and he was also confident the LM could survive a straight-down fall from 50 ft if needed. Analysis after the mission showed that at touchdown there were 45 to 50 seconds of propellant burn time left. \n\nThe landing on the surface of the Moon occurred several seconds after 20:17:40 UTC on July 20, 1969, at which time one of three 67 in-long probes attached to three of the Lunar Module's four legs made contact with the surface, a panel light inside the LM lit up, and Aldrin called out, \"Contact light.\" Armstrong shut the engine off and said, \"shutdown.\" As the LM settled onto the surface, Aldrin said, \"Okay. Engine stop\", then they both called out some post-landing checklist items. After a ten-second pause, Duke acknowledged the landing with, \"We copy you down, Eagle.\" Armstrong announced the landing to Mission Control and the world with the words, \"Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed.\" Aldrin and Armstrong celebrated with a brisk handshake and pat on the back before quickly returning to the checklist of tasks needed to ready the lunar module for liftoff from the Moon should an emergency unfold during the first moments on the lunar surface. After Armstrong had confirmed touch-down, Duke re-acknowledged, and expressed the flight controllers' anxiety: \"Roger, ... Tranquility. We copy you on the ground. You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue. We're breathing again. Thanks a lot.\" During the landing, Armstrong's heart rate, at one point, reached 160 beats per minute, according to the NASA Apollo 11 Mission Report.\n\nFirst Moon walk\n\nAlthough the official NASA flight plan called for a crew rest period before extra-vehicular activity, Armstrong requested that the EVA be moved to earlier in the evening, Houston time. Once Armstrong and Aldrin were ready to go outside, Eagle was depressurized, the hatch was opened and Armstrong made his way down the ladder first.\n\nAt the bottom of the ladder Armstrong said, \"I'm going to step off the LEM now\" (referring to the Apollo Lunar Module). He then turned and set his left boot on the lunar surface at 2:56 UTC July 21, 1969, then spoke the famous words, \"That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind.\" \n\nArmstrong prepared his famous epigram on his own. In a post-flight press conference, he said that he decided on the words \"just prior to leaving the LM [lunar module].\" In a 1983 interview in Esquire Magazine, Armstrong explained to George Plimpton: \"I always knew there was a good chance of being able to return to Earth, but I thought the chances of a successful touchdown on the moon surface were about even money—fifty–fifty ... Most people don't realize how difficult the mission was. So it didn't seem to me there was much point in thinking of something to say if we'd have to abort landing.\" In 2012, brother Dean Armstrong claimed that Neil had shown him a note with a draft of the line months before the launch, although historian Andrew Chaikin, who had interviewed the astronaut in 1988 for his book A Man on the Moon, disputed that he had ever claimed coming up with the line spontaneously during the mission. \n\nRecordings of Armstrong's transmission do not evidence the indefinite article \"a\" before \"man\", though NASA and Armstrong insisted for years that static had obscured it. Armstrong stated he would never make such a mistake, but after repeated listenings to recordings, he eventually admitted he must have dropped the \"a\". He later said he \"would hope that history would grant me leeway for dropping the syllable and understand that it was certainly intended, even if it was not said—although it might actually have been\". \n\nIt has since been claimed that acoustic analysis of the recording reveals the presence of the missing \"a\"; Peter Shann Ford, an Australia-based computer programmer, conducted a digital audio analysis and claims that Armstrong did, in fact, say \"a man\", but the \"a\" was inaudible due to the limitations of communications technology of the time. Ford and James R. Hansen, Armstrong's authorized biographer, presented these findings to Armstrong and NASA representatives, who conducted their own analysis. Armstrong found Ford's analysis \"persuasive.\" However, the article by Ford was published on Ford's own web site rather than in a peer-reviewed scientific journal, and linguists David Beaver and Mark Liberman wrote of their skepticism of Ford's claims on the blog Language Log. Thus, NASA's transcript continues to show the \"a\" in parentheses. \n\nWhen Armstrong made his proclamation, Voice of America was rebroadcast live via the BBC and many other stations worldwide. The estimated global audience at that moment was 450 million listeners, out of a then estimated world population of 3.631 billion people. \n\nAbout 20 minutes after the first step, Aldrin joined Armstrong on the surface and became the second human to set foot on the Moon, and the duo began their tasks of investigating how easily a person could operate on the lunar surface. Early on, they unveiled a plaque commemorating their flight, and also planted the flag of the United States. The flag used on this mission had a metal rod to hold it horizontal from its pole. Since the rod did not fully extend, and the flag was tightly folded and packed during the journey, the flag ended up with a slightly wavy appearance, as if there were a breeze. Shortly after their flag planting, President Richard Nixon spoke to them by a telephone call from his office. The President spoke for about a minute, after which Armstrong responded for about thirty seconds. \n\nIn the entire Apollo 11 photographic record, there are only five images of Armstrong partly shown or reflected. The mission was planned to the minute, with the majority of photographic tasks to be performed by Armstrong with a single Hasselblad camera. \n\nAfter helping to set up the Early Apollo Scientific Experiment Package, Armstrong went for a walk to what is now known as East Crater, 65 yd east of the LM, the greatest distance traveled from the LM on the mission. Armstrong's final task was to remind Aldrin to leave a small package of memorial items to deceased Soviet cosmonauts Yuri Gagarin and Vladimir Komarov, and Apollo 1 astronauts Gus Grissom, Ed White and Roger B. Chaffee. The time spent on EVA during Apollo 11 was about two and a half hours, the shortest of any of the six Apollo lunar landing missions; each of the subsequent five landings were allotted gradually longer periods for EVA activities—the crew of Apollo 17, by comparison, spent over 22 hours exploring the lunar surface.\n\nIn a 2010 interview, Armstrong explained that NASA limited his Moon walk to two hours because they were unsure how the spacesuits would handle the extreme temperature of the Moon. \n\nIn 2013, Popular Science's photo gallery included a photo that Armstrong took of Aldrin but his own image is visible on Aldrin's helmet as one of the best astronaut selfies. \n\nReturn to Earth\n\nAfter they re-entered the LM, the hatch was closed and sealed. While preparing for the liftoff from the lunar surface, Armstrong and Aldrin discovered that, in their bulky spacesuits, they had broken the ignition switch for the ascent engine; using part of a pen, they pushed the circuit breaker in to activate the launch sequence. The lunar module then continued to its rendezvous and docked with Columbia, the command and service module. The three astronauts returned to Earth and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean, to be picked up by the . \n\nAfter being released from an 18-day quarantine to ensure that they had not picked up any infections or diseases from the Moon, the crew were feted across the United States and around the world as part of a 45-day \"Giant Leap\" tour. Armstrong then took part in Bob Hope's 1969 USO show, primarily to Vietnam. \n\nLater from October 29–31, 1969 he and the rest of the Apollo 11 astronauts visited the city of Tehran, capital of Iran, where he met Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and the rest of the nation's royal family.\n\nIn May 1970, Armstrong traveled to the Soviet Union to present a talk at the 13th annual conference of the International Committee on Space Research; after arriving in Leningrad from Poland, he traveled to Moscow where he met Premier Alexei Kosygin. He was the first westerner to see the supersonic Tupolev Tu-144 and was given a tour of the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center, which Armstrong described as \"a bit Victorian in nature\". At the end of the day, he was surprised to view delayed video of the launch of Soyuz 9—it had not occurred to Armstrong that the mission was taking place, even though Valentina Tereshkova had been his host and her husband, Andriyan Nikolayev, was on board. \n\nLife after Apollo\n\nTeaching\n\nArmstrong announced shortly after the Apollo 11 flight that he did not plan to fly in space again. He was appointed Deputy Associate Administrator for aeronautics for the Office of Advanced Research and Technology, Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), but served in this position for only a year, and resigned from it and NASA as a whole in 1971. \n\nHe accepted a teaching position in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at the University of Cincinnati, having decided on Cincinnati over other universities, including his alma mater, Purdue, because it had a small aerospace department; he hoped that the faculty members would not be annoyed that he came straight into a professorship with only the USC master's degree. He began the work while stationed at Edwards years before, and finally completed it after Apollo 11 by presenting a report on various aspects of Apollo, instead of a thesis on the simulation of hypersonic flight. The official job title he received at Cincinnati was University Professor of Aerospace Engineering. After teaching for eight years, he resigned in 1979 without explaining his reason for leaving. \n\nNASA accident investigations\n\nArmstrong served on two spaceflight accident investigations. The first was in 1970, after Apollo 13, where as part of Edgar Cortright's panel, he produced a detailed chronology of the flight. Armstrong opposed the report's recommendation to re-design the service module's oxygen tanks, the source of the explosion. In 1986, President Ronald Reagan appointed him to the Rogers Commission which investigated the Space-shuttle Challenger disaster of that year. As vice-chairman, Armstrong was in charge of the operational side of the commission. \n\nBusiness activities\n\nAfter Armstrong retired from NASA in 1971, he acted as a spokesman for several businesses. The first company to successfully approach him was Chrysler, for whom he appeared in advertising starting in January 1979. Armstrong thought they had a strong engineering division, plus they were in financial difficulty. He later acted as a spokesman for other companies, including General Time Corporation and the Bankers Association of America. He acted as a spokesman for U.S. businesses only. \n\nAlong with spokesman duties, he also served on the board of directors of several companies, including Marathon Oil, Learjet, Cinergy (Cincinnati Gas & Electric Company), Taft Broadcasting, United Airlines, Eaton Corporation, AIL Systems and Thiokol. He joined Thiokol's board after he served on the Rogers Commission; the Space Shuttle Challenger was destroyed due to a problem with the Thiokol-manufactured solid rocket boosters. He retired as chairman of the board of EDO Corporation in 2002. \n\nNorth Pole expedition \n\nIn 1985, professional expedition leader Mike Dunn organized a trip to take the then \"greatest explorers\" to the North Pole. The group included Armstrong, Edmund Hillary, Hillary's son Peter, Steve Fossett, and Patrick Morrow, and arrived on April 6, 1985. Armstrong said he was curious to see what the North Pole looked like from ground level, as he'd only seen it from the Moon. \n\nTelevision and film\n\nIn 2010, he voiced the character of Dr. Jack Morrow in Quantum Quest: A Cassini Space Odyssey, a 2010 animated educational sci-fi adventure film initiated by JPL/NASA through a grant from Jet Propulsion Lab. Between 1991 and 1993, he hosted First Flights with Neil Armstrong, an aviation history documentary series on A&E. \n\nPersonal life\n\nUnlike former astronauts who actively sought political careers after leaving NASA (such as U.S. Senators John Glenn (D-OH, 1974–1999) and Harrison Schmitt (R-NM, 1977–1983)), Armstrong was approached by political groups from both parties, but declined all offers. He described his political leanings as favoring states' rights and opposing the United States acting as the \"world's policeman\". \n\nIn the late 1950s, Armstrong applied at a local Methodist church to lead a Boy Scout troop. When asked for his religious affiliation, he labeled himself as a deist. His mother later said that Armstrong's religious views caused her grief and distress in later life as she was more religious. His official biography also describes him as a deist.\n\nIn 1972, Armstrong was welcomed into the town of Langholm, Scotland, the traditional seat of Clan Armstrong; he was made the first freeman of the burgh, and happily declared the town his home. The Justice of the Peace read from an unrepealed 400-year-old law that required him to hang any Armstrong found in the town. \n\nIn the fall of 1979, Armstrong was working at his farm near Lebanon, Ohio. As he jumped off of the back of his grain truck, his wedding ring caught in the wheel, tearing off the tip of his ring finger. He collected the severed digit and packed it in ice, and surgeons reattached it at the Jewish Hospital in Louisville, Kentucky. In February 1991, a year after his father had died, and nine months after the death of his mother, he suffered a mild heart attack while skiing with friends at Aspen, Colorado. \n\nArmstrong married his first wife Janet Shearon on January 28, 1956. Their first son Eric was born in 1957, followed by daughter, Karen, in 1959. Karen died of a brain tumor in January 1962, and the couple's second son Mark was born in 1963. Armstrong's first wife, Janet, divorced him in 1994, after 38 years of marriage. He had met his second wife, Carol Held Knight (b. 1945), in 1992 at a golf tournament, where they were seated together at the breakfast table. She said little to Armstrong, but two weeks later she received a call from him asking what she was doing—she replied she was cutting down a cherry tree; 35 minutes later Armstrong was at her house to help out. They were married on June 12, 1994, in Ohio, and then had a second ceremony, at San Ysidro Ranch, in California. He lived in Indian Hill, Ohio. \n\nArmstrong is generally referred to as a \"reluctant\" American Hero. John Glenn, the first American to orbit Earth, recalled Armstrong's legendary humility. \"He didn't feel that he should be out huckstering himself,\" the former Ohio senator told CNN. \"He was a humble person, and that's the way he remained after his lunar flight, as well as before.\" After 1994, Armstrong refused all requests for autographs because he found that his signed items were selling for large amounts of money and that many forgeries were in circulation; any requests that were sent to him received a form letter in reply, saying that he had stopped signing. Although his no-autograph policy was well known, author Andrew Smith observed people at the 2002 Reno Air Races still trying to get signatures, with one person even claiming, \"If you shove something close enough in front of his face, he'll sign.\" He also stopped sending out congratulatory letters to new Eagle Scouts, because he believed these letters should come from people who know the Scouts personally. \n\nUse of Armstrong's name, image, and famous quote caused him problems over the years. MTV wanted to use his quote for its now-famous identity depicting the Apollo 11 landing when it launched in 1981, but he refused. Armstrong sued Hallmark Cards in 1994 after they used his name and a recording of the \"one small step\" quote in a Christmas ornament without permission. The lawsuit was settled out of court for an undisclosed amount of money which Armstrong donated to Purdue. \n\nIn May 2005, Armstrong became involved in an unusual legal dispute with his barber of 20 years, Mark Sizemore. After cutting Armstrong's hair, Sizemore sold some of it to a collector for $3,000 without Armstrong's knowledge or permission. Armstrong threatened legal action against Sizemore unless he returned the hair or donated the proceeds to a charity of Armstrong's choosing. Sizemore, unable to retrieve the hair, decided to donate the proceeds to the charity of Armstrong's choice. \n\nSince the early 1980s, Armstrong has been the subject of a hoax saying that he converted to Islam after hearing the adhan, the Muslim call to prayer, while walking on the Moon. The Indonesian singer Suhaemi wrote a song called \"Gema Suara Adzan di Bulan\" (\"The Resonant Sound of the Call to Prayer on the Moon\") which described Armstrong's conversion; the song was discussed widely in various Jakarta news outlets in 1983. Other similar hoax stories were seen in Egypt and Malaysia. In March 1983, the U.S. State Department responded by issuing a global message to Muslims saying that Armstrong \"has not converted to Islam\".Hansen 2005, pp. 630–631. However, the hoax was not completely quieted; it surfaced occasionally for the next three decades. A part of the confusion stems from the similarity between Armstrong's American residence in Lebanon, Ohio, and the country Lebanon which has a majority population of Muslims. \n\nIllness and death\n\nArmstrong underwent vascular bypass surgery on August 7, 2012, to relieve blocked coronary arteries. Although he was reportedly recovering well, he developed complications in the hospital and died on August 25, in Cincinnati, Ohio. After his death, Armstrong was described, in a statement released by the White House, as \"among the greatest of American heroes—not just of his time, but of all time\". The statement further said that Armstrong had carried the aspirations of the United States' citizens and that he had delivered \"a moment of human achievement that will never be forgotten.\" \n\nHis family released a statement describing Armstrong as a \"reluctant American hero [who had] served his nation proudly, as a navy fighter pilot, test pilot, and astronaut ... While we mourn the loss of a very good man, we also celebrate his remarkable life and hope that it serves as an example to young people around the world to work hard to make their dreams come true, to be willing to explore and push the limits, and to selflessly serve a cause greater than themselves. For those who may ask what they can do to honor Neil, we have a simple request. Honor his example of service, accomplishment and modesty, and the next time you walk outside on a clear night and see the moon smiling down at you, think of Neil Armstrong and give him a wink.\" This prompted many responses, including the Twitter hashtag \"#WinkAtTheMoon\". \n\nArmstrong's colleague on the Apollo 11 mission, Buzz Aldrin, said that he was \"deeply saddened by the passing. I know I am joined by millions of others in mourning the passing of a true American hero and the best pilot I ever knew. I had truly hoped that on July 20th, 2019, Neil, Mike and I would be standing together to commemorate the 50th Anniversary of our moon landing ... Regrettably, this is not to be.\" Apollo 11 Command Module pilot Michael Collins said, of Armstrong, \"He was the best, and I will miss him terribly.\" NASA Administrator Charles Bolden said that: \"As long as there are history books, Neil Armstrong will be included in them, remembered for taking humankind's first small step on a world beyond our own\". \n\nA tribute was held in Armstrong's honor on September 13 at Washington National Cathedral, whose Space Window depicts the Apollo 11 mission and holds a sliver of Moon rock amid its stained-glass panels. In attendance were Armstrong's Apollo 11 crewmates, Michael Collins and Buzz Aldrin; Eugene A. Cernan, the Apollo 17 mission commander and last man to walk on the Moon; and former Senator and astronaut John Glenn, the first American to orbit the Earth. In a eulogy, Charles Bolden said, \"Neil will always be remembered for taking humankind's first small step on a world beyond our own, but it was the courage, grace, and humility he displayed throughout this life that lifted him above the stars.\" Eugene Cernan recalled Armstrong's low-fuel approach to the Moon: \"When the gauge says empty we all know there's a gallon or two left in the tank!\" Diana Krall sang the song \"Fly Me to the Moon\". Michael Collins led prayers. Aldrin and Collins left immediately after the event. The Apollo 15 commander, David Scott, spoke to the press; he recalled the Gemini 8 mission with Armstrong when he spoke, possibly for the first time, about an incident in which glue spilled on his harness and prevented it from locking correctly minutes before the hatch had to be sealed or the mission aborted. Armstrong then called on back-up pilot Pete Conrad to solve the problem, which he did, to continue the mission without stopping the countdown clock. \"That happened because Neil Armstrong was a team player, he always worked on behalf of the team.\" \n\nOn September 14, Armstrong's cremated remains were scattered in the Atlantic Ocean during a burial-at-sea ceremony aboard the . Flags were flown at half-staff on the day of Armstrong's funeral. \n\nLegacy\n\nArmstrong received many honors and awards, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the Congressional Space Medal of Honor, the Robert H. Goddard Memorial Trophy, the Sylvanus Thayer Award, the Collier Trophy from the National Aeronautics Association, and the Congressional Gold Medal. The lunar crater Armstrong, 31 mi (50 km) from the Apollo 11 landing site, and asteroid 6469 Armstrong are named in his honor. Armstrong was also inducted into the Aerospace Walk of Honor, the National Aviation Hall of Fame, and the United States Astronaut Hall of Fame. Armstrong and his Apollo 11 crewmates were the 1999 recipients of the Langley Gold Medal from the Smithsonian Institution.\n\nThroughout the United States, there are more than a dozen elementary, middle and high schools named in his honor, and many places around the world have streets, buildings, schools, and other places named for Armstrong and/or Apollo. In 1969, folk songwriter and singer John Stewart recorded \"Armstrong\", a tribute to Armstrong and his first steps on the Moon. Purdue University announced in October 2004 that its new engineering building would be named Neil Armstrong Hall of Engineering in his honor; the building cost $53.2 million and was dedicated on October 27, 2007, during a ceremony at which Armstrong was joined by fourteen other Purdue Astronauts. In 1971, Armstrong was awarded the Sylvanus Thayer Award by the United States Military Academy at West Point for his service to the country. The Armstrong Air and Space Museum, in Armstong's hometown of Wapakoneta, Ohio, and the airport in New Knoxville, where he took his first flying lessons when he was fifteen, were named after him. \n\nArmstrong's authorized biography, First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong, was published in 2005. For many years, Armstrong turned down biography offers from authors such as Stephen Ambrose and James A. Michener, but agreed to work with James R. Hansen after reading one of Hansen's other biographies. \n\nIn a 2010 Space Foundation survey, Armstrong was ranked as the #1 most popular space hero, and in 2013, Flying magazine ranked him at #1 on its list of the \"51 Heroes of Aviation\". \n\nThe press often asked Armstrong for his views on the future of spaceflight. In 2005, Armstrong said that a manned mission to Mars will be easier than the lunar challenge of the 1960s: \"I suspect that even though the various questions are difficult and many, they are not as difficult and many as those we faced when we started the Apollo [space program] in 1961.\" In 2010, he made a rare public criticism of the decision to cancel the Ares 1 launch vehicle and the Constellation Moon landing program. \nIn an open public letter also signed by Apollo veterans Jim Lovell and Gene Cernan, he noted, \"For The United States, the leading space faring nation for nearly half a century, to be without carriage to low Earth orbit and with no human exploration capability to go beyond Earth orbit for an indeterminate time into the future, destines our nation to become one of second or even third rate stature\". Armstrong had also publicly recalled his initial concerns about the Apollo 11 mission, when he had believed there was only a 50 percent chance of landing on the Moon. \"I was elated, ecstatic and extremely surprised that we were successful\", he later said. \n\nOn November 18, 2010, at age 80, Armstrong said in a speech during the Science & Technology Summit in The Hague, Netherlands, that he would offer his services as commander on a mission to Mars if he were asked. \n\nIn September 2012, the US Navy announced that the first is named RV Neil Armstrong. The ship, christened on March 28, 2014, was launched on March 29, 2014, passed sea trials August 7, 2015 and delivered to the Navy on September 23, 2015. It is a modern oceanographic research platform capable of supporting a wide range of oceanographic research activities conducted by academic groups. \n\nThe Space Foundation named Neil Armstrong as a recipient of its 2013 General James E. Hill Lifetime Space Achievement Award." ] }

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The horizon seems quite close to you because the curvature is so much more pronounced than here on earth. It's an interesting place to be. I recommend it.\"[Describing the moon.]”\n“That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.”\n“America is respected for its contributions it has made in learning to sail on this new ocean. If the leadership we have acquired through our investment is simply allowed to fade away, other nations will surely step in where we have faltered. I do not believe that would be in our best interests.”\n“The exciting part for me, as a pilot, was the landing on the moon.”\n“A century hence, 2000 may be viewed as quite a primitive period in human history. It's something to hope for.”\n“There are great ideas undiscovered, breakthroughs available to those who can remove one of truth's protective layers. There are places to go beyond belief.”\n“I think we're going to the moon because it's in the nature of the human being to face challenges. It's by the nature of his deep inner soul. We're required to do these things just as salmon swim upstream.”\n“Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed.”\n“Neil was among the greatest of American heroes--not just of his time, but of all time.”\n“My friend Neil took the small step but giant leap that changed the world and will forever be remembered as a landmark moment in human history.”\n—Neil Armstrong\nNeil Armstrong - Mini Biography (TV-14; 4:03) Neil Armstrong joined the organization that would become NASA in 1962 and was command pilot for his first mission, Gemini VIII, in 1966. He was spacecraft commander for Apollo 11 and the first man to walk on the moon.\nSynopsis\nNeil Armstrong was born in Wapakoneta, Ohio, on August 5, 1930. After serving in the Korean War and then finishing college, he joined the organization that would become NASA. He joined the astronaut program in 1962 and was command pilot for his first mission, Gemini VIII, in 1966. He was spacecraft commander for Apollo 11, the first manned lunar mission, and became the first man to walk on the moon. He died in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 2012.\nMilitary Service\nAstronaut Neil Armstrong developed a fascination with flight at an early age and earned his student pilot's license when he was 16. In 1947, Armstrong began his studies in aeronautical engineering at Purdue University on a U.S. Navy scholarship.\nIn 1949, as part of his scholarship, Armstrong trained as a pilot in the Navy and two years later, served in the Korean War. He flew 78 combat missions during this military conflict. He left the service in 1952, and returned to college. A few years later, Armstrong joined the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), which later became the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). For this government agency he worked in a number of different capacities, including serving as a test pilot and an engineer. He tested many high-speed aircraft, including the X-15, which could reach a top speed of 4,000 miles per hour.\nAstronaut Program\nIn his personal life, Armstrong started to settle down. He married Janet Shearon on January 28, 1956. The couple soon added to their family. Son Eric arrived in 1957, followed daughter Karen in 1959. Sadly, Karen died of complications related to an inoperable brain tumor in January 1962. The following year, the Armstrongs welcomed their third child, son Mark.\nThat same year, Armstrong joined the astronaut program. He and his family moved to Houston, Texas, and Armstrong served as the command pilot for his first mission, Gemini VIII. He and fellow astronaut David Scott were launched into the earth's orbit on March 16, 1966. While in orbit, they were able to briefly dock their space capsule with the Gemini Agena target vehicle. This was the first time two vehicles had successfully docked in space. During this maneuver, however, they experienced some problems and had to cut their mission short. They landed in the Pacific Ocean nearly 11 hours after the mission's start, and were later rescued by the U.S.S. Mason.\nMoon Landing\nArmstrong faced an even bigger challenge in 1969. Along with Michael Collins and Edwin E. \"Buzz\" Aldrin, he was part of NASA's first manned mission to the moon. The trio were launched into space on July 16, 1969. Serving as the mission's commander, Armstrong piloted the Lunar Module to the moon's surface on July 20, 1969, with Buzz Aldrin aboard. Collins remained on the Command Module.\nAt 10:56 PM, Armstrong exited the Lunar Module. He said, \"That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind,\" as he made his famous first step on the moon. For about two and a half hours, Armstrong and Aldrin collected samples and conducted experiments. They also took photographs, including their own footprints.\nReturning on July 24, 1969, the Apollo 11 craft came down in the Pacific Ocean west of Hawaii. The crew and the craft were picked up by the U.S.S. Hornet, and the three astronauts were put into quarantine for three weeks.\nBefore long, the three Apollo 11 astronauts were given a warm welcome home. Crowds lined the streets of New York City to cheer on the famous heroes who were honored in a ticker-tape parade. Armstrong received numerous awards for his efforts, including the Medal of Freedom and the Congressional Space Medal of Honor.\nLater Contributions\nArmstrong remained with NASA, serving as deputy associate administrator for aeronautics until 1971. After leaving NASA, he joined the faculty of the University of Cincinnati as a professor of aerospace engineering. Armstrong remained at the university for eight years. Staying active in his field, he served as the chairman of Computing Technologies for Aviation, Inc., from 1982 to 1992.\nHelping out at a difficult time, Armstrong served as vice chairman of the Presidential Commission on the space shuttle Challenger accident in 1986. The commission investigated the explosion of the Challenger on January 28, 1986, which took the lives of its crew, including school teacher Christa McAuliffe.\nDeath & Legacy\nDespite being one of the most famous astronauts in history, Armstrong largely shied away from the public eye. He gave a rare interview to the news program 60 Minutes in 2005. He described the moon to interviewer Ed Bradley, saying \"It's a brilliant surface in that sunlight. The horizon seems quite close to you because the curvature is so much more pronounced than here on earth. It's an interesting place to be. I recommend it.\" That same year, his authorized biography came out. First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong was written by James R. Hansen, who conducted interviews with Armstrong, his family, and his friends and associates.\nEven in his final years, Armstrong remained committed to space exploration. The press-shy astronaut returned to the spotlight in 2010 to express his concerns over changes made to the U.S. space program. He testified in Congress against President Barack Obama's decision to cancel the Constellation program, which included another mission to the moon. Obama also sought to encourage private companies to get involved in the space travel business and to move forward with more unmanned space missions.\nTaking this new decision, Armstrong said, would cost the United States its leadership position in space exploration. \"America is respected for its contributions it has made in learning to sail on this new ocean. If the leadership we have acquired through our investment is simply allowed to fade away, other nations will surely step in where we have faltered. I do not believe that would be in our best interests,\" he told Congress, according to a report on NewsHour.\nArmstrong underwent a heart bypass operation in August 2012. A few weeks later, on August 25, 2012, at the age of 82, Neil Armstrong died of complications resulting from cardiovascular procedures in Cincinnati, Ohio. He was survived by his second wife, Carol, in Indian Hill, Ohio, and his two sons from his first marriage. He and his first wife divorced in 1994.\nShortly after his death, his family released a statement: \"For those who may ask what they can do to honor Neil, we have a simple request. Honor his example of service, accomplishment and modesty, and the next time you walk outside on a clear night and see the moon smiling down at you, think of Neil Armstrong and give him a wink.\"\nNews of Armstrong's death quickly spread around the world. President Obama was among those offering their condolences to his family and sharing their remembrances of the late space pioneer. \"Neil was among the greatest of American heroes—not just of his time, but of all time,\" Obama said, according to the Los Angeles Times. His Apollo 11 colleague Buzz Aldrin said that \"I know I am joined by millions of others in mourning the passing of a true American hero and the best pilot I ever knew. My friend Neil took the small step but giant leap that changed the world and will forever be remembered as a landmark moment in human history,\" according to CBS News.\nVideos", "'Neil Armstrong' recalls the astronaut, pilot, and man - CSMonitor.com\n'Neil Armstrong' recalls the astronaut, pilot, and man\nLatest News\nNeil Armstrong: A Life of Flight\nby Jay Barbree,\nView Caption\nof\nWith all that has been written about the late Neil Armstrong , including an award-winning biography by Auburn University historian James Hansen, is there really room for another book?\nSit back, put up your feet, and spend some time with Neil Armstrong: A Life of Flight, by Jay Barbree, NBC’s longtime space correspondent, who has covered the US manned spaceflight program for more than half a century.\nTo be sure, this is not the definitive, footnote-packed Armstrong biography. Instead, this book has the feel of sitting down with Barbree at a barbeque for an extended conversation. Barbree’s narrative unfolds with a particular eye toward Armstrong’s mastery of the machines he would come to fly, from F9Fs as a Navy carrier pilot during the Korean War and NASA’s X-15 to the ungainly lunar landing training vehicle and Apollo’s Lunar Excursion Module itself.\nIndeed, flying is a passion that Barbree and Armstrong shared, although Barbree acknowledges that “as a pilot, I couldn’t carry Neil Armstrong’s lunchbox.”\nRecommended: Famous opening lines: Take our literature quiz\nDrawing on decades of notes, recorded interviews, and e-mails with Armstrong as well as a range of astronauts and key players in launch and mission controls, Barbree begins his account with Armstrong’s service flying F9F jets off the aircraft carrier USS Essex during the Korean War and a mission that nearly cost Armstrong his life.\nWhat are you reading? Tell us about the book that's currenly on your bedside table.\nDuring a bombing and strafing run in a narrow river valley, an antiaircraft cable the North Koreans had strung across the valley sliced off the outer six to eight feet of Armstrong’s right wing. Armstrong, who had earned a pilot’s license before he had a driver’s license, nearly augered in before he regained control and climbed out of the valley.\nThe near-crash prompted the relieved Armstrong to remind himself that “20 feet above the ground is no place to be at 350 knots.” Under the care of his wingman, Armstrong nursed the craft back over friendly territory, where he safely ejected.\nWhat seemed to set Armstrong apart was a passion for flight that motivated him to earn an aeronautical engineering degree from Purdue University in West Lafayette, Ind., courtesy of the US Navy, and set as his initial goal a career as a test pilot. And he displayed a coolness in times of apparent crisis, engendered by  intensive preparation and a deep understanding of the machines he was flying.\nBarbree’s account of Armstrong’s successful battle with an out-of-control Gemini 8 capsule, spinning ever faster because of a malfunctioning thruster, is one of several instances in which he fills in details about the risks encountered during the run-up to the Apollo 11 mission.\nHis recounting of the Apollo 1 launchpad fire, which killed three astronauts, through the historic mission Armstrong undertook with Buzz Aldrin and Mike Collins, runs at a crisp pace, with occasional flashes of near-poetry.\nFollowing his narrative of the landing, Barbree writes: “They had indeed landed on a dead world. A land that had never known the caress of seas, never felt life stirring in its soil, never felt the smallest leaf drift to its surface.... They were on a world where a thermonuclear fireball would sound no louder than a falling snowflake.”\nThe prose reflects an appreciation for life and animation born of tragedy that Armstrong and Barbree shared – both their families were confronted with the death of young children. In addition, Barbree survived a heart attack in 1987, one that left him declared clinically dead for several minutes, according to his recounting of the event.\nAfter the shuttle program ended following the second of two tragedies – Challenger and Columbia, which collectively cost the lives of 14 astronauts to lax technical oversight, the result of a creeping willingness to accept dodged bullets as a new normal – both men expressed severe frustration at the unwillingness of successive US administrations and Congresses to fully support with money as well as words a consistent vision for the US human spaceflight program that leads back to the moon and on to explorations of Mars.\nThrough the years, the two men became close friends, a relationship that is apparent throughout the narrative. Yet, in many ways, this book is as much Barbree’s effort to chronicle the trajectory of the human spaceflight program as it is a remembrance of Armstrong’s contributions during and after his time as an astronaut.\nAs someone who has covered every US human spaceflight launch, Barbree ends with a not-so subtle sense that another countdown clock is ticking. “Rest in peace, my good man,” he writes to Armstrong who died in 2012. “We’ll be along directly.”\nUm, Jay? We may still have some built-in holds scheduled.\nPete Spotts is a Monitor staff writer and science reporter.\nNext up\nGet the Monitor stories you care about delivered to your inbox.\nDaily", "Neil Armstrong: War Veteran, Test Pilot, Educator, Explorer – Now a part of history |\nBy Steve Wiggins  | August 26, 2012 | Filed under: News\nNeil Armstrong\nPhoto:Molly Riley/Reuters\nMillions of us were saddened when word of the death of Neil Armstrong, the first human to set foot on another world, flashed around the Third Rock From the Sun Saturday. Armstrong died from complications of recent cardiac surgery. He was 82.\nBefore becoming an astronaut, Armstrong was an officer in the U.S. Navy and served his country in the Korean War. after Korea, he became a test pilot. among the high performance craft Armstrong flew, was the famous, near-hypersonic, Bell X-15, which he piloted to the edge of space. His first spaceflight was NASA’s Gemini 8 in 1966, in which he and co-pilot David Scott performed the first manned docking of two spacecraft.\nHis next, and final mission to space was the Apollo 11 moon landing in July 1969. On this mission, Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin descended to the lunar surface and spent 2½ hours exploring, while Michael Collinsremained in orbit in the Command Module. Armstrong was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by PresidentRichard Nixon along with Collins and Aldrin, the Congressional Space Medal of Honor by President Jimmy Carter in 1978, and the Congressional Gold Medal in 2009.\nNASA Administrator Charlie Bolden\nNASA Administrator, Charlie Bolden, a former astronaut himself, issued this statement:\n“On behalf of the entire NASA family, I would like to express my deepest condolences to Carol and the rest of the Armstrong family on the passing of Neil Armstrong. As long as there are history books, Neil Armstrong will be included in them, remembered for taking humankind’s first small step on a world beyond our own.\n“Besides being one of America’s greatest explorers, Neil carried himself with a grace and humility that was an example to us all. When President Kennedy challenged the nation to send a human to the moon, Neil Armstrong accepted without reservation.\n“As we enter this next era of space exploration, we do so standing on the shoulders of Neil Armstrong. We mourn the passing of a friend, fellow astronaut and true American hero.”\nOn Saturday, Armstrong’s family issued this statement through NASA:\n“We are heartbroken to share the news that Neil Armstrong has passed away following complications resulting from cardiovascular procedures. \nNeil was our loving husband, father, grandfather, brother and friend. \nNeil Armstrong was also a reluctant American hero who always believed he was just doing his job. He served his Nation proudly, as a navy fighter pilot, test pilot, and astronaut. He also found success back home in his native Ohio in business and academia, and became a community leader in Cincinnati.  \nHe remained an advocate of aviation and exploration throughout his life and never lost his boyhood wonder of these pursuits.  \nAs much as Neil cherished his privacy, he always appreciated the expressions of good will from people around the world and from all walks of life.  \nWhile we mourn the loss of a very good man, we also celebrate his remarkable life and hope that it serves as an example to young people around the world to work hard to make their dreams come true, to be willing to explore and push the limits, and to selflessly serve a cause greater than themselves.  \nFor those who may ask what they can do to honor Neil, we have a simple request. Honor his example of service, accomplishment and modesty, and the next time you walk outside on a clear night and see the moon smiling down at you, think of Neil Armstrong and give him a wink.”\nNeil Armstrong and Rep. Brooks before a hearing of the House Committee on\nScience, Space, and Technology on the future of human spaceflight, September 22, 2011.\nCongressman Mo Brooks of the 5th Congressional District had this to say about Armstrong’s passing:\n“I am deeply saddened by Astronaut Neil Armstrong’s passing. Armstrong will always hold a special place in history and in the hearts of the many North Alabamians whose work at NASA created the Saturn V rocket that carried the Apollo 11 crew into space. Today we remember Armstrong’s humble spirit, dedicated service to our country, and quest to push the boundaries of human knowledge.\n “I will always treasure the opportunity I had to meet Neil Armstrong when he testified before the House Science, Space, and Technology Committee, and I will always remember Armstrong’s concern that America’s exceptional manned spaceflight capabilities are in jeopardy.\n “Neil Armstrong was an American hero, and we can best honor his memory by continuing the mission of human exploration in space.”\nNeil Armstrong and Family in 1969", "Farewell Neil Armstrong, the Ultimate Test Pilot | WIRED\nFarewell Neil Armstrong, the Ultimate Test Pilot\nsubscribe\n6 months for $5 - plus a FREE Portable\nPhone Charger.\n9 hours\nSometimes to get a clearer sense of reality, you have to take some time to dream: bit.ly/2hERaZn\nAuthor: Jason Paur. Jason Paur Science\nDate of Publication: 08.25.12.\nTime of Publication: 6:25 pm.\n6:25 pm\nFarewell Neil Armstrong, the Ultimate Test Pilot\nNeil Armstrong with the North American X-15 rocket powered airplane after landing on a dry lakebed. Armstrong flew the X-15 seven times reaching a top speed of 3,989 miles per hour. Photo: NASA\nNeil Armstrong — who has died at the age of 82 — was best known as the commander of Apollo 11, but his career at NASA began nearly a decade earlier as a research test pilot.\nA trained aerospace engineer, Armstrong was a self-described “white-socks, pocket-protector, nerdy engineer” who worked at the cutting edge of flight test throughout the 1960s, flying everything from a hang-glider type aircraft towed behind a biplane, to a hypersonic rocket-powered airplane that flew to the edge of space.\nNeil Armstrong was born in Wapakoneta, Ohio and first began building model airplanes while in elementary school. He told biographer James Hansen he initially wanted to be an airplane designer, but “later went into piloting because I thought a good designer ought to know the operational aspects of an airplane.”\nThe future astronaut soloed an airplane just a few weeks after his sixteenth birthday. Before being selected as an astronaut, Armstrong was a naval aviator flying F9F Panther fighter jets in the Korean War. After the war, he became a research pilot for the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, the predecessor to NASA. While a research pilot NACA and later NASA, he flew the rocket powered Bell X-1B and the North American X-15 along with a wide variety of jet and propeller aircraft totaling more than 200 different types.\nDuring his time in the X-15 program , Armstrong demonstrated his engineering skills working on the hypersonic aircraft’s flight control system as well as the relatively primitive simulator used to develop flight profiles of the first winged aircraft to fly into space. During his highest of seven flights in the X-15 , he climbed to 207,500 feet. After the engine stopped (as planned) and he was gliding back to land, Armstrong was testing a new control system when he bounced off the top of the atmosphere, skipping past Edwards Air Force Base in the Mojave Desert and not getting the rocket airplane turned around until flying near Pasadena.\nHe was fifty miles south of his landing spot in a rocket plane that was now a rather poor glider. But the calm engineer says, “that wasn’t a great concern to me because there were other dry lakes available.” He would later call the longest X-15 flight of all “a learning thing.” The entire flight lasted just 12 minutes, 28 seconds.\nAt the same time Armstrong was working on the X-15 program, he also worked on the Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar project, part of the Air Force’s ‘Man in Space Soonest’ program. The X-20 was to be a winged spacecraft that was an early predecessor to the space shuttle orbiters. As a test pilot and engineer, Armstrong flew a modified Douglas F5D fighter jet — now on display at the Neil Armstrong Museum in Wapakoneta — on a series of flights to develop launch abort procedures that were to be used for the winged X-20 spacecraft.\nArmstrong’s quiet engineering demeanor was perhaps best demonstrated after a flight in the Lunar Lander Training Vehicle (LLTV). Affectionately known as the “ flying bedsteads ,” the LLTV was used to train astronauts who would be making approaches to the lunar surface and was basically a large jet engine pointed downward and small thrusters that could control the attitude of the vehicle during flight.\nIt was considered a very difficult, and dangerous aircraft to fly. On a LLTV flight in 1968, Armstrong lost control of the aircraft due to a propellant leak and windy conditions. He ejected only moments before it crashed in a fireball . According to James Hansen’s biography, an hour or so later fellow astronaut Alan Bean returned to his desk after lunch and found Armstrong at his own desk simply “shuffling some papers.” Bean didn’t believe what others had told him about the crash so he asked Armstrong who replied, “I lost control and had to bail out of the darn thing.”\nAt a meeting of the Society of Experimental Test Pilots in 2007, Armstrong described the development and use of the LLTV .\nArmstrong joined the astronaut corps as part of the “new nine” and first flew on Gemini 8 along with David Scott. The Gemini 8 mission was set to make the first rendezvous and docking with another spacecraft in orbit to test docking procedures. Upon docking with the Agena, an unmanned target vehicle, the Gemini spacecraft and Agena began spinning. Armstrong disconnected from the Agena and then began spinning even faster, approximately one revolution per second. Facing an unplanned flight test kind situation once again, Armstrong put his experience as a test pilot and engineer to work and decided to use the reentry control system to slow down the rotation. The solution worked, but cut short the flight which ended after less than 11 hours.\nAfter the Gemini flight experience, Armstrong was the backup commander for Gemini 11 but did not fly to space. He was then selected as backup commander for Apollo 8, the first mission to leave earth orbit and circle the moon. In December of 1968, while Apollo 8 was still in space, Armstrong was offered the commander position for Apollo 11. At the time, there was no guarantee that meant he would be commanding the mission to the moon. There was still plenty that could go wrong forcing a delay and bumping a moon landing to Apollo 12 or later.\nApollo 8 was only the third flight for the massive Saturn V rocket, and the first carrying astronauts. The mission combined several tests that were initially expected to be spread over a few flights. The bold decision to proceed and successful Apollo 8 mission were critical in making Armstrong’s Apollo 11 flight to the moon possible. Armstrong later said in his biography: “I cannot imagine NASA management in any subsequent period of time being willing to take that kind of step.”\nOf course, it was less than a year later that Armstrong himself would make the biggest step. After a three day trip to the moon, Armstrong, Aldrin and Collins entered lunar orbit on July 19. On July 20, Armstrong and Aldrin began their descent towards the surface inside Eagle, the lunar landing module. The flight to the surface did not quite go as planned. During the descent several alarms from the flight guidance computer distracted the astronauts. The onboard computers were inundated with extraneous radar information, but the alarms were determined not to be a problem.\nBut Armstrong also noticed he and Aldrin were flying faster than expected across the lunar surface and were likely going to overshoot their landing site. As the Eagle passed 1,500 feet above the surface, Armstrong saw they were heading for a crater. He thought this might be a good option as it would have “more scientific value to be close to a large crater.” But the steep slope and big rocks did not provide a safe place to land.\nMost of the famous photos from the lunar surface during Apollo 11 are of astronaut Buzz Aldrin. This is the only photo showing all of Neil Armstrong standing on the surface of the moon. Photo: NASA\nAs they continued to fly over areas covered with large rocks and boulders, Armstrong took over control of the Eagle and continued flying it manually. He was able to use his training from the LLTV to maneuver as they continued to descend to the surface. But all of the maneuvering was using up propellant. At 200 feet above the surface, Armstrong finally was able to find a place to land.\nAldrin: Eleven [feet per second] forward. Coming down nicely. Two hundred feet, four and a half down.\nArmstrong: Gonna be right over that crater.\nAldrin: Five and a half down.\nArmstrong: I got a good spot.\nAldrin: One hundred and sixty feet, six and a half down. Five and a half down, nine forward. You’re looking good.\nAs they passed 75 feet mission control in Houston determined the Eagle only had 60 seconds of fuel left. Armstrong says he wasn’t terribly concerned about the low fuel situation, “typically in the LLTV it wasn’t unusual to land with 15 seconds left of fuel.”\nAbout 40 seconds later Armstrong made a final few maneuvers before announcing the landing was complete.\nArmstrong: Shutdown.", "Neil Armstrong\nNeil Armstrong\nLocation of death: Cincinnati, OH\nCause of death: Complications of Surgery\nRemains: Burial at sea, Atlantic Ocean, off Florida's eastern coast\nGender: Male\nExecutive summary: First man on the Moon\nMilitary service: US Navy (pilot, Korean War)\nNeil Armstrong was the first man to walk on the moon. It happened on 20 July 1969, and millions of people watched worldwide on live television. His mission and safe return are widely considered to be among America's greatest accomplishments of the 20th century.\nArmstrong was a Navy fighter pilot in the Korean war, and flew 78 combat missions. Later, as a civilian, he flew extensively as a test pilot. As a NASA astronaut, he commanded Gemini VIII in 1966, which conducted the first rendezvous of two spacecraft in orbit, and narrowly averted disaster when a stuck thruster made the Gemini craft roll and yaw uncontrollably. In 1968, the pressurization system for the steering jets on Armstrong's lunar landing research vehicle failed. Armstrong ejected safely, but the $1.5 million vehicle was a complete loss.\nIn 1969, Armstrong commanded the Apollo 11 mission, and made history. Without in any way minimizing his courage -- space travel was and remains very dangerous -- it's worth remembering that Armstrong's accomplishment was not his alone. Two other astronauts ( Michael Collins and Buzz Aldrin ) accompanied him on his most famous mission, and the Apollo program was designed, constructed, and monitored all along its way by thousands of experts. It cost more than $25 billion -- about 1/6 of the cost of the Vietnam war, in 1960s dollars.\nNASA higher-ups decided which astronauts would make which missions, and any of the astronauts could have been chosen. When the crew for Apollo 11 was named, NASA decided weeks in advance that Armstrong, not Aldrin, would be the first to step out of the landing vehicle, and thus forever be the correct answer on history and science quizzes.\nEven Armstrong's famous words when he stepped onto the moon (\"That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind\") were scripted for him -- and either flubbed or garbled in transmission. It was supposed to be \"one small step for a man\", which makes much more sense.\nFather: Stephen Armstrong\nWife: Janet Shearon Armstrong (m. 1956, div. 1994, two sons)\nWife: Carol Held Knight", "Neil Armstrong\nBlog\nNeil Armstrong\nFormer test pilot and astronaut Neil Armstrong was the first man to walk on the surface of the moon in 1969, and was quoted as saying, �That's one small step for Man, one giant leap for mankind.\"\nEarly years\nNeil Alden Armstrong was born near Wapakoneta, Ohio, on August 5, 1930. He was a Eagle Scout in his youth. As an adult, he was recognized with the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award and the Silver Buffalo Award by the Boy Scouts of America.\nIn 1950, he served in the Korean War as a U.S. Navy fighter pilot. He flew 78 combat missions and received the Air Medal with two Gold Stars. Following the war, Armstrong enrolled in Purdue University. He graduated in 1955 with a bachelor of science degree in aeronautical engineering.\nArmstrong then became a civilian test pilot with the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), the predecessor to NASA . He flew at the High-Speed Flight Station at Edwards Air Force Base, California. He was at the controls on many high-speed aircraft, including the 4,000-mph X-15. Armstrong flew more than 200 different kinds of aircraft, including jets, rockets, helicopters and gliders.\nInto space\nIn 1962, Armstrong was transferred to astronaut status, and he served as the backup command pilot for the Gemini 5 mission in 1965. He was then assigned as command pilot for the Gemini 8 mission that was launched on March 16, 1966. Armstrong became the first to successfully dock two vehicles in space. He became the backup command pilot for the Gemini 11 mission in 1966, and also served as commander of the backup crew for the Apollo 8 lunar orbital mission in 1968.\nOn July 16, 1969, the Apollo 11 mission was launched from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Neil Armstrong commanded the mission, along with Edwin �Buzz\" Aldrin, the lunar module pilot; and command module pilot Michael Collins. The landing on the moon took place on July 20, 1969. After the landing on the moon Neil Armstrong's first words were: �Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed.\" Six hours later, Armstrong climbed out of the lunar module and became the first person in history to walk on the moon. That is when his famous words were spoken: �That's one small step for Man, one giant leap for mankind.\"\nPost-lunar career\nFollowing the lunar landing and a triumphal return, Armstrong took the position of Deputy Associate Administrator for Aeronautics, NASA Headquarters, in Washington, D.C. He was the overseer of the overall research and technology work related to aeronautics.\nHe became a professor of aerospace engineering at the University of Cincinnati from 1971 to 1979, followed by serving as chairman of Computing Technologies for Aviation, Inc. in Charlottesville, Virginia, from 1982 to 1992.\nArmstrong also has served as a member of the National Commission on Space, from 1985 to 1986. He was the vice-chairman of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident in 1986, and served as chairman of the Presidential Advisory Committee for the Peace Corps from 1971 to 1973.\nHonors for a pioneer\nArmstrong has received honorary doctorates from 17 countries, and is the recipient of many other honors, including:\nthe Presidential Medal of Freedom,\nCongressional Space Medal of Honor,\nExplorers Club Medal,", "Buzz Aldrin: Neil Armstrong Was ‘The Best Pilot I Ever Knew’ - The Daily Beast\nApollo 11\nBuzz Aldrin: Neil Armstrong Was ‘The Best Pilot I Ever Knew’\nBefore he made history on the moon, Neil Armstrong was famous among military aviators for his bold test flights and his ‘steel trap of a mind.’ Taylor Dinerman talks to Buzz Aldrin about his friend’s legacy.\nTaylor Dinerman\n08.27.12 8:45 AM ET\nFrom the point of view of America's politicians, the most significant thing about Neil Armstrong was that on July 20, 1969, when he became the first man to set foot on the moon, he was a civilian. Unlike his fellow Apollo 11 astronauts Buzz Aldrin and Mike Collins, Armstrong was not a military officer assigned to NASA. It would have been too much of a contradiction if the lunar plaque signed by Richard Nixon, which read in part, \"We came in peace for all mankind\" was put in place by a U.S. Air Force lieutenant colonel or a Navy commander.\nIt was not that Armstrong had never served in the military. As a naval aviator during the Korean War, he'd flown F9F Panther fighter-bombers from an aircraft carrier off the coast of North Korea. In the course of five combat tours he earned a reputation as one of the best pilots in the Navy.\nBut he quit the Navy after graduating from Purdue, becoming a full-time civilian researcher and test pilot, first at the Lewis National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) center outside Cleveland, Ohio (now called NASA Glenn), and later out of the legendary Edwards Air Force Base in the California high desert. There, Armstrong became famous for flying the dangerous and temperamental X-15 rocket plane. His March 1962 X-15 flight took him up to 207,000 feet in altitude. Not quite high enough to earn one's astronaut wings, but a remarkable feat.\nInside the small world of military aviation, his exploits as a test pilot are still spoken of with awe. One of the stories that is told is that after landing a plane in the desert after its engines had both failed, Armstrong was rolling to a stop when he saw an obstacle that he was about to crash into. According to the legend, he used his speed and the flaps and rudders of his aircraft to force the plane up onto one wheel and, like a movie stunt driver, swerved around the obstacle precariously balanced on a single bit of rubber.  \nOther stories tell of his close calls and the controversial landing he made on what was supposed to be a dry lake bed in Nevada. In fact, it was a bit too muddy to hold up the weight of the two-seat T-33 training jet he was flying, and its wheels sank into the mud, apparently much to the amusement of his passenger, Chuck Yeager.\nHis skill as a research and test pilot certainly impressed Buzz Aldrin. Armstrong was “the best pilot I ever knew,” Aldrin said in an interview with The Daily Beast shortly after his former colleague’s death. That is high praise indeed coming from a man who had flown F-86 jet fighters in combat in Korea and who has his own impressive set of flying and technical academic credentials. Armstrong's ability to memorize the smallest engineering detail and to be able to explain, in even more detail, the intricate working of any aircraft he tested made him the outstanding test pilot of his generation. To this day, within military aviation, he is famous for his \"steel trap\" mind and his unflappable demeanor.\nHe joined the NASA astronaut corps in September 1962, a bit more than a year after President Kennedy had committed America \"within this decade\" to \"landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to Earth.” Armstrong entered astronaut training confident of his abilities; as he told his biographer James Hansen, he had \"worked actively with the guys in the simulator lab constructing simulations to try and investigate problems.\"\nSince the Apollo project involved doing things that had never been done before—landing a rocket-powered vehicle on the moon, to be precise—learning how to simulate unprecedented maneuvers was essential. Intense and repeated training in high fidelity simulators has always characterized preparation for manned spaceflight, especially at NASA. Armstrong was not only able to take full advantage of this training, but helped establish the tradition that NASA astronauts will always be superbly well prepared for their missions.\nHis first spaceflight was the Gemini VIII mission flown in March 1966 with his partner David Scott. The mission included America's second spacewalk and the first rendezvous and docking maneuver, an essential spaceflight technique not only for the Apollo missions but for almost all subsequent space operations. For example, the International Space Station could never have been built without using the techniques Neil Armstrong helped pioneer on the Gemini VIII mission.\nWhile the NASA program recovered from the January 1967 Apollo 1 disaster that killed Gus Grissom, Roger Chaffee, and Ed White, Armstrong was hard at work helping develop the Lunar Landing Training Vehicle. This was a weird-looking, dangerous jet- and rocket-powered contraption, sometimes called the flying bedstead. According to Buzz Aldrin, it was used to train Apollo mission commanders in the piloting skills they would need to land on the lunar surface. Armstrong was flying one on May 6, 1968 when it crashed. Armstrong ejected and parachuted to safety. According to one source, he walked away without a drop of sweat on him; behind his eyes the pilots and technicians could almost see him calculating and figuring exactly what had caused the explosion. Thanks to Armstrong's ability as an engineer, the problem (a faulty thruster) was quickly identified and repaired and training for the lunar landing was quickly resumed.\nThe choice of the Apollo 11 crew was partly predetermined by the fact that Aldrin and Armstrong had trained together as backup for a previous mission. Once Armstrong had been picked to be the commander, he quickly decided that he wanted Aldrin in the lunar module with him and that Mike Collins would be the best man for the job of commanding the Apollo capsule itself.  \nTogether, on July 16, 1969, they rode the giant Saturn V into orbit, flawlessly connected their capsule to the lunar lander, and rocketed out of Earth’s orbit heading for the moon. Arriving in orbit around the moon, Armstrong and Aldrin in the Lunar Excursion Module (LEM) detached from Collins in the Apollo capsule and began the nerve-wracking descent towards the moon's surface.\nArmstrong flew the LEM while Aldrin manned the primitive flight computer. As Buzz Aldrin explained, \"At 500 feet the commander [Armstrong] took over manual control to get a feel for what the spacecraft was like before going for the landing.\" Armstrong made a few last-second maneuvers to avoid some dangerous rocks and successfully landed on the moon on July 20, 1969. All the hard years of training, education, and experience had paid off; Armstrong had made it look easy.\nNotoriously, as he stepped onto the moon Armstrong intended to say, \"It's a small step for a man, a giant leap for mankind.\" Instead he pronounced the now immortal, but grammatically infelicitous words, \"It's a small step for man, a giant leap for mankind.\"\nGet The Beast In Your Inbox!\nDaily DigestStart and finish your day with the top stories from The Daily Beast.\nCheat SheetA speedy, smart summary of all the news you need to know (and nothing you don't).", "Neil Alden Armstrong facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Neil Alden Armstrong\nCOPYRIGHT 2004 The Gale Group Inc.\nNeil Alden Armstrong\nThe American astronaut Neil Alden Armstrong (born 1930) was the first person to walk on the moon.\nNeil Armstrong was born on August 5, 1930, near Wapakoneta, Ohio, the eldest of three children of Stephen and Viola Engel Armstrong. Airplanes drew his interest from the age of six, when he took his first flight, and on his 16th birthday he was issued a pilot's license. A serious pilot even at this age, Armstrong built a small wind tunnel in the basement of his home and performed experiments on the model planes he had made.\nYears of Training\nArmstrong entered Purdue University in 1947 with a U.S. Navy scholarship. After two years of study he was called to active duty with the Navy and won his jet wings at Pensacola Naval Air Station in Florida. At 20 he was the youngest pilot in his squadron. He flew 78 combat missions during the Korean War and won three Air Medals.\nArmstrong returned to Purdue and completed a degree in aeronautical engineering in 1955. He immediately accepted a job with the Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) in Cleveland, Ohio. A year later he married Janet Shearon.\nAn Aeronautical Career\nShortly afterward, Armstrong transferred to the NACA High Speed Flight Station at Edwards Air Force Base, California. Here he became a skilled test pilot and flew the early models of such jet aircraft as the F-100, F-101, F-102, F-104, F-5D, and B-47. He also flew a B-29 \"drop plane,\" from which various types of rocket-propelled planes were launched. More important for his later role, he became a pilot of the X-1B rocket plane, an earlier version of which had been the first plane to break the sound barrier.\nArmstrong was selected as one of the first three pilots of NACA for the X-15 rocket plane, and he made seven flights in this prototype spacecraft. Once he set a record altitude of 207,500 feet and a speed of 3,989 miles per hour. Armstrong received an invitation from the American space-flight program, but he demonstrated little enthusiasm for becoming an astronaut. His real love was piloting. Largely because of his experience with the X-15, he was selected as a pilot of the Dynasoar, an experimental craft that could leave the atmosphere, orbit earth, reenter the atmosphere, and land like a conventional airplane.\nAstronautics: A Step into Space\nIn 1962, however, sensing that the days of the projected Dynasoar were numbered (it was canceled in 1963), Armstrong decided to become an astronaut and applied for selection and training. In September 1962 he became America's first civilian astronaut and moved to Houston, Texas, to begin training. Armstrong's attitude toward his job, at least prior to his first space mission, was summed up in a statement to a reporter in 1965: \"I rule out the possibility of agreeing to go up if I thought I might not come back, unless it were technically indispensable. Dying in space or on the moon is not technically indispensable and consequently if I had to choose between death while testing a jet and death on the moon, I'd choose death while testing a jet.\"\nArmstrong's first flight assignment as an astronaut was as backup, or alternate, command pilot for Gordon Cooper of the Gemini 5 mission. Armstrong continued his specialized training on the Gemini spacecraft and was selected as the command pilot for the Gemini 8 mission. With copilot David Scott he was launched from Cape Kennedy (now Cape Canaveral), Florida, on March 16, 1966. The Gemini 8 achieved orbit and docked as planned with the Agena vehicle, but shortly afterward the vehicle went out of control. Armstrong detached his craft from the Agena, corrected the malfunction, and brought the Gemini down in the Pacific Ocean only 1.1 nautical miles from the planned landing point. His cool and professional conduct made a strong impression on the officials of the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston. Armstrong continued his intensive training on the Gemini spacecraft and was selected as the backup command pilot for the Gemini 11 mission, which was flown, however, by astronauts Charles Conrad, Jr., and Richard Gordon.\nAs the training for the Apollo program got under way, it was obvious that Armstrong rated high among those being considered for the important role of being the first American on the moon. He undertook his training program with the same cool, analytical, and almost detached approach that had always marked his attitude to flying.\nDuring a routine training flight on the lunar landing research vehicle, a training device that permits astronauts to maneuver a craft in a flight environment similar to that in landing on the moon, Armstrong's craft went out of control. He ejected himself and landed by parachute only yards away from the training vehicle, which had crashed in flames. With his usual imperturbability he walked away and calmly made his report. Again, his behavior and attitude were noted by those who were evaluating candidates for the first crew to the moon.\nSelection for the Moon Mission\nIn January 1969 Armstrong was selected as commander for Apollo 11, the first lunar landing mission. On July 16 at 9:32 A.M. Eastern Daylight Time (EDT), Armstrong, together with astronauts Michael Collins and Edwin Aldrin, lifted off from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, aboard the Saturn 5 space booster.\nApollo 11 passed into the gravitational influence of the moon on July 18 and circled the moon twice. Armstrong and Aldrin entered the lunar module, named the Eagle, which then disconnected from the command and service module. As they descended toward the lunar surface, their computer became overloaded, but under continuous instructions from the mission control center at Houston, Armstrong continued the gradual touchdown. Suddenly a boulder field loomed in front of him. He quickly switched to manual control and guided the Eagle over it to a smooth landing with only 10 seconds of fuel left. At 4:17:40 P.M. EDT on July 20, a major portion of the earth population was listening to Armstrong's transmission, \"Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed.\" At 10:56 P.M. he set foot on the moon, saying, \"That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.\" (Later, he stated that he had intended to say, \"That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind.\")\nArmstrong and Aldrin spent nearly two and a half hours walking on the moon. Armstrong reported: \"The surface is fine and powdery. I can pick it up loosely with my toe. It does adhere in fine layers like powdered charcoal to the soles and sides of my boots. I only go in a fraction of an inch, may be an eighth of an inch, but I can see the footprints of my boots.\" The astronauts deployed various scientific instruments on the moon's surface, including a seismograph and solar-wind particle collector, and collected rock and soil samples. They also left a mission patch and medals commemorating American and Russian space explorers who had died in the line of duty, along with a plaque reading, \"Here men from the planet Earth first set foot upon the Moon. We came in peace for all mankind.\"\nArmstrong and Aldrin returned to the Eagle and launched themselves to rendezvous with Collins, who had been orbiting in the Columbia spacecraft. On July 24 Columbia returned to earth. It splashed down at 12:50 P.M. EDT some 950 miles southwest of Hawaii and only 2.7 miles from its aiming point. After 18 days of quarantine to control any lunar microorganisms, Armstrong and the others traveled around the world for parades and speeches. The mission brought honors including the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the Harmon International Aviation Trophy, the Royal Geographic Society's Hubbard Gold Medal, and accolades from many nations. Armstrong became a Fellow of the Society of Experimental Test Pilots, the American Astronautical Society, and the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.\nCareer after NASA\nApollo 11 was Armstrong's final space mission. He joined Nasa's Office of Advanced Research and Technology, where he served as deputy associate administrator for aeronautics. One of his main priorities in this position was to further research into controlling high-performance aircraft by computer. In 1970 he earned a master's degree in aerospace engineering from the University of Southern California.\nA private man, Armstrong rejected most opportunities to profit from his fame. He left NASA in 1971 and moved his family back to Ohio to accept a position at the University of Cincinnati. There he spent seven years engaged in teaching and research as a professor of aerospace engineering. He took special interest in the application of space technology to such challenges as improving medical devices and providing data on the environment. In 1978 Armstrong was one of the first six recipients of the congressional Space Medal of Honor, created to recognize astronauts whose \"exceptionally meritorious efforts\" had contributed to \"the welfare of the Nation and mankind.\"\nA member of the board of directors of Gates Learjet Corporation, in 1979 he piloted that company's new business jet to five world-altitude and time-to-climb records for that class of aircraft. Other boards Armstrong served on included those of USCX Corporation and United Airlines. In between his business ventures and such hobbies as fishing and sail-planing, he also chaired the board of trustees of the Cincinnati Museum of Natural History.\nArmstrong did accept two further government appointments. In 1984 he was named to the National Commission on Space, which two years later completed a report outlining an ambitious future for American space programs. Also in 1986, Armstrong was named deputy chair of the Rogers Commission to investigate the explosion of the space shuttle Challenger. The commission's work resulted in major changes in NASA's management structure and safety practices.\nFrom 1980 to 1982, Armstrong was chair of the board of Cardwell International. He accepted a similar post with Computing Technologies for Aviation (CTA) in 1982. CTA, which was based in Charlottesville, Virginia, provided software for flight scheduling and support activities, allowing corporate jet operators to maximize the efficient use of their aircraft. Armstrong stepped down as head of CTA in 1993. He later presided over the board of AIL Systems, Inc., an electronic systems company headquartered in Deer Park, New York.\nIn May 1997 Armstrong was named a director at Ohio National Financial Services Inc., a Cincinnati-based provider of diversified financial services. At that time, he also served on the boards of Cinergy Corp. and Cincinnati Milacron Inc. He maintained his residence at a farm near Lebanon, Ohio, and made occasional public appearances in nearby Wapakoneta, his boyhood home and the site of the Neil Armstrong Air & Space Museum.\nFurther Reading\nInformation on Armstrong's historic participation in the space program is contained in Chris Crocker, Great American Astronauts (1988), Buzz Aldrin and Malcolm McConnell, Men from Earth (1989), and Alan B. Shepard, Moon Shot: The Inside Story of America's Race to the Moon (1994). Armstrong, together with Michael Collins and Buzz Aldrin, wrote a memoir of the Apollo 11 moon voyage in First on the Moon (1970). □\nCite this article\nPick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography.\nMLA\nCOPYRIGHT 2003 The Gale Group, Inc.\nArmstrong, Neil (1930- )\nAmerican astronaut\nNeil Armstrong was the first human to stand on the Moon . The former test pilot's lunar stroll on July 20, 1969 marked the pinnacle of the most ambitious engineering project ever undertaken. Afterwards, Armstrong pursued a career in aerospace teaching, research, and business.\nNeil Alden Armstrong was fascinated by flying from the time of his first airplane ride when he was a six-year-old boy in Ohio . He was the son of Stephen Armstrong, an auditor who moved his family several times during Armstrong's childhood. When Neil was 13, Stephen and his wife, the former Viola Louise Engel, along with Neil and his younger brother and sister, settled in the town of Wapakoneta. Armstrong earned his pilot's license before his driver's license, and at sixteen was not only flying airplanes, but also experimenting with a wind tunnel he had built in his basement. He worked a variety of jobs to pay for his flying lessons and also played in a jazz band, pursuing the musical interest that remained a hobby throughout his life. Armstrong earned a Navy scholarship to Purdue University, which he entered in 1947. His schooling was interrupted when the Navy called him to active duty. Armstrong soon qualified as a Navy pilot, and he was flying combat missions in Korea at the age of 20. He flew 78 missions, earning three air medals.\nAfter the Korean conflict, Armstrong left the navy and returned to Purdue. In 1955, he earned his bachelor's in aerospace engineering. In 1956, he married fellow Purdue student Janet Shearon. By then, Armstrong was a test pilot for the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, the forerunner of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). At NACA's facility at Edwards Air Force Base in California , Armstrong flew a variety of aircraft under development. In 1960, Armstrong made his first of seven trips to the fringes of space in the X–15 rocket plane. The X–15, a sleek craft air-launched from a B–52 bomber and landed on Edwards's famous dry lake bed, gathered data about highspeed flight and atmospheric reentry that influenced many future designs, including the space shuttle .\nWhen the astronaut program was first announced, Armstrong discounted it, believing that the winged X–15 design and not the Mercury capsule was the better approach to space. After John Glenn made the first U.S. orbital flight in 1962, Armstrong changed his mind and applied for NASA's astronaut corps. He was accepted into the second group of astronauts, becoming the first civilian to be chosen. In March, 1966, after serving as a backup for the Gemini -Titan 5 mission, Armstrong made his first space flight as commander of Gemini-Titan 8. On this mission, Armstrong's capsule achieved the first docking between spacecraft in orbit. After docking the Gemini spacecraft to the Agena target vehicle, however, the combined vehicles began to tumble uncontrollably. Armstrong and co-astronaut David Scott disengaged the Agena and found the problem was a thruster on their capsule that was firing continuously. They had to shut down the flight control system to stop it, an action that forced the two astronauts to abort their flight.\nArmstrong moved on to the moon-bound Apollo program. He was instrumental in adding a system that, in the event of a failure of the Saturn 5 booster's guidance system, would allow the astronauts to fly the enormous vehicle manually. Armstrong was on the backup crew for Apollo 8, and in January, 1969, was selected to command Apollo 11. The crew included lunar module pilot Edwin \"Buzz\" Aldrin Jr. and command module pilot Michael Collins. Armstrong carried with him a piece of fabric and a fragment of a propeller from American aviators Wilbur and Orville Wrights' first airplane.\nOn July 20, 1969, the spider-shaped lunar module Eagle carried Armstrong and Aldrin toward the Sea of Tranquility. The pre-selected landing area turned out to be much rougher than thought, and Armstrong was forced to guide the Eagle over the terrain until he found a vacant site. The two men finally brought their craft to a soft landing with approximately thirty seconds' worth of fuel remaining. \"The Eagle has landed,\" Armstrong reported. Almost seven hours later, he climbed down the ladder and took the epochal first step on the moon. Television viewers around the world watched as the astronaut in his bulky white suit uttered the words, \"That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind.\" (Viewers did not hear the word \"a\"; Armstrong later explained that his voice-operated microphone, which \"can lose you a syllable,\" failed to transmit the word.)\nJoined by Aldrin, Armstrong spent nearly three hours walking on the moon. The astronauts deployed experiments, gathered samples, and planted an American flag. They also left a mission patch and medals commemorating American and Russian space explorers who had died in the line of duty, along with a plaque reading, \"Here men from the planet Earth first set foot upon the Moon. We came in peace for all mankind.\" Then the three men took their command module Columbia safely back to Earth. Armstrong and the other Apollo 11 astronauts then traveled around the world for parades and speeches. The mission brought honors including the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the Harmon International Aviation Trophy, the Royal Geographic Society's Hubbard Gold Medal, and other accolades from a total of seventeen nations. Armstrong became a Fellow of the Society of Experimental Test Pilots, the American Astronautical Society, and the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.\nApollo 11 was Armstrong's final space mission. He moved to NASA's Office of Advanced Research and\nTechnology, where he served as deputy associate administrator for aeronautics. One of his major priorities in this position was to further research into controlling high-performance aircraft by computer. In 1970, he earned his master's degree in aerospace engineering from the University of Southern California.\nA quiet man who values his privacy, Armstrong rejected most opportunities to profit from his fame. He left NASA in 1971, and moved his family back to Ohio to accept a position at the University of Cincinnati . There he spent seven years engaged in teaching and research as a professor of aerospace engineering. He took special interest in the application of space technology to challenges on Earth such as improving medical devices and providing data on the environment. In 1978, Armstrong was one of the first six recipients of the Congressional Space Medal of Honor, created to recognize astronauts whose \"exceptionally meritorious efforts\" had contributed to \"the welfare of the Nation and mankind.\"\nCite this article\nCOPYRIGHT 2002 The Gale Group Inc.\nArmstrong, Neil\nAmerican Astronaut; First Human on the Moon 1930-\nBorn in Wapakoneta, Ohio , on August 5, 1930, Neil Alden Armstrong became a naval aviator in 1949. He received a bachelor of science degree in aeronautical engineering from Purdue University in 1955 and a master of sciences degree in aerospace engineering from the University of Southern California in 1970. Armstrong received an honorary doctorate in engineering from Purdue in 1970 and has been awarded additional honorary doctorates by various universities since that time.\nIn 1955 Armstrong became a research test pilot for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) assigned to the X-15 rocket plane program. NASA selected Armstrong to be an astronaut in 1962. On March 16, 1966, Armstrong and Dave Scott were launched in Gemini 8 to conduct the first two-craft linkup in space, docking with a target satellite named Agena. Apollo 11 astronauts Armstrong, Edwin \"Buzz\" Aldrin, and Mike Collins left for the Moon on July 16, 1969. Armstrong and Aldrin landed their lunar module \"Eagle\" in the Moon's Sea of Tranquility four days later, on July 20. Armstrong stepped onto the surface and became the first human to set foot on the Moon.\nArmstrong left NASA in 1971 and became a professor of aeronautical engineering at the University of Cincinnati , where he taught until 1981. He is currently the chairman of Computing Technologies for Aviation, Inc. (CTA).\nsee also Aldrin, Buzz (volume 1); Apollo (volume 3); Apollo Lunar Landing Sites (volume 3); History of Humans in Space (volume 3).\nFrank R. Mignone\nBibliography\nChaikin, Andrew L. A Man on the Moon: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1998.\nEllis, Lee A. Who's Who of NASA Astronauts. New York: Americana Group Publishing, 2001.\nInternet Resources\nThe Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.\nCopyright The Columbia University Press\nNeil Alden Armstrong, 1930–2012, American astronaut, b. Wapakoneta, Ohio, grad. Purdue Univ. (B.S., 1955), Univ. of Southern California (M.S., 1970). A U.S. Navy fighter pilot during the Korean War, Armstrong became a test pilot for what was then the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics in 1955. In 1962, already a veteran of the X-15 rocket plane, Armstrong became a National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) astronaut and served as command pilot of the Gemini 8 mission. As commander of Apollo 11 (July 16–24, 1969), he was the first person (July 20 EDST) to set foot on the moon, saying: \"That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind\" (the \"a\" was apparently lost in transmission due to static). After serving (1970–71) as an associate NASA administrator for aeronautics, Armstrong taught aeronautical engineering at the Univ. of Cincinnati from 1971 to 1979. In 1985, President Reagan appointed him to the National Commission on Space and in 1986 named him vice chairman of the panel that investigated the explosion of the space shuttle Challenger .\nSee his First on the Moon (1970), written with G. Farmer and D. Hamblin; biography by J. R. Hansen (2005).\nCite this article" ] }

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{ "description": [ "A New 'Good Evening' For 'Masterpiece Theater' ... Baker will be only the second regular host of \"Masterpiece Theater,\" the nation's longest ... Contact Us ...", "... silver-haired British broadcaster best known to American audiences as the host of \"Masterpiece Theatre,\" died ... the United States\" in ... citizen in 1941. In ...", "... was more than just the host of PBS' Masterpiece Theatre, ... United States, where he became a citizen in ... all those British Masterpieces to us. ...", "... American television as the popular host of \"Masterpiece Theatre ... Host of 'Masterpiece Theatre' Aired 'Letter From ... U.S. citizen in 1941 ...", "The very words \"Masterpiece Theater\" have ... Cooke became an American citizen ... Buy MASTERPIECE THEATRE AND ...", "... Cooke looks more like an earl than a career journalist and host of a TV series--\"Masterpiece Theatre\" on PBS ... a U.S. citizen since 1941 ... the United States ...", "Masterpiece Theatre on IMDb: Movies, TV, Celebs, and more... IMDb. Movies, TV & Showtimes. MOVIES. In Theaters; Showtimes & Tickets; Latest Trailers; Coming Soon ..." ], "filename": [ "35/35_4313.txt", "25/25_4314.txt", "93/93_4315.txt", "77/77_4316.txt", "86/86_4317.txt", "141/141_4318.txt", "65/65_4319.txt" ], "rank": [ 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 ], "title": [ "A New 'Good Evening' For 'Masterpiece Theater' - NYTimes.com", "wned: : 'Masterpiece Theatre' Host Alistair Cooke Dies at ...", "USATODAY.com - A media masterpiece", "Alistair Cooke, 95; Host of 'Masterpiece Theatre' Aired ...", "Masterpiece Theatre and the Politics of Quality - Reocities", "The Master Of 'Masterpiece' - latimes", "\"Masterpiece Classic\" (1971) - News - IMDb" ], "url": [ "http://www.nytimes.com/1993/02/24/arts/a-new-good-evening-for-masterpiece-theater.html", "http://www.publicbroadcasting.net/wned/.artsmain/article/6/1071/622287/TV/'Masterpiece.Theatre'.Host.Alistair.Cooke.Dies.at.95/", "http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/life/2004-03-30-cooke-obit_x.htm", "http://articles.latimes.com/2004/mar/31/local/me-cooke31", "http://us.reocities.com/dcjarviks/Masterpiece.html", "http://articles.latimes.com/1986-01-08/entertainment/ca-762_1_alistair-cooke", "http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0066684/news?year=2004" ], "search_context": [ "A New 'Good Evening' For 'Masterpiece Theater' - NYTimes.com\nA New 'Good Evening' For 'Masterpiece Theater'\nBy ELIZABETH KOLBERT\nCorrection Appended\nIt's a tough chair to fill, but someone's got to sit in it.\nThree months after Alistair Cooke ever so politely bade goodbye to \"Masterpiece Theater,\" the show's sponsors announced yesterday that Russell Baker would become the program's new host.\nAt a news conference in the \"library\" of the Palace Hotel in Manhattan, Mr. Baker, surrounded by fake books, assured reporters that he would not allow his irreverent style to impinge on the highbrow tone of \"Masterpiece Theater.\" In the case of an episode that is \"egregiously ridiculous,\" though, he acknowledged, \"a little needle might be apropos.\"\nMr. Baker, who is 67 and a New York Times columnist, said he had first been approached about taking Mr. Cooke's place almost a year ago. He demurred.\n\"My reply was I'd like to be the man who succeeds the man who succeeds Alistair Cooke,\" he said. But several months went by, and Mr. Baker's self-esteem improved to the point where, he said, \"I thought, 'Why not give it a try?' \" He added that is was particularly influenced by his daughter, Kasia, who urged him to get out of his \"rut,\" and by a desire to fulfill his destiny as a citizen: \"In America, if you're not on television, somehow you're not American,\" he said. Hundreds Were Considered\nRebecca Eaton, the executive producer of \"Masterpiece Theater,\" said Mr. Baker had been chosen from among hundreds of actors, journalists, historians and aristocrats who had been considered for the job, and dozens more who had sent in unsolicited tapes.\n\"We knew it when we found it,\" she said of Mr. Baker, a Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist and the author of more than a dozen books.\nIn spite of his new duties as host, which he is to assume in the fall, Mr. Baker will continue to write his \"Observer\" column for The Times. Mr. Baker will be only the second regular host of \"Masterpiece Theater,\" the nation's longest-running prime-time drama series. Mr. Cooke, who held the position since the show's inception in 1971, announced his retirement in July. Since he left the show in November, guest hosts have filled in.\nMr. Cooke and his genteel English manner became so closely identified with \"Masterpiece Theater\" that the news of his American successor yesterday seemed to suggest not so much a passing of the torch as a passing of an era. Mr. Baker took pains, however, to reassure reporters that he enjoyed the kind of long, rambling 19th-century novels favored by \"Masterpiece Theater's\" producers, and that in any case he did not plan to have any influence on the content of show. But he said, \"I certainly hope we'll do Proust's 'Remembrance of Things Past.' \"\n\"Masterpiece Theatre\" is sponsored by the Mobil Corporation and presented by WGBH, the public television station in Boston. The programs in the series are usually purchased from British producers. A Longtime Fan\nMr. Baker, who lives in Virginia, said he was a fan of \"Masterpiece Theater,\" and had watched most of the shows. He listed among his favorites \"The Golden Bowl,\" \"Jeeves and Wooster\" and \"Memento Mori.\" Under closer questioning, he also acknowledged that he was a fan of the afternoon soap opera \"All My Children.\"\nAs interpreted by Mr. Cooke, the duties of the host were to introduce the show and offer a few closing comments. Mr. Baker said viewers should not expect radical changes. \"It's a mistake to make brave assertions about how original you're going to be,\" he said.\nMr. Baker said he was succeeding Mr. Cooke in a spirit of humility: \"You enter, as George Bush would say, in a prayer mode.\"\nPhoto: Russell Baker will be only the second regular host of the popular \"Masterpiece Theater.\" (Michelle V. Agins/The New York Times)\nCorrection: February 25, 1993, Thursday A front-page picture caption in The Living Section yesterday, with a cross reference to an article about Russell Baker's selection as host of \"Masterpiece Theater,\" omitted the identity of the girl with Mr. Baker. She was his granddaughter Laura Baker.", "wned: : 'Masterpiece Theatre' Host Alistair Cooke Dies at 95 (2004-03-31)\nTV\n'Masterpiece Theatre' Host Alistair Cooke Dies at 95\nAlistair Cooke, 95, the ultra-civilized, silver-haired British broadcaster best known to American audiences as the host of \"Masterpiece Theatre,\" died March 30 at his home in New York. by Adam Bernstein Alistair Cooke, 95, the ultra-civilized, silver-haired British broadcaster best known to American audiences as the host of \"Masterpiece Theatre,\" died March 30 at his home in New York. He had heart disease, an ailment that recently led him to leave his 58-year career hosting the weekly \"Letter from America\" radio series for the British Broadcasting Corp.\nIn many ways a traditional Englishman -- the rich, clipped voice; the dry, WASPish wit; the dapper, avuncular appearance -- Mr. Cooke had an insatiable appetite for American culture. He was not condescending in his radio reports and instead found fun ways to explain what he considered the \"vitality\" of American literature, politics and daily life.\nHis longevity and sterling public reputation brought him wide recognition in popular culture. He sometimes was lampooned, notably on \"Sesame Street,\" where the Cookie Monster puppet became the erudite Alistair Cookie of \"Monsterpiece Theatre.\"\nTo many, Mr. Cooke was an American institution.\n\"He has defined what public television was and is for so many people that it is difficult to imagine life without him,\" Christopher Sarson, the original executive producer of \"Masterpiece Theatre,\" once said.\nThat series, for which Mr. Cooke acted as master of ceremonies from 1971 to 1992, was an English drama import that ran on public television. He wrote insightful and amusing introductions to the program's featured adaptations, notably \"Upstairs Downstairs,\" \"I, Claudius\" and \"The Jewel in the Crown.\"\nFor the latter show, he told audiences, \"As empires go,\" the British empire was \"a wink in the eye of history.\"\nBecause of his work on \"Masterpiece Theatre,\" he received a 1975 Emmy Award for special classification of outstanding program. It was one of several top industry awards he received.\nMr. Cooke became a familiar fixture to American audiences in the 1950s as host of the network television program \"Omnibus,\" a much-honored show that aired news documentaries and literary adaptations. He narrated the BBC-produced series \"America: A Personal History of the United States\" in 1972 and 1973. The program, a wise and witty exploration of American culture and history, won four Emmy Awards and provided the basis for his best-selling written account, \"Alistair Cooke's America\" (1973).\n\"Letter from America,\" his BBC radio program, was supposed to last 13 weeks when it debuted in 1946 to give English listeners a reprieve from wartime news. Instead, it continued almost until Mr. Cooke's death. He gave lively accounts of daily living.\nMr. Cooke once described his radio program this way: \"Just about American children or the history of ice cream or why the maples go scarlet in the fall and the oaks go yellow. Anything, all the things, the byways and whatnot. . . . I love the business of playing over the air. To me, it's literature for blind men.\"\nAlfred Alistair Cooke was born in Salford, near Manchester in northern England, where his father was a lay preacher who founded a mission that provided aid to slum districts. As a child, Mr. Cooke, who did not enjoy church attendance, was permitted to stay home and pore over the newspapers instead of the Bible. He once said his youthful ambition was to be some combination of Noel Coward and Eugene O'Neill.\nAt Cambridge University, he had two key influences: Arthur Quiller-Couch, editor of the \"Oxford Book of English Verse,\" who told him the keys to clear writing; and the historian D.W. Brogan, who dazzled him with brilliant political allusions that he melded with contemporary culture, such as references to Cole Porter lyrics.\nMr. Cooke went on to edit the campus literary journal and helped start a drama group. He graduated summa cum laude in 1930 and began contributing articles and reviews to the American theater publication Theatre Arts Monthly.\nNot long after, he won a prestigious fellowship to study drama in the United States. He received an audience with Edward VIII, the Duke of Windsor, who was reported to have sized up the tall, handsome Mr. Cooke with the statement, \"My God, my brother!\"\nHe researched drama at Yale and Harvard universities but mostly enjoyed the experience outside the classroom, such as sitting in on the piano at jazz clubs.\nTraveling across the country during the Depression, he decided that a career in theater was too narrow a focus. \"I began to take up what I felt was the real drama going on -- namely America itself,\" he said decades later.\nHe went to Hollywood and impressed fellow Briton Charlie Chaplin with his good looks and bearing. They worked on an unproduced movie script about Napoleon. The project went nowhere, and Mr. Cooke's fellowship required he return to England to put his learning to use there.\nProfessionally, it was a fine time to return. The BBC film critic had been fired, and Mr. Cooke got the job. He also began his book-writing career, including a study about silent film era idol Douglas Fairbanks.\nHe returned to the United States in 1938 as a BBC commentator. He said it was far from an elite position. Pre-World War II America, he said, was viewed by many Europeans as \"rather uncivilized and unexciting.\" He tried to reverse that notion with stories about Mark Twain, the American vernacular and popular music. He became a U.S. citizen in 1941.\nIn the mid-1940s, he began a nearly three-decade career as a top American correspondent for the Manchester Guardian (now called the Guardian), covering in those early days the formation of the United Nations and the House Un-American Activities Committee hearings.\nThe search for Communist subversion elevated the career of then-Rep. Richard M. Nixon (R-Calif.) and led to the downfall of many prominent government workers, including Alger Hiss, a ranking State Department official involved in a spying case. Mr. Cooke wrote \"Generation on Trial: U.S.A. vs. Alger Hiss\" (1950), which the journalist and political observer Richard Rovere called \"one of the most vivid and literate descriptions of an American political event that has ever been written.\"\nMr. Cooke considered himself a journalist above all else, and despite some political friendships, notably with two-time Democratic presidential nominee Adlai E. Stevenson, he had a strong sense of objectivity. He learned an early lesson on the danger of offering journalistic analysis when he all but declared the defeat of President Harry S. Truman in the 1948 race in a major story for the Guardian.\nMeanwhile, Mr. Cooke's work on \"Letter From America\" brought him the Peabody Award for international reporting in 1952. That led to his job hosting \"Omnibus\" from 1952 to 1961 on a series of major networks, ABC, CBS and NBC.\nDuring the 1950s, he also appeared on \"An Evening With Alistair Cooke,\" an album that showcased his skills as a musician and entertainer; made a study for the BBC on songwriter George Gershwin, a favorite of his; and provided narration to \"The Three Faces of Eve\" (1957), the film for which Joanne Woodward won an Academy Award for playing a woman with multiple personalities.\nIn the 1960s and 1970s, Mr. Cooke remained England's preeminent chronicler of American life. He covered such sporting events as the rise of Muhammad Ali and the great tragedies of the time, including the assassinations of John and Robert Kennedy.\nHe was energetic and constantly roving, which brought him great perspective but left his newsroom bosses exasperated. The Guardian wrote an editorial in 1968 about its chief correspondent, saying that the readers got the \"best of him\" -- \"because his pieces will often contain a sentence or a phrase which will crystallize a torrent of acts or a cascade of opinion.\"\nThe paper noted: \"Cooke is a nuisance. He telephones his copy at the last moment, so that everything else has to be dropped to get it into the paper. He says that he will be in Chicago and turns up in Los Angeles. He discards the agreed subject to write about something which has taken his fancy, news of the moment or not. But we think he's worth it, and we love him just the same.\"\nOne of his greatest accomplishments in broadcasting was the 13-installment \"America\" series, for which he traveled 100,000 miles reporting on such topics as the treatment of Native Americans, the influence of French and Spanish culture, the Constitution, the Civil War, the Jazz Age and the counterculture period. The series became a hit and a staple of library collections nationwide.\nThe series and the ensuing book version made him independently wealthy. He then went about his next project, \"Masterpiece Theatre,\" which began after WGBH, a public television station in Boston, bought the rights to British television shows.\nMr. Cooke wrote several more books, including \"Six Men\" (1977), sketches about some of his closest associates over the years: the dyspeptic journalist H.L. Mencken, philosopher Bertrand Russell, Edward VIII, Stevenson and actors Chaplin and Humphrey Bogart.\nOver time, Mr. Cooke was viewed less as a journalist and more as a historian. Lecturing to a women's club in Washington in 1973, he was reported to have surveyed American history from Pocahontas to Nixon chief of staff H.R. Haldeman \"in 40 seconds flat.\"\nHis marriage to Ruth Emerson Cooke ended in divorce.\nSurvivors include his wife, Jane Hawkes Cooke, whom he married in 1946; a son from his first marriage; a daughter from his second marriage; and two stepchildren.\nFor more news, or to subscribe to the newspaper, please visit http://www.washingtonpost.com", "USATODAY.com - A media masterpiece\nA media masterpiece\nBy Robert Bianco, USA TODAY\nAlistair Cooke didn't just introduce British classics. He was a British classic.\nJournalist and broadcaster Alistair Cooke was best known for his Letter from America weekly BBC broadcast.\nBy John Jefford, AP\nTo millions of Americans, Cooke, who died Tuesday at age 95, was more than just the host of PBS' Masterpiece Theatre, a post he held from 1971 to 1992. Born in England in 1908, Cooke became a symbol of all that is cultured, literate and erudite about Great Britain — a living representative of the best his native country had to offer.\nAnd yet, he was an equally well-admired representative of his adopted country, the United States, where he became a citizen in 1941. For 58 years, from 1946 until his retirement March 3, Cooke hosted the BBC radio program Letter From America. In these weekly essays, Cooke tried to explain America to his BBC listeners — in the same soft-spoken and yet authoritative way he explained all those British Masterpieces to us.\nCooke's dedication to television at its best, however, began long before Masterpiece Theatre. He made his first mark on the medium in 1953 as the host of one of the most respected commercial television programs of all time, Omnibus.\nRunning for eight years — first on CBS, then on ABC and NBC — and usually airing commercial-free on Sunday afternoons, Omnibus attempted to offer something cultural for everyone. Plays, musicals, operas, ballet, symphonic music, all found a home on Omnibus, along with animal adventures and the first TV work by aquatic explorer Jacques Cousteau.\nStill, if Omnibus was his great achievement, and the 1972 documentary series America his most touching salute to his new home, it was Masterpiece Theatre that made him an American star. So familiar did his style become that it earned him the ultimate American cultural compliment: He was spoofed on both Saturday Night Live and Sesame Street, where he became \"Alistair Cookie.\"\nA classic character on a classic show. It just seems fitting.", "Alistair Cooke, 95; Host of 'Masterpiece Theatre' Aired 'Letter From America' - latimes\nAlistair Cooke, 95; Host of 'Masterpiece Theatre' Aired 'Letter From America'\nMarch 31, 2004 |Mary Rourke | Times Staff Writer\nAlistair Cooke, the British-born journalist and commentator who brought a refinement and elegance to American television as the popular host of \"Masterpiece Theatre,\" has died. He was 95.\nCooke, who offered insightful radio commentaries for the British Broadcasting Corp. for 58 years, died at his home in New York City at midnight Monday, the network announced in London. The cause of death was not reported, but Cooke was known to have had heart disease. He retired from the BBC just weeks ago, citing health concerns.\nAs the host of \"Masterpiece Theatre\" from 1971 to 1992, Cooke supplied wry, informative introductions for adaptations of Evelyn Waugh's \"Brideshead Revisited,\" Jane Austen's \"Emma\" and Henry James' \"The Golden Bowl\" as well as the made-for-television series \"Upstairs Downstairs.\" His urbane manner recalled a kindly professor.\n\"Cooke introduced more people to what one would call good literature than thousands of high school and college instructors might have done,\" said Howard Gottlieb, director of the Mugger Library at Boston University in a 1998 interview with Cooke's biographer, Nick Clarke. Cooke donated his personal library to the university.\nFor The Record\nLos Angeles Times Thursday April 01, 2004 Home Edition Main News Part A Page 2 National Desk 1 inches; 37 words Type of Material: Correction\nAlistair Cooke -- The obituary of commentator Alistair Cooke in Wednesday's California section stated incorrectly that \"Brideshead Revisited\" and \"Emma\" were part of the PBS series \"Masterpiece Theatre,\" on which Cooke served as host for many years.\nCooke joined the BBC in 1934 as a film critic, but European audiences knew him best for his \"Letter From America\" -- weekly commentaries broadcast on BBC radio starting in 1946 and continuing until his final report aired Feb. 20. There were 2,869 talks in all, each a 13-minute, 30-second spot offering Cooke's observations on political and cultural life in the United States.\n\"Cooke had a mission to explain his adopted country to his native country,\" Clarke said. \"He wanted to show that Americans have a depth you don't necessarily see in American films and television sitcoms.\"\nHis \"letter\" aired in 50 countries and gained a broad audience in England. \"With equal verve and knowledge, Mr. Cooke comments on the activities of the churches, Hollywood, university presidents, baseball players, gangsters and scientists,\" the London Financial Times wrote some years ago. \"People who want to know what really goes on in America cannot dispense with Mr. Cooke.\"\nIn London, Prime Minister Tony Blair led the mourning Tuesday for the popular commentator.\n\"I was a big fan,\" Blair told the BBC. \"I thought they were extraordinary essays, and they brought an enormous amount of insight and understanding to the world.\n\"He was really one of the greatest broadcasters of all time, and we shall feel his loss very, very keenly indeed,\" Blair added.\nThe U.S. ambassador to Britain, William Farish, was another of Cooke's admirers. \"His death is like that of a longtime friend or a wise and kindly uncle, and reminds us all of the impact a life well lived can have,\" he said.\nClarke told British reporters Tuesday that \"Letter From America\" \"was the thing that mattered to him more than anything. He reckoned it was work in progress. He never thought the thing was over.... I think he thought retirement was a very bad idea and when he was forced to stop work three weeks ago, I thought, this won't be long now because here was a man living for this one task.\"\nFrom the time that Cooke moved permanently to New York City in the late 1930s, he was appreciative of his adopted country but not blind to its flaws. In his final letter, he compared President Bush's decision to invade Iraq with the U.S. invasion of Iraq by the president's father in 1991 and suggested that this time, as last, it could cost Republicans at the polls.\n\"The new, invigorating party conviction is a belief that Democrats had not dreamed of so far,\" Cooke observed. \"It is the belief that George Bush can be beaten in November.\" With typical wry humor, he added: \"This thought apparently took hold of the primary voters long before it dawned on the Democratic Party as a whole.\"\nBy English standards, \"Cooke was more American than the Americans.... Cooke loved America far more than he loved his home country,\" Clarke told The Times in 1998. Cooke became a U.S. citizen in 1941.\nA self-made man, Cooke explained his enthusiasm in one of his earliest letters from America.\n\"I never remember hearing anyone in America, no matter how snobbish, say that somebody didn't know his place,\" he said. \"It is a deep, almost unconscious belief of Americans, that your place is what your talent and luck can make it.\"\nCooke first attracted a U.S. following as host of \"Omnibus,\" a pioneering commercial television program about the arts and culture. The show aired from 1952 to 1961 -- first on CBS and later on ABC. He proved to be a thoughtful observer with a rare appreciation for both British and American culture.", "Masterpiece Theatre\nMasterpiece Theatre and the Politics of Quality\nby Laurence A. Jarvik\nThis book is published by Scarecrow Press . It details the origins of the drama series which has become a pillar of the PBS schedule.\nHere is a London Times article about MASTERPIECE THEATRE AND THE POLITICS OF QUALITY.\nThe catalog description:\nMasterpiece Theatre, the popular British-made series that enjoyed a long and successful run on public television, is regarded by many as the standard against which all \"quality\" programs should be measured. In this study, Laurence Jarvik provides insight into the many forces that shaped the series: its sponsor ( Mobil Corporation ), its American broadcast affiliate (television station WGBH in Boston), the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) , its host (Alistair Cooke) , and the Nixon Administration.\nIn the process of providing us with detailed \"inside\" information about this particular television series, Jarvik sheds light on the many political and social issues involved in public television and in broadcast media in general. How much influence do American government and business have over the media in this and other countries? How does this affect the content and quality of the programs that we see? Meticulously researched and brimming with references to related resources on the politics of media.\nAuthor's comment:\nThis is the real behind-the-scenes story of how Masterpiece Theatre and Mystery! were born -- and continue to provide quality programs on PBS (made possible by a grant from Mobil Corporation...). There's plenty of intrigue and the backstage saga is as interesting as anything on Upstairs, Downstairs or I, Claudius, involving everyone from Richard Nixon to Diana Rigg and Alistair Cooke. You will not find this information anywhere else. The book makes a good companion to keep by the TV while watching the programs, and includes a full index, footnotes, and bibliography. It makes an excellent addition to any local, school, or university library collection. Pefect for fans of British drama, too!\nAuthor photo by Bill Petros for the Northwest Current (Washington, DC).\n\"A fascinating narrative and analysis of Masterpiece Theatre's birth. Jarvik's book exposes the commercial and political motives of all the interested players and makes it no longer possible to think of the series only as a pleasant weekly visit to Edwardian England.\"\nSUNDAY, MAY 9, 1999, The New York Times Arts and Leisure Section\nTELEVISION 'Masterpiece Theater': An Oasis of Literate TV or Snobbish Escapism?\nBy DAVID FINKLE\nThe very words \"Masterpiece Theater\" have increasingly been used as a pejorative by those who think of the show, on the air since 1971, as simply escapism for Anglophiliacs... [more]\nEARLIER ARTICLE\nTHE LOVE THAT DARE NOT SPEAK ITS NAME by Laurence Jarvik MASTERPIECE THEATRE is \"boring.\" I love it. But in certain American circles it is a love that dare not speak its name... [more]\nTable of Contents\nPreface: Russell Baker and Masterpiece Theatre\nWhile Russell Baker is no Alistair Cooke, he plays an important role in setting the tone for the series. You can find his New York Times columns by clicking here.\n1. Introduction\nMasterpiece Theatre is the longest running prime-time anthology drama series in the history of American Television. It has won more Emmy awards than any other program. It has influenced network television by inspiring the mini-series, and been mined by cable companies for programming. Yet the series is far more complicated than it appears on the surface. Although it seems to be British, it is a purely American phenomenon, more closely tied to the sponsor-supplied fare of the 1950's than to anything found across the Atlantic. A close look reveals the interplay of politicial, financial, diplomatic, cultural, and personal forces in the development of this series during the crucible of the Nixon years and bears the imprint of that time. You can find out more about the period at the Nixon Library in Yorba Linda, California.\n2. WGBH and Masterpiece Theatre\nWGBH president Stanford Calderwood originated Masterpiece Theatre with a trip to England in 1970. Shortly after setting up the series and laying the groundwork for Mystery! and Nova he was forced to leave his job. Today he heads Trinity Investments in Boston where he manages over $8 billion for his clients. You can find him right now and thank him for his bright idea by clicking here. Calderwood's legacy remains in the voice of his hire -- original line producer Christopher Sarson, who still gives the on-air credit to Mobil (he left the program because of his opposition to inclusion of Upstairs, Downstairs ).\n3. Alistair Cooke and Masterpiece Theatre\nPerhaps no one can be said to embody the essence of Masterpiece Theatre more that Alfred Alistair Cooke, the urbane and unflappable host who presided over the program from its inception until the end of the 1992 television season. Earlier, he had served as master of ceremonies for Omnibus, the cultural program which came to define uplift for the 1950's (the anthology program ran Sunday afternoons from 1952-1960 on all three networks garnering ratings as high as 17 million, far more than Masterpiece Theatre enjoys today). Cooke became an American citizen in 1941, and still broadcasts his weekly BBC report \"Letter from America\" which you can hear (and read) on the World Wide Web. He turned 90 in 1999.\n4. PBS and Masterpiece Theatre\nThe series is clearly the \"jewel in the crown\" of the PBS schedule. Masterpiece Theatre sets a benchmark for quality drama and is an anchor for the weekly schedule. Yet, it is a program which has endured misunderstanding and hassles from the network bureaucracy in Washington. You can go to the PBS website by clicking here.\n5. British Television and Masterpiece Theatre\nOf course, British Drama is and was the franchise for Masterpiece Theatre, and the series has presented a view of England which has changed over the years -- from one of stately homes to one of council flats and violent gangs. Yet in an important sense the escapist role of the program has remained the same. It is a weekly visit to England (or bi-weekly, if one also watches Mystery!), a televisual form of tourism in which one can forget the mundane hassles of everyday life and luxuriate in worlds either long-ago, or far-away, or both. Masterpiece Theatre has indeed presented Masterpieces of British television including Upstairs, Downstairs, The Jewel in the Crown, I, Claudius, Flame Trees of Thika, and House of Cards. It endures as a televisual club -- with a membership open to all viewers -- spreading the gospel of the English way of life. To reach British television companies on the Web, a good set of links designed for expatriates is at HomeAndAway.com.\n6. Mobil Masterpiece Theatre\nPerhaps no one had more influence on the development of Masterpiece Theatre than Mobil public relations executive Herb Schmertz and his team of show business veterans, which included Xerox advisor Frank Marshall and press agents Frank and Arlene Goodman. You can get a copy of his memoirs Goodbye to the Low Profile from Amazon.com.\n7. Masterpiece Theatre and the Nixon Administration\nPresident Nixon was a man who left a lasting imprint on PBS. The Watergate Hearings were broadcast day and night on the publicly supported network. But equally important, Nixon's success in driving the Ford Foundation out of PBS programming (Watergate was their last Hurrah) left the field open for commercial sponsors of quality drama. Among them was the Mobil Corporation, and in Masterpiece Theatre they replaced confrontational agitprop from Ford (Day of Absence, about a world in which black workers had vanished) with period costume drama from England. Indeed Masterpiece Theatre went into the Sunday night slot PBS had given Public Broadcasting Laboratory, the Ford Foundation project devised by Fred Friendly, literally replacing Ford with Mobil. In its Churchillian tone, and its reflection of a 1950's style high-class anthology program with echoes of Omnibus (paradoxically sponsored before Ford embraced the 60's)though the choice of Alistair Cooke, Masterpiece Theatre is a reminder of the taste and sensibility of Richard Nixon, who idolized Winston Churchill. It remains a televisual legacy of his presidency to this day. You can reach the Nixon library to find out more about the former President by clicking above. Bibliography\nIndex\nAbout the Author\nLaurence A. Jarvik wrote PBS: Behind the Screen (Prima, 1997) and edited Public Broadcasting and the Public Trust (Second Thoughts Books, 1995) and The National Endowments: A Critical Symposium (Second Thoughts Books, 1995). He received his Ph.D. and Master of Fine Arts in Film and Television from UCLA's School of Film and TV and taught at UCLA and California State University, Los Angeles. He produced and directed the feature documentary film WHO SHALL LIVE AND WHO SHALL DIE (distributed by Kino International) which was broadcast on PBS stations and shown in international festivals. He has testified before Congress about PBS and cultural policy, and appeared on C-Span's Washington Journal, CNN Crossfire, ABC Nightline, and the CBS Evening News, among other programs. His articles have appeared in scholarly and popular publications including The New York Times, The Boston Globe, The Los Angeles Times, American Film, Montage, and American Cinematographer.\nVisit the Literary Calendar web site\nI spoke about Masterpiece Theatre at January 19th, 1999 at the Martin Luther King, Jr. branch of the DC Public Library. The event was a great success, the audience lively and informed, about 30 people of all ages, races, and creeds, and I sold TWO books!\nI spoke again about Masterpiece Theatre at the Williams Club on April 28th, 1999 in New York City. A good time was had by all, with delicious tidbits to nibble on and an open bar followed by an interesting discussion of favorite episodes. Another success, where I sold THREE books!", "The Master Of 'Masterpiece' - latimes\nThe Master Of 'Masterpiece'\nJanuary 08, 1986 |HOWARD ROSENBERG\nSAN FRANCISCO — The elegant Huntington Hotel sits atop the city's famous Nob Hill. You expected Alistair Cooke to stay at Motel 6?\nThe Huntington is where you envision half the male guests being named Alistair, the other half Trevor or Nigel. Mary, who has operated the hotel elevator for 35 years, told me en route to Cooke's tasteful top-floor suite that he and his wife have been staying there for years when in town from New York. Feigning anger, Mary grumbled that she once had asked Cooke for a copy of \"The Americans,\" a collection of his weekly radio talks for the British Broadcasting Corp. \"He told me to buy it at a bookstore.\"\n\"Oh, yes, Mary ,\" Cooke responded a bit later. \"She's famous for her stories, some of which are true.\"\nSlightly stooped at 77, Cooke looks more like an earl than a career journalist and host of a TV series--\"Masterpiece Theatre\" on PBS--that is celebrating its 15th year on the air this week. He curled into a blue wingback chair and crossed his legs, as if this were \"Masterpiece Theatre.\" I sat in a wingback chair opposite him.\nHe wore his customary button-down shirt, tie and V-neck pullover beneath a tweed jacket. Believing one should look like Alistair Cooke when interviewing Alistair Cooke, I also wore a button-down shirt, tie and V-neck pullover beneath a tweed jacket.\nTwo hours later, at the conclusion of our interview, Cooke would hurriedly change clothes to visit a friend in the hospital. Off came the jacket, pullover and tie as he headed toward the bedroom, shortly to emerge wearing only a shirt and corduroys. Just as I had dressed as TV's Alistair Cooke for him, it seemed he had dressed as TV's Alistair Cooke for me. Now that our business was ended, only I was dressed as Cooke.\nEarlier, though, we had sat there, tweed to tweed, penny loafer to penny loafer, as Cooke chain-smoked Vantage cigarettes and spoke animatedly. He was charming and unpretentious. I asked him what it was like to be revered.\n\"I find it impossible to believe that I'm anybody but me,\" said Cooke, who was chief American correspondent for the Manchester Guardian (now the Guardian) for 24 years. \"My whole life was lived as a reporter, so I still feel a little phony being interviewed. I've done so much of it myself, from hobos to gangsters and tattoo artists. The only fun about this recognition business is the variation of human reactions.\"\nCooke recalled speaking to a convention of librarians in Las Vegas a few years ago. \"There were about 2,000 slot machines in the hotel, and I thought, 'Well, thank God, this is one place where people are too busy 24 hours a day even to watch television.' \" He was wrong. A burly casino guard mistook him for Lord Kenneth Clark. \"He said, 'Civilisation,' and I said, 'Right on!' \"\nCooke is such a recognizable institution that it seems unlikely he'd be mistaken for anyone else. His visibility--and credibility--are such that he's frequently offered glittering sums to make commercials, but rejects them with a brief form letter: \"Mr. Cooke does not do commercials.\" Period.\nNo Big Mac endorsements in his future? Why so sniffy? \"A man known for his ideas or opinions has absolutely no right to make commercials,\" Cooke said. \"It's a form of whoredom, even though the money is grotesque.\" Cooke said his secretary was appalled that John Houseman would make commercials for Smith Barney. \"She said a truly distinguished actor would never do that. Then I told her about John Gielgud making Paul Masson commercials.\"\nWhen Cooke says \"we,\" he refers to Americans, not the British, although he considers himself an Englishman abroad who just happens to be a United States citizen. It surprises people that the British-born-and-bred Cooke has been a U.S. citizen since 1941. Although a resident for 52 years, he has never bothered to learn the language and seems about as stereotypically American as kidney pie. For 40 years, though, he has shared his perceptive views of the United States on his weekly BBC radio program \"A Letter From America.\"\nCooke's U.S. fame evolved during his nine seasons of hosting the erudite \"Omnibus\" in the 1950s. He was shooting his \"America\" documentary series in 1970 when he agreed to host a new series that was to be produced by WGBH-TV in Boston and draw upon the best of British TV. It was called \"Masterpiece Theatre,\" and the rest is delicious history.\nCooke's literate, informative and chatty intros and closes quickly became the signature of \"Masterpiece Theatre,\" filling in the gaps for Americans unfamiliar with the literature or history upon which the British dramas were based.\nThe videotapes come to him in New York from London. After boning up on background, he writes and memorizes his program notes and then tapes them (a 12-part series usually takes him two days) at WGBH. He wears no makeup and uses no crib sheets or TelePrompTer.", "\"Masterpiece Classic\" (1971) - News\nNEWS\ntrailers and videos full cast and crew trivia official sites memorable quotes\nOverview\n31 March 2004 | The Hollywood Reporter - Movie News | See recent The Hollywood Reporter - Movie News news »\nLONDON -- Former BBC broadcaster Alistair Cooke , who was famous in the United States as host of Omnibus in the 1950s and Masterpiece Theatre in the 1970s and '80s, died Tuesday at his New York home. He was 95. No cause of death was given. The Britain-born American citizen broadcast a 15-minute weekly news commentary, Letter From America, on BBC Radio for 58 years, recording his last one this month (HR 3/3). The show, which began in 1946, had more than 2,500 editions, making it the longest-running radio program in the world. \"I can no longer continue my 'Letter From America, ' \" Cooke said in a statement released by the BBC at the time. \"I have had much enjoyment in doing these talks and hope that some of it has passed over to the listeners, to all of whom I now say thank you for your loyalty and goodbye.\" »\n30 March 2004 | The Hollywood Reporter - Movie News | See recent The Hollywood Reporter - Movie News news »\nLONDON -- Veteran BBC broadcaster Alistair Cooke , who was famous in the United States as host of Omnibus in the '50s and Masterpiece Theater in the '70s and '80s, died at his New York home Tuesday. He was 95. The British-born American citizen broadcast a 15-minute news commentary, Letter From America on BBC Radio for 58 years, recording his last one earlier this month (HR 03/03). The show, which began in 1946, had more than 2,500 editions, making it the longest-running radio program in the world. \"I can no longer continue my 'Letter From America, '\" Cooke said in a statement released at the time by the BBC. \"I have had much enjoyment in doing these talks and hope that some of it has passed over to the listeners, to all of whom I now say thank you for your loyalty, and goodbye.\" Tributes to Cooke, whose distinctive voice and broadcasting style bridged American and British society since his arrival in Manhattan in 1937, flowed in Tuesday after the BBC announced his death. \"He was really one of the greatest broadcasters of all time,\" said British Prime Minister Tony Blair . \"I was a big fan. I thought they were extraordinary essays. They brought an enormous amount of insight and understanding to the world. We shall feel his loss very keenly indeed.\" »\n2 March 2004 | The Hollywood Reporter - Movie News | See recent The Hollywood Reporter - Movie News news »\nLONDON -- The longest-running radio program in the world came to an end Tuesday when Alistair Cooke , 95, announced his retirement from BBC Radio 4's 58-year-old Letter from America on doctor's orders. \"I can no longer continue my 'Letter From America, '\" Cooke said in a statement released by the BBC. \"Throughout 58 years, I have had much enjoyment in doing these talks and hope that some of it has passed over to the listeners, to all of whom I now say thank you for your loyalty, and goodbye.\" Transplanted Englishman Cooke, who typed his weekly Letter from a Manhattan apartment overlooking Central Park since 1946, became famous in America as the host of Masterpiece Theatre on PBS from 1971-1992, introducing British dramatic series with his distinctive voice. »\n11 January 2004 | The Hollywood Reporter - Movie News | See recent The Hollywood Reporter - Movie News news »\nPBS has yet to find a new corporate sponsor to support Masterpiece Theater after longtime underwriter Exxon Mobil Corp. bows out at end of the current season, PBS president Pat Mitchell said Saturday during PBS' TCA session. PBS needs an estimated $7 million in corporate funding to support its veteran franchise. Mitchell vowed that Masterpiece would continue for the next two seasons with PBS' support even without a corporate partner. Separately, PBS announced the start of production today in New York on a new entry, PBS Hollywood Presents , a series to star Richard Dreyfuss as a veteran cop working Manhattan's Upper West Side. The production, which also features Rita Moreno , Blair Brown and Rosie Perez , will be shot live in real-time in two 45-minute segments to simulate a live telecast, PBS officials said. »\n2017 | 2016 | 2015 | 2014 | 2013 | 2012 | 2011 | 2010 | 2009 | 2008 | 2007 | 2006 | 2004\n4 items from 2004\nIMDb.com, Inc. takes no responsibility for the content or accuracy of the above news articles, Tweets, or blog posts. This content is published for the entertainment of our users only. The news articles, Tweets, and blog posts do not represent IMDb's opinions nor can we guarantee that the reporting therein is completely factual. Please visit the source responsible for the item in question to report any concerns you may have regarding content or accuracy." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "Search", "Search" ], "filename": [ "History_of_Nickelodeon.txt", "Viacom_Media_Networks.txt" ], "title": [ "History of Nickelodeon", "Viacom Media Networks" ], "wiki_context": [ "Nickelodeon is an American basic cable and satellite television network owned by the MTV Networks Kids & Family Group, a unit of the Viacom Media Networks division of Viacom, which focuses on programs aimed at children and teenagers; it has since expanded to include three spin-off digital cable and satellite networks in the United States, and international channels in six continents.\n\nEarly history (1977–79)\n\nNickelodeon's history dates back to December 1, 1977, when QUBE, the first two-way major market interactive cable television system was launched in Columbus, Ohio by Warner Cable (owned by Warner Communications, now known as Time Warner, and predecessor to Warner-Amex Satellite Entertainment). One of the ten \"community\" channels that were offered at no additional charge to QUBE subscribers was C-3, which exclusively carried Pinwheel each day from 7:00 a.m. to 9:00 p.m. Eastern Time. The channel was developed by Dr. Vivian Horner, who worked as director of research on the PBS series The Electric Company and created Pinwheel (one of Nickelodeon's earliest series, which spun off from the C-3 service), and Warner Cable CEO Gus Hauser. Nickelodeon was originally used as a loss leader for then-parent company Warner Cable. As the company saw it, having a commercial-free children's channel would prove useful in franchising its cable systems across the country, with that advantage putting them over rival companies such as HBO.\n\nRelaunch as Nickelodeon (1979–84)\n\nNickelodeon launched on April 1, 1979 (as the first ever all children's network) on Warner Cable's system in Buffalo, New York. It quickly expanded its audience reach, first to other Warner Cable systems across the country, and eventually to other cable providers. It was distributed via satellite on RCA Satcom-1, which went into orbit one week earlier on March 26 – originally transmitted on transponder space purchased from televangelists Jim and Tammy Faye Bakker. Despite its prior history on the QUBE system under the Pinwheel name, Nickelodeon designated 1979 as the year of the channel's official launch.\n\nInitial programming on Nickelodeon included Video Comic Book, PopClips, Pinwheel (which was reformatted as a daily hour-long series that ran in a three- to five-hour block format, and was a precursor to the Nick Jr. block that replaced it in 1988), America Goes Bananaz, Nickel Flicks, and By the Way. The network's original logo incorporated a man looking into a Nickelodeon machine that was placed in the \"N\" in the wordmark; this was replaced the following year by another wordmark with the \"Nickelodeon\" text in Pinwheel's logo typeface. As Nickelodeon originally operated as a commercial-free service, the network ran interstitials between programs, consisting of a male mime doing tricks in front of a black background. At the time of its launch, Nickelodeon's programming aired for twelve hours each weekday from 10:00 a.m. to 10:00 p.m. and for eleven hours on weekends from 9:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern and Pacific Time. Premium cable network Star Channel (which later relaunched as The Movie Channel in November 1979) would take over the channel space after Nickelodeon's broadcast day ended.\n\nNew shows were added to the lineup in 1980, including Dusty's Treehouse, First Row Features, Special Delivery, What Will They Think Of Next?, Livewire, and Hocus Focus. In 1981, the network introduced a new logo, consisting of a silver pinball overlaid by multicolored \"Nickelodeon\" text. Late that year, the Canadian sketch comedy series You Can't Do That on Television made its American debut on Nickelodeon, becoming its first hit series. The green slime originally featured on that program was later adopted by Nickelodeon as a primary feature of many of its shows, including the game show Double Dare. Other shows that were part of Nickelodeon's regular schedule during its early years included Livewire, Standby: Lights, Camera, Action, The Third Eye, and Mr. Wizard's World.\n\nOn April 12, 1981, the channel expanded its daily programming to thirteen hours each day, shifting the daily schedule from 8:00 a.m. to 9:00 p.m. Eastern and Pacific Time. The Movie Channel had become a separate 24-hour channel by this point, and Nickelodeon had begun turning over its channel space during its off-hours to the Alpha Repertory Television Service (ARTS) – a fine arts-focused network owned by the Hearst Corporation and ABC joint venture Hearst/ABC Video Services; ARTS became the Arts & Entertainment Network (A&E) in 1984, after ARTS merged with NBC's struggling cable service The Entertainment Channel. In 1983, Warner-Amex Satellite Entertainment began divesting its assets and spun off Nickelodeon and two other channels, music networks MTV and the (now defunct) Radio Television Station (RTS) into the newly formed subsidiary MTV Networks; in order to increase revenue, Nickelodeon began to accept corporate underwriting (a method common in public television) for its programming. \n\nGolden age (1984–96)\n\nNickelodeon struggled at first, operating at a $10 million loss by 1984. The network had lacked successful programs (shows on the network that failed to gain traction during its first few years included Against the Odds and Going Great), which stagnated viewership, finishing dead last among all U.S. cable channels. After firing its management staff, MTV Networks president Bob Pittman turned to Fred Seibert and Alan Goodman, who created MTV's iconic IDs a few years earlier, to reinvigorate Nickelodeon, leading to what many believe to be the channel's \"golden age\". \n\nSeibert and Goodman's company, Fred/Alan Inc., teamed up with Tom Corey and Scott Nash of the advertising firm Corey McPherson Nash to rebrand the network. The \"pinball\" logo was replaced with a logo featuring varied orange backgrounds (most notably a \"splat\" design) with the \"Nickelodeon\" name overlaid in the Balloon typeface, which would be used in hundreds of different variations over the next 25 years. Fred/Alan also enlisted the help of animators, writers, producers and doo-wop group The Jive Five to create new channel IDs. Within six months of the rebranding, Nickelodeon would become the dominant channel in children's programming and remained so for 26 years, even in the midst of increasing competition in more recent years from other kids-oriented cable channels such as the Disney Channel and Cartoon Network. It also began promoting itself as \"The First Kids' Network\", due to its status as the first American television network aimed at children. Along with the rebrand, Nickelodeon began accepting traditional advertising.\n\nIn the summer of 1984, A&E announced that it would become a separate 24-hour channel as of the following January. After A&E stopped sharing its channel space, Nickelodeon simply went to a test pattern screen after it signed off for the night. Pittman tasked general manager Geraldine Laybourne to develop programming for the vacated timeslot; to help with ideas, Laybourne enlisted Seibert and Goodman, who conceived the idea of a classic television block modeled after the \"Greatest Hits of All Time\" oldies radio format after being presented with over 200 episodes of The Donna Reed Show. On July 1, 1985, Nickelodeon became a 24-hour service with the launch of the new nighttime block, Nick at Nite, in the 8:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m. Eastern and Pacific time period. That same year, American Express sold its stake in Warner-Amex to Warner Communications; by 1986, Warner turned MTV Networks into a private company, and sold MTV, RTS, Nickelodeon, and the newly launched music video network VH1 to Viacom for $685 million, ending Warner's venture into kids' television until they acquired Cartoon Network. In 1988, the network aired the inaugural Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards (previously known as The Big Ballot), a telecast in the vein of the People's Choice Awards in which viewers select their favorites in television, movies and sports. It also introduced an educational program block for preschool-age children called Nick Jr., which replaced the former Pinwheel block.\n\nOn June 7, 1990, Nickelodeon opened Nickelodeon Studios, a hybrid television production facility/attraction at Universal Studios Florida in Orlando, Florida, where many of its sitcoms and game shows were filmed. It also entered into a multimillion-dollar joint marketing agreement with Pizza Hut, which provided a new kid-targeted publication Nickelodeon Magazine for free at the chain's participating restaurants. On August 11, 1991, Nickelodeon debuted its first original animated series – Doug, Rugrats, and The Ren & Stimpy Show – under the Nicktoons banner. The development of these programs was a reversal of the network's previous concerns, as Nickelodeon had previously refused to produce weekly animated series due to the high production costs. The three series found success by 1993, resulting in the creation of the network's fourth Nicktoon, Rocko's Modern Life, which also became a success. Later, Nickelodeon partnered with Sony Wonder (currently of Sony Pictures Home Entertainment) to release episode compilations of the network's programs on VHS, which became top sellers, until 1996. In 1996, Nickelodeon announced a distribution deal with Paramount Home Entertainment, with Paramount re-releasing episode compilations of the network's Nicktoons on VHS. Doug and The Ren & Stimpy Show would both end production around that time; however, Doug would be revived in 1996 as part of ABC's Saturday morning lineup. Rugrats, on the other hand, returned from hiatus on May 9, 1997 (reruns continued to air up until that point).\n \nOn August 15, 1992, the network extended its Saturday schedule by two hours, with the launch of a primetime block called SNICK from 8:00 to 10:00 p.m. Eastern and Pacific Time; over the years, SNICK became home to shows such as Are You Afraid of the Dark?, Clarissa Explains It All, All That, The Amanda Show, and Kenan & Kel. In 2004, the block was reformatted as the Saturday edition of TEENick, which originally debuted on Sunday evenings in 2000. (The Saturday night block continues today and was not officially branded from 2009 to 2013, when the \"Gotta See Saturdays\" brand was adopted for the Saturday morning and primetime blocks; the TEENick branding, with its spelling altered to TeenNick, has since been used on the Nickelodeon sister channel previously known as The N). After a three-year absence following suspension of the publication in 1990, Nickelodeon resumed Nickelodeon Magazine under a pay/subscription model in June 1993. In March 1993, the channel enlisted the help of viewers to come up with new shapes in which to display its iconic orange logo in the network's promotions. The designs chosen – a cap, a balloon, a gear, a rocket and a top, among other shapes – were mainly 3D renderings, and debuted alongside a new promotional graphics package in June 1993. The success of the Saturday primetime block led Nickelodeon to expand its programming into primetime on other nights in 1996, with the extension of its broadcast day to 8:30 p.m. Eastern and Pacific Time (and later extended to 9:00 p.m. from 1998 to 2009) on Sunday through Friday nights. \n\nIn 1994, Nickelodeon launched The Big Help, which spawned a spin-off program The Big Green Help in 2007; the program is intended to encourage activity and environmental preservation by children. That same year, Nickelodeon removed You Can't Do That on Television from its schedule after a 13-year run and subsequently debuted a new sketch comedy show, All That. For many years, until its cancellation in 2005, All That would launch the careers of several actors and actresses including Kenan Thompson, Amanda Bynes, and Jamie Lynn Spears. The show's executive producer, Dan Schneider, would go on to create and produce numerous hit series for Nickelodeon including The Amanda Show, Drake & Josh, Zoey 101, iCarly, Victorious, and a spin-off of the latter two series, Sam & Cat. Also in 1994, Nickelodeon debuted the Nicktoon Aaahh!!! Real Monsters, which would become a hit series. In October and December 1994, Nickelodeon sold a syndication package of Halloween- and Christmas-themed episodes of its Nicktoons to television stations across the United States, in conjunction with then-new corporate relative, Paramount Domestic Television. \n\nExpansion into film, SpongeBob debuts (1996–2006)\n\nOn February 13, 1996, Herb Scannell was named President of Nickelodeon and TV Land, succeeding Geraldine Laybourne.\n\nNickelodeon released its first feature-length film in theaters in 1996, an adaptation of the Louise Fitzhugh novel Harriet the Spy starring Michelle Trachtenberg and Rosie O'Donnell. The film went on to earn twice its $13 million budget. Two years after Harriets success, Nickelodeon developed its popular Rugrats cartoon onto the big screen with The Rugrats Movie, which grossed more than $100 million in the United States and became the first non-Disney animated movie to ever earn that much. Then in May 1999, the channel debuted the animated series SpongeBob SquarePants, which quickly became one of the most popular Nicktoons in the channel's history, and has remained very popular to this day, consistently ranking as the channel's highest-rated series since 2000. \n\nIn March 2004, Nickelodeon and Nick at Nite were split up in the Nielsen primetime and total day ratings, due to the different programming, advertisers and target audiences between the two services. This caused controversy by cable executives believing this manipulated the ratings, given that Nick at Nite's broadcast day takes up only a fraction of Nickelodeon's programming schedule. Nickelodeon and Nick at Nite's respective ratings periods encompass only the hours they each operate under the total day rankings, though Nickelodeon only is rated for the daytime ratings; this is due to a ruling by Nielsen in July 2004 that networks must program for 51% or more of a daypart to qualify for ratings for a particular daypart. \n\nOn June 14, 2005, Viacom decided to separate into two companies as a result of the declining performance of the company's stock; both resulting companies would be controlled by Viacom parent National Amusements. In December 2005, Nickelodeon and the remainder of the MTV Networks division, as well as Paramount Pictures, BET Networks, and Famous Music (a record label that the company sold off in 2007), were spun off to the new Viacom. The original Viacom was renamed CBS Corporation and retained CBS and its other broadcasting assets, Showtime Networks, Paramount Television (now the separate arms CBS Television Studios for network and cable production, and CBS Television Distribution for production of first-run syndicated programs and off-network series distribution), advertising firm Viacom Outdoor (which was renamed CBS Outdoor), Simon & Schuster, and Paramount Parks (which was later sold).\n\nNickelodeon Studios closed down in 2005 and was converted into the Blue Man Group Sharp Aquos Theatre in 2007; Nickelodeon now tapes its live-action series at the Nickelodeon on Sunset studios (formerly the Earl Carroll Theatre) in Hollywood, California as well as other studio facilities in Hollywood and other locations. In 2005, Nickelodeon premiered the animated series Avatar: The Last Airbender, which became a hit series for the network.\n\nPost-CBS/Viacom split (2006–present)\n\nAfter the resignation of Herb Scannell on January 5, 2006, Cyma Zarghami was appointed president of the newly formed Kids & Family Group, which currently includes Nickelodeon, Nick@Nite, Nick Jr., TeenNick, Nicktoons, TV Land, CMT, and CMT Pure Country. \n\nIn 2007, Nickelodeon entered into a four-year development deal with Sony Music to produce music-themed TV shows for the network, to help fund and launch tie-in albums, and to produce original soundtrack songs that could be released as singles. The only greenlit series produced under the partnership, Victorious, ran from 2010 to 2013. A similar hit music-themed sitcom Big Time Rush ran from 2009 to 2013, and featured a similar partnership with Columbia Records; however Columbia was only involved with the show's music, and Sony Music became involved with the show's production midway through its first season. Big Time Rush became a hit after less than a month on the air, garnering 6.8 million viewers for its official debut on January 18, 2010 (the series originally premiered with a \"preview\" episode in November 2009); setting a new record for highest-rated live action series premiere in the channel's history.\n\nIn February 2009, Nickelodeon announced that it would rebrand Noggin and The N as Nick Jr. and TeenNick. On February 2, Nickelodeon discontinued the TEENick and Nick Jr. blocks, although the programming featured within the blocks remained. Nickelodeon later announced in May 2009 that Nickelodeon Magazine would cease publication by the end of the year. In July 2009, Nickelodeon unveiled a new logo for the first time in 25 years on the packaging of DVD sets of the network's programs, on Nickelodeon Australia, and at that year's Nickelodeon Animation Festival, intending to create a unified look that can better be conveyed across all of MTV Networks' children's channels. \n\nThe new logo as well as new on-air graphics debuted on September 28, 2009 across Nickelodeon and Nick at Nite, along with the rebranded TeenNick, Nick Jr. and Nicktoons (formerly The N, Noggin and Nicktoons Network, respectively) channels in varying versions customized for brand unification and refreshment purposes. A new logo for Nickelodeon Productions was also used in end credit tags on all Nickelodeon shows, even on episodes aired before the new logo launch (TeenNick and Nicktoons use this vanity card on end credit tags of their programs regardless of the program's original airdate, whereas Nick Jr. only uses it and its variants for original programs on episodes of series made after the rebrand). Designed by New York City–based creative director/designer Eric Zim, the overall presentation package as well as the renaming of The N and Noggin was designed to bring each of the MTV Networks Kids & Family Group channels in line with the Nickelodeon brand identity, with a new logo system introduced to represent the network's entire family of networks and other sub-brands. The 2009 logo font is called \"Litebulb\".\n\nThe wordmark logo bug was given a blimp background in the days prior to the 2010 and 2011 Kids' Choice Awards to match the award given out at the ceremony; beginning the week of September 7, 2010, the logo bug was surrounded by a splat design (in the manner of the logo used from 2006 to 2009) during new episodes of Nickelodeon original series. The new logo was adopted in the United Kingdom on February 15, 2010, in Spain on February 19, 2010, in Asia on March 15, 2010, in Latin America on April 5, 2010, and on the ABS-CBN block \"Nickelodeon on ABS-CBN\" in the Philippines on July 26, 2010. On November 2, 2009, a Canadian version of Nickelodeon was launched, in partnership between Viacom and Corus Entertainment (owners of YTV, which for years has aired and will continue to air Nickelodeon's series); as a result, versions of Nickelodeon now exist in most of North America.\n\nIn October 2009, Viacom brought Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles into the Nickelodeon family when it purchased the franchise from Mirage Studios, with a new CGI-animated series and live action film released since then. On May 12, 2010, the network reached an agreement with Haim Saban to obtain rights to broadcast new episodes of Power Rangers (after Saban had repurchased rights to the franchise from The Walt Disney Company earlier that month). The network began airing the series starting with the February 7, 2011 debut of its 18th season, Power Rangers Samurai; as part of the deal, Nickelodeon also acquired the rights to all 700 episodes of the series produced prior to then for broadcast on sister network Nicktoons, which began airing the series later that year. On January 1, 2011, Nickelodeon debuted House of Anubis, a series based on the Nickelodeon Netherlands series Het Huis Anubis, which became the first original scripted series to be broadcast in a weekdaily strip (similar to the soap opera format). Produced in the United Kingdom, it was also the first original series by the flagship U.S. channel to be produced outside of North America.\n\n2011 saw Nickelodeon's longtime ratings dominance among all children's cable channels began to topple: it was the highest-rated cable channel during the first half of that year, only for its viewership to experience a sharp double-digit decline by the end of 2011, described as \"inexplicable\" by Viacom management. The channel would not experience a calendar week ratings increase until November 2012 (with viewership slowly rebounding after that point due to stronger programming); however its 17-year streak as the highest-rated cable network in total day viewership was broken by Disney Channel during that year. In the spring of 2013, Ubisoft and Nickelodeon partnered to develop a new animated series, Rabbids Invasion (based on the Raving Rabbids video game franchise), which premiered on August 3 of that year. On July 17, 2014, the night after ESPN held the similarly formatted ESPY Awards, the network televised the inaugural Kids' Choice Sports Awards, a spin-off of the Kids' Choice Awards that honors athletes and teams from the previous year in sports.", "Viacom Media Networks is a division of the media conglomerate Viacom that oversees the operations of many television channels and Internet brands, including the original MTV channel in the United States. Sibling to Viacom Media Networks is Viacom International Media Networks.\n\nThe company was established in 1984 after Warner Communications and American Express decided to divest the basic cable assets of Warner-Amex Satellite Entertainment, renaming it MTV Networks, Inc. Warner-Amex originally created and owned Nickelodeon, MTV, VH1 and The Movie Channel (TMC).\n\nViacom acquired 66% of the company in 1985, and then acquired the remaining interest in 1986. It was then folded into Viacom International Inc., a subsidiary of Viacom Inc., and is no longer a distinct legal entity.\n\nCable channels owned by Viacom Media Networks\n\nViacom Media Networks' family of brands is divided into three sections, based on the type of television programming and audiences they serve. All networks are simulcasted in high definition aside from the spinoff music networks and TeenNick.\n\nMusic and Entertainment Group\n\n* Comedy Central7\n* Epix9\n* Logo TV4\n* MTV\n** MTV2\n** MTV Hits\n** MTV Live\n** mtvU\n** Tr3s\n** MTV Classic\n* Spike8\n* VH1\n*CMT\n**CMT Music3\n\nKids and Family Group\n\n* Nickelodeon1 11 \n** Nick 2, Nickelodeon's alternate East/West feed\n** Nick at Nite, evening programming block on Nickelodeon\n* Nick Jr.5\n* Nicktoons10\n* TeenNick6\n* TV Land\n\nBET Networks\n\n* BET\n**BET Gospel\n**BET Hip-Hop\n**BET International\n**BET Jams\n**BET Soul\n* Centric\n\nFormer channels\n\n* MTVX (1998–2002)\n* Nick Gas (1999–2009)\n* NickMom (2012–15)\n* Tempo Networks (2005–07)\n* VH1 Uno (2001–08)\n\nNotes\n\n1Channel created by Warner-Amex Satellite Entertainment prior to 1984.\n2Channel originally owned by CBS, became part of MTV Networks when CBS merged with Viacom.\n3Created as VH1 Country prior to Viacom/CBS merger.\n4Channel was originally known as VH1 MegaHits before being discontinued in July 2005 to facilitate Logo launch.\n5Channel was originally known as Noggin before being rebranded as Nick Jr. in 2009. Co-owned with Sesame Workshop from 1999 to 2002.\n6Channel was originally known as The N before being rebranded as TeenNick in 2009.\n7Channel started as Ha!, merged with HBO's The Comedy Channel the following year, became fully owned by Viacom in 2003.\n8Channel originally known as The Nashville Network until 2000 and The National Network until 2003.\n9Co-owned with sister company Paramount, Lionsgate and MGM. Viacom Media Networks handles operations.\n10Channel was originally known as Nicktoons TV until 2003 when it was rebranded as Nicktoons which was rebranded again as Nicktoons Network in 2005 and finally rebranded yet again as Nicktoons once more in 2009.\n11Channel was originally known Pinwheel until 1979 when it was rebranded as Nickelodeon.\n\nInternet properties\n\nThe company also owns internet properties, such as MTV News, MTV International, and RateMyProfessors.com (owned by mtvU). The company ran a virtual world system, Virtual MTV in the late 2000s. It formerly owned Neopets, Atom Entertainment, and other web properties before shutting them down or selling them to other companies in the 2000s and 2010s.\n\nGame properties\n\nViacom had a game division called MTV Games, which used to publish the Rock Band and Dance Central series by Harmonix Music Systems, its former subsidiary. Dance Central was the last game from MTV Games before its closure, but was resurrected in 2012 and will not publish the Rock Band and Dance Central series, as it will focus on other games, starting with The Age of Decadence by Iron Tower Studio. MTV Networks opened another game division called 345 Games in New York City and it will start to publish future games. The Rock Band series and the Dance Central series will be published by other publishers. The first game published by 345 Games was Ugly Americans: Apocalypsegaddeon based on the Comedy Central TV series, Ugly Americans. Recently, 345 Games has announced a video game based on the popular MMA franchise, Bellator Fighting Championships.\n\nViacom International Media Networks\n\nViacom International Media Networks is a division of Viacom International. Its headquarters are based in New York, London, Warsaw and Buenos Aires. It consists of 64 localized MTV channels, MTV Live HD, VH1 (6 in total), Nickelodeon, \nTMF, VIVA, Comedy Central, Game One, Nitrome Limited, Shockwave, Addicting Games, Atom Films and Xfire. MTV Networks' brands are seen globally in 560 million households in 162 countries and 33 languages via more than 150 locally programmed and operated TV channels and more than 350 digital media properties.\n\nThe Viacom International Media Networks network consists of:\n\n* Viacom International Media Networks Europe\n** Viacom International Media Networks UK, Ireland\n** Viacom International Media Networks Northern Europe\n** Viacom International Media Networks Southern Europe, Middle East and Africa\n* Viacom International Media Networks Asia\n* Viacom International Media Networks The Americas \n\nViacom Media Networks Rating Issues\n\nIn Fall 2012, media analysts began to report that ratings amongst some of MTV Networks' leading brands in the U.S. including MTV, Comedy Central and Nickelodeon are experiencing falls in viewership unlike other US broadcasters. \n\nIt has been reported that MTV Networks' portfolio of channels fourteen of the 16 channels in the MTV and Nickelodeon families had viewership declines in September, according to Sanford C. Bernstein analyst Todd Jeunger, citing Nielsen data. MTV, Comedy Central and Nickelodeon are of most concern to investors. The three account for roughly 50% of Viacom's operating profit, estimates David Bank of RBC Capital Markets." ] }

{ "description": [ "History of Nickelodeon. ... as Nickelodeon on April 1, 1979 and despite its ... The Walt Disney Company) and MTV Networks, Nickelodeon announced that it ..." ], "filename": [ "125/125_3119916.txt" ], "rank": [ 3 ], "title": [ "History of Nickelodeon | Nickelodeon | Fandom powered by Wikia" ], "url": [ "http://nickelodeon.wikia.com/wiki/History_of_Nickelodeon" ], "search_context": [ "History of Nickelodeon | Nickelodeon | Fandom powered by Wikia\nThis article is devoted to the history of the cable channel Nickelodeon.\nContents\nPinwheel (1977-1979)\nThe Pinwheel logo, used in 1977-1979\nPrior to Nickelodeon's creation, most preschoolers programs were very limited, especially to preschoolers, because they could only tune into their favorite shows on Saturday mornings. Preschoolers on the other hand, not only had Saturday mornings to watch their favorite shows, but weekdays too, because they would watch Sesame Street. For preschoolers and grown-ups in Columbus, Ohio, they had a new television system called QUBE.xx\nPinwheel/First Era/Silver Ball Era (1979–1984)\nPinwheel was re-launched as Nickelodeon on April 1, 1979 and despite its prior history on the QUBE system under the Pinwheel name, Nickelodeon has declared 1979 as the network's official launch year. It began airing on various Warner Cable systems, beginning in Buffalo, New York and quickly expanded its audience reach. Shows airing during its broadcast day which initially ran from 10 a.m.-10 p.m. ET on weekdays and 9 a.m.-8 p.m. ET on weekends included Video Comic Book, Pop Clips and the long-running Pinwheel now formatted as a daily hour-long series that ran in a 3-5 hour block format, and was a precursor to the Nick Jr. block, along with other shows such as America Goes Bananaz, Nickel Flicks and By the Way. In 1980, new shows were added to the lineup, including Dusty's Treehouse, First Row Features, Special Delivery, What Will They Think Of Next?, Livewire, and Hocus Focus. Also in the same year, Video Comic Book was renamed to Video Comicz.\nThe network's first logo had a mime looking into a Nickelodeon machine that was placed in the N. In between programs, the filler would be a mime, and the mime would turn the crank on the Nickelodeon as soon as the next program was about to start. The mime would do skits to \"Music, Music, Music\". The second logo had the word \"Nickelodeon\" in Pinwheel's logo font. The third logo was a silver pinball with the \"Nickelodeon\" title in multicolor. Nickelodeon's first popular series was You Can't Do That On Television , a Canadian sketch comedy that made its American debut on Nickelodeon in late 1981. On April 12, 1981, the channel extended its hours from 8 a.m.-9 p.m. ET by turning its channel over to the Alpha Repertory Television Service (ARTS) and, later until 1985, A&E Network after ARTS merged with NBC's struggling cable service The Entertainment Channel. In 1983, Warner-Amex Satellite Entertainment began divesting its assets and spun off Nickelodeon and two other channels, MTV and the now-defunct Radio Television Station (RTS) into the newly-formed subsidiary MTV Networks. After a while the network became known for its iconic green slime, originally featured in You Can't Do That on Television. The green slime was then adopted by the channel as a primary feature of many of its shows, including Double Dare. In the early years, other shows such as Livewire, Standby: Lights, Camera, Action, The Third Eye and Mr. Wizard's World were part of the regular Nickelodeon time slots.\nFirst Splat Era (1984-1992)\nThe channel struggled at first, having lost $4 million by 1984, and finishing dead last among the cable channels. After firing the previous staff, MTV Networks president Bob Pittman turned to Fred Seibert and Alan Goodman, who created MTV's iconic IDs a few years earlier, to reinvigorate Nickelodeon. Seibert and Goodman's company, Fred/Alan, teamed up with Tom Corey and Scott Nash of the advertising firm Corey McPherson Nash to replace the \"Pinball\" logo with the \"orange splat\" logo with the name Nickelodeon written in Balloon font, that would be used in hundreds of different variations for the next quarter century. Fred/Alan also enlisted the help of animators, writers, producers and doo-wop group The Jive Five to create new channel IDs. Within six months of the rebranding, Nickelodeon would become the dominant channel in children programming and has remained so for more than 25 years, even in the midst of increasing competition in recent years from other kids-oriented cable channels such as Disney Channel and Cartoon Network. In 1994, Nickelodeon launched The Big Help, which spawned a spinoff program The Big Green Help in 2007; the point of the program is to change yourself and the earth by exercising and protecting the environment to show a difference to the earth.\nIn January 1985, after A&E dropped its partnership with Nickelodeon and became its own 24-hour channel, Nickelodeon simply went to a test screen after sign-off. That July, Nickelodeon added a new nighttime block called Nick at Nite, and became a 24-hour a day service. That same year, American Express sold their stake in Warner-Amex to Warner Communications and was renamed Warner Cable; by 1986, Warner Cable turned MTV Networks into a private company, and sold MTV, RTS and Nickelodeon to Viacom for $685 million. In 1988, Nick aired the first annual Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards (previously known as The Big Ballot) and introduced Nick Jr., an educational block for younger children around preschool age.\nBy October 1990, Nickelodeon was seen in 52 million homes across the United States. In 1990, Nickelodeon opened Nickelodeon Studios, a television studio/attraction at Universal Studios Florida in Orlando which many of its sitcoms and game shows were filmed and entered into a multimillion-dollar joint marketing agreement with international restaurant chain Pizza Hut, which involved launching Nickelodeon Magazine, available for free at participating Pizza Hut restaurants. In 1991, for the first time, Nickelodeon developed its first three cartoons, Doug , Rugrats and The Ren & Stimpy Show . These series, known as Nicktoons, premiered on August 11, 1991. The network had previously refused to produce weekly animated series due to high cost. The three Nickelodeon cartoons found success by 1993, while in mid-1993, Nickelodeon developed its fourth Nicktoon, Rocko's Modern Life , which was also a success along with the three other Nicktoons. Later, Nickelodeon partnered with Sony Wonder and released top selling video cassettes of the show's programming.\nBy 1994, Doug was cancelled on January 2, 1994, Rugrats was in a production hiatus, but Rocko's Modern Life and Ren and Stimpy were still in production and airing. In 1996, Nickelodeon developed two new Nicktoons, Hey Arnold! and KaBlam! which would take the place of Rocko's Modern Life and Ren and Stimpy since they would both end production about that time, but still would air reruns up until about 2001. Rugrats, on the other hand, returned from hiatus on May 9, 1997 (reruns continued to air up until that point). In 1998, The Rugrats Movie came out. The movie grossed more than $100 million in the United States and became the first highest-grossing Nickelodeon film to never be produced by Touchstone Pictures banner to ever earn that much.\nFrame Era (1992-2004)\nOne of the many variants of the orange logo, commonly known for the \"splat\" design, used from Autumn 1984 to September 27, 2009; this particular version was used as the main logo from 2006 to September 27, 2009; this logo is still used on newer products in tandem with the current logo.\nIn August 1992, the channel extended its Saturday schedule to 6 a.m. to 10 p.m. ET with the launch of a primetime block called SNICK , which was home to shows such as Are You Afraid of the Dark? , Clarissa Explains It All , The Amanda Show and Kenan & Kel . In 2004, the block was reformatted as the Saturday edition of TEENick (which originally debuted on Sunday evenings in 2000), and the Saturday night block continues today without a name (the TEENick branding, with its spelling altered to TeenNick, has since been used on the Nicklelodeon sister channel previously known as The N).\nIn June 1993, Nickelodeon resumed its magazine brand, Nickelodeon Magazine .\nIn 1994, Nickelodeon removed You Can't Do That on Television from its schedule after thirteen years, and by the same year the network had launched a new sketch comedy show, All That . For many years, until its cancellation in 2005, All That would launch the careers of many actors and actresses including Kenan Thompson, Amanda Bynes, and Jamie Lynn Spears. The show's executive producer, Dan Schneider, would go on to create and produce several hit series for Nickelodeon including The Amanda Show, Drake & Josh, Zoey 101, iCarly and Victorious, among others.\nAround 1993, Nickelodeon began using types of bumpers which feature clips of the shows airing on Nickelodeon at the time in a type of frame with bizarre pictures on it and a bouncing Nickelodeon ball.\nIn October and December 1994, Nickelodeon sold Halloween and Christmas themed episodes of its Nicktoons through syndication to local markets across the United States, with then-new former corporate relative, Paramount Domestic Television (now CBS Television Distribution).\nIn October 1995, Nickelodeon ventured in the World Wide Web and launched Nick.com. Initially the website was available only using America Online's internet service, but was later available to all internet service providers. The website's popularity grew and in March 1999, Nick.com became the highest-rated website aimed at children aged 6–14 years old. Nickelodeon used the website in conjunction with television programs which increased traffic. In 2001, Nickelodeon partnered with Networks Inc. to provide broadband video games for rent from Nick.com. The move was a further step in the multimedia direction that the developers wanted to take the website. Skagerlind indicated that over 50% of Nick.com's audience are using a high speed connection which allows them to expand the gaming options on the website. To accompany the broadband content, TurboNick was created. Initially it was a popup panel which showcased broadband content on Nick.com.\nModern (2004-2009)\nIn March 2004, Nickelodeon and Nick at Nite were split up in the Nielsen primetime and total day ratings, due to the different programming, advertisers and target audiences between the two services; this caused controversy by cable executives believing this manipulated the ratings, given that Nick at Nite's broadcast day takes up only a fraction of Nickelodeon's programming schedule. Nickelodeon's and Nick at Nite's respective ratings periods encompasses only the hours they each operate under the total day rankings, though Nickelodeon only is rated for the daytime ratings; this is due to a ruling by Nielsen in July 2004, that networks have program for 51% or more of a daypart to qualify for ratings for a particular daypart.\nNickelodeon Studios closed down in 2005 and was converted into the Blue Man Group Sharp Aquos Theatre in 2007; Nickelodeon now tapes its live-action series at the Nickelodeon On Sunset studios (formerly the Earl Carroll Theatre) in Hollywood, California and other studio locations in Hollywood and other areas. In 2007, Nickelodeon began a four-year development deal with Sony Music to produce music-themed series for the channel, help fund and launch albums in conjunction with the label tied to Nickelodeon shows and produce original songs for the programs to be released as singles as result; the only series produced under the partnership that was greenlit as a series, Victorious debuted in 2010, though a similar hit music-themed sitcom, Big Time Rush that debuted the same year features a similar partnership with Columbia Records, though with Columbia only being involved with the show's music, Sony Music became involved with that show's production midway through its first season. Big Time Rush soon, after less than a month on the air, became a hit series, garnering 6.8 million viewers for its debut on January 18, 2010, and setting a new record for highest-rated live-action series premiere in the network's history.\nRebrand (2009-present)\nThe rebranded Nickelodeon, creating the new identity, logos, and the look and feel. In addition to creating the new Nickelodeon corporate logo, he created a whole new logo system to represent the company’s entire family of sub-brands (These include: Nick Jr., Nicktoons, Teenick, Nick@Nite, etc.). Though it is mainly a wordmark, during the days prior to the 2010 Kids' Choice Awards, the logo bug was given a blimp background to match the award given out at the show; and beginning the week of 7 September 2010 the logo was formed by a splat design (a la the 2006-2009 logo) in the on-screen program bug during new episodes of its original series. The new logo was adopted in the UK on 15 February 2010, in Spain on 19 February 2010, in Asia on 15 March 2010 and in Latin America on 5 April 2010. The \"Nick on TV5\" block on TV5 in the Philippines adopted the rebranded logo on 1 May 2010 together with the new TV5 logo.\nOn November 2, 2009, a Canadian version of Nickelodeon was launched, in partnership between Viacom and Corus Entertainment (owners of YTV, which has aired Nick shows for several years, and will continue to do so); as a result, versions of Nickelodeon now exist in most of North America.\nOn May 12, 2010, after an agreement was reached between Haim Saban (who earlier that month had bought back rights to the franchise from The Walt Disney Company) and MTV Networks, Nickelodeon announced that it had purchased the television rights to the Power Rangers franchise, and the series is slated to resume production for an eighteenth season scheduled to debut on Nickelodeon starting sometime in 2011; as part of the deal, Nickelodeon also plans to air the existing 700 episode catalog of the series on the Nicktoons cable channel in the later part of 2010.\nOn July 11, 2012, Nickelodeon, Nick Jr., TeenNick, and Nicktoons were removed from DirecTV after a disagreement between Viacom and DirecTV because Viacom wanted 30% more money from DirecTV. By July 20, the companies reached an agreement and the channels were made available later that day." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Chemical_element.txt", "Polonium.txt", "Curie.txt" ], "title": [ "Chemical element", "Polonium", "Curie" ], "wiki_context": [ "A chemical element or element is a species of atoms having the same number of protons in their atomic nuclei (i.e. the same atomic number, Z). There are 118 elements that have been identified, of which the first 94 occur naturally on Earth with the remaining 24 being synthetic elements. There are 80 elements that have at least one stable isotope and 38 that have exclusively radioactive isotopes, which decay over time into other elements. Iron is the most abundant element (by mass) making up Earth, while oxygen is the most common element in the crust of Earth. \n\nChemical elements constitute all of the ordinary matter of the universe. However astronomical observations suggest that ordinary observable matter is only approximately 15% of the matter in the universe: the remainder is dark matter, the composition of which is unknown, but it is not composed of chemical elements. \nThe two lightest elements, hydrogen and helium were mostly formed in the Big Bang and are the most common elements in the universe. The next three elements (lithium, beryllium and boron) were formed mostly by cosmic ray spallation, and are thus more rare than those that follow. Formation of elements with from six to twenty six protons occurred and continues to occur in main sequence stars via stellar nucleosynthesis. The high abundance of oxygen, silicon, and iron on Earth reflects their common production in such stars. Elements with greater than twenty-six protons are formed by supernova nucleosynthesis in supernovae, which, when they explode, blast these elements far into space as supernova remnants, where they may become incorporated into planets when they are formed. \n\nThe term \"element\" is used for a kind of atoms with a given number of protons (regardless of whether they are or they are not ionized or chemically bonded, e.g. hydrogen in water) as well as for a pure chemical substance consisting of a single element (e.g. hydrogen gas). For the second meaning, the terms \"elementary substance\" and \"simple substance\" have been suggested, but they have not gained much acceptance in the English-language chemical literature, whereas in some other languages their equivalent is widely used (e.g. French corps simple, Russian простое вещество). One element can form multiple substances different by their structure; they are called allotropes of the element.\n\nWhen different elements are chemically combined, with the atoms held together by chemical bonds, they form chemical compounds. Only a minority of elements are found uncombined as relatively pure minerals. Among the more common of such \"native elements\" are copper, silver, gold, carbon (as coal, graphite, or diamonds), and sulfur. All but a few of the most inert elements, such as noble gases and noble metals, are usually found on Earth in chemically combined form, as chemical compounds. While about 32 of the chemical elements occur on Earth in native uncombined forms, most of these occur as mixtures. For example, atmospheric air is primarily a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and argon, and native solid elements occur in alloys, such as that of iron and nickel.\n\nThe history of the discovery and use of the elements began with primitive human societies that found native elements like carbon, sulfur, copper and gold. Later civilizations extracted elemental copper, tin, lead and iron from their ores by smelting, using charcoal. Alchemists and chemists subsequently identified many more, with almost all of the naturally-occurring elements becoming known by 1900.\n\nThe properties of the chemical elements are summarized on the periodic table, which organizes the elements by increasing atomic number into rows (\"periods\") in which the columns (\"groups\") share recurring (\"periodic\") physical and chemical properties. Save for unstable radioactive elements with short half-lives, all of the elements are available industrially, most of them in high degrees of purity.\n\nDescription\n\nThe lightest chemical elements are hydrogen and helium, both created by Big Bang nucleosynthesis during the first 20 minutes of the universe in a ratio of around 3:1 by mass (or 12:1 by number of atoms), along with tiny traces of the next two elements, lithium and beryllium. Almost all other elements found in nature were made by various natural methods of nucleosynthesis. On Earth, small amounts of new atoms are naturally produced in nucleogenic reactions, or in cosmogenic processes, such as cosmic ray spallation. New atoms are also naturally produced on Earth as radiogenic daughter isotopes of ongoing radioactive decay processes such as alpha decay, beta decay, spontaneous fission, cluster decay, and other rarer modes of decay.\n\nOf the 94 naturally occurring elements, those with atomic numbers 1 through 82 each have at least one stable isotope (except for technetium, element 43 and promethium, element 61, which have no stable isotopes). Isotopes considered stable are those for which no radioactive decay has yet been observed. Elements with atomic numbers 83 through 94 are unstable to the point that radioactive decay of all isotopes can be detected. Some of these elements, notably bismuth (atomic number 83), thorium (atomic number 90), uranium (atomic number 92) and plutonium (atomic number 94), have one or more isotopes with half-lives long enough to survive as remnants of the explosive stellar nucleosynthesis that produced the heavy elements before the formation of our solar system. For example, at over 1.9 years, over a billion times longer than the current estimated age of the universe, bismuth-209 (atomic number 83) has the longest known alpha decay half-life of any naturally occurring element. The very heaviest elements (those beyond plutonium, element 94) undergo radioactive decay with half-lives so short that they are not found in nature and must be synthesized.\n\nAs of 2010, there are 118 known elements (in this context, \"known\" means observed well enough, even from just a few decay products, to have been differentiated from other elements). Of these 118 elements, 94 occur naturally on Earth. Six of these occur in extreme trace quantities: technetium, atomic number 43; promethium, number 61; astatine, number 85; francium, number 87; neptunium, number 93; and plutonium, number 94. These 94 elements have been detected in the universe at large, in the spectra of stars and also supernovae, where short-lived radioactive elements are newly being made. The first 94 elements have been detected directly on Earth as primordial nuclides present from the formation of the solar system, or as naturally-occurring fission or transmutation products of uranium and thorium.\n\nThe remaining 24 heavier elements, not found today either on Earth or in astronomical spectra, have been produced artificially: these are all radioactive, with very short half-lives; if any atoms of these elements were present at the formation of Earth, they are extremely likely, to the point of certainty, to have already decayed, and if present in novae, have been in quantities too small to have been noted. Technetium was the first purportedly non-naturally occurring element synthesized, in 1937, although trace amounts of technetium have since been found in nature (and also the element may have been discovered naturally in 1925). This pattern of artificial production and later natural discovery has been repeated with several other radioactive naturally-occurring rare elements. \n\nLists of the elements are available by name, by symbol, by atomic number, by density, by melting point, and by boiling point as well as ionization energies of the elements. The nuclides of stable and radioactive elements are also available as a list of nuclides, sorted by length of half-life for those that are unstable. One of the most convenient, and certainly the most traditional presentation of the elements, is in the form of the periodic table, which groups together elements with similar chemical properties (and usually also similar electronic structures).\n\nAtomic number\n\nThe atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons in each atom, and defines the element. For example, all carbon atoms contain 6 protons in their atomic nucleus; so the atomic number of carbon is 6. Carbon atoms may have different numbers of neutrons; atoms of the same element having different numbers of neutrons are known as isotopes of the element. \n\nThe number of protons in the atomic nucleus also determines its electric charge, which in turn determines the number of electrons of the atom in its non-ionized state. The electrons are placed into atomic orbitals that determine the atom's various chemical properties. The number of neutrons in a nucleus usually has very little effect on an element's chemical properties (except in the case of hydrogen and deuterium). Thus, all carbon isotopes have nearly identical chemical properties because they all have six protons and six electrons, even though carbon atoms may, for example, have 6 or 8 neutrons. That is why the atomic number, rather than mass number or atomic weight, is considered the identifying characteristic of a chemical element.\n\nThe symbol for atomic number is Z.\n\nIsotopes\n\nIsotopes are atoms of the same element (that is, with the same number of protons in their atomic nucleus), but having different numbers of neutrons. Most (66 of 94) naturally occurring elements have more than one stable isotope. Thus, for example, there are three main isotopes of carbon. All carbon atoms have 6 protons in the nucleus, but they can have either 6, 7, or 8 neutrons. Since the mass numbers of these are 12, 13 and 14 respectively, the three isotopes of carbon are known as carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14, often abbreviated to 12C, 13C, and 14C. Carbon in everyday life and in chemistry is a mixture of 12C (about 98.9%), 13C (about 1.1%) and about 1 atom per trillion of 14C.\n\nExcept in the case of the isotopes of hydrogen (which differ greatly from each other in relative mass—enough to cause chemical effects), the isotopes of a given element are chemically nearly indistinguishable.\n\nAll of the elements have some isotopes that are radioactive (radioisotopes), although not all of these radioisotopes occur naturally. The radioisotopes typically decay into other elements upon radiating an alpha or beta particle. If an element has isotopes that are not radioactive, these are termed \"stable\" isotopes. All of the known stable isotopes occur naturally (see primordial isotope). The many radioisotopes that are not found in nature have been characterized after being artificially made. Certain elements have no stable isotopes and are composed only of radioactive isotopes: specifically the elements without any stable isotopes are technetium (atomic number 43), promethium (atomic number 61), and all observed elements with atomic numbers greater than 82.\n\nOf the 80 elements with at least one stable isotope, 26 have only one single stable isotope. The mean number of stable isotopes for the 80 stable elements is 3.1 stable isotopes per element. The largest number of stable isotopes that occur for a single element is 10 (for tin, element 50).\n\nIsotopic mass and atomic mass\n\nThe mass number of an element, A, is the number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the atomic nucleus. Different isotopes of a given element are distinguished by their mass numbers, which are conventionally written as a superscript on the left hand side of the atomic symbol (e.g., 238U). The mass number is always a simple whole number and has units of \"nucleons.\" An example of a referral to a mass number is \"magnesium-24,\" which is an atom with 24 nucleons (12 protons and 12 neutrons).\n\nWhereas the mass number simply counts the total number of neutrons and protons and is thus a natural (or whole) number, the atomic mass of a single atom is a real number for the mass of a particular isotope of the element, the unit being u. In general, when expressed in u it differs in value slightly from the mass number for a given nuclide (or isotope) since the mass of the protons and neutrons is not exactly 1 u, since the electrons contribute a lesser share to the atomic mass as neutron number exceeds proton number, and (finally) because of the nuclear binding energy. For example, the atomic mass of chlorine-35 to five significant digits is 34.969 u and that of chlorine-37 is 36.966 u. However, the atomic mass in u of each isotope is quite close to its simple mass number (always within 1%). The only isotope whose atomic mass is exactly a natural number is 12C, which by definition has a mass of exactly 12, because u is defined as 1/12 of the mass of a free neutral carbon-12 atom in the ground state.\n\nThe relative atomic mass (historically and commonly also called \"atomic weight\") of an element is the average of the atomic masses of all the chemical element's isotopes as found in a particular environment, weighted by isotopic abundance, relative to the atomic mass unit (u). This number may be a fraction that is not close to a whole number, due to the averaging process. For example, the relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.453 u, which differs greatly from a whole number due to being made of an average of 76% chlorine-35 and 24% chlorine-37. Whenever a relative atomic mass value differs by more than 1% from a whole number, it is due to this averaging effect resulting from significant amounts of more than one isotope being naturally present in the sample of the element in question.\n\nChemically pure and isotopically pure\n\nChemists and nuclear scientists have different definitions of a pure element. In chemistry, a pure element means a substance whose atoms all (or in practice almost all) have the same atomic number, or number of protons. Nuclear scientists, however, define a pure element as one that consists of only one stable isotope. \n\nFor example, a copper wire is 99.99% chemically pure if 99.99% of its atoms are copper, with 29 protons each. However it is not isotopically pure since ordinary copper consists of two stable isotopes, 69% 63Cu and 31% 65Cu, with different numbers of neutrons. However, a pure gold ingot would be both chemically and isotopically pure, since ordinary gold consists only of one isotope, 197Au.\n\nAllotropes\n\nAtoms of chemically pure elements may bond to each other chemically in more than one way, allowing the pure element to exist in multiple structures (spatial arrangements of atoms), known as allotropes, which differ in their properties. For example, carbon can be found as diamond, which has a tetrahedral structure around each carbon atom; graphite, which has layers of carbon atoms with a hexagonal structure stacked on top of each other; graphene, which is a single layer of graphite that is very strong; fullerenes, which have nearly spherical shapes; and carbon nanotubes, which are tubes with a hexagonal structure (even these may differ from each other in electrical properties). The ability of an element to exist in one of many structural forms is known as 'allotropy'.\n\nThe standard state, also known as reference state, of an element is defined as its thermodynamically most stable state at 1 bar at a given temperature (typically at 298.15 K). In thermochemistry, an element is defined to have an enthalpy of formation of zero in its standard state. For example, the reference state for carbon is graphite, because the structure of graphite is more stable than that of the other allotropes.\n\nProperties\n\nSeveral kinds of descriptive categorizations can be applied broadly to the elements, including consideration of their general physical and chemical properties, their states of matter under familiar conditions, their melting and boiling points, their densities, their crystal structures as solids, and their origins.\n\nGeneral properties\n\nSeveral terms are commonly used to characterize the general physical and chemical properties of the chemical elements. A first distinction is between metals, which readily conduct electricity, nonmetals, which do not, and a small group, (the metalloids), having intermediate properties and often behaving as semiconductors.\n\nA more refined classification is often shown in colored presentations of the periodic table. This system restricts the terms \"metal\" and \"nonmetal\" to only certain of the more broadly defined metals and nonmetals, adding additional terms for certain sets of the more broadly viewed metals and nonmetals. The version of this classification used in the periodic tables presented here includes: actinides, alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens, lanthanides, transition metals, post-transition metals, metalloids, polyatomic nonmetals, diatomic nonmetals, and noble gases. In this system, the alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, and transition metals, as well as the lanthanides and the actinides, are special groups of the metals viewed in a broader sense. Similarly, the polyatomic nonmetals, diatomic nonmetals and the noble gases are nonmetals viewed in the broader sense. In some presentations, the halogens are not distinguished, with astatine identified as a metalloid and the others identified as nonmetals.\n\nStates of matter\n\nAnother commonly used basic distinction among the elements is their state of matter (phase), whether solid, liquid, or gas, at a selected standard temperature and pressure (STP). Most of the elements are solids at conventional temperatures and atmospheric pressure, while several are gases. Only bromine and mercury are liquids at 0 degrees Celsius (32 degrees Fahrenheit) and normal atmospheric pressure; caesium and gallium are solids at that temperature, but melt at 28.4 °C (83.2 °F) and 29.8 °C (85.6 °F), respectively.\n\nMelting and boiling points\n\nMelting and boiling points, typically expressed in degrees Celsius at a pressure of one atmosphere, are commonly used in characterizing the various elements. While known for most elements, either or both of these measurements is still undetermined for some of the radioactive elements available in only tiny quantities. Since helium remains a liquid even at absolute zero at atmospheric pressure, it has only a boiling point, and not a melting point, in conventional presentations.\n\nDensities\n\nThe density at a selected standard temperature and pressure (STP) is frequently used in characterizing the elements. Density is often expressed in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3). Since several elements are gases at commonly encountered temperatures, their densities are usually stated for their gaseous forms; when liquefied or solidified, the gaseous elements have densities similar to those of the other elements.\n\nWhen an element has allotropes with different densities, one representative allotrope is typically selected in summary presentations, while densities for each allotrope can be stated where more detail is provided. For example, the three familiar allotropes of carbon (amorphous carbon, graphite, and diamond) have densities of 1.8–2.1, 2.267, and 3.515 g/cm3, respectively.\n\nCrystal structures\n\nThe elements studied to date as solid samples have eight kinds of crystal structures: cubic, body-centered cubic, face-centered cubic, hexagonal, monoclinic, orthorhombic, rhombohedral, and tetragonal. For some of the synthetically produced transuranic elements, available samples have been too small to determine crystal structures.\n\nOccurrence and origin on Earth\n\nChemical elements may also be categorized by their origin on Earth, with the first 94 considered naturally occurring, while those with atomic numbers beyond 94 have only been produced artificially as the synthetic products of man-made nuclear reactions.\n\nOf the 94 naturally occurring elements, 84 are considered primordial and either stable or weakly radioactive. The remaining 10 naturally occurring elements possess half lives too short for them to have been present at the beginning of the Solar System, and are therefore considered transient elements. (Plutonium is sometimes also considered a transient element because primordial plutonium has by now decayed to almost undetectable traces.) Of these 10 transient elements, 5 (polonium, radon, radium, actinium, and protactinium) are relatively common decay products of thorium, uranium, and plutonium. The remaining 5 transient elements (technetium, promethium, astatine, francium, and neptunium) occur only rarely, as products of rare decay modes or nuclear reaction processes involving uranium or other heavy elements.\n\nElements with atomic numbers 1 through 40 are all stable, while those with atomic numbers 41 through 82 (except technetium and promethium) are metastable. The half-lives of these metastable \"theoretical radionuclides\" are so long (at least 100 million times longer than the estimated age of the universe) that their radioactive decay has yet to be detected by experiment. Elements with atomic numbers 83 through 94 are unstable to the point that their radioactive decay can be detected. Four of these elements, bismuth (element 83), thorium (element 90), uranium (element 92), and plutonium (element 94), have one or more isotopes with half-lives long enough to survive as remnants of the explosive stellar nucleosynthesis that produced the heavy elements before the formation of our solar system. For example, at over 1.9 years, over a billion times longer than the current estimated age of the universe, bismuth-209 has the longest known alpha decay half-life of any naturally occurring element. The very heaviest elements (those beyond plutonium, element 94) undergo radioactive decay with short half-lives and do not occur in nature.\n\nThe periodic table\n\nThe properties of the chemical elements are often summarized using the periodic table, which powerfully and elegantly organizes the elements by increasing atomic number into rows (\"periods\") in which the columns (\"groups\") share recurring (\"periodic\") physical and chemical properties. The current standard table contains 118 confirmed elements as of 10 April 2010.\n\nAlthough earlier precursors to this presentation exist, its invention is generally credited to the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869, who intended the table to illustrate recurring trends in the properties of the elements. The layout of the table has been refined and extended over time as new elements have been discovered and new theoretical models have been developed to explain chemical behavior.\n\nUse of the periodic table is now ubiquitous within the academic discipline of chemistry, providing an extremely useful framework to classify, systematize and compare all the many different forms of chemical behavior. The table has also found wide application in physics, geology, biology, materials science, engineering, agriculture, medicine, nutrition, environmental health, and astronomy. Its principles are especially important in chemical engineering.\n\nNomenclature and symbols\n\nThe various chemical elements are formally identified by their unique atomic numbers, by their accepted names, and by their symbols.\n\nAtomic numbers\n\nThe known elements have atomic numbers from 1 through 118, conventionally presented as Arabic numerals. Since the elements can be uniquely sequenced by atomic number, conventionally from lowest to highest (as in a periodic table), sets of elements are sometimes specified by such notation as \"through\", \"beyond\", or \"from ... through\", as in \"through iron\", \"beyond uranium\", or \"from lanthanum through lutetium\". The terms \"light\" and \"heavy\" are sometimes also used informally to indicate relative atomic numbers (not densities), as in \"lighter than carbon\" or \"heavier than lead\", although technically the weight or mass of atoms of an element (their atomic weights or atomic masses) do not always increase monotonically with their atomic numbers.\n\nElement names\n\nThe naming of various substances now known as elements precedes the atomic theory of matter, as names were given locally by various cultures to various minerals, metals, compounds, alloys, mixtures, and other materials, although at the time it was not known which chemicals were elements and which compounds. As they were identified as elements, the existing names for anciently-known elements (e.g., gold, mercury, iron) were kept in most countries. National differences emerged over the names of elements either for convenience, linguistic niceties, or nationalism. For a few illustrative examples: German speakers use \"Wasserstoff\" (water substance) for \"hydrogen\", \"Sauerstoff\" (acid substance) for \"oxygen\" and \"Stickstoff\" (smothering substance) for \"nitrogen\", while English and some romance languages use \"sodium\" for \"natrium\" and \"potassium\" for \"kalium\", and the French, Italians, Greeks, Portuguese and Poles prefer \"azote/azot/azoto\" (from roots meaning \"no life\") for \"nitrogen\".\n\nFor purposes of international communication and trade, the official names of the chemical elements both ancient and more recently recognized are decided by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), which has decided on a sort of international English language, drawing on traditional English names even when an element's chemical symbol is based on a Latin or other traditional word, for example adopting \"gold\" rather than \"aurum\" as the name for the 79th element (Au). IUPAC prefers the British spellings \"aluminium\" and \"caesium\" over the U.S. spellings \"aluminum\" and \"cesium\", and the U.S. \"sulfur\" over the British \"sulphur\". However, elements that are practical to sell in bulk in many countries often still have locally used national names, and countries whose national language does not use the Latin alphabet are likely to use the IUPAC element names.\n\nAccording to IUPAC, chemical elements are not proper nouns in English; consequently, the full name of an element is not routinely capitalized in English, even if derived from a proper noun, as in californium and einsteinium. Isotope names of chemical elements are also uncapitalized if written out, e.g., carbon-12 or uranium-235. Chemical element symbols (such as Cf for californium and Es for einsteinium), are always capitalized (see below).\n\nIn the second half of the twentieth century, physics laboratories became able to produce nuclei of chemical elements with half-lives too short for an appreciable amount of them to exist at any time. These are also named by IUPAC, which generally adopts the name chosen by the discoverer. This practice can lead to the controversial question of which research group actually discovered an element, a question that delayed the naming of elements with atomic number of 104 and higher for a considerable amount of time. (See element naming controversy).\n\nPrecursors of such controversies involved the nationalistic namings of elements in the late 19th century. For example, lutetium was named in reference to Paris, France. The Germans were reluctant to relinquish naming rights to the French, often calling it cassiopeium. Similarly, the British discoverer of niobium originally named it columbium, in reference to the New World. It was used extensively as such by American publications prior to the international standardization.\n\nChemical symbols\n\nSpecific chemical elements\n\nBefore chemistry became a science, alchemists had designed arcane symbols for both metals and common compounds. These were however used as abbreviations in diagrams or procedures; there was no concept of atoms combining to form molecules. With his advances in the atomic theory of matter, John Dalton devised his own simpler symbols, based on circles, to depict molecules.\n\nThe current system of chemical notation was invented by Berzelius. In this typographical system, chemical symbols are not mere abbreviations—though each consists of letters of the Latin alphabet. They are intended as universal symbols for people of all languages and alphabets.\n\nThe first of these symbols were intended to be fully universal. Since Latin was the common language of science at that time, they were abbreviations based on the Latin names of metals. Cu comes from Cuprum, Fe comes from Ferrum, Ag from Argentum. The symbols were not followed by a period (full stop) as with abbreviations. Later chemical elements were also assigned unique chemical symbols, based on the name of the element, but not necessarily in English. For example, sodium has the chemical symbol 'Na' after the Latin natrium. The same applies to \"W\" (wolfram) for tungsten, \"Fe\" (ferrum) for iron, \"Hg\" (hydrargyrum) for mercury, \"Sn\" (stannum) for tin, \"K\" (kalium) for potassium, \"Au\" (aurum) for gold, \"Ag\" (argentum) for silver, \"Pb\" (plumbum) for lead, \"Cu\" (cuprum) for copper, and \"Sb\" (stibium) for antimony.\n\nChemical symbols are understood internationally when element names might require translation. There have sometimes been differences in the past. For example, Germans in the past have used \"J\" (for the alternate name Jod) for iodine, but now use \"I\" and \"Iod\".\n\nThe first letter of a chemical symbol is always capitalized, as in the preceding examples, and the subsequent letters, if any, are always lower case (small letters). Thus, the symbols for californium or einsteinium are Cf and Es.\n\nGeneral chemical symbols\n\nThere are also symbols in chemical equations for groups of chemical elements, for example in comparative formulas. These are often a single capital letter, and the letters are reserved and not used for names of specific elements. For example, an \"X\" indicates a variable group (usually a halogen) in a class of compounds, while \"R\" is a radical, meaning a compound structure such as a hydrocarbon chain. The letter \"Q\" is reserved for \"heat\" in a chemical reaction. \"Y\" is also often used as a general chemical symbol, although it is also the symbol of yttrium. \"Z\" is also frequently used as a general variable group. \"E\" is used in organic chemistry to denote an electron-withdrawing group. \"L\" is used to represent a general ligand in inorganic and organometallic chemistry. \"M\" is also often used in place of a general metal.\n\nAt least two additional, two-letter generic chemical symbols are also in informal usage, \"Ln\" for any lanthanide element and \"An\" for any actinide element. \"Rg\" was formerly used for any rare gas element, but the group of rare gases has now been renamed noble gases and the symbol \"Rg\" has now been assigned to the element roentgenium.\n\nIsotope symbols\n\nIsotopes are distinguished by the atomic mass number (total protons and neutrons) for a particular isotope of an element, with this number combined with the pertinent element's symbol. IUPAC prefers that isotope symbols be written in superscript notation when practical, for example 12C and 235U. However, other notations, such as carbon-12 and uranium-235, or C-12 and U-235, are also used.\n\nAs a special case, the three naturally occurring isotopes of the element hydrogen are often specified as H for 1H (protium), D for 2H (deuterium), and T for 3H (tritium). This convention is easier to use in chemical equations, replacing the need to write out the mass number for each atom. For example, the formula for heavy water may be written D2O instead of 2H2O.\n\nOrigin of the elements\n\nOnly about 4% of the total mass of the universe is made of atoms or ions, and thus represented by chemical elements. This fraction is about 15% of the total matter, with the remainder of the matter (85%) being dark matter. The nature of dark matter is unknown, but it is not composed of atoms of chemical elements because it contains no protons, neutrons, or electrons. (The remaining non-matter part of the mass of the universe is composed of the even more mysterious dark energy).\n\nThe universe's 94 naturally occurring chemical elements are thought to have been produced by at least four cosmic processes. Most of the hydrogen and helium in the universe was produced primordially in the first few minutes of the Big Bang. Three recurrently occurring later processes are thought to have produced the remaining elements. Stellar nucleosynthesis, an ongoing process, produces all elements from carbon through iron in atomic number, but little lithium, beryllium, or boron. Elements heavier in atomic number than iron, as heavy as uranium and plutonium, are produced by explosive nucleosynthesis in supernovas and other cataclysmic cosmic events. Cosmic ray spallation (fragmentation) of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen is important to the production of lithium, beryllium and boron.\n\nDuring the early phases of the Big Bang, nucleosynthesis of hydrogen nuclei resulted in the production of hydrogen-1 (protium, 1H) and helium-4 (4He), as well as a smaller amount of deuterium (2H) and very minuscule amounts (on the order of 10−10) of lithium and beryllium. Even smaller amounts of boron may have been produced in the Big Bang, since it has been observed in some very old stars, while carbon has not. It is generally agreed that no heavier elements than boron were produced in the Big Bang. As a result, the primordial abundance of atoms (or ions) consisted of roughly 75% 1H, 25% 4He, and 0.01% deuterium, with only tiny traces of lithium, beryllium, and perhaps boron. Subsequent enrichment of galactic halos occurred due to stellar nucleosynthesis and supernova nucleosynthesis. However, the element abundance in intergalactic space can still closely resemble primordial conditions, unless it has been enriched by some means.\n\nOn Earth (and elsewhere), trace amounts of various elements continue to be produced from other elements as products of natural transmutation processes. These include some produced by cosmic rays or other nuclear reactions (see cosmogenic and nucleogenic nuclides), and others produced as decay products of long-lived primordial nuclides. For example, trace (but detectable) amounts of carbon-14 (14C) are continually produced in the atmosphere by cosmic rays impacting nitrogen atoms, and argon-40 (40Ar) is continually produced by the decay of primordially occurring but unstable potassium-40 (40K). Also, three primordially occurring but radioactive actinides, thorium, uranium, and plutonium, decay through a series of recurrently produced but unstable radioactive elements such as radium and radon, which are transiently present in any sample of these metals or their ores or compounds. Three other radioactive elements, technetium, promethium, and neptunium, occur only incidentally in natural materials, produced as individual atoms by natural fission of the nuclei of various heavy elements or in other rare nuclear processes.\n\nHuman technology has produced various additional elements beyond these first 94, with those through atomic number 118 now known.\n\nAbundance\n\nThe following graph (note log scale) shows the abundance of elements in our solar system. The table shows the twelve most common elements in our galaxy (estimated spectroscopically), as measured in parts per million, by mass. Nearby galaxies that have evolved along similar lines have a corresponding enrichment of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium. The more distant galaxies are being viewed as they appeared in the past, so their abundances of elements appear closer to the primordial mixture. As physical laws and processes appear common throughout the visible universe, however, scientist expect that these galaxies evolved elements in similar abundance.\n\nThe abundance of elements in the Solar System is in keeping with their origin from nucleosynthesis in the Big Bang and a number of progenitor supernova stars. Very abundant hydrogen and helium are products of the Big Bang, but the next three elements are rare since they had little time to form in the Big Bang and are not made in stars (they are, however, produced in small quantities by the breakup of heavier elements in interstellar dust, as a result of impact by cosmic rays). Beginning with carbon, elements are produced in stars by buildup from alpha particles (helium nuclei), resulting in an alternatingly larger abundance of elements with even atomic numbers (these are also more stable). In general, such elements up to iron are made in large stars in the process of becoming supernovas. Iron-56 is particularly common, since it is the most stable element that can easily be made from alpha particles (being a product of decay of radioactive nickel-56, ultimately made from 14 helium nuclei). Elements heavier than iron are made in energy-absorbing processes in large stars, and their abundance in the universe (and on Earth) generally decreases with their atomic number.\n\nThe abundance of the chemical elements on Earth varies from air to crust to ocean, and in various types of life. The abundance of elements in Earth's crust differs from that in the Solar system (as seen in the Sun and heavy planets like Jupiter) mainly in selective loss of the very lightest elements (hydrogen and helium) and also volatile neon, carbon (as hydrocarbons), nitrogen and sulfur, as a result of solar heating in the early formation of the solar system. Oxygen, the most abundant Earth element by mass, is retained on Earth by combination with silicon. Aluminum at 8% by mass is more common in the Earth's crust than in the universe and solar system, but the composition of the far more bulky mantle, which has magnesium and iron in place of aluminum (which occurs there only at 2% of mass) more closely mirrors the elemental composition of the solar system, save for the noted loss of volatile elements to space, and loss of iron which has migrated to the Earth's core.\n\nThe composition of the human body, by contrast, more closely follows the composition of seawater—save that the human body has additional stores of carbon and nitrogen necessary to form the proteins and nucleic acids, together with phosphorus in the nucleic acids and energy transfer molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP) that occurs in the cells of all living organisms. Certain kinds of organisms require particular additional elements, for example the magnesium in chlorophyll in green plants, the calcium in mollusc shells, or the iron in the hemoglobin in vertebrate animals' red blood cells.\n\nHistory\n\nEvolving definitions\n\nThe concept of an \"element\" as an undivisible substance has developed through three major historical phases: Classical definitions (such as those of the ancient Greeks), chemical definitions, and atomic definitions.\n\nClassical definitions\n\nAncient philosophy posited a set of classical elements to explain observed patterns in nature. These elements originally referred to earth, water, air and fire rather than the chemical elements of modern science.\n\nThe term 'elements' (stoicheia) was first used by the Greek philosopher Plato in about 360 BCE in his dialogue Timaeus, which includes a discussion of the composition of inorganic and organic bodies and is a speculative treatise on chemistry. Plato believed the elements introduced a century earlier by Empedocles were composed of small polyhedral forms: tetrahedron (fire), octahedron (air), icosahedron (water), and cube (earth). \n\nAristotle, c. 350 BCE, also used the term stoicheia and added a fifth element called aether, which formed the heavens. Aristotle defined an element as:\n\nChemical definitions\n\nIn 1661, Robert Boyle proposed his theory of corpuscularism which favoured the analysis of matter as constituted by irreducible units of matter (atoms) and, choosing to side with neither Aristotle's view of the four elements nor Paracelsus' view of three fundamental elements, left open the question of the number of elements. The first modern list of chemical elements was given in Antoine Lavoisier's 1789 Elements of Chemistry, which contained thirty-three elements, including light and caloric. By 1818, Jöns Jakob Berzelius had determined atomic weights for forty-five of the forty-nine then-accepted elements. Dmitri Mendeleev had sixty-six elements in his periodic table of 1869.\n\nFrom Boyle until the early 20th century, an element was defined as a pure substance that could not be decomposed into any simpler substance. Put another way, a chemical element cannot be transformed into other chemical elements by chemical processes. Elements during this time were generally distinguished by their atomic weights, a property measurable with fair accuracy by available analytical techniques.\n\nAtomic definitions\n\nThe 1913 discovery by English physicist Henry Moseley that the nuclear charge is the physical basis for an atom's atomic number, further refined when the nature of protons and neutrons became appreciated, eventually led to the current definition of an element based on atomic number (number of protons per atomic nucleus). The use of atomic numbers, rather than atomic weights, to distinguish elements has greater predictive value (since these numbers are integers), and also resolves some ambiguities in the chemistry-based view due to varying properties of isotopes and allotropes within the same element. Currently, IUPAC defines an element to exist if it has isotopes with a lifetime longer than the 10−14 seconds it takes the nucleus to form an electronic cloud. \n\nBy 1914, seventy-two elements were known, all naturally occurring. The remaining naturally occurring elements were discovered or isolated in subsequent decades, and various additional elements have also been produced synthetically, with much of that work pioneered by Glenn T. Seaborg. In 1955, element 101 was discovered and named mendelevium in honor of D.I. Mendeleev, the first to arrange the elements in a periodic manner. Most recently, the synthesis of element 118 was reported in October 2006, and the synthesis of element 117 was reported in April 2010. \n\nDiscovery and recognition of various elements\n\nTen materials familiar to various prehistoric cultures are now known to be chemical elements: Carbon, copper, gold, iron, lead, mercury, silver, sulfur, tin, and zinc. Three additional materials now accepted as elements, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, were recognized as distinct substances prior to 1500 AD. Phosphorus, cobalt, and platinum were isolated before 1750.\n\nMost of the remaining naturally occurring chemical elements were identified and characterized by 1900, including:\n* Such now-familiar industrial materials as aluminium, silicon, nickel, chromium, magnesium, and tungsten\n* Reactive metals such as lithium, sodium, potassium, and calcium\n* The halogens fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine\n* Gases such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, helium, argon, and neon\n* Most of the rare-earth elements, including cerium, lanthanum, gadolinium, and neodymium.\n* The more common radioactive elements, including uranium, thorium, radium, and radon\n\nElements isolated or produced since 1900 include:\n* The three remaining undiscovered regularly occurring stable natural elements: hafnium, lutetium, and rhenium\n* Plutonium, which was first produced synthetically in 1940 by Glenn T. Seaborg, but is now also known from a few long-persisting natural occurrences\n* The three incidentally occurring natural elements (neptunium, promethium, and technetium), which were all first produced synthetically but later discovered in trace amounts in certain geological samples\n* Three scarce decay products of uranium or thorium, (astatine, francium, and protactinium), and\n* Various synthetic transuranic elements, beginning with americium and curium\n\nRecently discovered elements\n\nThe first transuranium element (element with atomic number greater than 92) discovered was neptunium in 1940. Since 1999 claims for the discovery of new elements have been considered by the IUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party. As of January 2016, all 118 elements have been confirmed as discovered by IUPAC. The discovery of element 112 was acknowledged in 2009, and the name copernicium and the atomic symbol Cn were suggested for it. The name and symbol were officially endorsed by IUPAC on 19 February 2010. The heaviest element that is believed to have been synthesized to date is element 118, ununoctium, on 9 October 2006, by the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions in Dubna, Russia. Element 117 was the latest element claimed to be discovered, in 2009. IUPAC officially recognized flerovium and livermorium, elements 114 and 116, in June 2011 and approved their names in May 2012. In December 2015, IUPAC recognized elements 113, 115, 117 and 118, and announced the elements' proposed final names on 8 June 2016. The names, nihonium (113, Nh), moscovium (115, Mc), tennessine (117, Ts), and oganesson (118, Og), are expected to be approved by the end of 2016. \n\nList of the 118 known chemical elements\n\nThe following sortable table includes the 118 known chemical elements, with the names linking to the Wikipedia articles on each.\n* Atomic number, name, and symbol all serve independently as unique identifiers.\n* Names are those accepted by IUPAC; provisional names for recently produced elements not yet formally named are in parentheses.\n* Group, period, and block refer to an element's position in the periodic table. Group numbers here show the currently accepted numbering; for older alternate numberings, see Group (periodic table).\n* State of matter (solid, liquid, or gas) applies at standard temperature and pressure conditions (STP).\n* Occurrence distinguishes naturally occurring elements, categorized as either primordial or transient (from decay), and additional synthetic elements that have been produced technologically, but are not known to occur naturally.\n* Description summarizes an element's properties using the broad categories commonly presented in periodic tables: Actinide, alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, lanthanide, post-transition metal, metalloid, noble gas, polyatomic or diatomic nonmetal, and transition metal.", "Polonium is a chemical element with symbol Po and atomic number 84. A rare and highly radioactive metal with no stable isotopes, polonium is chemically similar to selenium and tellurium, though it also shows resemblances to its horizontal neighbors thallium, lead, and bismuth due to its metallic character. Due to the short half-life of all its isotopes, its natural occurrence is limited to tiny traces of the fleeting polonium-210 in uranium ores, as it is the penultimate daughter of natural uranium-238: it has a half-life of 138 days. Though slightly longer-lived isotopes exist, they are much more difficult to produce. Today, polonium is more often produced in milligram quantities by the neutron irradiation of bismuth. Due to its intense radioactivity, that results in radiolysis of chemical bonds and immense radioactive self-heating, its chemistry has mostly been investigated on the trace scale only.\n\nPolonium was discovered in 1898 by Marie and Pierre Curie, when it was chemically separated out of uranium ore and identified solely by its strong radioactivity: it was the first element to be so discovered. It was named after Marie Curie's homeland of Poland. Applications of polonium are sparse and dependent on its radioactivity: they include heaters in space probes, antistatic devices, and sources of neutrons and alpha particles. Its intense radioactivity makes it dangerously toxic to life.\n\nCharacteristics\n\nIsotopes\n\nPolonium has 33 known isotopes, all of which are radioactive. They have atomic masses that range from 188 to 220 u. 210Po (half-life 138.376 days) is the most widely available. The longer-lived 209Po (half-life , longest-lived of all polonium isotopes) and 208Po (half-life 2.9 years) can be made through the alpha, proton, or deuteron bombardment of lead or bismuth in a cyclotron. \n\n210Po is an alpha emitter that has a half-life of 138.4 days; it decays directly to its stable daughter isotope, 206Pb. A milligram (5 curies) of 210Po emits about as many alpha particles per second as 5 grams of 226Ra. A few curies (1 curie equals 37 gigabecquerels, 1 Ci \n 37 GBq) of 210Po emit a blue glow which is caused by ionisation of the surrounding air.\n\nAbout one in 100,000 alpha emissions causes an excitation in the nucleus which then results in the emission of a gamma ray with a maximum energy of 803 keV. \n\nSolid state form\n\nPolonium is a radioactive element that exists in two metallic allotropes. The alpha form is the only known example of a simple cubic crystal structure in a single atom basis, with an edge length of 335.2 picometers; the beta form is rhombohedral. The structure of polonium has been characterized by X-ray diffraction and electron diffraction. \n\n210Po (in common with 238Pu) has the ability to become airborne with ease: if a sample is heated in air to 55 C, 50% of it is vaporized in 45 hours to form diatomic Po2 molecules, even though the melting point of polonium is 254 C and its boiling point is 962 C.\nMore than one hypothesis exists for how polonium does this; one suggestion is that small clusters of polonium atoms are spalled off by the alpha decay.\n\nChemistry\n\nThe chemistry of polonium is similar to that of tellurium, although it also shows some similarities to its neighbor bismuth due to its metallic character. Polonium dissolves readily in dilute acids, but is only slightly soluble in alkalis. Polonium solutions are first colored in pink by the Po2+ ions, but then rapidly become yellow because alpha radiation from polonium ionizes the solvent and converts Po2+ into Po4+. This process is accompanied by bubbling and emission of heat and light by glassware due to the absorbed alpha particles; as a result, polonium solutions are volatile and will evaporate within days unless sealed. \n\nCompounds\n\nPolonium has no common compounds, and almost all of its compounds are synthetically created; more than 50 of those are known. The most stable class of polonium compounds are polonides, which are prepared by direct reaction of two elements. Na2Po has the antifluorite structure, the polonides of Ca, Ba, Hg, Pb and lanthanides form a NaCl lattice, BePo and CdPo have the wurtzite and MgPo the nickel arsenide structure. Most polonides decompose upon heating to about 600 °C, except for HgPo that decomposes at ~300 °C and the lanthanide polonides, which do not decompose but melt at temperatures above 1000 °C. For example, PrPo melts at 1250 °C and TmPo at 2200 °C.Greenwood, p. 766 PbPo is one of the very few naturally occurring polonium compounds, as polonium alpha decays to form lead. \n\nPolonium hydride () is a volatile liquid at room temperature prone to dissociation; it is thermally unstable. The two oxides PoO2 and PoO3 are the products of oxidation of polonium. \n\nHalides of the structure PoX2, PoX4 and PoF6 are known. They are soluble in the corresponding hydrogen halides, i.e., PoClX in HCl, PoBrX in HBr and PoI4 in HI. Polonium dihalides are formed by direct reaction of the elements or by reduction of PoCl4 with SO2 and with PoBr4 with H2S at room temperature. Tetrahalides can be obtained by reacting polonium dioxide with HCl, HBr or HI.Greenwood, pp. 765, 771, 775\n\nOther polonium compounds include potassium polonite as a polonite, polonate, acetate, bromate, carbonate, citrate, chromate, cyanide, formate, (II) and (IV) hydroxides, nitrate, selenate, selenite, monosulfide, sulfate, disulfate and sulfite.Figgins, P. E. (1961) [http://www.osti.gov/bridge/purl.cover.jsp?purl\n/4034029-SolPsF/ The Radiochemistry of Polonium], National Academy of Sciences, US Atomic Energy Commission, pp. 13–14 [https://books.google.com/books?idN0MrAAAAYAAJ&printsec\nfrontcover Google Books] \n\nOxides\n* PoO\n* PoO2\n* PoO3\n\nHydrides\n* PoH2\n\nHalides\n* PoX2 (except PoF2)\n* PoX4\n* PoF6\n* PoBr2Cl2 (salmon pink)\n\nHistory\n\nAlso tentatively called \"radium F\", polonium was discovered by Marie and Pierre Curie in 1898, [http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/curiespo.html English translation.] and was named after Marie Curie's native land of Poland (). Poland at the time was under Russian, German, and Austro-Hungarian partition, and did not exist as an independent country. It was Curie's hope that naming the element after her native land would publicize its lack of independence. Polonium may be the first element named to highlight a political controversy.\n\nThis element was the first one discovered by the Curies while they were investigating the cause of pitchblende radioactivity. Pitchblende, after removal of the radioactive elements uranium and thorium, was more radioactive than the uranium and thorium combined. This spurred the Curies to search for additional radioactive elements. They first separated out polonium from pitchblende in July 1898, and five months later, also isolated radium. [http://www.aip.org/history/curie/discover.htm English translation]\n\nIn the United States, polonium was produced as part of the Manhattan Project's Dayton Project during World War II. It was a critical part of the implosion-type nuclear weapon design used in the Fat Man bomb on Nagasaki in 1945. Polonium and beryllium were the key ingredients of the 'urchin' detonator at the center of the bomb's spherical plutonium pit. The urchin ignited the nuclear chain reaction at the moment of prompt-criticality to ensure the bomb did not fizzle.\n\nMuch of the basic physics of polonium was classified until after the war. The fact that it was used as an initiator was classified until the 1960s. \n\nThe Atomic Energy Commission and the Manhattan Project funded human experiments using polonium on five people at the University of Rochester between 1943 and 1947. The people were administered between 9 and of polonium to study its excretion.\n[http://contentdm.library.unr.edu/cdm4/item_viewer.php?CISOROOT/conghear&CISOPTR\n102&CISOBOX1&REC\n1#metajump American nuclear guinea pigs: three decades of radiation experiments on U.S. citizens]. United States. Congress. House. of the Committee on Energy and Commerce. Subcommittee on Energy Conservation and Power, published by U.S. Government Printing Office, 1986, Identifier Y 4.En 2/3:99-NN, Electronic Publication Date 2010, at the University of Nevada, Reno, unr.edu\"Studies of polonium metabolism in human subjects\", Chapter 3 in Biological Studies with Polonium, Radium, and Plutonium, National, Nuclear Energy Series, Volume VI-3, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950, cited in \"American Nuclear Guinea Pigs ...\", 1986 House Energy and Commerce committee report \n\nOccurrence and production\n\nPolonium is a very rare element in nature because of the short half-life of all its isotopes. 210Po, 214Po, and 218Po appear in the decay chain of 238U; thus polonium can be found in uranium ores at about 0.1 mg per metric ton (1 part in 1010), which is approximately 0.2% of the abundance of radium. The amounts in the Earth's crust are not harmful. Polonium has been found in tobacco smoke from tobacco leaves grown with phosphate fertilizers. \n\nBecause it is present in such small concentrations, isolation of polonium from natural sources is a very tedious process. The largest batch of the element ever extracted, performed in the first half of the 20th century, contained only 40 Ci (9 mg) of polonium-210 and was obtained by processing 37 tonnes of residues from radium production. Polonium is now obtained by irradiating bismuth with high-energy neutrons or protons.Greenwood, p. 249\n\nIn 1934, an experiment showed that when natural 209Bi is bombarded with neutrons, 210Bi is created, which then decays to 210Po via beta-minus decay. The final purification is done pyrochemically followed by liquid-liquid extraction techniques. Polonium may now be made in milligram amounts in this procedure which uses high neutron fluxes found in nuclear reactors. Only about 100 grams are produced each year, practically all of it in Russia, making polonium exceedingly rare. \n\nThis process can cause problems in lead-bismuth based liquid metal cooled nuclear reactors such as those used in the Soviet Navy's K-27. Measures must be taken in these reactors to deal with the unwanted possibility of 210Po being released from the coolant. \n\nThe longer-lived isotopes of polonium, 208Po and 209Po, can be formed by proton or deuteron bombardment of bismuth using a cyclotron. Other more proton-rich and more unstable isotopes can be formed by the irradiation of platinum with carbon nuclei. \n\nApplications\n\nPolonium-based sources of alpha particles were produced in the former Soviet Union. Such sources were applied for measuring the thickness of industrial coatings via attenuation of alpha radiation. \n\nBecause of intense alpha radiation, a one-gram sample of 210Po will spontaneously heat up to above 500 C generating about 140 watts of power. Therefore, 210Po is used as an atomic heat source to power radioisotope thermoelectric generators via thermoelectric materials.Greenwood, p. 251 For instance, 210Po heat sources were used in the Lunokhod 1 (1970) and Lunokhod 2 (1973) Moon rovers to keep their internal components warm during the lunar nights, as well as the Kosmos 84 and 90 satellites (1965). (in Russian). npc.sarov.ru \n\nThe alpha particles emitted by polonium can be converted to neutrons using beryllium oxide, at a rate of 93 neutrons per million alpha particles. Thus Po-BeO mixtures or alloys are used as a neutron source, for example in a neutron trigger or initiator for nuclear weapons and for inspections of oil wells. About 1500 sources of this type, with an individual activity of 1850 Ci, have been used annually in the Soviet Union. \n\nPolonium was also part of brushes or more complex tools that eliminate static charges in photographic plates, textile mills, paper rolls, sheet plastics, and on substrates (such as automotive) prior to the application of coatings. Alpha particles emitted by polonium ionize air molecules that neutralize charges on the nearby surfaces. Some anti-static brushes contain up to 500 uCi of 210Po as a source of charged particles for neutralizing static electricity. In USA, the devices with no more than 500 µCi of (sealed) 210Po per unit can be bought in any amount under a \"general license\", which means that a buyer need not be registered by any authorities. Polonium needs to be replaced in these devices nearly every year because of its short half-life; it is also highly radioactive and therefore has been mostly replaced by less dangerous beta particle sources.\n\nTiny amounts of 210Po are sometimes used in the laboratory and for teaching purposes—typically of the order of 4 -, in the form of sealed sources, with the polonium deposited on a substrate or in a resin or polymer matrix—are often exempt from licensing by the NRC and similar authorities as they are not considered hazardous. Small amounts of 210Po are manufactured for sale to the public in the United States as 'needle sources' for laboratory experimentation, and are retailed by scientific supply companies. The polonium is a layer of plating which in turn is plated with a material such as gold, which allows the alpha radiation (used in experiments such as cloud chambers) to pass while preventing the polonium from being released and presenting a toxic hazard. According to United Nuclear, they typically sell between four and eight such sources per year. \n\nBiology and toxicity\n\nOverview\n\nPolonium is highly dangerous and has no biological role. By mass, polonium-210 is around 250,000 times more toxic than hydrogen cyanide (the for 210Po is less than 1 microgram for an average adult (see below) compared with about 250 milligrams for hydrogen cyanide ). The main hazard is its intense radioactivity (as an alpha emitter), which makes it very difficult to handle safely. Even in microgram amounts, handling 210Po is extremely dangerous, requiring specialized equipment (a negative pressure alpha glove box equipped with high performance filters), adequate monitoring, and strict handling procedures to avoid any contamination. Alpha particles emitted by polonium will damage organic tissue easily if polonium is ingested, inhaled, or absorbed, although they do not penetrate the epidermis and hence are not hazardous as long as the alpha particles remain outside the body. Wearing chemically resistant and intact gloves is a mandatory precaution to avoid transcutaneous diffusion of polonium directly through the skin. Polonium delivered in concentrated nitric acid can easily diffuse through inadequate gloves (e.g., latex gloves) or the acid may damage the gloves. \n\nIt has been reported that some microbes can methylate polonium by the action of methylcobalamin. This is similar to the way in which mercury, selenium and tellurium are methylated in living things to create organometallic compounds. Studies investigating the metabolism of polonium-210 in rats have shown that only 0.002 to 0.009% of polonium-210 ingested is excreted as volatile polonium-210.\n\nAcute effects\n\nThe median lethal dose (LD50) for acute radiation exposure is generally about 4.5 Sv. The committed effective dose equivalent 210Po is 0.51 µSv/Bq if ingested, and 2.5 µSv/Bq if inhaled. So a fatal 4.5 Sv dose can be caused by ingesting , about 50 nanograms (ng), or inhaling , about 10 ng. One gram of 210Po could thus in theory poison 20 million people of whom 10 million would die. The actual toxicity of 210Po is lower than these estimates, because radiation exposure that is spread out over several weeks (the biological half-life of polonium in humans is 30 to 50 days ) is somewhat less damaging than an instantaneous dose. It has been estimated that a median lethal dose of 210Po is 15 MBq, or 0.089 micrograms, still an extremely small amount. For comparison, one grain of table salt is about 0.06 mg \n 60 μg.[http://www.physlink.com/Education/AskExperts/ae342.cfm]\n\nLong term (chronic) effects\n\nIn addition to the acute effects, radiation exposure (both internal and external) carries a long-term risk of death from cancer of 5–10% per Sv. The general population is exposed to small amounts of polonium as a radon daughter in indoor air; the isotopes 214Po and 218Po are thought to cause the majority of the estimated 15,000–22,000 lung cancer deaths in the US every year that have been attributed to indoor radon. Tobacco smoking causes additional exposure to polonium. \n\nRegulatory exposure limits and handling\n\nThe maximum allowable body burden for ingested 210Po is only , which is equivalent to a particle massing only 6.8 picograms. The maximum permissible workplace concentration of airborne 210Po is about 10 Bq/m3 ( µCi/cm3). The target organs for polonium in humans are the spleen and liver. As the spleen (150 g) and the liver (1.3 to 3 kg) are much smaller than the rest of the body, if the polonium is concentrated in these vital organs, it is a greater threat to life than the dose which would be suffered (on average) by the whole body if it were spread evenly throughout the body, in the same way as caesium or tritium (as T2O).\n\n210Po is widely used in industry, and readily available with little regulation or restriction. In the US, a tracking system run by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission was implemented in 2007 to register purchases of more than 16 Ci of polonium-210 (enough to make up 5,000 lethal doses). The IAEA \"is said to be considering tighter regulations ... There is talk that it might tighten the polonium reporting requirement by a factor of 10, to .\" As of 2013, this is still the only alpha emitting byproduct material available, as a NRC Exempt Quantity, which may be held without a radioactive material license.\n\nPolonium and its compounds must be handled in a glove box, which is further enclosed in another box, maintained at a slightly higher pressure than the glove box to prevent the radioactive materials from leaking out. Gloves made of natural rubber do not provide sufficient protection against the radiation from polonium; surgical gloves are necessary. Neoprene gloves shield radiation from polonium better than natural rubber. \n\nWell-known poisoning cases\n\n20th century\n\nPolonium was administered to humans for experimental purposes from 1943 to 1947; it was injected into four hospitalised patients, and orally given to a fifth. Studies such as this were funded by the Manhattan Project and the AEC, and conducted at the University of Rochester. The objective was to obtain data on human excretion of polonium to correlate with more extensive data from rats. Patients selected as subjects were chosen because experimenters wanted persons who had not been exposed to polonium either through work or accident. All subjects had incurable diseases. Excretion of polonium was followed, and an autopsy was conducted at that time on the deceased patient to determine which organs absorbed the polonium. Patients' ages ranged from 'early thirties' to 'early forties.' The experiments were described in Chapter 3 of Biological Studies with Polonium, Radium, and Plutonium, National Nuclear Energy Series, Volume VI-3, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950. Not specified is the isotope under study, but at the time polonium-210 was the most readily available polonium isotope. The DoE factsheet submitted for this experiment reported no follow up on these subjects. \n\nIt has also been suggested that Irène Joliot-Curie was the first person to die from the radiation effects of polonium. She was accidentally exposed to polonium in 1946 when a sealed capsule of the element exploded on her laboratory bench. In 1956, she died from leukemia. \n\nAccording to the 2008 book The Bomb in the Basement, several deaths in Israel during 1957–1969 were caused by 210Po. A leak was discovered at a Weizmann Institute laboratory in 1957. Traces of 210Po were found on the hands of professor Dror Sadeh, a physicist who researched radioactive materials. Medical tests indicated no harm, but the tests did not include bone marrow. Sadeh died from cancer. One of his students died of leukemia, and two colleagues died after a few years, both from cancer. The issue was investigated secretly, and there was never any formal admission that a connection between the leak and the deaths had existed.\n\n21st century\n\nThe cause of death in the 2006 murder of the Russian KGB agent who defected to the British MI6 intelligence agency, Alexander Litvinenko was determined to be 210Po poisoning. According to Prof. Nick Priest of Middlesex University, an environmental toxicologist and radiation expert, speaking on Sky News on December 3, 2006, Litvinenko was probably the first person to die of the acute α-radiation effects of 210Po. \n\nAbnormally high concentrations of 210Po were detected in July 2012 in clothes and personal belongings of the Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat, a heavy smoker, who died on 11 November 2004 of uncertain causes. The spokesman for the Institut de Radiophysique in Lausanne, Switzerland, where those items were analyzed, stressed that the \"clinical symptoms described in Arafat's medical reports were not consistent with polonium-210 and that conclusions could not be drawn as to whether the Palestinian leader was poisoned or not\", and that \"the only way to confirm the findings would be to exhume Arafat's body to test it for polonium-210.\" On 27 November 2012 Arafat's body was exhumed and samples were taken for separate analysis by experts from France, Switzerland and Russia. On 12 October 2013, The Lancet published the group's finding that high levels of the element were found in Arafat's blood, urine, and in saliva stains on his clothes and toothbrush. The French tests later found some polonium but stated it was from \"natural environmental origin.\" Following later Russian tests, Vladimir Uiba, the head of the Russian Federal Medical and Biological Agency, stated in December 2013 that Arafat died of natural causes, and they had no plans to conduct further tests.\n\nTreatment\n\nIt has been suggested that chelation agents such as British Anti-Lewisite (dimercaprol) can be used to decontaminate humans. In one experiment, rats were given a fatal dose of 1.45 MBq/kg (8.7 ng/kg) of 210Po;\nall untreated rats were dead after 44 days, but 90% of the rats treated with the chelation agent\nHOEtTTC remained alive after 5 months. \n\nDetection in biological specimens\n\nPolonium-210 may be quantified in biological specimens by alpha particle spectrometry to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in hospitalized patients or to provide evidence in a medicolegal death investigation. The baseline urinary excretion of polonium-210 in healthy persons due to routine exposure to environmental sources is normally in a range of 5–15 mBq/day. Levels in excess of 30 mBq/day are suggestive of excessive exposure to the radionuclide. \n\nOccurrence in humans and the biosphere\n\nPolonium-210 is widespread in the biosphere, including in human tissues, because of its position in the uranium-238 decay chain. Natural uranium-238 in the Earth's crust decays through a series of solid radioactive intermediates including radium-226 to the radioactive gas radon-222, some of which, during its 3.8-day half-life, diffuses into the atmosphere. There it decays through several more steps to polonium-210, much of which, during its 138-day half-life, is washed back down to the Earth's surface, thus entering the biosphere, before finally decaying to stable lead-206. \n\nAs early as the 1920s Antoine Lacassagne, using polonium provided by his colleague Marie Curie, showed that the element has a very specific pattern of uptake in rabbit tissues, with high concentrations particularly in liver, kidney and testes. More recent evidence suggests that this behavior results from polonium substituting for sulfur in sulfur-containing amino-acids or related molecules and that similar patterns of distribution occur in human tissues. Polonium is indeed an element naturally present in all humans, contributing appreciably to natural background dose, with wide geographical and cultural variations, and particularly high levels in arctic residents, for example. \n\nTobacco\n\nPolonium-210 in tobacco contributes to many of the cases of lung cancer worldwide. Most of this polonium is derived from lead-210 deposited on tobacco leaves from the atmosphere; the lead-210 is a product of radon-222 gas, much of which appears to originate from the decay of radium-226 from fertilizers applied to the tobacco soils. \n\nThe presence of polonium in tobacco smoke has been known since the early 1960s. Some of the world's biggest tobacco firms researched ways to remove the substance—to no avail—over a 40-year period. The results were never published.\n\nFood\n\nPolonium is also found in the food chain, especially in seafood.", "The curie (symbol Ci) is a non-SI unit of radioactivity, named 'in honour of' Pierre Curie, according to his widow, the famed radiation researcher Marie Curie. \n\nIt was originally defined as \"the quantity or mass of radium emanation in equilibrium with one gram of radium (element)\" but is currently defined as: 1 Ci \n 3.7 × 1010 decays per second after more accurate measurements of the activity of 226Ra (which has a specific activity of 3.66 x 1010 Bq/g. )\n\nIn 1975 the General Conference on Weights and Measures gave the becquerel (Bq), equal to one reciprocal second, official status as the SI unit of activity. \nTherefore:\n1 Ci 3.7 × 1010 Bq \n 37 GBq \nand\n1 Bq ≅ 2.703 × 10−11 Ci ≅ 27 pCi\n\nWhile its continued use is discouraged by National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and other bodies, the curie is still widely used throughout the government, industry and medicine in the United States and in other countries.\n\nThe curie is a large amount of activity, and was intentionally so. According to Bertram Boltwood, Marie Curie thought that 'the use of the name \"curie\" for so infinitesimally small (a) quantity of anything was altogether inappropriate.'\n\nThe typical human body contains roughly 0.1 μCi (14 mg) of naturally occurring potassium-40. A human body containing 16 kg of carbon (see composition of the human body) would also have about 24 nanograms or 0.1 μCi of carbon-14. Together, these would have an activity of approximately 0.2 μCi or 7400 Bq inside the person's body.\n\nCurie as a measure of quantity\n\nUnits of activity (the curie and the becquerel) also refer to a quantity of radioactive atoms. Because the probability of decay is a fixed physical quantity, for a known number of atoms of a particular radionuclide, a predictable number will decay in a given time. The number of decays that will occur in one second in one gram of atoms of a particular radionuclide is known as the specific activity of that radionuclide.\n\nThe activity of a sample decreases with time because of decay.\n\nThe rules of radioactive decay may be used to convert activity to an actual number of atoms. They state that 1 Ci of radioactive atoms would follow the expression:\nN (atoms) × λ (s−1) 1 Ci \n 3.7 × 1010 (Bq)\nand so,\nN = 3.7 × 1010 / λ,\nwhere λ is the decay constant in (s−1).\n\nWe can also express activity in moles:\n\\begin{align}\\text{1 Ci}&=\\frac{3.7\\times 10^{10}}{(\\ -ln 1/2)N_{\\rm A}}\\text{ moles}\\times t_{1/2}\\text{ in seconds}\\\\\n&\\approx 8.8639\\times 10^{-14}\\text{ moles}\\times t_{1/2}\\text{ in seconds}\\\\\n&\\approx 5.3183\\times 10^{-12}\\text{ moles}\\times t_{1/2}\\text{ in minutes}\\\\\n&\\approx 3.1910\\times 10^{-10}\\text{ moles}\\times t_{1/2}\\text{ in hours}\\\\\n&\\approx 7.6584\\times 10^{-9}\\text{ moles}\\times t_{1/2}\\text{ in days}\\\\\n&\\approx 2.7972\\times 10^{-6}\\text{ moles}\\times t_{1/2}\\text{ in years}\n\\end{align}\nwhere NA is Avogadro's number and t1/2 is the half life. The number of moles may be converted to grams by multiplying by the atomic mass.\n\nHere are some examples:\n\nRadiation related quantities\n\nThe following table shows radiation quantities in SI and non-SI units." ] }

{ "description": [ "Marie and Pierre Curie and the Discovery of Polonium and Radium. by Nanny Fröman * Introduction. Marie and Pierre Curie's pioneering research was again brought to ...", "Describe what the Curies discovered. ... contained other radioactive elements. The Curies started looking for these ... Both polonium and radium were more ...", "... The Curies Discover Radium. ... the Curies succeeded in isolating element 84, polonium ... Get 6 months of WIRED for just $5.", "Dr. Marie Curie is known to the world as the scientist who discovered radioactive metals i.e. Radium & Polonium. Marie Curie was a Polish physicist and chemist who ...", "Her big claim to fame was the discovery of two new elements: Polonium; ... Radioactivity is a very good word and it was invented by Marie Curie. Elements that were ...", "POLONIUM (Po) Learn more about Marie Curie ... Polonium was the first element discovered by Curie and it ... Why was Polonium discovered? Curie was attempting ...", "Marie Curie - Questions and ... Prize in Chemistry for her discoveries and studies of the elements radium and polonium. ... Pierre Curie and the Discovery of Polonium ...", "... within eight months in 1898 she discovered two elements, polonium and ... With the foregoing discovery of polonium, the Curies had oddly enough begun with the ...", "Polonium, (element 84), was discovered in 1898 and named ... Johnny Ball lifting the lid on the radioactive element polonium discovered by Marie Curie and her husband ..." ], "filename": [ "139/139_4361.txt", "88/88_4362.txt", "194/194_4363.txt", "27/27_4364.txt", "148/148_4365.txt", "179/179_4367.txt", "87/87_4368.txt", "82/82_4369.txt", "42/42_4370.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 ], "title": [ "Marie and Pierre Curie and the Discovery of Polonium and ...", "THE CURIES - nde-ed.org", "Dec. 21, 1898: The Curies Discover Radium | WIRED", "Madame Curie - Marie Curie And Radioactive Elements", "Marie Curie (1866-1934) - Planet Science", "POLONIUM (Po) - Pomona", "Marie Curie - Questions and Answers - Nobel Prize", "Chemistry International -- Newsmagazine for IUPAC", "Polonium - Element information, properties and uses ..." ], "url": [ "http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/themes/physics/curie/", "https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/HighSchool/Radiography/curies.htm", "http://www.wired.com/2009/12/1221curies-discover-radium", "http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blMarieCurie.htm", "http://www.planet-science.com/categories/over-11s/science-celebrities/2010/09/marie-curie-(1866-%E2%80%93-1934).aspx", "http://www.chemistry.pomona.edu/chemistry/periodic_table/elements/polonium/polonium1.htm", "http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1911/marie-curie-faq.html", "http://iupac.org/publications/ci/2011/3301/5_adloff.html", "http://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/84/polonium" ], "search_context": [ "Marie and Pierre Curie and the Discovery of Polonium and Radium\nLists of Nobel Prizes and Laureates\nLists of Nobel Prizes and Laureates\nMarie and Pierre Curie and the Discovery of Polonium and Radium\nby Nanny Fröman *\nIntroduction\nMarie and Pierre Curie 's pioneering research was again brought to mind when on April 20 1995, their bodies were taken from their place of burial at Sceaux, just outside Paris, and in a solemn ceremony were laid to rest under the mighty dome of the Panthéon. Marie Curie thus became the first woman to be accorded this mark of honour on her own merit. One woman, Sophie Berthelot, admittedly already rested there but in the capacity of wife of the chemist Marcelin Berthelot (1827-1907).\nIt was François Mitterrand who, before ending his fourteen-year-long presidency, took this initiative, as he said \"in order to finally respect the equality of women and men before the law and in reality\" (\"pour respecter enfin ...l'égalité des femmes et des hommes dans le droit comme dans les faits\"). In point of fact - as the press pointed out - this initiative was symbolic three times over. Marie Curie was a woman, she was an immigrant and she had to a high degree helped increase the prestige of France in the scientific world.\nAt the end of the 19th century, a number of discoveries were made in physics which paved the way for the breakthrough of modern physics and led to the revolutionary technical development that is continually changing our daily lives.\nAround 1886, Heinrich Hertz demonstrated experimentally the existence of radio waves. It is said that Hertz only smiled incredulously when anyone predicted that his waves would one day be sent round the earth. Hertz died in 1894 at the early age of 37. In September 1895, Guglielmo Marconi sent the first radio signal over a distance of 1.5 km. In 1901 he spanned the Atlantic. Hertz did not live long enough to experience the far-reaching positive effects of his great discovery, nor of course did he have to see it abused in bad television programs. It is hard to predict the consequences of new discoveries in physics.\nOn November 8, 1895, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen at the University of Würzburg, discovered a new kind of radiation which he called X-rays. It could in time be identified as the short-wave, high frequency counterpart of Hertz's waves. The ability of the radiation to pass through opaque material that was impenetrable to ordinary light, naturally created a great sensation. Röntgen himself wrote to a friend that initially, he told no one except his wife about what he was doing. People would say, \"Röntgen is out of his mind\". On January 1, 1896, he mailed his first announcement of the discovery to his colleagues. \"... und nun ging der Teufel los\" (\"and now the Devil was let loose\") he wrote. His discovery very soon made an impact on practical medicine. In physics it led to a chain of new and sensational findings. When Henri Becquerel was exposing salts of uranium to sunlight to study whether the new radiation could have a connection with luminescence, he found out by chance - thanks to a few days of cloudy weather - that another new type of radiation was being spontaneously emanated without the salts of uranium having to be illuminated - a radiation that could pass through metal foil and darken a photographic plate. The two researchers who were to play a major role in the continued study of this new radiation were Marie and Pierre Curie.\nMarie\nMarie Curie.\nMarie Sklodowska, as she was called before marriage, was born in Warsaw in 1867. Both her parents were teachers who believed deeply in the importance of education. Marie had her first lessons in physics and chemistry from her father. She had a brilliant aptitude for study and a great thirst for knowledge; however, advanced study was not possible for women in Poland. Marie dreamed of being able to study at the Sorbonne in Paris, but this was beyond the means of her family. To solve the problem, Marie and her elder sister, Bronya, came to an arrangement: Marie should go to work as a governess and help her sister with the money she managed to save so that Bronya could study medicine at the Sorbonne. When Bronya had taken her degree she, in her turn, would contribute to the cost of Marie's studies.\nSo it was not until she was 24 that Marie came to Paris to study mathematics and physics. Bronya was now married to a doctor of Polish origin, and it was at Bronya's urgent invitation to come and live with them that Marie took the step of leaving for Paris. By then she had been away from her studies for six years, nor had she had any training in understanding rapidly spoken French. But her keen interest in studying and her joy at being at the Sorbonne with all its opportunities helped her surmount all difficulties. To save herself a two-hours journey, she rented a little attic in the Quartier Latin. There the cold was so intense that at night she had to pile on everything she had in the way of clothing so as to be able to sleep. But as compensation for all her privations she had total freedom to be able to devote herself wholly to her studies. \"It was like a new world opened to me, the world of science, which I was at last permitted to know in all liberty,\" she writes. And it was France's leading mathematicians and physicists whom she was able to go to hear, people with names we now encounter in the history of science: Marcel Brillouin, Paul Painlevé, Gabriel Lippmann , and Paul Appell. After two years, when she took her degree in physics in 1893, she headed the list of candidates and, in the following year, she came second in a degree in mathematics. After three years she had brilliantly passed examinations in physics and mathematics. Her goal was to take a teacher's diploma and then to return to Poland.\nMarie Sklodowska, before she left for Paris.\nPierre\nPierre Curie.\nNow, however, there occurred an event that was to be of decisive importance in her life. She met Pierre Curie. He was 35 years, eight years older, and an internationally known physicist, but an outsider in the French scientific community - a serious idealist and dreamer whose greatest wish was to be able to devote his life to scientific work. He was completely indifferent to outward distinctions and a career. He earned a living as the head of a laboratory at the School of Industrial Physics and Chemistry where engineers were trained and he lived for his research into crystals and into the magnetic properties of bodies at different temperatures. He had not attended one of the French elite schools but had been taught by his father, who was a physician, and by a private teacher. He passed his baccalauréat at the early age of 16 and at 21, with his brother Jacques, he had discovered piezoelectricity, which means that a difference in electrical potential is seen when mechanical stresses are applied on certain crystals, including quartz. Such crystals are now used in microphones, electronic apparatus and clocks.\nMarie, too, was an idealist; though outwardly shy and retiring, she was in reality energetic and single-minded. Pierre and Marie immediately discovered an intellectual affinity, which was very soon transformed into deeper feelings. In July 1895, they were married at the town hall at Sceaux, where Pierre's parents lived. They were given money as a wedding present which they used to buy a bicycle for each of them, and long, sometimes adventurous, cycle rides became their way of relaxing. Their life was otherwise quietly monotonous, a life filled with work and study.\nPersuaded by his father and by Marie, Pierre submitted his doctoral thesis in 1895. It concerned various types of magnetism, and contained a presentation of the connection between temperature and magnetism that is now known as Curie's Law. In 1896, Marie passed her teacher's diploma, coming first in her group. Their daughter Irène was born in September 1897. Pierre had managed to arrange that Marie should be allowed to work in the school's laboratory, and in 1897, she concluded a number of investigations into the magnetic properties of steel on behalf of an industrial association. Deciding after a time to go on doing research, Marie looked around for a subject for a doctoral thesis.\nBecquerel's discovery had not aroused very much attention. When, just a day or so after his discovery, he informed the Monday meeting of l'Académie des Sciences, his colleagues listened politely, then went on to the next item on the agenda. It was Röntgen's discovery and the possibilities it provided that were the focus of the interest and enthusiasm of researchers. Becquerel himself made certain important observations, for instance that gases through which the rays passed become able to conduct electricity, but he was soon to leave this field. Marie decided to make a systematic investigation of the mysterious \"uranium rays\". She had an excellent aid at her disposal - an electrometer for the measurement of weak electrical currents, which was constructed by Pierre and his brother, and was based on the piezoelectric effect.\nSurprising Results\nResults were not long in coming. Just after a few days, Marie discovered that thorium gives off the same rays as uranium. Her continued systematic studies of the various chemical compounds gave the surprising result that the strength of the radiation did not depend on the compound that was being studied. It depended only on the amount of uranium or thorium. Chemical compounds of the same element generally have very different chemical and physical properties: one uranium compound is a dark powder, another is a transparent yellow crystal, but what was decisive for the radiation they gave off was only the amount of uranium they contained. Marie drew the conclusion that the ability to radiate did not depend on the arrangement of the atoms in a molecule, it must be linked to the interior of the atom itself. This discovery was absolutely revolutionary. From a conceptual point of view it is her most important contribution to the development of physics. She now went through the whole periodic system. Her findings were that only uranium and thorium gave off this radiation.\nMarie's next idea, seemingly simple but brilliant, was to study the natural ores that contain uranium and thorium. She obtained samples from geological museums and found that of these ores, pitchblende was four to five times more active than was motivated by the amount of uranium. It was her hypothesis that a new element that was considerably more active than uranium was present in small amounts in the ore.\nMarie and Pierre - A Fruitful Collaboration\nFascinating new vistas were opening up. Pierre gave up his research into crystals and symmetry in nature which he was deeply involved in and joined Marie in her project. They found that the strong activity came with the fractions containing bismuth or barium. When Marie continued her analysis of the bismuth fractions, she found that every time she managed to take away an amount of bismuth, a residue with greater activity was left. At the end of June 1898, they had a substance that was about 300 times more strongly active than uranium. In the work they published in July 1898, they write, \"We thus believe that the substance that we have extracted from pitchblende contains a metal never known before, akin to bismuth in its analytic properties. If the existence of this new metal is confirmed, we suggest that it should be called polonium after the name of the country of origin of one of us.\" It was also in this work that they used the term radioactivity for the first time. After another few months of work, the Curies informed the l'Académie des Sciences, on December 26, 1898, that they had demonstrated strong grounds for having come upon an additional very active substance that behaved chemically almost like pure barium. They suggested the name of radium for the new element.\nArduous Work\nIn order to be certain of showing that it was a matter of new elements, the Curies would have to produce them in demonstrable amounts, determine their atomic weight and preferably isolate them. To do so, the Curies would need tons of the costly pitchblende. However, it was known that at the Joachimsthal mine in Bohemia large slag-heaps had been left in the surrounding forests. Marie considered that radium ought to be left in the residue. A sample was sent to them from Bohemia and the slag was found to be even more active than the original mineral. Several tons of pitchblende was later put at their disposal through the good offices of the Austrian Academy of Sciences.\nIt was now that there began the heroic époque in their life that has become legendary. At this stage they needed more room, and the principal of the school where Pierre worked once again came to their aid. They could use a large shed which was not occupied. There the very laborious work of separation and analysis began. Marie carried out the chemical separations, Pierre undertook the measurements after each successive step. Physically it was heavy work for Marie. She processed 20 kilos of raw material at a time. First of all she had to clear away pine needles and any perceptible debris, then she had to undertake the work of separation. \"Sometimes I had to spend a whole day stirring a boiling mass with a heavy iron rod nearly as big as myself. I would be broken with fatigue at day's end,\" she writes.\nIn a preface to Pierre Curie's collected works, Marie describes the shed as having a bituminous floor, and a glass roof which provided incomplete protection against the rain, and where it was like a hothouse in the summer, draughty and cold in the winter; yet it was in that shed that they spent the best and happiest years of their lives. There they could devote themselves to work the livelong day. Sometimes they could not do their processing outdoors, so the noxious gases had to be let out through the open windows. The only furniture were old, worn pine tables where Marie worked with her costly radium fractions. Since they did not have any shelter in which to store their precious products the latter were arranged on tables and boards. Marie could remember the joy they felt when they came into the shed at night, seeing \"from all sides the feebly luminous silhouettes\" of the products of their work. The dangerous gases of which Marie speaks contained, among other things, radon - the radioactive gas which is a matter of concern to us today since small amounts are emitted from certain kinds of building materials. Wilhelm Ostwald , the highly respected German chemist, who was one of the first to realize the importance of the Curies' research, traveled from Berlin to Paris to see how they worked. Neither Pierre nor Marie was at home. He wrote: \"At my earnest request, I was shown the laboratory where radium had been discovered shortly before ... It was a cross between a stable and a potato shed, and if I had not seen the worktable and items of chemical apparatus, I would have thought that I was been played a practical joke.\"\nMarie Presents Her Doctoral Thesis\nAt the same time as the Curies were engaged in their arduous work, each of them had their teaching duties. From 1900 Marie had had a part-time teaching post at the École Normale Supérieur de Sèvres for girls. After thousands of crystallizations, Marie finally - from several tons of the original material - isolated one decigram of almost pure radium chloride and had determined radium's atomic weight as 225. She presented the findings of this work in her doctoral thesis on June 25, 1903. Of the three members of the examination committee, two were to receive the Nobel Prize a few years later: Lippmann , her former teacher, in 1908 for physics, and Moissan , in 1906 for chemistry. The committee expressed the opinion that the findings represented the greatest scientific contribution ever made in a doctoral thesis.\nA little celebration in Marie's honour, was arranged in the evening by a research colleague, Paul Langevin. The guests included Jean Perrin , a prominent professor at the Sorbonne, and Ernest Rutherford , who was then working in Canada but temporarily in Paris and anxious to meet Marie Curie. He had good reason. His study of the deflection of radiation in magnetic fields had not met with success until he had been sent a strongly radioactive preparation by the Curies. By that time he was already famous and was soon to be considered as the greatest experimental physicist of the day. It was a warmish evening and the group went out into the garden. Pierre had prepared an effective finale to the day. When they had all sat down, he drew from his waistcoat pocket a little tube, partly coated with zinc sulfide, which contained a quantity of radium salt in solution. Suddenly the tube became luminous, lighting up the darkness, and the group stared at the display in wonder, quietly and solemnly. But in the light from the tube, Rutherford saw that Pierre's fingers were scarred and inflamed and that he was finding it hard to hold the tube.\nSerious Health Problems\nA week earlier Marie and Pierre had been invited to the Royal Institution in London where Pierre gave a lecture. Before the crowded auditorium he showed how radium rapidly affected photographic plates wrapped in paper, how the substance gave off heat; in the semi-darkness he demonstrated the spectacular light effect. He described the medical tests he had tried out on himself. He had wrapped a sample of radium salts in a thin rubber covering and bound it to his arm for ten hours, then had studied the wound, which resembled a burn, day by day. After 52 days a permanent grey scar remained. In that connection Pierre mentioned the possibility of radium being able to be used in the treatment of cancer. But Pierre's scarred hands shook so that once he happened to spill a little of the costly preparation. Fifty years afterwards the presence of radioactivity was discovered on the premises and certain surfaces had to be cleaned.\nIn actual fact Pierre was ill. His legs shook so that at times he found it hard to stand upright. He was in much pain. He consulted a doctor who diagnosed neurasthenia and prescribed strychnine. And the skin on Marie's fingers was cracked and scarred. Both of them constantly suffered from fatigue. They evidently had no idea that radiation could have a detrimental effect on their general state of health. Pierre, who liked to say that radium had a million times stronger radioactivity than uranium, often carried a sample in his waistcoat pocket to show his friends. Marie liked to have a little radium salt by her bed that shone in the darkness. The papers they left behind them give off pronounced radioactivity. If today at the Bibliothèque Nationale you want to consult the three black notebooks in which their work from December 1897 and the three following years is recorded, you have to sign a certificate that you do so at your own risk. People will have to do this for a long time to come. In fact it takes 1,620 years before the activity of radium is reduced to a half.\nRutherford was just as unsuspecting in regard to the hazards as were the Curies. When it turned out that one of his colleagues who had worked with radioactive substances for several months was able to discharge an electroscope by exhaling, Rutherford expressed his delight. This confirmed his theory of the existence of airborne emanations.\nIn view of the potential for the use of radium in medicine, factories began to be built in the USA for its large-scale production. The question came up of whether or not Marie and Pierre should apply for a patent for the production process. They were both against doing so. Pure research should be carried out for its own sake and must not become mixed up with industry's profit motive. Researchers should be disinterested and make their findings available to everyone. Marie and Pierre were generous in supplying their fellow researchers, Rutherford included, with the preparations they had so laboriously produced. They furnished industry with descriptions of the production process.\nNobel Prize\nIn 1903, Marie and Pierre Curie were awarded half the Nobel Prize in Physics . The citation was, \"in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel.\" Henri Becquerel was awarded the other half for his discovery of spontaneous radioactivity. In a letter to the Swedish Academy of Sciences, Pierre explains that neither of them is able to come to Stockholm to receive the prize. They could not get away because of their teaching obligations. He adds, \"Mme Curie has been ill this summer and is not yet completely recovered.\" That was certainly true but his own health was no better. Not until June 1905 did they go to Stockholm, where Pierre gave a Nobel lecture.\nAt the prize award ceremony, the president of the Swedish Academy referred in his speech to the old proverb: \"union gives strength.\" He went on to quote from the Book of Genesis, \"It is not good that the man should be alone; I will make him an help meet for him.\"\nAlthough the Nobel Prize alleviated their financial worries, the Curies now suddenly found themselves the focus of the interest of the public and the press. Their seemingly romantic story, their labours in intolerable conditions, the remarkable new element which could disintegrate and give off heat from what was apparently an inexhaustible source, all these things made the reports into fairy-tales. At the center was Marie, a frail woman who with a gigantic wand had ground down tons of pitchblende in order to extract a tiny amount of a magical element. Even Le Figaro, otherwise a sensible newspaper, began with \"Once upon a time ...\" They were pursued by journalists from the whole world - a situation they could not deal with. Marie wrote, \"The shattering of our voluntary isolation was a cause of real suffering for us and had all the effects of disaster.\" Pierre wrote in July 1905, \"A whole year has passed since I was able to do any work ... evidently I have not found the way of defending us against frittering away our time, and yet it is very necessary. It is a question of life or death from the intellectual point of view.\"\nBut as Elisabeth Crawford emphasizes in her book The Beginnings of the Nobel Institution, from the latter's viewpoint, the awarding of the 1903 Prize for Physics was masterly. Formerly, only the Prize for Literature and the Peace Prize had obtained wide press coverage; the Prizes for scientific subjects had been considered all too esoteric to be able to interest the general public. The commotion centered on the award of the Prize to the Curies, especially Marie Curie, aroused once and for all the curiosity of the press and the public. The work of researchers was exciting, their findings fascinating.\nThe health of both Marie and Pierre Curie gave rise to concern. Their friends tried to make them work less. All their symptoms were ascribed to the drafty shed and to overexertion. Their dearest wish was to have a new laboratory but no such laboratory was in prospect. When Paul Appell, the dean of the faculty of sciences, appealed to Pierre to let his name be put forward as a recipient for the prestigious Legion of Honor on July 14,1903, Pierre replied, \"... I do not feel the slightest need of being decorated, but I am in the greatest need of a laboratory.\" Although Pierre was given a chair at the Sorbonne in 1904 with the promise of a laboratory, as late as 1906 it had still not begun to be built. Pierre was given access to some rooms in a building used for study by young medical students. Pierre Curie never obtained a real laboratory.\nDreadful Catastrophe\nOn April 19, 1906, Pierre Curie was run over by a horse-drawn wagon near the Pont Neuf in Paris and killed. Now Marie was left alone with two daughters, Irène aged 9 and Ève aged 2. Shock broke her down totally to begin with. But even now she could draw on the toughness and perseverance that were fundamental aspects of her character. When she was offered a pension, she refused it: I am 38 and able to support myself, was her answer. She was appointed to succeed Pierre as the head of the laboratory, being undoubtedly most suitable, and to be responsible for his teaching duties. She thus became the first woman ever appointed to teach at the Sorbonne. After some months, in November 1906, she gave her first lecture. The large amphitheater was packed. As well as students, her audience included people from far and near, journalists and photographers were in attendance. Many people had expected something unusual to occur. Perhaps some manifestation of the historic occasion. When Marie entered, thin, pale and tense, she was met by an ovation. However the expectations of something other than a clear and factual lecture on physics were not fulfilled. But Marie's personality, her aura of simplicity and competence made a great impression.\nIrène was now 9 years old. Marie had definite ideas about the upbringing and education of children that she now wanted to put into practice. Her circle of friends consisted of a small group of professors with children of school age. Marie organized a private school with the parents themselves acting as teachers. A group of some ten children were accordingly taught only by prominent professors: Jean Perrin, Paul Langevin, Édouard Chavannes, a professor of Chinese, Henri Mouton from the Pasteur Institute, a sculptor was engaged for modeling and drawing. Marie took the view that scientific subjects should be taught at an early age but not according to a too rigid curriculum. It was important for children to be able to develop freely. Games and physical activities took up much of the time. Quite a lot of time was taken for travel, too, for the children had to travel to the homes of their teachers, to Marie at Sceaux or to Langevin's lessons in one of the Paris suburbs. The little group became a kind of school for the elite with a great emphasis on science. The children involved say that they have happy memories of that time. For Irène it was in those years that the foundation of her development into a researcher was laid. The educational experiment lasted two years. Subsequently the pupils had to prepare for their forthcoming baccalauréat exam and to follow the traditional educational programs.\nA Second Nobel Prize\nIn 1908 Marie, as the first woman ever, was appointed to become a professor at the Sorbonne. She went on to produce several decigrams of very pure radium chloride before finally, in collaboration with André Debierne, she was able to isolate radium in metallic form. André Debierne, who began as a laboratory assistant, became her faithful collaborator until her death and then succeeded her as head of the laboratory. In 1911 she was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry . The citation by the Nobel Committee was, \"in recognition of her services to the advancement of chemistry by the discovery of the elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element.\"\nNow that the archives have been made available to the public, it is possible to study in detail the events surrounding the awarding of the two Prizes, in 1903 and 1911. In a letter in 1903, several members of the l'Académie des Sciences, including Henri Poincaré and Gaston Darboux, had nominated Becquerel and Pierre Curie for the Prize in Physics. Marie's name was not mentioned. This caused Gösta Mittag-Leffler, a professor of mathematics at Stockholm University College, to write to Pierre Curie. That letter has never survived but Pierre Curie's answer, dated August 6, 1903, has been preserved. He wrote, \"If it is true that one is seriously thinking about me (for the Prize), I very much wish to be considered together with Madame Curie with respect to our research on radioactive bodies.\" Drawing attention to the role she played in the discovery of radium and polonium, he added, \"Do you not think that it would be more satisfying from the artistic point of view, if we were to be associated in this manner?\" (plus joli d'un point de vue artistique).\nSome biographers have questioned whether Marie deserved the Prize for Chemistry in 1911. They have claimed that the discoveries of radium and polonium were part of the reason for the Prize in 1903, even though this was not stated explicitly. Marie was said to have been awarded the Prize again for the same discovery, the award possibly being an expression of sympathy for reasons that will be mentioned below. Actually, however, the citation for the Prize in 1903 was worded deliberately with a view to a future Prize in Chemistry. Chemists considered that the discovery and isolation of radium was the greatest event in chemistry since the discovery of oxygen. That for the first time in history it could be shown that an element could be transmuted into another element, revolutionized chemistry and signified a new epoch.\nA Terrible Year\nRejected by the Academy\nDespite the second Nobel Prize and an invitation to the first Solvay Conference with the world's leading physicists, including Einstein , Poincaré and Planck , 1911 became a dark year in Marie's life. In two smear campaigns she was to experience the inconstancy of the French press. The first was started on 16 November 1910, when, by an article in Le Figaro, it became known that she was willing to be nominated for election to l'Académie des Sciences. Examples of factors other than merit deciding an election did exist, but Marie herself and her eminent research colleagues seemed to have considered that with her exceptionally brilliant scientific merits, her election was self-evident. Notwithstanding, it turned out that it was not merit that was decisive. The dark underlying currents of anti-Semitism, prejudice against women, xenophobia and even anti-science attitudes that existed in French society came welling up to the surface. Normally the election was of no interest to the press. The most rabid paper was the ultra-nationalistic and anti-Semitic L'Action Française, which was led by Léon Daudet, the son of the writer Alphonse Daudet. Dreyfus had got redress for his wrongs in 1906 and had been decorated with the Legion of Honour, but in the eyes of the groups who had been against him during his trial, he was still guilty, was still \"the Jewish traitor.\" The pro-Dreyfus groups who had supported his cause were suspect and the scientists who were supporting Marie were among them. Jokes in bad taste alternated with outrageous accusations. It was said that in her career, Pierre's research had given her a free ride. She came from Poland, though admittedly she was formally a Catholic but her name Sklodowska indicated that she might be of Jewish origin, and so on. A week before the election, an opposing candidate, Édouard Branly, was launched. The vote on January 23, 1911 was taken in the presence of journalists, photographers and hordes of the curious. The election took place in a tumultuous atmosphere. In the first round Marie lost by one vote, in the second by two. In all, fifty-eight votes were cast. A Nobel Prize in 1903 and support from prominent researchers such as Jean Perrin, Henri Poincaré, Paul Appell and the permanent secretary of the Académie, Gaston Darboux, were not sufficient to make the Académie open its doors. This event attracted international attention and indignation. It deeply wounded both Marie and indeed Édouard Branly, too, himself a well-merited researcher.\nThe Langevin Affair\nHowever, Marie's tribulations were not at an end. When, at the beginning of November 1911, Marie went to Belgium, being invited with the world's most eminent physicists to attend the first Solvay Conference, she received a message that a new campaign had started in the press. Now it was a matter of her private life and her relations with her colleague Paul Langevin, who had also been invited to the conference. He had had marital problems for several years and had moved from his suburban home to a small apartment in Paris. Marie was depicted as the reason. Both were described in slanderous terms. The scandal developed dramatically. Marie stands up in her own defence and managed to force an apology from the newspaper Le Temps. The same day she received word from Stockholm that she had been awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. However, the very newspapers that made her a legend when she received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903, now completely ignored the fact that she had been awarded the Prize in Chemistry or merely reported it in a few words on an inside page. The Langevin scandal escalated into a serious affair that shook the university world in Paris and the French government at the highest level. Madame Langevin was preparing legal action to obtain custody of the four children. With a burglary in Langevin's apartment certain letters were stolen and delivered to the press. Léon Daudet made the whole thing into a new Dreyfus affair. Day after day Marie had to run the gauntlet in the newspapers: an alien, a Polish woman, a researcher supported by our French scientists, had come and stolen an honest French woman's husband. Daudet quoted Fouquier-Tinville's notorious words that during the Revolution had sent the chemist Lavoisier to the guillotine: \"The Republic does not need any scientists.\" Marie's friends immediately backed her up. Jean Perrin, Henri Poincaré and Émile Borel appealed to the publishers of the newspapers. Henri Poincaré's cousin, Raymond Poincaré, a senior lawyer who was to become President of France in a few years time, was engaged as advisor. But the scandal kept up its impetus with headlines on the first pages such as \"Madame Curie, can she still remain a professor at the Sorbonne?\" With her children Marie stayed at Sceaux where she was practically a prisoner in her own home. Her friends feared that she would collapse. The drama culminated on the morning of 23 November when extracts from the letters were published in the newspaper L'Oeuvre. There was no proof of the accusations made against Marie and the authenticity of the letters could be questioned but in the heated atmosphere there were few who thought clearly.\nIn her book Souvenirs et rencontres, Marguerite Borel gives a dramatic description of what happened. Émile Borel was extremely indignant and acted quickly. Marie had to be fetched from Sceaux and live with them until the storm was over. Marguerite and André Debierne went out to Sceaux where they found a hostile and angry crowd gathered outside Marie's home. Someone shouted, \"Go home to Poland.\" A stone hit the house. Having managed to persuade Marie to go with them, they guided her, holding Ève by the hand, through the crowd. Marie sat stiff and deathly pale throughout their journey. Marguerite wanted to take her hand, but did not venture to do so. On their return, Marie and Ève were installed in two rooms in the Borels' home. Henriette Perrin looks after Irène. But the Borels' home was owned by the École Normale Supérieure and Émile Borel was called up to the Minister of Education (Théodore Steeg, le ministre de l'Instruction publique) who informed him that he had no right to let Marie Curie stay in his home. It would cast a shadow on the École Normale. If Borel persisted in keeping his guest, he would be dismissed. \"So be it then, I shall persist,\" was Borel's answer. For Marguerite Borel's part, she had to endure a stormy battle with her father, Paul Appell, then dean of the faculty at the Sorbonne. He was furious that the Borels have gotten mixed up in the matter. He revealed that with several other influential people he was planning an interview with Marie in order to request her to leave France: her situation in Paris was impossible. \"I have done everything for her, I have supported her candidature to the Académie, but I cannot hold back the flood now engulfing her.\" Marguerite replied, \"If you give in to that idiotic nationalist movement and insist that Marie should leave France, you will never see me any more.\" Appell, who was in the process of putting on his shoes, threw one of them to hit the door - but the interview with Marie did not take place. Langevin who had been repeatedly insulted, then felt forced to challenge Gustave Téry, the editor of the newspaper that printed the letters, to a duel. Fighting a duel was a usual way of obtaining satisfaction in France at that time, although scarcely in academic circles. Newspaper publishers who had come up against each other in this dispute had already fought duels. Swords were generally used and a duellist was usually content with inflicting a thorough scratch on his opponent for the duel to be considered decided. But fatal accidents did in fact occur. Langevin found it hard to find seconds, but managed to persuade Paul Painlevé, a mathematician and later Prime Minister, and the director of the School of Physics and Chemistry. The duel, with pistols at a distance of 25 meters, was to take place on the morning of November 25. Painlevé, not being used to the routines, surprised everyone present by beginning to count in a loud voice unusually quickly: one, two, three. Téry did not raise his pistol. Langevin, who had first raised his, then lowered it. No shot was fired. The journalists wrote about the silence and about the pigeons quietly feeding on the field. In the midst of all its gravity, the duel had turned into a farce.\nHowever, the publication of the letters and the duel were too much for those responsible at the Swedish Academy of Sciences in Stockholm. Marie received a letter from a member, Svante Arrhenius , in which he said that the duel had given the impression that the published correspondence had not been falsified. He asked her to cable that she would not be coming to the prize award ceremony and to write him a letter to the effect that she did not want to accept the Prize until the Langevin court proceedings had shown that the accusations against her were absolutely without foundation. Of those most closely affected, the person who remained level-headed despite the enormous strain of the critical situation was in fact Marie herself. In a well-formulated and matter-of-fact reply, she pointed out that she had been awarded the Prize for her discovery of radium and polonium, and that she could not accept the principle that appreciation of the value of scientific work should be influenced by slander concerning a researcher's private life. On December 6, Langevin wrote a long letter to Svante Arrhenius, whom he had met previously. He described the whole situation, explained what circles were behind the smear campaign. He appealed to the Nobel Committee not to let it be influenced by a campaign which was fundamentally unjust. Nor, in fact, was it so influenced.\nMarie gathered all her strength and gave her Nobel lecture on December 11 in Stockholm. The lecture should be read in the light of what she had gone through. She made clear by her choice of words what were unequivocally her contributions in the collaboration with Pierre. She spoke of the field of research which \"I have called radioactivity\" and \"my hypothesis that radioactivity is an atomic property,\" but without detracting from his contributions. She declared that she also regarded this Prize as a tribute to Pierre Curie.\nHowever, this enormous effort completely drained her of all her strength. She sank into a depressed state. On December 29, she was taken to a hospital whose location was kept secret for her protection. When she had recovered to some extent, she traveled to England, where a friend, the physicist Hertha Ayrton, looked after her and saw that the press was kept away. A whole year passed before she could work as she had done before.\nIn her book, Marguerite Borel quotes Jean Perrin's words, 'But for the five of us who stood up for Marie Curie against a whole world when a landslide of filth engulfed her, Marie would have returned to Poland and we would have been marked by eternal shame.' The five were Jean and Henriette Perrin, Émile and Marguerite Borel and André Debierne.\nLegal proceedings were never taken. Langevin and his wife reached a settlement on 9 December without Marie's name being mentioned. We shall never know with any certainty what was the nature of the relationship between Marie Curie and Paul Langevin. It is referred to by Paul Langevin's son, André Langevin, in his biography of his father, which was published in 1971. He writes, \"Is it not rather natural that friendship and mutual admiration several years after Pierre's death could develop step by step into a passion and a relationship?\" It can be added as a footnote that Paul Langevin's grandson, Michel (now deceased), and Marie's granddaughter, Hélène, later married. Hélène Langevin-Joliot is a nuclear physicist and has made a close study of Marie and Pierre Curie's notebooks so as to obtain a picture of how their collaboration functioned.\nMarie had opened up a completely new field of research: radioactivity. Various aspects of it were being studied all over the world. In Uppsala Daniel Strömholm, professor of chemistry, and The Svedberg , then associate professor, investigated the chemistry of the radioactive elements. In 1909 they were close to the discovery of isotopes. However it was the British physicist Frederick Soddy who in the following year, finally clarified the concept of isotopes. Marie's laboratory became the Mecca for radium research. Eva Ramstedt, who took a doctorate in physics in Uppsala in 1910, studied with Marie Curie in 1910-11 and was later associate professor in radiology at Stockholm University College in 1915-32. The Norwegian chemist Ellen Gleditsch worked with Marie Curie in 1907-1912.\nWar\nWhen, in 1914, Marie was in the process of beginning to lead one of the departments in the Radium Institute established jointly by the University of Paris and the Pasteur Institute, the First World War broke out. Marie placed her two daughters, Irène aged 17 and Ève aged 10, in safety in Brittany. She herself took a train to Bordeaux, a train overloaded with people leaving Paris for a safer refuge. But Marie had a different reason for her journey. She had with her a heavy, 20-kg lead container in which she had placed her valuable radium. Once in Bordeaux the other passengers rushed away to their various destinations. She remained standing there with her heavy bag which she did not have the strength to carry without assistance. Some official finally helped her find a room where she slept with her heavy bag by her bed. The next day, having had the bag taken to a bank vault, she took a train back to Paris. It was now crowded to bursting point with soldiers. Throughout the war she was engaged intensively in equipping more than 20 vans that acted as mobile field hospitals and about 200 fixed installations with X-ray apparatus.\nMarie driving one of the radiology cars in 1917.\n© Marie Sklodowska Curie Museum\nShe trained young women in simple X-ray technology, she herself drove one of the vans and took an active part in locating metal splinters. Sometimes she found she had to give the doctors lessons in elementary geometry. Irène, when 18, became involved, and in the primitive conditions both of them were exposed to large doses of radiation.\nAfter the Peace Treaty in 1918, her Radium Institute, which had been completed in 1914, could now be opened. It became France's most internationally celebrated research institute in the inter-war years. Even so, as her French biographer Françoise Giroud points out, the French state did not do much in the way of supporting her. In the USA radium was manufactured industrially but at a price which Marie could not afford. She had to devote a lot of time to fund-raising for her Institute. She also became deeply involved when she had become a member of the Commission for Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations and served as its vice-president for a time. She frequently took part in its meetings in Geneva, where she also met the Swedish delegate, Anna Wicksell.\nMissy\nMarie regularly refused all those who wanted to interview her. However, a prominent American female journalist, Marie Maloney, known as Missy, who for a long time had admired Marie, managed to meet her. This meeting became of great importance to them both. Marie told Missy that researchers in the USA had some 50 grams of radium at their disposal. \"And in France, then?\" asked Missy. \"My laboratory has scarcely more than one gram,\" was Marie's answer. \"But you ought to have all the resources in the world to continue with your research. Someone must see to that,\" Missy said. \"But who?\" was Marie's reply in a resigned tone. \"The women of America,\" promised Missy.\nMissy, like Marie herself, had an enormous strength and strong inner stamina under a frail exterior. She now arranged one of the largest and most successful research-funding campaigns the world has seen. First of all she got the New York papers to promise not to print a word on the Langevin affair and - so as to feel safe - unbelievably enough managed to take over all their material on the Langevin affair. Due to the press, Marie became enormously popular in America, and everyone seemed to want to meet her - the great Madame Curie. Missy had to struggle hard to get Marie to accept a program for her visit on a par with the campaign. Finally, she had to turn to Paul Appell, now the university chancellor, to persuade Marie. In spite of her diffidence and distaste for publicity, Marie agreed to go to America to receive the gift - a single gram of radium - from the hand of President Warren Harding. \"I understand that it will be of the greatest value for my Institute,\" she wrote to Missy. When all this became known in France, the paper Je sais tout arranged a gala performance at the Paris Opera. It was attended by the most prominent personalities in France, including Aristide Briand , then Foreign Minister, who was later, in 1926, to receive the Nobel Peace Prize. Jean Perrin made a speech about Marie's contribution and the promises for the future that her discoveries gave. The great Sarah Bernhardt read an \"Ode to Madame Curie\" with allusions to her as the sister of Prometheus. After being dragged through the mud ten years before, she had become a modern Jeanne d'Arc.\nMissy Maloney, Irène, Marie and Ève Curie in the USA.\nPhoto kindly provided by William Brown Maloney Papers, Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Columbia University, USA.\nMissy had undertaken that everything would be arranged to cause Marie the least possible effort. In spite of this Marie had to attend innumerable receptions and do a round of American universities. Outwardly the trip was one great triumphal procession. She became the recipient of some twenty distinctions in the form of honorary doctorates, medals and membership in academies. Great crowds paid homage to her. But for Marie herself, this was torment. Where possible, she had her two daughters represent her.\nMarie and Missy became close friends. The inexhaustible Missy organized further collections for one gram of radium for an institute which Marie had helped found in Warsaw. Marie's second journey to America ended only a few days before the great stock exchange crash in 1929.\nIn the last ten years of her life, Marie had the joy of seeing her daughter Irène and her son-in-law Frédéric Joliot do successful research in the laboratory. She lived to see their discovery of artificial radioactivity, but not to hear that they had been awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for it in 1935. Marie Curie died of leukemia on July 4, 1934.\nEpilogue\nIt is worth mentioning that the new discoveries at the end of the nineteenth century became of importance also for the breakthrough of modern art. X-ray photography focused art on the invisible. The human body became dissolved in a shimmering mist. Wassily Kandinsky, one of the pioneers of abstract painting, wrote about radioactivity in his autobiographical notes from 1901-13. He claimed that in his soul the decay of the atom was synonymous with the decay of the whole world. The thickest walls had suddenly collapsed. Everything had become uncertain, unsteady and fluid. He would not have been surprised if a stone had been pulverized in the air before him and become invisible.\nFor the physicists of Marie Curie's day, the new discoveries were no less revolutionary. Although admittedly the world did not decay, what nevertheless did was the classical, deterministic view of the world. Radioactive decay, that heat is given off from an invisible and apparently inexhaustible source, that radioactive elements are transformed into new elements just as in the ancient dreams of alchemists of the possibility of making gold, all these things contravened the most entrenched principles of classical physics. For radioactivity to be understood, the development of quantum mechanics was required. But it should be noted that the birth of quantum mechanics was not initiated by the study of radioactivity but by Max Planck's study of radiation from a black body in 1900. It was an old field that was not the object of the same interest and publicity as the new spectacular discoveries. It was not until 1928, more than a quarter of a century later, that the type of radioactivity that is called alpha-decay obtained its theoretical explanation. It is an example of the tunnel effect in quantum mechanics.\nMuch has changed in the conditions under which researchers work since Marie and Pierre Curie worked in a drafty shed and refused to consider taking out a patent as being incompatible with their view of the role of researchers; a patent would nevertheless have facilitated their research and spared their health. But in one respect, the situation remains unchanged. Nature holds on just as hard to its really profound secrets, and it is just as difficult to predict where the answers to fundamental questions are to be found.\nNames Mentioned in the Text\nAppell, Paul (1855-1930), mathematician\nArrhenius, Svante (1859-1927), Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1903\nAyrton, Hertha (1854-1923), English physicist\nBecquerel, Henri (1852-1908), Nobel Prize in Physics 1903\nBorel, Émile (1871-1956), mathematician\nBorel, Marguerite, author, married to Émile Borel\nBranly, Édouard (1844-1940), physicist\nBriand, Aristide (1862-1932), eminent French statesman, Nobel Peace Prize 1926\nBrillouin, Marcel (1854-1948), theoretical physicist\nDarboux, Gaston (1842-1917), mathematician\nDaudet, Léon (1867-1942), editor of L'Action Française\nDebierne, André (1874-1949), Marie Curie's colleague for many years\nEinstein, Albert (1879-1955), Nobel Prize in Physics 1921\nGiroud, Françoise (1916- ), author, former minister\nGleditsch, Ellen (1879-1968), chemist\nLippmann, Gabriel (1845-1921), Nobel Prize in Physics 1908\nMarconi, Guglielmo (1874-1937), Nobel Prize in Physics 1909\nMittag-Leffler, Gösta (1846-1927), mathematician\nMoissan, Henri (1852-1907), Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1906\nOstwald, Wilhelm (1853-1932), Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1909\nPainlevé, Paul (1863-1933), mathematician\nPerrin, Jean (1870-1942) Nobel Prize in Physics 1926\nPlanck, Max (1858-1947), Nobel Prize in Physics 1918\nPoincaré, Henri (1854-1912), mathematician, philosopher\nPoincaré, Raymond (1860-1934), lawyer (president 1913-1920)\nRamstedt, Eva (1879-1974), physicist\nRöntgen, Wilhelm Conrad (1845-1923), Nobel Prize in Physics 1901\nRutherford, Ernest (1871-1937), Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1908\nSoddy, Frederick (1877-1956), Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1921\nStrömholm, Daniel (1871-1961), chemist, professor at Uppsala University\nSvedberg, The (1884-1971), Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1926\nBibliography\nBensuade-Vincent, Bernadette, Marie Curie, femme de science et de légende, Reveu du Palais de la découverte, Vol. 16. n ° 157 avril 1988, 15-30.\nCrawford, Elisabeth, The Beginnings of the Nobel Institution, The Science Prizes 1901-1915, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, & Edition de la Maison des Sciences, Paris, 1984.\nCurie, Eve, Madame Curie, Gallimard, Paris, 1938. In English, Doubleday, New York.\nCurie, Marie, Pierre Curie and Autobiographical Notes, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1923. Subsequently Marie Curie refused to authorize publication of her Autobiographical Notes in any other country.\nGleditsch, Ellen, Marie Sklodowska Curie (in Norwegian), Nordisk Tidskrift, Årg. 35, 1959.\nKandinsky, Wassily, Look Into the Past 1901-1913, The Blue Rider, Paul Klee. Franz Marc, New York, 1945.\nLangevin, André, Paul Langevin, mon père, Les Éditeur Français Réunis, Paris, 1971.\nMarbo, Camille (Pseudonym for Marguerite Borel), Souvenirs et Rencontres, Grasset, Paris, 1968.\nMcGrayne, Sharon Bertsch, Nobel Prize Women in Science, Their Lives, Struggles and Momentous Discoveries, A Birch Lane Press Book, Carol Publishing Group, New York, 1993.\nNobel Lectures including Presentation Speeches and Laureates' Biographies, Physics 1901-21. Published for the Nobel Foundation in 1967 by Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam-London-New York.\nNobel Lectures including Presentation Speeches and Laureates' Biographies, Chemistry 1901-21. Published for the Nobel Foundation in 1967 by Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam-London-New York.\nPflaum, Rosalynd, Grand Obsession: Madame Curie and Her World, Doubleday, New York, 1989.\nQuinn, Susan, Marie Curie: A Life, Simon & Schuster, New York, 1995.\nRamstedt, Eva, Marie Sklodowska Curie, Kosmos. Papers on Physics (in Swedish) published by Svenska Fysikersamfundet, nr 12, 1934.\nReid, Robert, Marie Curie, William Collins Sons & Co Ltd, London, 1974.\nScience, Technology and Society in the Time of Alfred Nobel. Proceedings of a Nobel Symposium. Edited by Carl Gustaf Bernhard, Elisabeth Crawford, Per Sörbom. Published for the Nobel Foundation by Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1982.\nOther Sources", "The Curies\nThe Curies\nAfter reading this section you will be able to do the following:\nDiscuss why Marie Curie was deserving of two Nobel prizes.\nDescribe what the Curies discovered.\nWho are the Curies?\nOther scientists hard at work discovering radioactive elements were Polish scientist Marie Curie and her husband Pierre Curie, a French scientist. While working in France at the time of Becquerel’s discovery, they became very interested in his work. They too suspected that a uranium ore, known as pitchblende, contained other radioactive elements. The Curies started looking for these other elements, and in 1898 they discovered another radioactive element in pitchblende. They named it `polonium’ in honor of Marie Curie’s native homeland. Later that same year, the Curie’s discovered another radioactive element which they named radium. Both polonium and radium were more radioactive than uranium.\nFor their work on radioactivity, the Curies were awarded the 1903 Nobel Prize in physics. In 1910, Marie Curie was awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry for her discoveries of radium and polonium, thus becoming the first person to receive two Nobel Prizes. Since these discoveries, many other radioactive elements have been discovered or produced. Today many artificial radioactive materials are produced and put to use in various ways ranging from medical to industrial. We will continue to talk about these in the following pages.\nReview:\nMarie and Pierre Curie advanced the study of radiation and discovered the radioactive materials radium and polonium.", "Dec. 21, 1898: The Curies Discover Radium | WIRED\nDec. 21, 1898: The Curies Discover Radium\nsubscribe\n6 months for $5 - plus a FREE Portable\nPhone Charger.\nOn Twitter\n9 hours\nA comedy about the apocalypse—penned by @neilhimself —is slated for 2018. So there's that to look forward to at least bit.ly/2jcWNvp\nAuthor: Tony Long. Tony Long\nDate of Publication: 12.21.09.\nTime of Publication: 12:00 am.\n12:00 am\nDec. 21, 1898: The Curies Discover Radium\n1898: Radium is discovered by the husband-and-wife team of Pierre and Marie Curie.\nSorbonne-bred physicist Pierre Curie had been noodling with crystals and magnetism since the early 1880s. He was a professor at the School of Physics in Paris when one of his students, Marie Sklodowska , caught his eye. They wed in 1895, and theirs was both a happy marriage and a fruitful professional collaboration.\nA colleague of the Curies, Henri Becquerel , paved the way for their groundbreaking research with his discovery of spontaneous radioactivity in 1896 . With the rest of the scientific community going gaga over Wilhelm Roentgen’s recent discovery of x-rays , Becquerel’s presentation to the Academy of Sciences aroused little interest. However, Marie Curie, casting about for a potential doctoral thesis, took note.\nDragging Pierre away from his crystals, Marie got the ball rolling on what would be the central pillar of their life’s work .\nFollowing on Becquerel, the Curies succeeded in isolating element 84, polonium (named for Poland, the country of Marie’s birth), and then element 88, radium. It was Marie, in particular, who devised a method for separating radium from its radioactive residues, making possible the closer study of its therapeutic properties. This would remain a lifelong interest of hers.\nThe Curies and Becquerel shared the 1903 Nobel Prize for Physics for their associated research involving what the Nobel committee referred to as the “radiation phenomena.” Thus, Marie Curie became the first woman recipient of a Nobel Prize, nosing out Bertha von Suttner (peace) by two years.\nAs for Pierre, his satisfaction over winning a Nobel was short lived. He was killed in an accident on a Paris street in 1906. Marie continued with their work, taking over her husband’s position as professor of general physics on the Faculty of Sciences, then becoming director of the Radium Institute’s Curie Laboratory at the University of Paris in 1914.\nMarie Curie received a second Nobel Prize in 1911, this time for chemistry. She spent the rest of her life in science, much of it promoting the healing properties of radium. In 1929, five years before her death, Curie founded a radiation laboratory in her native Warsaw.\nOne of the Curie daughters, Irene, later became a Nobel recipient as well, also in collaboration with her scientist husband.\nCurium, element 96, is named in honor of Pierre and Marie Curie. Francium, element 87, is named for France, site of the Curie Institute where it was discovered.\nThe curie is the international unit of measurement for radioactivity. Although originally defined as the radioactivity of 1 gram of pure radium, it is now specified as 3.7 x 1010 atomic disintegrations per second, or 37 gigabecquerels.", "Learn More About Marie Curie and Radioactive Elements\nBy Mary Bellis\nUpdated August 20, 2016.\nDr. Marie Curie is known to the world as the scientist who discovered radioactive metals such as radium and polonium.\nCurie was a Polish physicist and chemist who lived between 1867-1934. She was born Maria Sklodowski in Warsaw, Poland, the youngest of five children. When she was born, Poland was controlled by Russia. Her parents were teachers, and she learned at an early age the importance of education.\nHer mother died when she was young, and when her father was caught teaching Polish - which had been made illegal under the Russian government. Manya, as she was called, and her sisters had to get jobs. After a couple of failed jobs, Manya became a tutor to a family in the countryside outside Warsaw. She enjoyed her time there, and was able to send her father money to help support him, and also send some money to her sister Bronya in Paris who was studying medicine.\nBronya eventually married another medical student and they set up practice in Paris.\nThe couple invited Manya to live with them and study at the Sorbonne - a famous Parisian University. In order to fit in better at the school, Manya changed her name to the French \"Marie.\" Marie studied physics and mathematics and quickly received her masters' degrees in both subjects. She remained in Paris after graduation and started research on magnetism.\nFor the research she wanted to do, she needed more space than her small lab. A friend introduced her to another young scientist, Pierre Curie, who had some extra room. Not only did Marie move her equipment into his lab, Marie and Pierre fell in love and married.\nRadioactive Elements\nTogether with her husband, Curie discovered two new elements (radium and polonium, two radioactive elements that they extracted chemically from pitchblende ore) and studied the x-rays they emitted. She found that the harmful properties of x-rays were able to kill tumors. By the end of World War I, Marie Curie was probably the most famous woman in the world. She had made a conscious decision, however, not to patent methods of processing radium or its medical applications.\nHer co-discovery with her husband Pierre of the radioactive elements radium and polonium represents one of the best-known stories in modern science for which they were recognized in 1901 with the Nobel Prize in Physics. In 1911, Marie Curie was honored with a second Nobel prize, this time in chemistry, to honor her for successfully isolating pure radium and determining radium's atomic weight.\nAs a child, Marie Curie amazed people with her great memory. She learned to read when she was only four years old. Her father was a professor of science and the instruments that he kept in a glass case fascinated Marie. She dreamed of becoming a scientist, but that would not be easy. Her family became very poor, and at the age of 18, Marie became a governess. She helped pay for her sister to study in Paris. Later, her sister helped Marie with her education. In 1891, Marie attended the Sorbonne University in Paris where she met and married Pierre Curie, a well-known physicist.\nAfter the sudden accidental death of Pierre Curie, Marie Curie managed to raise her two small daughters (Irène, who was herself awarded a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1935, and Eve who became an accomplished author) and continue an active career in experimental radioactivity measurements.\nMarie Curie contributed greatly to our understanding of radioactivity and the effects of  x-rays . She received two Nobel prizes for her brilliant work, but died of leukemia, caused by her repeated exposure to radioactive material.", "Marie Curie (1866-1934)\nOver 11s > Science celebrities > Marie Curie (1866 – 1934)\nMarie Curie (1866-1934)\nThe first lady of science\nDoes the name Marie Curie ring any bells? You might have heard people mentioning her name when they talk about the Marie Curie Cancer Care Trust.  But what did she do?\nIn her day she was one of the most famous scientists around. She is still probably one of the few science celebrities in history, and for very good reason.\nHer big claim to fame was the discovery of two new elements:\nPolonium\nRadium\nAs there are only about a hundred natural elements in the universe, discovering two is quite a big thing! She called them polonium, after her home country of Poland, and radium because it was radioactive.\nRadioactivity is a very good word and it was invented by Marie Curie.  Elements that were radioactive gave out strange, unknown rays that seemed to be very similar to the recently discovered X-rays. This is how she knew where to look for radium and polonium. The only element known to be radioactive at the time was uranium.\nBut how did she discover another radioactive element? Well, she had lumps of a fairly common mineral called pitchblend. It's called pitchblend because it is black. It is also radioactive. As no trace of uranium could be found in pitchblend, she knew it must contain something else that was radioactive and that is was probably a new element, or two!\nTo find the new elements she had to grind the pitchblend in a pestle and mortar. Little did she know at the time, but she would have to grind over a tonne of pitchblend to extract about 0.1 grams of radium.\nRadium and polonium are extraordinarily radioactive. One gram of pure polonium is about 250,000 times more lethal than arsenic. It was only because she was dealing with such tiny amounts of the material that she lived as long as she did. But it did kill her in the end. She died of cancer at the age of 67. Not a bad age considering how much radioactivity she'd been exposed to.\nAt the time no one had any idea that radioactivity was dangerous. Many years chemists sold radioactive 'cures' for all kinds of ailments. There were even radioactive laxatives and treatments for baldness. Ironically, the thought certainly makes your hair stand on end!\nMarie Curie won two Nobel Prizes for her work. Only three other scientists have achieved this in the last 100 years. She was an incredibly hard worker and was the first female professor at Paris' prestigious university, the Sorbonne.  She also helped develop mobile x-ray machines using her own discovery, radium, as the source of the then mysterious rays.\nIt's no wonder she's called the First Lady of Science.\nJoin in", "POLONIUM\nLearn more about Marie Curie\n     Who discovered Polonium?\n    Polonium was discovered in 1898 by Marie Curie while she was working in France.  Polonium was the first element discovered by Curie and it was named after her birthplace, Poland.\n    Why was Polonium discovered?\n    Curie was attempting to to explain why pitchblende (a form of the mineral uraninite) from  Joachimsthal, Bohemia was radioactive.  Polonium was the cause, and it took several tons of pitchblende to yield very small amounts (10-6g                                      per ton of ore).\n                                                                                                           Learn more about pitchblende\n                                    How is Polonium obtained?\n                                   Small amounts can be found naturally in pitchblende, but it can also be produced through the nuclear irradiation of  209bismouth to obtain a product of  210polonium.  \n                                209Bi + 1n  ---->  210Po + e-\n                                                   -- it is combined with beryllium to act as a neutron source\n                                        --used as an antistatic agent in textile mills\n                                         --on brushes to remove dust from film\n                                          --in nuclear batteries that provide thermoelectric power for space satellites\n                                 Interesting Polonium Facts...\n                                           --Gram for gram polonium is  2.5 x 1011 times as toxic as hydrocyanic acid.\n                                           --Polonium is found in tobacco.\n                                           --One mg of polonium-210 emits as much alpha radiation as 5 grams of radium, and gamma radiation causes a blue glow around it.\n  Polonium Data\n   Atomic Number: 84    Atomic Mass: 209  Oxidation States: 4, 2     \n                    Electron Configuration:                                     \n1s2 2s2p6 3s2p6d10 4s2p6d10f14 5s2p6d10 6s2p4     \nElectronegativity value:  2                    \nIsotopes:  There are no naturally occurring isotopes of polonuium-209, but polonium-190 through polonium- 218 are possible to produce synthetically  in laboratories (polonium-209 is naturally occurring).   These 34 isotopes (polonium has the largest number of  isotopes out of all the elements) are all radioactive.  The most commonly used isotope is polonium-210.\nAppearance:   \n        Color:   Silver, gives off a blue glow     State:  Solid at STP\nPhysical Properties:\n         Melting Point:  527 K                           Boiling Point: 1235 K\n        Crystal Structure: Cubic                       Density:  9.33g/cm @ 300 K\n                    The Cubic Crystalline Structure\nCost of Polonium:  $3195/uCi at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory", "Marie Curie - Questions and Answers\nMarie Curie\nThe Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1911\nMarie Curie\nMarie Curie - Questions and Answers\nQuestion: When was Marie Curie born?\nAnswer: Marie Curie was born on 7 November 1867.\nQuestion: When did she die?\nAnswer: Marie Curie died on 4 July 1934, in Savoy, France. She died of aplastic anaemia, a blood disease that often results from exposure to large amounts of radiation.\nQuestion: Where was she born?\nAnswer: She was born in Warsaw, now the capital of Poland, but at that time the city belonged to the Russian Empire.\nQuestion: What was her maiden name?\nAnswer: Her maiden name was Maria Sklodowska. She was also called 'Manya' by her family and friends. She later changed her name to 'Marie' when she moved to Paris, France in later years.\nQuestion: What was her family background?\nAnswer: Marie had four brothers and sisters. Both her parents were teachers. Her father was a patriot whose views about an independent Poland often made it difficult for him to keep his job. When Marie was 11 years old, her oldest sister died of typhus and her mother of tuberculosis.\nQuestion: What was her educational background?\nAnswer: Marie finished high school at 15, with the highest honours. She worked as a private tutor for children in Poland before moving to Paris, France at the age of 24 to study mathematics and physics at the Sorbonne. Her goal was to get a teacher's diploma and return to Poland.\nQuestion: Why did she not return to Poland?\nAnswer: Marie stayed in France after she met a French scientist, Pierre Curie, in the spring of 1894. Pierre was the head of a laboratory at the School of Industrial Physics and Chemistry. She later married Pierre and they had two daughters, Irène , born in 1897, and Eve, born in 1904. Marie and Pierre worked together in the laboratory, which later resulted in a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903, making Marie Curie the first woman to receive the Nobel Prize.\nQuestion: What was the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics awarded for?\nAnswer: Henri Becquerel was awarded half of the prize for his discovery of spontaneous radioactivity. Marie and Pierre Curie were awarded half the prize for their research on the radiation phenomena discovered by Becquerel.\nQuestion: What did Marie Curie discover?\nAnswer: Marie Curie studied the radiation of all compounds containing the known radioactive elements, including uranium and thorium, which she later discovered was also radioactive. She also found out that:\n- you can exactly measure the strength of the radiation from uranium;\n- the intensity of the radiation is proportional to the amount of uranium or thorium in the compound - no matter what compound it is;\n- the ability to emit radiation does not depend on the arrangement of the atoms in a molecule; it must be linked to the interior of the atom itself - a revolutionary discovery!\nWhen she realized that some uranium and/or thorium compounds had stronger radiation than uranium, she made the following hypothesis: there must be an unknown element in the compound which had a stronger radiation than uranium or thorium. Her work aroused the interest of her husband, Pierre Curie, who stopped his own research on crystals and joined the \"detective work\" with his wife. And Marie was proven right: in 1898 the Curies discovered two new radioactive elements: radium (named after the Latin word for ray) and polonium (named after Marie's home country, Poland). \nQuestion: Was she awarded another Nobel Prize?\nAnswer: Yes, Marie Curie was awarded the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for her discoveries and studies of the elements radium and polonium. She is the only woman so far, who has been awarded the Nobel Prize twice.\nQuestion: Were there other members of Marie Curie's family who were awarded the Nobel Prize?\nAnswer: Yes, Marie and Pierre's (who died in an accident in 1906) daughter, Irène Joliot-Curie, was awarded the 1935 Nobel Prize in Chemistry , sharing it with her husband, Frédéric Joliot, for their synthesis of new radioactive elements.\nSources:", "Chemistry International -- Newsmagazine for IUPAC\nby Jean-Pierre Adloff\nAn illustration from Vanity Fair magazine, 1904 (Library of Congress).\nIn 1897 at the age of 30, Maria Skłodowska, who had married Pierre Curie in 1895, concluded her studies at the Sorbonne in Paris and was thinking of a subject for a thesis. X-rays, discovered by Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen in 1895, were still a topical question, but had lost the charm of novelty. On the other hand, the uranic rays, discovered in 1896 by Henri Becquerel, raised a puzzling problem. Uranium compounds and minerals appeared to maintain an undiminished ability to blacken a photographic plate over a period of several months. What was the source of this inexhaustible energy that apparently violated the Carnot principle that energy can be transformed but never be created or destroyed? Pierre Curie, already a famous physicist for his work on magnetism and crystal symmetry, had a feeling that the phenomenon was quite extraordinary, and he helped his wife reach a decision in her choice of thesis topic. Marie Curie, in a biography of Pierre Curie, confirmed, “we felt the investigation of the phenomenon very attractive, so much the more so as the topic was quite new and required no bibliographical research.”\nAfter initial excitement, interest in the new rays had faded rapidly. One reason was the proliferation of false or doubtful observations of radiation similar to uranic rays in a variety of substances. The topic was moribund when Marie Curie entered the scene. However, within eight months in 1898 she discovered two elements, polonium and radium, founding a new scientific field—radioactivity. This short history of the discoveries is retraced from three laboratory notebooks in which one can distinguish the writings of Pierre and Marie (Adloff 1998) and from three notes published in the Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences (C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris).\nThe “Curie Laboratory”: left, chemistry bench; right, ionization chamber and electrometer.\nIn addition to blackening a photographic plate, uranic rays rendered air conductive for electricity. This later property was much more amenable to quantitative measurement. Becquerel had used electroscopes, but the measurements were unreliable. At this point, little progress would have been made without the genius of Pierre Curie. In 1880, together with his brother Jacques, he had discovered piezoelectricity (i.e., the production of electric charges when pressure is applied to hemihedral crystals such as quartz). He invented a device by which the charges produced by uranium in an ionization chamber were compensated for by opposite charges in known amounts produced by applying a weight to a leaf of quartz. The compensation was followed by a second invention, the quadrant electrometer. The emission of uranic rays could now be quantified from the weight and the time required for compensation of the charges produced in the ionization chamber.\nMarie Curie’s First Publication: 12 April 1898\nMarie Curie’s strategy is clearly expressed in her first note published on 12 April 1898 in the Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences: “I have searched [to see] if substances other than uranium compounds render air conducting for electricity” (Curie, M. 1898). Beginning on 11 February 1898, she tested all samples at hand or borrowed from various collections, including a large number of rocks and minerals, taking the activity of metallic uranium as a reference. She found that all compounds and minerals that contained uranium were active and that pitchblende, a massive variety of uraninite from the Joachimasthal mine in Austria, as well as chalcolite, a natural uranium phosphate, were more active than metallic uranium itself. Marie Curie noted, “This fact is quite remarkable and suggests that these minerals may contain an element much more active than uranium.” Her hypothesis was immediately confirmed: “I have prepared chalcolite with pure products; this artificial chalcolite is not more active than other uranium salts.” She then concluded that an unknown element exists only in the uraniferous minerals that are more active than uranium. At this stage, the hunt for the supposed element became a matter of paramount importance and urgency. Pierre Curie was fascinated by Marie’s findings: On 18 March he abandoned his own research projects and joined his wife in the venture.\nIn the course of the systematic search of Becquerel rays, Marie Curie also discovered, on 24 February, that thorium compounds were also active. However, the German physicist Gerhardt Schmidt had observed the emission several weeks earlier.\nThe Discovery of Polonium: 18 July 1898\nThe research on uranic rays now turned from physics to chemistry. It became necessary to separate and identify a substance whose chemical properties were unknown. However, the hypothetical element could be followed by tracing its radioactivity. Marie Curie explained the process: “The method we have used is a new one for chemical research based on radioactivity. It consists of separations performed with the ordinary procedures of analytical chemistry and in the measurement of the radioactivity of all compounds separated. In this way, one can recognize the chemical character of the radioactive element sought; the latter is concentrated in fractions which become increasingly radioactive in the course of the separation.” Neither Marie nor Pierre were chemists, so they were assisted by Gustave Bémont, who was in charge of practical training for students at the Parisian Ecole Municipale de Physique et Chimie Industrielle.\nFirst mention of polonium, “Po” in the laboratory notebook of Pierre and Marie Curie, 13 July 1898.\nOn 14 April, the trio began research on pitchblende, which was two and a half times more active than uranium. Several procedures were used in parallel runs by precipitations with various reagents and sublimations of solid deposits, whereby the active substance accompanied primarily bismuth, from which it could be progressively separated. On 27 June, Marie Curie precipitated sulfides from a solution containing lead, bismuth, and the active substance. She underlined the result in her notebook: the solid was 300 times more active than uranium. On 18 July, Pierre Curie obtained a deposit 400 times more active than uranium. The Curies carefully verified that “compounds of all elements, including those of the rarest substances were not active.”\n. . . we propose that it be named polonium in honor of the native\nland of one of us.\nOn 18 July 1898, Pierre and Marie Curie wrote to the Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, “On a new radio-active substance contained in pitchblende.” “We believe that the substance we recovered from pitchblende contains a heretofore unknown element, similar to bismuth in its analytical properties. If the existence of this new metal is confirmed, we propose that it be named polonium in honor of the native land of one of us” (P. Curie and M. Curie 1998). The symbol Po, written by Pierre Curie, appears in the notebook on 13 July. The name polonium had a provocative significance because Poland had disappeared as a state in 1795, being divided between Prussia, Russia, and the Austrian Empire.\nThe publication signed both by Pierre Curie (as first author) and Marie Curie, was based on experiments performed from 9 April to 16 July. The title is historic: It proclaims that the search for the element more active than uranium was successful, and the word\nradio-active appears for the first time (The Curies dropped the hyphen the following year). The announcement of a new element that remained invisible and was identified solely on the basis of its emission of “uranic rays” was unique in the history of chemistry. It was customary that no such claim was considered valid until a pure substance had been isolated, the atomic weight of the element had been determined, and its spectral lines had been measured. Eugène Demarçay, a recognized authority in spectroscopy, examined the spectrum of the new element, but to the Curies’ disappointment he could not distinguish any new characteristic lines. The authors admitted, “This fact does not favor the idea of the existence of a new metal.”\nThe isolation of polonium from uranium had been accomplished although the Curies were unaware of the relationship between the two elements. They considered the entire material as a mixture. They knew nothing of radioactive decay. In this sense it was purely a matter of chance since the experiments were performed within three months, a relatively short time with respect to the 138-day half-life of polonium.\nPierre and Marie Curie handling the electrometer.\nIt was only a few years later that the authors noticed with astonishment and great perplexity that polonium was progressively disappearing, still unaware of its half-life. They were preoccupied with the authenticity of polonium for several years, and with their customary honesty they did not hide their doubts. In 1899, Marie Curie still raised the question: “Is polonium, which exhibits the lines of bismuth, really a new element or simply bismuth activated by the radium contained in pitchblende?” The doubt persisted for several years (Adloff 2007). Eventually, in 1910 Marie Curie and André Debierne separated from several tons of residues of uranium ores a final product that weighed 2 mg and contained about 0.1 mg of polonium. The spark spectrum of this sample revealed for the first time a few lines characteristic of the element. The position of polonium in the periodic table was not assigned by the discoverers, but the new element could obviously be placed to the right of bismuth as “eka-tellurium,” with atomic number 84.\nThe note in the Comptes Rendus concluded the short story of polonium for several years. Marie Curie maintained a strong sense of ownership for the element, which she defended with considerable emotion and vehemence. In a sense she was correct: the subsequent discoveries of the atomic nucleus, artificial radioactivity, and fission were all performed with her polonium.\nThe Discovery of Radium: 26 December 1898\nThe Curies laboratory notebook has no record from July to 11 November. The Curies suspected the presence of a further radioactive element in the pitchblende, which behaved like “nearly pure barium.” Their hypothesis was confirmed in three steps. First, they verified that “normal” barium was inactive. Second, they found that a radioactive substance could be concentrated by fractional crystallization from barium chloride contained in pitchblende. They pursued this operation until the activity of the chlorides was 900 times greater than that of uranium. Their third and last argument was decisive. This time the spectroscopic analysis was successful. Demarçay observed in the spectrum of radioactive barium chloride several lines that could not be assigned to any known element and whose intensity increased with the radioactivity. The Curies concluded, “We think this is a very serious reason to believe that the new radioactive substance contains a new element to which we propose to give the name radium.” They added, “the new radioactive substance very likely contains a large amount of barium, nevertheless, the radioactivity of radium must be enormous.” The name, “radium,” followed by a question mark appears in the notebook on 18 November.\nMarie Curie maintained a strong sense of ownership for the element [polonium], which she defended with considerable emotion and vehemence.\nAt that time, the authors had used up their supply of pitchblende and were aware that vast amounts or raw material would be necessary in order to prepare “visible,” or at least much larger quantities of, the two new elements. In December 1898, the Austrian government offered the Curies a first batch of 100 kg of uranium-free residue from the treatment of the Joachimsthal pitchblende. The authors acknowledged that “this shipment will greatly facilitate our research.”\nThe determination of the atomic mass of radium became an obsession for Marie Curie. On 21 July 1902, she obtained the value 225±1 (now known to be 226.0254) on a self-luminous sample of 0.120 g of radium chloride with a radium barium ratio of 106, which was one million times more active than uranium.\nWith the foregoing discovery of polonium, the Curies had oddly enough begun with the most difficult part of the work. In its own right, radium had outstanding advantages: its half-life is 1600 years; its concentration in the ores was about 5000 times greater than that of polonium; it is a true analog of barium, from which it can be separated; and it could be readily assigned its place in the periodic table.\nOn 12 June 1903, Marie presented her thesis, “Researches on Radioactive Substances,” at the Sorbonne. Later that year she shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with Pierre Curie and Henry Antoine Becquerel.\nJean-Pierre Adloff is an honorary professor at the Université Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg, France. He was research student of Marguerite Perey who was assistant of Marie Curie and discoverer of francium. He succeeded Perey in the chair of Nuclear chemistry, was member of the IUPAC commission on Radiochemistry and Nuclear techniques and acted as expert in radiochemistry for IAEA. (revised online 15 Feb 2011).\nSee the References section for works cited in this article.\nPage last modified 15 February 2011.\nCopyright © 2003-2011 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.\nQuestions regarding the website, please contact [email protected]", "Polonium - Element information, properties and uses | Periodic Table\nChemistry in its element: polonium\n(Promo)\nYou're listening to Chemistry in its element brought to you by Chemistry World, the magazine of the Royal Society of Chemistry.\n(End promo)\nChris Smith\nHello, this week in Chemistry in its element the story of a substance that was named to snub Russia, power space probes keeps paper static free and has even been used as a murder weapon in London. To reveal the secrets of Marie Curie's element, and that's polonium, here's Johnny Ball\nJohnny Ball\nPolonium, (element 84), was discovered in 1898 and named after Poland, the homeland of Marie Curie (Ne Sklodowska) who found it with her husband Pierre Curie. This loyalty was a direct affront to Russia who had dominated Poland for so long. The only way she could become educated whilst a teenager, was by risking imprisonment by the Russians by attending secret underground schools, which had to change locations every couple of days. It was only by escaping to Paris, following her older brother and sister, that she was able to forge a career. She was so poor in the early years in Paris, that she sometimes fainted through lack of food. Still she worked tirelessly.\nIn 1894 she met Pierre, who had made a name for himself in discovering piezoelectricity and was one of her lecturers. They married in July 1895. She wore a black dress as it would be serviceable for her work in the laboratory. They did not exchange rings, but bought each other a bicycle, on which they honeymooned.\nX rays had been discovered by Roentgen (Nov 95) and uranium radiation by Becquerel (Feb 96) in Paris. Working with him (98), Marie coined the phrase \"radioactivity\" and decided to make this here object of study, because no one else was doing it. They realised that radiation was coming from the very atoms and that this was a sign of the atoms breaking up. Only by studying the break up of atoms through radiation, were scientists able to clearly understand how atoms are made up. For this the Curies and Becquerel shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1903.\nThe discovery of polonium (July 98) was no mean task. Pitchbende, a uranium bearing ore, seemed to be far to radio active than could be accounted for by the uranium. The couple got the waste ore free, after the uranium had been removed. They sieved and sorted by hand, ounce by ounce, through tons of pitchblende before tiny amounts of polonium were discovered. With the polonium extracted, there was clearly something far more radioactive left behind and soon they had isolated the much more important element radium in December 1898. Radium was so named as it glowed in the dark.\nPierre died in a tragic accident in 1906. In driving rain he seemed to walk in front of a large horse-drawn wagon, and a wheel shattered his head. Some think  the pain he was in as a result of radiation burns and sickness may have caused his lack of awareness. Marie was devastated, but her work continued. For discovering polonium and radium, she received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1911, becoming the only woman ever to receive two such prizes.\nHowever, there was still more success due for the family. Her daughter Irene also became a scientist, and in 1934, Marie saw Irene and her husband Frederick Joliot-Curie produce the first ever artificial radioactive element. This led to our modern ability to manipulate almost every element for our specific scientific needs. Irene and Frederick also received the Nobel Prize in 1935, but sadly Marie had now died.\nNatural polonium, Po-210, is still very rare and forms no more than 100 billions of a gram per ton of uranium ore. Because it is so rare, polonium is made by first making bismuth (also found in pitchblende). Bismuth-209 is found and then artificially changed to bismuth-210 which then decays to form polonium-210. This process requires a nuclear reactor, so it is not an easy element to source.\nIt was a shocking discovery that the former Russian agent Alexander Litvinenko was poisoned with this very radioactive element. The alpha particles it emits are so weakly penetrating it could easily have been carried in a simple sealed container, and would have to be ingested, for example in a cup of tea, to do any serious harm. However, once inside the body, as it continued to disintegrate, it would become fatal.\nPolonium has a position in the periodic table that could make it a metal, a metalloid or a nonmetal. It is classed as a metal as its electrical conductivity decreases as its temperature rises. Because of this property it is used in industry to eliminate dangerous static electricity in making paper or sheet metal.\nBecause of its short half life, its decay generates considerable heat (141 W per gram of metal). It can be used as a convenient and very light heat source to generate reliable thermoelectric power in space satellites and lunar stations, as no moving parts are involved.\nChris Smith\nJohnny Ball lifting the lid on the radioactive element polonium discovered by Marie Curie and her husband Pierre. Next time on Chemistry in its element we remain radioactive much like the substance itself with earth scientist Ian Farnan.\nIan Farnan\nAnyone familiar with the iconic image of the mushroom cloud understands the tremendous explosive power of a correctly controlled detonation of plutonium. The energy density is mind-boggling: a sphere of metal 10 cm in diameter and weighing just 8 kg is enough to produce an explosion at least as big as the one that devastated Nagasaki in 1945.\nChris Smith\nIan Farnan with what promises to be an explosive edition of Chemistry in its element next week. I'm Chris Smith, thank you for listening and see you next time.\n(Promo)\nChemistry in its element is brought to you by the Royal Society of Chemistry and produced by  thenakedscientists.com . There's more information and other episodes of Chemistry in its element on our website at  chemistryworld.org/elements .\n(End promo)" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "The_Banana_Splits.txt" ], "title": [ "The Banana Splits" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Banana Splits Adventure Hour is an hour-long, packaged television variety program featuring The Banana Splits, a fictional rock band composed of four funny animal characters. The costumed hosts of the show were Fleegle (guitar, vocals), Bingo (drums, vocals), Drooper (bass, vocals) and Snorky (keyboards, effects).\n\nThe series was produced by Hanna-Barbera, and ran for 31 episodes on NBC Saturday mornings, from September 7, 1968, to September 5, 1970. The costumes and sets were designed by Sid and Marty Krofft and the series' sponsor was Kellogg's Cereals. The show featured both live action and animated segments and was Hanna-Barbera’s first foray into mixing live action with animation.\n\nHistory and description\n\nIn 1967, William Hanna and Joseph Barbera approached Sid Krofft and Marty Krofft to design costumes for a television show which would feature animated and live-action segments, with the whole show hosted by a bubblegum rock group of anthropomorphic characters. The format of the show was loosely based on Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In. The Banana Splits Adventure Hour premiered on NBC on September 7, 1968.\n\nThe Krofft brothers give credit to the success of the series for opening the door for their own entry into television. NBC picked up the Krofft series H.R. Pufnstuf, which was launched during an hour-long special hosted by The Banana Splits on August 30, 1969.\n\nThe show's live-action segment Danger Island, a cliffhanger serial, as well as the short-lived Micro Ventures, an animated series consisting of only four episodes, ran alongside the animated segments Arabian Knights and The Three Musketeers. Actor Jan Michael Vincent (billed as Michael Vincent) appeared in the live-action component Danger Island, all the live-action material filmed for the series' first season, including the Banana Splits and Danger Island segments, was directed by Richard Donner. \n\nEach show represented a meeting of the \"Banana Splits Club\", and the wraparounds featured the adventures of the club members, who doubled as a musical quartet, meant to be reminiscent of The Monkees. The main characters were Fleegle, a beagle; Bingo, a gorilla; Drooper, a lion; and Snorky, called \"Snork\" in the theme song lyrics, an elephant.\n\nFleegle would assume the role as leader of the Banana Splits and preside at club meetings. The characters were played by actors in voluminous fleecy costumes similar to later Sid and Marty Krofft characters such as H.R. Pufnstuf. They all spoke in English – Drooper with a Southern drawl in the manner of Michael Nesmith, Fleegle with a pronounced lisp – except for Snorky who \"spoke\" in honking noises.\n\nThe Splits' segments, including songs-of-the-week and comedy skits, served as wraparounds for a number of individual segments. In the second season, The Three Musketeers segments were replaced with repeats of The Hillbilly Bears, a cartoon segment that previously appeared on The Atom Ant Show (1965–1968).\n\nFor the first season, some of the live-action segments – specifically those used during the musical segments – were shot at Six Flags Over Texas, an amusement park located in Arlington, Texas. For the second season, filming took place at Kings Island (Cincinnati, Ohio Kings Island amusement park, located in northeastern Cincinnati, Ohio. In many episodes, the Banana Splits would be seen riding on the Runaway Mine Train roller coasters, Log Flumes, Bumper Cars, Merry-Go-Rounds, and many other rides at Six Flags and Kings Island.\n\nThe Sour Grapes Bunch is a group of human girl characters from the Banana Splits. One of the members of the club - Charley, usually played by Shirley Hillstrom - would bring a written note to the Splits. None of the Sour Grapes spoke in the entire series, however, they would also do a number with the Banana Splits. In the first season episode on October 5, 1968 titled \"Doin' The Banana Split\" as all five girls appeared together with the Splits.\n\nAlso featured were the \"Banana Buggies\" mentioned in the theme song. These were seen driven by each live-action character in the opening and closing segments and occasionally in the wraparound and music video segments as well. The buggies were customized Amphicat six-wheel drive all-terrain vehicles each decorated to resemble the character who drove them. Plastic 1/25 scale model kits were issued by Aurora Plastics Corporation under catalog number 832 beginning in 1969. These were never reissued by Aurora, but have since been released as high-end, resin-based kits. \n\nThe Banana Splits was one of the first two Hanna-Barbera series in 1968 in which Hanna and Barbera received executive producer credits, the other being Huck Finn; Edward Rosen served as producer on both series. They would not, however, assume the title full-time for another five years. This Hanna-Barbera series was also one of the first Saturday morning cartoon shows to utilize a laugh track. \n\n2008 revival\n\nIn August 2008, Warner Bros had announced a multi-platform release featuring new comedy shorts and music videos that debuted on Cartoon Network starting September 2, 2008. The relaunch included a live show and a website, as well as a CD and a DVD featuring 13 new songs released by Universal Records. In addition, a kids-themed area called Banana Splitsville was placed at Myrtle Beach, South Carolina's Hard Rock Park rock-and-roll theme park, which later became Freestyle Music Park before closing permanently in 2009. \n\nCast\n\nMusic\n\nThe show’s theme song, titled \"The Tra La La Song (One Banana, Two Banana)\", was written by N. B. Winkless, Jr. on a rickety upright piano in the living room of a house in Kenilworth, Illinois. Winkless had many years experience as a jingle writer at Leo Burnett Advertising Agency (\"Good Morning, Good Morning\" for\nKellogg's Corn Flakes and the \"Snap, Crackle, Pop\" song for Rice Krispies). Winkless's connection to Hanna and Barbera through his making commercials for/with them led directly to Winkless's sons inhabiting the suits of three of the Splits. \n\nFor contractual (as opposed to actual) reasons, credit for the Tra-La-La song goes to Ritchie Adams and Mark Barkan; Barkan was one of the music directors for the show. The song was released as a single, attributed to The Banana Splits, and peaked at number 96 on Billboard's Top 100 in February 1969. The version included on the We're The Banana Splits album is the same recording heard at the beginning of the show, while the single version is an entirely different arrangement and recording of the song, featuring an additional verse.\n\nThe Banana Splits' bubblegum pop rock and roll was provided by studio professionals, including Joey Levine (\"I Enjoy Being a Boy\", \"It's a Good Day for a Parade\"); Al Kooper (\"You're the Lovin' End\"); Barry White (\"Doin' the Banana Split\"); Gene Pitney (\"Two Ton Tessie\") and Jimmy Radcliffe provided his songs (\"I'm Gonna Find a Cave\", \"Soul\", \"Don't Go Away Go-Go Girl\", \"Adam Had 'Em\" and \"The Show Must Go On\") but did not contribute vocals to Splits recordings.\n\nThe music director was music publisher Aaron Schroeder, while production duties were mainly handled by David Mook. When a heavier R&B vocal was needed, the music producers usually turned to singer Ricky Lancelotti, who was billed in the show credits under his stage name Rick Lancelot. Lancelotti went on to record several songs with Frank Zappa. In 1968, The Banana Splits released an album on Decca Records titled We're the Banana Splits.\n\nCovers\n\nUS speed punk act The Dickies covered the theme song in 1978, entitled \"Banana Splits (Tra La La Song)\". Their recording reached Number 7 in the UK charts and now appears as a bonus on the CD reissue of their 1979 album The Incredible Shrinking Dickies. They still perform this cover live at almost every concert and it was also featured in the movie soundtrack of Kick-Ass, during ten-year-old Hit-Girl's brutally violent fight scene.\n\nA cover of the show’s theme song performed by Liz Phair with Material Issue (surprisingly appropriate as Liz Phair and three cast members of the Banana Splits attended New Trier High School) is included on the 1995 tribute album Saturday Morning: Cartoons' Greatest Hits, produced by Ralph Sall for MCA Records. Another rendition was performed by rock & roll comic C.C. Banana on the 2005 cartoon tribute album \"Complete Balanced Breakfast.\" \n\nA cover of \"Don't Go Away Go-Go Girl\" by pop-punk band Mr. T Experience was issued on the 1993 tribute album Banana Pad Riot and their Big Black Bugs Bleed Blue Blood and Our Bodies Our Selves CD releases. The 1988 landmark release \"Sub Pop 200\" included a version of \"I'm Gonna Find a Cave\" retitled \"Gonna Find a Cave\" by the band Girl Trouble. \"Sub Pop 200\" featured recordings from many soon to be notable bands, Nirvana, Green River, Mudhoney, Soundgarden and others from Seattle's Grunge music explosion that followed.\n\nChicago-based musician Ralph Covert, who records children's music under the group name Ralph's World, covered the theme song under the title \"The Banana Splits (The Tra La La Song)\" on his 2001 album At the Bottom of the Sea. Oddest of all references is possibly that made by Bob Marley, with the striking (though not exact) similarity between the song's chorus and the bridge of the Bob Marley & The Wailers song \"Buffalo Soldier\".\n\nComics\n\nThe Banana Splits' adventures continued in comic books. Gold Key began publishing a comic version in 1969, releasing eight issues through 1971. Drawn by Jack Manning, these followed the musicians trying to find work or on the road between gigs.\n\nHome Media releases\n\nOn September 21, 2009, Warner Home Video released the complete first season on DVD in Region 2. The 6-disc set consists of 36 edited half-hour episodes of The Banana Splits and Friends Show as aired on Cartoon Network and Boomerang." ] }

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Please try again later.\nPublished on Mar 12, 2016\nLoads more TV Themes at: http://teeveesgreatest.webs.com/\nThe Banana Splits are four funny animal characters who featured in a late 1960s children's variety show made for television. The costumed hosts of the show were Fleegle (guitar, vocals), Bingo (drums, vocals), Drooper (bass, vocals) and Snorky (keyboards, effects). The Banana Splits Adventure Hour was an hour-long, packaged television program that featured both live action and animated segments.\nThe series was produced by Hanna-Barbera Productions, and ran for 31 episodes on NBC Saturday mornings, from September 7, 1968 to September 5, 1970. The series costumes and sets were designed by Sid and Marty Krofft and the series' sponsor was Kellogg's Cereals.The show was Hanna-Barbera's initial foray into mixing live action with animation. In 1967, William Hanna and Joseph Barbera approached the Krofft Brothers to design costumes for a television show which would feature animated and live-action segments, with the whole show hosted by a bubblegum rock group of anthropomorphic characters.\nEach show represented a meeting of the \"Banana Splits Club\", and the wraparounds featured the adventures of the club members, who doubled as a musical quartet, meant to be reminiscent of The Beatles and (especially) their NBC counterpart, The Monkees. The main characters were Fleegle, a beagle; Bingo, a gorilla; Drooper, a lion, and Snorky (called \"Snork\" in the theme song lyrics), an elephant. Fleegle would assume the role as leader of the Banana Splits and preside at club meetings.\nThe characters were played by actors in voluminous fleecy costumes similar to later Sid and Marty Krofft characters such as H.R. Pufnstuf. They all spoke in English (Drooper with a Southern drawl in the manner of Michael Nesmith, Fleegle with a pronounced lisp), except for Snorky who \"spoke\" in honking noises.\nCategory", "The Banana Splits Adventure Hour | Hanna-Barbera Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia\nThe Banana Splits Adventure Hour\n2,865pages on\nShare\nThe Banana Splits Adventure Hour title card.\nThe Banana Splits Adventure Hour was an hourlong packaged television program that included both live-action and animated segments. The series was produced by Hanna-Barbera, and ran for 31 episodes on NBC Saturday mornings, from September 7, 1968, to September 5, 1969. The series' costumes and sets were designed by Sid & Marty Krofft , and the series was Hanna-Barbera’s initial foray into mixing live action with animation. The hosts of the show were Fleegle , Bingo , Drooper and Snorky (a dog, a gorilla, a lion and an elephant).\nContents\n[ show ]\nTelevision series\nIn 1967, William Hanna and Joseph Barbera approached the Krofft Brothers to design costumes for a television show which would feature animated and live-action segments, with the whole show hosted by a bubblegum pop group of anthropomorphic characters. The format of the show was loosely based on Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In. The Banana Splits Adventure Hour premiered on NBC on September 7, 1968. [1]\nIn addition to sketches and songs with the Splits, the show contained a number of other segments. There was a live-action cliffhanger serial, Danger Island; the short-lived Micro Ventures , an animated series consisting of only four episodes; Arabian Knights , and The Three Musketeers. [1] Actor Jan-Michael Vincent (billed as Michael Vincent) appeared in the live-action component Danger Island; all the live-action material filmed for the series' first season (including the Banana Splits and Danger Island segments) was directed by Richard Donner , later of Superman and Lethal Weapon fame. [2]\nEach show represented a meeting of the \"Banana Splits Club,\" and the wraparounds featured the adventures of the club members, who doubled as a musical quartet, meant to be reminiscent of the Beatles and the Monkees. The main characters were Fleegle, a dog; Bingo, an ape; Drooper, a lion; and Snorky (called \"Snork\" in the theme song lyrics), an elephant. Fleegle would assume the role as leader of the Banana Splits and preside at club meetings. The characters were played by actors in fleecy costumes similar to later Sid and Marty Krofft characters such as H.R. Pufnstuf.\nThe Splits' segments, including songs-of-the-week and comedy skits, served as wraparounds for a number of individual segments. In the second season, The Three Musketeers segments were replaced with repeats of Yogi's Gang , a cartoon segment that previously appeared on The Atom Ant Show (1965 - 1989).\nThe Banana Splits Adventure Hour was one of the first two Hanna-Barbera productions in 1968 in which William Hanna and Joseph Barbera received executive producer credits; the other being Yogi's Gang ( Edward Rosen served as producer on both series). They would not, however, assume the title full-time for another five years.\nSeason 1\nDuring the first season, the Banana Splits segments often concerned the group's confrontations with a rival club: The Sour Grapes Bunch. The Sour Grapes were not seen on camera, but would send notes (usually a challenge or some other kind of threat) delivered by one of the \"Sour Grapes messenger girls,\" who would dance into the Splits' clubhouse wearing purple minidresses, matched with pink leotards, tights and black go-go boots. They would normally intimidate or frighten the Splits until they gave the note to Fleegle. They would then dance out and take a bow before leaving. Five young actresses appeared as the messenger girls: Debra Thibodeaux , Colette Chenault , Julie Graham , Kathy O'Dare and Shirley Hillstrom ; only one would appear at a time, always called \"Charlie\" in the context of the show, except for the performance of the song \"Doin' The Banana Split\" (the segment first appeared in show #5, originally telecast October 5, 1968) which featured all five girls dancing with The Banana Splits. Their dance instructor was Byron Gilliam. Both Julie Graham and Kathy O'Dare would later appear in the 1970s TV series Happy Days.\nThe Splits also occasionally were visited by the Mariachi-tuned Dilly Sisters (an actual musical act from Mexico), who would appear at their door playing guitars and singing \"The Mexican Hat Dance\" or \"Ta-ra-ra Boom-de-ay\". In other recurring features during the first season, Drooper and Bingo offered advice to viewers in the \"Dear Drooper\" segment, while Fleegle served as the reporter for Banana Splits News. Other running gags included Fleegle repeatedly hitting himself by accident with his oversized gavel. The show introduced some catch phrases: the line, \"That's an ooch,\" would be said every time a member was hit or injured (sometimes, it would be a double or triple-ooch depending on the extent of the injury). Other memorable sayings included \"Hold the bus!\" and \"Uh-oh, Chongo!\" (the latter from the serialized Danger Island segment).\nSeason 2\nIn the second season, all new live-action segments were produced with the Banana Splits characters, while the animated segments and Danger Island serial were repeats. (Arabian Knights and Danger Island were reprised from Season 1, while The Three Musketeers would be replaced by repeats of The Hillbilly Bears, previously seen on The Atom Ant Show .) For the new season, the set was slightly modified, and the Splits' recurring routines were all new: Fleegle attempted (quite unsuccessfully) to perform magic tricks as alter ego The Great Fleegali, while Super Drooper fought crime and Coach Bingo kept the rest of the group active in sports competitions. Other new elements included School Time, Nursery Rhymes and a Gag Wall segment (reminiscent of Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In), as well as Fan Club meetings where the Banana Splits would read viewer mail. Goofy Gopher (voiced by Paul Winchell) would pop out from a flower pot to deliver the occasional one-liner, joining Cuckoo, who popped out of the Cuckoo Clock, and Banana Vac (an electric talking moose head) as secondary characters. The characters' costume designs also received an overhaul (introduced in the next-to-last Season 1 episode, The Great Banana Splits Buggy Race), with Snorky, who was originally covered in hair, now clean-shaven and sporting a yellow and blue striped vest.\nSyndication and cable\nIn syndication, the show was re-edited into a half-hour format and retitled The Banana Splits and Friends Show. That package consisted of 125 half-hours, including 36 Banana Splits Adventure Hour cutdowns (edited from the 18 original first season shows; 13 additional episodes produced for the 1969-1970 season were not included in the syndicated package; reconstructed versions of the 36 syndicated edits continue to air on Boomerang today). Four other Hanna-Barbera series (originally unrelated to The Banana Splits, apart from having been produced by the same studio) were folded into the syndicated series as well: Atom Ant (26 half-hours, also featuring Precious Pupp and the aforementioned Hillbilly Bears), Secret Squirrel (26 half-hours, also featuring Squiddly Diddly and Winsome Witch ), Yogi's Gang (17 half-hours), and The New Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (20 half-hours, originally seen in prime time and here introduced as The Adventures of Huck Finn) which combined live action with animation. The four other shows occasionally are repeated on the Boomerang cable network in their original, non-Banana Splits configurations. (The syndicated Atom Ant, Secret Squirel and Yogi's Gang episodes had a rotation of eight repeating clips edited into them, with Jimmy MacDonald redubbing Fleegle's voice to introduce various cartoon segments. A total of a minute and a half of this footage was repurposed in this manner; the clips originated from Season 2 shows, as did the syndicated series's opening and closing titles. It was the only Season 2 material included in the syndicated package.)\nAlthough fewer episodes were produced during the second season (13 compared to 18 in the first season), NBC repeated five Season 1 episodes (re-edited to feature the final five chapters of Danger Island) to maintain continuity of story line immediately following the first run of the 13 Season 2 episodes.\nAfter the cancellation of the original series, the characters were revived in the TV special The Banana Splits in Hocus-Pocus Park , which first aired as an hourlong installment of The ABC Saturday Superstar Movie on Saturday, November 25, 1972. Unlike the television show, the Splits spent most of the film in animated form.\nIn addition to the original 31 episodes of The Banana Splits Adventure Hour, NBC also aired two \"preview\" shows. Meet the Banana Splits was a half-hour special consisting of segments from the early episodes; it aired Friday, September 6, 1968, one day before the show's official premiere. Another \"fall preview\" show, called The Banana Splits and Friends (not to be confused with the later half-hour syndicated package The Banana Splits and Friends Show) aired in The Banana Splits Adventure Hour's regular timeslot on Saturday, August 30, 1969. The latter show served as a \"fall preview\" for NBC-TV's 1969-1970 Saturday morning lineup, and was produced by Don Sandburg (who was best known to Chicago-area TV viewers as \"Sandy the Tramp\" from WGN-TV's Bozo's Circus) for NBC. The special featured appearances by Jack Wild (Jimmy of H.R. Pufnstuf), Judy the Chimp (of Jambo), and a costumed Pink Panther. Although the special aired before the start of the second season, it was the last original Banana Splits show to be filmed, after regular shooting for the series had been completed.\nJoe Barbera wrote in his autobiography, My Life in 'Toons, that the original name for the series was to be \"The Banana Bunch\", but Hanna-Barbera was forced to change it after the author of a children's book by that name refused permission to use the title. Kellogg's had printed up 1.25 million cereal boxes with references to \"The Banana Bunch\" on them but wound up trashing the stock and starting over.\nComics\nThe Banana Splits' adventures continued in comic books. Gold Key Comics began publishing a comic version in 1969, releasing eight issues through 1971. [3] Drawn by Jack Manning, these followed the musicians trying to find work or on the road between gigs.\nMusic\nMain article: Banana Splits discography\nThe Banana Splits' bubblegum pop rock 'n' roll was provided by studio professionals, including Joey Levine (\"I Enjoy Being a Boy\", \"It's a Good Day for a Parade\"); Al Kooper (\"You're the Lovin' End\"); Barry White (\"Doin' the Banana Split\"); Gene Pitney (\"Two Ton Tessie\") and Jimmy Radcliffe provided his songs (\"I'm Gonna Find a Cave\", \"Soul\", \"Don't Go Away Go-Go Girl\", \"Adam Had 'Em\" and \"The Show Must Go On\") but did not contribute vocals to Splits recordings. The music director was music publisher Aaron Schroeder, while production duties were mainly handled by David Mook. For a list of the songs performed in \"The Banana Splits\", see List of songs in The Banana Splits Adventure Hour .\nIn 1968, The Banana Splits released an album tiled We're the Banana Splits. The show’s theme song, titled \" The Tra La La Song (One Banana, Two Banana) \", released as a single, peaked at number 97 on Billboard's Top 100 in February 1969 [4] . The version included on the We're the Banana Splits album is the same recording heard at the beginning of the show, while the single version is an entirely different arrangement and recording of the song, featuring an additional verse. The song was written by Nelson B. Winkless Jr.; however, owing to contractual arrangements, on all record releases (as well as the TV show's closing credits), credit was given to Ritchie Adams and Mark Barkan. Winkless is credited as co-writer, along with Hoyt Curtin , of \"The Beautiful Calliopa\" (also called \"My Beautiful Calliopasaxaviatrumparimbaclaribasotrombaphone\"), which was featured several times in the television series and issued on record.\nA cover of the show’s theme song, performed by Liz Phair with Material Issue, is included on the 1996 tribute album Saturday Morning: Cartoons' Greatest Hits, produced by Ralph Sall for Walt Disney Records. A cover of \"Don't Go Away Go-Go Girl\", by pop-punk band Mr. T Experience was issued on the 1993 tribute album Banana Pad Riot and their Big Black Bugs Bleed Blue Blood and Our Bodies Our Selves CD releases.\nCast\nActed by Frank Welker in season 1 song segments\nActed by Robert Towers in most other segments\nAlthough Snorky's voice often has been mistakenly credited to Frank Welker, the character never actually spoke. Welker did perform Drooper's voice in some portions of The Banana Splits in Disneyland Park, with Allan Melvin voicing the character in other scenes).\nJeffrey and Dan Winkless are brothers, the sons of Nelson B. Winkless Jr., a jingle writer for the show's sponsor, Kellogg's. Winkless composed some of the memorable Kellogg's cereal jingles, including \"The best to you each morning,\" and also co-wrote (with Hoyt Curtin) \"The Beautiful Calliopa\", a song used on the series. The actors' names were changed in the show's credits to avoid the appearance of nepotism.\nIronically, James Dove, the original Snorky, was previously a voice-over artist. He was hired as a result of his small stature, and has stated that he was fired as a result of not being able to get along with the Winkless \"kids\". James Dove currently suffers from end-stage Parkinson's disease. He lives in assisted care in Los Angeles. Dan Winkless currently lives in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Terence Henry continues to act. Jeffrey Winkless died of cancer at age 65 on June 26, 2006.\nDVD release\nEarl Kress, a reputable source in the animation industry who holds close ties with the Hanna-Barbera crew, posted on his blog that The Banana Splits Adventure Hour was tentatively scheduled to be released on DVD in 2007. After further research had been done on available master materials needed to reconstruct the shows for proper DVD release, the project was cancelled. [5]\nReferences", "Banana Splits Adventure Hour, The\nBanana Splits Adventure Hour, The\n1 9 6 8 - 1 9 7 0 (USA)\nFew shows are remembered as fondly as The Banana Splits.\nCombining live action, costumed hijinks, classical animation, and rock music with pre-teen psychedelic imagery at a break-neck pace, this show spoke to a new generation of TV babies, and they listened . . .\nThe Banana Splits themselves were an ersatz rock band made up of a dog (Fleegle), a lion (Drooper), a gorilla (Bingo), and a baby elephant (Snorky).\nThe band was designed to resemble The Monkees - who in turn were designed to resemble The Beatles - and they hosted the show by appearing in live-action bumpers between the components of the programme.\nTheir songs were Tin Pan Alley's Fab Four retreads. The classic I Enjoy Being A Boy included the I Am A Walrus-style verse \"I live in a purple plum mansion/In the midst of a strawberry stream/And mellifluous bells ring out softly/from a hill of vanilla fudge cream\". (!)\nWilliam Hanna and Joseph Barbera hired some of the best voices in the business: Paul Winchell (aka Dick Dastardly ) supplied Fleegle's drawl, while Daws Butler ( Yogi Bear , Huckleberry Hound ) was the voice of Bingo. Snorky only ever honked but was officially voiced by Don Messick (something Messick has since denied).\nAllan Melvin voiced Drooper, the guitar-playing lion who answered the mail. The furry foursome usually appeared in \"music videos\" showcasing their antics in theme parks or in short sketches filled with playful puns. Q: What's yellow and manages a baseball team? A: Yogi Banana!\nThe show itself resembled the prime time comedy hit  Rowan and Martin's Laugh-In  with its frenetic pacing, psychedelic graphics, and short comedy blackout sketches, mixed in with longer episodic features.\nThe phrase \"Hold the bus\" was the sign for the Splits to behave as if they had been driven mad by a mailbox which wouldn't give Fleegle the mail, a bin which wouldn't accept Drooper's trash, and the odious Sour Grape girls.\nFor many, the most memorable feature segment was  Danger Island .\nA live-action segment filmed on location, it featured the shipwrecked Professor Irwin Hayden and his crew as they outran dangerous natives, killer animals, and murderous pirates and was famous for the cry of \"Oh oh Chongo\".\nThe action-packed show featured a young man named Michael Vincent, who would come to be known as teen idol Jan-Michael Vincent, and many of the episodes were directed by Richard Donner, who would later helm the  Lethal Weapon  saga.\nAnother segment was  The Three Musketeers , which was based on the classic novel, with Porthos, Aramis, Athos, and young D'Artagnan duelling through various adventures in the service of their Queen.\nA new character, Tooly, was added to serve as a link between children and The Musketeers, showing how exciting their adventures could be.\nAnd let's not forget the  Arabian Knights . Led by Prince Turhan and Princess Nida, this odd group of heroes did battle with the evil Bakaar to try to recapture Turhan's throne. Bez, Fariik, and Raseem were the three magicians who assisted the royal duo through an array of magical spells. Along for comic relief and a well-placed mule kick was Sazoom the donkey.\nThe Micro Ventures  used real microscopic life as a background. Professor Carter and his children Patsy and Tommy were shrunk down to microscopic size so they could examine cellular life from the cell's point of view. The threesome also ran across giant animals and insects, often forcing them to speed away in their microscopic dune buggy.\nOld episodes of  The Hillbilly Bears , a component of  The Atom Ant / Secret Squirrel Show , were thrown in for a dose of comedy.\nSpawning a myriad of toys and games, The Banana Splits Adventure Hour was a landmark moment in children's TV; the show was a herald of the new youth culture that was poised to invade the living room and helped shape an entire generation.\nFleegle, Drooper, Bingo and Snorky were all instantly recognisable characters. Unfortunately, anyone could wear those furry outfits - A painful truth soon discovered by Dan Owen, Terence Henry, Jeffrey Brock and Jay Larremore (the guys in the suits on the show).\nWhen the Splits staged their very own national US concert tour, local actors were hired to save fees and expenses.\nFleegle \nOne banana, two banana, three banana, four\nFour bananas make a bunch and so do many more.\nOver hill and highway the banana buggies go\nComing on to bring you the Banana Splits show\nMaking up a mess of fun Making up a mess of fun\nLots of fun for everyone\nTra la la, la la la la, Tra la la, la la la la\nTra la la, la la la la, Tra la la, la la la la\nFour banana, three banana, two bananas, one\nAll bananas playing in the bright warm sun\nFlipping like a pancake, popping like a cork,\nFleagle, Bingo, Drooper and Snork\nMaking up a mess of fun, Making up a mess of fun\nLots of fun for everyone\nTra la la, la la la la, Tra la la, la la la la\nTra la la, la la la la, Tra la la, la la la la\nTwo Banana, four banana, one banana, three\nSwinging like a bunch of monkeys hanging from a tree\nHey there everybody won't you come along and see\nHow much like Banana Splits everyone can be\nMaking up a mess of fun, Making up a mess of fun\nLots of fun for everyone\nTra la la, la la la la, Tra la la, la la la la\nTra la la, la la la la, Tra la la, la la la la\nRELATED ARTICLES", "ClassicTV - The Banana Splits - Characters\nThe Banana Splits\nPaul Winchell\nProfile:\nA beagle. Plays a guitar, and the leader of the group. Fleegle opens and closes the show, poses banana related riddles to Bingo, and reports the latest wacky news.\nName:\nA gorilla. Plays the drums. He can always figure out Fleegle's banana related riddles.\nName:\nAllan Melvin\nProfile:\nA lion. Plays a guitar. The fall-guy of the group, as he is forced to face up to the Sour Grapes Gang, and take out the trash. He offers sound advice to viewers in his Dear Drooper segment.\nName:\nDon Messick\nProfile:\nAn elephant. Plays the keyboards. Snorky does not speak, he instead 'hoots'. His personal buggy is covered in pink spots.\nName:\nA blue feathery bird in the cuckoo clock, which announces some of the series segments.\nName:\nProfile:\nA cheeky wall mounted head, which acts as the door-bell.\nAll multimedia items are low quality and for information purposes only. All multimedia items remain copyright to original programme makers." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "1980s_in_music.txt", "Can't_Fight_This_Feeling.txt" ], "title": [ "1980s in music", "Can't Fight This Feeling" ], "wiki_context": [ "For a history of music in all times, see Timeline of musical events. \n\nFor music from a year in the 1980s, go to 80 | 81 | 82 | 83 | 84 | 85 | 86 | 87 | 88 | 89\n\nThis article includes an overview of the major events and trends in popular music in the 1980s.\n\nThe 1980s saw the emergence of dance music and new wave. As disco fell out of fashion in the decade's early years, genres such as post-disco, Italo disco, Euro disco and dance-pop became more popular. Rock music continued to enjoy a wide audience. Soft rock, glam metal, thrash metal, shred guitar characterized by heavy distortion, pinch harmonics and whammy bar abuse became very popular. Adult contemporary, quiet storm, and smooth jazz gained popularity. In late 80s, glam metal became the largest, most commercially successful brand of music in the United States and worldwide. \n\nThe 1980s are commonly remembered for an increase in the use of digital recording, associated with the usage of synthesizers, with synthpop music and other electronic genres featuring non-traditional instruments increasing in popularity. Also during this decade, several major electronic genres were developed, including electro, techno, house, freestyle and Eurodance, rising in prominence during the 1990s and beyond. Throughout the decade, R&B, hip hop and urban genres were becoming commonplace, particularly in the inner-city areas of large, metropolitan cities; rap was especially successful in the latter part of the decade, with the advent of the golden age of hip hop. These urban genres—particularly rap and hip hop—would continue their rise in popularity through the 1990s and 2000s.\n\nA 2010 survey conducted by the digital broadcaster Music Choice, which polled over 11,000 European participants, revealed that the 1980s is the most favored tune decade of the last 50 years. \n\nNorth America \n\nPop \n\nThe 1980s saw the reinvention of Michael Jackson and Diana Ross, the superstardom of Prince and the emergence of Madonna, Whitney Houston, and Janet Jackson—who were all the most successful musicians during this time. Their videos became a permanent fixture on MTV and gained a worldwide mass audience. Michael Jackson was the first African American artist to have his music video aired on MTV. Michael Jackson's Thriller album from 1982 is the best-selling album of all time; it is cited as selling as many as 110 million copies worldwide. Being the biggest selling artist of that decade, he was the biggest star of the 1980s. Madonna was the most successful female artist of the decade. Her third studio album, True Blue, became the best-selling female album of the 1980s. Other Madonna albums from the decade include Like a Virgin which became one of the best selling albums of all-time and Like a Prayer which was called \"as close to art as pop music gets\" by Rolling Stone. Madonna made music videos a marketing tool and was among the first to make them an art form. Many of her songs topped the Charts around the world, such as: \"Like a Virgin\", \"Papa Don't Preach\", \"La Isla Bonita\" and \"Like a Prayer\". After her Like a Prayer album release in 1989, Madonna was named artist of the decade by a number of magazines and awards. Whitney Houston became one of the best selling artist of the 1980s. Her emergence became the footprints of different singers because of her vocal gymnastics. Whitney became the second best-selling female artist of the 1980s, second only to Madonna. Her eponymous debut studio album Whitney Houston became the best-selling debut album of all time and her sophomore album became the first female debut at no. 1 in the history of Billboard 200 and she was the first and the only artist to chart seven consecutive number-one songs on the Billboard 100.\nBy 1980, the prominent disco genre, largely dependent on orchestras, had become heavily unfavoured, replaced by a lighter synthpop production, which subsequently fuelled dance music. In the latter half of the 1980s, teen pop experiences its first wave; bands and artists include Exposé, New Kids on the Block, Debbie Gibson, Tiffany, Erotic Exotic, New Edition, Stacey Q, The Bangles, Madonna, George Michael, Olivia Newton-John, Boy George and others.\n\nProminent American urban pop acts of the 1980s include Tina Turner, Lionel Richie, Michael Jackson, Donna Summer, Whitney Houston and Deniece Williams. African American artists like Lionel Richie and Prince went on to become some of the decade's biggest pop stars, ruling MTV, with Prince becoming the second biggest male superstar after Michael Jackson. Their commercial albums included 1999, Purple Rain, and Sign \"O\" the Times by Prince and Lionel Richie, Can't Slow Down and Dancing on the Ceiling by Richie.\n\nDuring the mid-1980s American pop singer Cyndi Lauper was considered the \"Voice of the MTV Generation of 80s\" and so different visual style that made the world for teens. Her first two albums She's So Unusual (1984) and True Colors (1986) were critically and commercially successful, spawning the hits, \"Girls Just Want to Have Fun\", \"Time After Time\", \"She Bop\", \"All Through the Night\", \"The Goonies 'R' Good Enough\", \"True Colors\" and \"Change of Heart\".\n\nSeveral British artists made the successful transition to pop during the 1980s and saw great commercial success, such as David Bowie and Paul McCartney. Many British pop bands also dominated the American charts in the early 1980s. Many of them became popular due to their constant exposure on MTV, these bands included Culture Club, Duran Duran, and Wham!. Between the two, they have had 7 U.S. number ones with hits like \"Karma Chameleon\", \"The Reflex\" and \"Wake Me Up Before You Go-Go\"\n\nAmerican artists such as Whitney Houston, Michael Jackson, Madonna, Bruce Springsteen, Tina Turner, Bon Jovi, Cher, Hall & Oates, Prince and Janet Jackson ruled the charts throughout the decade and achieved tremendous success worldwide. Their fame and commercial success lasts up to date although Whitney Houston,Michael Jackson and Prince are deceased.\n\nRock \n\nIn the 1980s, rock music was more precisely defined and split up into multiple subgenres. \nHard rock and heavy/glam metal \n\nBeginning in 1983 and peaking in success in 1986-1991, the decade saw the resurgence of hard rock music and the emergence of its glam metal subgenre. Bands such as AC/DC, Queen, Def Leppard, Kiss, Mötley Crüe, Bon Jovi, Quiet Riot, Scorpions, Europe, Ratt, Twisted Sister, Poison, Dokken, Whitesnake, and Cinderella were among the most popular acts of the decade. The 1980s saw the emergence of wildly popular hard rock band Guns N' Roses and the successful comebacks of Aerosmith and Alice Cooper in the late 1980s. The success of hard rock act Van Halen spanned throughout the entire decade, first with singer David Lee Roth and later with Sammy Hagar. Queen, which had expanded its music to experimental and crossover genres in the early 1980s, returned to guitar-driven hard rock with The Miracle in 1989. Additionally, a few women managed to achieve stardom in the 1980s' hard rock scene: Pat Benatar, who had been around since the late 1970s, is a prime example of female success in hard rock, and so are both ex-Runaways Joan Jett and Lita Ford.\n\nThe Arena rock trend of the 1970s continued in the 1980s with bands like Styx, Rush, Journey, Foreigner, REO Speedwagon, ZZ Top, and Aerosmith.\n\nTraditionally associated (and often confused) with hard rock, heavy metal was also extremely popular throughout the decade, with Ozzy Osbourne achieving success during his solo career; bands like Iron Maiden, Judas Priest and Dio were also widely popular British acts. Speed metal pioneer Motörhead maintained its popularity through the releases of several albums.\nUnderground scenes produced an array of more extreme, aggressive Metal subgenres: thrash metal broke into the mainstream with bands such as Metallica, Slayer, Exodus, Anthrax, and Megadeth, with other styles like death metal and black metal remaining subcultural phenomena.\n\nThe decade also saw the emergence of a string of guitar virtuosi: Eddie Van Halen, George Lynch, Joe Satriani, Steve Vai, Randy Rhoads and Yngwie Malmsteen achieved international recognition for their skills. While considerably less numerous, bass guitar virtuosi also gained momentum in the 1980s: Billy Sheehan (of David Lee Roth and Mr. Big fame), Cliff Burton (of Metallica) and alternative/funk metal bassist Les Claypool (of Primus fame) became famous during that period. Iron Maiden founder and bassist Steve Harris has also been praised numerous times for his galloping style of bass playing.\n\nBoth Hard rock and Heavy metal were extremely popular live genres and bands toured extensively around the globe.\n\nAlternative rock \n\nBy 1984, a majority of groups signed to independent record labels were mining from a variety of rock and particularly 1960s rock influences. This represented a sharp break from the futuristic, hyper rational post-punk years. \n\nThroughout the 1980s, alternative rock was mainly an underground phenomena. While on occasion a song would become a commercial hit or albums would receive critical praise in mainstream publications like Rolling Stone, alternative rock in the 1980s was primarily relegated to independent record labels, fanzines and college radio stations. Alternative bands built underground followings by touring constantly and regularly releasing low-budget albums. In the case of the United States, new bands would form in the wake of previous bands, which created an extensive underground circuit in America, filled with different scenes in various parts of the country. Although American alternative artists of the 1980s never generated spectacular album sales, they exerted a considerable influence on later alternative musicians and laid the groundwork for their success. \n\nEarly American alternative bands such as R.E.M., The Hits, The Feelies, and Violent Femmes combined punk influences with folk music and mainstream music influences. R.E.M. was the most immediately successful; its debut album, Murmur (1983), entered the Top 40 and spawned a number of jangle pop followers. Alternative and indie pop movements sprang up in other parts of the world, from the Paisley Underground of Los Angeles (The Bangles, Rain Parade) to Scotland (Aztec Camera, Orange Juice), Australia (The Church, The Triffids), and New Zealand's Dunedin Sound (The Clean, The Chills).\n\nAmerican indie record labels SST Records, Twin/Tone Records, Touch and Go Records, and Dischord Records presided over the shift from the hardcore punk that then dominated the American underground scene to the more diverse styles of alternative rock that were emerging. Minnesota bands Hüsker Dü and The Replacements were indicative of this shift. Both started out as punk rock bands, but soon diversified their sounds and became more melodic.\n\nBy the late 1980s, the American alternative scene was dominated by styles ranging from quirky alternative pop (They Might Be Giants and Camper Van Beethoven), to noise rock (Big Black, Swans) to industrial rock (Ministry, Nine Inch Nails) and to early Grunge (Mudhoney, Nirvana). These sounds were in turn followed by the advent of Boston's the Pixies and Los Angeles' Jane's Addiction.\n\nAmerican Alternative Rock bands of 1980s included Hüsker Dü, The Replacements, Minutemen, R.E.M., Dinosaur Jr., Pixies, and Sonic Youth which were popular long before the Grunge movement of the early 1990s.\n\nSoft rock \n\nNew singers and songwriters included Michael Jackson, Bruce Springsteen, Tom Petty, Mark Heard, Lucinda Williams, Patti Smith, Rickie Lee Jones, Terence Trent D'Arby, Stevie Nicks, Suzanne Vega, Cheryl Wheeler and Warren Zevon. Rock and even punk rock artists such as Peter Case, Phil Collins and Paul Westerberg transitioned to careers as solo singers.\n\nIn the late 1980s, the term was applied to a group of predominantly female U.S. artists, beginning with Suzanne Vega whose first album sold unexpectedly well, followed by the likes of Tracy Chapman, Nanci Griffith, k.d. lang and Tori Amos, who found success first in the United Kingdom, then in her home market.\n\nOther trends \n\nVarious older rock bands made a comeback. Bands originating from the early to mid-1960s such as The Beach Boys and The Kinks had hits with \"Kokomo\", \"Come Dancing\" and \"Do It Again\". Bands with popularity in the mid-1970s such as the Steve Miller Band and Steely Dan also had hits with \"Abracadabra\" and \"Hey Nineteen\". Singer and songwriter Bruce Springsteen released his blockbuster album Born In The USA, which produced a record-tying 7 hit singles. Stevie Ray Vaughan and George Thorogood sparked a revival of Atomic blues and Blues rock. Massively successful hard rock band Led Zeppelin disbanded after drummer John Bonham's 1980 death, while contemporaries AC/DC continued to have success after the death of former frontman Bon Scott. Country rock saw a decline after Lynyrd Skynyrd's 1977 plane crash and the 1980 disbanding of the genre's most successful band, the Eagles. The Grateful Dead had their biggest hit in band history with \"Touch of Grey\". The Who managed to provide the hit songs \"You Better You Bet\" and \"Eminence Front\" before burning out after the death of their drummer Keith Moon.\n\nHardcore punk flourished throughout the early to mid-1980s, with bands leading the genre such as Black Flag, Bad Brains, Minor Threat, Suicidal Tendencies, D.O.A., and Dead Kennedys amongst others. It began to wane in the latter half of the decade, with the New York hardcore scene dominating the genre. However, it experience a jumpstart in the late 1980s with emerging bands such as Operation Ivy and Green Day that would define not just the so-called \"East Bay\" sound, but impact the next decade's punk and alternative sound. Some of which is still around today.\n\nContemporary R&B \n\nContemporary R&B originated in the 1980s, when musicians started adding disco-like beats, high-tech production, and elements of hip hop, soul and funk to rhythm and blues, making it more danceable and modern. The top mainstream R&B artists of 1980s included Michael Jackson, Prince, Jermaine Jackson, The Whispers, The S.O.S. Band, Stevie Wonder, Kool & the Gang, Yarbrough and Peoples, Smokey Robinson, Rick James, Diana Ross, Lionel Richie, Earth, Wind & Fire, Dazz Band, Evelyn King, Marvin Gaye, Mtume, DeBarge, Midnight Star, and Freddie Jackson. \n\nIn the mid-1980s, many of the recordings by artists Luther Vandross, Freddie Jackson, Sade, Anita Baker, Teddy Pendergrass, Peabo Bryson and others became known as quiet storm. The term had originated with Smokey Robinson's 1975 album A Quiet Storm. Quiet storm has been described as \"R&B's answer to soft rock and adult contemporary—while it was primarily intended for black audiences, quiet storm had the same understated dynamics, relaxed tempos and rhythms, and romantic sentiment.\" \n\nTina Turner made a comeback during the second half of the 1980s, while Whitney Houston and Janet Jackson broke into the pop music charts with a series of hits. Richard J. Ripani wrote that Janet Jackson's third studio album Control (1986) was \"important to the development of R&B for a number of reasons\", as she and her producers, Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, \"crafted a new sound that fuses the rhythmic elements of funk and disco, along with heavy doses of synthesizers, percussion, sound effects, and a rap music sensibility.\" Ripani wrote that \"the success of Control led to the incorporation of stylistic traits of rap over the next few years, and Janet Jackson was to continue to be one of the leaders in that development.\" That same year, Teddy Riley began producing R&B recordings that included hip hop influences. This combination of R&B style and hip hop rhythms was termed new jack swing, and was applied to artists such as Bobby Brown, Keith Sweat, MC Hammer, Boyz ll Men, Guy, Jodeci, and Bell Biv DeVoe.\n\nMichael Jackson remained a prominent figure in the genre in the late 1980s, following the release of his album Bad (1987) which sold more than 30 million copies worldwide. Janet Jackson's 1989 album Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814 continued the development of contemporary R&B into the 1990s, as the album's title track \"Rhythm Nation\" made \"use of elements from across the R&B spectrum, including use of a sample loop, triplet swing, rapped vocal parts and blues notes.\" The release of Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814 became the only album in history to produce number one hits on the Billboard Charts Hot 100 in three separate calendar years—\"Miss You Much\" in 1989, \"Escapade\" and \"Black Cat\" in 1990, and \"Love Will Never Do (Without You)\" in 1991—and the only album in the history of the Hot 100 to have seven top 5 hit singles.\n\nHip hop \n\nEncompassing graffiti art, break dancing, rap music, and fashion, hip-hop became the dominant cultural movement of the African American communities in the 1980s. The Hip hop musical genre had a strong influence on pop music in the late 1980s which still continues to the present day.\n\nDuring the 1980s, the hip hop genre started embracing the creation of rhythm by using the human body, via the vocal percussion technique of beatboxing. Pioneers such as Africa Bambaataa, DJ Kool Herc, Melle Mel, Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five, Whodini, Sugarhill Gang, Doug E. Fresh, Biz Markie and Buffy from the Fat Boys made beats, rhythm, and musical sounds using their mouth, lips, tongue, voice, and other body parts. \"Human Beatbox\" artists would also sing or imitate turntablism scratching or other instrument sounds.\n\nThe 1980s also saw many artists make social statements through hip hop. In 1982, Melle Mel and Duke Bootee recorded \"The Message\" (officially credited to Grandmaster Flash and The Furious Five), a song that foreshadowed the socially conscious statements of Run-DMC's \"It's like That\" and Public Enemy's \"Black Steel in the Hour of Chaos\". \n\nPopular hip hop artists of the 1980s include Kurtis Blow, Run D.M.C., Beastie Boys, NWA, LL Cool J, Public Enemy, Eric B. & Rakim, Big Daddy Kane, Boogie Down Productions, Kid N Play, MC Lyte, EPMD, Salt N Pepa, and Ice-T, Schooly D,Slick Rick, Kool Moe Dee, Whodini, MC Hammer, among others.\n\nElectronic music \n\nIn the 1980s, dance music records made using only electronic instruments became increasingly popular, largely influenced from the Electronic music of Kraftwerk and 1970s disco music. Such music was originally born of and popularized via regional nightclub scenes in the 1980s, and became the predominant type of music played in discothèques as well as the rave scene.\n\nHouse music is a style of electronic dance music which originated in Chicago, Illinois, USA in the early 1980s. House music was strongly influenced by elements of soul- and funk-infused varieties of disco. Club play from pioneering DJs like Ron Hardy and Lil Louis, local dance music record shops, and the popular Hot Mix 5 shows on radio station WBMX-FM helped popularize house music in Chicago and among visiting DJs & producers from Detroit. Trax Records and DJ International Records, local labels with wider distribution, helped popularize house music outside of Chicago. It eventually reached Europe before becoming infused in mainstream pop & dance music worldwide during the 1990s.\n\nIt has been widely cited that the initial blueprint for Techno was developed during the mid-1980s in Detroit, Michigan, by Juan Atkins, Kevin Saunderson, Derrick May (the so-called \"Belleville Three\"), and Eddie Fowlkes, all of whom attended school together at Belleville High, near Detroit. Sicko 1999 Though initially conceived as party music that was played on daily mixed radio programs and played at parties given by cliquish, Detroit high school clubs, it has grown to be a global phenomenon.\n\nCountry music \n\nAs the 1980s dawned, pop-influenced country music was the dominant style, through such acts as Kenny Rogers, Ronnie Milsap, T.G. Sheppard, Eddie Rabbitt, Crystal Gayle, Anne Murray and Dolly Parton. The 1980 movie Urban Cowboy, a romantic comedy starring John Travolta and Debra Winger, spawned a successful soundtrack album featuring pop-styled country songs, including \"Lookin' for Love\" by Johnny Lee, \"The Devil Went Down to Georgia\" by the Charlie Daniels Band, \"Could I Have This Dance\" by Murray and \"Love the World Away\" by Rogers. The songs, and the movie itself, resulted in an early 1980s boom in pop-styled country music, and the era is sometimes known as the \"Urban Cowboy Movement\".\n\nBy the mid-1980s, country music audiences were beginning to tire of country pop. Although some pop-country artists continued to record and release successful songs and albums, the genre in general was beginning to suffer. By 1985, a New York Times article declared country music \"dead\". However, by this time, several newcomers were working behind the scenes to reverse this perception.\n\nThe year 1986 brought forth several new artists who performed in traditional country styles, such as honky-tonk. This sparked the \"new traditionalist\" movement, or return to traditional country music. The most successful of these artists included Randy Travis, Dwight Yoakam, Ricky Van Shelton and Holly Dunn. Also, artists like Kathy Mattea and Keith Whitley, both of whom had been performing for a few years prior, had their first major hits during 1986; Mattea was more folk-styled, while Whitley was pure honky-tonk. But the new traditionalist movement had already taken hold as early as 1981, when newcomers such as Ricky Skaggs and George Strait had their first big hits. Reba McEntire had her first big hit in 1980 followed by 15 other number one hit singles during the decade. In addition, songwriter–guitarist and Chet Atkins prodigy Steve Wariner also emerged as a popular act starting in the early 1980s. Another boom period for newcomers with new traditionalist styles was 1989, when artists such as Clint Black, Garth Brooks, Mary Chapin Carpenter, Lorrie Morgan and Travis Tritt had their first big hits. It was Whitley who was seen as being one of the torchbearers of the new traditionalist movement, thanks to his pure honky-tonk style in the vein of Lefty Frizzell and others, and his star power was set to rise into the 1990s; however, Whitley was a known heavy drinker, and it was alcohol poisoning that ended his life in May 1989, just weeks after a song about triumph over personal demons -- \"I'm No Stranger to the Rain\" -- became a huge country hit.\n\nVocal duos were also popular because of their harmonies, most notably The Bellamy Brothers and The Judds. Several of the Bellamy Brothers' songs included double-entendre' laden hooks, on songs such as \"Do You Love as Good As You Look\". The Judds, a mother-and-daughter duo, combined elements of contemporary pop and traditional country music on songs such as \"Why Not Me\" and \"Grandpa (Tell Me 'Bout the Good Ol' Days)\".\n\nCountry music groups and bands continued to rise in popularity during the 1980s. The most successful of the lot was Alabama, a Fort Payne-based band that blended traditional and pop country sounds with southern rock. Their concerts regularly sold out, while their single releases regularly reached No. 1 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart. In 1989, Alabama was named the Artist of the Decade by the Academy of Country Music. By the end of the 1980s, the group had sold more than 24 million albums in the United States.\n\nRanking just behind Alabama in popularity, as far as groups were concerned, were The Oak Ridge Boys and The Statler Brothers, both four-part harmony groups with gospel and country-pop stylings. The popularity of those three groups sparked a boom in new groups and bands, and by the end of the 1980s, fans were listening to such acts as Restless Heart and Exile, the latter which previously enjoyed success with the pop hit \"Kiss You All Over\".\n\nDespite the prevailing pop country sound, enduring acts from the 1970s and earlier continued to enjoy great success with fans. George Jones, one of the longest-running acts of the time, recorded several successful singles, including the critically acclaimed \"He Stopped Loving Her Today\". Conway Twitty continued to have a series of No. 1 hits, with 1986's \"Desperado Love\" becoming his 40th chart-topper on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart, a record that stood for nearly 20 years. The movie Coal Miner's Daughter profiled the life of Loretta Lynn (with Sissy Spacek in the lead role), while Willie Nelson also had a series of acting credits. Dolly Parton had much success in the 1980s, with several leading movie roles, two No. 1 albums and 13 number one hits, and having many successful tours; she also teamed up with Emmylou Harris and Linda Ronstadt in 1987 for the multi-plaitnum Trio album. Others who had been around for a while and continued to have great success were Eddy Arnold, Johnny Cash, Merle Haggard, Waylon Jennings, Ray Price, Hank Williams Jr. and Tammy Wynette.\n\nThe UK and the rest of Europe \n\nRock \n\nPost punk \n\nSome of the most successful post-punk bands at the beginning of the decade, such as Siouxsie and the Banshees and The Psychedelic Furs, also continued their success during the 1980s. Members of Bauhaus and Joy Division explored new stylistic territory as Love and Rockets and New Order respectively.\n\nThe second generation of British post-punk bands that broke through in the early 1980s, including The Smiths, The Jesus and Mary Chain, The Cure, The Fall, The Pop Group, The Mekons, Echo and the Bunnymen and Teardrop Explodes, tended to move away from dark sonic landscapes.V. Bogdanov, C. Woodstra and S. T. Erlewine, All Music Guide to Rock: the Definitive Guide to Rock, Pop, and Soul (Milwaukee, WI: Backbeat Books, 3rd edn., 2002), ISBN 0-87930-653-X, pp. 1337-8.\n\nEven though The Police's first hit song \"Roxanne\" was written by Sting in 1978 (reaching number 12 in the UK Charts that year), the song continued to grow in popularity in the 1980s along with the band, and it helped define the sound and repertoire of The Police, one of the biggest bands of the 1980s globally. Even though The Police had their roots in post punk, their eventual success and mega-stardom came from being able to pack the biggest stadium rock venues such as Wembley, the Oakland Coliseum and the Maracanã in Rio de Janeiro. Aside from U2, they are the only other band with post punk origins to go on and achieve the kind of global success they did, with their music transforming along the way into their own brand and style of music - Sting's songwriting and voice becoming legendary, along with drummer Stewart Copeland and his widely respected, complex drumming skills and Andy Summer's masterful guitar interspersing with Sting and Stewart - helping them gain an informal but widely accepted recognition as the \"Biggest Band in The World\" during their 1983-1984 Synchronicity Tour, garnering them a nomination for 5 Grammy Awards and taking 3 at the 1984 Grammy Awards.\n\nIreland's U2 incorporated elements of religious imagery together with political commentary into their often anthemic music, and by the late 1980s had become one of the biggest bands in the world. \n\nAlthough many post-punk bands continued to record and perform, it declined as a movement in the mid-1980s as acts disbanded or moved off to explore other musical areas, but it has continued to influence the development of rock music and has been seen as a major element in the creation of the alternative rock movement. \n\nNew wave music \n\nThe arrival of MTV in 1981 would usher in new wave's most successful era. British artists, unlike many of their American counterparts, had learned how to use the music video early on.[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g1epc/is_tov/ai_2419100891/pg_1?tag\nartBody;col1 St. James encyclopedia of Pop Culture]Rip It Up and Start Again Postpunk 1978-1984 by Simon Reynolds Pages 340,342-343 Several British acts signed to independent labels were able to outmarket and outsell American artists that were signed with major labels. Journalists labelled this phenomenon a \"Second British Invasion\". \n\nIn the fall of 1982, \"I Ran (So Far Away)\" by A Flock of Seagulls entered the Billboard Top Ten, arguably the first successful song that owed almost everything to video. They would be followed by bands like Duran Duran whose glossy videos would come to symbolize the power of MTV. Dire Straits' \"Money for Nothing\" gently poked fun at MTV which had helped make them international rock stars. In 1983, 30% of the record sales were from British acts. 18 of the top 40 and 6 of the top 10 singles on July 18 were by British artists. Overall record sales would rise by 10% from 1982. Newsweek magazine featured Annie Lennox and Boy George on the cover of one of its issues while Rolling Stone Magazine would release an England Swings issue. In April 1984 40 of the top 100 singles were from British acts while 8 of the top 10 singles in a May 1985 survey were of British origin. Veteran music journalist Simon Reynolds theorized that similar to the first British Invasion the use of black American influences by the British acts helped to spur success. Commentators in the mainstream media credited MTV and the British acts with bringing colour and energy to back to pop music while rock journalists were generally hostile to the phenomenon because they felt it represented image over content. MTV continued its heavy rotation of videos by new wave-oriented acts until 1987, when it changed to a heavy metal and rock dominated format. \n\nNew Romantics \n\nNew Romanticism emerged as part of the new wave music movement in London's nightclub including Billy's and The Blitz Club towards the end of the 1970s. Influenced by David Bowie and Roxy Music, it developed glam rock fashions, gaining its name from the frilly fop shirts of early Romanticism. New Romantic music often made extensive use of synthesisers. Pioneers included Visage and Ultravox and among the commercially most successful acts associated with the movement were Adam and the Ants, Culture Club, Spandau Ballet and Duran Duran. By about 1983 the original movement had dissolved, with surviving acts dropping most of the fashion elements to pursue mainstream careers. Other new romantic artists included Classix Nouveaux, A Flock of Seagulls, Gary Numan, Japan, Landscape, Thompson Twins, Soft Cell, ABC, The Teardrop Explodes, Yazoo and Talk Talk.\n\nGothic Rock \n\nGothic rock music developed out of the post punk scene in the later 1970s. Notable early gothic rock bands include Bauhaus (whose \"Bela Lugosi's Dead\" is often cited as the first goth record), Siouxsie and the Banshees (who may have coined the term), The Cure, The Sisters of Mercy, and Fields of the Nephilim.R. Shuker, Popular music: the key concepts (Routledge, 2005), p. 128. Gothic rock gave rise to a broader goth subculture that included clubs, various fashion trends and numerous publications that grew in popularity in the 1980s, gaining notoriety by being associated by several moral panics over suicide and Satanism. \n\nHeavy metal \n\nIn the early 1980s, the new wave of British heavy metal broke into the mainstream, as albums by Judas Priest, Iron Maiden, Saxon and Motörhead, reached the British top 10. In 1981, Motörhead became the first of this new breed of metal bands to top the UK charts with No Sleep 'til Hammersmith. After a string of UK top 10 albums, Whitesnake's 1987 self-titled album was their most commercially successful, with hits, \"Here I Go Again\" and \"Is This Love\", earning them a nomination for the Brit Award for Best British Group. Many metal artists, including Def Leppard, benefited from the exposure they received on ATV and became the inspiration for American glam metal.I. Christe Sound of the Beast: The Complete Headbanging History of Heavy Metal (London: HarperCollins, 2003), ISBN 0-380-81127-8, p. 79. However, as the subgenre fragmented, much of the creative impetus moved away from Britain to American and continental Europe (particularly Germany and Scandinavia), which produced most of the major new subgenres of metal, which were then taken up by British acts. These included thrash metal and death metal, both developed in the UK; black metal and power metal, both developed in continental Europe, but influenced by the British band Venom; and doom, which was developed in the US, but which soon were adopted by a number of bands from England, including Pagan Altar and Witchfinder General. \n\nNotable bands from the hard rock and metal scene of the 1980s included Bon Jovi, Guns N' Roses, Metallica, Megadeth, Slayer, Anthrax, Poison, Mötley Crüe, Ozzy Osbourne, Twisted Sister and others.\n\nPop \n\nPhil Collins had three UK number one singles in the 80s, seven US number one singles, another with Genesis, and when his work with Genesis, his work with other artists, as well as his solo career is totalled, Collins had more top 40 hits on the Billboard \nHot 100 chart during the 1980s than any other artist. His former Genesis colleague, Peter Gabriel, also had a very successful solo career, which included a US number one single and three top ten UK hits (including a duet with Kate Bush). Genesis guitarist Mike Rutherford also enjoyed several UK and US hits with his project Mike + The Mechanics, which included a US number one single. David Bowie saw much greater commercial success in the 1980s than he had in the previous decade, scoring four UK number one singles, including \"Let's Dance\" which proved to be his biggest ever hit. He had a total of ten UK top ten hits during the decade, two in collaboration with other artists. \n\nBoy George and his band Culture Club had great success in both the UK and US charts with major hits like \"Do You Really Want To Hurt Me\", \"Time (Clock of the Heart)\" and \"Karma Chameleon\". As well as Boy George having his own UK number one with his cover of Breads \"Everything I Own\", he is considered a major icon of this era. Liverpool band Frankie Goes to Hollywood's initially controversial dance-pop gave them three consecutive UK number ones in 1984, until they faded away in the mid-1980s. Dead or Alive, also from Liverpool, was another popular dance pop band in the mid-1980s. It was fronted by lead singer Pete Burns.\n\nProbably the most successful British pop band of the era were the duo Wham! with an unusual mix of disco, soul, ballads and even rap, who had eleven top ten hits in the UK, six of them number ones, between 1982 and 1986.P. Gambaccini, T. Rice and J. Rice, British Hit Singles (6th edn., 1985), pp. 338-9. George Michael released his debut solo album, Faith in 1987, and would go on to have seven UK number one singles. The 1985 concert Live Aid held at Wembley Stadium would see some of the biggest British artists of the era perform, with Queen stealing the show. \n\nBonnie Tyler and Dan Ellis had major hits with \"Total Eclipse of the Heart\" and \"Holding Out for a Hero\", while Robert Palmer's had two iconic music videos for \"Addicted to Love\" and \"Simply Irresistible\". The Bee Gees 1987 single \"You Win Again\" reached number one, making them first group to score a UK #1 hit in each of three decades: the 1960s, '70s, and '80s. Other British artists who achieved success in the pop charts in the 80s included Paul McCartney, Elton John, Culture Club, The Fixx, Joe Cocker, Rod Stewart, Kate Bush, Billy Idol, Paul Young, Elvis Costello, Simple Minds, Billy Ocean, Tears for Fears, UB40, Madness and Sade.\n\nIn 1988 Irish singer Enya achieved a breakthrough in her career with the album Watermark which sold over eleven million copies worldwide and helped launch Enya's successful career as a leading new-age, Celtic, World singer. Dutch band Tambourine received some notoriety in The Netherlands and Belgium toward the end of the decade.\n\nSynth pop \n\nSynthpop emerged from new wave, producing a form of pop music that followed electronic rock pioneers in the 1970s like Kraftwerk, Jean Michel Jarre, and Tangerine Dream, in which the synthesizer is the dominant musical instrument. The sounds of synthesizers came to dominate the pop music of the early 1980s as well as replacing disco in dance clubs in Europe.\n\nOther successful synthpop artists of this era included Pet Shop Boys, Alphaville, Soft Cell, Depeche Mode, New Order, Gary Numan, The Human League, Thomas Dolby, Yazoo, Art of Noise, Heaven 17, A Flock of Seagulls, OMD, Japan, Thompson Twins, Visage, Ultravox, Kajagoogoo, Eurythmics, a-ha, Telex, Real Life, Erasure, Camouflage, London Boys, Modern Talking, Bananarama, Yellow Magic Orchestra, among others.\n\nLatin America \n\nPop \n\nThe 1980s gives to the rise of teenage groups such as Menudo, Timbiriche, and Los Chicos, as well as child stars such as Luis Miguel. By 1988, however, the aforementioned Luis Miguel would transform into an adult superstar at age 18 with the hit La Incondicional (1989). Not too far behind was former Los Chicos' member Chayanne as he became a leading pop star by the end of the decade, with his 1987 hit Fiesta en America. As young stars begin to rise in Latin music, veterans such as Julio Iglesias, José José, Juan Gabriel, and José Luis Rodríguez El Puma continue their dominance in Latin music. In 1985 became the worldwide breakthrough success of Conga by Gloria Estefan and Miami Sound Machine . Argentine-Venezuelan singer Ricardo Montaner joins those veterans with his 1988 hit Tan Enamorado. After the slow decline of Fania All-Stars, the new romantic genre of salsa romantica would rise beginning in 1984. Younger salseros such as Frankie Ruiz, Luis Enrique, and Eddie Santiago would take advantage of this new genre rising salsa to new heights. Tejano Music starts to give little rise after Mazz crosses over to Mexico after their albums Una Noche Juntos and No Te Olvidare win Grammys.\n\nIn 1989, Juan Luis Guerra scores a major Merengue hit with Ojala que llueva cafe.\n\nRock \n\nThe Rock en Español movement began around the 1980s. Until the mid-80s the rock scene of most Spanish American countries were not connected, and it was rare for a rock band to gain acclaim and popularity outside its home country.\n\nArgentina, which had the largest national rock scene and music industry, became the birthplace of several influential rock acts. Soda Stereo from Buenos Aires is often acclaimed as the most influential rock band of the 80s alongside the solo careers of Charly García, Luis Alberto Spinetta and the new star Fito Páez from Rosario. Soda Stereo was among the first bands to successfully tour across most of Latin America. Argentina developed also during the 80s a ska rock and punk rock scene. The punk movement, that was pioneered by Los Violadores, led to the rise of the Buenos Aires Hardcore around 1990.\n\nIn Chile, that was ruled by a military dictatorship all over the 80s, Nueva canción protest songs from the 60s and 70s maintained their popularity despite severe censorship. The progressive/folk rock band Los Jaivas made a Latin American trademark album with Alturas de Macchu Picchu [sic] based on Pablo Neruda's homonymous poem. The rock band Los Prisioneros were successful in combining the protest song atmosphere of the 80s with newer trends in rock including punk, ska, new wave and techno. In late 1980s new bands such as Maná, Los Tres and La Ley would start to set the trends for the next decade.\n\nBrazil saw the emergence of BRock.\n\nSalsa \n\nThe salsa music had developed in the 1960s and '70s by Puerto Rican and Cuban immigrants to the New York City area but did not enter into mainstream popularity in Latin America until the late 1980s. The salsa music became together with cumbia the two most popular dance music but did not penetrate other countries outside the Caribbean as cumbia did.\n\nThe 1980s was a time of diversification, as popular salsa evolved into sweet and smooth salsa romantica, with lyrics dwelling on love and romance, and its more explicit cousin, salsa erotica. Salsa romantica can be traced back to Noches Calientes, a 1984 album by singer José Alberto with producer Louie Ramirez. A wave of romantica singers, found wide audience among Latinos in both New York and Puerto Rico. The 1980s also saw salsa expand to Mexico, Argentina, Peru, Europe and Japan, and diversify into many new styles.\n\nIn the 1980s some performers experimented with combining elements of salsa with hip hop music, while the producer and pianist Sergio George helped to revive salsa's commercial success. He created a sound based on prominent trombones and rootsy, mambo-inspired style. He worked with the Japanese salsa band Orquesta de la Luz, and developed a studio orchestra that included Tito Nieves, Celia Cruz, José Alberto, La India, Tito Puente and Luis Enrique. The Colombian singer Joe Arroyo first rose to fame in the 1970s, but became a renowned exponent of Colombian salsa in the 1980s. Arroyo worked for many years with the Colombian arranger Fruko and his band Los Tesos. \n\nMerengue \n\nMerengue music would hit its golden years during the 1980s starting in the late 70s with acts such as Wilfrido Vargas, Johnny Ventura, and Fernando Villalona. Their orchestras would also churn future solo acts such as Eddy Herrera and Rubby Perez. By the end of the decade, La Cocoband would reinvent merengue with a more comedic style.\n\nAustralia and New Zealand \n\nAustralian rock band INXS achieved international success during the decade with a series of hit recordings, including the albums Listen Like Thieves (1985), Kick (1987), and the singles \"Original Sin\" (1984), \"Need You Tonight\" (1987), \"Devil Inside\" (1988) and \"New Sensation\" (1987). \n\nKylie Minogue first single, \"Locomotion\" became a huge hit in Minogue's native Australia spending seven weeks at number one on the Australian singles chart. The single eventually became the highest selling Australian single of the decade. Throughout Europe and Asia the song also performed well on the music charts, reaching number one in Belgium, Finland, Ireland, Israel, Japan, and South Africa. The Australian rock band Men at Work achieved success in 1981 with the single \"Down Under\" topping Australian charts for two consecutive weeks.\n\nIn 1980, New Zealand rock band Split Enz released their album True Colours, which became an international success. Their single \"I Got You\", which was praised for its \"Beatle-esque\" chorus, reached the top ten in New Zealand, Australia and Canada, reached number twelve in the United Kingdom, and even charted the United States. Split Enz also received significant exposure in the United States upon the release of MTV, which featured several Split Enz videos in the early days of its broadcast. However, after several line-up changes, which included the departure of prominent member Tim Finn, the band broke up in 1984 (another prominent New Zealand/Australian band, Mi-Sex, known for its hit single \"Computer Games\", disbanded the same year). Neil Finn, the younger brother of Tim Finn who had become Split Enz's de facto front man after his departure in 1983, went on to form Crowded House in Australia in 1985. In 1986 Crowded House released their hugely successful self-titled debut album, which went to number one in Australia and number three in New Zealand, as well as reaching the top ten in Canada and top twenty in the United States. It spawned the song \"Don't Dream It's Over\", which hit number one in New Zealand and Canada, number two in the United States and number eight in Australia, and has since become a pop/rock anthem in Australasia. Crowded House's follow up album Temple of Low Men, released in 1988, did not achieve the same success as their debut, but was still popular in the band's homelands of Australia and New Zealand...\n\nBack at home, New Zealand continued to have a small and vibrant music scene, and the eighties saw the formation of many new bands, including The Swingers, Coconut Rough, The Crocodiles and Peking Man. Many of these bands were short-lived and did not see much success outside of New Zealand and Australia. So said.\n\nAsia \n\nIn Japan, bands such as Shonen Knife, Boredoms, The Star Club, X Japan and The Stalin began in the Japanese rock bands and Visual kei emerged in the 1980s with bands such as X Japan, Buck Tick and D'erlanger.\nJapanese noise rock emerged in the 1980s with bands such as Melt-Banana, Zeni Geva and Guitar Wolf in the Japanese's indies scene.\nThe Japanese hardcore emerged with bands such as The Star Club and GISM and Japanese idol group Onyanko Club began as Idol group in the teen fans and youth fans.", "\"Can't Fight This Feeling\" is a power ballad performed by the American rock band REO Speedwagon, the single remained three consecutive weeks at the number one position at the U.S. Hot 100 chart from March 9 to March 23, 1985. \n\nThe song is about a man falling in love with a girl with whom he has been friends for a long time.\nThe song first appeared on REO Speedwagon's 1984 album Wheels Are Turnin'. It was the group's second number-one hit on the U.S. charts (the first being 1981's \"Keep on Loving You\", also written by Kevin Cronin) and reached number sixteen in the UK. \"Can't Fight This Feeling\" has appeared on dozens of 'various artists' compilation albums, as well as several REO Speedwagon greatest hits albums. \n\nREO Speedwagon performed the song at the 1985 Live Aid concert, they were introduced by Chevy Chase, mentioning that the song was a number one single at the moment in the United States.\n\nMusic video\n\nTwo different music videos exist for the song. One is a basic video, appearing almost homemade, featuring the band in the studio. It begins with Kevin Cronin playing the piano, attempting to find the key in which he can best sing the song (starting off in G major, he later decides he can sing it better in A). After Cronin exchanges some laughs with his bandmates, the song officially begins; the video essentially consists of the band members lip-synching to the original track of the song. It then concludes with Cronin uttering the line, \"That warmed the cockles of my cockles!\" The other version of the video is much more \"professional,\" and makes various references to the life-cycle. Both videos have been shown at various times on VH1 Classic.\n\nIn popular culture\n\nIt was referred to in The CW show Supernatural, in season 2 episode 5, \"Simon Said\". Jo Harvelle turns this song on for Dean Winchester in Harvelle's Roadhouse. Later, he sings it in the car (claiming the song had stuck in his head to a very confused Sam Winchester). \n\nIt was featured prominently in advertisements for the film, Horton Hears a Who!, and sung by the major characters near the end of the film as the titular character celebrates his vindication and his charges' salvation. \n\nPersonnel\n\nREO Speedwagon\n*Kevin Cronin - lead vocal, acoustic guitar\n*Gary Richrath - lead guitar\n*Neal Doughty - piano, Hammond Organ, keyboards\n*Alan Gratzer - drums\n*Bruce Hall - bass guitar, background vocals\n\nOther personnel\n\n*Bill Cuomo - Orchestration\n\nChart performance\n\nWeekly charts\n\nYear-end charts\n\nCertifications" ] }

{ "description": [ "\"Can't Fight This Feeling\" is a number-one power ballad performed by the American rock ... It was the group's second number-one hit on the ... 1984 80s REO Speedwagon ...", "Can't Fight This Feeling appears on the album The Hits. \" Can&# ... s second number-one hit on the U.S. charts ... Loved it back in the 80s, ...", "REO Speedwagon's official music video for 'Can't Fight This Feeling'. ... I tell myself that I can't hold out forever I said there is no ... My 80's & 90's ...", "... (“I Can’t Fight This Feeling,” “Keep on Loving You,” “Take It on the ... (the band’s first chart hit) ... Can't Fight This Feeling: The Hits: 4:54 ...", "'REO Speedwagon - Can't fight this feeling' with lyrics added by me. ... 35 videos Play all (Mostly 80's) Soft Rock Love Songs minombrepas;", "Can't Fight This Feeling This song is by REO Speedwagon and ... was a Billboard Hit! ... I tell myself that I can't hold out forever I say there is no reason for my ..." ], "filename": [ "74/74_2866668.txt", "196/196_2866669.txt", "6/6_2866670.txt", "157/157_2866672.txt", "125/125_2866673.txt", "177/177_2866675.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8 ], "title": [ "REO Speedwagon - Can't Fight This Feeling (music video ...", "REO Speedwagon — Can't Fight This Feeling — Listen, watch ...", "REO Speedwagon - Can't Fight This Feeling - YouTube", "The Hits by REO Speedwagon on Apple Music - iTunes", "REO Speedwagon - Can't fight this feeling (lyrics) - YouTube", "REO Speedwagon:Can't Fight This Feeling Lyrics ..." ], "url": [ "http://www.totallyfuzzy.net/ourtube/reo-speedwagon/cant-fight-this-feeling-video_043f6d673.html", "http://www.last.fm/music/REO+Speedwagon/_/Can't+Fight+This+Feeling", "http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zpOULjyy-n8", "https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/the-hits/id385550937", "http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jmo36gnUCWE", "http://lyrics.wikia.com/wiki/REO_Speedwagon:Can%27t_Fight_This_Feeling" ], "search_context": [ "REO Speedwagon - Can't Fight This Feeling (music video) - [043f6d673]\nREO Speedwagon - Can't Fight This Feeling\nDescription\nbuy\nMusic video by REO Speedwagon performing Can't Fight This Feeling. (C) 1984 Sony BMG Music Entertainment \n\"Can't Fight This Feeling\" is a number-one power ballad performed by the American rock band REO Speedwagon about a man falling in love with a girl with whom he has been friends for a long time. \nThe song first appeared on REO Speedwagon's 1984 album Wheels Are Turnin'. It was the group's second number-one hit on the U.S. charts (the first being 1981's \"Keep on Loving You\", also written by Kevin Cronin) and reached number sixteen in the UK. \"Can't Fight This Feeling\" has appeared on dozens of 'various artists' compilation albums, as well as several REO Speedwagon greatest hits albums.\nTags:", "REO Speedwagon — Can't Fight This Feeling — Listen, watch, download and discover music for free at Last.fm\npower ballad\n\"Can't Fight This Feeling\" is a number-one power ballad from REO Speedwagon about a man falling in love with a girl with whom he has been a friend for a long time.\nThe song first appeared on REO Speedwagon's 1984 album Wheels Are Turnin'. It was the group's second number-one hit on the U.S. charts (the first being 1981's \"Keep on Loving You\", also written by Kevin Cronin) and reached number sixteen in the UK. \"Can't Fight This Feeling\"… read more\nDon't want to see ads? Subscribe now\nSimilar Tracks", "REO Speedwagon - Can't Fight This Feeling - YouTube\nREO Speedwagon - Can't Fight This Feeling\nWant to watch this again later?\nSign in to add this video to a playlist.\nNeed to report the video?\nSign in to report inappropriate content.\nRating is available when the video has been rented.\nThis feature is not available right now. Please try again later.\nPublished on Jul 24, 2012\nREO Speedwagon's official music video for 'Can't Fight This Feeling'. Click to listen to REO Speedwagon on Spotify: http://smarturl.it/REOspot?IQid=REOCFTF\nAs featured on The Essential REO Speedwagon. Click to buy the track or album via iTunes: http://smarturl.it/REOEssiTunes?IQid=...\nKeep On Loving You: https://youtu.be/wJzNZ1c5C9c\nTake It On The Run: https://youtu.be/MD-LMS0CyAY\nHere With Me: https://youtu.be/m8yKgLKJFjQ\nMore great classic rock videos here: http://smarturl.it/ClassicRocks?IQid=...\nFollow REO Speedwagon\nSubscribe to REO Speedwagon on YouTube: http://smarturl.it/REOsub?IQid=REOCFTF\n---------\nI can't fight this feeling any longer\nAnd yet I'm still afraid to let it flow\nWhat started out as friendship, has grown stronger\nI only wish I had the strength to let it show\nI tell myself that I can't hold out forever\nI said there is no reason for my fear\nCause I feel so secure when we're together\nYou give my life direction\nYou make everything so clear\nAnd even as I wander\nI'm keeping you in sight\nYou're a candle in the window\nOn a cold, dark winter's night\nAnd I'm getting closer than I ever thought I might\nAnd Ican't fight this feeling anymore\nI've forgotten what I started fighting for\nIt's time to bring this ship into the shore\nAnd throw away the oars, forever\nCause I can't fight this feeling anymore\nI've forgotten what I started fighting for\nAnd if I have to crawl upon the floor\nCome crashing through your door\nBaby, I can't fight this feeling anymore\nCategory", "The Hits by REO Speedwagon on Apple Music\n14 Songs\niTunes Review\nLegions of air-guitar playing American kids who grew up on FM rock radio in the '70s knew there was more to REO Speedwagon than dumb rock riffage and songs about girls and broken hearts. They loved a band that connected with them on levels that helped define specific moments in their lives: high school graduations and backyard kegger parties, first crushes and spurned heartbreaks. REO Speedwagon pinned sentimentality to riff-heavy tunes and managed to encapsulate their fans' feelings in song. It made the band huge, and it’s what makes them classic rock. All those '70s and early-'80s hits are here, from gazillion-selling power ballads (“I Can’t Fight This Feeling,” “Keep on Loving You,” “Take It on the Run”) to four-on-the-floor rock ’n’ rollers (“Back on the Road Again,” “Keep Pushin’ On,” “Roll with the Changes”). The smoking live version of “Ridin’ the Storm Out” (the band’s first chart hit) showcases the heady skills of unheralded rock ’n’ roll guitarist Gary Richrath, and two 1982 songs (“I Don’t Want to Lose You” and the hit “Here with Me”) are exclusive to this release.\nCustomer Reviews\n     \nby LloydMcCullough\nAmazing album! It's got alot of the best hits, well except for my personal favorite - 'The Key'....\nAnd I can't fight this feeling anymore", "REO Speedwagon - Can't fight this feeling (lyrics) - YouTube\nREO Speedwagon - Can't fight this feeling (lyrics)\nWant to watch this again later?\nSign in to add this video to a playlist.\nNeed to report the video?\nSign in to report inappropriate content.\nRating is available when the video has been rented.\nThis feature is not available right now. Please try again later.\nUploaded on Aug 26, 2009\n'REO Speedwagon - Can't fight this feeling' with lyrics added by me. Let me know what you think!\n* a bit of self advertising *\nI also make electronic dance music and I'd be more than happy to have you interested in giving it a listen. Simply click on my YouTube channel above or follow SoundCloud link below:", "REO Speedwagon:Can't Fight This Feeling Lyrics | LyricWikia | Fandom powered by Wikia\nREO Speedwagon:Can't Fight This Feeling Lyrics\n1,877,275pages on\non the compilation album The Ballads (1999)\nThis song has been covered by…\nThis song is featured in the television series Supernatural .\nThis song is featured in a television advert for Hallmark Cards and Horton Hears a Who!.\nI can't fight this feeling any longer\nAnd yet I'm still afraid to let it flow\nWhat started out as friendship has grown stronger\nI only wish I had the strength to let it show\nI tell myself that I can't hold out forever\nI say there is no reason for my fear\n'Cause I feel so secure when we're together\nYou give my life direction, you make everything so clear\nAnd even as I wander, I'm keeping you in sight\nYou're a candle in the window on a cold, dark winter's night\nAnd I'm getting closer than I ever thought I might\nAnd I can't fight this feeling anymore\nI've forgotten what I started fighting for\nIt's time to bring this ship into the shore\nAnd throw away the oars forever\n'Cause I can't fight this feeling anymore\nI've forgotten what I started fighting for\nAnd if I have to crawl upon the floor\nCome crashing through your door\nBaby, I can't fight this feeling anymore\nMy life has been such a whirlwind since I saw you\nI've been running around in circles in my mind\nAnd it always seems that I'm following you, girl\n'Cause you take me to the places that alone I'd never find\nAnd even as I wander, I'm keeping you in sight\nYou're a candle in the window on a cold, dark winter's night\nAnd I'm getting closer than I ever thought I might\nAnd I can't fight this feeling anymore\nI've forgotten what I started fighting for\nIt's time to bring this ship into the shore\nAnd throw away the oars forever\n'Cause I can't fight this feeling anymore\nI've forgotten what I started fighting for\nAnd if I have to crawl upon the floor\nCome crashing through your door\nBaby, I can't fight this feeling anymore\nOoh, ooh, ooh" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Korean_War.txt" ], "title": [ "Korean War" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Korean War (in South Korean , \"Korean War\"; in North Korean , \"Fatherland Liberation War\"; 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953) began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, came to the aid of South Korea. China, with assistance from the Soviet Union, came to the aid of North Korea. The war arose from the division of Korea at the end of World War II and from the global tensions of the Cold War that developed immediately afterwards.\n\nKorea was ruled by Japan from 1910 until the closing days of World War II. In August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, as a result of an agreement with the United States, and liberated Korea north of the 38th parallel. U.S. forces subsequently moved into the south. By 1948, as a product of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Korea was split into two regions, with separate governments. Both governments claimed to be the legitimate government of Korea, and neither side accepted the border as permanent. The civil war escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces—supported by the Soviet Union and China—moved to the south to unite the country on 25 June 1950. On that day, the United Nations Security Council recognized this North Korean act as invasion and called for an immediate ceasefire. On 27 June, the Security Council adopted S/RES/83: Complaint of aggression upon the Republic of Korea and decided the formation and dispatch of the UN Forces in Korea. Twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the defense of South Korea, with the United States providing 88% of the UN's military personnel.\n\nAfter the first two months of the conflict, South Korean forces were on the point of defeat, forced back to the Pusan Perimeter. In September 1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Inchon, and cut off many of the North Korean troops. Those that escaped envelopment and capture were rapidly forced back north all the way to the border with China at the Yalu River, or into the mountainous interior. At this point, in October 1950, Chinese forces crossed the Yalu and entered the war. Chinese intervention triggered a retreat of UN forces which continued until mid-1951. After these dramatic reversals of fortune, which saw Seoul change hands four times, the last two years of conflict became a war of attrition, with the front line close to the 38th parallel. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate. North Korea was subject to a massive bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in air-to-air combat for the first time in history, and Soviet pilots covertly flew in defense of their communist allies.\n\nThe fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when an armistice was signed. The agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no peace treaty has been signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war. Periodic clashes, many of which were deadly, have continued to the present.\n\nNames\n\nIn the U.S., the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a \"police action\" as it was an undeclared military action, conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. It has been referred to in the Anglosphere as \"The Forgotten War\" or \"The Unknown War\" because of the lack of public attention it received both during and after the war, and in relation to the global scale of World War II, which preceded it, and the subsequent angst of the Vietnam War, which succeeded it.\n\nIn South Korea, the war is usually referred to as \"625\" or the \"6–2–5 Upheaval\" ( (), yook-i-o dongnan), reflecting the date of its commencement on 25 June.\n\nIn North Korea, the war is officially referred to as the \"Fatherland Liberation War\" (Choguk haebang chǒnjaeng) or alternatively the \"Chosǒn [Korean] War\" (, Chosǒn chǒnjaeng).\n\nIn China, the war is officially called the \"War to Resist U.S. Aggression and Aid Korea\" (), although the term \"Chaoxian (Korean) War\" () is also used in unofficial contexts, along with the term \"Korean Conflict\" () more commonly used in regions such as Hong Kong and Macau.\n\nBackground\n\nImperial Japanese rule (1910–45)\n\nJapan destroyed the influence of China over Korea in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–95), ushering in the short-lived Korean Empire. A decade later, after defeating Imperial Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05), Japan made Korea its protectorate with the Eulsa Treaty in 1905, then annexed it with the Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty in 1910.\n\nMany Korean nationalists fled the country. A Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea was founded in 1919 in Nationalist China. It failed to achieve international recognition, failed to unite nationalist groups, and had a fractious relationship with its American-based founding President, Syngman Rhee. From 1919 to 1925 and beyond, Korean communists led internal and external warfare against the Japanese.\n\nKorea was considered to be part of the Empire of Japan as an industrialized colony along with Taiwan, and both were part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. In 1937, the colonial Governor-General, General Jirō Minami, commanded the attempted cultural assimilation of Korea's 23.5 million people by banning the use and study of Korean language, literature, and culture, to be replaced with that of mandatory use and study of their Japanese counterparts. Starting in 1939, the populace was required to use Japanese names under the Sōshi-kaimei policy. Conscription of Koreans for labor in war industries began in 1939, with as many as 2 million Koreans conscripted into either the Japanese Army or into the Japanese labor force. \n\nIn China, the Nationalist National Revolutionary Army and the communist People's Liberation Army helped organize Korean refugees against the Japanese military, which had also occupied parts of China. The Nationalist-backed Koreans, led by Yi Pom-Sok, fought in the Burma Campaign (December 1941 – August 1945). The communists, led by Kim Il-sung among others, fought the Japanese in Korea and Manchuria.\n\nDuring World War II, Japan used Korea's food, livestock, and metals for their war effort. Japanese forces in Korea increased from 46,000 soldiers in 1941 to 300,000 in 1945. Japanese Korea conscripted 2.6 million forced laborers controlled with a collaborationist Korean police force; some 723,000 people were sent to work in the overseas empire and in metropolitan Japan. By 1942, Korean men were being conscripted into the Imperial Japanese Army. By January 1945, Koreans made up 32% of Japan's labor force. At the end of the war, other world powers did not recognize Japanese rule in Korea and Taiwan.\n\nAt the Cairo Conference in November 1943, China, the United Kingdom, and United States all decided \"in due course Korea shall become free and independent\".\n\nSoviet-Japanese War (1945)\n\nAt the Tehran Conference in November 1943 and the Yalta Conference in February 1945, the Soviet Union promised to join its allies in the Pacific War within three months of the victory in Europe. Accordingly, it declared war on Japan on 9 August 1945. By 10 August, the Red Army had begun to occupy the northern part of the Korean peninsula.\n\nOn the night of 10 August in Washington, American Colonels Dean Rusk and Charles H. Bonesteel III were tasked with dividing the Korean Peninsula into Soviet and U.S. occupation zones and proposed the 38th parallel. This was incorporated into America's General Order No. 1 which responded to the Japanese surrender on 15 August. Explaining the choice of the 38th parallel, Rusk observed, \"even though it was further north than could be realistically reached by U.S. forces, in the event of Soviet disagreement...we felt it important to include the capital of Korea in the area of responsibility of American troops\". He noted that he was \"faced with the scarcity of US forces immediately available, and time and space factors, which would make it difficult to reach very far north, before Soviet troops could enter the area\". As Rusk's comments indicate, the Americans doubted whether the Soviet government would agree to this. Stalin, however, maintained his wartime policy of co-operation, and on 16 August the Red Army halted at the 38th parallel for three weeks to await the arrival of U.S. forces in the south.\n\nKorea divided (1945–49)\n\nOn 8 September 1945, U.S. Lt. Gen. John R. Hodge arrived in Incheon to accept the Japanese surrender south of the 38th parallel. Appointed as military governor, General Hodge directly controlled South Korea as head of the United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK 1945–48). He attempted to establish control by restoring Japanese colonial administrators to power, but in the face of Korean protests he quickly reversed this decision. The USAMGIK refused to recognize the provisional government of the short-lived People's Republic of Korea (PRK) due to its suspected Communist sympathies.\n\nIn December 1945, Korea was administered by a U.S.-Soviet Union Joint Commission, as agreed at the Moscow Conference, with the aim of granting independence after a five-year trusteeship. The idea was not popular among Koreans and riots broke out. To contain them, the USAMGIK banned strikes on 8 December 1945 and outlawed the PRK Revolutionary Government and the PRK People's Committees on 12 December 1945.\n\nThe right-wing Representative Democratic Council, led by Syngman Rhee, who had arrived with the U.S. military, opposed the trusteeship, arguing that Korea had already suffered from foreign occupation far too long. General Hodge began to distance himself from the proposal, even though it had originated with his government.\n\nOn 23 September 1946, an 8,000-strong railroad worker strike began in Pusan. Civil disorder spread throughout the country in what became known as the Autumn uprising. On 1 October 1946, Korean police killed three students in the Daegu Uprising; protesters counter-attacked, killing 38 policemen. On 3 October, some 10,000 people attacked the Yeongcheon police station, killing three policemen and injuring some 40 more; elsewhere, some 20 landlords and pro-Japanese South Korean officials were killed. The USAMGIK declared martial law.\n\nCiting the inability of the Joint Commission to make progress, the U.S. government decided to hold an election under United Nations auspices with the aim of creating an independent Korea. The Soviet authorities and the Korean Communists refused to co-operate on the grounds it would not be fair, and many South Korean politicians boycotted it. A general election was held in the South on 10 May 1948. It was marred by political violence and sabotage resulting in 600 deaths. North Korea held parliamentary elections three months later on 25 August.\n\nThe resultant South Korean government promulgated a national political constitution on 17 July 1948, and elected Syngman Rhee as President on 20 July 1948. The Republic of Korea (South Korea) was established on 15 August 1948. In the Russian Korean Zone of Occupation, the Soviet Union established a communist government led by Kim Il-sung. President Rhee's régime excluded communists and leftists from southern politics. Disenfranchised, they headed for the hills, to prepare for guerrilla war against the US-sponsored ROK government.\n\nMeanwhile, on 3 April 1948, what began as a demonstration commemorating Korean resistance to Japanese rule ended with the Jeju uprising where between 14,000 and 60,000 people died. South Korean Army soldiers carried out large-scale atrocities during its suppression of the uprising. In October 1948, some South Korean soldiers mutinied against the clampdown in the Yeosu-Suncheon Rebellion.\n\nThe Soviet Union withdrew as agreed from Korea in 1948, and U.S. troops withdrew in 1949. On 24 December 1949, South Korean forces killed 86 to 88 people in the Mungyeong massacre and blamed the crime on marauding communist bands. By early 1950, Syngman Rhee had about 30,000 alleged communists in jails and about 300,000 suspected sympathizers enrolled in the Bodo League re-education movement. \n\nChinese Civil War (1945–1949)\n\nWith the end of the war with Japan, the Chinese Civil War resumed between the Chinese Communists and the Chinese Nationalists. While the Communists were struggling for supremacy in Manchuria, they were supported by the North Korean government with matériel and manpower. According to Chinese sources, the North Koreans donated 2,000 railway cars worth of matériel while thousands of Koreans served in the Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA) during the war. North Korea also provided the Chinese Communists in Manchuria with a safe refuge for non-combatants and communications with the rest of China.\n\nThe North Korean contributions to the Chinese Communist victory were not forgotten after the creation of the People's Republic of China in 1949. As a token of gratitude, between 50,000 and 70,000 Korean veterans that served in the PLA were sent back along with their weapons, and they later played a significant role in the initial invasion of South Korea. China promised to support the North Koreans in the event of a war against South Korea. The Chinese support created a deep division between the Korean Communists, and Kim Il-sung's authority within the Communist party was challenged by the Chinese faction led by Pak Il-yu, who was later purged by Kim.\n\nAfter the formation of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the Chinese government named the Western nations, led by the United States, as the biggest threat to its national security. Basing this judgment on China's century of humiliation beginning in the early 19th century, American support for the Nationalists during the Chinese Civil War, and the ideological struggles between revolutionaries and reactionaries, the Chinese leadership believed that China would become a critical battleground in the United States' crusade against Communism. As a countermeasure and to elevate China's standing among the worldwide Communist movements, the Chinese leadership adopted a foreign policy that actively promoted Communist revolutions throughout territories on China's periphery.\n\nCourse of the war\n\nOutbreak of war (1950)\n\nBy 1949, South Korean forces had reduced the active number of communist guerrillas in the South from 5,000 to 1,000. However, Kim Il-sung believed that the guerrillas had weakened the South Korean military and that a North Korean invasion would be welcomed by much of the South Korean population. Kim began seeking Stalin's support for an invasion in March 1949, travelling to Moscow to attempt to persuade Stalin.\n\nInitially, Stalin did not think the time was right for a war in Korea. Chinese Communist forces were still fighting in China. American forces were still stationed in South Korea (they would complete their withdrawal in June 1949) and Stalin did not want the Soviet Union to become embroiled in a war with the United States.\n\nBy spring 1950, Stalin believed the strategic situation had changed. The Soviets had detonated their first nuclear bomb in September 1949; American soldiers had fully withdrawn from Korea; the Americans had not intervened to stop the communist victory in China, and Stalin calculated that the Americans would be even less willing to fight in Korea—which had seemingly much less strategic significance. The Soviets had also cracked the codes used by the US to communicate with the US embassy in Moscow, and reading these dispatches convinced Stalin that Korea did not have the importance to the US that would warrant a nuclear confrontation. Stalin began a more aggressive strategy in Asia based on these developments, including promising economic and military aid to China through the Sino–Soviet Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance Treaty.\n\nThroughout 1949 and 1950 the Soviets continued to arm North Korea. After the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War, ethnic Korean units in the Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA) were released to North Korea. The combat veterans from China, the tanks, artillery and aircraft supplied by the Soviets, and rigorous training increased North Korea's military superiority over the South, which had been armed by the American military with mostly small arms and given no heavy weaponry such as tanks.\n\nIn April 1950, Stalin gave Kim permission to invade the South under the condition that Mao would agree to send reinforcements if they became needed. Stalin made it clear that Soviet forces would not openly engage in combat, to avoid a direct war with the Americans. Kim met with Mao in May 1950. Mao was concerned that the Americans would intervene but agreed to support the North Korean invasion. China desperately needed the economic and military aid promised by the Soviets. At that time, the Chinese were in the process of demobilizing half of the PLA's 5.6 million soldiers. However, Mao sent more ethnic Korean PLA veterans to Korea and promised to move an army closer to the Korean border. Once Mao's commitment was secured, preparations for war accelerated. \n\nSoviet generals with extensive combat experience from the Second World War were sent to North Korea as the Soviet Advisory Group. These generals completed the plans for the attack by May. The original plans called for a skirmish to be initiated in the Ongjin Peninsula on the west coast of Korea. The North Koreans would then launch a \"counterattack\" that would capture Seoul and encircle and destroy the South Korean army. The final stage would involve destroying South Korean government remnants, capturing the rest of South Korea, including the ports.\n\nOn 7 June 1950, Kim Il-sung called for a Korea-wide election on 5–8 August 1950 and a consultative conference in Haeju on 15–17 June 1950. On 11 June, the North sent three diplomats to the South, as a peace overture that Rhee rejected. On 21 June, Kim Il-Sung revised his war plan to involve general attack across the 38th parallel, rather than a limited operation in the Ongjin peninsula. Kim was concerned that South Korean agents had learned about the plans and South Korean forces were strengthening their defenses. Stalin agreed to this change of plan.\n\nWhile these preparations were underway in the North, there were frequent clashes along the 38th parallel, especially at Kaesong and Ongjin, many initiated by the South. The Republic of Korea Army (ROK Army) was being trained by the U.S. Korean Military Advisory Group (KMAG). On the eve of war, KMAG's commander General William Lynn Roberts voiced utmost confidence in the ROK Army and boasted that any North Korean invasion would merely provide \"target practice\". For his part, Syngman Rhee repeatedly expressed his desire to conquer the North, including when American diplomat John Foster Dulles visited Korea on 18 June.\n\nAlthough some South Korean and American intelligence officers were predicting an attack from the North, similar predictions had been made before and nothing had eventuated. The Central Intelligence Agency did note the southward movement by the Korean People's Army (KPA), but assessed this as a \"defensive measure\" and concluded an invasion was \"unlikely\". On 23 June, UN observers inspected the border and did not detect that war was imminent. \n\nAt dawn on Sunday, 25 June 1950, the Korean People's Army crossed the 38th parallel behind artillery fire. The KPA justified its assault with the claim that ROK troops had attacked first, and that they were aiming to arrest and execute the \"bandit traitor Syngman Rhee\". Fighting began on the strategic Ongjin peninsula in the west. There were initial South Korean claims that they had captured the city of Haeju, and this sequence of events has led some scholars to argue that the South Koreans actually fired first. \n\nWhoever fired the first shots in Ongjin, within an hour, North Korean forces attacked all along the 38th parallel. The North Koreans had a combined arms force including tanks supported by heavy artillery. The South Koreans did not have any tanks, anti-tank weapons, nor heavy artillery, that could stop such an attack. In addition, South Koreans committed their forces in a piecemeal fashion and these were routed within a few days.\n\nOn 27 June, Rhee evacuated from Seoul with some of the government. On 28 June, at 2 am, the South Korean Army blew up the highway bridge across the Han River in an attempt to stop the North Korean army. The bridge was detonated while 4,000 refugees were crossing the bridge, and hundreds were killed. Destroying the bridge also trapped many South Korean military units north of the Han River. In spite of such desperate measures, Seoul fell that same day. A number of South Korean National Assemblymen remained in Seoul when it fell, and forty-eight subsequently pledged allegiance to the North.\n\nOn 28 June, Rhee ordered the massacre of suspected political opponents in his own country. \n\nIn five days, the South Korean forces, which had 95,000 men on 25 June, was down to less than 22,000 men. In early July, when U.S. forces arrived, what was left of the South Korean forces were placed under U.S. operational command of the United Nations Command.\n\nFactors in US intervention\n\nThe Truman administration was unprepared for the invasion. Korea was not included in the strategic Asian Defense Perimeter outlined by Secretary of State Dean Acheson. Military strategists were more concerned with the security of Europe against the Soviet Union than East Asia. At the same time, the Administration was worried that a war in Korea could quickly widen into another world war should the Chinese or Soviets decide to get involved as well.\n\nOne facet of the changing attitude toward Korea and whether to get involved was Japan. Especially after the fall of China to the Communists, U.S. East Asian experts saw Japan as the critical counterweight to the Soviet Union and China in the region. While there was no United States policy that dealt with South Korea directly as a national interest, its proximity to Japan increased the importance of South Korea. Said Kim: \"The recognition that the security of Japan required a non-hostile Korea led directly to President Truman's decision to intervene... The essential point... is that the American response to the North Korean attack stemmed from considerations of US policy toward Japan.\"\n\nA major consideration was the possible Soviet reaction in the event that the US intervened. The Truman administration was fretful that a war in Korea was a diversionary assault that would escalate to a general war in Europe once the United States committed in Korea. At the same time, \"[t]here was no suggestion from anyone that the United Nations or the United States could back away from [the conflict]\". Yugoslavia–a possible Soviet target because of the Tito-Stalin Split—was vital to the defense of Italy and Greece, and the country was first on the list of the National Security Council's post-North Korea invasion list of \"chief danger spots\". Truman believed if aggression went unchecked a chain reaction would be initiated that would marginalize the United Nations and encourage Communist aggression elsewhere. The UN Security Council approved the use of force to help the South Koreans and the US immediately began using what air and naval forces that were in the area to that end. The Administration still refrained from committing on the ground because some advisers believed the North Koreans could be stopped by air and naval power alone.\n\nThe Truman administration was still uncertain if the attack was a ploy by the Soviet Union or just a test of U.S. resolve. The decision to commit ground troops became viable when a communiqué was received on 27 June indicating the Soviet Union would not move against U.S. forces in Korea. The Truman administration now believed it could intervene in Korea without undermining its commitments elsewhere.\n\nUnited Nations Security Council Resolutions\n\nOn 25 June 1950, the United Nations Security Council unanimously condemned the North Korean invasion of the Republic of Korea, with UN Security Council Resolution 82. The Soviet Union, a veto-wielding power, had boycotted the Council meetings since January 1950, protesting that the Republic of China (Taiwan), not the People's Republic of China, held a permanent seat in the UN Security Council. After debating the matter, the Security Council, on 27 June 1950, published Resolution 83 recommending member states provide military assistance to the Republic of Korea. On 27 June President Truman ordered U.S. air and sea forces to help the South Korean regime. On 4 July the Soviet Deputy Foreign Minister accused the United States of starting armed intervention on behalf of South Korea.\n\nThe Soviet Union challenged the legitimacy of the war for several reasons. The ROK Army intelligence upon which Resolution 83 was based came from U.S. Intelligence; North Korea was not invited as a sitting temporary member of the UN, which violated UN Charter Article 32; and the Korean conflict was beyond the UN Charter's scope, because the initial north–south border fighting was classed as a civil war. Because the Soviet Union was boycotting the Security Council at the time, legal scholars posited that deciding upon an action of this type required the unanimous vote of the five permanent members.\n\nComparison of military forces\n\nBy mid-1950, North Korean forces numbered between 150,000 and 200,000 troops, organized into 10 infantry divisions, one tank division, and one air force division, with 210 fighter planes and 280 tanks, who captured scheduled objectives and territory, among them Kaesong, Chuncheon, Uijeongbu, and Ongjin. Their forces included 274 T-34-85 tanks, 200 artillery pieces, 110 attack bombers, some 150 Yak fighter planes, 78 Yak trainers, and 35 reconnaissance aircraft. In addition to the invasion force, the North KPA had 114 fighters, 78 bombers, 105 T-34-85 tanks, and some 30,000 soldiers stationed in reserve in North Korea. Although each navy consisted of only several small warships, the North and South Korean navies fought in the war as sea-borne artillery for their in-country armies.\n\nIn contrast, the ROK Army defenders were relatively unprepared and ill-equipped. In South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu (1961), R.E. Appleman reports the ROK forces' low combat readiness as of 25 June 1950. The ROK Army had 98,000 soldiers (65,000 combat, 33,000 support), no tanks (they had been requested from the U.S. military, but requests were denied), and a 22-piece air force comprising 12 liaison-type and 10 AT6 advanced-trainer airplanes. There were no large foreign military garrisons in Korea at the time of the invasion, but there were large U.S. garrisons and air forces in Japan.\n\nWithin days of the invasion, masses of ROK Army soldiers—of dubious loyalty to the Syngman Rhee regime—were either retreating southwards or were defecting en masse to the northern side, the KPA.\n\nUnited Nations response (July – August 1950)\n\nOn Saturday, 24 June 1950, U.S. Secretary of State Dean Acheson informed President Truman that the North Koreans had invaded South Korea. Truman and Acheson discussed a U.S. invasion response and agreed that the United States was obligated to act, paralleling the North Korean invasion with Adolf Hitler's aggressions in the 1930s, with the conclusion being that the mistake of appeasement must not be repeated. Several U.S. industries were mobilized to supply materials, labor, capital, production facilities, and other services necessary to support the military objectives of the Korean War. However, President Truman later acknowledged that he believed fighting the invasion was essential to the American goal of the global containment of communism as outlined in the National Security Council Report 68 (NSC-68) (declassified in 1975):\n\nIn August 1950, the President and the Secretary of State obtained the consent of Congress to appropriate $12 billion for military action in Korea.\n\nAs an initial response, Truman called for a naval blockade of North Korea, and was shocked to learn that such a blockade could be imposed only 'on paper', since the U.S. Navy no longer had the warships with which to carry out his request. In fact, because of the extensive defense cuts and the emphasis placed on building a nuclear bomber force, none of the services were in a position to make a robust response with conventional military strength. General Omar Bradley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, was faced with re-organizing and deploying an American military force that was a shadow of its World War II counterpart. The impact of the Truman administration's defense budget cutbacks were now keenly felt, as American troops fought a series of costly rearguard actions. Lacking sufficient anti-tank weapons, artillery or armor, they were driven back down the Korean peninsula to Pusan. In a postwar analysis of the unpreparedness of U.S. Army forces deployed to Korea during the summer and fall of 1950, Army Major General Floyd L. Parks stated that \"Many who never lived to tell the tale had to fight the full range of ground warfare from offensive to delaying action, unit by unit, man by man ... [T]hat we were able to snatch victory from the jaws of defeat ... does not relieve us from the blame of having placed our own flesh and blood in such a predicament.\" \n\nActing on State Secretary Acheson's recommendation, President Truman ordered General MacArthur to transfer matériel to the Army of the Republic of Korea while giving air cover to the evacuation of U.S. nationals. The President disagreed with advisers who recommended unilateral U.S. bombing of the North Korean forces, and ordered the US Seventh Fleet to protect the Republic of China (Taiwan), whose government asked to fight in Korea. The United States denied ROC's request for combat, lest it provoke a communist Chinese retaliation. Because the United States had sent the Seventh Fleet to \"neutralize\" the Taiwan Strait, Chinese premier Zhou Enlai criticized both the UN and U.S. initiatives as \"armed aggression on Chinese territory.\"\n\nThe Battle of Osan, the first significant American engagement of the Korean War, involved the 540-soldier Task Force Smith, which was a small forward element of the 24th Infantry Division which had been flown in from Japan. On 5 July 1950, Task Force Smith attacked the North Koreans at Osan but without weapons capable of destroying the North Koreans' tanks. They were unsuccessful; the result was 180 dead, wounded, or taken prisoner. The KPA progressed southwards, pushing back the US force at Pyongtaek, Chonan, and Chochiwon, forcing the 24th Division's retreat to Taejeon, which the KPA captured in the Battle of Taejon; the 24th Division suffered 3,602 dead and wounded and 2,962 captured, including the Division's Commander, Major General William F. Dean.\n\nBy August, the KPA had pushed back the ROK Army and the Eighth United States Army to the vicinity of Pusan in southeast Korea. In their southward advance, the KPA purged the Republic of Korea's intelligentsia by killing civil servants and intellectuals. On 20 August, General MacArthur warned North Korean leader Kim Il-sung that he was responsible for the KPA's atrocities. By September, the UN Command controlled the Pusan perimeter, enclosing about 10% of Korea, in a line partially defined by the Nakdong River.\n\nAlthough Kim's early successes had led him to predict that he would end the war by the end of August, Chinese leaders were more pessimistic. To counter a possible U.S. deployment, Zhou Enlai secured a Soviet commitment to have the Soviet Union support Chinese forces with air cover, and deployed 260,000 soldiers along the Korean border, under the command of Gao Gang. Zhou commanded Chai Chengwen to conduct a topographical survey of Korea, and directed Lei Yingfu, Zhou's military advisor in Korea, to analyze the military situation in Korea. Lei concluded that MacArthur would most likely attempt a landing at Incheon. After conferring with Mao that this would be MacArthur's most likely strategy, Zhou briefed Soviet and North Korean advisers of Lei's findings, and issued orders to Chinese army commanders deployed on the Korean border to prepare for American naval activity in the Korea Strait.\n\nEscalation (August – September 1950)\n\nIn the resulting Battle of Pusan Perimeter (August–September 1950), the U.S. Army withstood KPA attacks meant to capture the city at the Naktong Bulge, P'ohang-dong, and Taegu. The United States Air Force (USAF) interrupted KPA logistics with 40 daily ground support sorties that destroyed 32 bridges, halting most daytime road and rail traffic. KPA forces were forced to hide in tunnels by day and move only at night. To deny matériel to the KPA, the USAF destroyed logistics depots, petroleum refineries, and harbors, while the U.S. Navy air forces attacked transport hubs. Consequently, the over-extended KPA could not be supplied throughout the south. On 27 August, 67th Fighter Squadron aircraft mistakenly attacked facilities in Chinese territory and the Soviet Union called the UN Security Council's attention to China's complaint about the incident. The US proposed that a commission of India and Sweden determine what the US should pay in compensation but the Soviets vetoed the US proposal. \n\nMeanwhile, U.S. garrisons in Japan continually dispatched soldiers and matériel to reinforce defenders in the Pusan Perimeter. Tank battalions deployed to Korea directly from the U.S. mainland from the port of San Francisco to the port of Pusan, the largest Korean port. By late August, the Pusan Perimeter had some 500 medium tanks battle-ready. In early September 1950, ROK Army and UN Command forces outnumbered the KPA 180,000 to 100,000 soldiers. The UN forces, once prepared, counterattacked and broke out of the Pusan Perimeter.\n\nBattle of Inchon (September 1950)\n\nAgainst the rested and re-armed Pusan Perimeter defenders and their reinforcements, the KPA were undermanned and poorly supplied; unlike the UN Command, they lacked naval and air support. To relieve the Pusan Perimeter, General MacArthur recommended an amphibious landing at Inchon (now known as Incheon), near Seoul and well over 100 mi behind the KPA lines. On 6 July, he ordered Major General Hobart R. Gay, Commander, 1st Cavalry Division, to plan the division's amphibious landing at Incheon; on 12–14 July, the 1st Cavalry Division embarked from Yokohama, Japan to reinforce the 24th Infantry Division inside the Pusan Perimeter.\n\nSoon after the war began, General MacArthur had begun planning a landing at Incheon, but the Pentagon opposed him. When authorized, he activated a combined U.S. Army and Marine Corps, and ROK Army force. The X Corps, led by General Edward Almond, Commander, consisted of 40,000 men of the 1st Marine Division, the 7th Infantry Division and around 8,600 ROK Army soldiers. By 15 September, the amphibious assault force faced few KPA defenders at Incheon: military intelligence, psychological warfare, guerrilla reconnaissance, and protracted bombardment facilitated a relatively light battle. However, the bombardment destroyed most of the city of Incheon.\n\nAfter the Incheon landing, the 1st Cavalry Division began its northward advance from the Pusan Perimeter. \"Task Force Lynch\" (after Lieutenant Colonel James H. Lynch), 3rd Battalion, 7th Cavalry Regiment, and two 70th Tank Battalion units (Charlie Company and the Intelligence–Reconnaissance Platoon) effected the \"Pusan Perimeter Breakout\" through of enemy territory to join the 7th Infantry Division at Osan. The X Corps rapidly defeated the KPA defenders around Seoul, thus threatening to trap the main KPA force in Southern Korea.\n\nOn 18 September, Stalin dispatched General H. M. Zakharov to Korea to advise Kim Il-sung to halt his offensive around the Pusan perimeter and to redeploy his forces to defend Seoul. Chinese commanders were not briefed on North Korean troop numbers or operational plans. As the overall commander of Chinese forces, Zhou Enlai suggested that the North Koreans should attempt to eliminate the enemy forces at Inchon only if they had reserves of at least 100,000 men; otherwise, he advised the North Koreans to withdraw their forces north.\n\nOn 25 September, Seoul was recaptured by South Korean forces. American air raids caused heavy damage to the KPA, destroying most of its tanks and much of its artillery. North Korean troops in the south, instead of effectively withdrawing north, rapidly disintegrated, leaving Pyongyang vulnerable. During the general retreat only 25,000 to 30,000 soldiers managed to rejoin the Northern KPA lines. On 27 September, Stalin convened an emergency session of the Politburo, in which he condemned the incompetence of the KPA command and held Soviet military advisers responsible for the defeat.\n\nUN forces cross partition line (September – October 1950)\n\nOn 27 September, MacArthur received the top secret National Security Council Memorandum 81/1 from Truman reminding him that operations north of the 38th parallel were authorized only if \"at the time of such operation there was no entry into North Korea by major Soviet or Chinese Communist forces, no announcements of intended entry, nor a threat to counter our operations militarily...\" On 29 September MacArthur restored the government of the Republic of Korea under Syngman Rhee. On 30 September, Defense Secretary George Marshall sent an eyes-only message to MacArthur: \"We want you to feel unhampered tactically and strategically to proceed north of the 38th parallel.\" During October, the ROK police executed people who were suspected to be sympathetic to North Korea, and similar massacres were carried out until early 1951.\n\nOn 30 September, Zhou Enlai warned the United States that China was prepared to intervene in Korea if the United States crossed the 38th parallel. Zhou attempted to advise North Korean commanders on how to conduct a general withdrawal by using the same tactics which had allowed Chinese communist forces to successfully escape Chiang Kai-shek's Encirclement Campaigns in the 1930s, but by some accounts North Korean commanders did not utilize these tactics effectively. Historian Bruce Cumings argues, however, the KPA's rapid withdrawal was strategic, with troops melting into the mountains from where they could launch guerrilla raids on the UN forces spread out on the coasts.\n\nBy 1 October 1950, the UN Command repelled the KPA northwards past the 38th parallel; the ROK Army crossed after them, into North Korea. MacArthur made a statement demanding the KPA's unconditional surrender. Six days later, on 7 October, with UN authorization, the UN Command forces followed the ROK forces northwards. The X Corps landed at Wonsan (in southeastern North Korea) and Riwon (in northeastern North Korea), already captured by ROK forces. The Eighth U.S. Army and the ROK Army drove up western Korea and captured Pyongyang city, the North Korean capital, on 19 October 1950. The 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team (\"Rakkasans\") made their first of two combat jumps during the Korean War on 20 October 1950 at Sunchon and Sukchon. The missions of the 187th were to cut the road north going to China, preventing North Korean leaders from escaping from Pyongyang; and to rescue American prisoners of war. At month's end, UN forces held 135,000 KPA prisoners of war. As they neared the Sino-Korean border, the UN forces in the west were divided from those in the east by 50–100 miles of mountainous terrain.\n\nTaking advantage of the UN Command's strategic momentum against the communists, General MacArthur believed it necessary to extend the Korean War into China to destroy depots supplying the North Korean war effort. President Truman disagreed, and ordered caution at the Sino-Korean border.\n\nChina intervenes (October – December 1950)\n\nOn 27 June 1950, two days after the KPA invaded and three months before the Chinese entered the war, President Truman dispatched the United States Seventh Fleet to the Taiwan Strait, to prevent hostilities between the Nationalist Republic of China (Taiwan) and the People's Republic of China (PRC). On 4 August 1950, with the PRC invasion of Taiwan aborted, Mao Zedong reported to the Politburo that he would intervene in Korea when the People's Liberation Army's (PLA) Taiwan invasion force was reorganized into the PLA North East Frontier Force. China justified its entry into the war as a response to \"American aggression in the guise of the UN\".\n\nOn 20 August 1950, Premier Zhou Enlai informed the UN that \"Korea is China's neighbor... The Chinese people cannot but be concerned about a solution of the Korean question\". Thus, through neutral-country diplomats, China warned that in safeguarding Chinese national security, they would intervene against the UN Command in Korea. President Truman interpreted the communication as \"a bald attempt to blackmail the UN\", and dismissed it.\n\n1 October 1950, the day that UN troops crossed the 38th parallel, was also the first anniversary of the founding of the People's Republic of China. On that day the Soviet ambassador forwarded a telegram from Stalin to Mao and Zhou requesting that China send five to six divisions into Korea, and Kim Il-sung sent frantic appeals to Mao for Chinese military intervention. At the same time, Stalin made it clear that Soviet forces themselves would not directly intervene.\n\nIn a series of emergency meetings that lasted from 2–5 October, Chinese leaders debated whether to send Chinese troops into Korea. There was considerable resistance among many leaders, including senior military leaders, to confronting the U.S. in Korea. Mao strongly supported intervention, and Zhou was one of the few Chinese leaders who firmly supported him. After Lin Biao politely refused Mao's offer to command Chinese forces in Korea (citing his upcoming medical treatment), Mao decided that Peng Dehuai would be the commander of the Chinese forces in Korea after Peng agreed to support Mao's position. Mao then asked Peng to speak in favor of intervention to the rest of the Chinese leaders. After Peng made the case that if U.S. troops conquered Korea and reached the Yalu they might cross it and invade China the Politburo agreed to intervene in Korea. Later, the Chinese claimed that US bombers had violated PRC national airspace on three separate occasions and attacked Chinese targets before China intervened. On 8 October 1950, Mao Zedong redesignated the PLA North East Frontier Force as the Chinese People's Volunteer Army (PVA).\n\nIn order to enlist Stalin's support, Zhou and a Chinese delegation left for Moscow on 8 October, arriving there on 10 October at which point they flew to Stalin's home at the Black Sea. There they conferred with the top Soviet leadership which included Joseph Stalin as well as Vyacheslav Molotov, Lavrentiy Beria and Georgi Malenkov. Stalin initially agreed to send military equipment and ammunition, but warned Zhou that the Soviet Union's air force would need two or three months to prepare any operations. In a subsequent meeting, Stalin told Zhou that he would only provide China with equipment on a credit basis, and that the Soviet air force would only operate over Chinese airspace, and only after an undisclosed period of time. Stalin did not agree to send either military equipment or air support until March 1951. Mao did not find Soviet air support especially useful, as the fighting was going to take place on the south side of the Yalu. Soviet shipments of matériel, when they did arrive, were limited to small quantities of trucks, grenades, machine guns, and the like.\n\nImmediately on his return to Beijing on 18 October 1950, Zhou met with Mao Zedong, Peng Dehuai, and Gao Gang, and the group ordered two hundred thousand Chinese troops to enter North Korea, which they did on 25 October. After consulting with Stalin, on 13 November, Mao appointed Zhou the overall commander and coordinator of the war effort, with Peng as field commander. Orders given by Zhou were delivered in the name of the Central Military Commission.\n\nUN aerial reconnaissance had difficulty sighting PVA units in daytime, because their march and bivouac discipline minimized aerial detection. The PVA marched \"dark-to-dark\" (19:00–03:00), and aerial camouflage (concealing soldiers, pack animals, and equipment) was deployed by 05:30. Meanwhile, daylight advance parties scouted for the next bivouac site. During daylight activity or marching, soldiers were to remain motionless if an aircraft appeared, until it flew away; PVA officers were under order to shoot security violators. Such battlefield discipline allowed a three-division army to march the 286 mi from An-tung, Manchuria, to the combat zone in some 19 days. Another division night-marched a circuitous mountain route, averaging 18 mi daily for 18 days.\n\nMeanwhile, on 10 October 1950, the 89th Tank Battalion was attached to the 1st Cavalry Division, increasing the armor available for the Northern Offensive. On 15 October, after moderate KPA resistance, the 7th Cavalry Regiment and Charlie Company, 70th Tank Battalion captured Namchonjam city. On 17 October, they flanked rightwards, away from the principal road (to Pyongyang), to capture Hwangju. Two days later, the 1st Cavalry Division captured Pyongyang, the North's capital city, on 19 October 1950. Kim Il Sung and his government temporarily moved its capital to Sinuiju – although as UNC forces approached, the government again moved – this time to Kanggye.\n\nOn 15 October 1950, President Truman and General MacArthur met at Wake Island in the mid-Pacific Ocean. This meeting was much publicized because of the General's discourteous refusal to meet the President on the continental United States. To President Truman, MacArthur speculated there was little risk of Chinese intervention in Korea, and that the PRC's opportunity for aiding the KPA had lapsed. He believed the PRC had some 300,000 soldiers in Manchuria, and some 100,000–125,000 soldiers at the Yalu River. He further concluded that, although half of those forces might cross south, \"if the Chinese tried to get down to Pyongyang, there would be the greatest slaughter\" without air force protection.\n\nAfter secretly crossing the Yalu River on 19 October, the PVA 13th Army Group launched the First Phase Offensive on 25 October, attacking the advancing UN forces near the Sino-Korean border. This military decision made solely by China changed the attitude of the Soviet Union. Twelve days after Chinese troops entered the war, Stalin allowed the Soviet Air Force to provide air cover, and supported more aid to China. After decimating the ROK II Corps at the Battle of Onjong, the first confrontation between Chinese and U.S. military occurred on 1 November 1950; deep in North Korea, thousands of soldiers from the PVA 39th Army encircled and attacked the U.S. 8th Cavalry Regiment with three-prong assaults—from the north, northwest, and west—and overran the defensive position flanks in the Battle of Unsan. The surprise assault resulted in the UN forces retreating back to the Ch'ongch'on River, while the Chinese unexpectedly disappeared into mountain hideouts following victory. It is unclear why the Chinese did not press the attack and follow up their victory.\n\nThe UN Command, however, were unconvinced that the Chinese had openly intervened because of the sudden Chinese withdrawal. On 24 November, the Home-by-Christmas Offensive was launched with the U.S. Eighth Army advancing in northwest Korea, while the US X Corps were attacking along the Korean east coast. But the Chinese were waiting in ambush with their Second Phase Offensive.\n\nOn 25 November at the Korean western front, the PVA 13th Army Group attacked and overran the ROK II Corps at the Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River, and then decimated the US 2nd Infantry Division on the UN forces' right flank. The UN Command retreated; the U.S. Eighth Army's retreat (the longest in US Army history) was made possible because of the Turkish Brigade's successful, but very costly, rear-guard delaying action near Kunuri that slowed the PVA attack for two days (27–29 November). On 27 November at the Korean eastern front, a U.S. 7th Infantry Division Regimental Combat Team (3,000 soldiers) and the U.S. 1st Marine Division (12,000–15,000 marines) were unprepared for the PVA 9th Army Group's three-pronged encirclement tactics at the Battle of Chosin Reservoir, but they managed to escape under Air Force and X Corps support fire—albeit with some 15,000 collective casualties.\n\nBy 30 November, the PVA 13th Army Group managed to expel the U.S. Eighth Army from northwest Korea. Retreating from the north faster than they had counter-invaded, the Eighth Army crossed the 38th parallel border in mid December. UN morale hit rock bottom when commanding General Walton Walker of the U.S. Eighth Army was killed on 23 December 1950 in an automobile accident. In northeast Korea by 11 December, the U.S. X Corps managed to cripple the PVA 9th Army Group while establishing a defensive perimeter at the port city of Hungnam. The X Corps were forced to evacuate by 24 December in order to reinforce the badly depleted U.S. Eighth Army to the south.\n\nDuring the Hungnam evacuation, about 193 shiploads of UN Command forces and matériel (approximately 105,000 soldiers, 98,000 civilians, 17,500 vehicles, and 350,000 tons of supplies) were evacuated to Pusan. The SS Meredith Victory was noted for evacuating 14,000 refugees, the largest rescue operation by a single ship, even though it was designed to hold 12 passengers. Before escaping, the UN Command forces razed most of Hungnam city, especially the port facilities; and on 16 December 1950, President Truman declared a national emergency with Presidential Proclamation No. 2914, 3 C.F.R. 99 (1953), which remained in force until 14 September 1978. The next day (17 December 1950) Kim Il-sung was deprived of the right of command of KPA by China. After that, the leading part of the war became the Chinese army.\n\nFighting around the 38th parallel (January – June 1951)\n\nWith Lieutenant-General Matthew Ridgway assuming the command of the U.S. Eighth Army on 26 December, the PVA and the KPA launched their Third Phase Offensive (also known as the \"Chinese New Year's Offensive\") on New Year's Eve of 1950. Utilizing night attacks in which UN Command fighting positions were encircled and then assaulted by numerically superior troops who had the element of surprise, the attacks were accompanied by loud trumpets and gongs, which fulfilled the double purpose of facilitating tactical communication and mentally disorienting the enemy. UN forces initially had no familiarity with this tactic, and as a result some soldiers panicked, abandoning their weapons and retreating to the south. The Chinese New Year's Offensive overwhelmed UN forces, allowing the PVA and KPA to conquer Seoul for the second time on 4 January 1951.\n\nThese setbacks prompted General MacArthur to consider using nuclear weapons against the Chinese or North Korean interiors, with the intention that radioactive fallout zones would interrupt the Chinese supply chains. However, upon the arrival of the charismatic General Ridgway, the esprit de corps of the bloodied Eighth Army immediately began to revive.\n\nUN forces retreated to Suwon in the west, Wonju in the center, and the territory north of Samcheok in the east, where the battlefront stabilized and held. The PVA had outrun its logistics capability and thus were unable to press on beyond Seoul as food, ammunition, and matériel were carried nightly, on foot and bicycle, from the border at the Yalu River to the three battle lines. In late January, upon finding that the PVA had abandoned their battle lines, General Ridgway ordered a reconnaissance-in-force, which became Operation Roundup (5 February 1951). A full-scale X Corps advance proceeded, which fully exploited the UN Command's air superiority, concluding with the UN reaching the Han River and recapturing Wonju.\n\nAfter cease-fire negotiations failed in January, the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 498 on 1 February, condemning PRC as an aggressor, and called upon its forces to withdraw from Korea. \n\nIn early February, the South Korean 11th Division ran the operation to destroy the guerrillas and their sympathizer citizens in Southern Korea. During the operation, the division and police conducted the Geochang massacre and Sancheong-Hamyang massacre. In mid-February, the PVA counterattacked with the Fourth Phase Offensive and achieved initial victory at Hoengseong. But the offensive was soon blunted by the IX Corps positions at Chipyong-ni in the center. Units of the U.S. 2nd Infantry Division and the French Battalion fought a short but desperate battle that broke the attack's momentum. The battle is sometimes known as the Gettysburg of the Korean War. The battle saw 5,600 Korean, American and French troops defeat a numerically superior Chinese force. Surrounded on all sides, the U.S. 2nd Infantry Division Warrior Division's 23rd Regimental Combat Team with an attached French Battalion was hemmed in by more than 25,000 Chinese Communist forces. United Nations forces had previously retreated in the face of large Communist forces instead of getting cut off, but this time they stood and fought at odds of roughly 15 to 1.\n\nIn the last two weeks of February 1951, Operation Roundup was followed by Operation Killer, carried out by the revitalized Eighth Army. It was a full-scale, battlefront-length attack staged for maximum exploitation of firepower to kill as many KPA and PVA troops as possible. Operation Killer concluded with I Corps re-occupying the territory south of the Han River, and IX Corps capturing Hoengseong. On 7 March 1951, the Eighth Army attacked with Operation Ripper, expelling the PVA and the KPA from Seoul on 14 March 1951. This was the city's fourth conquest in a years' time, leaving it a ruin; the 1.5 million pre-war population was down to 200,000, and people were suffering from severe food shortages.\n\nOn 1 March 1951 Mao sent a cable to Stalin, in which he emphasized the difficulties faced by Chinese forces and the urgent need for air cover, especially over supply lines. Apparently impressed by the Chinese war effort, Stalin finally agreed to supply two air force divisions, three anti-aircraft divisions, and six thousand trucks. PVA troops in Korea continued to suffer severe logistical problems throughout the war. In late April Peng Dehuai sent his deputy, Hong Xuezhi, to brief Zhou Enlai in Beijing. What Chinese soldiers feared, Hong said, was not the enemy, but that they had nothing to eat, no bullets to shoot, and no trucks to transport them to the rear when they were wounded. Zhou attempted to respond to the PVA's logistical concerns by increasing Chinese production and improving methods of supply, but these efforts were never completely sufficient. At the same time, large-scale air defense training programs were carried out, and the Chinese Air Force began to participate in the war from September 1951 onward.\n\nOn 11 April 1951, Commander-in-Chief Truman relieved the controversial General MacArthur, the Supreme Commander in Korea. There were several reasons for the dismissal. MacArthur had crossed the 38th parallel in the mistaken belief that the Chinese would not enter the war, leading to major allied losses. He believed that whether or not to use nuclear weapons should be his own decision, not the President's. MacArthur threatened to destroy China unless it surrendered. While MacArthur felt total victory was the only honorable outcome, Truman was more pessimistic about his chances once involved in a land war in Asia, and felt a truce and orderly withdrawal from Korea could be a valid solution. MacArthur was the subject of congressional hearings in May and June 1951, which determined that he had defied the orders of the President and thus had violated the U.S. Constitution. A popular criticism of MacArthur was that he never spent a night in Korea, and directed the war from the safety of Tokyo.\n\nGeneral Ridgway was appointed Supreme Commander, Korea; he regrouped the UN forces for successful counterattacks, while General James Van Fleet assumed command of the U.S. Eighth Army. Further attacks slowly depleted the PVA and KPA forces; Operations Courageous (23–28 March 1951) and Tomahawk (23 March 1951) were a joint ground and airborne infilltration meant to trap Chinese forces between Kaesong and Seoul. UN forces advanced to \"Line Kansas\", north of the 38th parallel. The 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team's (\"Rakkasans\") second of two combat jumps was on Easter Sunday, 1951, at Munsan-ni, South Korea, codenamed Operation Tomahawk. The mission was to get behind Chinese forces and block their movement north. The 60th Indian Parachute Field Ambulance provided the medical cover for the operations, dropping an ADS and a surgical team and treating over 400 battle casualties apart from the civilian casualties that formed the core of their objective as the unit was on a humanitarian mission.\n\nThe Chinese counterattacked in April 1951, with the Fifth Phase Offensive, also known as the Chinese Spring Offensive, with three field armies (approximately 700,000 men). The offensive's first thrust fell upon I Corps, which fiercely resisted in the Battle of the Imjin River (22–25 April 1951) and the Battle of Kapyong (22–25 April 1951), blunting the impetus of the offensive, which was halted at the \"No-name Line\" north of Seoul. On 15 May 1951, the Chinese commenced the second impulse of the Spring Offensive and attacked the ROK Army and the U.S. X Corps in the east at the Soyang River. After initial success, they were halted by 20 May. At month's end, the U.S. Eighth Army counterattacked and regained \"Line Kansas\", just north of the 38th parallel. The UN's \"Line Kansas\" halt and subsequent offensive action stand-down began the stalemate that lasted until the armistice of 1953.\n\nStalemate (July 1951 – July 1953)\n\nFor the remainder of the Korean War the UN Command and the PVA fought, but exchanged little territory; the stalemate held. Large-scale bombing of North Korea continued, and protracted armistice negotiations began 10 July 1951 at Kaesong. On the Chinese side, Zhou Enlai directed peace talks, and Li Kenong and Qiao Guanghua headed the negotiation team. Combat continued while the belligerents negotiated; the UN Command forces' goal was to recapture all of South Korea and to avoid losing territory. The PVA and the KPA attempted similar operations, and later effected military and psychological operations in order to test the UN Command's resolve to continue the war.\n\nThe principal battles of the stalemate include the Battle of Bloody Ridge (18 August–15 September 1951), the Battle of the Punchbowl (31 August-21 September 1951), the Battle of Heartbreak Ridge (13 September–15 October 1951), the Battle of Old Baldy (26 June–4 August 1952), the Battle of White Horse (6–15 October 1952), the Battle of Triangle Hill (14 October–25 November 1952), the Battle of Hill Eerie (21 March–21 June 1952), the sieges of Outpost Harry (10–18 June 1953), the Battle of the Hook (28–29 May 1953), the Battle of Pork Chop Hill (23 March–16 July 1953), and the Battle of Kumsong (13–27 July 1953).\n\nChinese troops suffered from deficient military equipment, serious logistical problems, overextended communication and supply lines, and the constant threat of UN bombers. All of these factors generally led to a rate of Chinese casualties that was far greater than the casualties suffered by UN troops. The situation became so serious that, on November 1951, Zhou Enlai called a conference in Shenyang to discuss the PVA's logistical problems. At the meeting it was decided to accelerate the construction of railways and airfields in the area, to increase the number of trucks available to the army, and to improve air defense by any means possible. These commitments did little to directly address the problems confronting PVA troops.\n\nIn the months after the Shenyang conference Peng Dehuai went to Beijing several times to brief Mao and Zhou about the heavy casualties suffered by Chinese troops and the increasing difficulty of keeping the front lines supplied with basic necessities. Peng was convinced that the war would be protracted, and that neither side would be able to achieve victory in the near future. On 24 February 1952, the Military Commission, presided over by Zhou, discussed the PVA's logistical problems with members of various government agencies involved in the war effort. After the government representatives emphasized their inability to meet the demands of the war, Peng, in an angry outburst, shouted: \"You have this and that problem... You should go to the front and see with your own eyes what food and clothing the soldiers have! Not to speak of the casualties! For what are they giving their lives? We have no aircraft. We have only a few guns. Transports are not protected. More and more soldiers are dying of starvation. Can't you overcome some of your difficulties?\" The atmosphere became so tense that Zhou was forced to adjourn the conference. Zhou subsequently called a series of meetings, where it was agreed that the PVA would be divided into three groups, to be dispatched to Korea in shifts; to accelerate the training of Chinese pilots; to provide more anti-aircraft guns to the front lines; to purchase more military equipment and ammunition from the Soviet Union; to provide the army with more food and clothing; and, to transfer the responsibility of logistics to the central government.\n\nArmistice (July 1953 – November 1954)\n\nThe on-again, off-again armistice negotiations continued for two years, first at Kaesong, on the border between North and South Korea, and then at the neighbouring village of Panmunjom. A major, problematic negotiation point was prisoner of war (POW) repatriation. The PVA, KPA, and UN Command could not agree on a system of repatriation because many PVA and KPA soldiers refused to be repatriated back to the north, which was unacceptable to the Chinese and North Koreans. In the final armistice agreement, signed on 27 July 1953, a Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission, under the chairman Indian General K. S. Thimayya, was set up to handle the matter.\n\nIn 1952, the United States elected a new president, and on 29 November 1952, the president-elect, Dwight D. Eisenhower, went to Korea to learn what might end the Korean War. With the United Nations' acceptance of India's proposed Korean War armistice, the KPA, the PVA, and the UN Command ceased fire with the battle line approximately at the 38th parallel. Upon agreeing to the armistice, the belligerents established the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), which has since been patrolled by the KPA and ROKA, United States, and Joint UN Commands.\n\nThe Demilitarized Zone runs northeast of the 38th parallel; to the south, it travels west. The old Korean capital city of Kaesong, site of the armistice negotiations, originally was in pre-war South Korea, but now is part of North Korea. The United Nations Command, supported by the United States, the North Korean People's Army, and the Chinese People's Volunteers, signed the Armistice Agreement on 27 July 1953 to end the fighting. The Armistice also called upon the governments of South Korea, North Korea, China and the United States to participate in continued peace talks. The war is considered to have ended at this point, even though there was no peace treaty. North Korea nevertheless claims that it won the Korean War.\n\nAfter the war, Operation Glory was conducted from July to November 1954, to allow combatant countries to exchange their dead. The remains of 4,167 U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps dead were exchanged for 13,528 KPA and PVA dead, and 546 civilians dead in UN prisoner-of-war camps were delivered to the South Korean government. After Operation Glory, 416 Korean War unknown soldiers were buried in the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific (The Punchbowl), on the island of Oahu, Hawaii. Defense Prisoner of War/Missing Personnel Office (DPMO) records indicate that the PRC and the DPRK transmitted 1,394 names, of which 858 were correct. From 4,167 containers of returned remains, forensic examination identified 4,219 individuals. Of these, 2,944 were identified as American, and all but 416 were identified by name. From 1996 to 2006, the DPRK recovered 220 remains near the Sino-Korean border.\n\nDivision of Korea (1954–present)\n\nThe Korean Armistice Agreement provided for monitoring by an international commission. Since 1953, the Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission (NNSC), composed of members from the Swiss and Swedish Armed Forces, has been stationed near the DMZ.\n\nIn April 1975, South Vietnam's capital was captured by the North Vietnamese army. Encouraged by the success of Communist revolution in Indochina, Kim Il-sung saw it as an opportunity to invade the South. Kim visited China in April of that year, and met with Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai to ask for military aid. Despite Pyongyang's expectations, however, Beijing refused to help North Korea for another war in Korea. \n\nSince the armistice, there have been numerous incursions and acts of aggression by North Korea. In 1976, the axe murder incident was widely publicized. Since 1974, four incursion tunnels leading to Seoul have been uncovered. In 2010, a North Korean submarine torpedoed and sank the South Korean corvette ROKS Cheonan, resulting in the deaths of 46 sailors. Again in 2010, North Korea fired artillery shells on Yeonpyeong island, killing two military personnel and two civilians.\n\nAfter a new wave of UN sanctions, on 11 March 2013, North Korea claimed that it had invalidated the 1953 armistice. On 13 March 2013, North Korea confirmed it ended the 1953 Armistice and declared North Korea \"is not restrained by the North-South declaration on non-aggression\". On 30 March 2013, North Korea stated that it had entered a \"state of war\" with South Korea and declared that \"The long-standing situation of the Korean peninsula being neither at peace nor at war is finally over\". Speaking on 4 April 2013, the U.S. Secretary of Defense, Chuck Hagel, informed the press that Pyongyang had \"formally informed\" the Pentagon that it had \"ratified\" the potential usage of a nuclear weapon against South Korea, Japan and the United States of America, including Guam and Hawaii. Hagel also stated that the United States would deploy the Terminal High Altitude Area Defense anti-ballistic missile system to Guam, because of a credible and realistic nuclear threat from North Korea. \n\nIn 2016, it was revealed that North Korea approached the United States about conducting formal peace talks to formally end the war. While the White House agreed to secret peace talks, the plan was rejected due to the country's refusal to discuss nuclear disarmament as part of the terms of the treaty. Any possibility of talks ended on 6 January when they conducted their fourth nuclear test. \n\nCharacteristics\n\nCasualties\n\nAccording to the data from the U.S. Department of Defense, the United States suffered 33,686 battle deaths, along with 2,830 non-battle deaths, during the Korean War. U.S. battle deaths were 8,516 up to their first engagement with the Chinese on 1 November 1950. South Korea reported some 373,599 civilian and 137,899 military deaths. Western sources estimate the PVA suffered about 400,000 killed and 486,000 wounded, while the KPA suffered 215,000 killed and 303,000 wounded.\n\nData from official Chinese sources, on the other hand, reported that the PVA had suffered 114,000 battle deaths, 34,000 non-battle deaths, 340,000 wounded, 7,600 missing and 21,400 captured during the war. Among those captured, about 14,000 defected to Taiwan, while the other 7,110 were repatriated to China. Chinese sources also reported that North Korea had suffered 290,000 casualties, 90,000 captured and a \"large\" number of civilian deaths.\n\nIn return, the Chinese and North Koreans estimated that about 390,000 soldiers from the United States, 660,000 soldiers from South Korea and 29,000 other UN soldiers were \"eliminated\" from the battlefield.\n\nRecent scholarship has put the full battle death toll on all sides at just over 1.2 million. \n\nArmored warfare\n\nThe initial assault by North Korean KPA forces was aided by the use of Soviet T-34-85 tanks. A North Korean tank corps equipped with about 120 T-34s spearheaded the invasion. These drove against a ROK Army with few anti-tank weapons adequate to deal with the Soviet T-34s. Additional Soviet armor was added as the offensive progressed. The North Korean tanks had a good deal of early successes against South Korean infantry, elements of the 24th Infantry Division, and the United States built M24 Chaffee light tanks that they encountered. Interdiction by ground attack aircraft was the only means of slowing the advancing Korean armor. The tide turned in favour of the United Nations forces in August 1950 when the North Koreans suffered major tank losses during a series of battles in which the UN forces brought heavier equipment to bear, including M4A3 Sherman medium tanks backed by U.S. M26 heavy tanks, along with British Centurion, Churchill, and Cromwell tanks.\n\nThe U.S. landings at Inchon on 15 September cut off the North Korean supply lines, causing their armored forces and infantry to run out of fuel, ammunition, and other supplies. As a result, the North Koreans had to retreat, and many of the T-34s and heavy weapons had to be abandoned. By the time the North Koreans withdrew from the South, a total of 239 T-34s and 74 SU-76s had been lost. After November 1950, North Korean armor was rarely encountered. \n\nFollowing the initial assault by the north, the Korean War saw limited use of the tank and featured no large-scale tank battles. The mountainous, forested terrain, especially in the Eastern Central Zone, was poor tank country, limiting their mobility. Through the last two years of the war in Korea, UN tanks served largely as infantry support and mobile artillery pieces.\n\nNaval warfare\n\nFurther information: List of U.S. Navy ships sunk or damaged in action during the Korean conflict\n\nBecause neither Korea had a significant navy, the Korean War featured few naval battles. A skirmish between North Korea and the UN Command occurred on 2 July 1950; the U.S. Navy cruiser , the Royal Navy cruiser , and the frigate fought four North Korean torpedo boats and two mortar gunboats, and sank them.\nUSS Juneau later sank several ammunition ships that had been present. The last sea battle of the Korean War occurred at Inchon, days before the Battle of Incheon; the ROK ship PC-703 sank a North Korean mine layer in the Battle of Haeju Island, near Inchon. Three other supply ships were sunk by PC-703 two days later in the Yellow Sea. Thereafter, vessels from the UN nations held undisputed control of the sea about Korea. The gun ships were used in shore bombardment, while the aircraft carriers provided air support to the ground forces.\n\nDuring most of the war, the UN navies patrolled the west and east coasts of North Korea, sinking supply and ammunition ships and denying the North Koreans the ability to resupply from the sea. Aside from very occasional gunfire from North Korean shore batteries, the main threat to United States and UN navy ships was from magnetic mines. During the war, five U.S. Navy ships were lost to mines: two minesweepers, two minesweeper escorts, and one ocean tug. Mines and gunfire from North Korean coastal artillery damaged another 87 U.S. warships, resulting in slight to moderate damage. \n\nAerial warfare\n\nThe Korean War was the first war in which jet aircraft played the central role in air combat. Once-formidable fighters such as the P-51 Mustang, F4U Corsair, and Hawker Sea Fury—all piston-engined, propeller-driven, and designed during World War II—relinquished their air-superiority roles to a new generation of faster, jet-powered fighters arriving in the theater. For the initial months of the war, the P-80 Shooting Star, F9F Panther, Gloster Meteor and other jets under the UN flag dominated North Korea's prop-driven air force of Soviet Yakovlev Yak-9 and Lavochkin La-9s.\n\nThe Chinese intervention in late October 1950 bolstered the Korean People's Air Force (KPAF) of North Korea with the MiG-15, one of the world's most advanced jet fighters. The heavily armed MiGs were faster than first-generation UN jets and so could reach and destroy U.S. B-29 Superfortress bomber flights despite their fighter escorts. With increasing B-29 losses, the Air Force was forced to switch from a daylight bombing campaign to a safer but less accurate nighttime bombing of targets. \n\nThe USAF countered the MiG-15 by sending over three squadrons of its most capable fighter, the F-86 Sabre. These arrived in December 1950. The MiG was designed as a bomber interceptor. It had a very high service ceiling—50000 ft and carried very heavy weaponry: one 37 mm cannon and two 23 mm cannons. They had a ceiling of 42000 ft and were armed with six .50 caliber (12.7 mm) machine guns, which were range adjusted by radar gunsights. If coming in at higher altitude the advantage of engaging or not went to the MiG. Once in a level flight dogfight, both swept-wing designs attained comparable maximum speeds of around 660 mi/h. The MiG climbed faster, but the Sabre turned and dived better.\n\nIn summer and autumn 1951, the outnumbered Sabres of the USAF's 4th Fighter Interceptor Wing—only 44 at one point—continued seeking battle in MiG Alley, where the Yalu River marks the Chinese border, against Chinese and North Korean air forces capable of deploying some 500 aircraft. Following Colonel Harrison Thyng's communication with the Pentagon, the 51st Fighter-Interceptor Wing finally reinforced the beleaguered 4th Wing in December 1951; for the next year-and-a-half stretch of the war, aerial warfare continued.\n\nUnlike the Vietnam War, in which the Soviet Union only officially sent \"advisers\", in the Korean aerial war Soviet forces participated via the 64th Airborne Corps. Fearful of confronting the United States directly, the Soviet Union denied involvement of their personnel in anything other than an advisory role, but air combat quickly resulted in Soviet pilots dropping their code signals and speaking over the wireless in Russian. This known direct Soviet participation was a casus belli that the UN Command deliberately overlooked, lest the war for the Korean peninsula expand to include the Soviet Union, and potentially escalate into atomic warfare. 1,106 enemy airplanes were officially downed by the Soviet pilots, 52 of whom got ace status. The Soviet system of confirming air kills erred on the conservative side; the pilot's words had to be corroborated and enemy aircraft falling into the sea were not counted, the number might exceed 1,106. \n\nAfter the war, and to the present day, the USAF reports an F-86 Sabre kill ratio in excess of 10:1, with 792 MiG-15s and 108 other aircraft shot down by Sabres, and 78 Sabres lost to enemy fire. The Soviet Air Force reported some 1,100 air-to-air victories and 335 MiG combat losses, while China's People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) reported 231 combat losses, mostly MiG-15s, and 168 other aircraft lost. The KPAF reported no data, but the UN Command estimates some 200 KPAF aircraft lost in the war's first stage, and 70 additional aircraft after the Chinese intervention. The USAF disputes Soviet and Chinese claims of 650 and 211 downed F-86s, respectively. However, one unconfirmed source claims that the U.S. Air Force has more recently cited 230 losses out of 674 F-86s deployed to Korea.\n\nThe Korean War marked a major milestone not only for fixed-wing aircraft, but also for rotorcraft, featuring the first large-scale deployment of helicopters for medical evacuation (medevac). In 1944–1945, during the Second World War, the YR-4 helicopter saw limited ambulance duty, but in Korea, where rough terrain trumped the jeep as a speedy medevac vehicle, helicopters like the Sikorsky H-19 helped reduce fatal casualties to a dramatic degree when combined with complementary medical innovations such as Mobile Army Surgical Hospitals. The limitations of jet aircraft for close air support highlighted the helicopter's potential in the role, leading to development of the AH-1 Cobra and other helicopter gunships used in the Vietnam War (1965–75).\n\nBombing North Korea\n\nThe first major U.S. strategic bombing campaign against North Korea, begun in late July 1950, was conceived much along the lines of the major offensives of World War II. On 12 August 1950, the U.S. Air Force dropped 625 tons of bombs on North Korea; two weeks later, the daily tonnage increased to some 800 tons. After the Chinese intervention in November, General MacArthur ordered the increased bombing campaign on North Korea, including incendiary attacks against their arsenals and communications centers and especially against the \"Korean end\" of all the bridges across the Yalu River. As with the aerial bombing campaigns over Germany and Japan in World War II, the nominal objective of the U.S. Air Force was to destroy North Korea's war infrastructure and shatter their morale. After MacArthur was removed as Supreme Commander in Korea in April 1951, his successors continued this policy and eventually extended it to all of North Korea. Overall, the U.S. dropped 635,000 tons of bombs—including 32,557 tons of napalm—on Korea, more than they did during the whole Pacific campaign of World War II. \n\nAs a result, almost every substantial building in North Korea was destroyed. The war's highest-ranking American POW, U.S. Major General William F. Dean, reported that most of the North Korean cities and villages he saw were either rubble or snow-covered wastelands. North Korean factories, schools, hospitals, and government offices were forced to move underground, and air defenses were \"virtually non-existent.\" In November 1950, the North Korean leadership instructed their population to build dugouts and mud huts, as well as dig underground tunnels, in order to solve the acute housing problem. U.S. Air Force General Curtis LeMay commented, \"we went over there and fought the war and eventually burned down every town in North Korea anyway, some way or another, and some in South Korea, too.\" Pyongyang, which saw 75 percent of its area destroyed, was so devastated that bombing was halted as there were no longer any worthy targets. On 28 November, Bomber Command reported on the campaign's progress: 95 percent of Manpojin was destroyed, along with 90 percent of Hoeryong, Namsi and Koindong, 85 percent of Chosan, 75 percent of both Sakchu and Huichon, and 20 percent of Uiju. According to USAF damage assessments, \"eighteen of twenty-two major cities in North Korea had been at least half obliterated.\" By the end of the campaign, US bombers had difficulty in finding targets and were reduced to bombing footbridges or jettisoning their bombs into the sea. \n\nAs well as conventional bombing, the Communist side claimed that the U.S. had used biological weapons. These claims have been disputed; Conrad Crane asserts that while the U.S. worked towards developing chemical and biological weapons, the American military \"possessed neither the ability, nor the will\", to use them in combat. \n\nU.S. threat of atomic warfare\n\nOn 5 November 1950, the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) issued orders for the retaliatory atomic bombing of Manchurian PRC military bases, if either their armies crossed into Korea or if PRC or KPA bombers attacked Korea from there. The President ordered the transfer of nine Mark 4 nuclear bombs \"to the Air Force's Ninth Bomb Group, the designated carrier of the weapons ... [and] signed an order to use them against Chinese and Korean targets\", which he never transmitted.\n\nMany American officials viewed the deployment of nuclear-capable (but not nuclear-armed) B-29 bombers to Britain as helping to resolve the Berlin Blockade of 1948–1949. Truman and Eisenhower both had military experience and viewed nuclear weapons as potentially usable components of their military. During Truman's first meeting to discuss the war on 25 June 1950, he ordered plans be prepared for attacking Soviet forces if they entered the war. By July, Truman approved another B-29 deployment to Britain, this time with bombs (but without their cores), to remind the Soviets of American offensive ability. Deployment of a similar fleet to Guam was leaked to The New York Times. As United Nations forces retreated to Pusan, and the CIA reported that mainland China was building up forces for a possible invasion of Taiwan, the Pentagon believed that Congress and the public would demand using nuclear weapons if the situation in Korea required them. \n\nAs Chinese forces pushed back the United States forces from the Yalu River, Truman stated during a 30 November 1950 press conference that using nuclear weapons had \"always been [under] active consideration\", with control under the local military commander. The Indian ambassador, K. Madhava Panikkar, reports \"that Truman announced that he was thinking of using the atom bomb in Korea. But the Chinese seemed totally unmoved by this threat ... The propaganda against American aggression was stepped up. The 'Aid Korea to resist America' campaign was made the slogan for increased production, greater national integration, and more rigid control over anti-national activities. One could not help feeling that Truman's threat came in very useful to the leaders of the Revolution, to enable them to keep up the tempo of their activities.\"\n\nAfter his statement caused concern in Europe, Truman met on 4 December 1950 with UK prime minister and Commonwealth spokesman Clement Attlee, French Premier René Pleven, and Foreign Minister Robert Schuman to discuss their worries about atomic warfare and its likely continental expansion. The United States' forgoing atomic warfare was not because of \"a disinclination by the Soviet Union and People's Republic of China to escalate\" the Korean War, but because UN allies—notably from the UK, the Commonwealth, and France—were concerned about a geopolitical imbalance rendering NATO defenseless while the United States fought China, who then might persuade the Soviet Union to conquer Western Europe. The Joint Chiefs of Staff advised Truman to tell Attlee that the United States would use nuclear weapons only if necessary to protect an evacuation of UN troops, or to prevent a \"major military disaster\".\n\nOn 6 December 1950, after the Chinese intervention repelled the UN Command armies from northern North Korea, General J. Lawton Collins (Army Chief of Staff), General MacArthur, Admiral C. Turner Joy, General George E. Stratemeyer, and staff officers Major General Doyle Hickey, Major General Charles A. Willoughby, and Major General Edwin K. Wright met in Tokyo to plan strategy countering the Chinese intervention; they considered three potential atomic warfare scenarios encompassing the next weeks and months of warfare.\n\n* In the first scenario: If the PVA continued attacking in full and the UN Command was forbidden to blockade and bomb China, and without ROC reinforcements, and without an increase in U.S. forces until April 1951 (four National Guard divisions were due to arrive), then atomic bombs might be used in North Korea.\n* In the second scenario: If the PVA continued full attacks and the UN Command had blockaded China and had effective aerial reconnaissance and bombing of the Chinese interior, and the ROC soldiers were maximally exploited, and tactical atomic bombing was to hand, then the UN forces could hold positions deep in North Korea.\n* In the third scenario: if China agreed to not cross the 38th parallel border, General MacArthur recommended UN acceptance of an armistice disallowing PVA and KPA troops south of the parallel, and requiring PVA and KPA guerrillas to withdraw northwards. The U.S. Eighth Army would remain to protect the Seoul–Incheon area, while X Corps would retreat to Pusan. A UN commission should supervise implementation of the armistice.\n\nBoth the Pentagon and the State Department were nonetheless cautious about using nuclear weapons because of the risk of general war with China and the diplomatic ramifications. Truman and his senior advisors agreed, and never seriously considered using them in early December 1950 despite the poor military situation in Korea.\n\nIn 1951, the U.S. escalated closest to atomic warfare in Korea. Because China had deployed new armies to the Sino-Korean frontier, pit crews at the Kadena Air Base, Okinawa, assembled atomic bombs for Korean warfare, \"lacking only the essential pit nuclear cores\". In October 1951, the United States effected Operation Hudson Harbor to establish a nuclear weapons capability. USAF B-29 bombers practised individual bombing runs from Okinawa to North Korea (using dummy nuclear or conventional bombs), coordinated from Yokota Air Base in east-central Japan. Hudson Harbor tested \"actual functioning of all activities which would be involved in an atomic strike, including weapons assembly and testing, leading, ground control of bomb aiming\". The bombing run data indicated that atomic bombs would be tactically ineffective against massed infantry, because the \"timely identification of large masses of enemy troops was extremely rare.\"\n\nRidgway was authorized to use nuclear weapons if a major air attack originated from outside Korea. An envoy was sent to Hong Kong to deliver a warning to China. The message likely caused Chinese leaders to be more cautious about potential American use of nuclear weapons, but whether they learned about the B-29 deployment is unclear and the failure of the two major Chinese offensives that month likely was what caused them to shift to a defensive strategy in Korea. The B-29s returned to the United States in June.\n\nDespite the greater destructive power deploying atomic weapons would bring to the war, their effects on determining the war's outcome would have likely been minimal. Tactically, given the dispersed nature of Chinese and North Korean forces, the relatively primitive infrastructure for staging and logistics centers, and the small number of bombs available (most would have been conserved for use against the Soviets), atomic attacks would have limited effects against the ability of China to mobilize and move forces. Strategically, attacking Chinese cities to destroy civilian industry and infrastructure would cause the immediate dispersion of the leadership away from such areas and give propaganda value for the communists to galvanize the support of Chinese civilians. Since the Soviets were not expected to intervene with their few primitive atomic weapons on China or North Korea's behalf if the U.S. used theirs first, factors such as little operational value and the lowering of the \"threshold\" for using atomic weapons against non-nuclear states in future conflicts played more of a role in not employing them than the threat of a possible nuclear exchange. \n\nWhen Eisenhower succeeded Truman in early 1953 he was similarly cautious about using nuclear weapons in Korea, including for diplomatic purposes to encourage progress in the ongoing truce discussions. The administration prepared contingency plans for using them against China, but like Truman, the new president feared that doing so would result in Soviet attacks on Japan. The war ended as it had begun, without American nuclear weapons deployed near battle.\n\nWar crimes\n\nCivilian deaths and massacres\n\nThere were numerous atrocities and massacres of civilians throughout the Korean war committed by both the North and South Koreans. Many of them started on the first days of the war. South Korean President Syngman Rhee ordered the Bodo League massacre on 28 June, beginning numerous killings of more than 100,000 suspected leftist sympathizers and their families by South Korean officials and right-wing groups. During the massacre, the British protested to their allies and saved some citizens.\n\nIn occupied areas, North Korean Army political officers purged South Korean society of its intelligentsia by executing every educated person—academic, governmental, religious—who might lead resistance against the North; the purges continued during the NPA retreat.\n\nR. J. Rummel estimated that the North Korean Army executed at least 500,000 civilians during the Korean War, with many dying in North Korea's drive to conscript South Koreans to contribute to their war effort. When the North Koreans retreated north in September 1950, they abducted tens of thousands of South Korean men. The reasons are not clear, but the intention might have been to acquire skilled professionals to the North.\n\nIn addition to conventional military operations, North Korean soldiers fought the UN forces by infiltrating guerrillas among refugees. These soldiers disguised as refugees would approach UN forces asking for food and help, then open fire and attack. U.S. troops acted under a \"shoot-first-ask-questions-later\" policy against any civilian refugee approaching U.S. battlefield positions, a policy that led U.S. soldiers to kill an estimated 400 civilians at No Gun Ri (26–29 July 1950) in central Korea because they believed some of the refugees to be North Korean soldiers in disguise. The South Korean Truth and Reconciliation Commission defended this policy as a \"military necessity\". \n\nBeginning in 2005, the South Korean Truth and Reconciliation Commission has investigated numerous atrocities committed by the Japanese colonial government, North Korean military, U.S. military, and the authoritarian South Korean government. It has investigated atrocities before, during and after the Korean War. \n\nThe Commission has verified over 14,000 civilians were killed in the Jeju uprising (1948–49) that involved South Korean military and paramilitary units against pro-North Korean guerrillas. Although most of the fighting had subsided by 1949, fighting continued until 1950. The Commission estimates 86% of the civilians were killed by South Korean forces. The Americans on the island documented the events, but never intervened.\n\nPrisoners of war\n\nDuring the first days of the war North Korean soldiers committed the Seoul National University Hospital massacre.\n\nThe United States reported that North Korea mistreated prisoners of war: soldiers were beaten, starved, put to forced labor, marched to death, and summarily executed.\n\nThe KPA killed POWs at the battles for Hill 312, Hill 303, the Pusan Perimeter, and Daejeon; these massacres were discovered afterwards by the UN forces. Later, a U.S. Congress war crimes investigation, the United States Senate Subcommittee on Korean War Atrocities of the Permanent Subcommittee of the Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations, reported that \"two-thirds of all American prisoners of war in Korea died as a result of war crimes\".\n\nAlthough the Chinese rarely executed prisoners like their North Korean counterparts, mass starvation and diseases swept through the Chinese-run POW camps during the winter of 1950–51. About 43 percent of all U.S. POWs died during this period. The Chinese defended their actions by stating that all Chinese soldiers during this period were suffering mass starvation and diseases due to logistical difficulties. The UN POWs pointed out that most of the Chinese camps were located near the easily supplied Sino-Korean border, and that the Chinese withheld food to force the prisoners to accept the communism indoctrination programs. According to the reports of China, over a thousand U.S. POWs died by the end of June 1951, while only a dozen British POWs died, and all Turkish POW survived. The reason was, according to Hastings, that while the British POWs could help each other, the Americans thought sorghum, corn, and pickle, which were also the main food for Chinese soldiers, were livestock feed, and many refused to eat, partially because of their depression, called as \"give-upitise\" by British POWs. U.S. POWs also threw sick comrades out of their room to freezing outside. Turkish POWs felt most comfortable, as some of them even thought the food was better than what they ate at home. \n\nChinese claimed that UN soldiers helped anti-Communism POWs to torture Chinese POWs, such as to put anti-Communism tattoos on their body by force, so that they would have to refuse to be repatriated back to the north. They even killed Communist POWs in public, to frighten the others. \n\nThe unpreparedness of U.S. POWs to resist heavy communist indoctrination during the Korean War led to the Code of the United States Fighting Force which governs how U.S. military personnel in combat should act when they must \"evade capture, resist while a prisoner or escape from the enemy\". \n\nNorth Korea may have detained up to 50,000 South Korean POWs after the ceasefire. Over 88,000 South Korean soldiers were missing and the Communists' themselves had claimed that they had captured 70,000 South Koreans. However, when ceasefire negotiations began in 1951, the Communists reported that they held only 8,000 South Koreans. The UN Command protested the discrepancies and alleged that the Communists were forcing South Korean POWs to join the KPA.\n\nThe Communist side denied such allegations. They claimed that their POW rosters were small because many POWs were killed in UN air raids and that they had released ROK soldiers at the front. They insisted that only volunteers were allowed to serve in the KPA. By early 1952, UN negotiators gave up trying to get back the missing South Koreans. The POW exchange proceeded without access to South Korean POWs not on the Communist rosters.\n\nNorth Korea continued to claim that any South Korean POW who stayed in the North did so voluntarily. However, since 1994, South Korean POWs have been escaping North Korea on their own after decades of captivity. As of 2010, the South Korean Ministry of Unification reported that 79 ROK POWs had escaped the North. The South Korean government estimates 500 South Korean POWs continue to be detained in North Korea. \n\nThe escaped POWs have testified about their treatment and written memoirs about their lives in North Korea. They report that they were not told about the POW exchange procedures, and were assigned to work in mines in the remote northeastern regions near the Chinese and Russian border. Declassified Soviet Foreign Ministry documents corroborate such testimony. \n\nIn 1997, the Geoje POW Camp in South Korea was turned into a memorial.\n\nStarvation\n\nIn December 1950, National Defense Corps was founded; the soldiers were 406,000 drafted citizens.\nIn the winter of 1951, 50,000 to 90,000 South Korean National Defense Corps soldiers starved to death while marching southward under the Chinese offensive when their commanding officers embezzled funds earmarked for their food. This event is called the National Defense Corps Incident. There is no evidence that Syngman Rhee was personally involved in or benefited from the corruption.\n\nRecreation\n\nIn 1950, Secretary of Defense George C. Marshall and Secretary of the Navy Francis P. Matthews called on the USO which was disbanded by 1947 to provide support for U.S. servicemen. By the end of the war, more than 113,000 American USO volunteers were working at home front and abroad. Many stars came to Korea to give their performances. Throughout the Korean War, UN Comfort Stations were operated by South Korean officials for UN soldiers. \n\nAftermath\n\nPostwar recovery was different in the two Koreas. South Korea stagnated in the first postwar decade. In 1953, South Korea and the United States concluded a Mutual Defense Treaty. In 1960, the April Revolution occurred and students joined an anti-Syngman Rhee demonstration; 142 were killed by police; in consequence Syngman Rhee resigned and left for exile in the United States. Park Chung-hee's May 16 coup enabled social stability. In the 1960s, prostitution and related services earned 25 percent of South Korean GNP. From 1965 to 1973, South Korea dispatched troops to Vietnam and received $235,560,000 allowance and military procurement from the United States. GNP increased fivefold during the Vietnam War. South Korea industrialized and modernized. Contemporary North Korea remains underdeveloped. South Korea had one of the world's fastest-growing economies from the early 1960s to the late 1990s. In 1957 South Korea had a lower per capita GDP than Ghana, and by 2010 it was ranked thirteenth in the world (Ghana was 86th).\n\nFollowing extensive USAF bombing, North Korea \"had been virtually destroyed as an industrial society.\" After the armistice, Kim Il-Sung requested Soviet economic and industrial assistance. In September 1953, the Soviet government agreed to \"cancel or postpone repayment for all ... outstanding debts\", and promised to grant North Korea one billion rubles in monetary aid, industrial equipment and consumer goods. Eastern European members of the Soviet Bloc also contributed with \"logistical support, technical aid, [and] medical supplies.\" China cancelled North Korea's war debts, provided 800 million yuan, promised trade cooperation, and sent in thousands of troops to rebuild damaged infrastructure.\n\nPostwar, about 100,000 North Koreans were executed in purges. According to Rummel, forced labor and concentration camps were responsible for over one million deaths in North Korea from 1945 to 1987; others have estimated 400,000 deaths in concentration camps alone. Estimates based on the most recent North Korean census suggest that 240,000 to 420,000 people died as a result of the 1990s North Korean famine and that there were 600,000 to 850,000 unnatural deaths in North Korea from 1993 to 2008. The North Korean government has been accused of \"crimes against humanity\" for its alleged culpability in creating and prolonging the 1990s famine. A study by South Korean anthropologists of North Korean children who had defected to China found that 18-year-old males were 5 inches shorter than South Koreans their age because of malnutrition. \n\nRacial integration efforts in the U.S. military began during the Korean War, where African Americans fought in integrated units for the first time. Among the 1.8 million American soldiers who fought in the Korean War there were more than 100,000 African Americans.\n\nSouth Korean anti-Americanism after the war was fueled by the presence and behavior of American military personnel (USFK) and U.S. support for the authoritarian regime, a fact still evident during the country's democratic transition in the 1980s. However, anti-Americanism has declined significantly in South Korea in recent years, from 46% favorable in 2003 to 74% favorable in 2011, making South Korea one of the most pro-American countries in the world. \n\nIn addition, a large number of mixed-race \"G.I. babies\" (offspring of American and other UN soldiers and Korean women) were filling up the country's orphanages. Korean traditional society places significant weight on paternal family ties, bloodlines, and purity of race. Children of mixed race or those without fathers are not easily accepted in South Korean society. International adoption of Korean children began in 1954. The U.S. Immigration Act of 1952 legalized the naturalization of non-whites as American citizens, and made possible the entry of military spouses and children from South Korea after the Korean War. With the passage of the Immigration Act of 1965, which substantially changed U.S. immigration policy toward non-Europeans, Koreans became one of the fastest-growing Asian groups in the United States.\n\nMao Zedong's decision to take on the United States in the Korean War was a direct attempt to confront what the Communist bloc viewed as the strongest anti-Communist power in the world, undertaken at a time when the Chinese Communist regime was still consolidating its own power after winning the Chinese Civil War. Mao supported intervention not to save North Korea, but because he believed that a military conflict with the United States was inevitable after the United States entered the Korean War, and also to appease the Soviet Union in order to secure military dispensation and achieve Mao's goal of making China a major world military power. Mao was equally ambitious in improving his own prestige inside the communist international community by demonstrating that his Marxist concerns were international. In his later years Mao believed that Stalin only gained a positive opinion of him after China's entrance into the Korean War. Inside Mainland China, the war improved the long-term prestige of Mao, Zhou, and Peng, allowing the Chinese Communist Party to increase its legitimacy while weakening anti-Communist dissent.\n\nThe Chinese government have encouraged the point of view that the war was initiated by the United States and South Korea, though ComIntern documents have shown that Mao sought approval from Joseph Stalin to enter the war. In Chinese media, the Chinese war effort is considered as an example of China's engaging the strongest power in the world with an under-equipped army, forcing it to retreat, and fighting it to a military stalemate. These successes were contrasted with China's historical humiliations by Japan and by Western powers over the previous hundred years, highlighting the abilities of the People's Liberation Army and the Chinese Communist Party. The most significant negative long-term consequence of the war (for China) was that it led the United States to guarantee the safety of Chiang Kai-shek's regime in Taiwan, effectively ensuring that Taiwan would remain outside of PRC control until the present day. Mao had also discovered the usefulness of large-scale mass movements in the war while implementing them among most of his ruling measures over PRC. Finally, anti-American sentiments, which were already a significant factor during the Chinese Civil War, was ingrained into Chinese culture during the Communist propaganda campaigns of the Korean War. \n\nThe Korean War affected other participant combatants. Turkey, for example, entered NATO in 1952 and the foundation was laid for bilateral diplomatic and trade relations with South Korea." ] }

{ "description": [ "The Korean War . After five years of ... points along the 38th parallel, the line dividing communist ... the close of World War II at the 38th parallel. The Korean U ...", "... as the peninsula marks the 60th anniversary of the truce which ... In pictures: The Korean War. ... crossing the 38th parallel military demarcation line agreed ...", "The Korean War was the first major armed ... to the prewar boundary line along the 38th Parallel. ... demands that a truce line be agreed upon prior to the ...", "Korean War was the first war ... the withdrawal of North Korean troops to the 38th parallel. ... the final line of division between the sides if a truce could ...", "Cpl. Roland Holder war experiences and Korean War ... that the truce line be the line of contact ... 40 miles below 38th parallel in central Korea.", "Korean War, conflict between ... At the end of World War II, Korea was divided at the 38th parallel into Soviet (North Korean) and ... (July 10, 1951) truce ...", "Consequently, at the 38th Parallel, truce talks began on 10th July 1951. ... Korean War Time Line : DIGGER : AUSSIE ALBUM: KW DOCUMENTARY", "The Korean War Truce Talks: ... Jr. From Parameters, Spring 2000, ... thus focused on restoration of the status quo ante with a truce line at the 38th Parallel." ], "filename": [ "10/10_2927.txt", "198/198_4456.txt", "78/78_4457.txt", "27/27_2928.txt", "44/44_2945.txt", "119/119_2939.txt", "45/45_4459.txt", "33/33_4460.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9 ], "title": [ "Korean War documents at the Dwight D. Eisenhower Library", "In pictures: The Korean War - BBC News", "The Korean War: Years of Stalemate", "Korean War", "World History International - The Korean War", "The Korean War - Infoplease", "THE 38TH PARALLEL - Korean War", "PARAMETERS, US Army War College Quarterly - Spring 2000" ], "url": [ "http://eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/korean_war.html", "http://www.bbc.com/news/in-pictures-23464234", "http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/kw-stale/stale.htm", "http://korean-war.com/", "http://history-world.org/korean_war.htm", "http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/history/korean-war.html", "http://www.koreanwaronline.com/history/oz/38th.htm", "http://strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/parameters/Articles/00spring/boose.htm" ], "search_context": [ "Eisenhower Presidential Library\nThe Korean War\n \nAfter five years of simmering tensions on the Korean peninsula, the Korean War began on June 25, 1950, when the Northern Korean People's Army invaded South Korea in a coordinated general attack at several strategic points along the 38th parallel, the line dividing communist North Korea from the non-communist Republic of Korea in the south. North Korea aimed to militarily conquer South Korea and therefore unify Korea under the communist North Korean regime. Concerned that the Soviet Union and Communist China might have encouraged this invasion, President Harry S. Truman committed United States air, ground, and naval forces to the combined United Nations forces assisting the Republic of Korea in its defense. President Truman designated General Douglas MacArthur as Commanding General of the United Nations Command (UNC).\nThe first several months of the war were characterized by armies advancing and retreating up and down the Korean peninsula. The initial North Korean attack drove United Nations Command forces to a narrow perimeter around the port of Pusan in the southern tip of the peninsula. After the front stabilized at the Pusan perimeter, General MacArthur surprised the North Koreans in September 1950 with an amphibious landing at Inchon behind North Korean lines, forcing the North Koreans to retreat behind the 38th parallel.\nIn October, the United Nations, urged by the United States Government, approved the movement of UN forces across the 38th parallel into North Korea in an effort to unify the country under a non-communist government. In spite of warnings issued by the Chinese Government, the United Nations forces moved toward the Yalu River, marking the North Korean border with Manchuria. Discounting the significance of initial Chinese attacks in late October, MacArthur ordered the UNC to launch an offensive, taking the forces to the Yalu. In late November the Chinese attacked in full strength, pushing the UNC in disarray south of the 38th parallel with the communist forces seizing the South Korean capital, Seoul.\nIn early 1951 the Chinese offensive lost its momentum and the UNC, bolstered by the revitalized 8th U.S. Army led by General Matthew B. Ridgway, retook Seoul and advanced back to the 38th parallel. From July 1951, until the end of hostilities the battle lines remained relatively stable and the conflict became a stalemate. The Truman Administration abandoned plans to reunite North and South Korea and instead decided to pursue limited goals in order to avoid the possible escalation of the conflict into a third world war involving China and the Soviet Union. When General MacArthur publicly challenged the Truman Administration's conduct of the war, the President, \"...concluded that...MacArthur is unable to give his wholehearted support to the policies of the United States Government...\" and relieved him from command in April 1951, replacing him with General Ridgway.\nActing on a campaign pledge, President-elect Dwight D. Eisenhower went to Korea on December 2, 1952. After visiting the troops, their commanders and South Korean leaders, and receiving briefings on the military situation in Korea, Eisenhower concluded, \"we could not stand forever on a static front and continue to accept casualties without any visible results. Small attacks on small hills would not end this war.\" President Eisenhower sought an end to hostilities in Korea through a combination of diplomacy and military muscle-flexing. On July 27, 1953, seven months after President Eisenhower's inauguration as the 34th President of the United States, an armistice was signed, ending organized combat operations and leaving the Korean Peninsula divided much as it had been since the close of World War II at the 38th parallel.\nThe Korean U.N. \"police action\" prevented North Korea from imposing its communist rule on South Korea. Also, the United States' actions in Korea demonstrated America's willingness to combat aggression, strengthened President Eisenhower's hand in Europe as he sought to organize European military defense under the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, and insured that the United States would pursue its military buildup called for in the famous cold war document, National Security Council Policy Paper No. 68.", "In pictures: The Korean War - BBC News\nBBC News\nIn pictures: The Korean War\n26 July 2013\nRead more about sharing.\nClose share panel\nImages of the 1950-53 Korean War, as the peninsula marks the 60th anniversary of the truce which ended hostilities.\nIn June 1950, as the international community was coming to terms with the aftermath of World War II, a new conflict broke out on the Korean peninsula - and the Cold War turned hot for the first time.\nNorth Korean communist forces moved south, crossing the 38th parallel military demarcation line agreed in 1945. South Korea, the US, Britain and their allies fought back.\nEstimates vary, but at least two million Korean civilians, up to 1.5 million communist troops, and around 30,000 US, 400,000 South Korean and 1,000 UK troops are believed to have died.\nChina, Japan and the Soviet Union had all jostled for influence over the Korean peninsula for years. Japan went on to formally colonise Korea in 1910 and ruled it until the end of World War II.\nJust seven days before Japan's surrender at the end of that war, the Soviet Union took advantage of the changing fortunes and entered Korea. The USSR and the US later agreed to divide Korea at the 38th parallel, with the USSR in charge north of this line, and the US given jurisdiction over the south.\nThe Soviet Union established a communist dictatorship in the North under the leadership of Kim Il-sung, a former guerrilla leader.\nIn the early hours of 25 June 1950 North Korea launched a surprise attack across the 38th parallel. US troops were hurriedly sent from bases in Japan. But they and their South Korean allies fared badly in the initial confrontation with the North.\nThe Security Council passed a resolution which called on all members to help repel the invasion. Fourteen UN nations agreed to help, committing a force of some 300,000.\nWhile the North's army was buffeting the Busan enclave, the head of UN forces in the conflict, US General Douglas MacArthur, prepared to reverse the course of the war. On 15 September 1950 he launched a daring, sea-borne assault on the western port city of Inchon (now Incheon).\nThe goal of the Inchon landing, deep behind enemy lines, was to cut the North Koreans' supplies. The plan was risky because it meant braving unpredictable tides - only to face a fortified island in the harbour and a city that was occupied by strong North Korean forces. After preparatory bombardment, two battalions entered Inchon, beating down resistance but meeting no counter-attack.\nOn 15 October MacArthur was reportedly confident of success in the offensive. However, just 10 days later, the Chinese army, which had been secretly massing at the border, made its first attack on the allies. As Chinese troops unleashed a renewed offensive, the allies were forced to withdraw south of Seoul in January 1951. Here refugees cross a bridge in Pyongyang as they head south.\nIn the relatively open terrain of South Korea, the UN troops were better able to defend themselves. After a few more months of fighting, the front eventually stabilised in the area of the 38th parallel.\nPresident Truman announced that the UN was now willing to sign a ceasefire. Truce talks began on 10 July 1951 but it was agreed that hostilities would continue. However, it took two years to agree the armistice terms which stalled continually, on issues such as the repatriation of prisoners, and the positioning of the armistice line.\nIn January 1953, Dwight Eisenhower, who had been openly critical of the war, succeeded Truman as US president. Eisenhower informed the communist troops that he was willing to use nuclear weapons to end the conflict.\nOn 27 July 1953, an armistice was eventually signed, with the front line accepted as the new border between the two sides.\nOperation Big Switch followed, when thousands of prisoners on either side were returned. The armistice was only ever intended to be temporary. The document said it was aimed at a ceasefire \"until a final peaceful settlement is achieved\".\nBut that settlement never came. The Geneva Agreements in 1954, at which the Korean peninsula was discussed, failed to resolve the issue, and the Korean border has remained ever since.", "The Korean War: Years of Stalemate\nYears of Stalemate\nFurther Readings\nIntroduction\nThe Korean War was the first major armed clash between Free World and Communist forces, as the so-called Cold War turned hot. The half-century that now separates us from that conflict, however, has dimmed our collective memory. Many Korean War veterans have considered themselves forgotten, their place in history sandwiched between the sheer size of World War II and the fierce controversies of the Vietnam War. The recently built Korean War Veterans Memorial on the National Mall and the upcoming fiftieth anniversary commemorative events should now provide well-deserved recognition. I hope that this series of brochures on the campaigns of the Korean War will have a similar effect.\nThe Korean War still has much to teach us: about military preparedness, about global strategy, about combined operations in a military alliance facing blatant aggression, and about the courage and perseverance of the individual soldier. The modern world still lives with the consequences of a divided Korea and with a militarily strong, economically weak, and unpredictable North Korea. The Korean War was waged on land, on sea, and in the air over and near the Korean peninsula. It lasted three years, the first of which was a seesaw struggle for control of the peninsula, followed by two years of positional warfare as a backdrop to extended cease-fire negotiations. The following essay is one of five accessible and readable studies designed to enhance understanding of the U.S. Army's role and achievements in the Korean conflict.\nDuring the next several years the Army will be involved in many fiftieth anniversary activities, from public ceremonies and staff rides to professional development discussions and formal classroom training. The commemoration will be supported by the publication of various materials to help educate Americans about the war. These works will provide great opportunities to learn about this important period in the Army's heritage of service to the nation.\nThis brochure was prepared in the U.S. Army Center of Military History by Andrew J. Birtle. I hope this absorbing account, with its list of further readings, will stimulate further study and reflection. A complete listing of the Center of Military History's available works on the Korean War is included in the Center's online catalog.\nJOHN S. BROWN\nYears of Stalemate\nJuly 1951-July 1953\nThe first twelve months of the Korean War (June 1950-June 1951) had been characterized by dramatic changes in the battlefront as the opposing armies swept up and down the length of the Korean peninsula. This war of movement virtually ended on 10 July 1951, when representatives from the warring parties met in a restaurant in Kaesong to negotiate an end to the war. Although the two principal parties to the conflict-the governments of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) and the Republic of Korea (ROK or South Korea)-were more than willing to fight to the death, their chief patrons-the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union on the one hand and the United States and the United Nations (UN) on the other-were not. Twelve months of bloody fighting had convinced Mao Tse-tung, Joseph V. Stalin, and Harry S. Truman that it was no longer in their respective national interests to try and win a total victory in Korea. The costs in terms of men and materiel were too great, as were the risks that the conflict might escalate into a wider, global conflagration. Consequently, they compelled their respective Korean allies to accept truce talks as the price for their continued military, economic, and diplomatic support.\nFor the soldiers at the front and the people back home, the commencement of negotiations raised hopes that the war would soon be over, but such was not to be. While desirous of peace, neither side was willing to sacrifice core principles or objectives to obtain it. The task of finding common ground was further complicated by the Communists' philosophy of regarding negotiations as war by other means. This tactic significantly impeded the negotiations. And while the negotiators engaged in verbal combat around the conference table, the soldiers in the field continued to fight and die-for two more long and tortuous years.\nStrategic Setting\nThe advent of truce talks in July 1951 came on the heels of a successful United Nations offensive that had not only cleared most of South Korea of Communist forces but captured limited areas of North Korea as well. By 10 July the front lines ran obliquely across the Korean peninsula from the northeast to the southwest. In the east, UN lines anchored on the Sea of Japan about midway between the North Korean towns of Kosong and Kansong. From there the front fell south to the \"Punchbowl,\" a large circular valley rimmed by jagged mountains,\n3\n4\nbefore heading west across the razor-backed Taebaek Mountains to the \"Iron Triangle,\" a strategic communications hub around the towns of P'yonggang, Kumhwa, and Ch'orwon. From there the front dropped south once again through the Imjin River Valley until it reached the Yellow Sea at a point roughly twenty miles north of Seoul. Manning this line were over 554,000 UN soldiers-approximately 253,000 Americans (including the 1st Marine, 1st Cavalry, and 2d, 3d, 7th, 24th, and 25th Infantry Divisions), 273,000 South Koreans, and 28,000 men drawn from eighteen countries-Australia, Belgium, Canada, Colombia, Ethiopia, France, Great Britain, Greece, India, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, the Philippines, Sweden, Thailand, Turkey, and the Union of South Africa. Facing them were over 459,000 Communist troops, more than half of whom were soldiers of the Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA).\nSince the political leaders of the two warring coalitions had signaled their willingness to halt the fighting, the generals on both sides proved reluctant to engage in any major new undertakings. For the most part the commander of UN forces, General Matthew B. Ridgway, and his principal subordinate, General James A. Van Fleet, Eighth Army commander, confined their activities to strengthening UN positions and conducting limited probes of enemy lines. Their Communist counterparts adopted a similar policy. Consequently, the two sides exchanged artillery fire, conducted raids and patrols, and occasionally attempted to seize a mountain peak here or there, but for the most part the battle lines remained relatively static.\nSo too, unfortunately, did the positions of the truce negotiators, who were unable to make any progress on the peace front during the summer. The chief stumbling block was the inability of the parties to agree on a cease-fire line. The Communists argued for a return to the status quo ante- that is, that the two armies withdraw their forces to the prewar boundary line along the 38th Parallel. This was not an unreasonable position, since the combat lines were not all that far from the 38th Parallel. The UN, however, refused to agree to a restoration of the old border on the grounds that it was indefensible in many places. Current UN positions were much more defensible, and a more defensible border was clearly advantageous, not only in protecting South Korea in the present conflict, but in discouraging future Communist aggression. Consequently, UN negotiators argued in favor of adopting the current line of contact as the cease-fire line.\nA deadlock immediately ensued, with the Communists employing every conceivable artifice to undermine the UN position. They argued over every point, large and small, procedural as well as sub-\n5\nstantive, in an effort to wear down the UN negotiators. They hurled insults and engaged in hours of empty posturing. They released scurrilous propaganda, staged provocative incidents, and exploited any misstep or accident on the part of the UN to their full advantage, all in an effort to embarrass, discredit, and entrap the UN negotiators. While more restrained in their behavior, the American-led negotiating team refused to be intimidated by Communist negotiating tactics. When the two sides finally tired of trading accusations, they would sit and stare at each other over the conference table in absolute\n \nsilence for hours on end. Finally, on 23 August the Communists broke off the negotiations.\nOperations\nThe UN Summer/Fall Offensive, July-November 1951\nIf the Chinese and North Koreans had hoped to intimidate the United Nations into making concessions, they were very much mistaken. Rather than rewarding Communist misbehavior by beseeching the\n7\nenemy to return to the bargaining table, the United Nations Command decided to chastise him by launching a limited offensive in the late summer and early fall of 1951. Militarily, the offensive was justified on the grounds that it would allow UN forces to shorten and straighten sections of their lines, acquire better defensive terrain, and deny the enemy key vantage points from which he could observe and target UN positions. But the offensive also had a political point to make-that the United Nations would not be stampeded into accepting Communist proposals.\nMuch of the heaviest fighting revolved around the Punchbowl, which served as an important Communist staging area. The United Nations first initiated limited operations to seize the high ground surrounding the Punchbowl in late July. By mid-August the battle had begun to intensify around three interconnected hills southwest of the Punchbowl that would soon be known collectively as Bloody Ridge. Three days after the Communists walked out of the Kaesong talks, the ROK 7th Division captured Bloody Ridge after a week of heavy combat. It was a short-lived triumph, for the following day the North Koreans recaptured the mountain in a fierce counterattack. Determined to wrest the heavily fortified bastion from the Communists, Van Fleet ordered the U.S. 2d Infantry Division's 9th Infantry to scale the ridge. The battle raged for ten days, as the North Koreans repulsed one assault after another by the increasingly exhausted and depleted 9th Infantry. Finally, on 5 September the North Koreans abandoned the ridge after UN forces succeeded in outflanking it. Approximately 15,000 North Koreans and 2,700 UN soldiers were killed, wounded, or captured on Bloody Ridge's slopes.\nAfter withdrawing from Bloody Ridge, the North Koreans set up new positions just 1,500 yards away on a seven-mile-long hill mass that was soon to earn the name Heartbreak Ridge. If anything, the enemy's defenses were even more formidable here than on Bloody Ridge. Unfortunately, the 2d Division's acting commander, Brig. Gen. Thomas de Shazo, and his immediate superior, Maj. Gen. Clovis E. Beyers, the X Corps commander, seriously underestimated the strength of the North Korean position. They ordered a lone infantry regiment-the 23d Infantry and its attached French battalion-to make what would prove to be an ill-conceived assault straight up Heartbreak's heavily fortified slopes.\nThe attack began on 13 September and quickly deteriorated into a familiar pattern. First, American aircraft, tanks, and artillery would pummel the ridge for hours on end, turning the already barren hillside into a cratered moonscape. Next, the 23d's infantrymen would clamber up the mountain's rocky slopes, taking out one enemy bunker after\n8\nBloody Ridge (National Archives)\nanother by direct assault. Those who survived to reach the crest arrived exhausted and low on ammunition. Then the inevitable counterattack would come-wave after wave of North Koreans determined to recapture the lost ground at any cost. Many of these counterattacks were conducted at night by fresh troops that the enemy was able to bring up under the shelter of neighboring hills. Battles begun by bomb, bullet, and shell were inevitably finished by grenade, trench knife, and fist as formal military engagements degenerated into desperate hand-to-hand brawls. Sometimes dawn broke to reveal the defenders still holding the mountaintop. Just as often, however, the enemy was able to overwhelm the tired and depleted Americans, tumbling the survivors back down the hill where, after a brief pause to rest, replenish ammunition, and absorb replacements, they would climb back up the ridge to repeat the process all over again.\nAnd so the battle progressed-crawling up the hill, stumbling back down it, and crawling up once again-day after day, night after night, for two weeks. Because of the constricting terrain and the narrow confines of the objectives, units were committed piecemeal to the fray, one platoon, company, or battalion at a time. Once a particular\n9\nelement had been so ground up that it could no longer stand the strain, a fresh unit would take its place, and then another and another until the 23d Infantry as a whole was fairly well shattered. Finally, on 27 September the 2d Division's new commander, Maj. Gen. Robert N. Young, called a halt to the \"fiasco\" on Heartbreak Ridge as American planners reconsidered their strategy.\nThe 23d Infantry's failure to capture Heartbreak Ridge had not come from a lack of valor. It took extreme bravery to advance up Heartbreak's unforgiving slopes under intense enemy fire. And when things did not go right, it took equal courage to take a stand so that others might live. One person who took such a stand was Pfc. Herbert K. Pililaau, a quiet, six-foot-tall Hawaiian. Pililaau's outfit, Company C, 1st Battalion, 23d Infantry, was clinging to a small stretch of Heartbreak's ridge top on the night of 17 September when a battalion of North Koreans came charging out of the darkness from an adjacent hill. The company fought valiantly, but a shortage of ammunition soon compelled it to retreat down the mountain. After receiving reinforcements and a new issue of ammunition, the Americans advanced back up the ridge. North Korean fire broke the first assault, but Company C soon regrouped and advanced again, recapturing the crest by dawn. The pendulum of war soon reversed its course, however, and by midday the men of Company C were once again fighting for their lives as the North Korean battalion surged back up the hill. Running low on ammunition, the company commander called retreat. Pililaau volunteered to remain behind to cover the withdrawal. As his buddies scrambled to safety, Pililaau wielded his Browning automatic rifle with great effect until he too had run out of ammunition. He then started throwing grenades, and when those were exhausted, he pulled out his trench knife and fought on until a group of North Korean soldiers shot and bayoneted him while his comrades looked on helplessly from a sheltered position 200 yards down the slope. Determined to avenge his death, the men of Company C swept back up the mountain. When they recaptured the position, they found over forty dead North Koreans clustered around Pililaau's corpse.\nPililaau's sacrifice had saved his comrades, and for that a grateful nation posthumously awarded him the Medal of Honor. Yet his valiant act could not alter the tactical situation on the hill. As long as the North Koreans could continue to reinforce and resupply their garrison on the ridge, it would be nearly impossible for the Americans to take the mountain. After belatedly recognizing this fact, the 2d Division crafted a new plan that called for a full division assault on the valleys and hills adjacent to Heartbreak to cut the ridge off from further reinforcement. Spearheading this new offensive would be the division's\n10\nHeartbreak Ridge (National Archives)\n72d Tank Battalion, whose mission was to push up the Mundung-ni Valley west of Heartbreak to destroy enemy supply dumps in the vicinity of the town of Mundung-ni.\nIt was a bold plan, but one that could not be accomplished until a way had been found to get the 72d's M4A3E8 Sherman tanks into the valley. The only existing road was little more than a track that could not bear the weight of the Shermans. Moreover, it was heavily mined and blocked by a six-foot-high rock barrier built by the North Koreans. Using nothing but shovels and explosives, the men of the 2d Division's 2d Engineer Combat Battalion braved enemy fire to clear these obstacles and build an improved roadway. While they worked, the division's three infantry regiments-9th, 38th, and 23d-launched coordinated assaults on Heartbreak Ridge and the adjacent hills. By 10 October everything was ready for the big raid. The sudden onslaught of a battalion of tanks racing up the valley took the enemy by surprise. By coincidence, the thrust came just when the Chinese 204th Division was moving up to relieve the North Koreans on Heartbreak. Caught in the open, the Chinese division suffered heavy casualties from the American tanks. For the next five days the Shermans roared up and down the Mundung-ni Valley, over-\n11\nrunning supply dumps, mauling troop concentrations, and destroying approximately 350 bunkers on Heartbreak and in the surrounding hills and valleys. A smaller tank-infantry team scoured the Sat'ae-ri Valley east of the ridge, thereby completing the encirclement and eliminating any hope of reinforcement for the beleaguered North Koreans on Heartbreak.\nThe armored thrusts turned the tide of the battle, but plenty of hard fighting remained for the infantry before French soldiers captured the last Communist bastion on the ridge on 13 October. After a month of nearly continuous combat, the 2d Division was finally king of the hill. All totaled the division suffered over 3,700 casualties, nearly half of whom came from the 23d Infantry and its attached French battalion. Conversely, the Americans estimated that they had inflicted 25,000 casualties on the enemy in and around Heartbreak Ridge.\nWhile the Punchbowl was the scene of some of the hardest fighting during the UN's summer-fall offensive, the United Nations was not idle elsewhere. Along the east coast South Korean troops succeeded in pushing north to the outskirts of Kosong, while in the west five UN divisions (ROK 1st, British 1st Commonwealth, and U.S. 1st Cavalry and 3d and 25th Infantry) advanced approximately four miles along a forty-mile-wide front from Kaesong to Ch'orwon,\n12\nthereby gaining greater security for the vital Seoul-Ch'orwon railway. By late October UN operations had succeeded in securing most of the commanding ground along the length of the front. The price of these gains had not been cheap-approximately 40,000 UN casualties. Yet the enemy had suffered even more, and the determination demonstrated by the United Nations Command in taking the offensive was probably a key factor in persuading the Communists to return to the bargaining table.\nRenewed Talks, Diminished Fighting: The Second Korean Winter, November 1951-April 1952\nOn 25 October UN and Communist negotiators reconvened the truce talks at a new location, a collection of tents in the tiny village of P'anmunjom, six miles east of Kaesong. After some sparring, the Communists dropped their demand for a return to the 38th Parallel and accepted the UN position that the cease-fire line be drawn along the current line of contact. In exchange, the UN bowed to Communist demands that a truce line be agreed upon prior to the resolution of other outstanding issues. To avoid the danger that the Communists might stop negotiating once a line had been established, the Americans insisted that both sides be permitted to continue fighting until all outstanding questions had been resolved. The two sides also agreed that the proposed armistice line would only be valid for thirty days. Should a final truce not be arrived at within that time, then the agreement over the line of demarcation would be invalid. Still, the willingness of the United Nations to accept the current line of contact as the final line of demarcation between the two Koreas represented a significant windfall for the Communists, for it served as a fairly strong indicator that the United Nations had no desire to press deeper into North Korea.\nThe termination of the UN offensive and the resumption of truce talks in late October had a noticeably calming effect on the front. On 12 November Ridgway instructed Van Fleet to assume an \"active defense.\" Thereafter, offensive operations were to be limited to those actions necessary to strengthen UN lines. When the armistice negotiators formally embraced the line of demarcation accords on 27 November, Van Fleet went one step further by prohibiting his subordinates from initiating any offensive operations other than counterattacks to recapture ground lost to an enemy attack. The Communists likewise refrained from undertaking major actions, and the resulting lull gave the United Nations the opportunity to accomplish a major change in battlefield lineup.\n13\nBetween December 1951 and February 1952 the United States withdrew the 1st Cavalry and 24th Infantry Divisions from Korea and replaced them with two National Guard formations, the 40th and 45th Infantry Divisions. Ridgway had been reluctant to make the swap, fearing that the newly trained divisions would not be as effective as the two veteran units they were replacing. In fact, the UN commander had recommended that the two Guard divisions be kept at their staging areas in Japan as a source of individual replacements for the divisions already in Korea. But Army Chief of Staff General J. Lawton\n \n \n14\nCollins insisted that the National Guard divisions deploy to Korea intact. Not to do so, Collins maintained, would trigger a rancorous public debate over the Guard's role and fuel allegations that the Army did not trust its own mobilization training system. Fortunately the changeover went smoothly, and soon the two new divisions-which largely consisted of draftees led by a cadre of National Guardsmen-were performing just as well as the Regular units they had replaced, units that by this time in the war likewise contained large numbers of replacements and draftees.\n15\nP'anmunjom truce tents (National Archives)\nWhile the Army realigned its order of battle, the P'anmunjom negotiators struggled to finalize the truce agreement in time to meet the thirty-day deadline. When they failed in this, they agreed to extend the deadline by an additional two weeks, but this deadline also came and went without noticeable progress. By this point, however, winter had fully set in, making a renewal of major operations problematic at best. Raids and patrols continued, if for no other reason than to prevent inaction from dulling the troops' combat edge, but overall the level of combat was minimal. The decline in activity was accompanied by a precipitous drop in UN casualties, from about 20,000 during the month of October to under 3,000 per month between December 1951 and April 1952. All in all, the commanders on both sides seemed content to sit out the winter and let the negotiators do the heavy fighting. And fight they did.\nAlthough a number of issues separated UN and Communist negotiators, the chief stumbling block to the arrangement of a final armistice during the winter of 1951-1952 revolved around the exchange of prisoners. At first glance, there appeared to be nothing to argue about, since the Geneva Conventions of 1949, by which both sides had pledged to abide, called for the immediate and complete exchange of all prisoners upon the conclusion of hostilities. This seemingly straightforward principle, however, disturbed many\n16\nWinter in Korea (National Archives)\nAmericans. To begin with, UN prisoner-of-war (POW) camps held over 40,000 South Koreans, many of whom had been impressed into Communist service and who had no desire to be sent north upon the conclusion of the war. Moreover, a considerable number of North Korean and Chinese prisoners had also expressed a desire not to return to their homelands. This was particularly true of the Chinese POWs, some of whom were anti-Communists whom the Communists had forcibly inducted into their army. Many Americans recoiled at the notion of returning such men into the hands of their oppressors, and for several months American policymakers wrestled with the POW question.\nAcquiescing to a total exchange of prisoners as called for by the Geneva Conventions would quickly settle the issue and pave the way for a final agreement ending the hostilities. On the other hand, the desire of enemy soldiers not to return to their homelands was clearly a useful propaganda weapon for the West in the wider Cold War.\n17\nEstablishing the right of prisoners to chose their own destinies might also pay significant dividends in any future war with the Communists, as many enemy soldiers might desert or surrender if they knew that they would not be forced to return to their Communist-controlled homelands afterward. But no one suffered any delusion about how the Communists would react to the voluntary repatriation concept. The newly established governments of North Korea and the People's Republic of China were extremely sensitive to anything that even remotely challenged their legitimacy. This was especially true of the Communist Chinese government in Peking, which would undoubtedly recoil at the suggestion that some of its former soldiers be turned over to its mortal enemy, the rival Chinese Nationalist government on Taiwan. Clearly then, any attempt to assert voluntary repatriation would complicate the truce negotiations and prolong the war.\nUltimately, it was the moral aspect of the question which decided President Harry S. Truman. In the name of allied amity, President Truman had dutifully repatriated Soviet citizens who had fallen into American hands after World War II. Much to his dismay, the Soviet government had mistreated, imprisoned, or even killed many of the returnees. Truman had no desire to repeat this heart-wrenching experience if he could avoid it. In a war that was being fought in the name of national self-determination and human liberty, he found it unconscionable to forcibly return people to totalitarian societies. Consequently, after much soul searching, Truman made voluntary repatriation a central tenet of America's negotiating position in February 1952.\nTruman's decision met with cries of anger from the Communists, who accused the United States of violating the Geneva accords, despite the fact that they themselves routinely violated that treaty's most basic precepts regarding the treatment of prisoners. Undaunted, the United Nations proceeded to lay the groundwork for allowing anti-Communist prisoners to avoid involuntary repatriation. To begin with, it reclassified the more than 40,000 South Koreans being held in UN compounds as \"civilian internees\" rather than prisoners of war, a categorization that would allow them to be eventually released in the South. Next, the United Nations began to screen all of its prisoners to identify those who wished to return to their homelands after the war and those who did not. The screening process aggravated tensions inside the POW camps, which were already the site of frequent altercations between pro- and anti-Communist prisoners. Guided by Communist agents who had deliberately allowed themselves to be cap-\n18\nRepatriation screening of Communist POWs. 1952 (National Archives)\ntured in order to infiltrate the camps, pro-Communist prisoners staged a series of increasingly violent uprisings during the spring of 1952, much to the embarrassment of UN officials. Nevertheless, the screenings continued, and in April 1952 UN officials revealed the results-only 70,000 of the 170,000 civil and military prisoners then held by the United Nations wished to return to North Korea and the People's Republic of China.\nThe results of the initial survey stunned Communist and UN officials alike. While the Communists were willing to accept the reclassification of South Koreans who had served in their ranks as civilian internees, the sheer number of POWs who purportedly wished to avoid repatriation represented an affront that they dared not ignore. The report thus drove the Communists to dig in their heels even further on the repatriation question, and they refused to accept anything short of a complete return of all of their nationals to their control. Conversely, the survey also served to lock the United Nations into its position. Having asserted the principle of voluntary repatriation and demonstrated that a large number of individuals wished to take advantage of it, any retreat would represent a major political and moral defeat for the UN. With neither side willing to compromise, the armistice talks became hopelessly deadlocked over the POW question.\n19\nTo gain additional leverage on this issue, Communist authorities instructed their agents in the POW camps to step up their disruptive activities. Armed with a startling array of homemade weapons, pro-Communist elements deftly employed intimidation and violence to gain control of the interiors of many POW camps. Then, in early May, Communist prisoners scored a stunning coup when they succeeded in capturing Brig. Gen. Francis T. Dodd, the commandant of the UN's main POW camp on Koje-do. To achieve his release, American authorities pledged to suspend additional repatriation screenings in a poorly worded communique that seemed to substantiate Communist allegations that the UN had heretofore been mistreating prisoners. The episode humiliated the United Nations Command and handed Communist negotiators and propagandists alike a new weapon that they wielded with great zeal, both within the negotiating tent and on the larger stage of world public opinion.\nA Return to War: The Summer/Fall Campaigns, May-November 1952\nAs positions at the negotiating table hardened, spring thaws offered the prospect for renewed military operations. Neither side, however, showed much enthusiasm for such undertakings. Since the tempo of the war had first begun to ebb after the initiation of truce talks in July 1951, both sides had expended enormous amounts of effort to solidify their frontline positions. The United Nations' main line consisted of a nearly unbroken line of bunkers, trenches, and artillery emplacements that stretched for over one hundred fifty miles from one coast of Korea to the other. Communist defenses were even more impressive. Because of their overall inferiority in firepower, the Chinese and North Koreans had taken extraordinary efforts to harden their positions. They burrowed deep into the sides of mountains, creating intricate warrens of tunnels and caves capable of housing entire battalions of infantry. Communist bunkers were often more solidly built than UN emplacements and were usually impervious to anything but a direct hit by bomb or shell. They were also generally better sited than UN bunkers and better concealed to avoid the prying eyes of hostile aviators, something UN soldiers did not have to worry about. Finally, the Communists built in greater depth than their adversaries, not just below ground, but on top of it, as they typically extended their fortifications up to twenty miles behind their front line. These emplacements were manned by over 900,000 men, approximately 200,000 more soldiers than the United Nations had under arms in Korea. Over the winter the Communists had also more than doubled the number of artillery pieces they had on the front lines, while the static nature of the war had like-\n20\nwise permitted them to improve their overall supply situation, notwithstanding the best efforts of UN aviators to interdict Communist supply lines. Thus, by the spring of 1952 the UN faced a well-trained, battle-hardened, robust opponent who could not be easily defeated.\nSince both sides had already indicated their willingness to settle the conflict roughly along the current front lines, neither side had any incentive to risk a major offensive against the other. This was especially true for the UN commanders, who unlike their totalitarian adversaries always had to keep public opinion foremost in their minds. Too many friendly casualties could undermine support for the war at home and force the United Nations to acquiesce to Communist demands at the negotiating table. Consequently, General Mark W. Clark, who replaced General Ridgway as overall UN commander in mid-1952, kept UN offensive operations to a minimum to avoid unnecessary losses. The Communists, for whom human casualties were of less consequence, likewise eschewed the big offensive in the belief that they could just as easily erode the UN's will to continue the struggle through the daily grind of trench warfare. Raids, patrols, bombardments, and limited objective attacks thus remained the order of the day, as both sides contented themselves with making light jabs at their adversary rather than attempting to land a knockout blow.\nThe absence of grand offensives and sweeping movements notwithstanding, service at the front was just as dangerous in 1952 as it had been during the more fluid stages of the war. By June Communist guns were hurling over 6,800 shells a day at UN positions. During particularly hotly contested actions, Communist gunners occasionally fired as many as 24,000 rounds a day. UN artillerists repaid the compliment five-, ten-, and sometimes even twenty-fold, and still not a day went by when Communist and UN soldiers did not clash somewhere along the front line.\nOne of the most common missions performed by UN infantrymen was the small raid for the purpose of capturing enemy prisoners for interrogation. These operations were usually launched at night and were extremely dangerous-indeed, relatively few succeeded in capturing any prisoners. At this level, the war was a very personal affair-it was man against man, rifle against grenade, fist against knife. Small-unit fights required a great deal of courage, and sometimes the bravest men were those who did not carry a rifle at all-the medics. One such man was Sgt. David B. Bleak, a medical aidman attached to the 40th Infantry Division's 223d Infantry.\nOn 14 June 1952, Sergeant Bleak volunteered to accompany a patrol that was going out to capture enemy prisoners from a neighbor-\n21\ning hill. As the patrol approached its objective the enemy detected it and laid down an intense stream of automatic weapons and small-arms fire. After attending to several soldiers cut down in the initial barrage, Sergeant Bleak resumed advancing up the hill with the rest of the patrol. As he neared the crest, he came under fire from a small group of entrenched enemy soldiers. Without hesitation, he leapt into the trench and charged his assailants, killing two with his bare hands and a third with his trench knife. As he emerged from the emplacement, he saw a concussion grenade fall in front of a comrade and used his body to shield the man from the blast. He then proceeded to administer to the wounded, even after being struck by an enemy bullet. When the order came to pull back, Sergeant Bleak ignored his wound and picked up an incapacitated companion. As he moved down the hill with his heavy burden, two enemy soldiers bore down on him with fixed bayonets. Undaunted, Bleak grabbed his two assailants and smacked their heads together before resuming his way back down the mountain carrying his wounded comrade.\nSergeant Bleak's actions were so distinctive that June day that they won him one of the 131 Medals of Honor awarded during the Korean War. Yet a day did not go by in which some American soldier did not risk his life for his comrades on some nameless Korean hillside. This was particularly true for those soldiers assigned to the outpost line-a string of strongpoints several thousand yards to the front of the UN's main battle positions. The typical outpost consisted of a number of bunkers and interconnecting trenches ringed with barbed wire and mines perched precariously on the top of a barren, rocky hill. As the UN's most forward positions, the outposts acted as patrol bases and early warning stations. They also served as fortified outworks that controlled key terrain features overlooking UN lines. As such, they represented the UN's first line of defense and were accorded great importance by UN and Communist commanders alike. Not surprisingly, the outposts were the scenes of some of the most vicious fighting of the war. While most of these actions were on a small scale, some of the biggest battles of 1952 revolved around efforts either to establish, defend, or retake these outposts.\nOperation Counter provides one example of some of the larger outpost battles. During Counter the 45th Infantry Division sought to establish twelve new outposts on high ground overlooking the division's main battle line outside of Ch'orwon. The division easily seized eleven of its twelve objectives during a night assault on 6 June, with the twelfth falling into American hands six days later during a second-phase attack. But if capturing the new outposts had been relatively\n22\neasy, holding them would not be. The Chinese reacted violently to the American initiative, and by the end of June the 45th Division had repulsed more than twenty Communist counterattacks on the newly established positions. Still the enemy came, and in mid-July his persistence paid off when Chinese troops succeeded in pushing elements of the 2d Infantry Division off one of these outposts-a key mountain nine miles west of Ch'orwon known as Old Baldy. Two companies from the 23d Infantry recaptured the hill after bitter hand-to-hand fighting on 1 August, but in mid-September the enemy again seized the hill, only to lose it several days later to a determined counterattack made by the 38th Infantry and a platoon of tanks.\nThe savage, seesaw struggle atop Old Baldy was repeated in one way or another on countless mountain peaks and ridges during 1952, as the two sides struggled to gain ascendancy over the rugged no-man's-land that separated their respective battle lines. The heavy casualties incurred in these bitter outpost battles discouraged General Clark from authorizing any new offensives after Operation Counter. This defensive-mindedness rankled General Van Fleet, who believed that the high casualties the United Nations was experiencing were due in part to the UN's allowing the enemy to launch attacks when and where he wished. Van Fleet therefore pressed Clark to authorize additional limited offensives that would allow UN forces to regain the initiative from the enemy and compel him to fight on American terms.\nOne potential candidate for such an operation was Triangle Hill, a mountain three miles north of Kumhwa. The United Nations was suffering heavy casualties in the area on account of the proximity of the opposing battle lines, which in some cases lay only 200 yards apart. Seizing Triangle Hill and its neighbor-Sniper Ridge-would force the enemy to fall back over 1,200 yards to the next viable defensive position, thereby strengthening UN dominance over the sector and reducing friendly casualties. Finally, an offensive would also serve a political purpose. On 8 October UN negotiators had walked out of the armistice talks out of frustration over being unable to reach an accommodation with the enemy on the prisoner issue. With the talks now officially recessed and no hope in sight for a resolution of the conflict, a demonstration of UN resolve seemed in order. Van Fleet was confident that, given sufficient support, two infantry battalions would be able to capture the Triangle Hill complex in just five days with about 200 casualties. Swayed by Van Fleet's arguments, Clark agreed to authorize the attack.\nOn 14 October, 280 artillery pieces and over 200 fighter-bomber sorties began pummeling Triangle Hill. Unfortunately, Communist\n23\nSoldiers of Battery C, 936th Field Artillery Battalion, fire at Communist positions near Ch'orwon: below, artillery may have dominated the battlefield, but ultimately it was infantry that captured and held ground. Here, Company F, 9th Infantry, advances in central Korea. (National Archives)\n24\ndefenses proved tougher than expected, and reinforcements had to be funneled in-first one battalion, then another, and another. When the smoke finally cleared several weeks later, two UN infantry divisions (the U.S. 7th and the ROK 2d) had suffered over 9,000 casualties in an ultimately futile attempt to capture Triangle Hill. Estimates of Chinese casualties exceeded 19,000 men, but the Communists had the manpower for such fights and did not flinch from flinging men into the breach to hold key terrain. The United Nations did not have such resources.\nThe Third Korean Winter, December 1952-April 1953\nBy the time the battles for Triangle Hill and Sniper Ridge had wound down in mid-November, both sides had begun the now familiar pattern of settling down for yet another winter in Korea. As temperatures dropped so too did the pace of combat. Still, shelling, sniping, and raiding remained habitual features of life at the front, as did patrol and guard duty, so that even the quietest of days usually posed some peril. For most frontline soldiers, home was a \"hootchie,\" the name soldiers gave to the log and earth bunkers that were the mainstay of UN defenses in Korea. Built for the most part into the sides of hills, the typical hootchie housed from two to seven men. Each bunker was usually equipped with a single automatic weapon which could be fired at the enemy through above-ground firing ports. Inside, candles and lamps shed their pale light on the straw-matted floors and pinup-bedecked walls of the cramped, five-by-eight-foot areas that comprised a hootchie's living quarters. Oil, charcoal, or wood stoves provided heat, bunk beds made of logs and telephone wire offered respite, and boxes of extra ammunition and hand grenades gave comfort to the men for whom these humble abodes were home. However Spartan, the hootchie provided welcome shelter from the daily storms of bomb, bullet, rain, and snow that raged outside.\nKeeping up morale is difficult in any combat situation, but when the fighting devolves into a prolonged stalemate, it is particularly hard to maintain. Consequently, the Army developed an extensive system of personnel and unit rotations to combat soldier burnout and fatigue. Rotation began in a modest way at the small-unit level, where many companies established warm-up bunkers just behind the front lines. Every three or four days a soldier could expect a short respite of a few hours' duration back at the warm-up bunker. There he would be able to spend his time as he saw fit, reading, writing letters, washing clothes, or getting a haircut. When operations were not pressing, many companies also arranged to send a dozen or so men at a time somewhat farther to\n25\nA soldier from the 180th Infantry mans a machine gun from inside a bunker; below, living quarters inside a \"hootchie.\" (National Archives)\n26\nthe rear for a 24-hour rest period. The ultimate rest and recuperation (R and R) program, however, was a five-day holiday in Japan that Eighth Army tried to arrange for every soldier on an annual basis.\nEighth Army complemented these individual R and R activities with an extensive unit rotation program. Companies regularly rotated their constituent platoons between frontline and reserve duty. Similarly, battalions rotated their companies, regiments rotated their battalions, divisions rotated their regiments, and corps rotated their divisions, all to ensure that combat units periodically had a chance to rest, recoup, retrain, and absorb replacements. Last but not least, the Army maintained a massive individual replacement program in an effort to equalize as much as possible the burdens of military service during a limited war.\nIn September 1951 the Army had introduced a point system that tried to take into account the nature of individual service when determining eligibility for rotation home to the United States. According to this system, a soldier earned four points for every month he served in close combat, two points per month for rear-echelon duty in Korea, and one point for duty elsewhere in the Far East. Later, an additional category-divisional reserve status-was established at a rate of three points per month. The Army initially stated that enlisted men needed to earn forty-three points to be eligible for rotation back to the States, while officers required fifty-five points. In June 1952 the Army reduced these requirements to thirty-six points for enlisted men and thirty-seven points for officers. Earning the required number of points did not guarantee instant rotation; it only meant that the soldier in question was eligible to go home. Nevertheless, most soldiers did return home shortly after they met the requirement.\nThe point system was a marvelous palliative to flagging spirits, as it gave every soldier a definite goal in an otherwise indefinite and seemingly goalless war. Every man knew that typical frontline duty would enable him to return home after about a year of service in Korea. The system also helped boost the spirits of loved ones back home. This was of some consequence in helping to maintain public support for what was an increasingly unpopular war. Yet for all of its psychological and political benefits, the program was not without its costs. The constant turnover generated by the policy-approximately 20,000 to 30,000 men per month-was terribly inefficient from the vantage point of manpower administration and created tremendous strains on the Army's personnel and training systems. The program also hurt military proficiency by increasing personnel turbulence and by producing a continuous drain on skilled manpower. No sooner had\n27\na soldier become fully acclimatized to the physical, mental, and technical demands of Korean combat than he was rotated home, only to be replaced by a green recruit who lacked these skills. This was true not only of the enlisted men, who were rushed to the front with little or no field training, but of the officers as well. Indeed, by the fall of 1952 most junior officers with World War II combat experience had been rotated home and replaced by recent Reserve Officers' Training Corps graduates who had neither command nor combat experience. In a sinister twist, the system also reduced the effectiveness of many veteran soldiers, who became progressively more cautious and unreliable in combat as their eligibility for rotation neared. All of this meant that combat proficiency tended to stagnate in American units during the course of the war. This contrasted sharply with those Communist units that had avoided heavy casualties and managed to keep their morale intact. In these units battlefield acumen steadily increased as the war progressed thanks to the Communists' rather Draconian personnel policies. In the Red Army, victory or death were the only ways home.\nThe disparity in combat experience between the typical American and Communist combat unit was just one factor that contributed to the Eighth Army's heavy reliance on air and artillery support. Political sensitivity at home to the war's mounting body count, the stagnant, siege-like nature of the war, and a natural desire on the part of commanders to spare the lives of their men also contributed to the United Nations Command's preference for expending metal rather than blood. The Communists understood the terrible power of America's industrial might and attempted to compensate for it in a variety of ways. They steadily increased the size of their own artillery park until it exceeded that of the UN's, though they never managed to match the technical proficiency and ammunition reserves enjoyed by American artillerists. They dug deep, moved at night, and became masters of the arts of infiltration, deception, and surprise, all to minimize their vulnerability to the awesome destructive power wielded by the UN's air, land, and naval forces. Yet when push came to shove, the Communists also had the political will, the authoritarian control, and the manpower reserves to indulge in human wave attacks. American industrial might could and did obliterate many such attacks, but ultimately it was the infantry who held ground, and, when the Communists wanted a piece of terrain badly enough, they generally had the human wherewithal to take it.\nThe Final Summer, May-July 1953\nThe year 1953 found 768,000 UN soldiers facing over one million Communist troops along battle lines that had not materially changed\n28\nfor nearly two years. Spring thaws brought the customary increase in military activity, as Communist soldiers emerged from their winter dens to probe UN outposts. But the new year also brought with it some fresh developments on the political and diplomatic fronts-developments that would dramatically alter the annual rites of spring at the battlefront.\nIn January 1953 Dwight D. Eisenhower succeeded Harry S. Truman as President of the United States. Eisenhower's ascension to the presidency created an air of uncertainty among Communist leaders. Though he had campaigned on a platform promising to end the war, some Communists feared that Eisenhower, a former five-star general whose Republican Party contained some rabidly hawkish elements, might seek to end the war by winning it.\nCommunist uncertainty about the future increased in March, when one of North Korea's preeminent patrons, Soviet leader Joseph V. Stalin, died. Stalin's death triggered a succession struggle inside the Soviet Union. Preoccupied with their own political affairs, Kremlin leaders sought to minimize Soviet involvement in potentially destabilizing activities in the outside world. Chief among these was the war in Korea which, should it escalate, might lead to a direct conflict with the United States-a conflict which the inward-looking Soviets desperately wanted to avoid. Consequently, shortly after Stalin's death, Soviet officials began to signal a new interest in seeing the Korean conflict put to rest. These sentiments were echoed by Mao, who likewise found that the conflict in Korea was detracting from his ability to address pressing domestic issues inside the newly formed People's Republic of China.\nThe convergence of these events- the death of Stalin, the ascension of Eisenhower, and the growing desire on the part of all sides to find a way out of a seemingly unending and unprofitable conflict- created an environment conducive to a settlement of the Korean imbroglio. On 26 April UN and Communist negotiators returned to the truce tent at P'anmunjom after a six-month hiatus. This time Communist negotiators expressed a willingness to allow prisoners of war to decide whether or not they wanted to return to their homelands. This key concession opened the door to fruitful negotiations. As a goodwill measure, both sides quickly agreed to an immediate exchange of sick and wounded prisoners. The exchange (dubbed Operation Little Switch) resulted in the repatriation of 684 UN and 6,670 Communist personnel. The two parties then sat down to the laborious task of hammering out all of the many technical details pertaining to the actual implementation of a cease-fire and a final, full exchange of prisoners. Even at this late date, American negotiators found that their Communist counterparts were\n29\ndetermined to seek every possible advantage, and the talks dragged on, week after week, month after month.\nIn June South Korean President Syngman Rhee, who opposed any resolution of the conflict that left North Korea in Communist hands, jarred negotiators on both sides when he unilaterally released about 25,000 North Korean prisoners who had previously voiced a desire to remain in South Korea after the war. The release, which Rhee thinly disguised as a prison \"breakout,\" angered American and Communist negotiators alike and temporarily disrupted the negotiations. Yet the act also helped the North Korean government save face, for by allowing many anti-Communist North Koreans to \"escape,\" South Korea spared the North Korean government some of the embarrassment of having to admit that a large number of its captured soldiers did not want to return home. Thus, after some compulsory sputtering, the Communists chose to remain at the negotiating table, and the talks proceeded despite Rhee's attempts at disruption.\nOne might have expected that the Communists' newfound interest in seeking a cessation of hostilities would have translated to inaction on the battlefield, especially as prospects for a final settlement became progressively more imminent. Unfortunately, such was not the case. Rather, the Communists chose to increase the tempo of the war. In part the heightened activity reflected the natural desire of Communist generals to secure the best possible ground before the armistice went into effect. But the Communist offensives of the spring and summer of 1953 also served a broader political purpose. Ever mindful of the wider propaganda aspects of the struggle between East and West, the Communists were determined to end the war on a positive note. A final offensive that seized additional territory would give the Communists the opportunity to portray themselves as victors whose martial prowess had finally compelled the United Nations to sue for peace. Such claims would also allow Communist propagandists to paper over some of the more bitter pills the Communists would have to swallow in the upcoming accords.\nCommunist military activity had begun in early March with company-size probes of various UN frontline positions. By mid-month the Chinese had escalated to battalion-size attacks. After a failed attempt to capture a UN hill outpost nicknamed \"Little Gibraltar,\" the Chinese turned their gaze onto one of the central battlefields of the previous year-Old Baldy. On the evening of 23 March a Chinese battalion supported by mortar and artillery fire overran a Colombian company on Old Baldy. Repeated efforts by the 7th Infantry Division to regain the mountain failed to dislodge the Chinese, who were determined to\n31\n7th Infantry Division trenches, July 1953 (National Archives)\ncling to the pulverized rock regardless of the cost. Although the UN had killed or wounded two to three Chinese for every UN soldier lost on Old Baldy, General Maxwell D. Taylor, who had recently replaced Van Fleet as Eighth Army commander, decided that the mountain was not worth additional UN lives, and on 30 March he suspended UN efforts to retake the hill.\nApril brought a lull in Communist activities, but in May the front began to heat up as company and battalion attacks gave way to regimental-size assaults. Then in June, as the P'anmunjom negotiators sat down to draw up a final cease-fire line, the enemy launched a major, three-division offensive against the ROK II Corps in the vicinity of Kumsong. The Chinese succeeded in pushing the South Koreans back about three miles before the front restabilized, a significant advance after two years of stagnant trench warfare. Elsewhere UN forces large-\n31\nly succeeded in repulsing more limited Communist attacks, and by the end of June the intensity of the fighting had once again subsided. The Communists, however, were by no means done. After consolidating their gains and bringing up additional supplies and reinforcements, the Communists launched what was to be their biggest offensive operation since the spring of 1951.\nThe offensive began on 6 July. After hammering South Korean lines south of the Iron Triangle, the Chinese turned their attention to Pork Chop Hill, a company-size 7th Division outpost that over the past\n \n \n32\nyear had seen about as much fighting as its neighboring peak, Old Baldy. Following a ferocious artillery and mortar barrage, wave after wave of Chinese infantrymen stormed up Pork Chop Hill. Backed by some heavy artillery fire of their own, the beleaguered defenders valiantly held on. Both sides funneled in reinforcements, with the Chinese committing a new battalion for every fresh company the Americans sent in. By 11 July General Taylor reluctantly decided to abandon Pork Chop Hill. As had been the case on Old Baldy, Taylor could not justify risking more lives for a hill that was of minimal\n33\nstrategic significance, especially given the fact that an armistice was just around the corner.\nCommunist commanders operated under a different calculus-one that held potentially unnecessary losses of life to no account. Two days after Taylor withdrew from Pork Chop Hill, six Chinese divisions slammed into UN lines south of Kumsong. The ROK II Corps once again bore the brunt of the assault, falling back in confusion for eight miles before regrouping along the banks of the Kumsong River. UN counterattacks regained some of this lost ground, but there seemed little point in pressing the issue. On 20 July the negotiators reached an armistice agreement which they signed seven days later in a ceremony at P'anmunjom. At 2200 on 27 July 1953, an eery silence fell across the front. The Korean War was over.\nAnalysis\nThe last two months of the war had been some of the most horrific of the entire conflict. In less than sixty days Communist artillery had fired over 700,000 rounds at UN positions, while UN artillery had repaid the favor nearly sevenfold, sending over 4.7 million shells back at their tormentors. Approximately 100,000 Communist and nearly 53,000 UN soldiers were killed, captured, or wounded during those final two months of combat. For their trouble the Communists had gained a few miles of mountainous terrain and some grist for their propaganda mills, but these gains could not mask the speciousness of Communist claims that they had won the war.\nIn truth, the Korean War had been rather inconclusive. Under the leadership of the United States, the United Nations had successfully defended the sovereignty of a free and democratically elected government from totalitarianism while simultaneously demonstrating the ability of the international community to stand up effectively against aggression. On the other hand, UN action had been possible only because the Soviet Union had chosen to walk out of the UN Security Council in 1950, a costly miscalculation that the Soviets were unlikely to repeat in the future. Nor had the UN been able to obtain its optimistic goal of liberating North Korea.\nFrom the Communist viewpoint, the war likewise brought mixed results. Not only had the North Koreans failed to conquer the South, but they had actually suffered a net loss of 1,500 square miles of territory as the price of their aggression. On the other hand, the Communists had successfully rebuffed UN attempts to liberate the North, while the conflict had propelled the young People's Republic of\n34\nLt. Gen. William K. Harrison, Jr., U.S. Army and Lt. Gen. Nam Il, North Korean People's Army, sign the armistice agreement on 27 July 1953. (National Archives)\nChina to a place of prominence on the world stage. Finally, for good or ill, the war had calcified Cold War animosities and fueled a wider geopolitical confrontation between East and West that would dominate world affairs for the next forty years. Thus the Korean conflict would have great repercussions, despite the fact that little territory changed hands as a result of it.\nPerhaps the greatest repercussions of the Korean conflict, however, were the effects the war had on the human beings it touched-the soldiers it maimed, the civilians it displaced, and the families around the world who lost their sons and brothers, fathers and lovers to bomb, bullet, and shell. For the Korean War was as bloody as it was inconclusive. United Nations forces suffered over 559,000 casualties during the war, including approximately 94,000 dead. America's share of this bill totaled 36,516 dead and 103,284 wounded. The enemy had taken prisoner 7,245 Americans during the war. The UN\n35\nestimated that Communist military casualties exceeded two million dead, wounded, and prisoners. Civilian losses were even more appalling-approximately one million South Korean and up to two million North Korean civilians either died, disappeared, or were injured during the course of the war, while millions more became refugees.\nWhile territorial losses and disproportionate casualties belied Communist claims of victory, no facet of the war exposed the bankruptcy of communism more clearly than the prisoner issue. In accordance with the final armistice agreement, both sides directly exchanged all prisoners who desired to return to their homelands. All told, 75,823 Communist and 12,773 UN personnel (including 3,597 Americans) returned home from captivity under this arrangement (Operation Big Switch). Prisoners who had expressed a desire not to be repatriated were sent to a temporary camp at P'anmunjom. There government representatives were allowed to talk with their respective nationals under the impartial supervision of a five-member Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission. The interviews served to ensure that soldiers had not been coerced into refusing repatriation. They also gave the governments involved the opportunity to try and persuade their nationals to return home. When the interviews were over, each man was free to chose whether or not he wanted to return home. The numbers were revealing. Of the 359 UN personnel sent to the camp, ten decided to come home, two decided to go to neutral third countries, and the remainder-347-decided to live among the Communists. Included among these were twenty-one Americans who chose to remain with their captors. In contrast, 22,604 Communist soldiers initially chose not to be repatriated. After being processed by the Repatriation Commission, 628 relented and returned home. The rest-over 21,000 Chinese and North Koreans-chose to remain in the non-Communist world, with the Koreans going to South Korea and the Chinese to Nationalist-controlled Taiwan. When added to the roughly 25,000 North Koreans Rhee had freed in June, this meant that over 46,000 Communist soldiers had refused repatriation. No better testimony as to the merits of life under communism existed than this.\nThe United States had taken a noble stand in asserting that prisoners had a right not to return to societies they found objectionable, but the price of establishing this principle had been high. After the P'anmunjom negotiators had agreed to use the line of contact as a cease-fire line in November 1951, the repatriation question had been the only substantial issue over which the two sides remained at loggerheads. By insisting on voluntary repatriation-a right that had\n36\nheretofore not existed in international law-the United States had adopted a course that had prolonged the war by fifteen months, during which 125,000 United Nations and over 250,000 Communist soldiers had become casualties. The 46,000 Chinese and North Koreans who escaped communism as a result of American opposition to forcible repatriation had truly been given a precious, if dearly bought, gift.\nYet the nonrepatriates were not the only ones to have benefited from America's willingness to fight for principles in which it believed. In Korea, the real struggle had never been about the control of this hill or that hill. Rather, it had been about the principles of national self-determination and of freedom from oppression. By successfully defending the fledgling Republic of Korea, the American GI, together with his comrades in arms from South Korea and eighteen other nations, had secured the freedom of millions of South Korean civilians from Communist oppression.\nThis was a great achievement, but it was not a job that, once done, could stand by itself. For while the armistice of 27 July 1953 ended the fighting in Korea, it had not truly ended the war. The armistice was just that-a temporary cease-fire-and not a treaty of peace. It reflected the realization by all parties that neither side had either the will or the means to compel the other to bow to its political agenda. Hence the warring parties had agreed to disagree-to stop the shooting and to transfer the war from the battlefield to the diplomatic field. There the conflict has remained, despite sporadic incidents and border clashes, for half a century.\nThe inability of the two sides to resolve their differences has meant that the two Koreas and their allies have had to remain on a war footing along the inter-Korean border ever since. Fifty years after the North Korean invasion, Communist and United Nations soldiers still glare at each other across the demilitarized zone established in July 1953. Together with the South Koreans, U.S. Army troops continue to make up the bulk of the UN contingent in Korea. The burdens of protecting South Korea from the threat of renewed Communist aggression over the past half-century have been great for the United States. Billions of dollars have been spent and some additional lives have been lost, the latter as a result of sporadic Communist violations of the cease-fire. Yet by standing unswervingly behind its commitments, the United States in general-and the millions of men and women of the United States armed forces who have served their country in Korea since 1953 in particular-has guaranteed that the sacrifices made by men like Private Pililaau,\n37\nSergeant Bleak, and thousands of other American fighting men during the Korean War were not made in vain.\n \nAlexander, Bevin. Korea: The First War We Lost. New York: Hippocrene, 1986.\nBlair, Clay. The Forgotten War: America in Korea, 1950-53. New York: Doubleday, 1987.\nBrune, Lester H., ed. The Korean War: Handbook of the Literature and Research. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1996.\nEdwards, Paul M., comp. The Korean War: An Annotated Bibliography. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1998.\nFehrenbach, T. R. This Kind of War: A Study in Unpreparedness. New York: Macmillan, 1963.\nGugeler, Russell A. Combat Actions in Korea. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Center of Military History, 1970.\nHastings, Max. The Korean War. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987.\nHermes, Walter G. Truce Tent and Fighting Front. United States Army in the Korean War. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Center of Military History, 1988.\nHinshaw, Arned. Heartbreak Ridge: Korea, 1951. New York: Praeger, 1989.\nMarshall, S. L. A. Pork Chop Hill. New York: Permabooks, 1959.\nRees, David. Korea: The Limited War. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1964.\nStueck, William. The Korean War: An International History. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995.\nWestover, John G. Combat Support in Korea. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Center of Military History, 1987.\n39", "Korean War\nKorean War\nPublished on July 30, 2014 in Information . 0 Comments Tags: War .\nKorean War was the first war which required the United Nations Organisation to flex its muscles. As many as 16 countries had dispatched military aid to South Korea in terms of troops and there were 41 nations which assisted South Korea with equipment and other aid. China was one of the allies who fought for South Korea. Equipment aid was sent by the Soviet Union. Around 90% of the foreign troops that participated in the war were from the US.\nThe war also holds the distinction of being the first war that saw battle between jet aircraft. The approximate cost of war for US was around $67 billion. Reported statistics on the death toll of the war in terms of human lives was estimated to be 54,246 until June 2000. It was in the same year that Pentagon observed a clerical error in the death toll that led to the inclusion of deaths outside Korean War in Korean War figures. More than 7,500 US troops still remain unaccounted for ever since the Koran War ended.\nThe truce talks continued for as long as 2 years and 17 days and since there was never a peace treaty that was concluded, Korean War can be said to have not ended’ technically.\nFollowing are the statistics held with US Dept. Of Defense on U.S. Troops:\nDeaths:\nWounded in Action: 103,284\nOther Countries:\nOther countries also suffered heavy loss of men and material. South Korea lost 217,000 military men and 1,000,000 civilians. North Korean losses were even greater in terms of military personnel at 406,000. 600,000 civilians are also reported missing or dead. The closest ally, China suffered maximum military casualties losing 600,000 personnel.\nTimeline of the War:\nNov 1947:\nThe United Nations General Assembly gives approval to elections in the entire country of Korea to select their provisional government. This move of the UN is vehemently opposed by the Soviet Union.\nMay 10, 1948:\nNearly five and a half months later, while South Koreans elect a national assembly, the North Koreans remain detached from the election process. However, the assembly sets up the government in Republic of Korea.\nSep 9, 1948:\nNorth Korean nationals go separate ways to set up their own Democratic People’s Republic of Korea.\nJune 25, 1950:\nThe unusual setup continues for nearly 20 months until North Korea decides to be the aggressor and move troops of the North Korean People’s Army, estimated close to 135,000 in number, beyond the 38th parallel with an intention to invade ROK or Republic of Korea established by South Korea.\nThe same day, UN deplores the commencement of hostilities by North Korea and calls for a cease fire which necessitated the withdrawal of North Korean troops to the 38th parallel.\nJune 26, 1950:\nWithin a day, the then US President Harry Truman decides to assist ROKA (Republic of Korea Army) and evacuate American nationals from the war torn country. He directs General Douglas to carry out both the tasks.\nJune 30, 1950:\nUS troops swing into action on the orders of the President.\nJuly 1950:\nThe very first month of US action in Korea witnesses heavy civilian bloodbath when US soldiers kill several civilians in a village called No Gun Ri. Whether the soldiers were asked to open fire at civilians or they acted on their own still remains shrouded in mystery.\nJuly 5, 1950:\nUS troops move into Osan, 30 miles south of Seoul. This was the first time they had been to battle ever since the culmination of Second World War. Private Kenneth Shadrick became the first US casualty in the Korean War.\nJune 23, 1951:\nNearly a year later, a Soviet delegate to the UN, Mr Jacob Malik proposes a ceasefire.\nJuly 10, 1951:\nTruce talks commence at Kaesong in July and their location is changed to Panmunjom on Oct 25.\nNov 27, 1951:\nBoth the warring sides arrive at a common solution to end the war. They agree on making the existing battle lines the final line of division between the sides if a truce could be concluded in 30 days time.\nApr 1952:\nAfter nearly 10 months into the talks, truce proceedings come across a deadlock on the issue of “voluntary repatriation” of soldiers.\nOct 8, 1952\nTruce talks get adjourned indefinitely.\nApr 26, 1953:\nTruce talks begin after the Communists agree to the contention over which the talks had halted.\nJul 27, 1953:\nWhile the hostilities were ceased within 12 hours of the drafting of “armistice agreement” signed by Chinese People’s Volunteers, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea and The UN; South Korea refuses to agree and sign it.\nThe armistice mandated both the sides to create a demilitarized zone and both the sides to remain at 2,200 yards from a centre point in the demilitarized zone. Both the sides can patrol the zone.\nThe years that followed saw remains of Korean War soldiers being recovered, their last set being identified by the US in 2014.\nHere is a year-wise breakdown:\n1990-1994:\nRemains of 208 American troops are recovered.\n2007:\nUN receives four sets of remains of US troops. They are given Honour Guard’ in Panmunjon.\n2011:\nRemains of 26 US troops listed in the “missing in action” list are identified.\n2012:\n40 more US servicemen remains are identified.\nJan-May 2013:\n15 US servicemen remains listed under “missing in action” are identified.\nJun 2013-Apr 2014:", "KOREAN WAR\nKOREAN WAR\nVarious Authors\nEdited By: R. A. Guisepi\nEarly in the morning of June 25, 1950, the armed forces of Communist North Korea smashed across the 38th parallel of latitude in an invasion of the Republic of Korea (South Korea) that achieved complete surprise. Although attacks came all along the border, the major North Korean thrust was in the west of the Korean peninsula, toward Seoul, the capital of South Korea.\nSouth Korea's army, smaller and not as well trained and equipped as that of North Korea, was unable to stem the onslaught. By June 28, Seoul had fallen, and across the peninsula, everywhere south of the Han River, the shattered remnants of South Korea's army were in full retreat.\nThe United Nations Reaction\nWithin hours after the invasion of South Korea began, the United Nations Security Council called for an immediate cease-fire and the withdrawal of North Korean forces from South Korea. North Korea ignored the resolution. Two days later the Security Council urged United Nations members to assist South Korea in repelling its invaders. Both resolutions passed because the Soviet Union was boycotting Security Council meetings. Had the Soviet delegate been present, he surely would have vetoed the measures.\nIn response, 16 nations sent troops to the aid of South Korea. The United States sent an army; Great Britain, a division; and other nations, lesser units. The heaviest burden of the war, however, was borne by South Korea itself. Its army reached a peak strength of some 400,000 men, maintained that strength only by a steady flow of hastily trained replacements, and sustained an estimated 850,000 combat casualties. The United States Army in Korea ultimately numbered some 300,000 men, supported by about 50,000 Marine, Air Force, and Navy combatants.\nThe United States Reaction\nThe United States reacted even more quickly than did the United Nations. Upon hearing of the North Korean attack, President Harry S. Truman directed General of the Army Douglas MacArthur, commander of the United States occupation forces in Japan, to insure the safe evacuation of United States civilians and to supply weapons and ammunition to South Korea.\nOn June 26, United States air and naval forces were directed to support South Korean ground units. The commitment of United States ground forces was authorized after General MacArthur inspected the battlefront. The ground forces available to General MacArthur in Japan were four understrength Army divisions composed largely of inexperienced, undertrained men and lacking in heavy weapons.\nEarly in July the United Nations asked the United States to appoint a commander for all United Nations forces in Korea. President Truman named General MacArthur. Soon thereafter, South Korea placed its forces under the United Nations command.\nAfter the fall of Seoul, North Korea's forces paused briefly to regroup, then resumed their southward drive. South Korea's army resisted bravely but was pushed back steadily. Three United States divisions sent to its aid were committed in small units. They too were driven into retreat.\nBy late July the remnants of South Korea's army and the United States units had been pressed into a small, roughly rectangular area surrounding the port of Pusan at the southeastern tip of Korea. Here, defending a perimeter roughly 150 miles long, the United Nations forces finally were able to hold as reinforcements poured in.\nThe Origins of a War\nThe roots of the Korean War are deeply embedded in history. While few regions are less suited to warfare than is the mountainous, river-slashed Korean peninsula, few have known more conflict. For centuries, Korea's three powerful neighbors--China, Japan, and the Soviet Union--vied for its control. By 1910, Japan had established a supremacy that it was to maintain until its defeat in World War II.\nSeven days before the Japanese surrender that ended World War II, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan. Soviet troops entered Korea. By agreement, the Soviet Union accepted the surrender of all Japanese forces in Korea north of the 38th parallel of latitude, while the United States accepted the surrender of Japanese units south of the 38th parallel.\nThe Soviet Union quickly sealed off the 38th-parallel border. It soon set up an interim civil government for the 9 million Koreans of the north, which contained most of Korea's industry. The government was run by Soviet-trained Communist officials.\nThe United States maintained a military government in the south. The 21 million Koreans of the largely agricultural region were not satisfied with it.\nA United States-Soviet commission that was established to make plans for the reunification of Korea under a free government made no progress. In 1947 the United States took the problem before the United Nations, which voted that free elections--under its supervision--should be held throughout Korea in 1948 to choose a single government. The Soviet Union refused to permit the United Nations election commission to enter the north. Elections were thus held only in the south, where a National Assembly and a president--Syngman Rhee--were chosen. The new democracy was named the Republic of Korea.\nIn the north, the Soviet Union proclaimed a Communist dictatorship called the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea). Pyongyang was named its capital. Late in 1948, Soviet forces began to withdraw from North Korea, leaving behind an entrenched Communist regime and a well-trained, well-equipped North Korean army. United States occupation forces left South Korea in 1949. They left behind a government still \"feeling its way\" and an army ill-trained compared with that of the north. This army also lacked air power, tanks, and artillery.\nSouth Korea, however, successfully resisted North Korean attempts at subversion, Communist-supported guerrilla activities, and border raids by North Korean forces. Frustrated, North Korea early in 1950 decided upon war to achieve its goal of Korean unification under Communist rule.\nIn June 1950 North Korea's army totaled 135,000 men. North Korea's infantry was also supported by approximately 150 Soviet-made medium tanks, ample artillery, and a small air force. South Korea's ground forces included a 45,000-member national police force and an army of 98,000. South Korea was armed largely with light infantry weapons supplied by the United States. It had no tanks or combat aircraft, and its artillery was inferior to that of North Korea. Its officers and enlisted men had generally less training and experience than did those of North Korea.\nMasterstroke Reverses Course of War\nWhile North Korea continued to hurl furious but ineffective attacks at the Pusan perimeter, General MacArthur readied the counterstroke that was to reverse the course of the war--an amphibious assault in his enemy's rear at the port city of Inchon, southwest of Seoul. On September 15 a Marine division swarmed ashore after preparatory bombardment by aircraft and naval guns. An Army division followed. Simultaneously, the Eighth Army--by now a well-equipped and cohesive force--broke out of the Pusan perimeter. Although bloody fighting ensued, Seoul was recaptured within a few days. Thereafter the North Korean army--its supply line severed and its principal withdrawal route blocked by the capture of Seoul--rapidly collapsed. By October 1 its remnants, utterly destroyed as a fighting force, had retreated above the 38th parallel.\nNorth Korea had also met disaster in the air. Late in June, United States jet fighters had streaked westward from Japan after a North Korean fighter fired on an American transport. Within two weeks the North Korean air force had ceased to exist, and the United Nations had established an air superiority that it generally was to maintain throughout the war. Even when, later in the war, the Communist forces were supplied with Soviet-built jet fighters equal or superior to the United States aircraft flown by the United Nations, their Chinese--and sometimes Soviet--pilots proved no match for those of the United Nations. In the course of the war, 14 Communist aircraft were shot down for every United Nations plane lost in aerial combat. At sea, under the guns of United States and British warships, North Korea's minuscule navy--a few patrol boats--suffered a fate similar to that of its air force.\nNorth to Disaster\nIn the United Nations, Communist delegates indicated that North Korea would now be willing to accept restoration of the 38th parallel as the border between the two Koreas. The United States and South Korea, however, decided to forcibly reunite North and South Korea under the government of South Korea. They disbelieved the threat of Communist China that it would intervene if United Nations forces entered North Korea.\nUnited Nations Forces began in early October 1950 to press northward. They met only light resistance and by late November had captured virtually all of North Korea. At two points, units reached the Yalu River, the border between North Korea and China.\nShortly after the United Nations advance into North Korea began, however, Communist China had secretly begun to infiltrate troops into North Korea. United Nations air patrols detected no sign of them.\nUnited Nations forces had advanced northward in two columns, the Eighth Army in the west and the X Corps in the east, separated by up to 50 miles by the central mountain chain of North Korea. Units of both columns were also dispersed and open to attack.\nContacts with Communist Chinese units--some in strength--began in late October and continued into early November. Chinese aircraft--Soviet-built MiG-15 jet fighters--first appeared early in November. However, the United Nations command underestimated the strength of the Chinese forces and misread China's intentions. The command planned a final offensive that would bring all of North Korea under United Nations control, confident that United Nations air power could prevent the Chinese from crossing the Yalu River in sufficient strength to stop the offensive. By this time, however, Chinese Communist troops in North Korea numbered 300,000.\nLate in November, across the snow that heralded a harsh North Korean winter, the Chinese struck. Attacking largely at night, the Chinese--though they suffered tremendous casualties--rapidly dislodged the Eighth Army and X Corps.\nIn the east, X Corps units were withdrawn by sea from the ports of Hungnam and Wonsan. Surrounded far inland, the lst Marine Division reached Hungnam in one of the great fighting retreats of history. In the west, by land and sea, the Eighth Army also fell back. By the end of December the United Nations forces had been pushed back to a line just south of the 38th parallel. In the face of a renewed Chinese offensive, they withdrew from Seoul and the Han River line early in January 1951.\nIn the more open terrain of South Korea, the United Nations forces were able to form a fairly continuous line of resistance. They continued to withdraw slowly, exacting a terrible toll of the advancing Chinese, until in mid-January the front stabilized along an undulating line running from the 37th parallel in the west to a point midway between the 37th and 38th parallels in the east.\nReunification Abandoned\nThe entry of China into the war had a heavy impact upon the United States. Draft calls were increased, and more reservists were called to active duty. President Truman declared a state of national emergency, and economic controls were imposed.\nFearing that the wider war with China that would be necessary to reunify Korea would cost too many American lives and raise the risk of nuclear war with the Soviet Union, the United States abandoned the idea of forcibly reuniting the two Koreas. Instead, it decided to accept a rough restoration of the situation that had existed before the war. Although the United Nations declared Communist China an aggressor, it agreed with the new United States policy. United Nations forces would repel China from South Korea but would not seek to retake the north.\nBy late January 1951 the Eighth Army--reformed and strengthened and incorporating the X Corps--was ready to advance against the now-weakened Chinese and North Korean armies. Thrusts of infantry and armor were supported by the vastly superior United Nations artillery and air power. Where the Communist forces chose to stand, they were slaughtered. In one action alone, 6,000 Chinese men were killed, 25,000 wounded. Seoul was reoccupied by the United Nations in mid-March. By March 31 the battle line stood roughly along the 38th parallel.\nEnraged at China's intervention, General MacArthur had dissented vigorously from the new United Nations policy. He wished to press an expanded war against Communist China, including forbidden attacks upon \"sanctuaries\" above the Yalu River. He made his views public. Believing the general's actions to be both insubordinate and dangerous, President Truman relieved him of his commands in April. General MacArthur was replaced by Lieut. Gen. Matthew B. Ridgway, who had commanded the Eighth Army in the field since the death of Lieut. Gen. Walton H. Walker in a jeep accident in December 1950. Command of the Eighth Army was passed to Lieut. Gen. James A. Van Fleet.\nTruce Talks Begin\nAbove the 38th parallel, the Chinese and North Korean forces once again regrouped. In April and in May, their commanders hurled them against the United Nations lines. In response, General Van Fleet's forces slowly withdrew, scourging their attackers with superior firepower. When their adversaries were exhausted by massive casualties and supply shortages, the United Nations forces counterattacked. By mid-June, save for a small sector north of Seoul in the west, the United Nations line stood well above the 38th parallel.\nLate in June, the Soviet Union indicated that the Communists might be prepared to seek a truce. On June 30, General Ridgway offered to open truce negotiations. North Korea and China accepted.\nTruce talks opened on July 10 at Kaesong, some 35 miles northwest of Seoul. It quickly became apparent that the opposing sides had different goals at the truce table. The United Nations sought only an honorable end to the war. North Korea and China, however, undertook to win in conference what they had been unable to attain on the battlefield. The Communists made every effort to embarrass and humiliate United Nations delegates, to force concessions through intransigence and delay, and to use the conference as a propaganda forum.\nAlthough it was agreed that hostilities were to continue during the truce talks, no more major offensives were conducted during the war. A lull in the fighting developed as the talks opened; both sides used it to strengthen their forces. The Communist buildup was hampered--though not halted--by United Nations naval and air forces.\nLate in August, the Communists broke off the truce talks. General Van Fleet promptly launched a limited offensive to straighten and improve the United Nations lines. By mid-October, defeated again, the Communists offered to reopen the truce talks.\nThe meeting site was moved to Panmunjom, some five miles east of Kaesong. Here the armistice talks were to drag on, with intermittent recesses, for another year and a half, stalling repeatedly over such issues as the establishment of a truce line and the repatriation of prisoners. Along the front, meanwhile, the fighting settled into a modernized version of the grinding trench warfare of World War I.\nA Long and Uneasy Truce\nIn order to maintain the military pressure that seemed essential to serious negotiations, the United Nations insisted that the truce line be the line of contact between the opposing armies at the time the truce was signed. Finally, a line was agreed upon. Finally, too, the Communists agreed that prisoners who did not wish to return to their homelands did not have to. At first, they had insisted that the United Nations return, by force if necessary, all the Communist prisoners it held. Nearly half of all the prisoners held by the United Nations--and three quarters of the Chinese--did not wish to return to Communist rule. The truce agreement was finally signed July 27, 1953, and that day, at 10:00 PM, Korean time, the guns fell silent along the blood-soaked main line of resistance.\nThe conclusion of the cease-fire had probably been hastened by events outside of Korea. First, General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower, who succeeded Truman as president of the United States in January 1953, had hinted broadly that military pressure might be sharply increased if the fighting did not end soon. Second, the death in March 1953 of Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin caused a general turning inward of the Communist world.\nAfter the cease-fire, the opposing forces each withdrew two kilometers from the truce line. The armistice agreement had provided for a conference to seek a permanent peace, but--in the face of Communist intransigence--it was delayed for many years. Today, United States troops remain in South Korea, and heavily armed North Korean and South Korean forces still face each other across a narrow demilitarized zone. Truce violations are common.\nIn the 1980s, there was no lessening of tensions, but also no serious move toward armed confrontation. North Korean President Kim Il Sung offered a unification plan that was rejected by South Korea. Kim also berated the United States for a plan to install medium range nuclear missiles in the South. But he renewed his call for a peace treaty with the Americans, probably desiring to decrease his dependence on the Soviet Union and China.\nUnited States government documents declassified in the 1990s revealed that the Pentagon knew of at least 900 American soldiers who were held captive at the end of the war and never released. Eisenhower worked covertly for the prisoners's release but was unsuccessful.\nChronology of the Korean War\n1950\nJune 25. North Korean armored forces invade South Korea, or Republic of Korea (ROK), Sunday morning at dawn (Saturday afternoon, June 24, Eastern Standard Time), starting the conflict. 25. At 5:45 PMEST (Sunday), the United Nations (UN) issues cease-fire order. North Koreans ignore it. 26. President Harry S. Truman orders the United States air and naval forces in Far East to give armed aid to South Korean forces. 27. The UN empowers its members to send armed forces to aid South Korean forces. 28. Seoul abandoned. 30. Truman orders U.S. ground troops into action. July 1. First U.S. troops arrive from Japan. 5. U.S. troops in first battle. 7. The UN asks U.S. to create a unified command. 8. Truman names Gen. Douglas MacArthur commander of UN forces in Korea. 10. First North Korean atrocities reported. 12. U.S. troops and ROK forces retreat toward Taejon. 13. Lieut. Gen. W.H. Walker takes command of U.S. forces. 20. North Koreans take Taejon. 31. First reinforcements land direct from U.S. August5. U.S. and ROK troops pushed back to Naktong River line in a small defense perimeter based on Pusan; North Koreans within 40 miles of Pusan. 7. U.S. troops counterattack. September 1. North Koreans within 30 miles of Pusan. 15. Amphibious landing at Inchon. 16. UN forces launch counterattack. 24-28. UN forces regain Seoul. October 1. ROK pushes across 38th parallel; North Koreans ignore MacArthur's demand to surrender. 7-11. U.S., British, Australian forces join ROK beyond 38th parallel. 15. Truman, MacArthur confer. 19. UN forces take Pyongyang, North Korean capital. 26. ROK reaches Yalu River at Chosan; UN forces capture first Chinese Communist troops. November 1. Peking (Beijing) radio announces China \"will let volunteers fight in defense of Yalu area\"; UN pilots engage first Soviet-built MiG-15 jet fighters. U.S. forces hard hit by Chinese at Unsan. 24. UN forces launch \"end of war\" offensive. 26. North Korean counterattack smashes UN drive; UN forces begin long retreat. 27. U.S. forces cut off in Chosen Reservoir area. December 5. Pyongyang abandoned to North Koreans. 23. Lieut. Gen. W.H. Walker killed. Lieut. Gen. Matthew B. Ridgway takes command of UN forces. 24. Evacuation, by ship, of 105,000 U.S. troops from Hungnam ends.\n1951\nJanuary1. North Koreans launch general offensive. 4. UN forces again abandon Seoul. 17. North Koreans reject UN cease-fire request. 25. UN forces launch offensive for \"war of maneuver.\" February 1. UN denounces China as \"aggressor.\" 12. ROK drives across 38th parallel. March 7. MacArthur asserts conflict will stalemate if UN forces are not permitted to attack North Korean bases in Manchuria. 14. UN forces retake Seoul. 24. MacArthur invites retreating Communist leaders to confer with him in the field to end the war \"without further bloodshed.\" Refused. UN forces resume northward drive. April 11. General MacArthur relieved of all his commands by Truman. General Ridgway made Supreme Commander of Allied Powers. Lieut. Gen. James A. Van Fleet takes command in Korea. 22. North Koreans launch counteroffensive with some 600,000 troops. 29. North Korean offensive halts on outskirts of Seoul in west and 40 miles below 38th parallel in central Korea. May 3. UN forces launch limited counterattack. 16. North Koreans advance in offensive drive. 19-21. UN forces stem drive and counterattack. June 23. The Soviet Union's delegate to the UN suggests possibility of a cease-fire. 30. General Ridgway proposes meeting to discuss armistice. July 10. First meeting of UN and North Korean representatives, at Kaesong. August 23. North Koreans suspend armistice talks. September 13. UN launches attack on \"Heartbreak Ridge.\" October 25. Armistice talks resume, after move to Panmunjom. December 18. UN and North Korean commands exchange prisoner of war lists. North Koreans list 11,559 names; UN has 132,474 North Korean POWs.\n1952\nJanuary 24. Armistice talks stalemated. 27. Talks resumed. February 6. Chinese drop their title of \"volunteer troops\" and list themselves as equal partners with North Korea in \"opposing the UN in Korea.\" 18. North Korean prisoners riot in UN camp on Koje Island off Pusan. 22. North Koreans broadcast charges that UN wages germ warfare in Korea. 24. U.S. Navy starts second year of shelling Wonsan. March 4. Syngman Rhee protests armistice talks; insists on unified Korea and withdrawal of Chinese. April 12-15. Battle lines seesaw in intensified fighting. May 7. North Korean prisoners on Koje Island seize Brig. Gen. F.T. Dodd, compound commander; hold for 3 days. 12. Gen. Mark W. Clark succeeds General Ridgway. June 21-22. U.S.-Philippine troops hold hills against savage North Korean attacks. 23. UN bombers blast hydroelectric plants on the Yalu. July 3. The Soviet Union vetoes U.S. request in UN to have International Red Cross investigate North Korean charges that UN forces engage in germ warfare. 10. Armistice talks enter second year. 11-12. UN land and carrier-based planes bomb Pyongyang. August 1. U.S. troops win \"Old Baldy.\" 6-7. ROK takes \"Capitol Hill.\" 12. U.S. Marines take \"Siberia Hill\" and \"Bunker Hill.\" September 17. U.S. Navy uses guided missiles on North Korean plants. 28-30. North Koreans seize three hill positions. October 6. North Koreans attack 35 UN positions. 8. Truce teams take indefinite recess in armistice talks. November 1-30. Hill positions change hands repeatedly in hard fighting. December 2-5. Dwight D. Eisenhower, U.S. president-elect, tours combat zone.\n1953\nJanuary25. UN launches heavy attack. February 11. Lieut. Gen. Maxwell D. Taylor takes over command from General Van Fleet, retiring from Army. 22. General Clark proposes exchange of sick and wounded prisoners. March 17. UN throws back heavy attack on \"Little Gibraltar.\" 26. North Koreans capture \"Old Baldy.\" April 11. Agreement on wounded prisoner exchange reached: 605 UN troops for 6,030 North Koreans. 20. Exchange starts. May 1-31. Ground and air fighting intensify. June 9. South Korean assembly votes against truce terms. 12-15. North Koreans step up attack. 18. President Syngman Rhee defies UN and releases 27,000 anti-Communist North Korean prisoners. 20. Truce talks stall. July 8. North Koreans agree to renew truce talks. 27. Armistice signed at Panmunjom at 10:01 AM, after 3 years and 32 days of conflict; hostilities end 12 hours later.\n* All dates of action in Korea are Korean time, which is 14 hours ahead of Eastern Standard Time.", "Korean War\nEncyclopedia  >  History  >  Asia and Africa  >  Korean History\nKorean War\nKorean War, conflict between Communist and non-Communist forces in Korea from June 25, 1950, to July 27, 1953. At the end of World War II, Korea was divided at the 38th parallel into Soviet (North Korean) and U.S. (South Korean) zones of occupation. In 1948 rival governments were established: The Republic of Korea was proclaimed in the South and the People's Democratic Republic of Korea in the North.\nRelations between them became increasingly strained, and on June 25, 1950, North Korean forces invaded South Korea. The United Nations quickly condemned the invasion as an act of aggression, demanded the withdrawal of North Korean troops from the South, and called upon its members to aid South Korea. On June 27, U.S. President Truman authorized the use of American land, sea, and air forces in Korea; a week later, the United Nations placed the forces of 15 other member nations under U.S. command, and Truman appointed Gen. Douglas MacArthur supreme commander.\nIn the first weeks of the conflict the North Korean forces met little resistance and advanced rapidly. By Sept. 10 they had driven the South Korean army and a small American force to the Busan (Pusan) area at the southeast tip of Korea. A counteroffensive began on Sept. 15, when UN forces made a daring landing at Incheon (Inchon) on the west coast. North Korean forces fell back and MacArthur received orders to pursue them into North Korea.\nOn Oct. 19, the North Korean capital of Pyongyang was captured; by Nov. 24, North Korean forces were driven by the 8th Army, under Gen. Walton Walker, and the X Corp, under Gen. Edward Almond, almost to the Yalu River, which marked the border of Communist China. As MacArthur prepared for a final offensive, the Chinese Communists joined with the North Koreans to launch (Nov. 26) a successful counterattack. The UN troops were forced back, and in Jan., 1951, the Communists again advanced into the South, recapturing Seoul, the South Korean capital.\nAfter months of heavy fighting, the center of the conflict was returned to the 38th parallel, where it remained for the rest of the war. MacArthur, however, wished to mount another invasion of North Korea. When MacArthur persisted in publicly criticizing U.S. policy, Truman, on the recommendation of the Joint Chiefs of Staff removed (Apr. 10, 1951) him from command and installed Gen. Matthew B. Ridgway as commander in chief. Gen. James Van Fleet then took command of the 8th Army. Ridgway began (July 10, 1951) truce negotiations with the North Koreans and Chinese, while small unit actions, bitter but indecisive, continued. Gen. Van Fleet was denied permission to go on the offensive and end the \"meat grinder\" war.\nThe war's unpopularity played an important role in the presidential victory of Dwight D. Eisenhower , who had pledged to go to Korea to end the war. Negotiations broke down four different times, but after much difficulty and nuclear threats by Eisenhower, an armistice agreement was signed (July 27, 1953). Casualties in the war were heavy. U.S. losses were placed at over 54,000 dead and 103,000 wounded, while Chinese and Korean casualties were each at least 10 times as high. Korean forces on both sides executed many alleged civilian enemy sympathizers, especially in the early months of the war.\nBibliography\nSee R. E. Appleman, South to the Nakong, North to the Yalu (1961); D. Rees, Korea (1964); B. I. Kaufman, The Korean War (1986); I. F. Stone, The Hidden History of the Korean War (1988); C. Blair, The Forgotten War (1989); S. Weintraub, MacArthur's War (2000); D. Halberstam, The Coldest Winter (2007); B. Cumings, The Origins of the Korean War (2 vol., 2004) and The Korean War: A History (2010).\nThe Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.\nSee more Encyclopedia articles on: Korean History", "THE 38TH PARALLEL\nOlwyn Green\n\"The Vagrant Winds\" was the title chosen for the Korean War exhibition for it symbolises the vagaries not only of war but of life just as the soldier experienced the vagaries of the wind indiscriminately blowing the stench of death from dead bodies over enemy and ally alike, at the site of the last battle on the 38th parallel. Their only respite, he wrote, lay with the vagaries of the Korean winds.\n\"A Lively Life,\" John Bineham, ex 3RAR.\nOn June 25th 1950, a sudden roar of guns shattered the pre-dawn silence at the 38th Parallel. The Korean War had begun, a war that was essentially a show-down between Communism and the West. Unfortunately for Korea, a nation that had enjoyed centuries of intact culture, it became the site of a war by proxy which left the country devastated.\nIt is inconceivable that a war of such global importance should be overlooked by history. Epithets given to the Korean War indicate why amnesia surrounds it: \" forgotten;\" \"unknown;\" and the misnomer, \"police action,\" which is attributed to the United States President, Harry Truman.\nA reason for amnesia is that the war dragged on, only to exact considerable sacrifice . The total death toll is estimated at 5 million. The United Nations' battle casualties1 clearly show the burden of the war was borne by the Republic of Korea which lost 46,000 troops killed, and the USA which lost 33,629 killed, and another 8000 who remain missing. The enemy figures were higher: China 402,000 troops killed and North Korea 215,000 killed. When the guns stopped firing, there was no victory to celebrate. There was only an armistice and a still-divided Korea.\nIt is not surprising then that such a bloody, destructive and indecisive war has not inspired great literature, stories or images to ensure it a place in history or in the collective memory. All we have are the American M.A.S.H. characters Hawkeye and Hot Lips. However, 50th anniversary events, the Dedication of a Memorial to the Korean War in Canberra in April 2000, and the Exhibition, The Vagrant Winds at Casula Powerhouse Arts Centre from 8th April to 28th May, should serve to remedy our own national amnesia.\nAt The Vagrant Winds, visitors will be able to rescue the missing Korean chapter of the Anzac Story, and also discover stories from other participating United Nations' countries. Viewing the images and entries will make the war so much a reality, the \"forgotten war\" will become part of our consciousness.\nTo better appreciate the stories from the Korean War, an overview is given to provide the context:-\nDespite Communist propaganda to the contrary, it was Kim Il Sung's North Korean Army that began the Korean War by attacking the South on 25th June 1950. Joseph Stalin and Mao Zedong had both supported the invasion, for the Communists believed they could swiftly reunite Korea, and that neither America or the United Nations would intervene.\nThat was a miscalculation. President Truman, for both strategic and philosophical reasons, took the \"hardest\" decision of his office when he decided to \"go in.\" That was a miscalculation, too, for it was not anticipated that China would react. Also, the Americans were confident in their ability to execute a quick rebuff to the ambitions of the Communists.\nThe United Nations (with the Soviets absent) declared the North Koreans aggressors and called for member nations to provide military support to repel the invasion. Twenty one countries responded and were included in the composite UN army put under the command of General Douglas MacArthur, the \"hero\" of the Pacific War.\nThe war having begun, crisis piled upon crisis. The first crisis was resolved so brilliantly, it raised confidence to unrealistic heights. The defence of South Korea was near collapse by August 1950, before MacArthur effected his brilliant, risky manoeuvre at Inchon. The US Marines' amphibious landing on 15th September enabled them to encircle a far-too extended North Korean army and send it into disarray. MacArthur, with the United Nations' Security Council approval, pursued the advantage and began immediately to push the North Korean Army before him to the Yalu River on the Manchurian border.\nHowever, Mao Zedong, as he had warned, declared the crossing of the 38th Parallel an \"invasion\", to which he responded. But the UN intelligence failed to detect that Mao had moved a huge Chinese Peoples Volunteer Army, estimated at 300,000 into North Korea in October 1950, led by Peng Dehuai. By 1st November, the UN force faced strong resistance from the Chinese who appeared, and then mysteriously seemed to disappear. MacArthur, denying the presence of the Chinese, launched on 24th November what he believed would be his coup de grace: a reunited Korea and the boys \"home by Christmas.\"\nReality confronted MacArthur within two days. As a harsh winter set in, Peng reacted on 26th November with the Chinese Second Offensive. The Communists hit with such force MacArthur was compelled to ring alarm bells and pronounce that \"a new war\" had begun. The UN faced their major crisis as the Communists laid on pressure with successive mass offensives. UN forces lapsed into disorderly retreat (the big bug out), except some, like the US Marines at Chosin, who engaged in heroic withdrawals. On 15th December, the Communists were again south of the 38th Parallel, creating enough anxiety for Truman to declare, on December 16th, a National Emergency.\nThe UN and President Truman, urged by the British, soon recognised the need to seek through a UN \"Ceasefire Group\" an end to an unwinnable war. MacArthur, on the other hand, publicly urged there was \"no substitute for victory.\" He was not alone in wanting to use atomic bombs to secure absolute victory, bringing the world dangerously close to nuclear and global war. Truman, to contain the situation, recalled MacArthur on 11th April 1951, and replaced him with General Matthew Ridgway.\nRidgway, called Iron Tits - he wore hand grenades on his chest - immediately began restoring the fighting spirit of the 8th Army. He was so successful that when the Chinese launched their last shot at victory, the Fifth Spring Offensive on the 22nd April 1951, the UN army was capable of halting it. But both armies were spent. Ridgway then set about securing a strong defence line at the original border, the 38th Parallel, for Truman realised victory could not be pursued. It must remain a limited war with limited objectives.\nConsequently, at the 38th Parallel, truce talks began on 10th July 1951. For two years the war of words remained bogged down in crucial ideological issues like the voluntary repatriation of prisoners of war. Little regard was given to soldiers dying in futile trench warfare, or the thousands of war prisoners suffering in barbaric conditions.\nOn 4th November 1952, Dwight D. Eisenhower became the new President of the United States on the promise he would end the Korean War. Stalin died on 5th March 1953. On 27th July, 1953 the impasse was ended with the signing of an Armistice. However, no peace treaty followed to formally end the war.\nIn 2000, the Korean War can be viewed more objectively. The United Nations' collective action provided a precedent and hope for the world; Communist aspirations were temporarily thwarted; and South Korea thrived and evolved into a modern democracy. The North Koreans, on the other hand, remain in a time warp, deluded and confined behind the line that is the most heavily guarded on earth: the 38th Parallel.\n1 The author recognises that casualty figures vary from source to source. The figures used here are from a recently published history:\n\"The Korean War: The West Confronts Communism 1950-1953\" by Michael Hickey, John Murray, London, 1999.", "PARAMETERS, US Army War College Quarterly - Spring 2000\nGo to Cumulative Article Index.\nIn the summer of 1951, after a year of war in which neither side proved capable of achieving military victory, the US-led United Nations Command (UNC) and the Chinese-North Korean coalition began truce talks in an attempt to end the fighting through negotiations. These talks provide a significant example of limited war conflict termination, illustrating the interplay of force and diplomacy and the role of third parties and coalition partners in negotiations.\nThe two sides turned to negotiations only after failing to reunify Korea through military force. The initial North Korean offensive was stopped by United Nations Command intervention. The UNC itself came close to military success with a counterattack into the North in October 1950. The Chinese then sent an army into Korea, forcing the UNC to withdraw from the North. This force pushed deep into South Korea before being repulsed by a United Nations Command counteroffensive. The UNC was briefly checked by new Chinese and North Korean offensives in April and May 1951, but by mid-June its forces had advanced generally north of the 38th Parallel, the pre-war boundary between North and South Korea.\nIn May 1951, after a major strategy review, the US leadership, concluding that any further advances would require the introduction of substantial additional forces, decided to pursue truce negotiations.[1] The rising cost of the war, the success of the UNC counteroffensive, and the failure of their own spring offensives also led the Chinese and North Korean leadership, with Soviet agreement, to seek a negotiated end to the war with the objective of restoring the pre-war boundary.[2]\nSome have since argued that a continued offensive might have led to an armistice more favorable to the United States and South Korea, but the costs would have mounted had the UNC pressed north into the mountains against increasingly well-entrenched Chinese and North Korean forces with shorter lines of communication. Furthermore, it is not at all clear that the Chinese would have been willing to agree to truce negotiations if the UNC had advanced deep into North Korea. Negotiations to restore the status quo were clearly acceptable to the Chinese, but faced with the loss of substantial North Korean territory, they may well have been motivated to pour additional men and resources into Korea, accepting even greater sacrifices to avoid defeat.[3]\nThe nations providing combat troops to the UNC were quite willing to see the war end. Although Republic of Korea (ROK) President Syngman Rhee (Yi Sung-man) opposed any settlement that would leave Korea divided and the Communists in control of the North, the ROK forces could not fight on alone and so he reluctantly acquiesced to the initiation of truce talks. Throughout the subsequent talks, the United States would control the UNC negotiations, but both the major UN allies and the Republic of Korea would exert pressure and sometimes influence policy, the allies pushing for compromise and Rhee's government pressing for tougher UNC positions.[4]\nFigure 1. Korea.\nAfter preliminary discussions between US and Soviet officials, the Soviet deputy foreign minister suggested in a 23 June 1951 radio speech that the two sides seek a cease-fire.[5] On 30 June General Matthew B. Ridgway, Commander in Chief of the United Nations Command (CINCUNC), proposed that truce talks begin aboard a Danish hospital ship moored in Wonsan Harbor. Kim Il-sung, Supreme Commander of the Korean People's Army (KPA), and Peng Dehuai, Commander of the Chinese People's Volunteers (CPV), counter-proposed that the talks take place in Kaesong, the old Korean capital. Kaesong was then located between the lines and unoccupied by either side. The US leadership, anticipating that the talks would bring a speedy end to the war and seeing no disadvantage in the proposed location, accepted. By the time the talks began, however, KPA/CPV forces had moved into the town, giving them control of the conference site. And as the talks dragged on, subsequent UNC commanders found their operations hindered by having the conference site astride the main military avenue of approach between the two Koreas.[6]\nEach side was represented at the truce talks by a military negotiating team of five principal delegates assisted by staff officers who worked out the details of agreements and maintained contact during the long recesses. The Chinese and North Korean negotiators operated from a location near Kaesong while the UNC team maintained a base camp at Munsan, about 15 miles southeast of the conference site.\nThe senior KPA/CPV delegate was the KPA chief of staff and North Korean vice-foreign minister, Lieutenant General Nam Il, who was assisted at the negotiating table by two North Korean and two Chinese generals or admirals. The UNC negotiators soon concluded that although General Nam publicly represented the Chinese and North Korean side, it was the Chinese who were actually in charge. Subsequent evidence from Chinese and Russian sources supports the notion that the Chinese government established policy for the KPA/CPV delegation, coordinating the most important decisions with North Korean and Soviet leaders. Beijing transmitted its instructions through a team headed by Li Kenong, Chinese vice-foreign minister and deputy chief of staff of the Chinese army, who directed negotiations from behind the scenes.[7\nThe Chinese strategic goals were to increase China's influence and reshape the international order in East Asia. They sought an end to US support for the Nationalist regime on Taiwan and the seating of the People's Republic of China in the United Nations. The Chinese aims with regard to Taiwan and the United Nations were set forth in a 17 January 1951 communication to the UN. When they decided to negotiate, the Chinese dropped these demands as preconditions for engaging in truce talks, but did not abandon them as long-range goals. Their immediate truce objectives thus focused on restoration of the status quo ante with a truce line at the 38th Parallel. A final settlement of the Korean question was to come at a postwar international conference.[8]\nOn the UNC side, the US government took sole responsibility for the negotiations. Abraham Feller, legal advisor to UN Secretary General Trygve Lie, concluded that the provisions of the UN Security Council resolutions under which the UNC was established entitled the United States to conduct the negotiations.[9] The Americans isolated the military negotiators from direct influence by the UN allies by insisting that all intergovernment negotiations take place in Washington. Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs Dean Rusk justified this by arguing, \"It would be too great a burden for Ridgway to conduct such negotiations in Tokyo in addition to all his other pressing duties.\"[10]\nThe Americans also wanted to ensure that the talks remained limited to military matters. General Ridgway had wanted to keep his political advisor, William J. Sebald, and US Ambassador to Korea John J. Muccio at the UNC base camp at Munsan to provide political guidance to the negotiating team. But fearing that the presence of these diplomats might indicate that the UNC would be willing to address nonmilitary matters, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, acting on the advice of the US State Department, rejected the idea.[11]\nThe US leadership transmitted its guidance to the UNC delegation in Korea through directives sent by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to the Tokyo-based UNC Commander-in-Chief. The UNC chief negotiator was Vice Admiral C. Turner Joy, Commander of US Naval Forces Far East, who served until May 1952, when he was replaced by Lieutenant General William K. Harrison. In addition to the senior delegate, the UNC was represented by three American generals or admirals and one Republic of Korea army general.[12]\nUS long-range national security objectives in Asia were to reduce or eliminate Soviet influence and establish cooperative relationships among friendly, noncommunist governments. The US leadership hoped this would diminish any threat to the United States from Asia and assure US access to the resources of the region. In support of those goals, the United States sought a \"united, independent and democratic Korea,\" but that objective was to be achieved by \"political, as distinguished from military, means.\"[13] Overall US objectives for Korea were to terminate hostilities under \"appropriate armistice arrangements,\" provide for the eventual withdrawal of non-Korean armed forces, and assure that the Republic of Korea border was drawn no farther south than the 38th Parallel while permitting the ROK to build sufficient forces to deter or repel renewed North Korean aggression.[14]\nThe United States also had very specific objectives for the Armistice Agreement: that it be confined to military matters in Korea; that it require the cessation of all acts of armed force; that it be supervised by a Military Armistice Commission with powers of observation and inspection; and that the number and types of military personnel and equipment in Korea not be qualitatively or quantitatively increased.[15] The US leadership initially desired prisoners of war (POW) be exchanged on a one-for-one basis, but this position changed once negotiations began.[16]\nThe Talks Begin: Atmospherics, Agenda, and Substance\nWhile both sides sought an armistice, neither trusted the intentions of the other. Both believed that any concession would be taken as a sign of weakness, and each side was convinced that military pressure was essential to force the other side to compromise. Ideological differences, cultural misperceptions, and the bitter nature of the war intensified the mutual suspicion and hostility that marked the talks. During the first meeting, both sides acted in a businesslike manner, but the underlying antagonism was evident. The UNC delegates refused food and other amenities offered by the KPA/CPV, while the Chinese and North Koreans took advantage of their control of Kaesong to portray themselves as victorious hosts. They also restricted access to the conference site, denying entry to journalists accompanying the UNC negotiators. After several days of sparring on this issue, the KPA/CPV agreed on 15 July 1951 to establish a Kaesong Neutral Zone to which both sides would have equal access.[17]\nDuring the next two weeks the negotiators worked out an agenda and began substantive talks.[18] The first issue was the location and nature of the truce line and demilitarized zone. The KPA/CPV side insisted on a truce line along the 38th Parallel. The UNC, whose forces had pushed north of the parallel except for an area near Kaesong, sought a line well north of the existing line of ground contact, arguing that UNC air and naval power should be factored into the location of the truce line. The 38th Parallel was significant to both sides. KPA/CPV ejection of the UNC from North Korea and restoration of the status quo could be portrayed as a victory by them, while if the UNC achieved a truce line north of the 38th Parallel it would have more than met its initial objectives. ROK President Rhee, to whom the 38th Parallel was a hated symbol of Korea's division, also demanded that the UNC not accept a truce along that line. In spite of these differences, the two sides had by 22 August come close to agreement on a Military Demarcation Line (MDL) based on the ground contact line. But at that point the KPA/CPV unilaterally declared a recess.\nAlthough they charged that UNC air attacks had made the conference site unsafe, their actual motivation for the recess seems to have been to gain time while they reassessed their strategy and considered a possible new offensive.[19] During the long recess, the UNC, which had been dissatisfied with the Kaesong site from the beginning, sought to relocate the talks to a more neutral location. The KPA/CPV, after completing their strategy review and deciding against a major offensive, concurred, and on 22 October the two sides agreed to relocate the talks to a new site at Panmunjom, several miles to the east.[20]\nWhen negotiations resumed on 25 October both sides had accepted the principle of an MDL based on the line of ground contact, but the location of the line and the timing of when it would go into effect were still disputed. KPA/CPV forces had remained on the defensive during the Kaesong phase of the truce talks, but the UNC continued its air and naval attacks and conducted limited ground offensives that by 23 October had pushed the line of contact north by about ten miles. Ridgway believed that these attacks had brought the other side back to the negotiating table, and there is some evidence that he was correct.[21] Concerned the negotiations might drag on and fearing that immediate agreement on the truce line would make further offensives impossible, Ridgway insisted that the truce line should be based on the line of ground contact at the time the armistice was signed. The UNC also proposed adjusting the current line of contact, giving up ground near the east coast in return for placing Kaesong in the UNC zone. The KPA/CPV insisted on immediate agreement on the location of the MDL and refused to give up Kaesong.\nRidgway's efforts to regain Kaesong were prompted by recognition of the military importance of the area as the main avenue of approach into the south and by strong pressures from Syngman Rhee, to whom the old Korean capital had symbolic significance. Neither of these arguments was persuasive to the US leadership, which faced important diplomatic battles in the fall UN General Assembly session and was in the final stages of negotiating a multinational peace treaty with Japan. US leaders believed the armistice would soon go into effect and did not want to be seen as delaying agreement over what might be viewed as trivial issues. Bowing to orders and under strong protest, Ridgway on 13 November directed his negotiators to propose a four-kilometer- wide Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) centered on an MDL running along the current battle line if all other issues were settled within 30 days. With this concession, specifics were soon worked out and on 27 November 1951 the two sides agreed to an MDL running approximately along the line of ground contact. Although subsequent fighting required some minor adjustments, the line remained substantially unchanged until the Armistice was signed.[22]\nThe two sides then addressed concrete measures to implement the Armistice. They quickly agreed on a Military Armistice Commission with equal representation from both sides, but differed as to the nature and scope of its activities. The UNC wanted a supervisory mechanism with the power of inspection throughout Korea and, fearing a challenge to UNC air superiority, also called for a ban on the repair or construction of airfields. The KPA/CPV accepted the idea of supervision inside the DMZ but rejected the airfield repair ban and inspections outside the DMZ.[23]\nOn 3 December 1951 the KPA/CPV proposed a compromise, suggesting Armistice supervision outside the Demilitarized Zone by nations \"neutral in the Korean War.\" The UNC accepted and by March 1952 the two sides had agreed to Czechoslovakia, Poland, Sweden, and Switzerland as members of a Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission (NNSC) as well as on procedures for the rotation of military personnel and equipment. This resolved the Armistice implementation issue except for airfield repair and a new KPA/CPV demand that the Soviet Union be included in the neutral commission.[24] Resolution of these matters soon became embroiled in the far more difficult issue of repatriation of prisoners of war.\nThe Prisoner of War Obstacle\nBoth sides had initially assumed that all POWs would be exchanged at the conclusion of an armistice. However, among the prisoners held by the UNC were many former residents of South Korea who had been inducted into the KPA and subsequently captured. The United States agreed with the South Korean government that they should be allowed to return to their homes in the south. Many of the Chinese soldiers in the CPV had originally been in the Nationalist Chinese army, and some of these were likely to prefer to go to Taiwan rather than being forced to return to Communist China.\nBy the time negotiations began on the POW issue, US President Harry Truman had become convinced that prisoners should not be repatriated against their will. He was heavily influenced in this by memories of the tragic post-World War II fate of millions of Soviet prisoners who had been forcibly repatriated, many subsequently suffering long imprisonment or death. General Ridgway argued against this policy, fearing it would delay an armistice and jeopardize UNC prisoners held by the KPA/CPV. Nonetheless, Truman held firm to his convictions. His concern was humanitarian, but other US officials also foresaw a moral and propaganda victory if large numbers of Chinese and North Korean soldiers rejected communism.[25] In January 1952, when the UNC proposed voluntary repatriation of prisoners of war, the KPA/CPV immediately rejected the concept. While all the other POW-related issues were quickly resolved, voluntary repatriation became a seemingly in- surmountable obstacle.[26]\nNegotiations on both armistice implementation and the POW issue were now stalled, but the two sides managed to agree on a set of \"Recommendations to the Governments Concerned.\" On 6 February 1952, General Nam Il proposed a post-Armistice political conference to discuss withdrawal of foreign forces from Korea, specific recommendations for peaceful settlement of the Korean question, and other problems relating to peace in Korea. The two sides agreed to these provisions, with a few minor changes, after less than two weeks of discussion.[27]\nIn March 1952 the KPA/CPV side began to show some flexibility on POWs; if the majority of Chinese and North Korean prisoners had been willing to return, the KPA/CPV negotiators might have accepted some voluntary repatriation formula. But on 19 April, after a controversial and sometimes violent process of screening prisoners to determine their repatriation desires, the UNC advised that out of over 170,000 North Korean and Chinese prisoners, only 70,000 desired repatriation. The KPA/CPV negotiators stated flatly that such a low figure could not possibly be the basis for further discussion. In an attempt to recast the issues and thus find some common ground, the UNC negotiators presented what they referred to as a \"package proposal\" on 28 April. Dropping the ban on airfield repair, they asked the KPA/CPV to concede on USSR participation in the NNSC and voluntary repatriation. The KPA/CPV accepted the first two proposals, effectively resolving the Armistice implementation issue, but firmly rejected voluntary repatriation except for former residents of South Korea who had been impressed into the North Korean army.[28]\nWith neither side prepared to compromise on this issue, the tone at Panmunjom became increasingly hostile. The Chinese and North Koreans began an intense propaganda offensive, accusing the United States of conducting germ warfare. At the same time, bloody uprisings in the UNC-controlled POW camps embarrassed the UNC and cast doubt on its administration of the camps and the legitimacy and impartiality of the screening. On 8 October 1952, with no progress in sight, the UNC unilaterally declared a recess.[29] Neither side was prepared to initiate a major offensive, but both now increased their military activity to put pressure on their opponents.\nThe UNC resumed limited-objective ground attacks, and General Mark W. Clark, who had replaced Ridgway as CINCUNC in May, gained approval to conduct the largest air attacks of the war against the North Korean capital of Pyongyang and to destroy hydroelectric dams on the Yalu River.[30] The Chinese leadership, now convinced that the war would continue for some time, concluded that the best way to sustain a protracted war was to remain on the overall defensive, build up their forces, improve their positional defenses, and conduct violent but limited attacks at the tactical level. The Chinese also began rotating units to give them combat experience and substantially reinforced the CPV. By early 1953, Chinese troop strength in Korea reached 1.53 million, the highest of the war.[31]\nThe UNC ground attacks were not sufficiently damaging to persuade the Chinese to compromise. The UNC air attacks caused great devastation but failed to disrupt the Communist lines of communication and, since the greatest impact was on North Korean civilians, the attacks had no effect on the will of the Chinese leadership. None of the Chinese ground attacks were threatening or costly enough to cause the United States to back away from voluntary repatriation. But their troop reinforcement, strengthening of fortifications, and hardening of their logistical system greatly increased the costs and diminished the likelihood of success of any future UNC ground offensive.[32] Thus, although the level of violence in Korea increased substantially in 1952, with neither side prepared to bear the costs of a major ground offensive, these actions had no discernible effect on the negotiations.\nBreaking the Stalemate\nWith the talks deadlocked, other parties now began to search for a formula that would lead to a truce. During the Autumn 1952 UN General Assembly session, the Indian delegation, strongly supported by the British and other Commonwealth countries, suggested the establishment of a Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission (NNRC) to deal with the prisoners refusing repatriation. The United States, under pressure from its allies, agreed to support the Indian proposal, which was endorsed by the General Assembly on 3 December. The Indian resolution would eventually provide the basis for solving the POW repatriation issue.[33]\nThe political equation also began to change on both sides. In January 1953 Dwight Eisenhower came to office committed to ending the war. The new President was keenly aware that neither the American people nor the UN allies were likely to accept major new sacrifices and rejected the idea of an offensive to reunify Korea. He was willing to accept the Armistice as negotiated so far, so long as there was no major compromise on the voluntary repatriation issue. At the same time, however, he was willing to consider stepped up military measures, including the use of nuclear weapons against China, if there was no progress in the truce talks.[34] North Korea, by now economically devastated, was willing to see the war end. The Chinese leadership, their nation strained by the war effort and eager to begin economic reconstruction, was prepared to return to the truce talks but preferred that the United States make the first move.[35]\nThat move came on 22 February 1953 when Clark, following up a Red Cross proposal, called for an exchange of sick and wounded prisoners. Soon thereafter, on 5 March, Soviet Leader Joseph Stalin died. His successors, facing unrest in the European satellites and seeking a relaxation of Cold War tensions, were predisposed to a settlement in Korea and encouraged the Chinese and North Koreans to conclude an armistice.[36] On 28 March the KPA/CPV accepted Clark's proposal. Two days later Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai made a speech in which he proposed that those prisoners not desiring repatriation be transferred to a neutral state. Kim Il-sung publicly endorsed this policy the next day, as did the Soviet foreign minister on 1 April.[37]\nThe Chinese and North Koreans had now accepted the principle of voluntary repatriation, and events began to move quickly. The exchange of sick and wounded prisoners began on 20 April, and the truce talks resumed on 26 April. On that date the KPA/CPV put the Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission concept on the table, suggesting the NNRC be composed of the same members as the Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission, plus India.[38] The two sides were now close to agreement, but the UNC still found some aspects of the KPA/CPV proposal unacceptable, and introduced two new demands: that the NNRC work on the basis of consensus, rather than majority vote, and that South Korean non-repatriates not be turned over to the NNRC. Both positions were contrary to the Indian UN resolution, which the US government had previously supported, and so, in spite of vociferous South Korean objections, the Eisenhower Administration ultimately decided not to jeopardize the Armistice over these issues.[39]\nOn 25 May the UNC presented what it called its final position. Dropping both of the new conditions, it called for the repatriation of all prisoners within 60 days after the signing of the Armistice. Those refusing repatriation were to be transferred to the NNRC for a 90-day period during which representatives of their home country would have access to them under NNRC supervision. After 90 days the postwar political conference would deal with any remaining nonrepatriates, but after an additional 30 days the nonrepatriates would either be released or their fate decided by the United Nations General Assembly.[40]\nThe UNC concessions made the proposal palatable to the Chinese and North Koreans, who were under some pressure to accept. Not only was the Soviet leadership urging them to bring the war to an end, but the United States had begun exhibiting a willingness to step up its military action. In May 1953 US aircraft attacked irrigation dams near Pyongyang, flooding and disrupting rail and road lines. Although the North Koreans were eventually able to neutralize the effects of further attacks by draining the reservoirs, these raids further strained the North Korean infrastructure.[41] On 20 May President Eisenhower and his advisors had decided that if the KPA/CPV rejected the final offer, the UNC would initiate a military offensive that might include attacks on China and the use of nuclear weapons.[42] To signal this resolve, General Clark publicly warned that if the Chinese and North Koreans did not accept the 25 May proposal, the UNC would widen its war effort. US officials also attempted to transmit veiled nuclear threats through India and other countries.[43]\nIt is unclear what combination of UNC concessions, Soviet pressure, stepped-up air attacks, and nuclear threats persuaded the Chinese and North Koreans to accept the UNC position, but in combination, they achieved the desired effect. On 4 June General Nam Il declared, \"We basically agree to the new proposal which your side put forward on 25 May.\"[44] On 8 June the two sides concluded an agreement on voluntary repatriation, and staff officers began a review of the Armistice language preparatory to its signature.[45]\nFeeling betrayed by the 25 May UNC concessions, ROK President Syngman Rhee now made a final effort to derail the Armistice. He made strong overtures to President Eisenhower, ordered public demonstrations, threatened to remove the ROK military forces from the UNC, said he would attack any Indian troops that set foot on South Korean soil, and on 17 June unilaterally released Korean prisoners from the UNC POW camps. Rhee's actions brought the negotiations to a halt. The Chinese and North Koreans refused to accept an armistice without assurance that the South Koreans would comply with its terms. Rhee finally agreed to abide by the Armistice only after receiving a promise of future US support, a mutual security treaty with the United States, and a major aid package--and after a series of heavy Chinese attacks aimed specifically at South Korean units nearly destroyed two ROK divisions.[46] Rhee's acceptance removed the final obstacle to a truce.\nGeneral Nam Il and General Harrison signed the Armistice Agreement at 10 o'clock in the morning of 27 July 1953 in a hastily constructed pavilion at Panmunjom. Kim Il Sung, Peng Dehuai, and Mark Clark later countersigned the document in separate ceremonies at Kaesong and Munsan. At 10 o'clock that night the Armistice went into effect and the guns fell silent across Korea.\nConclusion\nAlthough no future war will ever repeat the combination of circumstances involved in the Korean War truce talks, the talks are still worth examination by those who may be involved in future limited war conflict termination. The nature and outcome of the talks were affected by the interplay of many factors. American negotiating policy and strategy were shaped by US interests, objectives, and activities elsewhere in the world, especially the confrontation with the Soviet Union and preoccupation with the post-World War II reconstruction of Europe and Japan. Domestic politics, although played out in very different ways in the United States and China, also affected the leadership of both countries. Cultural differences and preconceptions colored the attitudes and decisionmaking of both sides, influencing the character and pace of the talks.\nLack of diplomatic contact or other reliable means of private communication between the United States and China made the negotiations particularly cumbersome. This effect was made worse by the physical isolation and austere nature of the conference site, which deprived the delegates of any opportunities for the kinds of informal contacts that might have facilitated dialogue. The key factors, however, were the intensity of the national interests engaged on each side, the value each country's leadership placed on its objectives, and the price they were willing to pay to achieve those objectives.\nDuring the early months of the talks, with the battle lines still somewhat fluid, the UNC was able to use limited ground attacks to enhance its bargaining position, but this possibility faded as the battle lines hardened and the costs of such attacks increased. In 1952, neither side was willing or able to exert sufficient military leverage to break the stalemate, but during the last months of the talks, both China and the United States successfully used limited military force to support their negotiations. US air attacks had by then devastated the North Korean infrastructure and provided plausible evidence that the Americans were willing to escalate the level of violence. The Chinese, in turn, used ground attacks to demonstrate the South Korean inability to fight alone and to pressure Rhee into accepting the Armistice. But both sides also made concessions based on calculations weighing the value of their objectives against the potential costs of continued fighting and the questionable prospects for the success of any major new offensive. The long, tedious negotiations at Panmunjom and elsewhere eventually provided formulas for implementing these concessions, thus resolving otherwise intractable issues.\nThe talks also illustrate the role of coalition partners and third parties in conflict termination. The efforts of the Indian and other Commonwealth countries to find a mutually acceptable POW arrangement and the pressures exerted by the UN allies helped shape the final compromise. The Soviet Union, while not an acknowledged participant in the talks, played a key role in the Chinese and North Korean decision to negotiate, reinforced Chinese tenacity during the long stalemate, and contributed to the final decision to accept voluntary repatriation. Syngman Rhee's resistance to the talks and his efforts to reshape the Armistice at the very end of the negotiations also affected the policies of his superpower ally.\nAs for the Armistice itself, the United States and its UN allies achieved most of their negotiation objectives and held firm on voluntary prisoner repatriation. Some 50,000 Chinese and North Korean POWs refused repatriation, but any assessment of the value of this moral and propaganda victory must be tempered by the knowledge that the additional 15 months of fighting cost more than 125,000 UNC and some 250,000 Chinese and North Korean casualties.[47] The Chinese and North Koreans did most of the compromising over the course of the negotiations, but demonstrated the ability to withstand the United States and to bring it to the negotiating table. Syngman Rhee gained major concessions from the United States that would assure the survival of South Korea, but he remained unreconciled to the Armistice for the remainder of his life.\nNeither the war nor the Armistice resolved the underlying issues that led to hostilities in Korea. However, memories of the devastation and the high cost of the conflict, combined with the strong military posture of both sides, have so far deterred a new war. Meanwhile, the Armistice provided a mechanism to defuse military incidents, reducing the possibility that such clashes might accidentally escalate. This is still true, even though many of the Armistice provisions have been ignored or abrogated over the years. In 1994, the North Koreans announced that they were withdrawing from the Military Armistice Commission, but they continue to maintain representation at Panmunjom. Nearly half a century after it was signed, the long Armistice remains in effect.\nNOTES\nThis article is an expanded version of an article titled \"Fighting While Talking: The Korean War Truce Talks,\" appearing in the Spring 2000 issue of The Magazine of History.\n1. Dean Acheson, Present at the Creation (New York: Norton, 1969), pp. 529-34; James F. Schnabel and Robert J. Watson, History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff: The Joint Chiefs of Staff and National Policy 1951-1953, The Korean War, Part Two (Washington: Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 1998), pp. 1-10; NSC 48/5, \"United States Objectives, Policies and Courses of Action in Asia,\" 17 May 1951, reprinted in US Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States [hereinafter, FRUS], 1951, Vol. 6, Asia and the Pacific (Washington: GPO, 1977), pp. 33-63.\n2. Chen Jian, \"China's Changing Aims during the Korean War, 1950-1951,\" Journal of American-East Asian Relations, 1 (Spring 1992), 38-39; and \"China's Strategies to End the Korean War\" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association of Asian Studies, Boston, March 1994; revised [1998] version provided to the writer by Dr. Chen), pp. 11-13; Shu Guang Zhang, Mao's Military Romanticism: China and the Korean War, 1950-1953 (Lawrence: Univ. of Kansas Press, 1995), pp. 218-19; Kathryn Weathersby, \"Stalin, Mao, and the End of the Korean War,\" in Brothers in Arms: The Rise and Fall of the Sino-Soviet Alliance, 1945-1963, ed. Odd Arne Westad (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Univ. Press, 1998), pp. 95-100. Weathersby concludes, \"Although the Chinese were responsible for the day-to-day management of the war,\" Stalin \"had the final say in decisions regarding military and diplomatic strategy\" (p. 91).\n3. D. Clayton James, Refighting the Last War: Command and Crisis in Korea, 1950-1953 (New York: The Free Press, 1993), pp. 218-31, reviews the literature on the US decision to halt the UNC offensive.\n4. William Whitney Stueck, The Korean War: An International History (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press, 1995), pp. 204-15, summarizes the views of the UNC allies and the diplomatic maneuvering that preceded the truce talks. Syngman Rhee's opposition to the truce talks is described by US officials in reports reprinted in FRUS, 1951, Vol. 7, Korea and China (Washington: GPO, 1983), pp. 575, 595, 601-07, and 611, and is described by the first ROK representative to the talks, General Paik Sun Yup (Paek Son-yop), in From Pusan to Panmunjom (Washington: Brassey's [US], 1992), pp. 165, 170-78.\n5. Acheson, Present at the Creation, pp. 532-33; FRUS, 1951, VII, 404-05, 422, 447-54, 460-62, 483-86, 507-11. The pertinent portion of the text of Deputy Foreign Minister Jacob Malik's radio broadcast is reprinted in the same volume, p. 547. President Truman's positive response is in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Harry S. Truman, 1951 (Washington: GPO, 1965), pp. 362-63.\n6. US deliberations are described in Stueck, pp. 209-10. Pertinent documents are in FRUS, 1951, VII, 566-71, 583-87. For communications among Joseph Stalin, Mao Zedong, and Kim Il Sung, see Kathryn Weathersby, \"The Soviet Role in Prolonging the Korean War, 1951-1953\" (paper presented at the Georgetown University conference \"The Korean War: An Assessment of the Historical Record,\" Washington, D.C., 24-25 July 1995), pp. 18-21. For additional insights on the Chinese perspective, see Alfred D. Wilhelm, The Chinese at the Negotiating Table (Washington: National Defense Univ. Press, 1991), pp. 107-45. Chuck Downs in Over the Line: North Korea's Negotiating Strategy (Washington: AEI Press, 1999), pp. 46-51, examines the question of why the United States accepted a location so disadvantageous as Kaesong and tentatively suggests that Soviet intelligence \"mole\" Kim Philby may have played a role.\n7. Chen, \"China's Strategies,\" p. 14; Zhang, Mao's Military Romanticism, pp. 218-19; Dae-Sook Suh, Kim Il Sung: The North Korean Leader (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1988), pp. 137-38. Suh points out that \"while the Chinese volunteers refrained from interfering in the internal squabbles of [North Korean] domestic politics, they also demanded that Kim [Il-sung] stay clear of their management of the war.\"\n8. Chen, \"China's Strategies,\" pp. 2-3, 12-15; Wilhelm, The Chinese at the Negotiating Table, pp. 110-15; Zhang, Mao's Military Romanticism, pp. 9-10, 217-19; Suh, Kim Il Sung, p. 138; Weathersby, \"Stalin, Mao, and the End of the Korean War,\" p. 97. The 17 January 1951 communication is reprinted in Yearbook of the United Nations, 1951 (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1952), pp. 212-13.\n9. FRUS, 1951, VII, 605-06.\n10. \"Memorandum of Conversation, by John R. Heideman of the Bureau of Far Eastern Affairs,\" 29 June 1951, ibid., p. 594.\n11. Walter G. Hermes, United States Army in the Korean War, Truce Tent and Fighting Front (Washington: Center of Military History, 1966), p. 20; JCS 95864, JCS to CINCUNC (Ridgway), 9 July 1951, FRUS, 1951, VII, 640; HNC-047, CINCUNC (Ridgway) to JCS, 10 July 1951, ibid., p. 648.\n12. The Hermes book is the official US Army history of the negotiations; it is also useful for putting the negotiations into the context of the ongoing combat operations in Korea. Schnabel and Watson, in History of the Joint Chiefs . . . The Korean War, Part Two, describe US policymaking during the period of the truce talks. Insights into the thoughts and actions of the first UNC chief negotiator may be found in Allan E. Goodman, ed., Negotiating While Fighting: The Diary of Admiral C. Turner Joy at the Korean Armistice Conference (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1978). William H. Vatcher, an advisor to the UNC negotiators, describes the talks in Panmunjom: The Story of the Korean Military Armistice Negotiations (New York: Praeger, 1958). The observations of Herbert Goldhamer, a RAND Corporation psychologist who spent three months in 1951 as an unofficial advisor to the UNC negotiating team, have been published as The 1951 Korean Armistice Conference: A Personal Memoir (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, 1994). The two most recent studies of the truce talks, both of which contain useful bibliographies and documentation, are Rosemary Foot, A Substitute for Victory: The Politics of Peacemaking at the Korean Armistice Talks (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press, 1990) and Sydney D. Bailey, The Korean Armistice (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992). For the KPA/CPV perspective, see Chen, \"China's Strategies\"; Zhang, Mao's Military Romanticism; and Wilhelm, The Chinese at the Negotiating Table.\n13. NSC 48/5, FRUS, 1951, VI, 35-36.\n14. \"Memorandum Containing the Sections Dealing With Korea From NSC 48/5, Dated May 17, 1951,\" in FRUS, 1951, VII, 439-40; JCS 92831, JCS to CINCFE (Ridgway), 31 May 1951, Part II, \"Directive to CINCUNC\" in FRUS, 1951, VII, 489-90.\n15. JCS 95354, JCS to CINCUNC (Ridgway), 30 June 1951 in FRUS, 1951, VII, 598-600; CX 66160, CINCUNC (Ridgway) to JCS, 1 July 1951, ibid., pp. 607-09. The overall truce talks objectives set forth in NSC 48/5 were revalidated in policy deliberations carried out later in 1951 and were contained in NSC 118/2 approved by President Truman on 20 December 1951. See FRUS, 1951, VII, 1384.\n16. Schnabel and Watson, pp. 3-7; JCS 95977, JCS for CINCUNC, 10 July 1951, in FRUS, 1951, VII, 647.\n17. Hermes, pp. 20-22; Wilhelm, pp. 127-30; J. C. Murray, \"The Korean Truce Talks: First Phase,\" U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, 79 (September 1953), 982; Andrew J. Kinney, \"Secrets From the Truce Tent,\" This Week Magazine, New York Herald-Tribune, 31 August 1952, p. 7. Murray and Kinney served as UNC liaison and staff officers during the truce talks. On the Kaesong Neutral Zone issue see Hermes, pp. 26-29, and Goodman, pp. 16-19. A summary of the key provisions of the Kaesong Security Agreement is in HNC-098, CINCUNC (Ridgway) to JCS, 15 July 1951, FRUS, 1951, VII, 685.\n18. Hermes, pp. 29-32; the English text of the Armistice Agreement is reprinted in Hermes as Appendix C, pp. 516-28. It is also reprinted in Goodman, Bailey, and Foot.\n19. Chen, \"China's Strategies,\" pp. 19-20; Stueck, pp. 230-31.\n20. Chen, \"China's Strategies,\" p. 20. The text of the Panmunjom Security Agreement is in FRUS, 1951, VII, 1059-60. A later agreement on the safe conduct of KPA/CPV vehicles is described in Goodman, 91.\n21. Chen, \"China's Strategies,\" pp. 17-20.\n22. Hermes, pp. 114-19; Schnabel and Watson, pp. 27-31; Messages between CINCUNC (Ridgway) and JCS in FRUS, 1951, VII, 1075-76. For the US decision to accept the truce line, see Schnabel and Watson, pp. 27-31.\n23. Hermes, pp. 123-25; Schnabel and Watson, pp. 46-55.\n24. Hermes, pp. 127-28, 156; Schnabel and Watson, pp. 81-84, 90-94.\n25. Schnabel and Watson, pp. 58-68; Barton J. Bernstein, \"The Struggle over the Korean Armistice: Prisoners of Repatriation,\" in Child of Conflict: The Korean-American Relationship, 1943-1953, ed. Bruce Cumings (Seattle: Univ. of Washington Press, 1983), pp. 274-83. General Ridgway's arguments against voluntary repatriation are in CX-55993, CINCFE (Ridgway) to JCS, 27 October 1951, in FRUS, 1951, VII, 1068-71.\n26. Schnabel and Watson, pp. 68-76; Hermes, pp. 144-49; Chen, \"China's Strategies,\" pp. 222-23.\n27. Hermes, pp. 156-59; Schnabel and Watson, pp. 78-81.\n28. Bernstein, \"Prisoners of Repatriation,\" pp. 283-88, 300-01; Schnabel and Watson, pp. 85-108, 131-42, 159-80.\n29. On the germ warfare charges, see Schnabel and Watson, pp. 127-31, and Chen, \"China's Strategies,\" pp. 24-25. Chen concludes that there is no evidence that the United States actually conducted such a campaign but argues that the Chinese leadership \"truly believed that the Americans had used biological weapons against the Chinese and North Koreans\" (emphasis Chen's). Recently published Soviet documents, however, lend some credibility to the argument that the charges were false accusations issued as part of a propaganda campaign. See Kathryn Weathersby, \"Deceiving the Deceivers: Moscow, Beijing, Pyongyang, and the Allegations of Bacteriological Weapons Use in Korea,\" Cold War International History Project Bulletin, 11 (Winter 1998), 176-85; Milton Leitenberg, \"New Evidence on the Korean War Biological Warfare Allegations: Background and Analysis,\" ibid., pp. 185-99.\n30. Bernstein, \"Prisoners of Repatriation,\" pp. 288-96; Schnabel and Watson, pp. 143-48.\n31. Zhang, Mao's Military Romanticism, pp. 225-27; Chen, \"China's Strategies,\" pp. 25-26.\n32. Stueck, pp. 280-81. Charles R. Shrader, Communist Logistics in the Korean War (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1995), pp. 192-214, describes the successful Chinese and North Korean efforts to maintain their logistical system in the face of UNC air interdiction.\n33. Stueck, pp. 298-306; Foot, Substitute for Victory, pp. 152-57; Schnabel and Watson, pp. 182-86; United Nations, Yearbook of the United Nations, 1952 (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1953), pp. 179-201. The text of the resolution (610[vii]) is reprinted in the latter, pp. 201-02.\n34. Edward C. Keefer, \"President Dwight D. Eisenhower and the End of the Korean War,\" Diplomatic History, 10 (Summer 1986), 267-76; Schnabel and Watson, pp. 100-207; Foot, Substitute for Victory, pp. 159-61.\n35. Chen, \"China's Strategies,\" pp. 30-31.\n36. Weathersby, \"Stalin, Mao, and the End of the Korean War,\" pp. 108-09; Stueck, pp. 308-09.\n37. Hermes, pp. 412-43; Stueck, p. 309.\n38. Hermes, p. 422.\n39. Ibid., pp. 422-28; Schnabel and Watson, pp. 217-18.\n40. Hermes, pp. 428-30.\n41. Robert F. Futrell, The United States Air Force in Korea 1950-1953 (rev. ed.; Washington: Office of Air Force History, 1983), pp. 666-72; Stueck, pp. 325-30.\n42. \"Memorandum of Discussion at the 145th Meeting of the National Security Council, Wednesday, May 20, 1953,\" in FRUS, 1952-1954, Vol. 15, Korea (Washington: GPO, 1984), pp. 1064-68. Keefer describes the background to the 20 May 1953 NSC meeting in \"President Dwight D. Eisenhower and the End of the Korean War,\" pp. 267-79.\n43. Keefer concludes that the nuclear threats, along with other factors, did influence the Chinese and North Korean decisionmakers (pp. 281-82, 288-89). Roger Dingman puts the May 1953 nuclear threats in the context of previous attempts by the Truman Administration to use US nuclear forces as leverage in the Korean War. He concludes that the US overtures were more in the nature of pleas for cooperation than \"nuclear threats\" and debunks the notion that \"atomic diplomacy\" had any major influence over Chinese and North Korean decisionmaking. See his \"Atomic Diplomacy During the Korean War,\" International Security, 13 (Winter 1988-89), 50-91. Rosemary Foot, however, makes a persuasive case that \"atomic coercion\" probably had some influence, though she acknowledges that it was not the dominating factor in ending the war. See her \"Nuclear Coercion and the Ending of the Korean Conflict,\" in the same issue of International Security, pp. 92-112.\n44. Schnabel and Watson, p. 225.\n45. Hermes, pp. 430-35.\n46. Schnabel and Watson, pp. 227-48; Barton Bernstein, \"The Pawn as Rook, The Struggle to End the Korean War,\" Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, 10 (No. 1, 1978), 40-45.\n47. Hermes, p. 500.\nColonel Donald W. Boose, Jr. (USA, Ret.) spent six years with the United Nations Command Component of the Military Armistice Commission in Korea and was the Assistant Chief of Staff/J-5 (Director of Strategic Plans and Policy) of US forces, Japan, from 1987 to 1990. Prior to his retirement from the Army, he was Director of Asian Studies at the US Army War College, where he continues to teach. He is the coauthor of Great Battles of Antiquity, to which he contributed chapters on warfare in pre-modern East Asia." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Computer_keyboard.txt", "Letter_(alphabet).txt" ], "title": [ "Computer keyboard", "Letter (alphabet)" ], "wiki_context": [ "In computing, a computer keyboard is a typewriter-style device which uses an arrangement of buttons or keys to act as a mechanical lever or electronic switch. Following the decline of punch cards and paper tape, interaction via teleprinter-style keyboards became the main input device for computers.\n\nA keyboard typically has characters engraved or printed on the keys and each press of a key typically corresponds to a single written symbol. However, to produce some symbols requires pressing and holding several keys simultaneously or in sequence. While most keyboard keys produce letters, numbers or signs (characters), other keys or simultaneous key presses can produce actions or execute computer commands.\n\nDespite the development of alternative input devices, such as the mouse, touchscreen, pen devices, character recognition and voice recognition, the keyboard remains the most commonly used device for direct (human) input of alphanumeric data into computers.\n\nIn normal usage, the keyboard is used as a text entry interface to type text and numbers into a word processor, text editor or other programs. In a modern computer, the interpretation of key presses is generally left to the software. A computer keyboard distinguishes each physical key from every other and reports all key presses to the controlling software. Keyboards are also used for computer gaming, either with regular keyboards or by using keyboards with special gaming features, which can expedite frequently used keystroke combinations. A keyboard is also used to give commands to the operating system of a computer, such as Windows' Control-Alt-Delete combination, which brings up a task window or shuts down the machine.\nA command-line interface is a type of user interface operated entirely through a keyboard, or another device doing the job of one.\n\nHistory \n\nWhile typewriters are the definitive ancestor of all key-based text entry devices, the computer keyboard as a device for electromechanical data entry and communication derives largely from the utility of two devices: teleprinters (or teletypes) and keypunches. It was through such devices that modern computer keyboards inherited their layouts.\n\nAs early as the 1870s, teleprinter-like devices were used to simultaneously type and transmit stock market text data from the keyboard across telegraph lines to stock ticker machines to be immediately copied and displayed onto ticker tape. The teleprinter, in its more contemporary form, was developed from 1907 to 1910 by American mechanical engineer Charles Krum and his son Howard, with early contributions by electrical engineer Frank Pearne. Earlier models were developed separately by individuals such as Royal Earl House and Frederick G. Creed.\n\nEarlier, Herman Hollerith developed the first keypunch devices, which soon evolved to include keys for text and number entry akin to normal typewriters by the 1930s. \n\nThe keyboard on the teleprinter played a strong role in point-to-point and point-to-multipoint communication for most of the 20th century, while the keyboard on the keypunch device played a strong role in data entry and storage for just as long. The development of the earliest computers incorporated electric typewriter keyboards: the development of the ENIAC computer incorporated a keypunch device as both the input and paper-based output device, while the BINAC computer also made use of an electromechanically controlled typewriter for both data entry onto magnetic tape (instead of paper) and data output.\n\nFrom the 1940s until the late 1960s, typewriters were the main means of data entry and output for computing, becoming integrated into what were known as computer terminals. Because of the limitations of terminals based upon printed text in comparison to the growth in data storage, processing and transmission, a general move toward video-based computer terminals was effected by the 1970s, starting with the Datapoint 3300 in 1967.\n\nThe keyboard remained the primary, most integrated computer peripheral well into the era of personal computing until the introduction of the mouse as a consumer device in 1984. By this time, text-only user interfaces with sparse graphics gave way to comparatively graphics-rich icons on screen. However, keyboards remain central to human-computer interaction to the present, even as mobile personal computing devices such as smartphones and tablets adapt the keyboard as an optional virtual, touchscreen-based means of data entry.\n\nKeyboard types \n\nOne factor determining the size of a keyboard is the presence of duplicate keys, such as a separate numeric keyboard, for convenience.\n\nFurther the keyboard size depends on the extent to which a system is used where a single action is produced by a combination of subsequent or simultaneous keystrokes (with modifier keys, see below), or multiple pressing of a single key. A keyboard with few keys is called a keypad. See also text entry interface.\n\nAnother factor determining the size of a keyboard is the size and spacing of the keys. Reduction is limited by the practical consideration that the keys must be large enough to be easily pressed by fingers. Alternatively a tool is used for pressing small keys.\n\nStandard \n\nStandard alphanumeric keyboards have keys that are on three-quarter inch centers (0.750 inches, 19.05 mm), and have a key travel of at least 0.150 inches (3.81 mm). Desktop computer keyboards, such as the 101-key US traditional keyboards or the 104-key Windows keyboards, include alphabetic characters, punctuation symbols, numbers and a variety of function keys. The internationally common 102/104 key keyboards have a smaller left shift key and an additional key with some more symbols between that and the letter to its right (usually Z or Y). Also the enter key is usually shaped differently. Computer keyboards are similar to electric-typewriter keyboards but contain additional keys, such as the command or Windows keys. There is no standard computer keyboard, although many manufacture imitate the keyboard of PCs. There are actually three different PC keyboard: the original PC keyboard with 84 keys, the AT keyboard also with 84 keys and the enhanced keyboard with 101 keys. The three differ some what in the placement of function keys, the control keys, the return key, and the shift key.\n\nLaptop-size \n\nKeyboards on laptops and notebook computers usually have a shorter travel distance for the keystroke, shorter over travel distance, and a reduced set of keys. They may not have a numerical keypad, and the function keys may be placed in locations that differ from their placement on a standard, full-sized keyboard. The switch mechanism for a laptop keyboard is more likely to be a scissor switch than a rubber dome; this is opposite the trend for full-size keyboards.\n\nFlexible keyboards \n\nFlexible keyboards are a junction between normal type and laptop type keyboards, normal from the full arrangement of keys, and laptop from the sort key distance, additionally the flexibility it allows the user to fold/roll the keyboard for better storage / transfer, however for typing, the keyboard must be resting on a hard surface. The vast majority of flexible keyboards in market are made from silicone, this material makes it water and dust proof, a very pleasant feature especially in hospitals where keyboards are subjected to frequent washing. For connection with the computer, the keyboards having USB cable and the support of operating systems reach far back as the Windows 2000.\n\nHandheld \n\nHandheld ergonomic keyboards are designed to be held like a game controller, and can be used as such, instead of laid out flat on top of a table surface. Typically handheld keyboards hold all the alphanumeric keys and symbols that a standard keyboard would have, yet only be accessed by pressing two sets of keys at once; one acting as a function key similar to a 'Shift' key that would allow for capital letters on a standard keyboard. Handheld keyboards allow the user the ability to move around a room or to lean back on a chair while also being able to type in front or away from the computer. Some variations of handheld ergonomic keyboards also include a trackball mouse that allow mouse movement and typing included in one handheld device.\n\nThumb-sized \n\nSmaller external keyboards have been introduced for devices without a built-in keyboard, such as PDAs, and smartphones. Small keyboards are also useful where there is a limited workspace.\n\nA chorded keyboard allows users to press several keys simultaneously. For example, the GKOS keyboard has been designed for small wireless devices. Other two-handed alternatives more akin to a game controller, such as the AlphaGrip, are also used to input data and text.\n\nA thumb keyboard (thumb board) is used in some personal digital assistants such as the Palm Treo and BlackBerry and some Ultra-Mobile PCs such as the OQO.\n\nNumeric keyboards contain only numbers, mathematical symbols for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, a decimal point, and several function keys. They are often used to facilitate data entry with smaller keyboards that do not have a numeric keypad, commonly those of laptop computers. These keys are collectively known as a numeric pad, numeric keys, or a numeric keypad, and it can consist of the following types of keys: Arithmetic operators, numbers, arrow keys, Navigation keys, Num Lock and Enter key.\n\nMultifunctional \n\nMultifunctional keyboards provide additional function beyond the standard keyboard. Many are programmable, configurable computer keyboards and some control multiple PCs, workstations (incl. SUN) and other information sources (incl. Thomson Reuters FXT/Eikon, Bloomberg, EBS, etc.) usually in multi-screen work environments. Users have additional key functions as well as the standard functions and can typically use a single keyboard and mouse to access multiple sources. \n\nMultifunctional keyboards may feature customised keypads, fully programmable function or soft keys for macros/pre-sets, biometric or smart card readers, trackballs, etc. New generation multifunctional keyboards feature a touchscreen display to stream video, control audio visual media and alarms, execute application inputs, configure individual desktop environments, etc. Multifunctional keyboards may also permit users to share access to PCs and other information sources. Multiple interfaces (serial, USB, audio, Ethernet, etc.) are used to integrate external devices. Some multifunctional keyboards are also used to directly and intuitively control video walls.\n\nCommon environments for multifunctional keyboards are complex, high-performance workplaces for financial traders and control room operators (emergency services, security, air traffic management; industry, utilities management, etc.).\n\nNon-standard layout and special-use types \n\nChorded \n\nWhile other keyboards generally associate one action with each key, chorded keyboards associate actions with combinations of key presses. Since there are many combinations available, chorded keyboards can effectively produce more actions on a board with fewer keys. Court reporters' stenotype machines use chorded keyboards to enable them to enter text much faster by typing a syllable with each stroke instead of one letter at a time. The fastest typists (as of 2007) use a stenograph, a kind of chorded keyboard used by most court reporters and closed-caption reporters. Some chorded keyboards are also made for use in situations where fewer keys are preferable, such as on devices that can be used with only one hand, and on small mobile devices that don't have room for larger keyboards. Chorded keyboards are less desirable in many cases because it usually takes practice and memorization of the combinations to become proficient.\n\nSoftware \n\nSoftware keyboards or on-screen keyboards often take the form of computer programs that display an image of a keyboard on the screen. Another input device such as a mouse or a touchscreen can be used to operate each virtual key to enter text. Software keyboards have become very popular in touchscreen enabled cell phones, due to the additional cost and space requirements of other types of hardware keyboards. Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and some varieties of Linux include on-screen keyboards that can be controlled with the mouse. In software keyboards, the mouse has to be maneuvered onto the on-screen letters given by the software. On the click of a letter, the software writes the respective letter on the respective spot.\n\nProjection (as by laser) \n\nProjection keyboards project an image of keys, usually with a laser, onto a flat surface. The device then uses a camera or infrared sensor to \"watch\" where the user's fingers move, and will count a key as being pressed when it \"sees\" the user's finger touch the projected image. Projection keyboards can simulate a full size keyboard from a very small projector. Because the \"keys\" are simply projected images, they cannot be felt when pressed. Users of projected keyboards often experience increased discomfort in their fingertips because of the lack of \"give\" when typing. A flat, non-reflective surface is also required for the keys to be projected. Most projection keyboards are made for use with PDAs and smartphones due to their small form factor.\n\nOptical keyboard technology \n\nAlso known as photo-optical keyboard, light responsive keyboard, photo-electric keyboard and optical key actuation detection technology.\n\nAn optical keyboard technology utilizes light emitting devices and photo sensors to optically detect actuated keys. Most commonly the emitters and sensors are located in the perimeter, mounted on a small PCB. The light is directed from side to side of the keyboard interior and it can only be blocked by the actuated keys. Most optical keyboards require at least 2 beams (most commonly vertical beam and horizontal beam) to determine the actuated key. Some optical keyboards use a special key structure that blocks the light in a certain pattern, allowing only one beam per row of keys (most commonly horizontal beam).\n\nLayout \n\nAlphabetic \n\nThere are a number of different arrangements of alphabetic, numeric, and punctuation symbols on keys. These different keyboard layouts arise mainly because different people need easy access to different symbols, either because they are inputting text in different languages, or because they need a specialized layout for mathematics, accounting, computer programming, or other purposes. The United States keyboard layout is used as default in the currently most popular operating systems: Windows, Mac OS X and Linux. The common QWERTY-based layout was designed early in the era of mechanical typewriters, so its ergonomics were compromised to allow for the mechanical limitations of the typewriter.\n\nAs the letter-keys were attached to levers that needed to move freely, inventor Christopher Sholes developed the QWERTY layout to reduce the likelihood of jamming. With the advent of computers, lever jams are no longer an issue, but nevertheless, QWERTY layouts were adopted for electronic keyboards because they were widely used. Alternative layouts such as the Dvorak Simplified Keyboard are not in widespread use.\n\nThe QWERTZ layout is widely used in Germany and much of Central Europe. The main difference between it and QWERTY is that Y and Z are swapped, and most special characters such as brackets are replaced by diacritical characters.\n\nAnother situation takes place with \"national\" layouts. Keyboards designed for typing in Spanish have some characters shifted, to release the space for Ñ ñ; similarly, those for Portuguese, French and other European languages may have a special key for the character Ç ç. The AZERTY layout is used in France, Belgium and some neighbouring countries. It differs from the QWERTY layout in that the A and Q are swapped, the Z and W are swapped, and the M is moved from the right of N to the right of L (where colon/semicolon is on a US keyboard). The digits 0 to 9 are on the same keys, but to be typed the shift key must be pressed. The unshifted positions are used for accented characters.\n\nKeyboards in many parts of Asia may have special keys to switch between the Latin character set and a completely different typing system. Japanese layout keyboards can be switched between various Japanese input methods and the Latin alphabet by signaling the operating system's input interpreter of the change, and some operating systems (namely the Windows family) interpret the character \"\\\" as \"¥\" for display purposes without changing the bytecode which has led some keyboard makers to mark \"\\\" as \"¥\" or both. In the Arab world, keyboards can often be switched between Arabic and Latin characters.\n\nIn bilingual regions of Canada and in the French-speaking province of Québec, keyboards can often be switched between an English and a French-language keyboard; while both keyboards share the same QWERTY alphabetic layout, the French-language keyboard enables the user to type accented vowels such as \"é\" or \"à\" with a single keystroke. Using keyboards for other languages leads to a conflict: the image on the key does not correspond to the character. In such cases, each new language may require an additional label on the keys, because the standard keyboard layouts do not share even similar characters of different languages (see the example in the figure above).\n\nKey types \n\nAlphanumeric \n\nAlphabetical, numeric, and punctuation keys are used in the same fashion as a typewriter keyboard to enter their respective symbol into a word processing program, text editor, data spreadsheet, or other program. Many of these keys will produce different symbols when modifier keys or shift keys are pressed. The alphabetic characters become uppercase when the shift key or Caps Lock key is depressed. The numeric characters become symbols or punctuation marks when the shift key is depressed. The alphabetical, numeric, and punctuation keys can also have other functions when they are pressed at the same time as some modifier keys.\nThe Space bar is a horizontal bar in the lowermost row, which is significantly wider than other keys. Like the alphanumeric characters, it is also descended from the mechanical typewriter. Its main purpose is to enter the space between words during typing. It is large enough so that a thumb from either hand can use it easily. Depending on the operating system, when the space bar is used with a modifier key such as the control key, it may have functions such as resizing or closing the current window, half-spacing, or backspacing. In computer games and other applications the key has myriad uses in addition to its normal purpose in typing, such as jumping and adding marks to check boxes. In certain programs for playback of digital video, the space bar is used for pausing and resuming the playback.\n\nModifier keys \n\nModifier keys are special keys that modify the normal action of another key, when the two are pressed in combination. For example, + in Microsoft Windows will close the program in an active window. In contrast, pressing just will probably do nothing, unless assigned a specific function in a particular program. By themselves, modifier keys usually do nothing.\nThe most widely used modifier keys include the Control key, Shift key and the Alt key. The AltGr key is used to access additional symbols for keys that have three symbols printed on them. On the Macintosh and Apple keyboards, the modifier keys are the Option key and Command key, respectively. On MIT computer keyboards, the Meta key is used as a modifier and for Windows keyboards, there is a Windows key. Compact keyboard layouts often use a Fn key. \"Dead keys\" allow placement of a diacritic mark, such as an accent, on the following letter (e.g., the Compose key).\nThe Enter/Return key typically causes a command line, window form or dialog box to operate its default function, which is typically to finish an \"entry\" and begin the desired process. In word processing applications, pressing the enter key ends a paragraph and starts a new one.\n\nCursor keys \n\nNavigation keys or cursor keys include a variety of keys which move the cursor to different positions on the screen. Arrow keys are programmed to move the cursor in a specified direction; page scroll keys, such as the Page Up and Page Down keys, scroll the page up and down. The Home key is used to return the cursor to the beginning of the line where the cursor is located; the End key puts the cursor at the end of the line. The Tab key advances the cursor to the next tab stop.\nThe Insert key is mainly used to switch between overtype mode, in which the cursor overwrites any text that is present on and after its current location, and insert mode, where the cursor inserts a character at its current position, forcing all characters past it one position further. The Delete key discards the character ahead of the cursor's position, moving all following characters one position \"back\" towards the freed place. On many notebook computer keyboards the key labeled Delete (sometimes Delete and Backspace are printed on the same key) serves the same purpose as a Backspace key. The Backspace key deletes the preceding character.\nLock keys lock part of a keyboard, depending on the settings selected. The lock keys are scattered around the keyboard. Most styles of keyboards have three LEDs indicating which locks are enabled, in the upper right corner above the numeric pad. The lock keys include Scroll lock, Num lock (which allows the use of the numeric keypad), and Caps lock.\n\nSystem commands \n\nThe SysRq and Print screen commands often share the same key. SysRq was used in earlier computers as a \"panic\" button to recover from crashes (and it is still used in this sense to some extent by the Linux kernel; see Magic SysRq key). The Print screen command used to capture the entire screen and send it to the printer, but in the present it usually puts a screenshot in the clipboard. The Break key/Pause key no longer has a well-defined purpose. Its origins go back to teleprinter users, who wanted a key that would temporarily interrupt the communications line. The Break key can be used by software in several different ways, such as to switch between multiple login sessions, to terminate a program, or to interrupt a modem connection.\nIn programming, especially old DOS-style BASIC, Pascal and C, Break is used (in conjunction with Ctrl) to stop program execution. In addition to this, Linux and variants, as well as many DOS programs, treat this combination the same as Ctrl+C. On modern keyboards, the break key is usually labeled Pause/Break. In most Windows environments, the key combination Windows key+Pause brings up the system properties.\nThe Escape key (often abbreviated Esc) is used to initiate an escape sequence. As most computer users no longer are concerned with the details of controlling their computer's peripherals, the task for which the escape sequences were originally designed, the escape key was appropriated by application programmers, most often to \"escape\" or back out of a mistaken command. This use continues today in Microsoft Windows's use of escape as a shortcut in dialog boxes for No, Quit, Exit, Cancel, or Abort.\nA common application today of the Esc key is as a shortcut key for the Stop button in many web browsers. On machines running Microsoft Windows, prior to the implementation of the Windows key on keyboards, the typical practice for invoking the \"start\" button was to hold down the control key and press escape. This process still works in Windows 2000, XP, Vista, 7, 8, and 10.\nThe Enter key is located: One in the alphanumeric keys and the other one is in the numeric keys. When one worked something on their computer and wanted to do something with their work, pressing the enter key would do the command they ordered. Another function is to create a space for next paragraph. When one typed and finished typing a paragraph and they wanted to have a second paragraph, they could press enter and it would do spacing.\nShift key: when one presses shift and a letter, it will capitalize the letter pressed with the shift key. Another use is to type more symbols than appear to be available, for instance the apostrophe key is accompanied with a quotation mark on the top. If one wants to type the quotation mark but pressed that key alone, the symbol that would appear would be the apostrophe. The quotation mark will only appear if both the required key and the Shift key are pressed.\nThe Menu key or Application key is a key found on Windows-oriented computer keyboards. It is used to launch a context menu with the keyboard rather than with the usual right mouse button. The key's symbol is usually a small icon depicting a cursor hovering above a menu. On some Samsung keyboards the cursor in the icon is not present, showing the menu only. This key was created at the same time as the Windows key. This key is normally used when the right mouse button is not present on the mouse. Some Windows public terminals do not have a Menu key on their keyboard to prevent users from right-clicking (however, in many Windows applications, a similar functionality can be invoked with the Shift+F10 keyboard shortcut).\nMiscellaneous \n\nMany, but not all,computer keyboards have a numeric keypad to the right of the alphabetic keyboard which contains numbers, basic mathematical symbols (e.g., addition, subtraction, etc.), and a few function keys. On Japanese/Korean keyboards, there may be Language input keys for changing the language to use. Some keyboards have power management keys (e.g., power key, sleep key and wake key); Internet keys to access a web browser or E-mail; and/or multimedia keys, such as volume controls or keys that can be programmed by the user to launch a specified software or command like launching a game or minimize all windows.\n\nNumeric keys \n\nWhen we calculate, we use these numeric keys to type numbers. Symbols concerned with calculations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division symbols are located in this group of keys. The enter key in this keys indicate the equal sign.\n\nMultiple layouts \n\nIt is possible to install multiple keyboard layouts within an operating system and switch between them, either through features implemented within the OS, or through an external application. Microsoft Windows, Linux, and Mac provide support to add keyboard layouts and choose from them.\n\nLayout changing software \n\nThe character code produced by any key press is determined by the keyboard driver software. A key press generates a scancode which is interpreted as an alphanumeric character or control function. Depending on operating systems, various application programs are available to create, add and switch among keyboard layouts. Many programs are available, some of which are language specific.\n\nThe arrangement of symbols of specific language can be customized. An existing keyboard layout can be edited, and a new layout can be created using this type of software.\n\nFor example, for Mac, The Microsoft Keyboard Layout Creator and open-source Avro Keyboard for Windows provide the ability to customize the keyboard layout as desired.\n\nIllumination \n\nKeyboards and keypads may be illuminated from inside, especially on equipment for mobile use. Illumination facilitates the use of the keyboard or keypad in dark environments. Some gaming keyboards have lighted keys, to make it easier for gamers to find command keys while playing in a dark room. Some keyboards may have small LED lights in a few important function keys, to remind users that the function is activated (see photo).\n\nTechnology \n\nKey switches \n\nIn the first electronic keyboards in the early 1970s, the key switches were individual switches inserted into holes in metal frames. These keyboards cost from USD $80 to $120 and were used in mainframe data terminals. The most popular switch types were reed switches (contacts enclosed in a vacuum in a glass capsule, affected by a magnet mounted on the switch plunger).\n\nIn the mid-1970s, lower-cost direct-contact key switches were introduced, but their life in switch cycles was much shorter (rated ten million cycles) because they were open to the environment. This became more acceptable, however, for use in computer terminals at the time, which began to see increasingly shorter model lifespans as they advanced.\n\nIn 1978, Key Tronic Corporation introduced keyboards with capacitive-based switches, one of the first keyboard technologies to not use self-contained switches. There was simply a sponge pad with a conductive-coated Mylar plastic sheet on the switch plunger, and two half-moon trace patterns on the printed circuit board below. As the key was depressed, the capacitance between the plunger pad and the patterns on the PCB below changed, which was detected by integrated circuits (IC). These keyboards were claimed to have the same reliability as the other \"solid-state switch\" keyboards such as inductive and Hall-Effect, but competitive with direct-contact keyboards. Prices of $60 for keyboards were achieved and Key Tronic rapidly became the largest independent keyboard manufacturer.\n\nMeanwhile, IBM made their own keyboards, using their own patented technology: Keys on older IBM keyboards were made with a \"buckling spring\" mechanism, in which a coil spring under the key buckles under pressure from the user's finger, triggering a hammer that presses two plastic sheets (membranes) with conductive traces together, completing a circuit. This produces a clicking sound, and gives physical feedback for the typist indicating that the key has been depressed. \n\nThe first electronic keyboards had a typewriter key travel distance of 0.187 inches (4.75 mm), keytops were a half-inch (12.7 mm) high, and keyboards were about two inches (5 cm) thick. Over time, less key travel was accepted in the market, finally landing on 0.110 inches (2.79 mm). Coincident with this, Key Tronic was the first company to introduce a keyboard which was only about one inch thick. And now keyboards measure only about a half-inch thick.\n\nKeytops are an important element of keyboards. In the beginning, keyboard keytops had a \"dish shape\" on top, like typewriters before them. Keyboard key legends must be extremely durable over tens of millions of depressions, since they are subjected to extreme mechanical wear from fingers and fingernails, and subject to hand oils and creams, so engraving and filling key legends with paint, as was done previously for individual switches, was never acceptable. So, for the first electronic keyboards, the key legends were produced by two-shot (or double-shot, or two-color) molding, where either the key shell or the inside of the key with the key legend was molded first, and then the other color molded second. But, to save cost, other methods were explored, such as sublimation printing and laser engraving, both methods which could be used to print a whole keyboard at the same time.\n\nInitially, sublimation printing, where a special ink is printed onto the keycap surface and the application of heat causes the ink molecules to penetrate and commingle with the plastic modules, had a problem because finger oils caused the molecules to disperse, but then a necessarily very hard clear coating was applied to prevent this. Coincident with sublimation printing, which was first used in high volume by IBM on their keyboards, was the introduction by IBM of single-curved-dish keycaps to facilitate quality printing of key legends by having a consistently curved surface instead of a dish. But one problem with sublimation or laser printing was that the processes took too long and only dark legends could be printed on light-colored keys. On another note, IBM was unique in using separate shells, or \"keycaps\", on keytop bases. This might have made their manufacturing of different keyboard layouts more flexible, but the reason for doing this was that the plastic material that needed to be used for sublimation printing was different from standard ABS keytop plastic material.\n\nThree final mechanical technologies brought keyboards to where they are today, driving the cost well under $10:\n# \"Monoblock\" keyboard designs were developed where individual switch housings were eliminated and a one-piece \"monoblock\" housing used instead. This was possible because of molding techniques that could provide very tight tolerances for the switch-plunger holes and guides across the width of the keyboard so that the key plunger-to-housing clearances were not too tight or too loose, either of which could cause the keys to bind.\n# The use of contact-switch membrane sheets under the monoblock. This technology came from flat-panel switch membranes, where the switch contacts are printed inside of a top and bottom layer, with a spacer layer in between, so that when pressure is applied to the area above, a direct electrical contact is made. The membrane layers can be printed by very-high volume, low-cost \"reel-to-reel\" printing machines, with each keyboard membrane cut and punched out afterwards.\n\nPlastic materials played a very important part in the development and progress of electronic keyboards. Until \"monoblocks\" came along, GE's \"self-lubricating\" Delrin was the only plastic material for keyboard switch plungers that could withstand the beating over tens of millions of cycles of lifetime use. Greasing or oiling switch plungers was undesirable because it would attract dirt over time which would eventually affect the feel and even bind the key switches (although keyboard manufacturers would sometimes sneak this into their keyboards, especially if they could not control the tolerances of the key plungers and housings well enough to have a smooth key depression feel or prevent binding). But Delrin was only available in black and white, and was not suitable for keytops (too soft), so keytops use ABS plastic. However, as plastic molding advanced in maintaining tight tolerances, and as key travel length reduced from 0.187-inch to 0.110-inch (4.75 mm to 2.79 mm), single-part keytop/plungers could be made of ABS, with the keyboard monolocks also made of ABS.\n\nControl processor \n\nComputer keyboards include control circuitry to convert key presses into key codes (usually scancodes) that the computer's electronics can understand. The key switches are connected via the printed circuit board in an electrical X-Y matrix where a voltage is provided sequentially to the Y lines and, when a key is depressed, detected sequentially by scanning the X lines.\n\nThe first computer keyboards were for mainframe computer data terminals and used discrete electronic parts. The first keyboard microprocessor was introduced in 1972 by General Instruments, but keyboards have been using the single-chip 8048 microcontroller variant since it became available in 1978. The keyboard switch matrix is wired to its inputs, it converts the keystrokes to key codes, and, for a detached keyboard, sends the codes down a serial cable (the keyboard cord) to the main processor on the computer motherboard. This serial keyboard cable communication is only bi-directional to the extent that the computer's electronics controls the illumination of the caps lock, num lock and scroll lock lights.\n\nOne test for whether the computer has crashed is pressing the caps lock key. The keyboard sends the key code to the keyboard driver running in the main computer; if the main computer is operating, it commands the light to turn on. All the other indicator lights work in a similar way. The keyboard driver also tracks the Shift, alt and control state of the keyboard.\n\nSome lower-quality keyboards have multiple or false key entries due to inadequate electrical designs. These are caused by inadequate keyswitch \"debouncing\" or inadequate keyswitch matrix layout that don't allow multiple keys to be depressed at the same time, both circumstances which are explained below:\n\nWhen pressing a keyboard key, the key contacts may \"bounce\" against each other for several milliseconds before they settle into firm contact. When released, they bounce some more until they revert to the uncontacted state. If the computer were watching for each pulse, it would see many keystrokes for what the user thought was just one. To resolve this problem, the processor in a keyboard (or computer) \"debounces\" the keystrokes, by aggregating them across time to produce one \"confirmed\" keystroke.\n\nSome low-quality keyboards also suffer problems with rollover (that is, when multiple keys pressed at the same time, or when keys are pressed so fast that multiple keys are down within the same milliseconds). Early \"solid-state\" keyswitch keyboards did not have this problem because the keyswitches are electrically isolated from each other, and early \"direct-contact\" keyswitch keyboards avoided this problem by having isolation diodes for every keyswitch. These early keyboards had \"n-key\" rollover, which means any number of keys can be depressed and the keyboard will still recognize the next key depressed. But when three keys are pressed (electrically closed) at the same time in a \"direct contact\" keyswitch matrix that doesn't have isolation diodes, the keyboard electronics can see a fourth \"phantom\" key which is the intersection of the X and Y lines of the three keys. Some types of keyboard circuitry will register a maximum number of keys at one time. \"Three-key\" rollover, also called \"phantom key blocking\" or \"phantom key lockout\", will only register three keys and ignore all others until one of the three keys is lifted. This is undesirable, especially for fast typing (hitting new keys before the fingers can release previous keys), and games (designed for multiple key presses).\n\nAs direct-contact membrane keyboards became popular, the available rollover of keys was optimized by analyzing the most common key sequences and placing these keys so that they do not potentially produce phantom keys in the electrical key matrix (for example, simply placing three or four keys that might be depressed simultaneously on the same X or same Y line, so that a phantom key intersection/short cannot happen), so that blocking a third key usually isn't a problem. But lower-quality keyboard designs and unknowledgeable engineers may not know these tricks, and it can still be a problem in games due to wildly different or configurable layouts in different games.\n\nConnection types \n\nThere are several ways of connecting a keyboard to a system unit (more precisely, to its keyboard controller) using cables, including the standard AT connector commonly found on motherboards, which was eventually replaced by the PS/2 and the USB connection. Prior to the iMac line of systems, Apple used the proprietary Apple Desktop Bus for its keyboard connector.\n\nWireless keyboards have become popular for their increased user freedom. A wireless keyboard often includes a required combination transmitter and receiver unit that attaches to the computer's keyboard port. The wireless aspect is achieved either by radio frequency (RF) or by infrared (IR) signals sent and received from both the keyboard and the unit attached to the computer. A wireless keyboard may use an industry standard RF, called Bluetooth. With Bluetooth, the transceiver may be built into the computer. However, a wireless keyboard needs batteries to work and may pose a security problem due to the risk of data \"eavesdropping\" by hackers. Wireless solar keyboards charge their batteries from small solar panels using sunlight or standard artificial lighting. An early example of a consumer wireless keyboard is that of the Olivetti Envision.\n\nAlternative text-entering methods \n\nOptical character recognition (OCR) is preferable to rekeying for converting existing text that is already written down but not in machine-readable format (for example, a Linotype-composed book from the 1940s). In other words, to convert the text from an image to editable text (that is, a string of character codes), a person could re-type it, or a computer could look at the image and deduce what each character is. OCR technology has already reached an impressive state (for example, Google Book Search) and promises more for the future.\n\nSpeech recognition converts speech into machine-readable text (that is, a string of character codes). This technology has also reached an advanced state and is implemented in various software products. For certain uses (e.g., transcription of medical or legal dictation; journalism; writing essays or novels) speech recognition is starting to replace the keyboard. However, the lack of privacy when issuing voice commands and dictation makes this kind of input unsuitable for many environments.\n\nPointing devices can be used to enter text or characters in contexts where using a physical keyboard would be inappropriate or impossible. These accessories typically present characters on a display, in a layout that provides fast access to the more frequently used characters or character combinations. Popular examples of this kind of input are Graffiti, Dasher and on-screen virtual keyboards.\n\nOther issues \n\nKeystroke logging \n\nUnencrypted wireless bluetooth keyboards are known to be vulnerable to signal theft by placing a covert listening devices in the same room as the keyboard to sniff and record bluetooth packets for the purpose of logging keys typed by the user. Microsoft wireless keyboards 2011 and earlier are documented to have this\nvulnerability. \n\nKeystroke logging (often called keylogging) is a method of capturing and recording user keystrokes. While it is used legally to measure employee productivity on certain clerical tasks, or by law enforcement agencies to find out about illegal activities, it is also used by hackers for various illegal or malicious acts. Hackers use keyloggers as a means to obtain passwords or encryption keys and thus bypass other security measures.\n\nKeystroke logging can be achieved by both hardware and software means. Hardware key loggers are attached to the keyboard cable or installed inside standard keyboards. Software keyloggers work on the target computer's operating system and gain unauthorized access to the hardware, hook into the keyboard with functions provided by the OS, or use remote access software to transmit recorded data out of the target computer to a remote location. Some hackers also use wireless keylogger sniffers to collect packets of data being transferred from a wireless keyboard and its receiver, and then they crack the encryption key being used to secure wireless communications between the two devices.\n\nAnti-spyware applications are able to detect many keyloggers and cleanse them. Responsible vendors of monitoring software support detection by anti-spyware programs, thus preventing abuse of the software. Enabling a firewall does not stop keyloggers per se, but can possibly prevent transmission of the logged material over the net if properly configured. Network monitors (also known as reverse-firewalls) can be used to alert the user whenever an application attempts to make a network connection. This gives the user the chance to prevent the keylogger from \"phoning home\" with his or her typed information. Automatic form-filling programs can prevent keylogging entirely by not using the keyboard at all. Most keyloggers can be fooled by alternating between typing the login credentials and typing characters somewhere else in the focus window. \n\nKeyboards are also known to emit electromagnetic signatures that can be detected using special spying equipment to reconstruct the keys pressed on the keyboard. Neal O'Farrell, executive director of the Identity Theft Council, revealed to InformationWeek that \"More than 25 years ago, a couple of former spooks showed me how they could capture a user's ATM PIN, from a van parked across the street, simply by capturing and decoding the electromagnetic signals generated by every keystroke,\" O'Farrell said. \"They could even capture keystrokes from computers in nearby offices, but the technology wasn't sophisticated enough to focus in on any specific computer.\" \n\nPhysical injury \n\nThe use of any keyboard may cause serious injury (that is, carpal tunnel syndrome or other repetitive strain injury) to hands, wrists, arms, neck or back. The risks of injuries can be reduced by taking frequent short breaks to get up and walk around a couple of times every hour. As well, users should vary tasks throughout the day, to avoid overuse of the hands and wrists. When inputting at the keyboard, a person should keep the shoulders relaxed with the elbows at the side, with the keyboard and mouse positioned so that reaching is not necessary. The chair height and keyboard tray should be adjusted so that the wrists are straight, and the wrists should not be rested on sharp table edges. Wrist or palm rests should not be used while typing.\n\nSome adaptive technology ranging from special keyboards, mouse replacements and pen tablet interfaces to speech recognition software can reduce the risk of injury. Pause software reminds the user to pause frequently. Switching to a much more ergonomic mouse, such as a vertical mouse or joystick mouse may provide relief. Switching from using a mouse to using a stylus pen with graphic tablet or a trackpad can lessen the repetitive strain on the arms and hands.\n\nPathogen transmission \n\nSome keyboards were found to contain five times more potentially harmful germs than a toilet seat. \nThis can be a concern when using shared keyboards; the keyboards can serve as vectors for pathogens that cause the cold, flu, and other communicable diseases easily spread by indirect contact.", "A letter is a grapheme (written character) in an alphabetic system of writing, such as the Greek alphabet and its descendants. Letters also appear in abjads and abugidas (variants of alphabets in which vowel marking is secondary or absent). Letters broadly denote phonemes in the spoken form of the language, although there is rarely a consistent exact correspondence between letters and phonemes.\n\nWritten signs in other writing systems are best called syllabograms (which denote a syllable) or logograms (which denote a word or phrase).\n\nDefinition and usage\n\n\"Letter,\" borrowed from Old French lettre, entered Middle English around AD 1200, eventually displacing the native English term bocstaf (i.e. bookstaff). Letter derives from Latin littera, which may have derived, via Etruscan, from the Greek \"διφθέρα\" (writing tablet). The Middle English plural lettres could refer to an epistle or written document, reflecting the use of the Latin plural litteræ. Use of the singular letter to refer to a written document emerged in the 14th century.\n\nAs symbols that denote segmental speech, letters are associated with phonetics. In a purely phonemic alphabet, a single phoneme is denoted by a single letter, but in history and practice letters often denote more than one phoneme. A pair of letters designating a single phoneme is called a digraph. Examples of digraphs in English include \"ch\", \"sh\" and \"th\". A phoneme can also be represented by three letters, called a trigraph. An example is the combination \"sch\" in German.\n\nA letter may also be associated with more than one phoneme, with the phoneme depending on the surrounding letters or etymology of the word. As an example of positional effects, the Spanish letter c is pronounced [k] before a, o, or u (e.g. cantar, corto, cuidado), but is pronounced [θ] before e or i (e.g. centimo, ciudad).\n\nLetters also have specific names associated with them. These names may differ with language, dialect and history. Z, for example, is usually called zed in all English-speaking countries except the U.S., where it is named zee.\n\nLetters, as elements of alphabets, have prescribed orders. This may generally be known as \"alphabetical order\" though collation is the science devoted to the complex task of ordering and sorting of letters and words in different languages. In Spanish, for instance, ñ is a separate letter being sorted after n. In English, n and ñ are sorted alike.\n\nLetters may also have numerical value. This is true of Roman numerals and the letters of other writing systems. In English, Arabic numerals are typically used instead of letters.\n\nLetters may be used as words. The words a (lower or uppercase) and I (always uppercase) are the most common English letter-words. Sometimes O is used for \"Oh\" in poetic situations. In extremely informal cases of writing (such as SMS language) individual letters may replace words, e.g. u may be used instead of \"you\" in English, when the letter name is pronounced as a homophone of the word.\n\nPeople and objects are sometimes named after letters, for one of these reasons:\n# The letter is an abbreviation, e.g. \"G-man\" as slang for a Federal Bureau of Investigation agent, arose as short for \"Government Man\".\n# Alphabetical order used as a counting system, e.g. Plan A, Plan B, etc.; alpha ray, beta ray, gamma ray, delta ray, epsilon ray\n# The shape of the letter, e.g. D-ring, F-clamp, G-clamp, H-block, H engine, O-ring, R-clip, U engine, V engine, Z-drive, a river delta\n# Other reasons, e.g. X-ray after \"x the unknown\" in algebra, because the discoverer did not know what they were.\n\nA classical definition\n\nGuilhem Molinier, a member of the Consistori del Gay Saber, which was the first literary academy in the world and held the Floral Games to award the best troubadour with the violeta d'aur top prize, gave a definition of the letter in his Leys d'Amors (1328–1337), a book aimed at regulating the then flourishing Occitan poetry:\n\nHistory\n\nThe first consonantal alphabet found has emerged around 2000 BCE to represent the language of Semitic workers in Egypt (see Middle Bronze Age alphabets), and was derived from the alphabetic principles of the Egyptian hieroglyphs. Nearly all alphabets in the world today either descend directly from this development or were inspired by its design. The Greek alphabet, invented around 800 BCE, was the first alphabet assigning letters not only to consonants, but also to vowels. \n\nTypes of letters\n\nVarious scripts\n\nThe following alphabets, abjads, and individual letters are discussed in related articles. Each represents a different script:\n\nBangla alphabet:অ, আ, ই, ঈ, উ, ঊ, ঋ, এ, ঐ, ও, ঔ, ক, খ, গ, ঘ, ঙ, চ, ছ, জ, ঝ, ঞ, ট, ঠ, ড, ঢ, ণ, ত, থ, দ, ধ, ন, প, ফ, ব, ভ, ম, য, ৰ, ল, ৱ, শ, ষ, স, হ, ড়, ঢ়, য়, ৎ, ং, ঃ, ঁ\n\nArabic alphabet: (Alphabetical from right to left) , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , .\n\nSyriac alphabet: (Alphabetical from right to left) ܐ, ܒ, ܓ, ܕ, ܗ, ܘ, ܙ, ܚ, ܛ, ܝ, ܟܟ, ܠ, ܡܡ, ܢܢ, ܣ, ܥ, ܦ, ܨ, ܩ, ܪ, ܫ, ܬ.\n\nCyrillic script: А, Б, В, Г, Ґ, Ѓ, Д, Е, Є, Ж, З, Ѕ, И, І, Ї, Й, К, Ќ, Л, М, Н, О, П, Р, С, Т, У, Ф, Х, Ц, Ч, Ш, Щ, Ю, Я, Ъ, Ь, Ђ, Љ, Њ, Ћ, Џ, Ы.\n\nGeorgian script: ა, ბ, გ, დ, ე, ვ, ზ, თ, ი, კ, ლ, მ, ნ, ო, პ, ჟ, რ, ს, ტ, უ, ფ, ქ, ღ, ყ, შ, ჩ, ც, ძ, წ, ჭ, ხ, ჯ, ჰ\n\nGreek alphabet: Α, Β, Γ, Δ, Ε, Ζ, Η, Θ, Ι, Κ, Λ, Μ, Ν, Ξ, Ο, Π, Ρ, Σ, Τ, Υ, Φ, Χ, Ψ, Ω.\n\nHebrew alphabet: (Alphabetical from right to left) א, ב, ג, ד, ה, ו, ז, ח, ט, י, כ, ל, מ, נ, ס, ע, פ, צ, ק, ר, ש, ת.\n\nEnglish alphabet: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z.\n\nHangul: ㄱ ㄲ ㄴ ㄷ ㄸ ㄹ ㅁ ㅂ ㅃ ㅅ ㅆ ㅇ ㅈ ㅉ ㅊ ㅋ ㅌ ㅍ ㅎ ㅏ ㅐ ㅑ ㅒ ㅓ ㅔ ㅕ ㅖ ㅗ ㅘ ㅙ ㅚ ㅛ ㅜ ㅝ ㅞ ㅟ ㅠ ㅡ ㅢ ㅣ\n\nBopomofo: ㄅ ㄆ ㄇ ㄈ ㄉ ㄊ ㄋ ㄌ ㄍ ㄎ ㄏ ㄐ ㄑ ㄒ ㄓ ㄔ ㄕ ㄖ ㄗ ㄘ ㄙ ㄚ ㄛ ㄜ ㄝ ㄞ ㄟ ㄠ ㄡ ㄢ ㄣ ㄤ ㄥ ㄦ ㄧ ㄨ ㄩ ㄭ\n\nOgham:   ᚁ ᚂ ᚃ ᚄ ᚅ ᚆ ᚇ ᚈ ᚉ ᚊ ᚋ ᚌ ᚍ ᚎ ᚏ ᚐ ᚑ ᚒ ᚓ ᚔ ᚕ ᚖ ᚗ ᚘ ᚙ ᚚ ᚛ ᚜\n\nEthiopic ሀ ለ ሐ መ ሠ ረ ሰ ቀ በ\t ተ ኀ ነ አ ከ ወ ዐ ዘ የ ደ ገ ጠ ጰ ጸ ፀ ፈ ፐ\n\nInternational Phonetic Alphabet - used to represent exact pronunciation\n\nFor other writing systems and their letters, see List of writing systems.\n\nUpper and lower case\n\nSome writing systems have two major forms for each letter: an upper case form (also called capital or majuscule) and a lower case form (also called minuscule). Upper and lower case forms represent the same sound, but serve different functions in writing. Capital letters are most often used at the beginning of a sentence, as the first letter of a proper name, or in inscriptions or headers. They may also serve other functions, such as in the German language where all nouns begin with capital letters.\n\nTypeface and font\n\nA letter may be printed in a number of different sizes or forms, depending on choice of typeface. A typeface is a single, stylistically consistent set of forms for letters (or glyphs). A particular typeface may alter standard forms of characters, may present them with different optical weight, or may angle or embellish their forms. A font is more specific than a typeface, since it specifies the size of the letters as well as the form.\n\nIn calligraphy, letters are written artistically and may or may not be consistent throughout a work.\n\nLetter frequencies\n\nThe average distribution of letters, or the relative frequency of each letter's occurrence in text in a given language can be obtained analyzing large amounts of representative text. This information can be useful in cryptography and for other purposes as well. Letter frequencies vary in different types of writing. In English, the most frequently appearing ten letters are e, t, a, o, i, n, s, h, r, and d, in that order, with the letter e appearing about 13% of the time.\n\nFootnotes" ] }

{ "description": [ "Standard Windows Keyboard ... pressing the Print Screen key causes the computer to send whatever images and text are currently on ... Alt + underlined letter in ...", "Fix Laptop Stuck Key ... break your keyboard and damage your computer. ... the letter and put a small piece of paper between the two plastics ...", "The reason the letters are all messed up on the computer ... Why is the keyboard layout Q ... at least one vowel letter, but on the QWERTY keyboard only the ...", "Chapter Two - Keyboard . ... Whole steps on the Keyboard . Most adjacent white keys (C-D, D-E, F-G, ... the letter names are C,D,E,F,G,A,B,C,D,E,F,G,A and B.", "Lists the keyboard shortcuts ... Keys on other layouts might not correspond exactly to the keys on a U.S. keyboard. For keyboard shortcuts in ... ALT+the letter ...", "How to Use Keyboard Shortcuts to Make ... do was hit the letter b.Then my username and password would ... shortcut of the computer the keyboard because I was ...", "The Clevy Keyboard is an attractively designed keyboard, ... causing a letter to appear on the screen only once no matter how long a key is pressed." ], "filename": [ "43/43_4495.txt", "31/31_4496.txt", "120/120_4497.txt", "56/56_4499.txt", "58/58_4501.txt", "76/76_4503.txt", "131/131_4504.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9 ], "title": [ "Picture of Windows Keyboard - Explanation of Keys", "Fix Laptop Stuck Key - YouTube", "Why is the keyboard layout Q-W-E-R-T-Y and not simply A-B ...", "Chapter Two - Keyboard", "Keyboard shortcuts for Microsoft Word", "How to Use Keyboard Shortcuts to Make Your Life Easier ...", "Clevy Keyboard | Clevy" ], "url": [ "http://www.gcclc.org/StudentFiles/Mouse-Keyboard/Keyboard.htm", "http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RmK89JNj8PU", "https://www.quora.com/Why-is-the-keyboard-layout-Q-W-E-R-T-Y-and-not-simply-A-B-C-D-E-F", "http://www.guitarland.com/Music10/MusFund/Keyboard/Keyboard.html", "https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/kb/290938", "http://seniorplanet.org/how-to-use-keyboard-shortcuts-to-make-your-life-easier/", "http://clevy.com/products/clevy-keyboard" ], "search_context": [ "Account Suspended\nAccount Suspended\nThis Account has been suspended.\nContact your hosting provider for more information.", "Fix Laptop Stuck Key - YouTube\nFix Laptop Stuck Key\nWant to watch this again later?\nSign in to add this video to a playlist.\nNeed to report the video?\nSign in to report inappropriate content.\nThe interactive transcript could not be loaded.\nLoading...\nRating is available when the video has been rented.\nThis feature is not available right now. Please try again later.\nUploaded on Jun 25, 2011\nPLEASE KEEP IN MIND: What I am presenting to you work for me, but it might not work or solve your problems. This is informational only so please don't hate or dislike my video.\nHowever, if you use my method, it will be at your own risk. I take no responsibilty if you break your keyboard and damage your computer.\nDell Inspiron 1501\nFor some reason, the letter key G is stuck when power on the computer. It made a beep sound.\nAs I have shown, when I pressed any key, the letter G would stop. When I pressed the letter G again, it became stuck and continued to display the letter G.\nAs far as I know, there is nothing wrong with the keyboard because the letter D is not dead or malfunction because it was still responding.\nTo fix the stuck letter G, I took out the letter and put a small piece of paper between the two plastics strips to separate the top and bottom electrical contact. I separated the top and bottom strips so that it will not become stuck as way to fix the stuck key.\nAfter taping the little piece of paper down, the letter G worked normally again without being stuck. I just saved myself from buying a new keyboard.\nThank you for watching my video.\nIf you like my video, please comments, rates, and subscribe to my channel.\nCategory", "Why are the keys in the keypad not arranged in alphabetical order? - Quora\nQuora\nUpdate Cancel\nQuestion merged\nYou were redirected because this question was merged with Why is the keyboard layout Q-W-E-R-T-Y and not simply A-B-C-D-E-F?\nAnswer Wiki\nQWERTY was concocted back in the 1870s to mechanically separate the common letter pairs that used to frequently jam on the originally alphabetically ordered typewriter layouts.\nHere's what that original layout looked like:\nDespite being much faster to learn and easier to use, this semi-alphabetic layout would often jam (note the position of the T, H & S keys) when users typed too quickly. As anyone who's used a typewriter will tell you, even one single jam or simple typo, would require unjamming the keys, ripping out the old paper, washing the ink off your fingers, inserting a new sheet, and starting all over again.\nSo - without worrying about ergonomics or suability -  they just started moving keys around until the number of jams dropped to an \"acceptable\" level.\nHistory disagrees with Shisrail's answer below. This logical, intuitive alphabetic keyboard WAS fast. Too fast for its own good, in fact.\nIf QWERTY was so easy, why did 100s of typing schools pop up all over the world? Why did people have to enrol for a minimum of a year to get their speed and accuracy to even a basic level? Why does it take most people months of lessons and 100s of hours of practice (or even years of self-teaching) to master this confusing letter order?\nIs QWERTY logical? Yes... but only from a mechanical engineer's perspective.\nIntuitive? No freakin' way.\nFor most people, the learning curve for QWERTY is so slow and frustrating, once you've mastered it, the thought of relearning another layout would be considered a fate worse than death.\nBut guess what? Quietly, stealthily, the entire planet DID adopt an alphabetic keyboard. And we all mastered it in just a few minutes. Here's a picture of the keyboard that more people on the planet use than any other:\nWritten Dec 1, 2012\nThe current layout is inherited from typewriters, where keys were arranged to prevent jamming. This explains why keys are not in the proper sequence as the alphabets, as well as why they are arranged on diagonal columns (to give space for the levers).\nContrary to the popular belief, the QWERTY keyboard was NOT designed to slow typists.\nhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QWE... and http://home.earthlink.net/~dcreh... provide further details.\n1878 Typewriter Patent Drawing, featuring the QWERTY Keyboard. Years after its introduction, it was considered important enough to include in a patent.\nWritten Nov 21, 2015\nThere is a good historical reason for this. In early days of typewriter (in mid 19th century) the keys were arranged lexicographically. The earliest popular design had only 2 rows with 13 characters each. However this arrangement caused 2 major problems :\nThe type bars of the most commonly used combination letters of the alphabet (like TH and ST) was positioned close together, so when the keys were hit right after the other in rapid successions, the metallic arms / type bars responsible for creating an impression on paper would jam.\nIn early typewriters printing point was located beneath the paper carriage, invisible to the operator - which forced the operator to raise the carriage in case of collision / mishaps between typebars.\nPrint on paper was due to Ink ribbon placed between typebar and paper. The typebar collides with paper with ink ribbon in between. If the frequently used keys are placed together - certain portions of ribbon (like st) would dry out relatively earlier - causing relative fade prints in those letters. This problem was quickly resolved with better quality ink ribbon - which caused internal diffusion of ink and ink quality was always evenly distributed throughout the ribbon.\nSo as Mayank Bhura suggested, a frequency study was conducted and multiple designs were made to ensure the bars won't collide. Some early designs similar to qwerty :\nHere is a patented design which gained some popularity -\nWithin a decade or two Qwerty became very popular. The Qwerty design isn't perfect. For example only one vowel 'A' is in the home row even though 40% of words contain it. There number of other statistical flaws. But still it allowed people to type faster.\nWhen modern keyboard came into picture - Qwerty design was continued. However, the modern keyword don't face any problems like typebar mishap. However, once modern keyboard came into picture it faced a lot of resistance for Qwerty lovers.\nOne serious competition came from the Dvorak design - which was developed in 1940s.\nTests have proved that Dvorak is faster than Qwerty. It is especially popular among programmers who use a lot of non-alphabetical characters like punctuations and numbers too. Medically, Qwerty causes a lot of stress on fingers too. Also since most of the users are right handed - the Dvorak keyboard was optimised such that right handed people works more than left handed.\nContemporary Keyboard designs are much more elegant. Some even have 2 different parts to provide an optimal slope for fast typing.\nUpdated Dec 17\nDuring my college, one of the my professors told me regarding this. He was a lecturer of Computer Science.\nFirst of all, these keys (pattern) appeared first on the typewriters, not on a computer key board. The reason lies in how typewriters works, let's have a look.\nIn typewriters (manual, not electronic), in order to type any alphabet, we hit a key. A chain of mechanical systems works in a manner, that with every hit one of the type bars rise up and strikes to the ribbon; behind which paper is there and the type bar leaves an impression of embossed alphabet on the paper. By the time we hit other alphabet, type bar come back to its original position.\nIn very initial stage, typewriters had alphabets in the original sequence. Some what like this:\nThe problem with this pattern was, that it was easy to remember and to use. People were able to type fast and hence, begin typing very fast. So fast, that type bars did not get much time to come back to original position and type bars started to stuck with each other. We should keep in mind that initial typewriters did not had excellent technology.\nTo resolve this issue, few intelligent people ( Sholes and Glidden) worked and created a complex pattern of alphabets. This pattern was not that easy to remember and typing with same give enough time to type bar to reach its original position.\nLater on same pattern was adapted in computers and commonly known as QWERTY.\nQWERTY - Wikipedia\nInitially even computers did not has as good RAM as today. I remember computers with 128 mb or 256 mb of RAM (in early 90s). May be, that ram might not be good enough to cope up with typing speed, if old unjumbled\npattern of alphabets were used.\nYou can see, typing number is not a problem, as a word has certain spelling and that spelling applies universally for that word. Therefore, we get in to habit of remembering and using same spelling, which makes typing faster. But, numbers may differ every time also they are not that frequently used.\nTherefore, we have numbers in a single line in typewriters. However, on a computer keyboard, numbers are written in format of calculator. As, computer as a machine is also used for calculating.\nThere was a time, when it was a matter of debate that computer should have numerals in calculator format (starting from bottom line) or phone format (starting from top line). At that time, facilities like online fax were in place.\nCalculator format:", "Keyboard\nChapter Two - Keyboard\n \nMusic theory usually is easier to grasp when it is applied to and experienced on a musical instrument. This chapter will relate the musical alphabet and other musical ideas to the keyboard (piano, organ or synthesizer) and guitar fretboard.\nFor those who have no prior instrumental experience it is suggested that you study the sections on keyboard. Guitarists who have playing experience but little or no theory background will find the section on guitar of interest.\n \nBefore a discussion of theory can begin a few definitions must be presented.\n \nHalf step\nthe smallest interval in the 12-tone system, used as the basic unit with which to measure the size of other intervals. The abbreviation \"H\" is used often throughout this book. On other occasions the number 1 is used as an abbreviation for a half step.\n \nA whole step is two half steps in size. The abbreviation \"W\" is used throughout this book. On other occasions the number 2 is used as an abbreviation for a whole step.\n \nSharp\nexample: C#\nA sharped note is one half-step higher than the natural letter name, this is often (but not always) a black key on the keyboard. Examples; C# is one half-step higher than C, F# is one half-step higher than F.\nFlat\nexample: E b\nA flatted note is one half-step lower than the natural letter name, this is often (but not always) a black key on the keyboard. Examples; Eb is one half-step lower than E, and Bb is one half-step lower than B.\nNatural\nexample: C natural\nA natural note is the same as the original letter name. The term is usually used to make clear that a previously sharped or flatted note has been restored to its natural letter name.\nThe following example shows C-sharp then E-flat followed by C and E (both natural).\n \nOctave\n- An octave is the distance of 12 half steps. The musical alphabet along with the terms \"sharp\" and \"flat\" are used to assign names for all of the notes in one octave range. Additional octaves (using the same names) are added as needed to accommodate the different instrumental and vocal ranges.\n \nThe following animated graphic shows all of the consecutive half steps intervals for one octave of the keyboard.\n \nThe interval of a half-step occurs between any note (white key or black key) and its immediate adjacent neighbor. Most white keys have a black key the interval of one half-step away except for the half-step intervals between B-C and E-F (there is no black key between B and C or between E and F). All black keys have a white key the interval of one half-step away.\n \nWhole steps on the Keyboard\n \nMost adjacent white keys (C-D, D-E, F-G, G-A, and A-B) are the interval of a whole-step away. Most adjacent black keys (C#-D#, F#-G#, and G#-A#) are the interval of a whole-step away. Other whole-step combinations include B-C#, E-F#, Bb-C, and Eb-F.\nThe following animation shows a series of whole steps, first from the note C then from the note C#.\n \nThe previous chapter on Pitch has introduced the 7 letter names used in music notation and discussion. The system of music used throughout most of western culture is based on a 12 tone per octave system. The letter names explain 7 of the 12 tones, but what about the other 5 tones of the system? These remaining tones have a letter name followed by the symbol \"#\" (\"sharp\") or the symbol \"b\" (\"flat\"). Any letter name can be followed by symbol \"#\" or \"b\". With 7 different letter names and three versions of each letter name (each having a \"sharp\" name and \"flat\" name as well as its original \"natural\" name) there would appear to be 21 different tones (3 x 7 = 21)! Several of the 21 different names have the same sound and in fact there are only 12 different tones per octave in this system. All of the 12 tones have more than one name to describe that sound. The context of the music will determine which name is most appropriate. This is common in music and is known as \"enharmonics\" (two different names that sound the same). It is because of enharmonics and the arrangement of the letter names within the pitch system that we have a 12 tone system instead of 21 tone system.\n \nThe Keyboard is considered the best instrument on which to demonstrate music theory concepts. All musicians can benefit from the study of the keyboard. The first task is memorizing the letter names of the white keys on the keyboard. Notice the pattern of the black keys (2 black keys, 3 black keys, 2 black keys, 3 black keys, etc.). A landmark white key note lies to the immediate left of the group of 2 black keys. Those white keys are called \"C\".\n \nAnother landmark white key lies to the immediate left of the group of 3 black keys. Those white keys are called \"F\"\n \nThe other letter names of the musical alphabet are assigned to the remaining white keys as shown below.\n(from left to right C,D,E,F,G,A,B,C,D,E,F,G,A and B)\n \nUsing the treble clef, the letter names are C,D,E,F,G,A,B,C,D,E,F,G,A and B.\n \nUsing the bass clef, the letter names are also C,D,E,F,G,A,B,C,D,E,F,G,A and B. These notes are two octaves lower than the notes shown above in Treble Clef.\n \nThe pattern is repeated up and down the full range of the keyboard.\n \nAlthough the black keys have a different look about them, one must understand that they are notes just the same as the white keys and are used to create music just as the white keys are used. They are arranged in such a way as to help keyboard players literally \"feel\" their way around the musical alphabet. The black keys are the notes that have the \"sharp\" and \"flat\" names.\n \nFirst the notes that have \"sharp\" names.\n \nB# C# D# E# F# G# A# B# C# D# E# F# G# A# B#\n \nThe black keys are used for 5 of the 7 \"sharp\" note names and these 5 are the most commonly used of the sharp notes. Two less frequently used sharps are also available: B# and E#. These notes are enharmonic to C and F respectively (that is , they are white keys!). Since a sharp raises any note one half-step and it has previously been noted that the interval between B-C and E-F is a half-step, it is logical that B# and E# would sound the same as C and F respectively . This is the first of many enharmonic situations that illustrates how 12 tones can accommodate 21 different names.\n \nDb Eb Fb Gb Ab Bb Cb Db Eb Fb Gb Ab Bb\n \nThe black keys are used for 5 of the 7 \"flat\" note names and these 5 are the most commonly used of the flat notes. Two less frequently used flats are also available: Cb and Fb. These notes are the enharmonic equivalents to B and E respectively (Cb and Fb are white keys). Notice that all of the black keys have both a \"sharp\" name and a \"flat\" name. These enharmonic duplicates complete the explanation of the 12 tone (with 21 names) system.\n \n(Of interest only to the Left Brained)\n12 tones = 7 letter names + 5 sharp names\n \n(2 sharp names are enharmonics of natural letter names and not counted as different tones)\n(all of the flat names are enharmonics and not counted as different tones)\n \n21 names = the above 12 names + 2 sharp names not counted above + 7 flat names\n \nActually, it is even more involved because there are rare instances when a double sharp is used, leading to even more names for the same 12 sounds! We will see the double sharps in action later on in the context of the Harmonic and Melodic minor scales.", "Keyboard shortcuts for Microsoft Word on Windows - Word\nWord\nKeyboard shortcuts for Microsoft Word on Windows\nApplies To: Word 2016 Word 2013 Word 2010 Word 2007 Word Starter Word Starter 2010 More... Less\nThis article shows all keyboard shortcuts for Microsoft Word. The shortcuts in this article refer to the U.S. keyboard layout. Keys for other layouts might not correspond exactly to the keys on a U.S. keyboard.\nNote: If a shortcut requires two or more keys at the same time, the keys are separated by a plus sign (+). If you have to press one key immediately after another, the keys are separated by a comma (,)..\nThis table shows the most frequently used shortcuts in Microsoft Word.\nTo do this\nGo to \"Tell me what you want to do\"\nAlt+Q\nDecrease font size 1 point\nCtrl+[\nIncrease font size 1 point\nCtrl+]\nAlt+W, Q, then tab in Zoom dialog box to the value you want.\nUse the keyboard to navigate the ribbon\nThe ribbon is the strip at the top of Word, organized by tabs. Each tab displays a different ribbon. Ribbons are made up of groups, and each group includes one or more commands. You can access every command in Word by using a shortcut.\nNote: Add-ins and other programs may add new tabs to the ribbon and may provide access keys for those tabs.\nThere are two ways to navigate the tabs in the ribbon:\nTo go to the ribbon, press Alt, and then, to move between tabs, use the Right Arrow and Left Arrow keys.\nTo go directly to a specific tab on the ribbon, use one of the access keys.\nTo use Backstage view, open the File page.\nAlt+F\nTo use themes, colors, and effects, such as page borders, open the Design tab.\nAlt+G\nTo use common formatting commands, paragraph styles, or to use the Find tool. open Home tab.\nAlt+H\nTo manage Mail Merge tasks, or to work with envelopes and labels, open Mailings tab .\nAlt+M\nTo insert tables, pictures and shapes, headers, or text boxes, open Insert tab.\nAlt+N\nTo work with page margins, page orientation, indentation, and spacing, open Layout tab.\nAlt+P\nTo type a search term for Help content, open \"Tell me\" box on ribbon.\nAlt+Q, then enter the search term\nTo use Spell Check, set proofing languages, or to track and review changes to your document, open the Review tab.\nAlt+R\nTo add a table of contents, footnotes, or a table of citations, open the References tab.\nAlt+S\nTo choose a document view or mode, such as Read Mode or Outline view, open the View tab. You can also set Zoom magnification and manage multiple windows of documents.\nAlt+W\nUse commands on a ribbon by using the keyboard\nTo move to the list of ribbon tabs, press Alt; to go directly to a tab, press a keyboard shortcut.\nTo move into the ribbon, press the Down Arrow key. (JAWS refers to this action as a move to the lower ribbon.)\nTo move between commands, press the Tab key or Shift+Tab.\nTo move in the group that’s currently selected, press the Down Arrow key.\nTo move between groups on a ribbon, press Ctrl+Right Arrow or Ctrl+Left Arrow.\nControls on the ribbon are activated in different ways, depending upon the type of control:\nIf the selected command is a button, to activate it, press Spacebar or Enter.\nIf the selected command is a split button (that is, a button that opens a menu of additional options), to activate it, press Alt+Down Arrow. Tab through the options. To select the current option, press Spacebar or Enter.\nIf the selected command is a list (such as the Font list), to open the list, press the Down Arrow key. Then, to move between items, use the Up Arrow or Down Arrow key.\nIf the selected command is a gallery, to select the command, press Spacebar or Enter. Then, tab through the items.\nTip: In galleries with more than one row of items, the Tab key moves from the beginning to the end of the current row and, when it reaches the end of the row, it moves to the beginning of the next one. Pressing the Right Arrow key at the end of the current row moves back to the beginning of the current row.\nTo use access keys:\nPress Alt.\nPress the letter shown in the square KeyTip that appears over the ribbon command that you want to use.\nDepending on which letter you press, you may be shown additional KeyTips. For example, if you press Alt+F, the Office Backstage opens on the Info page which has a different set of KeyTips. If you then press Alt again, KeyTips for navigating on this page appear.\nThe following table lists some ways to move the keyboard focus when you're using only the keyboard.\nTo do this", "How to Use Keyboard Shortcuts to Make Your Life Easier | Senior Planet\nHow to Use Keyboard Shortcuts to Make Your Life Easier\n09/30/2013\n13 comments\nLooking for computer help? Every week, our Tekspert answers one question about digital technology. Computers, tablets, phones, cameras…\nWhat do you do when you want to print something on your computer or close out of an application? How about when you need to copy and paste? If you use your cursor and the drop-down menu at the top of your screen, then I’ve got good news for you: There’s an easier way.\nWhether you are using a PC or a Mac, your computer has built-in keyboard shortcuts for a number of actions. You can even use a keyboard shortcut to undo a mistake you just made, or to scroll up or down a webpage. Using keyboard shortcuts is much faster, because your hands aren’t going back and forth between your mouse or trackpad and your keyboard, and they make your life easier. If you’re having any pain in your hands, using the keyboard instead of the mouse when possible can save exacerbating it.\nWhile you’re learning these shortcuts, you might have to reference this list. Use the black “Print” button at the top of the page to bring up a printable version so you can keep it handy.\n \nGeneral Shortcuts\n \nWherever you see the “+” sign below, depress both keys at once. In other words, in where you see “Control + F” depress the “Control” key and the “F” key at the same time.\nLog In or say “Okay”  You don’t always have to use your cursor to click the “log in” or “sign in” button after you’ve entered your password. Instead you can just hit the “Enter” key on your PC or your or “Return” key on your Mac. The same thing goes for the “okay” button; just hit “Enter” or “Return.”\nFind a word or phrase  When you want to quickly locate a particular word or phrase in a large amount of text, whether in a document, in an email or on a webpage, just hit these keys:\nPC Control + F\nMac ⌘Command + F\nA small search bar will appear near the top right or bottom left of your screen, where you can type the word or phrase you’re looking for. Then hit the “Enter” or “Return” key to have your computer conduct the search.\nScroll up, down or sideways Instead of using your cursor on the scroll bar, you can use the arrow keys on your keyboard. The “up” arrow scrolls up, the “down” arrow scrolls down, and the left and right arrow will scroll horizontally if you happen to be a web page that’s wider than your computer screen.\nPrint This shortcut works both in word processing applications like Microsoft Word and in web browsers like Safari or Internet Explorer. You can also use this shortcut if you need to print an email confirmation (like a receipt or a ticket for an event.) While this shortcut is handy, if you’re printing something from the web, first look for a little printer icon on the webpage you want to print. This will provide you a printer-friendly version that’s easier to read on paper.\nPC Control + P\nMac ⌘Command + P\nUndo your mistake Made a mistake? Did you accidentally delete something or did a document you were working on suddenly go blank? Don’t panic! That’s what the undo shortcut is for. Hit these keys and see the magic.\nPC Control + Z\nMac ⌘Command + Z\nRedo what you undid This is the opposite of undo; you can also easily redo your last action.\nPC Control + Y\nMac shift + ⌘Command + Z\nQuit When you’re finished browsing the web or working in an application, you can quickly close the program with this shortcut. Just make sure you are actually in the application you want to close. Look at the top left of your computer screen to see which application you are in at the moment.\nPC Control + F4\nMac ⌘Command + Q\nReveal your desktop Sometimes, when you have one or more windows open, you need to look at your desktop; to do that without closing or minimizing your windows, use this shortcut.\nPC Window + D or Window + M. Then use Window + Shift + M to bring back the windows that were open.\nMac F11. Then press F11 again to bring back all the windows.\n \nCopying and Pasting\n \nOnce you’re a pro at copying and pasting ( click here to read our Tech Tip on how to copy and paste text), you can move even faster with these keyboard shortcuts.\nSelect all Instead of dragging your cursor to select all the text on a page, you can quickly highlight that text with a keyboard shortcut.\nPC Control + A\nMac ⌘Command + A\nCopy Highlight text that’s in an email or a Microsoft Word document, or highlight the URL in your web browser; then use this shortcut to copy it.\nPC Control + C\nMac ⌘Command + C\nPaste Once you’ve copied text, use this keyboard shortcut to paste it where you want it to go.\nPC Control + V\nBrowser Specific Shortcuts\n \nYou probably spend a lot of time online, so use these keyboard shortcuts to get around on the Internet more quickly.\nGo back to a previous webpage Instead of hitting the browser back button to return to the page you were just on, you can simply hit the backspace or delete key on your keyboard.\nPC Backspace\nMac Delete\nClose a browser window (without quitting the application) If you’d like to close one window or webpage, but still want keep your browser open, use this shortcut.\nPC Control + W\nMac ⌘Command + W\nOpen a new window To open a new browser window so you can go to a new webpage, use this shortcut.\nPC Control + N\nMac ⌘Command + N\nOpen a new tab Instead of opening a new window, you might want to open a new tab when you want to go to a new webpage. You can easily toggle between tabs at the top of your browser window to move between different webpages.\nPC Control + T\nMac ⌘Command + T\nThese basics are a great starting point. If you’d like to learn about other shortcuts, check out a more in-depth list of keyboard shortcuts for Windows by  clicking here  and keyboard shortcuts for Mac  here . This  table of keyboard shortcuts  is also helpful.\n \nGot a question? Ask it in the comments box below, or email it to  [email protected]  \nSHARE & PRINT!", "Clevy Keyboard | Clevy\n» Request pricing\nClevy Keyboard\nThe Clevy Keyboard is an attractively designed keyboard, designed to help teach writing and keyboard skills to young children. Its design also makes the Clevy Keyboard very suitable for keyboard users with a wide array of special needs.\nFamiliar font\nThe font in which the characters are printed onto the Clevy Keyboard’s keys is similar to the font used in traditional education of hand-writing, which makes keys immediately identifiable.\nLarge keys\nThe keys of the Clevy Keyboard are 30% bigger and the characters on them even up to 4 times bigger than those on an average keyboard, making them simpler to find and easier to hit.\nIntelligent colour coding\nThe differently coloured keys cleverly represent the different functional areas and make the keyboard fun for children to work with.\nClever key arrangement\nThe keys are arranged vertically to improve positioning of the hands and to make the appearance less cluttered. Unnecessary, distracting keys are left out.\nSolid construction\nClevy keyboards have internal steel frames and each individual key is mounted onto a high-quality, mechanical switch capable of handling well over 50 million keystrokes. Most keyboards on the market use membrane-type internal switches , which are far less durable and consistent.\nSpillproof\nThe keyboard’s housing is designed to guide possible spilled fluids straight through the keyboard, keeping these liquids away from the internal electronics.\nKey repeat on or off\nKey repeat can be switched off with an on-board switch, causing a letter to appear on the screen only once no matter how long a key is pressed. This same switch also enables the use of function keys by pressing the letter “f” and the respective number (eg. f+1=F1).\nWireless\nThe Clevy Keyboard is also available in in a wireless version as part of the Simply Works range, the World’s first fully integrated wireless system specifically for users with motor skills difficulties." ] }

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{ "description": [ "From the musical Half A Sixpence, based on the HG Wells novel, Kipps. Hidden. This page is accessible to. ... Flash, Bang, Wallop Lyrics; This song is hidden.", "Flash, Bang, Wallop from ... you must purchase this download to view and print the full song) ... karaoke or music theatre fans. Featured in the Faber Music Theatre ...", "Flash, Bang, Wallop arranged by Lin Marsh for voice and piano. Published by Faber Music." ], "filename": [ "115/115_4541.txt", "192/192_4542.txt", "196/196_4546.txt" ], "rank": [ 3, 4, 8 ], "title": [ "Tommy Steele – Flash, Bang, Wallop Lyrics | Genius Lyrics", "Flash, Bang, Wallop (Melody/Lyrics/Chords) Digital Sheet Music", "Flash, Bang, Wallop (Piano/Vocal) Digital Sheet Music" ], "url": [ "http://genius.com/Tommy-steele-flash-bang-wallop-lyrics", "http://boosey.epartnershub.com/Flash-Bang-Wallop-15644.aspx", "http://linmarsh.epartnershub.com/Flash-Bang-Wallop-15526.aspx" ], "search_context": [ "Tommy Steele – Flash, Bang, Wallop Lyrics | Genius Lyrics\nThe same thing happened long ago\nWhen man was in his prime\nAnd what went on we only know\nFrom the snaps he took at the time\nWhen Adam and Eve in their birthday suit\nDecided to get wed\nAs Adam was about to taste the fruit\nThe man with the camera said\nCHORUS\nYou've read it in a folio\nOr seen it in a Shakespeare play\nHow Juliet fell for Romeo\nIn the merry month of May\nAnd as he climbed the orchard wall\nTo reach his lady fair\nAs he tumbled she began to bawl\nAs he floated through the air\nCHORUS\nKing Henry the Eighth had several wives\nIncluding Anne Boleyn\nAnd he kept an album of their lives\nWith all their photos in\nAs Anne Boleyn was on her knees\nDressed in her very best frock\nKing Henry shouted, \"Smile dear, please\"\nAs her head rolled off the block\nCHORUS\nThere was just the same to do\nHe galloped home from the battle scene\nAll the way from Waterloo\nAnd as he came from off his horse\nTo the boudoir where she sat\nShe said to him, in French of course\nAs he took of his big cocked hat\nCHORUS\nStick it in your family\nStick it in your family\nIn your family album\nFrom the musical Half A Sixpence, based on the HG Wells novel, Kipps\nHidden\nThis page is accessible to\nVerified artists on the song\nLocked\nThis song has been locked and is considered \"done.\" You need 600 IQ to add annotations to locked songs.\n\"Flash, Bang, Wallop\" Track Info", "Flash, Bang, Wallop (Melody/Lyrics/Chords) Digital Sheet Music\narr. Lin Marsh\nPreview:\n(first page only can be viewed - you must purchase this download to view and print the full song)\nThis is a digital product - It must be printed out by you within 7 days of purchase and cannot be downloaded to your machine.\n(Download)\nFlash, Bang, Wallop from Half A Sixpence, arranged by Lin Marsh's for voice and piano with guitar chords; ideal for auditions, karaoke or music theatre fans. Featured in the Faber Music Theatre Songbook.\nPrice: £2.50", "Flash, Bang, Wallop (Piano/Vocal) Digital Sheet Music\nDIGITAL SHEET MUSIC\nFlash, Bang, Wallop! (Piano/Vocal)\narr. Lin Marsh\nThis is a sheet music download. When your transaction is complete you will have up to 7 days to print the music yourself – it will not be posted to you. This piece cannot be transposed in a new key.\nFlash, Bang, Wallop from Half A Sixpence, arranged by Lin Marsh for voice and piano. Selected for the ABRSM Singing List in their 2009 Syllabus. Published by Faber Music.\nPrice: £2.50" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Alfred_Hitchcock.txt", "Sound_film.txt" ], "title": [ "Alfred Hitchcock", "Sound film" ], "wiki_context": [ "Sir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock, KBE, (13 August 1899 – 29 April 1980) was an English film director and producer, at times referred to as \"The Master of Suspense\". He pioneered many elements of the suspense and psychological thriller genres. He had a successful career in British cinema with both silent films and early talkies and became renowned as England's best director. Hitchcock moved to Hollywood in 1939 and became a US citizen in 1955. \n\nOver a career spanning more than half a century, Hitchcock fashioned for himself a recognisable directorial style. His stylistic trademarks include the use of camera movement that mimics a person's gaze, forcing viewers to engage in a form of voyeurism. In addition, he framed shots to maximise anxiety, fear, or empathy, and used innovative forms of film editing. His work often features fugitives on the run alongside \"icy blonde\" female characters. Many of Hitchcock's films have twist endings and thrilling plots featuring depictions of murder and other violence. Many of the mysteries, however, are used as decoys or \"MacGuffins\" that serve the films' themes and the psychological examinations of their characters. Hitchcock's films also borrow many themes from psychoanalysis and sometimes feature strong sexual overtones.\n\nHitchcock became a highly visible public figure through interviews, movie trailers, cameo appearances in his own films, and the ten years in which he hosted the television program Alfred Hitchcock Presents. In 1978, film critic John Russell Taylor described Hitchcock as \"the most universally recognizable person in the world\", and \"a straightforward middle-class Englishman who just happened to be an artistic genius.\"\n\nHitchcock directed more than fifty feature films in a career spanning six decades and is often regarded as the greatest British filmmaker. He came first in a 2007 poll of film critics in Britain's Daily Telegraph, which said: \"Unquestionably the greatest filmmaker to emerge from these islands, Hitchcock did more than any director to shape modern cinema, which would be utterly different without him. His flair was for narrative, cruelly withholding crucial information (from his characters and from viewers) and engaging the emotions of the audience like no one else.\" Prior to 1980 there had long been talk of Hitchcock being knighted for his contribution to film. Critic Roger Ebert wrote: \"Other British directors like Sir Carol Reed and Sir Charlie Chaplin were knighted years ago, while Hitchcock, universally considered by film students to be one of the greatest filmmakers of all time, was passed over\". Hitchcock was later to receive his knighthood from Queen Elizabeth II in the 1980 New Year Honours. In 2002, the magazine MovieMaker named Hitchcock the most influential filmmaker of all time. \n\nEarly life\n\nAlfred Hitchcock was born on 13 August 1899 in Leytonstone, which at the time was part of Essex. He was the second son and the youngest of three children of William Hitchcock (1862–1914), a greengrocer and poulterer, and Emma Jane Hitchcock (born Whelan; 1863–1942). He was named after his father's brother. Hitchcock was brought up as a Roman Catholic and was sent to Salesian College and the Jesuit Classic school St Ignatius' College in Stamford Hill, London. His parents were both of half-English and half-Irish ancestry. He often described a lonely and sheltered childhood worsened by his obesity. Around age five, Hitchcock said that he was sent by his father to the local police station with a note asking the officer to lock him away for five minutes as punishment for behaving badly. This incident implanted a lifetime fear of policemen in Hitchcock, and such harsh treatment and wrongful accusations are frequent themes in his films. \n\nWhen Hitchcock was 15, his father died. In the same year, he left St. Ignatius to study at the London County Council School of Engineering and Navigation in Poplar, London. After leaving, he became a draftsman and advertising designer with a cable company called Henley's. During the First World War, Hitchcock was called up to serve in the British Army. He was excused from military service with a 'C3' classification due to his size, height or an unnamed medical condition, but he was \"able to stand service conditions in garrisons at home\". Hitchcock signed up to a cadet regiment of the Royal Engineers in 1917. His military stint was limited; he received theoretical briefings, weekend drills and exercises. Hitchcock would march around London's Hyde Park and was required to wear puttees, though he never mastered the proper wrapping of them. \n\nWhile working at Henley's, Hitchcock began to dabble creatively. The company's in-house publication The Henley Telegraph was founded in 1919, and he often submitted short articles and eventually became one of its most prolific contributors. His first piece was \"Gas\" (1919), published in the first issue, in which a young woman imagines that she is being assaulted one night in London – only for the twist to reveal that it was all just a hallucination in the dentist's chair induced by the anesthetic. \n\nHitchcock's second piece was \"The Woman's Part\" (1919), which involves the conflicted emotions that a husband feels as he watches his actress wife perform onstage. \"Sordid\" (1920) surrounds an attempt to buy a sword from an antiques dealer, with another twist ending. The short story \"And There Was No Rainbow\" (1920) is Hitchcock's first brush with possibly censurable material. A young man goes out looking for a brothel, only to stumble into the house of his best friend's girl. \"What's Who?\" (1920) at first glance seems to be a precursor to Abbott and Costello's \"Who's on First?\" routine. It is a very short dialogue piece that resembles a bit of antic dialogue from a music hall skit. It captures the zany confusion that happens when a group of actors decide to put together a sketch in which they will impersonate themselves. In the story’s 40 sentences, confusion regarding the questions “Who’s me?” and \"Who’s you?” rise to comic emotional heights. \"The History of Pea Eating\" (1920) is a satirical disquisition on the various attempts that people have made over the centuries to eat peas successfully. His final piece, \"Fedora\" (1921), is his shortest and most enigmatic contribution. It also gives a strikingly accurate description of his future wife Alma Reville, whom he had not yet met. \n\nInter-war British career\n\nSilent films\n\nHitchcock became intrigued by photography and started working in film production, working as a title card designer for the London branch of what became Paramount Pictures. In 1920, he received a full-time position designing the titles for silent movies at Islington Studios with its American owner Famous Players-Lasky and their British successor Gainsborough Pictures. His rise from title designer to film director took five years. During this period, he became an unusual combination of screenwriter, art director, and assistant director on a series of five films for producer Michael Balcon and director Graham Cutts: Woman to Woman (1923), The White Shadow (1924), The Passionate Adventure (1924), The Blackguard (1925), and The Prude's Fall (1925). \n\nHitchcock's penultimate collaboration with Cutts, The Blackguard (German: Die Prinzessin und der Geiger, 1925), was produced at the Babelsberg Studios in Potsdam, where Hitchcock observed part of the making of F. W. Murnau's film The Last Laugh (1924). He was very impressed with Murnau's work and later used many techniques for the set design in his own productions. In a book-length interview with François Truffaut, Hitchcock also said that he was influenced by Fritz Lang's film Destiny (1921). He was likewise influenced by other foreign filmmakers whose work he absorbed as one of the earliest members of the \"seminal\" London Film Society, formed in 1925.\n\nHitchcock's first few films faced a string of bad luck. His first directing project came in 1922 with the aptly titled Number 13, filmed in London. The production was cancelled because of financial problems; the few scenes that had been finished at that point have been lost. Michael Balcon gave Hitchcock another opportunity for a directing credit with The Pleasure Garden (1925), a co-production of Gainsborough and the German firm Emelka, which he made at the Geiselgasteig studio near Munich in the summer of 1925. The film was a commercial flop. Next, Hitchcock directed a drama called The Mountain Eagle (1926), possibly released under the title Fear o' God, in the United States. This film is lost. \n\nHitchcock's luck changed with his first thriller, The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog (1927), a suspense film about the hunt for a Jack the Ripper type of serial killer in London. Released in January 1927, it was a major commercial and critical success in the United Kingdom. As with many of his earlier works, this film was influenced by Expressionist techniques Hitchcock had witnessed first-hand in Germany. Some commentators regard this piece as the first truly \"Hitchcockian\" film, incorporating such themes as the \"wrong man\". \n\nFollowing the success of The Lodger, Hitchcock hired a publicist to help strengthen his growing reputation. On 2 December 1926, Hitchcock married his assistant director, Alma Reville, at the Brompton Oratory in South Kensington, London. Their only child, daughter Patricia, was born on 7 July 1928. Alma was to become Hitchcock's closest collaborator, but her contributions to his films (some of which were credited on screen) Hitchcock would discuss only in private, as she was keen to avoid public attention. \n\nEarly sound films\n\nHitchcock began work on his tenth film Blackmail (1929) when its production company British International Pictures (BIP) decided to convert its Elstree facility to sound, and to utilise that new technology in Blackmail. It was an early 'talkie', often cited by film historians as a landmark film, and is often considered to be the first British sound feature film. Blackmail began the Hitchcock tradition of using famous landmarks as a backdrop for suspense sequences, with the climax of the film taking place on the dome of the British Museum. It also features one of his longest cameo appearances, which shows him being bothered by a small boy as he reads a book on the London Underground. In the PBS series The Men Who Made The Movies, Hitchcock explained how he used early sound recording as a special element of the film, stressing the word \"knife\" in a conversation with the woman suspected of murder. During this period, Hitchcock directed segments for a BIP musical film revue Elstree Calling (1930) and directed a short film featuring two Film Weekly scholarship winners entitled An Elastic Affair (1930). Another BIP musical revue, Harmony Heaven (1929), reportedly had minor input from Hitchcock, but his name does not appear in the credits.\n\nIn 1933, Hitchcock was once again working for Michael Balcon at Gaumont British. His first film for the company The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934) was a success and his second The 39 Steps (1935) is often considered one of the best films from his early period, with the British Film Institute ranking it the fourth best British film of the 20th century. The film was acclaimed in Britain, and it made Hitchcock a star in the United States, and established the quintessential English \"Hitchcock blonde\" Madeleine Carroll as the template for his succession of ice cold and elegant leading ladies. This film was also one of the first to introduce the \"MacGuffin\". In The 39 Steps, the MacGuffin is a stolen set of design plans. Hitchcock told French director François Truffaut:\n\nThere are two men sitting in a train going to Scotland and one man says to the other, \"Excuse me, sir, but what is that strange parcel you have on the luggage rack above you?\", \"Oh\", says the other, \"that's a Macguffin.\", \"Well\", says the first man, \"what's a Macguffin?\", The other answers, \"It's an apparatus for trapping lions in the Scottish Highlands.\", \"But\", says the first man, \"there are no lions in the Scottish Highlands.\", \"Well\", says the other, \"then that's no Macguffin.\" \n\nHitchcock's next major success was The Lady Vanishes (1938), a fast-paced film about the search for kindly old Englishwoman Miss Froy (Dame May Whitty) who disappears while on board a train in the fictional country of Bandrika. The Guardian called the film \"one of the greatest train movies from the genre's golden era\", and a contender for the \"title of best comedy thriller ever made\". In 1939, Hitchcock received the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Director, the only time he received an award for his direction. \n\nHitchcock was lauded in Britain, where he was dubbed \"Alfred the Great\" by Picturegoer magazine, and his reputation was beginning to soar overseas by the end of the 1930s, with a New York Times feature writer stating: \"Three unique and valuable institutions the British have that we in America have not. Magna Carta, the Tower Bridge and Alfred Hitchcock, the greatest director of screen melodramas in the world.\" Variety magazine referred to him as, \"probably the best native director in England.\" \n\nHollywood\n\nSelznick contract\n\nDavid O. Selznick signed Hitchcock to a seven-year contract beginning in March 1939, and the Hitchcocks moved to Hollywood. The suspense and the gallows humour that had become Hitchcock's trademark in his films continued to appear in his American productions. The working arrangements with Selznick were less than ideal. Selznick suffered from constant financial problems, and Hitchcock was often displeased with Selznick's creative control over his films. In a later interview, Hitchcock commented:\n\n[Selznick] was the Big Producer. ... Producer was king, The most flattering thing Mr. Selznick ever said about me—and it shows you the amount of control—he said I was the \"only director\" he'd \"trust with a film\". \n\nSelznick lent Hitchcock to the larger studios more often than producing Hitchcock's films himself. Selznick made only a few films each year, as did fellow independent producer Samuel Goldwyn, so he did not always have projects for Hitchcock to direct. Goldwyn had also negotiated with Hitchcock on a possible contract, only to be outbid by Selznick. Hitchcock was quickly impressed with the superior resources of the American studios compared with the financial limits that he had often faced in Britain. \n\nThe Selznick picture Rebecca (1940) was Hitchcock's first American film, set in a Hollywood version of England's Cornwall and based on a novel by English novelist Daphne du Maurier. The film stars Laurence Olivier and Joan Fontaine. The story concerns a naïve (and unnamed) young woman who marries a widowed aristocrat. She goes to live in his huge English country house, and struggles with the lingering reputation of the elegant and worldly first wife, whose name was Rebecca and who died under mysterious circumstances. The film won the Academy Award for Best Picture of 1940. The statuette was given to Selznick, as the film's producer. Hitchcock was nominated for the Best Director award, his first of five such nominations, but did not win.\n\nThere were additional problems between Selznick and Hitchcock, with Selznick known to impose restrictive rules on Hitchcock. At the same time, Selznick complained about Hitchcock's \"goddamn jigsaw cutting\", which meant that the producer did not have nearly the leeway to create his own film as he liked, but had to follow Hitchcock's vision of the finished product. \n\nHitchcock's second American film was the European-set thriller Foreign Correspondent (1940), based on Vincent Sheean's Personal History and produced by Walter Wanger. It was nominated for Best Picture that year. Hitchcock and other British subjects felt uneasy living and working in Hollywood while their country was at war; his concern resulted in a film that overtly supported the British war effort. The movie was filmed in the first year of the Second World War and was inspired by the rapidly changing events in Europe, as fictionally covered by an American newspaper reporter portrayed by Joel McCrea. The film mixed footage of European scenes with scenes filmed on a Hollywood back lot. It avoided direct references to Nazism, Germany and Germans to comply with Hollywood's Production Code censorship. \n\nEarly war years\n\nHitchcock's films were diverse during the 1940s, ranging from the romantic comedy Mr. & Mrs. Smith (1941), to the courtroom drama The Paradine Case (1947), to the dark and disturbing film noir Shadow of a Doubt (1943).\n\nIn September 1940 the Hitchcocks bought the 200 acre Cornwall Ranch near Scotts Valley in the Santa Cruz Mountains. The ranch became the holiday home of the Hitchcocks. Their primary residence was an English-style home in Bel Air which was purchased in 1942. Suspicion (1941) marks Hitchcock's first film as a producer as well as director. It is set in England, and Hitchcock used the north coast of Santa Cruz, California for the English coastline sequence. This film is the first of four projects on which Cary Grant worked with Hitchcock, and it is one of the rare occasions that Grant was cast in a sinister role. Joan Fontaine won Best Actress Oscar for her performance. Grant plays an irresponsible English con man whose actions raise suspicion and anxiety in his shy young English wife (Fontaine). In one scene Hitchcock uses a lightbulb to illuminate what might be a fatal glass of milk that Grant is bringing to his wife. The character that Grant plays in the film is a killer in the book the film is based on, Before the Fact by Francis Iles, but Hitchcock and the studio felt that Grant's image would be tarnished by that. So instead Hitchcock settled for an ambiguous finale, though, as he stated to François Truffaut, a murder would have suited him better. \n\nSaboteur (1942) is the first of two films that Hitchcock made for Universal during the decade. Hitchcock was forced to use Universal contract player Robert Cummings and Priscilla Lane (a freelancer who signed a one-picture deal with Universal), both known for their work in comedies and light dramas. Breaking with Hollywood conventions of the time, Hitchcock did extensive location filming, especially in New York City, and depicted a confrontation between a suspected saboteur (Cummings) and a real saboteur (Norman Lloyd) atop the Statue of Liberty. That year, he also directed Have You Heard?, a photographic dramatisation of the dangers of rumours during wartime, for Life magazine. \n\nShadow of a Doubt (1943) was Hitchcock's personal favourite of all his films and the second of the early Universal films. It is about young Charlotte \"Charlie\" Newton (Teresa Wright), who suspects her beloved uncle Charlie Oakley (Joseph Cotten) of being a serial murderer. Hitchcock again filmed extensively on location, this time in the Northern California city of Santa Rosa during the summer of 1942. The director showcased his personal fascination with crime and criminals when he had two of his characters discuss various ways of killing people, to the obvious annoyance of Charlotte.\n\nWorking at 20th Century Fox, Hitchcock adapted a script of John Steinbeck's, which recorded the experiences of the survivors of a German U-boat attack in the film Lifeboat (1944). The action sequences were shot in a small boat in the studio water tank. The locale posed problems for Hitchcock's traditional cameo appearance. That was solved by having Hitchcock's image appear in a newspaper that William Bendix is reading in the boat, showing the director in a before-and-after advertisement for \"Reduco-Obesity Slayer\". \n\nWhile at Fox Hitchcock seriously considered directing the film version of A. J. Cronin's novel about a Catholic priest in China, The Keys of the Kingdom, but the plans for this fell through. John M. Stahl ended up directing the 1944 film, which was produced by Joseph L. Mankiewicz and starred Gregory Peck. \n\nWartime non-fiction films\n\nHitchcock returned to the UK for an extended visit in late 1943 and early 1944. While there he made two short films for the British Ministry of Information: Bon Voyage and Aventure Malgache. The two British propaganda films made for the Free French were the only films that Hitchcock made in the French language, and they \"feature typical Hitchcockian touches\". On his motivation for making the films, Hitchcock stated: \"I felt the need to make a little contribution to the war effort, and I was both overweight and over-age for military service. I knew that if I did nothing, I'd regret it for the rest of my life.\" \n\nFrom late June to late July 1945, Hitchcock served as \"treatment advisor\" on a Holocaust documentary which used footage provided by the Allied Forces. It was produced by Sidney Bernstein of the British Ministry of Information, and was assembled in London. Bernstein brought his future 1948–49 production partner Hitchcock on board as a consultant for the film editing process for the British Ministry of Information and the American Office of War Information. \n\nThe film-makers were commissioned to provide irrefutable evidence of the Nazis' crimes, and the film recorded the liberation of Nazi concentration camps. It was transferred in 1952 from the British War Office film vaults to London's Imperial War Museum and remained unreleased until 1985, when an edited version was broadcast as an episode of the PBS network series Frontline under the title which the Imperial War Museum had given it: Memory of the Camps. The full-length version of the film German Concentration Camps Factual Survey was completed in 2014, and was restored by film scholars at the Imperial War Museum.\n\nLater Selznick films\n\nHitchcock worked for Selznick again when he directed Spellbound (1945), which explores psychoanalysis and features a dream sequence designed by Salvador Dalí. Gregory Peck plays amnesiac Dr. Anthony Edwardes under the treatment of analyst Dr. Peterson (Ingrid Bergman), who falls in love with him while trying to unlock his repressed past. The dream sequence as it appears in the film is ten minutes shorter than was originally envisioned, having been edited by Selznick to make it \"play\" more effectively. Two point-of-view shots were achieved by building a large wooden hand (which would appear to belong to the character whose point of view the camera took) and out-sized props for it to hold: a bucket-sized glass of milk and a large wooden gun. For added novelty and impact, the climactic gunshot was hand-coloured red on some copies of the black-and-white film.\nThe original musical score by Miklós Rózsa makes use of the theremin, and some of it was later adapted by the composer into a concert piano concerto.\n\nNotorious (1946) followed Spellbound. Hitchcock gave a book-length interview to François Truffaut, in which he said that Selznick had sold the director, the two stars (Grant and Bergman), and the screenplay (by Ben Hecht) to RKO Radio Pictures as a \"package\" for $500,000 due to cost overruns on Selznick's Duel in the Sun (1946). Notorious stars Hitchcock regulars Ingrid Bergman and Cary Grant, and features a plot about Nazis, uranium and South America. His prescient use of uranium as a plot device led to Hitchcock's being briefly under FBI surveillance. McGilligan writes that Hitchcock consulted Dr. Robert Millikan of Caltech about the development of an atomic bomb. Selznick complained that the notion was \"science fiction\", only to be confronted by the news stories of the detonation of two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan in August 1945. \n\nHis last film under his contract with Selznick was The Paradine Case (1947), a courtroom drama which critics thought lost momentum because it apparently ran too long and exhausted its resource of ideas.\n\nSidney Bernstein and Transatlantic Pictures\n\nHitchcock formed an independent production company with his friend Sidney Bernstein called Transatlantic Pictures, through which he made two films, his first in colour and making use of long takes. With Rope (1948), Hitchcock experimented with marshaling suspense in a confined environment, as he had done earlier with Lifeboat (1944). The film appears to have been shot in a single take, but it was actually shot in 10 takes ranging from 4-½ to 10 minutes each, a 10-minute length of film being the maximum that a camera's film magazine could hold at the time. Some transitions between reels were hidden by having a dark object fill the entire screen for a moment. Hitchcock used those points to hide the cut, and began the next take with the camera in the same place. It features James Stewart in the leading role, and was the first of four films that Stewart made with Hitchcock. It was inspired by the Leopold and Loeb case of the 1920s.\n\nUnder Capricorn (1949), set in 19th century Australia, also uses the short-lived technique of long takes, but to a more limited extent. He again used Technicolor in this production, then returned to black-and-white films for several years. Transatlantic Pictures became inactive after these two unsuccessful films. But Hitchcock continued to produce his own films for the rest of his life.\n\n1950s: Peak years\n\nHitchcock filmed Stage Fright (1950) at studios in Elstree, England where he had worked during his British International Pictures contract many years before. He matched one of Warner Bros.' most popular stars, Jane Wyman, with the expatriate German actress Marlene Dietrich and used several prominent British actors, including Michael Wilding, Richard Todd and Alastair Sim. This was Hitchcock's first proper production for Warner Bros., which had distributed Rope and Under Capricorn, because Transatlantic Pictures was experiencing financial difficulties. \n\nHis film Strangers on a Train (1951) was based on the novel by Patricia Highsmith. In it, Hitchcock combined many elements from his preceding films. He approached Dashiell Hammett to write the dialogue, but Raymond Chandler took over, then left over disagreements with the director. In the film, two men casually meet, one of whom speculates on a foolproof method to murder; he suggests that two people, each wishing to do away with someone, should each perform the other's murder. Farley Granger's role was as the innocent victim of the scheme, while Robert Walker, previously known for \"boy-next-door\" roles, played the villain. \n\nI Confess (1953) was set in Quebec with Montgomery Clift as a Catholic priest. It was followed by three popular colour films starring Grace Kelly. Dial M for Murder (1954) was adapted from the stage play by Frederick Knott. Ray Milland plays the scheming villain, an ex-tennis pro who tries to murder his unfaithful wife (Kelly) for her money. She kills the hired assassin in self-defence, so Milland manipulates the evidence to make it look like a premeditated murder by his wife. Her lover Mark Halliday (Robert Cummings) and Police Inspector Hubbard (John Williams) work urgently to save her from execution. With Dial M, Hitchcock experimented with 3D cinematography, with the film now being available in the 3D format on Blu-ray.\n\nHitchcock then moved to Paramount Pictures and filmed Rear Window (1954), starring James Stewart and Kelly again, as well as Thelma Ritter and Raymond Burr. Stewart's character is a photographer (based on Robert Capa) who must temporarily use a wheelchair. Out of boredom, he begins observing his neighbours across the courtyard, and then becomes convinced that one of them (Raymond Burr) has murdered his wife. Stewart tries to convince both his policeman buddy (Wendell Corey) and his glamorous model-girlfriend (Kelly, whom screenwriter John Michael Hayes based on his own wife), and eventually he succeeds. As with Lifeboat and Rope, the principal characters are confined, in this case to Stewart's small studio apartment overlooking a large courtyard. Hitchcock uses close-ups of Stewart's face to show his character's reactions to all that he sees, \"from the comic voyeurism directed at his neighbours to his helpless terror watching Kelly and Burr in the villain's apartment\".\n\nIn 1955, Hitchcock became a United States citizen. His third Grace Kelly film To Catch a Thief (1955) is set in the French Riviera, and pairs her with Cary Grant. He plays retired thief John Robie, who becomes the prime suspect for a spate of robberies in the Riviera. A thrill-seeking American heiress played by Kelly surmises his true identity and tries to seduce him. \"Despite the obvious age disparity between Grant and Kelly and a lightweight plot, the witty script (loaded with double entendres) and the good-natured acting proved a commercial success.\" It was Hitchcock's last film with Kelly. She married Prince Rainier of Monaco in 1956, and ended her film career.\n\nHitchcock remade his own 1934 film The Man Who Knew Too Much in 1956. This time, the film starred James Stewart and Doris Day, who sang the theme song \"Que Sera, Sera\", which won the Oscar for Best Original Song and became a big hit for her. They play a couple whose son is kidnapped to prevent them from interfering with an assassination. As in the 1934 film, the climax takes place at the Royal Albert Hall, London. \n\nThe Wrong Man (1957), Hitchcock's final film for Warner Bros., is a low-key black-and-white production based on a real-life case of mistaken identity reported in Life magazine in 1953. This was the only film of Hitchcock to star Henry Fonda, who plays a Stork Club musician mistaken for a liquor store thief who is arrested and tried for robbery, while his wife (Vera Miles) emotionally collapses under the strain. Hitchcock told Truffaut that his lifelong fear of the police attracted him to the subject and was embedded in many scenes. \n\nVertigo (1958) again starred James Stewart, this time with Kim Novak and Barbara Bel Geddes. Stewart plays \"Scottie\", a former police investigator suffering from acrophobia, who develops an obsession with a woman that he is shadowing (Novak). Scottie's obsession leads to tragedy, and this time Hitchcock does not opt for a happy ending. Some critics, including Donald Spoto and Roger Ebert, agree that Vertigo represents the director's most personal and revealing film, dealing with the obsessions of a man who crafts a woman into the woman that he desires. Vertigo explores more frankly and at greater length his interest in the relation between sex and death than any other film in his filmography. \n\nThe film contains a camera technique developed by Irmin Roberts that has been copied many times by filmmakers commonly referred to as a dolly zoom. It was premiered in the San Sebastián International Film Festival, where Hitchcock won a Silver Seashell. Vertigo is considered a classic today, but it met with some negative reviews and poor box office receipts upon its release, and was the last collaboration between Stewart and Hitchcock. It had previously been ranked just behind Citizen Kane (1941) in earlier Sight and Sound decade polls, but it was voted best ever film in the 2012 Sight & Sound critics poll.\n\nBy this time, Hitchcock had filmed in many areas of the US. He followed Vertigo with three more successful films, which are also recognised as among his best films: North by Northwest (1959), Psycho (1960) and The Birds (1963).\n\nIn North by Northwest, Cary Grant portrays Roger Thornhill, a Madison Avenue advertising executive who is mistaken for a government secret agent. He is hotly pursued across the United States by enemy agents, apparently one of them being Eve Kendall (Eva Marie Saint), who is in reality working undercover.\n\n1960: Psycho\n\nPsycho is arguably Hitchcock's best-known film. Produced on a constrained budget of $800,000, it was shot in black-and-white on a spare set using crew members from his television show Alfred Hitchcock Presents. The unprecedented violence of the shower scene, the early death of the heroine and the innocent lives extinguished by a disturbed murderer became the defining hallmarks of a new horror film genre and have been copied by many authors of subsequent films. \n\nThe public loved the film, with lines stretching outside of cinemas as people had to wait for the next showing. It broke box-office records in the United Kingdom, France, South America, the United States and Canada and was a moderate success in Australia for a brief period. It was the most profitable film of Hitchcock's career; Hitchcock personally earned well in excess of $15 million. He subsequently swapped his rights to Psycho and his TV anthology for 150,000 shares of MCA, making him the third largest shareholder in MCA Inc. and his own boss at Universal, in theory at least, but that did not stop them from interfering with him. \n\nAfter 1960\n\nThe Birds (1963), inspired by a short story by English author Daphne du Maurier and by a news story about a mysterious infestation of birds in Capitola, California, was Hitchcock's 49th film, and the location scenes were filmed in Bodega Bay, California. Newcomer Tippi Hedren co-starred with Rod Taylor and Suzanne Pleshette. The scenes of the birds attacking included hundreds of shots mixing live and animated sequences. The cause of the birds' attack is left unanswered, \"perhaps highlighting the mystery of forces unknown\". Hitchcock cast Hedren again opposite Sean Connery in Marnie (1964), a romantic drama and psychological thriller. Decades later, Hedren called Hitchcock a misogynist and said that Hitchcock effectively ended her career by keeping her to an exclusive contract for two years when she rebuffed his sexual advances. However, Hedren appeared in two TV shows during the two years after Marnie. In 2012, Hedren described Hitchcock as a \"sad character\"; a man of \"unusual genius\", yet \"evil, and deviant, almost to the point of dangerous, because of the effect that he could have on people that were totally unsuspecting.\" In response, a Daily Telegraph article quoted several actresses who had worked with Hitchcock, including Eva Marie Saint, Doris Day and Kim Novak, none of whom shared Hedren's opinion about him. Novak, who worked on Hitchcock's Vertigo, told the Telegraph \"I never saw him make a pass at anybody or act strange to anybody.\" \n\nPsycho and The Birds had unconventional soundtracks: the screeching strings played in the murder scene in Psycho were unusually dissonant, and The Birds dispensed with any conventional score, instead using a new technique of electronically produced sound effects. Bernard Herrmann composed the former and was a consultant on the latter.\n\nFailing health reduced Hitchcock's output during the last two decades of his life. Biographer Stephen Rebello claimed Universal \"forced\" two movies on him, Torn Curtain (1966) and Topaz (1969). Both were spy thrillers set with Cold War-related themes. The first, Torn Curtain (1966), with Paul Newman and Julie Andrews, precipitated the bitter end of the twelve-year collaboration between Hitchcock and composer Bernard Herrmann. Herrmann was sacked when Hitchcock was unsatisfied with his score. Topaz (1969), based on a Leon Uris novel, is partly set in Cuba. Both received mixed reviews from critics.\n\nHitchcock returned to Britain to film his penultimate film Frenzy (1972). After two espionage films, the plot marks a return to the murder thriller genre, and is based upon the novel Goodbye Piccadilly, Farewell Leicester Square. The plot centres on a serial killer in contemporary London. The basic story recycles his early film The Lodger. Richard Blaney (Jon Finch), a volatile barman with a history of explosive anger, becomes the prime suspect for the \"Necktie Murders,\" which are actually committed by his friend Bob Rusk (Barry Foster). This time, Hitchcock makes the victim and villain kindreds, rather than opposites, as in Strangers on a Train. Only one of them, however, has crossed the line to murder. For the first time, Hitchcock allowed nudity and profane language, which had previously been taboo, in one of his films. He also shows rare sympathy for the chief inspector and his comic domestic life. \n\nBiographers have noted that Hitchcock had always pushed the limits of film censorship, often managing to fool Joseph Breen, the longtime head of Hollywood's Production Code. Many times Hitchcock slipped in subtle hints of improprieties forbidden by censorship until the mid-1960s. Yet Patrick McGilligan wrote that Breen and others often realised that Hitchcock was inserting such things and were actually amused as well as alarmed by Hitchcock's \"inescapable inferences\". Beginning with Torn Curtain, Hitchcock was finally able to blatantly include plot elements previously forbidden in American films.\n\nFamily Plot (1976) was Hitchcock's last film. It relates the escapades of \"Madam\" Blanche Tyler, played by Barbara Harris, a fraudulent spiritualist, and her taxi driver lover Bruce Dern, making a living from her phony powers. William Devane, Karen Black and Cathleen Nesbitt co-starred. It is the only Hitchcock film scored by John Williams. While Family Plot was based on the Victor Canning novel The Rainbird Pattern, the novel's tone is more sinister and dark than what Hitchcock wanted for the film. Screenwriter Ernest Lehman originally wrote the film with a dark tone but was pushed to a lighter, more comical tone by Hitchcock. The film went through various titles including Deceit and Missing Heir. It was changed to Family Plot at the suggestion of the studio.\n\nLast project and death\n\nNear the end of his life, Hitchcock had worked on the script for a projected spy thriller, The Short Night, collaborating with James Costigan, Ernest Lehman and David Freeman. Despite some preliminary work, the screenplay was never filmed. This was caused primarily by Hitchcock's seriously declining health and his concerns for his wife, Alma, who had suffered a stroke. The screenplay was eventually published in Freeman's 1999 book The Last Days of Alfred Hitchcock. \n\nHitchcock died aged 80 in his Bel Air home of renal failure on 29 April 1980. While biographer Spoto wrote that Hitchcock \"rejected suggestions that he allow a priest ... to come for a visit, or celebrate a quiet, informal ritual at the house for his comfort,\" Jesuit priest Father Mark Henninger wrote that he and fellow priest Tom Sullivan celebrated Mass at the filmmaker's home; Father Sullivan heard Hitchcock's confession. He was survived by his wife and their daughter. Lew Wasserman, board chairman and chief executive officer of MCA Inc. and previously Hitchcock’s longtime agent, stated:\n\nI am deeply saddened by the death of my close friend and colleague, Sir Alfred Hitchcock, whose death today at his home deprives us all of a great artist and an even greater human being. Almost every tribute paid to Sir Alfred in the past by film critics and historians has emphasised his continuing influence in the world of film. It is that continuing influence, embodied in the magnificent series of films he has given the world, during the last half-century, that will preserve his great spirit, his humour and his wit, not only for us but for succeeding generations of film-goers.\n\nHitchcock's funeral Mass was held at Good Shepherd Catholic Church in Beverly Hills on 30 April 1980, after which his body was cremated and his remains were scattered over the Pacific Ocean on 10 May 1980. \n\nAesthetic\n\nSignature appearances in his films\n\nHitchcock appears briefly in most of his own films. For example, he is seen struggling to get a double bass onto a train (Strangers on a Train), walking dogs out of a pet shop (The Birds), fixing a neighbour's clock (Rear Window), as a shadow (Family Plot), sitting at a table in a photograph (Dial M for Murder) and missing a bus (North by Northwest).\n\nThemes, plot devices and motifs\n\nHitchcock returned several times to cinematic devices such as suspense, the audience as voyeur, and his well-known \"MacGuffin,\" a plot device that is essential to the characters on the screen, but is irrelevant to the audience. Thus, the MacGuffin was always hazily described (in North By Northwest, Leo G. Carroll describes James Mason as an \"importer-exporter.\") A central theme of Hitchcock's films was murder and the psychology behind it. \n\nPsychology of characters\n\nHitchcock's films sometimes feature characters struggling in their relationships with their mothers. In North by Northwest (1959), Roger Thornhill (Cary Grant's character) is an innocent man ridiculed by his mother for insisting that shadowy, murderous men are after him. In The Birds (1963), the Rod Taylor character, an innocent man, finds his world under attack by vicious birds, and struggles to free himself of a clinging mother (Jessica Tandy). The killer in Frenzy (1972) has a loathing of women but idolises his mother. The villain Bruno in Strangers on a Train hates his father, but has an incredibly close relationship with his mother (played by Marion Lorne). Sebastian (Claude Rains) in Notorious has a clearly conflictual relationship with his mother, who is (correctly) suspicious of his new bride Alicia Huberman (Ingrid Bergman). Norman Bates has troubles with his mother in Psycho.\n\nHitchcock heroines tend to be blondes. The famous victims in The Lodger are all blondes. In The 39 Steps, Hitchcock's glamorous blonde star, Madeleine Carroll, is put in handcuffs. In Marnie (1964), the title character (played by Tippi Hedren) is a thief. In To Catch a Thief (1955), Francie (Grace Kelly) offers to help a man she believes is a burglar. In Rear Window, Lisa (Grace Kelly again) risks her life by breaking into Lars Thorwald's apartment. The best-known example is in Psycho where Janet Leigh's unfortunate character steals $40,000 and is murdered by a reclusive psychopath. Hitchcock's last blonde heroine was Barbara Harris as a phony psychic turned amateur sleuth in Family Plot (1976), his final film. In the same film, the diamond smuggler played by Karen Black could also fit that role, as she wears a long blonde wig in various scenes and becomes increasingly uncomfortable about her line of work. The English 'Hitchcock blonde' was based on his preference for the heroines to have an \"indirect\" sex appeal of English women, ladylike in public, but whores in the bedroom, with Hitchcock stating to Truffaut:\n\nStyle of working\n\nWriting\n\nHitchcock once commented, \"The writer and I plan out the entire script down to the smallest detail, and when we're finished all that's left to do is to shoot the film. Actually, it's only when one enters the studio that one enters the area of compromise. Really, the novelist has the best casting since he doesn't have to cope with the actors and all the rest.\" In an interview with Roger Ebert in 1969, Hitchcock elaborated further:\n\nIn Writing with Hitchcock, a book-length study of Hitchcock's working method with his writers, author Steven DeRosa noted that \"Although he rarely did any actual 'writing', especially on his Hollywood productions, Hitchcock supervised and guided his writers through every draft, insisting on a strict attention to detail and a preference for telling the story through visual rather than verbal means. While this exasperated some writers, others admitted the director inspired them to do their very best work. Hitchcock often emphasised that he took no screen credit for the writing of his films. However, over time the work of many of his writers has been attributed solely to Hitchcock's creative genius, a misconception he rarely went out of his way to correct. Notwithstanding his technical brilliance as a director, Hitchcock relied on his writers a great deal.\" \n\nStoryboards and production\n\nAccording to the majority of commentators, Hitchcock's films were extensively storyboarded to the finest detail. He was reported to have never even bothered looking through the viewfinder, since he did not need to, though in publicity photos he was shown doing so. He also used this as an excuse to never have to change his films from his initial vision. If a studio asked him to change a film, he would claim that it was already shot in a single way, and that there were no alternate takes to consider.\n\nHowever, this view of Hitchcock as a director who relied more on pre-production than on the actual production itself has been challenged by the book Hitchcock at Work, written by Bill Krohn, the American correspondent of Cahiers du cinéma. Krohn, after investigating several script revisions, notes to other production personnel written by or to Hitchcock alongside inspection of storyboards, and other production material, has observed that Hitchcock's work often deviated from how the screenplay was written or how the film was originally envisioned. He noted that the myth of storyboards in relation to Hitchcock, often regurgitated by generations of commentators on his films, was to a great degree perpetuated by Hitchcock himself or the publicity arm of the studios. A great example would be the celebrated crop-spraying sequence of North by Northwest which was not storyboarded at all. After the scene was filmed, the publicity department asked Hitchcock to make storyboards to promote the film and Hitchcock in turn hired an artist to match the scenes in detail.\n\nEven when storyboards were made, scenes that were shot differed from them significantly. Krohn's extensive analysis of the production of Hitchcock classics like Notorious reveals that Hitchcock was flexible enough to change a film's conception during its production. Another example Krohn notes is the American remake of The Man Who Knew Too Much, whose shooting schedule commenced without a finished script and moreover went over schedule, something that, as Krohn notes, was not an uncommon occurrence on many of Hitchcock's films, including Strangers on a Train and Topaz. While Hitchcock did do a great deal of preparation for all his films, he was fully cognisant that the actual film-making process often deviated from the best-laid plans and was flexible to adapt to the changes and needs of production as his films were not free from the normal hassles faced and common routines utilised during many other film productions.\n\nKrohn's work also sheds light on Hitchcock's practice of generally shooting in chronological order, which he notes sent many films over budget and over schedule and, more importantly, differed from the standard operating procedure of Hollywood in the Studio System Era. Equally important is Hitchcock's tendency to shoot alternate takes of scenes. This differed from coverage in that the films were not necessarily shot from varying angles so as to give the editor options to shape the film how he/she chooses (often under the producer's aegis). Rather they represented Hitchcock's tendency of giving himself options in the editing room, where he would provide advice to his editors after viewing a rough cut of the work. According to Krohn, this and a great deal of other information revealed through his research of Hitchcock's personal papers, script revisions and the like refute the notion of Hitchcock as a director who was always in control of his films, whose vision of his films did not change during production, which Krohn notes has remained the central long-standing myth of Alfred Hitchcock.\n\nHis fastidiousness and attention to detail also found its way into each film poster for his films. Hitchcock preferred to work with the best talent of his day—film poster designers such as Bill Gold and Saul Bass—who would produce posters that accurately represented his films. \n\nApproach to actors\n\nHitchcock became known for his alleged observation, \"Actors are cattle\". He once said that he first made this remark as early as the late 1920s, in connection to stage actors who were snobbish about motion pictures. However, the actor Michael Redgrave said that Hitchcock had made the statement during the filming of The Lady Vanishes (1938). Later, in Hollywood, during the filming of Mr. & Mrs. Smith (1941), Carole Lombard brought some heifers onto the set with name tags of Lombard, Robert Montgomery and Gene Raymond, the stars of the film, to surprise the director. Hitchcock said he was misquoted: \"I said 'Actors should be treated like cattle'.\" \n\nMuch of Hitchcock's supposed dislike of actors has been exaggerated. Hitchcock simply did not tolerate the method approach, as he believed that actors should only concentrate on their performances and leave work on script and character to the directors and screenwriters. In a Sight and Sound interview, he stated that, 'the method actor is OK in the theatre because he has a free space to move about. But when it comes to cutting the face and what he sees and so forth, there must be some discipline'. He often used the same actors in many of his films.\n\nDuring the making of Lifeboat, Walter Slezak, who played the German villain, stated that Hitchcock knew the mechanics of acting better than anyone he knew. Several critics have observed that despite his reputation as a man who disliked actors, several actors who worked with him gave fine, often brilliant performances and these performances contribute to the film's success. As more fully discussed above, in \"Inter-War British Career,\" actress Dolly Haas, who was a personal friend of Hitchcock and who acted for him in the 1953 film I Confess, stated that Hitchcock regarded actors as \"animated props.\"\n\nFor Hitchcock, the actors, like the props, were part of the film's setting, as he said to Truffaut:\n\nIn my opinion, the chief requisite for an actor is the ability to do nothing well, which is by no means as easy as it sounds. He should be willing to be utilised and wholly integrated into the picture by the director and the camera. He must allow the camera to determine the proper emphasis and the most effective dramatic highlights. \n\nRegarding Hitchcock's sometimes less than pleasant relationship with actors, there was a persistent rumour that he had said that actors were cattle. Hitchcock addressed this story in his interview with François Truffaut:\n\nI'm not quite sure in what context I might have made such a statement. It may have been made ... when we used actors who were simultaneously performing in stage plays. When they had a matinee, and I suspected they were allowing themselves plenty of time for a very leisurely lunch. And this meant that we had to shoot our scenes at breakneck speed so that the actors could get out on time. I couldn't help feeling that if they'd been really conscientious, they'd have swallowed their sandwich in the cab, on the way to the theatre, and get there in time to put on their make-up and go on stage. I had no use for that kind of actor. \n\nIn the late 1950s, French New Wave critics, especially Éric Rohmer, Claude Chabrol and François Truffaut, were among the first to see and promote Hitchcock's films as artistic works. Hitchcock was one of the first directors to whom they applied their auteur theory, which stresses the artistic authority of the director in the film-making process.\n\nHitchcock's innovations and vision have influenced a great number of filmmakers, producers and actors. His influence helped start a trend for film directors to control artistic aspects of their films without answering to the film's producer.\n\nInspiration for suspense and psychological thrillers\n\nIn a 1963 interview with Oriana Fallaci, Hitchcock was asked in spite of looking like a pleasant, innocuous man, he seemed to have fun making films which involve a lot of suspense and terrifying crime, to which he responded,\n\nTelevision, radio and books\n\nAlong with Walt Disney, Hitchcock was among the first prominent film producers to fully envisage just how popular the medium of television would become. From 1955 to 1965, Hitchcock was the host of the television series titled Alfred Hitchcock Presents. While his films had made Hitchcock's name strongly associated with suspense, the TV series made Hitchcock a celebrity himself. His irony-tinged voice and signature droll delivery, gallows humour, iconic image and mannerisms became instantly recognisable and were often the subject of parody.\n\nThe title-sequence of the show pictured a minimalist caricature of Hitchcock's profile (he drew it himself; it is composed of only nine strokes), which his real silhouette then filled. His introductions before the stories in his programme always included some sort of wry humour, such as the description of a recent multi-person execution hampered by having only one electric chair, while two are now shown with a sign \"Two chairs—no waiting!\". He directed 18 episodes of the TV series himself, which aired from 1955 to 1965 in two versions. It became The Alfred Hitchcock Hour in 1962.\n\nThe series theme tune was Funeral March of a Marionette, by the French composer Charles Gounod (1818–1893), the composer of the 1859 opera Faust. The composer Bernard Herrmann suggested the music be used. Arthur Fiedler and the Boston Pops Orchestra included the piece on one of their extended play 45-rpm discs for RCA Victor during the 1950s. In the 1980s, a new version of Alfred Hitchcock Presents was produced for television, making use of Hitchcock's original introductions in a colourised form.\n\nHitchcock appears as a character in the popular juvenile detective book series, Alfred Hitchcock and the Three Investigators. The long-running detective series was created by Robert Arthur, who wrote the first several books, although other authors took over after he left the series. The Three Investigators—Jupiter Jones, Bob Andrews and Peter Crenshaw—were amateur detectives, slightly younger than the Hardy Boys. In the introduction to each book, \"Alfred Hitchcock\" introduces the mystery, and he sometimes refers a case to the boys to solve. At the end of each book, the boys report to Hitchcock, and sometimes give him a memento of their case.\n\nAt the height of Hitchcock's success, he was also asked to introduce a set of books with his name attached. The series was a collection of short stories by popular short-story writers, primarily focused on suspense and thrillers. These titles included Alfred Hitchcock's Anthology, Alfred Hitchcock Presents: Stories to be Read with the Door Locked, Alfred Hitchcock's Monster Museum, Alfred Hitchcock's Supernatural Tales of Terror and Suspense, Alfred Hitchcock's Spellbinders in Suspense, Alfred Hitchcock's Witch's Brew, Alfred Hitchcock's Ghostly Gallery, Alfred Hitchcock's A Hangman's Dozen, Alfred Hitchcock's Stories Not For the Nervous and Alfred Hitchcock's Haunted Houseful. Hitchcock himself was not actually involved in the reading, reviewing, editing or selection of the short stories; in fact, even his introductions were ghost-written. The entire extent of his involvement with the project was to lend his name and collect a cheque.\n\nSome notable writers whose works were used in the collection include Shirley Jackson (Strangers in Town, The Lottery), T. H. White (The Once and Future King), Robert Bloch, H. G. Wells (The War of the Worlds), Robert Louis Stevenson, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, Mark Twain and the creator of The Three Investigators, Robert Arthur. In a similar manner, Hitchcock's name was licensed for a digest-sized monthly, Alfred Hitchcock's Mystery Magazine, which has been published since 1956.\n\nHitchcock also wrote a mystery story for Look magazine in 1943, \"The Murder of Monty Woolley\". This was a sequence of captioned photographs inviting the reader to inspect the pictures for clues to the murderer's identity; Hitchcock cast the performers as themselves, such as Woolley, Doris Merrick and make-up man Guy Pearce, whom Hitchcock identified, in the last photo, as the murderer. The article was reprinted in Games Magazine in November/December 1980.\n\nIn 2012, Hitchcock featured in the BBC Radio 4 series The New Elizabethans to mark the diamond Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II. A panel of 7 academics, journalists and historians named Hitchcock among the group of people in the UK \"whose actions during the reign of Elizabeth II have had a significant impact on lives in these islands and given the age its character\". \n\nAwards and honours\n\nHitchcock was a multiple nominee and winner of a number of prestigious awards, receiving two Golden Globes, eight Laurel Awards, and five lifetime achievement awards including the first BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award, as well as being five times nominated for, albeit never winning, an Academy Award as Best Director. His film Rebecca (nominated for 11 Oscars) won the Academy Award for Best Picture of 1940—another Hitchcock film, Foreign Correspondent, was also nominated that year. Hitchcock has two stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, receiving one for his contribution to television and another for his work in motion pictures.\n\nAfter refusing a CBE in 1962, Hitchcock received a knighthood in 1980 when he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (KBE) by Queen Elizabeth II in the 1980 New Year Honours. Asked by a reporter why it had taken the Queen so long, Hitchcock quipped, \"I suppose it was a matter of carelessness\". An English Heritage blue plaque, unveiled in 1999, marks where Sir Alfred Hitchcock lived in London at 153 Cromwell Road, Kensington and Chelsea, SW5.\n\nIn June 2013, nine restored versions of Hitchcock's early silent films, including his directorial debut, The Pleasure Garden (1925), were shown at the Brooklyn Academy of Music's Harvey Theatre. Known as \"The Hitchcock 9,\" the travelling tribute was made possible by a $3 million programme organised by the British Film Institute.\n\nArchives\n\nThe Alfred Hitchcock Collection is housed at the Academy Film Archive. The collection includes home movies, 16mm film shot on the set of Blackmail (1929) and Frenzy (1972), and the earliest known colour footage of Hitchcock. The Academy Film Archive preserved many of Hitchcock's home movies. The Alfred Hitchcock papers at the Academy's Margaret Herrick Library complement the film material. \n\nPortrayals in film and television\n\n* Anthony Hopkins in the 2012 film Hitchcock.\n* Toby Jones in the 2012 HBO telefilm The Girl.\n* Roger Ashton-Griffiths in the 2014 film Grace of Monaco.\n\nFilmography\n\n* Number 13 (1922, unfinished)\n* Always Tell Your Wife (1923, short)\n* The Pleasure Garden (1925)\n* The Mountain Eagle (1926, lost)\n* The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog (1927)\n* The Ring (1927)\n* Downhill (1927)\n* The Farmer's Wife (1928)\n* Easy Virtue (1928)\n* Champagne (1928)\n* The Manxman (1929)\n* Blackmail (1929)\n* Juno and the Paycock (1930)\n* Murder! (1930)\n* Elstree Calling (1930)\n* The Skin Game (1931)\n* Mary (1931)\n* Rich and Strange (1931)\n* Number Seventeen (1932)\n* Waltzes from Vienna (1934)\n* The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934)\n* The 39 Steps (1935)\n* Secret Agent (1936)\n* Sabotage (1936)\n* Young and Innocent (1937)\n* The Lady Vanishes (1938)\n* Jamaica Inn (1939)\n* Rebecca (1940)\n* Foreign Correspondent (1940)\n* Mr. & Mrs. Smith (1941)\n* Suspicion (1941)\n* Saboteur (1942)\n* Shadow of a Doubt (1943)\n* Lifeboat (1944)\n* Aventure Malgache (1944, short)\n* Bon Voyage (1944, short)\n* Spellbound (1945)\n* Notorious (1946)\n* The Paradine Case (1947)\n* Rope (1948)\n* Under Capricorn (1949)\n* Stage Fright (1950)\n* Strangers on a Train (1951)\n* I Confess (1953)\n* Dial M for Murder (1954)\n* Rear Window (1954)\n* To Catch a Thief (1955)\n* The Trouble with Harry (1955)\n* The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956)\n* The Wrong Man (1956)\n* Vertigo (1958)\n* North by Northwest (1959)\n* Psycho (1960)\n* The Birds (1963)\n* Marnie (1964)\n* Torn Curtain (1966)\n* Topaz (1969)\n* Frenzy (1972)\n* Family Plot (1976)\n* The Short Night (1979, cancelled)", "A sound film is a motion picture with synchronized sound, or sound technologically coupled to image, as opposed to a silent film. The first known public exhibition of projected sound films took place in Paris in 1900, but decades passed before sound motion pictures were made commercially practical. Reliable synchronization was difficult to achieve with the early sound-on-disc systems, and amplification and recording quality were also inadequate. Innovations in sound-on-film led to the first commercial screening of short motion pictures using the technology, which took place in 1923.\n\nThe primary steps in the commercialization of sound cinema were taken in the mid- to late 1920s. At first, the sound films incorporating synchronized dialogue—known as \"talking pictures\", or \"talkies\"—were exclusively shorts; the earliest feature-length movies with recorded sound included only music and effects. The first feature film originally presented as a talkie was The Jazz Singer, released in October 1927. A major hit, it was made with Vitaphone, which was at the time the leading brand of sound-on-disc technology. Sound-on-film, however, would soon become the standard for talking pictures.\n\nBy the early 1930s, the talkies were a global phenomenon. In the United States, they helped secure Hollywood's position as one of the world's most powerful cultural/commercial systems (see Cinema of the United States). In Europe (and, to a lesser degree, elsewhere), the new development was treated with suspicion by many filmmakers and critics, who worried that a focus on dialogue would subvert the unique aesthetic virtues of soundless cinema. In Japan, where the popular film tradition integrated silent movie and live vocal performance, talking pictures were slow to take root. In India, sound was the transformative element that led to the rapid expansion of the nation's film industry.\n\nHistory \n\nEarly steps \n\nThe idea of combining motion pictures with recorded sound is nearly as old as the concept of cinema itself. On February 27, 1888, a couple of days after photographic pioneer Eadweard Muybridge gave a lecture not far from the laboratory of Thomas Edison, the two inventors privately met. Muybridge later claimed that on this occasion, six years before the first commercial motion picture exhibition, he proposed a scheme for sound cinema that would combine his image-casting zoopraxiscope with Edison's recorded-sound technology. No agreement was reached, but within a year Edison commissioned the development of the Kinetoscope, essentially a \"peep-show\" system, as a visual complement to his cylinder phonograph. The two devices were brought together as the Kinetophone in 1895, but individual, cabinet viewing of motion pictures was soon to be outmoded by successes in film projection. In 1899, a projected sound-film system known as Cinemacrophonograph or Phonorama, based primarily on the work of Swiss-born inventor François Dussaud, was exhibited in Paris; similar to the Kinetophone, the system required individual use of earphones. An improved cylinder-based system, Phono-Cinéma-Théâtre, was developed by Clément-Maurice Gratioulet and Henri Lioret of France, allowing short films of theater, opera, and ballet excerpts to be presented at the Paris Exposition in 1900. These appear to be the first publicly exhibited films with projection of both image and recorded sound. Phonorama and yet another sound-film system—Théâtroscope—were also presented at the Exposition. \n\nThree major problems persisted, leading to motion pictures and sound recording largely taking separate paths for a generation. The primary issue was synchronization: pictures and sound were recorded and played back by separate devices, which were difficult to start and maintain in tandem.Sound engineer Mark Ulano, in [http://www.filmsound.org/ulano/talkies2.htm \"The Movies Are Born a Child of the Phonograph\"] (part 2 of his essay \"Moving Pictures That Talk\"), describes the Phono-Cinéma-Théâtre version of synchronized sound cinema:\n\nThis system used an operator adjusted non-linkage form of primitive synchronization. The scenes to be shown were first filmed, and then the performers recorded their dialogue or songs on the Lioretograph (usually a Le Éclat concert cylinder format phonograph) trying to match tempo with the projected filmed performance. In showing the films, synchronization of sorts was achieved by adjusting the hand cranked film projector's speed to match the phonograph. the projectionist was equipped with a telephone through which he listened to the phonograph which was located in the orchestra pit.\n Sufficient playback volume was also hard to achieve. While motion picture projectors soon allowed film to be shown to large theater audiences, audio technology before the development of electric amplification could not project satisfactorily to fill large spaces. Finally, there was the challenge of recording fidelity. The primitive systems of the era produced sound of very low quality unless the performers were stationed directly in front of the cumbersome recording devices (acoustical horns, for the most part), imposing severe limits on the sort of films that could be created with live-recorded sound. \n\nCinematic innovators attempted to cope with the fundamental synchronization problem in a variety of ways. An increasing number of motion picture systems relied on gramophone records—known as sound-on-disc technology; the records themselves were often referred to as \"Berliner discs\", after one of the primary inventors in the field, German-American Emile Berliner. In 1902, Léon Gaumont demonstrated his sound-on-disc Chronophone, involving an electrical connection he had recently patented, to the French Photographic Society. Four years later, Gaumont introduced the Elgéphone, a compressed-air amplification system based on the Auxetophone, developed by British inventors Horace Short and Charles Parsons. Despite\nhigh expectations, Gaumont's sound innovations had only limited commercial success—though improvements, they still did not satisfactorily address the three basic issues with sound film and were expensive as well. For some years, American inventor E. E. Norton's Cameraphone was the primary competitor to the Gaumont system (sources differ on whether the Cameraphone was disc- or cylinder-based); it ultimately failed for many of the same reasons that held back the Chronophone.Altman (2005), pp. 158–65; Altman (1995).\n\nIn 1913, Edison introduced a new cylinder-based synch-sound apparatus known, just like his 1895 system, as the Kinetophone; instead of films being shown to individual viewers in the Kinetoscope cabinet, they were now projected onto a screen. The phonograph was connected by an intricate arrangement of pulleys to the film projector, allowing—under ideal conditions—for synchronization. However, conditions were rarely ideal, and the new, improved Kinetophone was retired after little more than a year. By the mid-1910s, the groundswell in commercial sound motion picture exhibition had subsided. Beginning in 1914, The Photo-Drama of Creation, promoting Jehovah's Witnesses' conception of mankind's genesis, was screened around the United States: eight hours worth of projected visuals involving both slides and live action were synchronized with separately recorded lectures and musical performances played back on phonograph. \n\nMeanwhile, innovations continued on another significant front. In 1907, French-born, London-based Eugene Lauste—who had worked at Edison's lab between 1886 and 1892—was awarded the first patent for sound-on-film technology, involving the transformation of sound into light waves that are photographically recorded direct onto celluloid. As described by historian Scott Eyman,\n\nIt was a double system, that is, the sound was on a different piece of film from the picture.... In essence, the sound was captured by a microphone and translated into light waves via a light valve, a thin ribbon of sensitive metal over a tiny slit. The sound reaching this ribbon would be converted into light by the shivering of the diaphragm, focusing the resulting light waves through the slit, where it would be photographed on the side of the film, on a strip about a tenth of an inch wide. \n\nThough sound-on-film would eventually become the universal standard for synchronized sound cinema, Lauste never successfully exploited his innovations, which came to an effective dead end. In 1914, Finnish inventor Eric Tigerstedt was granted German patent 309,536 for his sound-on-film work; that same year, he apparently demonstrated a film made with the process to an audience of scientists in Berlin. Hungarian engineer Denes Mihaly submitted his sound-on-film Projectofon concept to the Royal Hungarian Patent Court in 1918; the patent award was published four years later. Whether sound was captured on cylinder, disc, or film, none of the available technology was adequate for big-league commercial purposes, and for many years the heads of the major Hollywood film studios saw little benefit in producing sound motion pictures. \n\nCrucial innovations \n\nA number of technological developments contributed to making sound cinema commercially viable by the late 1920s. Two involved contrasting approaches to synchronized sound reproduction, or playback:\n\nAdvanced sound-on-film \n\nIn 1919, American inventor Lee De Forest was awarded several patents that would lead to the first optical sound-on-film technology with commercial application. In De Forest's system, the sound track was photographically recorded onto the side of the strip of motion picture film to create a composite, or \"married\", print. If proper synchronization of sound and picture was achieved in recording, it could be absolutely counted on in playback. Over the next four years, he improved his system with the help of equipment and patents licensed from another American inventor in the field, Theodore Case. \n\nAt the University of Illinois, Polish-born research engineer Joseph Tykociński-Tykociner was working independently on a similar process. On June 9, 1922, he gave the first reported U.S. demonstration of a sound-on-film motion picture to members of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. As with Lauste and Tigerstedt, Tykociner's system would never be taken advantage of commercially; however, De Forest's soon would.\n\nOn April 15, 1923, at New York City's Rivoli Theater, came the first commercial screening of motion pictures with sound-on-film, the future standard: a set of shorts under the banner of De Forest Phonofilms, accompanying a silent feature. That June, De Forest entered into an extended legal battle with an employee, Freeman Harrison Owens, for title to one of the crucial Phonofilm patents. Although De Forest ultimately won the case in the courts, Owens is today recognized as a central innovator in the field. The following year, De Forest's studio released the first commercial dramatic film shot as a talking picture—the two-reeler Love's Old Sweet Song, directed by J. Searle Dawley and featuring Una Merkel. However, phonofilm's stock in trade was not original dramas but celebrity documentaries, popular music acts, and comedy performances. President Calvin Coolidge, opera singer Abbie Mitchell, and vaudeville stars such as Phil Baker, Ben Bernie, Eddie Cantor and Oscar Levant appeared in the firm's pictures. Hollywood remained suspicious, even fearful, of the new technology. As Photoplay editor James Quirk put it in March 1924, \"Talking pictures are perfected, says Dr. Lee De Forest. So is castor oil.\" De Forest's process continued to be used through 1927 in the United States for dozens of short Phonofilms; in the UK it was employed a few years longer for both shorts and features by British Sound Film Productions, a subsidiary of British Talking Pictures, which purchased the primary Phonofilm assets. By the end of 1930, the Phonofilm business would be liquidated. \n\nIn Europe, others were also working on the development of sound-on-film. In 1919, the same year that DeForest received his first patents in the field, three German inventors patented the Tri-Ergon sound system. On September 17, 1922, the Tri-Ergon group gave a public screening of sound-on-film productions—including a dramatic talkie, Der Brandstifter (The Arsonist) —before an invited audience at the Alhambra Kino in Berlin. By the end of the decade, Tri-Ergon would be the dominant European sound system. In 1923, two Danish engineers, Axel Petersen and Arnold Poulsen, patented a system that recorded sound on a separate filmstrip running parallel with the image reel. Gaumont licensed the technology and briefly put it to commercial use under the name Cinéphone. \n\nDomestic competition, however, eclipsed Phonofilm. By September 1925, De Forest and Case's working arrangement had fallen through. The following July, Case joined Fox Film, Hollywood's third largest studio, to found the Fox-Case Corporation. The system developed by Case and his assistant, Earl Sponable, given the name Movietone, thus became the first viable sound-on-film technology controlled by a Hollywood movie studio. The following year, Fox purchased the North American rights to the Tri-Ergon system, though the company found it inferior to Movietone and virtually impossible to integrate the two different systems to advantage. In 1927, as well, Fox retained the services of Freeman Owens, who had particular expertise in constructing cameras for synch-sound film. \n\nAdvanced sound-on-disc \n\nParallel with improvements in sound-on-film technology, a number of companies were making progress with systems that recorded movie sound on phonograph discs. In sound-on-disc technology from the era, a phonograph turntable is connected by a mechanical interlock to a specially modified film projector, allowing for synchronization. In 1921, the Photokinema sound-on-disc system developed by Orlando Kellum was employed to add synchronized sound sequences to D. W. Griffith's failed silent film Dream Street. A love song, performed by star Ralph Graves, was recorded, as was a sequence of live vocal effects. Apparently, dialogue scenes were also recorded, but the results were unsatisfactory and the film was never publicly screened incorporating them. On May 1, 1921, Dream Street was re-released, with love song added, at New York City's Town Hall theater, qualifying it—however haphazardly—as the first feature-length film with a live-recorded vocal sequence. There would be no others for more than six years.\n\nIn 1925, Sam Warner of Warner Bros., then a small Hollywood studio with big ambitions, saw a demonstration of the Western Electric sound-on-disc system and was sufficiently impressed to persuade his brothers to agree to experiment with using this system at New York's Vitagraph Studios, which they had recently purchased. The tests were convincing to the Warner Brothers, if not to the executives of some other picture companies who witnessed them. Consequently, in April 1926 the Western Electric Company entered into a contract with Warner Brothers and W. J. Rich, a financier, giving them an exclusive license for recording and reproducing sound pictures under the Western Electric system. To exploit this license the Vitaphone Corporation was organized with Samuel L. Warner as its president. \nVitaphone, as this system was now called, was publicly introduced on August 6, 1926, with the premiere of the nearly three-hour-long Don Juan; the first feature-length movie to employ a synchronized sound system of any type throughout, its soundtrack contained a musical score and added sound effects, but no recorded dialogue—in other words, it had been staged and shot as a silent film. Accompanying Don Juan, however, were eight shorts of musical performances, mostly classical, as well as a four-minute filmed introduction by Will H. Hays, president of the Motion Picture Association of America, all with live-recorded sound. These were the first true sound films exhibited by a Hollywood studio. Warner Bros.' The Better 'Ole, technically similar to Don Juan, followed in October. \n\nSound-on-film would ultimately win out over sound-on-disc because of a number of fundamental technical advantages:\n* Synchronization: no interlock system was completely reliable, and sound could fall out of synch due to disc skipping or minute changes in film speed, requiring constant supervision and frequent manual adjustment\n* Editing: discs could not be directly edited, severely limiting the ability to make alterations in their accompanying films after the original release cut\n* Distribution: phonograph discs added expense and complication to film distribution\n* Wear and tear: the physical process of playing the discs degraded them, requiring their replacement after approximately twenty screenings \n\nNonetheless, in the early years, sound-on-disc had the edge over sound-on-film in two substantial ways:\n* Production and capital cost: it was generally less expensive to record sound onto disc than onto film and the exhibition systems—turntable/interlock/projector—were cheaper to manufacture than the complex image-and-audio-pattern-reading projectors required by sound-on-film\n* Audio quality: phonograph discs, Vitaphone's in particular, had superior dynamic range to most sound-on-film processes of the day, at least during the first few playings; while sound-on-film tended to have better frequency response, this was outweighed by greater distortion and noise \n\nAs sound-on-film technology improved, both of these disadvantages were overcome.\n\nThe third crucial set of innovations marked a major step forward in both the live recording of sound and its effective playback:\n\nFidelity electronic recording and amplification \n\nIn 1913, Western Electric, the manufacturing division of AT&T, acquired the rights to the de Forest audion, the forerunner of the triode vacuum tube. Over the next few years they developed it into a predictable and reliable device that made electronic amplification possible for the first time. Western Electric then branched-out into developing uses for the vacuum tube including public address systems and an electrical recording system for the recording industry. Beginning in 1922, the research branch of Western Electric began working intensively on recording technology for both sound-on-disc and sound-on film synchronised sound systems for motion-pictures.\n\nThe engineers working on the sound-on-disc system were able to draw on expertise that Western Electric already had in electrical disc recording and were thus able to make faster initial progress. The main change required was to increase the playing time of the disc so that it could match that of a standard 1000 ft reel of 35 mm film. The chosen design used a disc measuring 16 in rotating at 33 1/3 rpm. This could play for 11 minutes, the running time of 1000 ft of film at 90 ft/min (24 frames/s). Because of the larger diameter the minimum groove velocity of 70 ft/min (14 inches or 356 mm/s) was only slightly less than that of a standard 10-inch 78 rpm commercial disc.\nIn 1925, the company publicly introduced a greatly improved system of electronic audio, including sensitive condenser microphones and rubber-line recorders (named after the use of a rubber damping band for recording with better frequency response onto a wax master disk ). That May, the company licensed entrepreneur Walter J. Rich to exploit the system for commercial motion pictures; he founded Vitagraph, in which Warner Bros. acquired a half interest, just one month later. In April 1926, Warners signed a contract with AT&T for exclusive use of its film sound technology for the redubbed Vitaphone operation, leading to the production of Don Juan and its accompanying shorts over the following months. During the period when Vitaphone had exclusive access to the patents, the fidelity of recordings made for Warners films was markedly superior to those made for the company's sound-on-film competitors. Meanwhile, Bell Labs—the new name for the AT&T research operation—was working at a furious pace on sophisticated sound amplification technology that would allow recordings to be played back over loudspeakers at theater-filling volume. The new moving-coil speaker system was installed in New York's Warners Theatre at the end of July and its patent submission, for what Western Electric called the No. 555 Receiver, was filed on August 4, just two days before the premiere of Don Juan. \n\nLate in the year, AT&T/Western Electric created a licensing division, Electrical Research Products Inc. (ERPI), to handle rights to the company's film-related audio technology. Vitaphone still had legal exclusivity, but having lapsed in its royalty payments, effective control of the rights was in ERPI's hands. On December 31, 1926, Warners granted Fox-Case a sublicense for the use of the Western Electric system; in exchange for the sublicense, both Warners and ERPI received a share of Fox's related revenues. The patents of all three concerns were cross-licensed. Superior recording and amplification technology was now available to two Hollywood studios, pursuing two very different methods of sound reproduction. The new year would finally see the emergence of sound cinema as a significant commercial medium.\n\nTriumph of the \"talkies\" \n\nIn February 1927, an agreement was signed by five leading Hollywood movie companies: Famous Players Lasky (soon to be part of Paramount), Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Universal, First National, and Cecil B. DeMille's small but prestigious Producers Distributing Corporation (PDC). The five studios agreed to collectively select just one provider for sound conversion. The alliance then sat back and waited to see what sort of results the forerunners came up with. In May, Warner Bros. sold back its exclusivity rights to ERPI (along with the Fox-Case sublicense) and signed a new royalty contract similar to Fox's for use of Western Electric technology. As Fox and Warners pressed forward with sound cinema in different directions, both technologically and commercially—Fox with newsreels and then scored dramas, Warners with talking features—so did ERPI, which sought to corner the market by signing up the five allied studios. \n\nThe big sound film sensations of the year all took advantage of preexisting celebrity. On May 20, 1927, at New York's Roxy Theater, Fox Movietone presented a sound film of the takeoff of Charles Lindbergh's celebrated flight to Paris, recorded earlier that day. In June, a Fox sound newsreel depicting his return welcomes in New York and Washington, D.C., was shown. These were the two most acclaimed sound motion pictures to date. In May, as well, Fox had released the first Hollywood fiction film with synchronized dialogue: the short They're Coming to Get Me, starring comedian Chic Sale. After rereleasing a few silent feature hits, such as Seventh Heaven, with recorded music, Fox came out with its first original Movietone feature on September 23: Sunrise, by acclaimed German director F. W. Murnau. As with Don Juan, the film's soundtrack consisted of a musical score and sound effects (including, in a couple of crowd scenes, \"wild\", nonspecific vocals). \n\nThen, on October 6, 1927, Warner Bros.' The Jazz Singer premiered. It was a smash box office success for the mid-level studio, earning a total of $2.625 million in the United States and abroad, almost a million dollars more than the previous record for a Warners film. Produced with the Vitaphone system, most of the film does not contain live-recorded audio, relying, like Sunrise and Don Juan, on a score and effects. When the movie's star, Al Jolson, sings, however, the film shifts to sound recorded on the set, including both his musical performances and two scenes with ad-libbed speech—one of Jolson's character, Jakie Rabinowitz (Jack Robin), addressing a cabaret audience; the other an exchange between him and his mother. The \"natural\" sounds of the settings were also audible. Though the success of The Jazz Singer was due largely to Jolson, already established as one of America's biggest music stars, and its limited use of synchronized sound hardly qualified it as an innovative sound film (let alone the \"first\"), the movie's profits were proof enough to the industry that the technology was worth investing in. \n\nThe development of commercial sound cinema had proceeded in fits and starts before The Jazz Singer, and the film's success did not change things overnight. Not until May 1928 did the group of four big studios (PDC had dropped out of the alliance), along with United Artists and others, sign with ERPI for conversion of production facilities and theaters for sound film. Initially, all ERPI-wired theaters were made Vitaphone-compatible; most were equipped to project Movietone reels as well. However, even with access to both technologies, most of the Hollywood companies remained slow to produce talking features of their own. No studio besides Warner Bros. released even a part-talking feature until the low-budget-oriented Film Booking Offices of America (FBO) premiered The Perfect Crime on June 17, 1928, eight months after The Jazz Singer. FBO had come under the effective control of a Western Electric competitor, General Electric's RCA division, which was looking to market its new sound-on-film system, Photophone. Unlike Fox-Case's Movietone and De Forest's Phonofilm, which were variable-density systems, Photophone was a variable-area system—a refinement in the way the audio signal was inscribed on film that would ultimately become the standard. (In both sorts of systems, a specially-designed lamp, whose exposure to the film is determined by the audio input, is used to record sound photographically as a series of minuscule lines. In a variable-density process, the lines are of varying darkness; in a variable-area process, the lines are of varying width.) By October, the FBO-RCA alliance would lead to the creation of Hollywood's newest major studio, RKO Pictures.\n\nMeanwhile, Warner Bros. had released three more talkies, all profitable, if not at the level of The Jazz Singer: In March, Tenderloin appeared; it was billed by Warners as the first feature in which characters spoke their parts, though only 15 of its 88 minutes had dialogue. Glorious Betsy followed in April, and The Lion and the Mouse (31 minutes of dialogue) in May. On July 6, 1928, the first all-talking feature, Lights of New York, premiered. The film cost Warner Bros. only $23,000 to produce, but grossed $1.252 million, a record rate of return surpassing 5,000%. In September, the studio released another Al Jolson part-talking picture, The Singing Fool, which more than doubled The Jazz Singers earnings record for a Warners movie. This second Jolson screen smash demonstrated the movie musical's ability to turn a song into a national hit: inside of nine months, the Jolson number \"Sonny Boy\" had racked up 2 million record and 1.25 million sheet music sales. September 1928 also saw the release of Paul Terry's Dinner Time, among the first animated cartoons produced with synchronized sound. Soon after he saw it, Walt Disney released his first sound picture, the Mickey Mouse short Steamboat Willie. \n\nOver the course of 1928, as Warner Bros. began to rake in huge profits due to the popularity of its sound films, the other studios quickened the pace of their conversion to the new technology. Paramount, the industry leader, put out its first talkie in late September, Beggars of Life; though it had just a few lines of dialogue, it demonstrated the studio's recognition of the new medium's power. Interference, Paramount's first all-talker, debuted in November. The process known as \"goat glanding\" briefly became widespread: soundtracks, sometimes including a smatter of post-dubbed dialogue or song, were added to movies that had been shot, and in some cases released, as silents. A few minutes of singing could qualify such a newly endowed film as a \"musical.\" (Griffith's Dream Street had essentially been a \"goat gland.\") Expectations swiftly changed, and the sound \"fad\" of 1927 became standard procedure by 1929. In February 1929, sixteen months after The Jazz Singers debut, Columbia Pictures became the last of the eight studios that would be known as \"majors\" during Hollywood's Golden Age to release its first part-talking feature, Lone Wolf's Daughter. In late May, the first all-color, all-talking feature, Warner Bros.' On with the Show!, premiered. \n\nYet most American movie theaters, especially outside of urban areas, were still not equipped for sound: while the number of sound cinemas grew from 100 to 800 between 1928 and 1929, they were still vastly outnumbered by silent theaters, which had actually grown in number as well, from 22,204 to 22,544. The studios, in parallel, were still not entirely convinced of the talkies' universal appeal—through mid-1930, the majority of Hollywood movies were produced in dual versions, silent as well as talking. Though few in the industry predicted it, silent film as a viable commercial medium in the United States would soon be little more than a memory. Points West, a Hoot Gibson Western released by Universal Pictures in August 1929, was the last purely silent mainstream feature put out by a major Hollywood studio. \n\nTransition: Europe \n\nThe Jazz Singer had its European sound premiere at the Piccadilly Theatre in London on September 27, 1928. According to film historian Rachael Low, \"Many in the industry realized at once that a change to sound production was inevitable.\" On January 16, 1929, the first European feature film with a synchronized vocal performance and recorded score premiered: the German production Ich küsse Ihre Hand, Madame (I Kiss Your Hand, Madame). Dialogueless, it contains only a few songs performed by Richard Tauber. The movie was made with the sound-on-film system controlled by the German-Dutch firm Tobis, corporate heirs to the Tri-Ergon concern. With an eye toward commanding the emerging European market for sound film, Tobis entered into a compact with its chief competitor, Klangfilm, a joint subsidiary of Germany's two leading electrical manufacturers. Early in 1929, Tobis and Klangfilm began comarketing their recording and playback technologies. As ERPI began to wire theaters around Europe, Tobis-Klangfilm claimed that the Western Electric system infringed on the Tri-Ergon patents, stalling the introduction of American technology in many places. Just as RCA had entered the movie business to maximize its recording system's value, Tobis also established its own production operations. \n\nDuring 1929, most of the major European filmmaking countries began joining Hollywood in the changeover to sound. Many of the trend-setting European talkies were shot abroad as production companies leased studios while their own were being converted or as they deliberately targeted markets speaking different languages. One of Europe's first two feature-length dramatic talkies was created in still a different sort of twist on multinational moviemaking: The Crimson Circle was a coproduction between director Friedrich Zelnik's Efzet-Film company and British Sound Film Productions (BSFP). In 1928, the film had been released as the silent Der Rote Kreis in Germany, where it was shot; English dialogue was apparently dubbed in much later using the De Forest Phonofilm process controlled by BSFP's corporate parent. It was given a British trade screening in March 1929, as was a part-talking film made entirely in the UK: The Clue of the New Pin, a British Lion production using the sound-on-disc British Photophone system. In May, Black Waters, a British and Dominions Film Corporation promoted as the first UK all-talker, received its initial trade screening; it had been shot completely in Hollywood with a Western Electric sound-on-film system. None of these pictures made much impact. \n\nThe first successful European dramatic talkie was the all-British Blackmail. Directed by twenty-nine-year-old Alfred Hitchcock, the movie had its London debut June 21, 1929. Originally shot as a silent, Blackmail was restaged to include dialogue sequences, along with a score and sound effects, before its premiere. A British International Pictures (BIP) production, it was recorded on RCA Photophone, General Electric having bought a share of AEG so they could access the Tobis-Klangfilm markets. Blackmail was a substantial hit; critical response was also positive—notorious curmudgeon Hugh Castle, for example, called it \"perhaps the most intelligent mixture of sound and silence we have yet seen.\" \n\nOn August 23, the modest-sized Austrian film industry came out with a talkie: G’schichten aus der Steiermark (Stories from Styria), an Eagle Film–Ottoton Film production. On September 30, the first entirely German-made feature-length dramatic talkie, Das Land ohne Frauen (Land Without Women), premiered. A Tobis Filmkunst production, about one-quarter of the movie contained dialogue, which was strictly segregated from the special effects and music. The response was underwhelming. Sweden's first talkie, Konstgjorda Svensson (Artificial Svensson), premiered on October 14. Eight days later, Aubert Franco-Film came out with Le Collier de la reine (The Queen's Necklace), shot at the Épinay studio near Paris. Conceived as a silent film, it was given a Tobis-recorded score and a single talking sequence—the first dialogue scene in a French feature. On October 31, Les Trois masques debuted; a Pathé-Natan film, it is generally regarded as the initial French feature talkie, though it was shot, like Blackmail, at the Elstree studio, just outside London. The production company had contracted with RCA Photophone and Britain then had the nearest facility with the system. The Braunberger-Richebé talkie La Route est belle, also shot at Elstree, followed a few weeks later. \n\nBefore the Paris studios were fully sound-equipped—a process that stretched well into 1930—a number of other early French talkies were shot in Germany. The first all-talking German feature, Atlantik, had premiered in Berlin on October 28. Yet another Elstree-made movie, it was rather less German at heart than Les Trois masques and La Route est belle were French; a BIP production with a British scenarist and German director, it was also shot in English as Atlantic. The entirely German Aafa-Film production It's You I Have Loved (Dich hab ich geliebt) opened three-and-a-half weeks later. It was not \"Germany's First Talking Film\", as the marketing had it, but it was the first to be released in the United States. \n\nIn 1930, the first Polish talkies premiered, using sound-on-disc systems: Moralność pani Dulskiej (The Morality of Mrs. Dulska) in March and the all-talking Niebezpieczny romans (Dangerous Love Affair) in October. In Italy, whose once vibrant film industry had become moribund by the late 1920s, the first talkie, La Canzone dell'amore (The Song of Love), also came out in October; within two years, Italian cinema would be enjoying a revival. The first movie spoken in Czech debuted in 1930 as well, Tonka Šibenice (Tonka of the Gallows). Several European nations with minor positions in the field also produced their first talking pictures—Belgium (in French), Denmark, Greece, and Romania. The Soviet Union's robust film industry came out with its first sound features in December 1930: Dziga Vertov's nonfiction Entuziazm had an experimental, dialogueless soundtrack; Abram Room's documentary Plan velikikh rabot (The Plan of the Great Works) had music and spoken voiceovers. Both were made with locally developed sound-on-film systems, two of the two hundred or so movie sound systems then available somewhere in the world. In June 1931, the Nikolai Ekk drama Putevka v zhizn (The Road to Life or A Start in Life), premiered as the Soviet Union's first true talking picture. \n\nThroughout much of Europe, conversion of exhibition venues lagged well behind production capacity, requiring talkies to be produced in parallel silent versions or simply shown without sound in many places. While the pace of conversion was relatively swift in Britain—with over 60 percent of theaters equipped for sound by the end of 1930, similar to the U.S. figure—in France, by contrast, more than half of theaters nationwide were still projecting in silence by late 1932. According to scholar Colin G. Crisp, \"Anxiety about resuscitating the flow of silent films was frequently expressed in the [French] industrial press, and a large section of the industry still saw the silent as a viable artistic and commercial prospect till about 1935.\" The situation was particularly acute in the Soviet Union; as of May 1933, fewer than one out of every hundred film projectors in the country was as yet equipped for sound. \n\nTransition: Asia \n\nDuring the 1920s and 1930s, Japan was one of the world's two largest producers of motion pictures, along with the United States. Though the country's film industry was among the first to produce both sound and talking features, the full changeover to sound proceeded much more slowly than in the West. It appears that the first Japanese sound film, Reimai (Dawn), was made in 1926 with the De Forest Phonofilm system. Using the sound-on-disc Minatoki system, the leading Nikkatsu studio produced a pair of talkies in 1929: Taii no musume (The Captain's Daughter) and Furusato (Hometown), the latter directed by Kenji Mizoguchi. The rival Shochiku studio began the successful production of sound-on-film talkies in 1931 using a variable-density process called Tsuchibashi. Two years later, however, more than 80 percent of movies made in the country were still silents.Freiberg (1987), p. 76. Two of the country's leading directors, Mikio Naruse and Yasujiro Ozu, did not make their first sound films until 1935 and 1936, respectively. As late as 1938, over a third of all movies produced in Japan were shot without dialogue.\n\nThe enduring popularity of the silent medium in Japanese cinema owed in great part to the tradition of the benshi, a live narrator who performed as accompaniment to a film screening. As director Akira Kurosawa later described, the benshi \"not only recounted the plot of the films, they enhanced the emotional content by performing the voices and sound effects and providing evocative descriptions of events and images on the screen.... The most popular narrators were stars in their own right, solely responsible for the patronage of a particular theatre.\" Film historian Mariann Lewinsky argues,\n\nThe end of silent film in the West and in Japan was imposed by the industry and the market, not by any inner need or natural evolution.... Silent cinema was a highly pleasurable and fully mature form. It didn't lack anything, least in Japan, where there was always the human voice doing the dialogues and the commentary. Sound films were not better, just more economical. As a cinema owner you didn't have to pay the wages of musicians and benshi any more. And a good benshi was a star demanding star payment. \n\nBy the same token, the viability of the benshi system facilitated a gradual transition to sound—allowing the studios to spread out the capital costs of conversion and their directors and technical crews time to become familiar with the new technology. \n\nThe Mandarin-language Gēnǚ hóng mǔdān (, Singsong Girl Red Peony), starring Butterfly Wu, premiered as China's first feature talkie in 1930. By February of that year, production was apparently completed on a sound version of The Devil's Playground, arguably qualifying it as the first Australian talking motion picture; however, the May press screening of Commonwealth Film Contest prizewinner Fellers is the first verifiable public exhibition of an Australian talkie. In September 1930, a song performed by Indian star Sulochana, excerpted from the silent feature Madhuri (1928), was released as a synchronized-sound short, the country's first. The following year, Ardeshir Irani directed the first Indian talking feature, the Hindi-Urdu Alam Ara, and produced Kalidas, primarily in Tamil with some Telugu. Nineteen-thirty-one also saw the first Bengali-language film, Jamai Sasthi, and the first movie fully spoken in Telugu, Bhakta Prahlada. In 1932, Ayodhyecha Raja became the first movie in which Marathi was spoken to be released (though Sant Tukaram was the first to go through the official censorship process); the first Gujarati-language film, Narsimha Mehta, and all-Tamil talkie, Kalava, debuted as well. The next year, Ardeshir Irani produced the first Persian-language talkie, Dukhtar-e-loor. Also in 1933, the first Cantonese-language films were produced in Hong Kong—Sha zai dongfang (The Idiot's Wedding Night) and Liang xing (Conscience); within two years, the local film industry had fully converted to sound. Korea, where pyonsa (or byun-sa) held a role and status similar to that of the Japanese benshi, in 1935 became the last country with a significant film industry to produce its first talking picture: Chunhyangjeon (/) is based on the seventeenth-century pansori folktale \"Chunhyangga\", of which as many as fifteen film versions have been made through 2009. \n\nConsequences \n\nTechnology \n\nIn the short term, the introduction of live sound recording caused major difficulties in production. Cameras were noisy, so a soundproofed cabinet was used in many of the earliest talkies to isolate the loud equipment from the actors, at the expense of a drastic reduction in the ability to move the camera. For a time, multiple-camera shooting was used to compensate for the loss of mobility and innovative studio technicians could often find ways to liberate the camera for particular shots. The necessity of staying within range of still microphones meant that actors also often had to limit their movements unnaturally. Show Girl in Hollywood (1930), from First National Pictures (which Warner Bros. had taken control of thanks to its profitable adventure into sound), gives a behind-the-scenes look at some of the techniques involved in shooting early talkies. Several of the fundamental problems caused by the transition to sound were soon solved with new camera casings, known as \"blimps\", designed to suppress noise and boom microphones that could be held just out of frame and moved with the actors. In 1931, a major improvement in playback fidelity was introduced: three-way speaker systems in which sound was separated into low, medium, and high frequencies and sent respectively to a large bass \"woofer\", a midrange driver, and a treble \"tweeter.\" \n\nThere were consequences, as well, for other technological aspects of the cinema. Proper recording and playback of sound required exact standardization of camera and projector speed. Before sound, 16 frames per second (fps) was the supposed norm, but practice varied widely. Cameras were often undercranked or overcranked to improve exposures or for dramatic effect. Projectors were commonly run too fast to shorten running time and squeeze in extra shows. Variable frame rate, however, made sound unlistenable, and a new, strict standard of 24 fps was soon established. Sound also forced the abandonment of the noisy arc lights used for filming in studio interiors. The switch to quiet incandescent illumination in turn required a switch to more expensive film stock. The sensitivity of the new panchromatic film delivered superior image tonal quality and gave directors the freedom to shoot scenes at lower light levels than was previously practical.\n\nAs David Bordwell describes, technological improvements continued at a swift pace: \"Between 1932 and 1935, [Western Electric and RCA] created directional microphones, increased the frequency range of film recording, reduced ground noise ... and extended the volume range.\" These technical advances often meant new aesthetic opportunities: \"Increasing the fidelity of recording ... heightened the dramatic possibilities of vocal timbre, pitch, and loudness.\" Another basic problem—famously spoofed in the 1952 film Singin' in the Rain—was that some silent-era actors simply did not have attractive voices; though this issue was frequently overstated, there were related concerns about general vocal quality and the casting of performers for their dramatic skills in roles also requiring singing talent beyond their own. By 1935, rerecording of vocals by the original or different actors in postproduction, a process known as \"looping\", had become practical. The ultraviolet recording system introduced by RCA in 1936 improved the reproduction of sibilants and high notes. \n\nWith Hollywood's wholesale adoption of the talkies, the competition between the two fundamental approaches to sound-film production was soon resolved. Over the course of 1930–31, the only major players using sound-on-disc, Warner Bros. and First National, changed over to sound-on-film recording. Vitaphone's dominating presence in sound-equipped theaters, however, meant that for years to come all of the Hollywood studios pressed and distributed sound-on-disc versions of their films alongside the sound-on-film prints. Fox Movietone soon followed Vitaphone into disuse as a recording and reproduction method, leaving two major American systems: the variable-area RCA Photophone and Western Electric's own variable-density process, a substantial improvement on the cross-licensed Movietone. Under RCA's instigation, the two parent companies made their projection equipment compatible, meaning films shot with one system could be screened in theaters equipped for the other. This left one big issue—the Tobis-Klangfilm challenge. In May 1930, Western Electric won an Austrian lawsuit that voided protection for certain Tri-Ergon patents, helping bring Tobis-Klangfilm to the negotiating table. The following month an accord was reached on patent cross-licensing, full playback compatibility, and the division of the world into three parts for the provision of equipment. As a contemporary report describes:\n\nTobis-Klangfilm has the exclusive rights to provide equipment for: Germany, Danzig, Austria, Hungary, Switzerland, Czechoslovakia, Holland, the Dutch Indies, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Bulgaria, Romania, Yugoslavia, and Finland. The Americans have the exclusive rights for the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, and Russia. All other countries, among them Italy, France, and England, are open to both parties. \n\nThe agreement did not resolve all the patent disputes, and further negotiations were undertaken and concords signed over the course of the 1930s. During these years, as well, the American studios began abandoning the Western Electric system for RCA Photophone's variable-area approach—by the end of 1936, only Paramount, MGM, and United Artists still had contracts with ERPI. \n\nLabor \n\nWhile the introduction of sound led to a boom in the motion picture industry, it had an adverse effect on the employability of a host of Hollywood actors of the time. Suddenly those without stage experience were regarded as suspect by the studios; as suggested above, those whose heavy accents or otherwise discordant voices had previously been concealed were particularly at risk. The career of major silent star Norma Talmadge effectively came to an end in this way. The celebrated German actor Emil Jannings returned to Europe. Moviegoers found John Gilbert's voice an awkward match with his swashbuckling persona, and his star also faded. Audiences now seemed to perceive certain silent-era stars as old-fashioned, even those who had the talent to succeed in the sound era. The career of Harold Lloyd, one of the top screen comedians of the 1920s, declined precipitously. Lillian Gish departed, back to the stage, and other leading figures soon left acting entirely: Colleen Moore, Gloria Swanson, and Hollywood's most famous performing couple, Douglas Fairbanks and Mary Pickford. As actress Louise Brooks suggested, there were other issues as well:\n\nStudio heads, now forced into unprecedented decisions, decided to begin with the actors, the least palatable, the most vulnerable part of movie production. It was such a splendid opportunity, anyhow, for breaking contracts, cutting salaries, and taming the stars.... Me, they gave the salary treatment. I could stay on without the raise my contract called for, or quit, [Paramount studio chief B. P.] Schulberg said, using the questionable dodge of whether I'd be good for the talkies. Questionable, I say, because I spoke decent English in a decent voice and came from the theater. So without hesitation I quit. \n\nSimilarly, Clara Bow's speaking voice was sometimes blamed for the demise of her Hollywood career, though the real issues involved her clashes with studio executives and what film historian David Thomson describes as the \"backlash of bourgeois hypocrisy\" against a lifestyle that would have been unremarkable for a male star. Buster Keaton was eager to explore the new medium, but when his studio, MGM, made the changeover to sound, he was quickly stripped of creative control. Though a number of Keaton's early talkies made impressive profits, they were artistically dismal. \n\nSeveral of the new medium's biggest attractions came from vaudeville and the musical theater, where performers such as Jolson, Eddie Cantor, Jeanette MacDonald, and the Marx Brothers were accustomed to the demands of both dialogue and song. James Cagney and Joan Blondell, who had teamed on Broadway, were brought west together by Warner Bros. in 1930. A few actors were major stars during both the silent and the sound eras: Richard Barthelmess, Clive Brook, Bebe Daniels, Norma Shearer, the comedy team of Stan Laurel and Oliver Hardy, and the incomparable Charlie Chaplin, whose City Lights (1931) and Modern Times (1936) employed sound almost exclusively for music and effects. Janet Gaynor became a top star with the synch-sound but dialogueless Seventh Heaven and Sunrise, as did Joan Crawford with the technologically similar Our Dancing Daughters (1928). Greta Garbo was the one non–native English speaker to retain Hollywood stardom on both sides of the great sound divide. The new emphasis on speech also caused producers to hire many novelists, journalists, and playwrights with experience writing good dialogue. Among those who became Hollywood scriptwriters during the 1930s were Nathanael West, William Faulkner, Robert Sherwood, Aldous Huxley, and Dorothy Parker. \n\nAs talking pictures emerged, with their prerecorded musical tracks, an increasing number of moviehouse orchestra musicians found themselves out of work. More than just their position as film accompanists was usurped; according to historian Preston J. Hubbard, \"During the 1920s live musical performances at first-run theaters became an exceedingly important aspect of the American cinema.\" With the coming of the talkies, those featured performances—usually staged as preludes—were largely eliminated as well. The American Federation of Musicians took out newspaper advertisements protesting the replacement of live musicians with mechanical playing devices. One 1929 ad that appeared in the Pittsburgh Press features an image of a can labeled \"Canned Music / Big Noise Brand / Guaranteed to Produce No Intellectual or Emotional Reaction Whatever\" and reads in part:\n\nCanned Music on Trial\nThis is the case of Art vs. Mechanical Music in theatres. The defendant stands accused in front of the American people of attempted corruption of musical appreciation and discouragement of musical education. Theatres in many cities are offering synchronised mechanical music as a substitute for Real Music. If the theatre-going public accepts this vitiation of its entertainment program a deplorable decline in the Art of Music is inevitable. Musical authorities know that the soul of the Art is lost in mechanisation. It cannot be otherwise because the quality of music is dependent on the mood of the artist, upon the human contact, without which the essence of intellectual stimulation and emotional rapture is lost. The text of the ad continues:\n\nIs Music Worth Saving? No great volume of evidence is required to answer this question. Music is a well-nigh universally beloved art. From the beginning of history, men have turned to musical expression to lighten the burdens of life, to make them happier. Aborigines, lowest in the scale of savagery, chant their song to tribal gods and play upon pipes and shark-skin drums. Musical development has kept pace with good taste and ethics throughout the ages, and has influenced the gentler nature of man more powerfully perhaps than any other factor. Has it remained for the Great Age of Science to snub the Art by setting up in its place a pale and feeble shadow of itself?\n\nBy the following year, a reported 22,000 U.S. moviehouse musicians had lost their jobs. \n\nCommerce \n\nIn September 1926, Jack L. Warner, head of Warner Bros., was quoted to the effect that talking pictures would never be viable: \"They fail to take into account the international language of the silent pictures, and the unconscious share of each onlooker in creating the play, the action, the plot, and the imagined dialogue for himself.\" Much to his company's benefit, he would be proven very wrong—between the 1927–28 and 1928–29 fiscal years, Warners' profits surged from $2 million to $14 million. Sound film, in fact, was a clear boon to all the major players in the industry. During that same twelve-month span, Paramount's profits rose by $7 million, Fox's by $3.5 million, and Loew's/MGM's by $3 million. RKO, which hadn't even existed in September 1928 and whose parent production company, FBO, was in the Hollywood minor leagues, by the end of 1929 was established as one of America's leading entertainment businesses. Fueling the boom was the emergence of an important new cinematic genre made possible by sound: the musical. Over sixty Hollywood musicals were released in 1929, and more than eighty the following year. \n\nEven as the Wall Street crash of October 1929 helped plunge the United States and ultimately the global economy into depression, the popularity of the talkies at first seemed to keep Hollywood immune. The 1929–30 exhibition season was even better for the motion picture industry than the previous, with ticket sales and overall profits hitting new highs. Reality finally struck later in 1930, but sound had clearly secured Hollywood's position as one of the most important industrial fields, both commercially and culturally, in the United States. In 1929, film box-office receipts comprised 16.6 percent of total spending by Americans on recreation; by 1931, the figure had reached 21.8 percent. The motion picture business would command similar figures for the next decade and a half. Hollywood ruled on the larger stage, as well. The American movie industry—already the world's most powerful—set an export record in 1929 that, by the applied measure of total feet of exposed film, was 27 percent higher than the year before. Concerns that language differences would hamper U.S. film exports turned out to be largely unfounded. In fact, the expense of sound conversion was a major obstacle to many overseas producers, relatively undercapitalized by Hollywood standards. The production of multiple versions of export-bound talkies in different languages (known as \"Foreign Language Version\"), as well as the production of the cheaper \"International Sound Version\", a common approach at first, largely ceased by mid-1931, replaced by post-dubbing and subtitling. Despite trade restrictions imposed in most foreign markets, by 1937, American films commanded about 70 percent of screen time around the globe. \n\nJust as the leading Hollywood studios gained from sound in relation to their foreign competitors, they did the same at home. As historian Richard B. Jewell describes, \"The sound revolution crushed many small film companies and producers who were unable to meet the financial demands of sound conversion.\" The combination of sound and the Great Depression led to a wholesale shakeout in the business, resulting in the hierarchy of the Big Five integrated companies (MGM, Paramount, Fox, Warners, RKO) and the three smaller studios also called \"majors\" (Columbia, Universal, United Artists) that would predominate through the 1950s. Historian Thomas Schatz describes the ancillary effects:\n\nBecause the studios were forced to streamline operations and rely on their own resources, their individual house styles and corporate personalities came into much sharper focus. Thus the watershed period from the coming of sound into the early Depression saw the studio system finally coalesce, with the individual studios coming to terms with their own identities and their respective positions within the industry. \n\nThe other country in which sound cinema had an immediate major commercial impact was India. As one distributor of the period said, \"With the coming of the talkies, the Indian motion picture came into its own as a definite and distinctive piece of creation. This was achieved by music.\" From its earliest days, Indian sound cinema has been defined by the musical—Alam Ara featured seven songs; a year later, Indrasabha would feature seventy. While the European film industries fought an endless battle against the popularity and economic muscle of Hollywood, ten years after the debut of Alam Ara, over 90 percent of the films showing on Indian screens were made within the country. \n\nMost of India's early talkies were shot in Bombay, which remains the leading production center, but sound filmmaking soon spread across the multilingual nation. Within just a few weeks of Alam Aras March 1931 premiere, the Calcutta-based Madan Pictures had released both the Hindi Shirin Farhad and the Bengali Jamai Sasthi. The Hindustani Heer Ranjha was produced in Lahore, Punjab, the following year. In 1934, Sati Sulochana, the first Kannada talking picture to be released, was shot in Kolhapur, Maharashtra; Srinivasa Kalyanam became the first Tamil talkie actually shot in Tamil Nadu. Once the first talkie features appeared, the conversion to full sound production happened as rapidly in India as it did in the United States. Already by 1932, the majority of feature productions were in sound; two years later, 164 of the 172 Indian feature films were talking pictures. Since 1934, with the sole exception of 1952, India has been among the top three movie-producing countries in the world every single year. \n\nAesthetic quality \n\nIn the first, 1930 edition of his global survey The Film Till Now, British cinema pundit Paul Rotha declared, \"A film in which the speech and sound effects are perfectly synchronised and coincide with their visual image on the screen is absolutely contrary to the aims of cinema. It is a degenerate and misguided attempt to destroy the real use of the film and cannot be accepted as coming within the true boundaries of the cinema.\" Such opinions were not rare among those who cared about cinema as an art form; Alfred Hitchcock, though he directed the first commercially successful talkie produced in Europe, held that \"the silent pictures were the purest form of cinema\" and scoffed at many early sound films as delivering little beside \"photographs of people talking\". In Germany, Max Reinhardt, stage producer and movie director, expressed the belief that the talkies, \"bringing to the screen stage plays ... tend to make this independent art a subsidiary of the theater and really make it only a substitute for the theater instead of an art in itself ... like reproductions of paintings.\" \n\nIn the opinion of many film historians and aficionados, both at the time and subsequently, silent film had reached an aesthetic peak by the late 1920s and the early years of sound cinema delivered little that was comparable to the best of the silents. For instance, despite fading into relative obscurity once its era had passed, silent cinema is represented by eleven films in Time Outs Centenary of Cinema Top One Hundred poll, held in 1995. The first year in which sound film production predominated over silent film—not only in the United States, but also in the West as a whole—was 1929; yet the years 1929 through 1933 are represented by three dialogueless pictures (Pandora's Box [1929], Zemlya [1930], City Lights [1931]) and zero talkies in the Time Out poll. (City Lights, like Sunrise, was released with a recorded score and sound effects, but is now customarily referred to by historians and industry professionals as a \"silent\"—spoken dialogue regarded as the crucial distinguishing factor between silent and sound dramatic cinema.) The earliest sound film to place is the French L'Atalante (1934), directed by Jean Vigo; the earliest Hollywood sound film to qualify is Bringing Up Baby (1938), directed by Howard Hawks. \n\nThe first sound feature film to receive near-universal critical approbation was Der Blaue Engel (The Blue Angel); premiering on April 1, 1930, it was directed by Josef von Sternberg in both German and English versions for Berlin's UFA studio. The first American talkie to be widely honored was All Quiet on the Western Front, directed by Lewis Milestone, which premiered April 21. The other internationally acclaimed sound drama of the year was Westfront 1918, directed by G. W. Pabst for Nero-Film of Berlin. Historian Anton Kaes points to it as an example of \"the new verisimilitude [that] rendered silent cinema's former emphasis on the hypnotic gaze and the symbolism of light and shadow, as well as its preference for allegorical characters, anachronistic.\"Kaes (2009), p. 212. Cultural historians consider the French L'Âge d'Or, directed by Luis Buñuel, which appeared late in 1930, to be of great aesthetic import; at the time, its erotic, blasphemous, anti-bourgeois content caused a scandal. Swiftly banned by Paris police chief Jean Chiappe, it was unavailable for fifty years. The earliest sound movie now acknowledged by most film historians as a masterpiece is Nero-Film's M, directed by Fritz Lang, which premiered May 11, 1931. As described by Roger Ebert, \"Many early talkies felt they had to talk all the time, but Lang allows his camera to prowl through the streets and dives, providing a rat's-eye view.\" \n\nCinematic form \n\n\"Talking film is as little needed as a singing book.\" Such was the blunt proclamation of critic Viktor Shklovsky, one of the leaders of the Russian formalist movement, in 1927. While some regarded sound as irreconcilable with film art, others saw it as opening a new field of creative opportunity. The following year, a group of Soviet filmmakers, including Sergei Eisenstein, proclaimed that the use of image and sound in juxtaposition, the so-called contrapuntal method, would raise the cinema to \"...unprecedented power and cultural height. Such a method for constructing the sound-film will not confine it to a national market, as must happen with the photographing of plays, but will give a greater possibility than ever before for the circulation throughout the world of a filmically expressed idea.\" So far as one segment of the audience was concerned, however, the introduction of sound brought a virtual end to such circulation: Elizabeth C. Hamilton writes, \"Silent films offered people who were deaf a rare opportunity to participate in a public discourse, cinema, on equal terms with hearing people. The emergence of sound film effectively separated deaf from hearing audience members once again.\" \n\nOn March 12, 1929, the first feature-length talking picture made in Germany had its premiere. The inaugural Tobis Filmkunst production, it was not a drama, but a documentary sponsored by a shipping line: Melodie der Welt (Melody of the World), directed by Walter Ruttmann. This was also perhaps the first feature film anywhere to significantly explore the artistic possibilities of joining the motion picture with recorded sound. As described by scholar William Moritz, the movie is \"intricate, dynamic, fast-paced ... juxtapos[ing] similar cultural habits from countries around the world, with a superb orchestral score ... and many synchronized sound effects.\" Composer Lou Lichtveld was among a number of contemporary artists struck by the film: \"Melodie der Welt became the first important sound documentary, the first in which musical and unmusical sounds were composed into a single unit and in which image and sound are controlled by one and the same impulse.\" Melodie der Welt was a direct influence on the industrial film Philips Radio (1931), directed by Dutch avant-garde filmmaker Joris Ivens and scored by Lichtveld, who described its audiovisual aims:\n\nTo render the half-musical impressions of factory sounds in a complex audio world that moved from absolute music to the purely documentary noises of nature. In this film every intermediate stage can be found: such as the movement of the machine interpreted by the music, the noises of the machine dominating the musical background, the music itself is the documentary, and those scenes where the pure sound of the machine goes solo. \n\nMany similar experiments were pursued by Dziga Vertov in his 1931 Entuziazm and by Chaplin in Modern Times, a half-decade later.\n\nA few innovative commercial directors immediately saw the ways in which sound could be employed as an integral part of cinematic storytelling, beyond the obvious function of recording speech. In Blackmail, Hitchcock manipulated the reproduction of a character's monologue so the word \"knife\" would leap out from a blurry stream of sound, reflecting the subjective impression of the protagonist, who is desperate to conceal her involvement in a fatal stabbing. In his first film, the Paramount Applause (1929), Rouben Mamoulian created the illusion of acoustic depth by varying the volume of ambient sound in proportion to the distance of shots. At a certain point, Mamoulian wanted the audience to hear one character singing at the same time as another prays; according to the director, \"They said we couldn't record the two things—the song and the prayer—on one mike and one channel. So I said to the sound man, 'Why not use two mikes and two channels and combine the two tracks in printing?'\" Such methods would eventually become standard procedure in popular filmmaking.\n\nOne of the first commercial films to take full advantage of the new opportunities provided by recorded sound was Le Million, directed by René Clair and produced by Tobis's French division. Premiering in Paris in April 1931 and New York a month later, the picture was both a critical and popular success. A musical comedy with a barebones plot, it is memorable for its formal accomplishments, in particular, its emphatically artificial treatment of sound. As described by scholar Donald Crafton,\n\nLe Million never lets us forget that the acoustic component is as much a construction as the whitewashed sets. [It] replaced dialogue with actors singing and talking in rhyming couplets. Clair created teasing confusions between on- and off-screen sound. He also experimented with asynchronous audio tricks, as in the famous scene in which a chase after a coat is synched to the cheers of an invisible football (or rugby) crowd. \n\nThese and similar techniques became part of the vocabulary of the sound comedy film, though as special effects and \"color\", not as the basis for the kind of comprehensive, non-naturalistic design achieved by Clair. Outside of the comedic field, the sort of bold play with sound exemplified by Melodie der Welt and Le Million would be pursued very rarely in commercial production. Hollywood, in particular, incorporated sound into a reliable system of genre-based moviemaking, in which the formal possibilities of the new medium were subordinated to the traditional goals of star affirmation and straightforward storytelling. As accurately predicted in 1928 by Frank Woods, secretary of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, \"The talking pictures of the future will follow the general line of treatment heretofore developed by the silent drama.... The talking scenes will require different handling, but the general construction of the story will be much the same.\"" ] }

{ "description": [ "Blackmail (1929): Hitchcock's First Sound Film. March 7, 2013 by EmanuelLevy Leave a Comment. ... (A good, inside joke by Hitchcock about movies as mass entertainment).", "Sound: Hitchcock’s Third ... With the release of his first sound film Blackmail, Hitchcock’s techniques of film sound pushed the art forward and continued to ...", "His first completed film as director was The Pleasure ... his first sound film. ... the things for which we remember Alfred Hitchcock: ...", "Hitchcock made his first trademark film ... Name often appears before the film titles, as in \"Alfred Hitchcock's ... If it's a good movie, the sound could go off ...", "The Complete Alfred Hitchcock. ... From the very first, a Hitchcock film lays special ... Hitchcock’s first sound film after Blackmail closely adheres to Sean ...", "... decided to make it one of the UK's first sound pictures. ... marked Hitchcock's first film as a producer ... 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The film was a critical and commercial hit. Among its awards is a citation as the best British movie of 1929.\nWhen production began, “Blackmail” meant to be silent, but during the process, the new technology offered Hitchcock exciting opportunities, especially for the kinds of films he was interested in.\nA completed silent version of Blackmail was released in 1929 shortly after the talkie version hit theaters. The silent version of Blackmail actually ran longer in theaters and proved more popular, largely because most theaters in Britain were not yet equipped for sound.\nAll the scenes with Alice White (Czech actress Anna Ondra) had to be reshot because of her heavy accent\nEnglish actress Joan Barry spoke Ondra’s lines, while Ondre pantomimed the words As post-dubbing was impossible, it called for repetition of the scenes for sound dialogue.\nThe film’s story is deceptively simple: Young Alice White and her beau detective Frank Webber (John Longden) quarrel at a restaurant, and Alice departs with a handsome stranger (Cyril Ritchard). The stranger, who turns out to be an artist, invites Alice to his studio. He persuades her to put on a circus costume so that he can sketch her, but then he attempts to make violent love to her. In response, she stabs him to death with a knife.\nAssigned to the case, Webber begins to suspect that the girl is involved but he conceals his suspicion from his superiors. The blackmail occurs, when a man claims to have seen Alice entering the artist’s quarters\nThe detective, trying to shift blame for the killing to the blackmailer, leads to the man’s flight. A chase ensues, ending with the blackmailer’s death, falling through the dome of the British Museum (a site Hitchcock will return to in future films). The girl decides to clear her conscience but is prevented from doing so by the detective\nBut the conclusion is ambiguous and bittersweet at best, as the future of the couple, who now share a secret guilt, is in doubt. Visually, the expression on Alice’s face shows bewilderment and anguish.\nSeveral of Hitchcock motifs and trademarks are evident in the movie, including a likable heroine who’s a beautiful blonde in peril, and a famous landmark (a national monument, statue) in the climactic finale (See\ncheap product key for windows 7\n“Foreign Correspondent,” “North by Northwest”).\nThematically, the movie deals with the inevitable disparity between appearance and reality–the significant notion that physical appearances should not be confused with reality, and the constant reversal of normative expectations.\nThe figures who represent law and order are themselves corruptible. In “Blackmail,” as in future films, the apparent righteousness of the police is completely undermined\nThe movie examines the dilemma of love versus duty, which is manifest in three movements. After the opening close-up of the spinning wheel of a police van, we see the police arresting a man who is then fingerprinted and thrown into jail. The prints dissolve over his face, an indication of how the police regard a man’s identity\nDuring the arrest, the detective acts as if the procedure were the most routine event. He washes his hands afterwards, and remarks casually to a colleague that he has a date.\nThe film then moves from theme of duty to theme of love. The second movement shows the detective’s relationship with Alice White, leading to the quarrel in the restaurant\nAlice doesn’t want to go to the movies, claiming that she has seen “everything worth seeing” (A good, inside joke by Hitchcock about movies as mass entertainment). But Frank wants to see the film “Fingerprints,” which, not surprisingly, is about police work.\nThey argue over their plans, and Frank leaves. Alice then accepts an offer from an handsome stranger who asks her, “have you ever seen an artist’s studio?”\nAlice, like other Hitchcock heroines, is ambiguous toward sex: She both wants and rejects it. Even so, they go to his place, climbing five flights, and the ever-meticulous Hitchcock utilizes objective side-view crane, which follows them as they go up the levels. It’s a dizzy height to which the couple ascends.\nTension is continuously present—and building up. Thus, once inside the studio-bedroom, suspense builds up steadily. The shadows that fall across the artist’s face are mustaches, fingerprints and skulls\nThe sexual innuendo is strong but the artist does not force himself upon the girl until she has changed costumes. He lays the piano and they together sketch a crude drawing of her at his easel\nHitchcock’s cameo, a signature occurrence in most of his films, shows him being bothered by a small boy (Jacque Carter) as he reads a book on the Underground. This is the lengthiest of Hitchcock’s cameo appearances, about 10 minute long.\nTwo future directors worked on “Blackmail”: Ronald Neame operated the clapperboard and Michael Powell (“The Red Shoes”) took still photographs.\nCast", "Hitchcock's Sound Style (film directing, criticism, film sound)\nSound: Hitchcock�s Third Dimension\n\"I think what sound brought of value to the cinema was to complete the realism of the image on the screen. It made everyone in the audience deaf mutes.\" -Alfred Hitchcock\nBorgus.com - Because he is known for his visual techniques, Alfred Hitchcock�s unique use of sound is a topic which receives less attention. While his first several films were silent, Blackmail (1929) started him on a path of aural manipulation that continued through his later works. Blackmail showcases Hitchcock�s instinctive styles of soundscaping during a time period where little was yet known about the cinematic powers of sound. Blackmail demonstrates ongoing tactics, such as: withholding sound from the viewer to pique curiosity, exaggerating sound as a form of narrative emphasis, and creating tension through both ambient noises and silence. Further, in a world where music was the dominant form of narrative accompaniment, he stripped music score away from his scenes and instead used the act of singing (and whistling) as a suspense device. Lastly, Hitchcock�s manipulation of human speech ranged from technical malfunctions of telephone calls to dizzied audio abstraction of the characters� subjective thoughts. This article will outline the major uses of sound in Hitchcock�s Blackmail, and demonstrate that it is an essential foundation to his usage in later works.\nAt the time of Blackmail�s release, most theaters still didn�t have speakers, only 22% having sound. Nonetheless, Hitchcock was keen to consider those 5,200 theaters worldwide which did have sound, and knew that more would follow (Belton 1999). Film scholar Elizabeth Weis wrote The Silent Scream in 1982, a thorough examination of the use of sound in Hitchcock films. According to Weis, Hitchcock saw the arrival of sound technology as a �new dimension of cinematic expression� (Weis 1982, p.14). This dimension enabled him to break away from the flat plane of the visual and create cinematic worlds more deeply entrenched in realism.\n1. Sharing Secrets\nSince he was known for his manipulation of viewer expectations, it is not surprising that Hitchcock intentionally withheld sound information to heighten curiosity. In Blackmail, he teases by allowing the characters to keep secrets from us, and each other. The viewer is cued early in the film � when Alice laughs as the doorman whispers into her ear � that some information is going to be kept from us. After laughing at the doorman�s secret, Alice White (Anny Ondra, voiced by Joan Barry) walks down the street with her boyfriend, Detective Frank Webber (John Longdon) who is also unaware of the secret, playfully shunning him. This tactic came around again in his 1955 The Trouble With Harry, in which a whisper into the ear is used as a running gag, leaving the viewer curious what Jennifer (Shirley MacLain) wants as a gift. In both films, the whispered information was irrelevant to the plot, serving only to playfully tease the viewer.\nConversely, there are moments where he lets us in exclusively. The phone booth in Blackmail becomes a dual private and public space, as a way to allow the viewer to share secret information and to exclude others from it. Hitchcock uses the phone booth in three key moments in the film: first, to reveal subjective fears of Alice; second, to reveal Frank�s knowledge of the murder; and third, to plant a plot twist in which the police suspect the blackmailer. The first time Alice walks into the phone booth within her family�s newsagent shop, the viewer is allowed a subjective viewpoint on her guilt. As a nearby gossiper is rambling on about the murder, we follow Alice into the booth; the gossiper�s voice drops to silence as she closes the door. We are inside the booth with Alice as she looks up Frank�s number in the phone book; instead of dialing the number she gets frightened. As she opens the booth to leave, the gossiper�s voice comes back � still talking about the murder. The brief absence of the murder-talk in the booth allows us to internalize Alice�s desire to hide from it.\nA few moments later Frank arrives and enters the booth pretending to make a call. Then, he asks Alice to come into the booth with him, presumably so they can talk in private. While both are in the booth, we are made privy to the conversation, revealing that Frank knows Alice committed the murder. He brings out her glove found on the scene and she grabs it in shock, unable to speak. Unfortunately for the characters, the phone booth�s privacy excludes the visual; Tracy (Donald Calthrop) knocks on the door to speak to them having just seen the glove through the glass. Because he was snooping around the area the night of the murder, he saw Alice enter the apartment and somehow found the matching glove. Seeing it confirms his suspicion that she committed the murder and sets up his attempt to blackmail her.\nLater, as Frank receives an update from Scotland Yard, he takes the phone call in the booth with the door cracked open so we can hear. As his conversation gets more interesting, he closes the door on us, reducing his speech to mere mumbles. This information is withheld until he is able to reveal it as a dramatic twist to Tracy in the next scene. As Frank leaves the booth hurriedly, Mr. White, also frustrated by not hearing the call, yells out, �any news Frank?� The answer is withheld, increasing tension until Frank dramatically reveals the police are looking for Tracy, thus turning the tables on the blackmailer. These moments are pure timed manipulation of viewer access to information.\nHitchcock also tended to switch back to silent-film mode by placing the actors out of the microphone�s reach intentionally. In the final sequence of Blackmail, we are given a distant view through glass doors within the police building, as Alice and the doorman knock on the Inspector�s office door. Since we see it through the glass doors from a distance, the knocking sound is absent as well as the dialogue of the doorman explaining who is there and the subsequent permission to enter. Hitchcock�s act of withholding the audio of this simple moment from us, allows us to see it from an objective viewpoint and consider the implication of what she is about to do � confess to the murder. Subsequently, Hitchcock switched to silent-film mode in To Catch a Thief (1955), also through glass doors, as a conversation is carried out with broad motions of the actor�s bodies, rather than dialogue. During a key moment in Torn Curtain (1966), Sarah (Julie Andrews) is made privy to the secret which we�ve known all along � that her husband (Paul Newman) has been sent to spy. He reveals this to her on a distant hill, in which they both walk away from the microphone. In the distance we see him explaining something to her, and witness the moment she changes from anger to glee, punctuated by her embrace. Since the viewer already knew this information, Hitchcock chose not to bore us with the dialogue, focusing instead on the visual moment.\n2. Ambient Sound as Suspense Device\nIn Blackmail, Hitchcock used the ambient sounds of his settings by manipulating them for the purposes of suspense, as a way of expressing character emotion. In order to enhance the feelings of guilt from Alice after she murdered The Artist, Hitchcock used surrounding sounds to amplify those feelings. As Alice is slowly walking through quick-moving crowds in a daze of shock, car horns enhance the counterpoint between the busy world and her stoic stake of shock. She soon walks through a crowd of theater goers who are laughing under a billboard which reads: �a new comedy.� The sound of laugher increases the tension as Hitchcock plays this humorous tone against her guilt. Each of Hitchcock�s car horns are taunting her to snap out of it. As she wakes up in bed the next morning, caged song-birds in her room whistle happily to the extent that they become intrusive, further escalating her frantic mental state. Later, while she sits down to eat at her family�s shop, the door chime rings abstractly instead of its recognizable quick burst. The sound of the chime is stretched out over several seconds resembling the long protracted tone of a tuning fork. This abstracted reality, created purely through sound manipulation, brings the viewer into her subjective state of mind � ultra sensitive to the sounds around her as she sinks further inward, hoping to hide from what she has done.\nWhen Tracy comes into the shop to intimidate them, saying, �what a chance for blackmail � I could never do a thing like that,� the door chime sounds and a delivery man walks in with a newspaper. The ambient sounds of the street spill into the room. Car horns, honking happily, further counterpoint the seriousness of the line just spoken.\nThen, as the delivery man walks back outside, he shuts the door behind him silencing the street sounds. At this point we know the line was spoken ironically, because of course Tracy does intend to blackmail. The sudden burst of comic energy from the delivery man�s entrance is Hitchcock�s way of indicating this irony. It is also a reminder that the outside world is ready to intrude on their private conversation, and that if Alice is implicated in the murder she will have to face public scrutiny.\nWhen Tracy finally does escape through the window and flee for his own life, he crashes through with the sound of shattering glass, immediately letting in the ambient street noises once again. This time the car horns seem to be screaming out, rather than being comic. As the chase sequence begins, Hitchcock switches to silent-film mode with full music score, but adds rhythmic sound effects to further propel the tension. The beeping Morse code from a telegraph creates a sense of frantic urgency, and as Tracy makes his way to the British Museum, car horns add to this sense of panic.\n3. Song as a Suspense Device\nHitchcock tended to find clever ways to incorporate songs into the plots of his films. Josephine (Doris Day) sings 'Que Sera Sera' at the climax of The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956) in order to catch the attention of her son being held by kidnappers in the same building � the very act of singing generates suspense. In The Lady Vanishes (1938) the secrets Miss Froy (Dame May Whitty) has memorized are in the form of a tune that she must sing to the recipient to be decoded. More than half of his films include music as an essential component, and eight of his protagonists are musicians (Weis 1982, p.87).\nCharacters in Blackmail whistle, hum, sing, and play the piano but they don�t do it for amusement. Hitchcock has designed each moment of musical activity to evoke suspense. As Alice enters The Artist�s apartment she explores the rooms, and gives the piano a try for a few seconds, a metaphor for her mental state � she�s going to try spending time with him, but is rather apathetic about it. The Artist starts out by whistling but soon is playing a full song on the piano with lyrics while he convinces Alice to try on a dress. He uses this moment as an opportunity to hide her clothes and force her to walk out in the open in her underwear, while he continues to play the song �Miss After Day� (Belton 1999). After Alice murders him, the film�s music score repeats the song for dramatic effect. From this point, Hitchcock uses the motif of song as a reminder of the murder. Frank whistles a tune as he investigates the murder scene, and Tracy hums while buying a cigar and later whistles at the breakfast table in order to intimidate them into blackmail. In Frank�s usage, the whistle is a subtle expression that he�s already feigning ignorance among his other police colleagues; he already knows Alice was having an affair with The Artist and that she was probably involved in his murder. In Tracy�s usage of song, it is a flamboyant tease that he knows their secret and is wielding power over them, playfully trying to decide whether he wants to extort them for money. He whistles �The Best Things in Life are Free� (Belton 1999) as a direct expression of his intentions � that they can be free if they pay him.\n4. Dialogue as Expression\nHuman speech takes on unique attributes in Hitchcock films, often setting up situations where the act of talking is more important than what is actually being said. Dialogue has always been something which Hitchcock treated as merely sounds emanating from the mouths of his characters, whereas the story was revealed visually in other ways � by a glance, a close-up on an object, a reaction, etc.\nHitchcock often portrayed speech from the perspective of a character�s mind � either selectively manipulating speech heard through their ears, or projecting their internal thoughts as voice-over. In the infamous scene in Blackmail, he manipulates the speech of the gossipy neighbor in the shop when she�s talking about the knife used for the murder. Hitchcock deliberately accentuates the word �knife� in a repetitive rhythm, mixed with mumblings that were literally spoken by the actress as unintelligible abstracted syllables. This way, we get a clear sense of how Alice�s mind perceives the woman�s dialogue, subjectively singling out only the one word, as she slices the bread. Often a character is talking off-screen while Hitchcock�s camera pans toward an object or a reaction on someone�s face. Since the camera stays on close-up of Alice during this scene and the gossiper is off-screen, the focus is on the reaction of Alice with each utterance of �knife.�\n�When we tell a story in cinema, we should resort to dialogue only when it�s impossible to do otherwise� -Alfred Hitchcock\nAnother ploy that Hitchcock creates with dialogue is: missed information, or a sense of misunderstood language in a time of crisis. In Blackmail, the housekeeper frantically calls the police, and while she is relaying the address she thinks the dispatcher has heard the address incorrectly. We hear both sides of the conversation and know it�s correct, but she repeats the address frantically. In The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956) it�s a confused name, Ambrose Chapel, which Benjamin (James Stewart) thinks is a person but is actually a location. In the same film, he has trouble hearing his son while speaking with him on the phone � a way of building tension surrounding his kidnapping. In the final moments of Blackmail, a random phone ring at the police station delays Alice�s confession long enough for her to decide against it. She had been torn about whether to confess, and she was slowly fumbling with getting the words out. The phone rings, distracting the Inspector and ending their conversation, and thus ending the suspense; confession thwarted.\n5. Silence and Absence of Music\n�Silent film� as a description is not entirely accurate because most films of the time period were screened with loud music accompaniment. It is only with the advent of sound, and Hitchcock�s full manipulation of the soundtrack that he truly pushed silence forward as a device of its own. Silence in a Hitchcock film represents the realism of traumatic events, as well as their secrecy from the public world. Contrary to convention, he used silence without music to heighten moments of tension.\nA common question raised in a Hitchcock thriller is whether the neighbors had been able to hear the murder, and, in the case of Blackmail, Hitchcock�s lack of music score during the murder scene allows us to ascertain that for ourselves. Often ironically, the murder is loud enough to be heard as a desperate scream bursts out through the silence, and Hitchcock accentuates the fact that those nearby still fail to notice. When Alice kills The Artist it happens off-screen behind the curtains of the bed canopy. As Hitchcock cuts to a view of a policeman walking casually down the sidewalk outside, we hear Alice scream, �Let me go! Let me go!� Her cries for help are unheard by the policeman, thus creating a feeling of isolation from the outside world. With the use of simple juxtaposition of sound not reaching a hero�s ears in a time of crisis, in addition to the irony that the policeman seems happy, Hitchcock uniquely creates a desperate situation. The viewer is compelled to warn the hero, but of course is a helpless viewer � also unheard by those on the screen. The silence creates a state of paralyzing shock, the feeling that time has stopped. We see only Alice�s flailing arm reaching through the curtain, desperately feeling around for the knife, which she grabs. As she carries out the murder, The Artist makes no sound. Alice�s screams of panic continue rhythmically with each breath and then gradually subside as her attacker falls limp; the room fills with silence. Finally, The Artist�s hand flops out into view, indicating that he is now a corpse. Silence continues as Alice stands up, carefully places the knife back on the table, and stands in shock. Only after a long, tense silence does music score begin, resembling the very piano piece that The Artist had been playing.\nSilent murder scenes would become a hallmark of Hitchcock�s aural style, especially in films such as Torn Curtain, where a man is burned in an oven; Strangers on a Train, where a girl is strangled in a park; Rope (1948), where a man is murdered with a rope; Rear Window, where Jeff frantically fights for his life and falls off a balcony; and Saboteur, where Fry falls off the Statue of Liberty � all in silence without music score. An ironic exception of course is The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956) in which the murder takes place during a loud orchestral concert; the villains plan to fire a gun precisely timed with the clash of cymbals so to mask its sound.\nWith the release of his first sound film Blackmail, Hitchcock�s techniques of film sound pushed the art forward and continued to stretch the boundaries throughout his career. As Hitchcock manipulated sound the viewer, prompting and teasing, he showed that he was in control, orchestrating his soundscape like no other director could. Sound enabled him to add a sense of depth to the worlds he created � a third dimension evoked only in the minds of the viewers who always came back for more.\nWritten: June 2011", "Born As: Alfred Joseph Hitchcock\nBorn: August 13, 1899, Leytonstone, England\nDied: April 28, 1980 from Liver Failure and Heart Problems\nEducation: St. Ignatius College, London; School of Engineering and Navigation\n(mechanics, electricity, acoustics, navigation); University of London (art)\nBy Charles Ramirez Berg\nThe acknowledged master of the thriller genre he virtually invented, Alfred Hitchcock was also a brilliant technician who deftly blended sex, suspense and humor. He began his filmmaking career in 1919 illustrating title cards for silent films at Paramount's Famous Players-Lasky studio in London. There he learned scripting, editing and art direction, and rose to assistant director in 1922. That year he directed an unfinished film, No. 13 or Mrs. Peabody . His first completed film as director was The Pleasure Garden (1925), an Anglo-German production filmed in Munich. This experience, plus a stint at Germany's UFA studios as an assistant director, help account for the Expressionistic character of his films, both in their visual schemes and thematic concerns. The Lodger (1926), his breakthrough film, was a prototypical example of the classic Hitchcock plot: an innocent protagonist is falsely accused of a crime and becomes involved in a web of intrigue.\nAn early example of Hitchcock's technical virtuosity was his creation of \"subjective sound\" for Blackmail (1929), his first sound film. In this story of a woman who stabs an artist to death when he tries to seduce her, Hitchcock emphasized the young woman's anxiety by gradually distorting all but one word \"knife\" of a neighbor's dialogue the morning after the killing. Here and in Murder! (1930), Hitchcock first made explicit the link between sex and violence.\nThe Man Who Knew Too Much (1934), a commercial and critical success, established a favorite pattern: an investigation of family relationships within a suspenseful story. The 39 Steps (1935) showcases a mature Hitchcock; it is a stylish and efficiently told chase film brimming with exciting incidents and memorable characters. Despite their merits, both Secret Agent (1936) and Sabotage (1936) exhibited flaws Hitchcock later acknowledged and learned from. According to his theory, suspense is developed by providing the audience with information denied endangered characters. But to be most effective and cathartic, no harm should come to the innocent as it does in both of those films. The Lady Vanishes (1938), on the other hand, is sleek, exemplary Hitchcock: fast-paced, witty, and magnificently entertaining.\nHitchcock's last British film, Jamaica Inn (1939), and his first Hollywood effort, Rebecca (1940), were both handsomely mounted though somewhat uncharacteristic works based on novels by Daphne du Maurier. Despite its somewhat muddled narrative, Foreign Correspondent (1940) was the first Hollywood film in his recognizable style. Suspicion (1941), the story of a woman who thinks her husband is a murderer about to make her his next victim, was an exploration of family dynamics; its introduction of evil into the domestic arena foreshadowed Shadow of a Doubt (1943), Hitchcock's early Hollywood masterwork. One of his most disturbing films, Shadow was nominally the story of a young woman who learns that a favorite uncle is a murderer, but at heart it is a sobering look at the dark underpinnings of American middle-class life. Fully as horrifying as Uncle Charlie's attempts to murder his niece was her mother's tearful acknowledgment of her loss of identity in becoming a wife and mother. \"You know how it is,\" she says, \"you sort of forget you're you. You're your husband's wife.\" In Hitchcock, evil manifests itself not only in acts of physical violence, but also in the form of psychological, institutionalized and systemic cruelty.\nHitchcock would return to the feminine sacrifice-of-identity theme several times, most immediately with the masterful Notorious (1946), a perverse love story about an FBI agent who must send the woman he loves into the arms of a Nazi in order to uncover an espionage ring. Other psychological dramas of the late 1940s were Spellbound (1945), The Paradine Case (1948), and Under Capricorn (1949). Both Lifeboat (1944) and Rope (1948) were interesting technical exercises: in the former, the object was to tell a film story within the confines of a small boat; in Rope , Hitchcock sought to make a film that appeared to be a single, unedited shot. Rope shared with the more effective Strangers on a Train (1951) a villain intent on committing the perfect murder as well as a strong homoerotic undercurrent.\nDuring his most inspired period, from 1950 to 1960, Hitchcock produced a cycle of memorable films which included minor works such as I Confess (1953), the sophisticated thrillers Dial M for Murder (1954) and To Catch a Thief (1955), a remake of The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956) and the black comedy The Trouble with Harry (1955). He also directed several top-drawer films like Strangers on a Train and the troubling early docudrama (1956), a searing critique of the American justice system.\nHis three unalloyed masterpieces of the period were investigations into the very nature of watching cinema. Rear Window (1954) made viewers voyeurs, then had them pay for their pleasure. In its story of a photographer who happens to witness a murder, Hitchcock provocatively probed the relationship between the watcher and the watched, involving, by extension, the viewer of the film. Vertigo (1958), as haunting a movie as Hollywood has ever produced, took the lost-feminine-identity theme of Shadow of a Doubt and Notorious and identified its cause as male fetishism.\nNorth by Northwest (1959) is perhaps Hitchcock's most fully realized film. From a script by Ernest Lehman, with a score (as usual) by Bernard Herrmann , and starring Cary Grant and Eva Marie Saint, this quintessential chase movie is full of all the things for which we remember Alfred Hitchcock: ingenious shots, subtle male-female relationships, dramatic score, bright technicolor, inside jokes, witty symbolism and above all masterfully orchestrated suspense.\nPsycho (1960) is famed for its shower murder sequence a classic model of shot selection and editing which was startling for its (apparent) nudity, graphic violence and its violation of the narrative convention that makes a protagonist invulnerable. Moreover, the progressive shots of eyes, beginning with an extreme close-up of the killer's peeping eye and ending with the open eye of the murder victim, subtly implied the presence of a third eye the viewer's.\nLater films offered intriguing amplifications of his main themes. The Birds (1963) presented evil as an environmental fact of life. Marnie (1964), a psychoanalytical thriller along the lines of Spellbound showed how a violent, sexually tinged childhood episode turns a woman into a thief, once again associating criminality with violence and sex. Most notable about Torn Curtain (1966), an espionage story played against a cold war backdrop, was its extended fight-to-the death scene between the protagonist and a Communist agent in the kitchen of a farm house. In it Hitchcock reversed the movie convention of quick, easy deaths and showed how difficult and how momentous the act of killing really is.\nHitchcock's disappointing Topaz (1969), an unwieldy, unfocused story set during the Cuban missile crisis, was devoid of his typical narrative economy and wit. He returned to England to produce Frenzy (1972), a tale much more in the Hitchcock vein, about an innocent man suspected of being a serial killer. His final film, Family Plot (1976), pitted two couples against one another: a pair of professional thieves versus a female psychic and her working-class lover. It was a fitting end to a body of work that demonstrated the eternal symmetry of good and evil.\n© 1996 Microsoft Corporation\nWritten for THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF FILM\nBy Charles Ramirez Berg", "Alfred Hitchcock - Biography - IMDb\nAlfred Hitchcock\nBiography\nShowing all 191 items\nJump to: Overview  (5) | Mini Bio  (1) | Spouse  (1) | Trade Mark  (19) | Trivia  (100) | Personal Quotes  (57) | Salary  (8)\nOverview (5)\n5' 7\" (1.7 m)\nMini Bio (1)\nAlfred Joseph Hitchcock was born in Leytonstone, Essex, England. He was the son of Emma Jane (Whelan; 1863 - 1942) and East End greengrocer William Hitchcock (1862 - 1914). His parents were both of half English and half Irish ancestry. He had two older siblings, William Hitchcock (born 1890) and Eileen Hitchcock (born 1892). Raised as a strict Catholic and attending Saint Ignatius College, a school run by Jesuits, Hitch had very much of a regular upbringing. His first job outside of the family business was in 1915 as an estimator for the Henley Telegraph and Cable Company. His interest in movies began at around this time, frequently visiting the cinema and reading US trade journals.\nIt was around 1920 when Hitchcock joined the film industry. He started off drawing the sets (he was a very skilled artist). It was there that he met Alma Reville , though they never really spoke to each other. It was only after the director for Always Tell Your Wife (1923) fell ill and Hitchcock was named director to complete the film that he and Reville began to collaborate. Hitchcock had his first real crack at directing a film, start to finish, in 1923 when he was hired to direct the film Number 13 (1922), though the production wasn't completed due to the studio's closure (he later remade it as a sound film). Hitchcock didn't give up then. He directed The Pleasure Garden (1925), a British/German production, which was very popular. Hitchcock made his first trademark film in 1927, The Lodger (1927) . In the same year, on the 2nd of December, Hitchcock married Alma Reville. They had one child, _Patricia Hitchcock_ who was born on July 7th, 1928. His success followed when he made a number of films in Britain such as The Lady Vanishes (1938) and Jamaica Inn (1939), some of which also gained him fame in the USA.\nIn 1940, the Hitchcock family moved to Hollywood, where the producer _David O. Selznick_had hired him to direct an adaptation of 'Daphne du Maurier''s Rebecca (1940). After Saboteur (1942), as his fame as a director grew, film companies began to refer to his films as 'Alfred Hitchcock's', for example Alfred Hitcock's Psycho (1960), Alfred Hitchcock's Family Plot (1976), Alfred Hitchcock's Frenzy (1972).\nHitchcock was a master of pure cinema who almost never failed to reconcile aesthetics with the demands of the box-office.\nDuring the making of Frenzy (1972), Hitchcock's wife Alma suffered a paralyzing stroke which made her unable to walk very well. On March 7, 1979, Hitchcock was awarded the AFI Life Achievement Award, where he said: \"I beg permission to mention by name only four people who have given me the most affection, appreciation, and encouragement, and constant collaboration. The first of the four is a film editor, the second is a scriptwriter, the third is the mother of my daughter Pat, and the fourth is as fine a cook as ever performed miracles in a domestic kitchen and their names are Alma Reville.\" By this time, he was ill with angina and his kidneys had already started to fail. He had started to write a screenplay with _Ernest Lehman_ called The Short Night but he fired Lehman and hired young writer David Freeman to rewrite the script. Due to Hitchcock's failing health the film was never made, but Freeman published the script after Hitchcock's death. In late 1979, Hitchcock was knighted, making him Sir Alfred Hitchcock. On the 29th April 1980, 9:17AM, he died peacefully in his sleep due to renal failure. His funeral was held in the Church of Good Shepherd in Beverly Hills. Father Thomas Sullivan led the service with over 600 people attended the service, among them were Mel Brooks (director of High Anxiety (1977), a comedy tribute to Hitchcock and his films), Louis Jourdan , Karl Malden , Tippi Hedren , Janet Leigh and François Truffaut .\n- IMDb Mini Biography By: Col Needham <[email protected]> and Samtroy\nSpouse (1)\n( 2 December  1926 - 29 April  1980) (his death) (1 child)\nTrade Mark (19)\n[Cameo] Often has a quick cameo in his films. He eventually began making his appearances in the beginning of his films, because he knew viewers were watching for him and he didn't want to divert their attention away from the story's plot. He made a live cameo appearance in all of his movies beginning with The Lady Vanishes (1938) (Man in London Railway Station walking on the station train platform), The Girl Was Young (1937) (Photographer Outside Courthouse) ... aka The Girl Was Young (USA), The 39 Steps (1935) (Passerby Near the Bus), Murder! (1930) (Man on Street), Blackmail (1929) (Man on subway), Easy Virtue (1928) (Man with stick near tennis court), The Lodger (1927) (Extra in newspaper office) ... aka The Case of Jonathan Drew., excluding Lifeboat (1944), in which he appeared in a newspaper advertisement; Dial M for Murder (1954), in which he appeared in a class reunion photo; Rope (1948) in which his \"appearance\" is as a neon version of his famous caricature on a billboard outside the window in a night scene and Family Plot (1976) in which his \"appearance\" is as a silhouette of someone standing on the other side of a frosted glass door.\n[Hair] Likes to insert shots of a woman's hairstyle, frequently in close-ups.\n[Bathrooms] Often a plot device, a hiding place or a place where lovemaking is prepared for. Hitchcock also frequently used the letters \"BM\", which stand for \"Bowel Movement\".\n[Blondes] The most famous actresses in his filmography (mostly in leading roles) were Anny Ondra , Madeleine Carroll , Joan Fontaine , Ingrid Bergman , Grace Kelly , Eva Marie Saint , Kim Novak , Vera Miles , Janet Leigh and Tippi Hedren .\nThere is a recurrent motif of lost or assumed identity. While mistaken identity applies to a film like North by Northwest (1959), assumed identity applies to films such as The 39 Steps (1935), Vertigo (1958), Psycho (1960), and Marnie (1964) among others.\nAlways formally dressed, wearing a suit on film sets\nIn order to create suspense in his films, he would alternate between different shots to extend cinematic time (e.g., the climax of Saboteur (1942), the cropduster sequence in North by Northwest (1959), the shower scene in Psycho (1960), etc.) His driving sequences were also shot in this particular way. They would typically alternate between the character's point of view while driving and a close-up shot of those inside car from opposite direction. This technique kept the viewer 'inside' the car and made any danger encountered more richly felt.\n[Profile] The famous profile sketch, most often associated with Alfred Hitchcock Presents (1955) and The Alfred Hitchcock Hour (1962). It was actually from a Christmas card Hitchcock designed himself while still living in England.\nIn a lot of his films (more noticeably in the early black and white American films), he used to create more shadows on the walls to create suspense and tension (e.g., the \"Glowing Milk\" scene in Suspicion (1941) or the ominous shadow during the opening credits of Saboteur (1942)).\nInspired the adjective \"Hitchcockian\" for suspense thrillers\nHis \"MacGuffins\" were objects or devices which drove the plot and were of great interest to the film's characters, but which to the audience were otherwise inconsequential and could be forgotten once they had served their purpose. The most notable examples include bottled uranium in Notorious (1946), the wedding ring in Rear Window (1954), the microfilm in North by Northwest (1959) and the $40,000 in the envelope in Psycho (1960).\nHe hated to shoot on location. He preferred to shoot at the studio where he could have full control of lighting and other factors. This is why even his later films contain special effects composite and rear screen shots.\nDistinctively slow way of speaking, dark humor and dry wit, especially regarding murder\nFrequent collaborators: actors 'James Stewart' and 'Cary Grant', editor George Tomasini , composer Bernard Herrmann , costume designer Edith Head and director of photography Robert Burks .\n[Attribution] Name often appears before the film titles, as in \"Alfred Hitchcock's Psycho\".\nLiked to use major stars in his films that the audience was familiar with, so he could dispense with character development and focus more on the plot.\nOften makes the audience empathizes with the villain's plight, usually in a sequence where the villain is in danger of being caught.\nUnusual subjective point of view shots\nTrivia (100)\nAccording to many people who knew Hitchcock, he could not stand to even look at his wife, Alma Reville , while she was pregnant.\nHe once dressed up in drag for a party he threw. Footage of this was kept in his office, but after his death, his office was cleaned out and the footage not found. It is not known if the footage still exists.\nAccording to Hitchcock himself, he was required to stand at the foot of his mother's bed, and tell her what happened to him each day.\nWas close friends with Albert R. Broccoli , well known as the producer of the James Bond - 007 franchise. Hitchcock's North by Northwest (1959) was the influence for the helicopter scene in From Russia with Love (1963). Actors Sean Connery , Karin Dor , Louis Jourdan and Anthony Dawson have appeared in both a Hitchcock film and a Bond film.\nHe appears on a 32-cent U.S. postage stamp, in the \"Legends of Hollywood\" series, that was released 8/3/98 in Los Angeles, California.\nAs a child, Hitchcock was sent to the local police station with a letter from his father. The desk sergeant read the letter and immediately locked the boy up for ten minutes. After that, the sergeant let young Alfred go, explaining, \"This is what happens to people who do bad things.\" Hitchcock had a morbid fear of police from that day on. He also cited this phobia as the reason he never learned to drive (as a person who doesn't drive can never be pulled over and given a ticket). It was also cited as the reason for the recurring \"wrong man\" themes in his films.\nOn April 29, 1974, the Film Society of Lincoln Center in New York sponsored a gala homage to Alfred Hitchcock and his contributions to the cinema. Three hours of film excerpts were shown that night. François Truffaut who had published a book of interviews with Hitchcock a few years earlier, was there that night to present \"two brilliant sequences: the clash of the cymbals in the second version of The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956) , and the plane attack on Cary Grant in North by Northwest (1959).\" After the gala, Truffaut reflected again on what made Hitchcock unique and concluded: \"It was impossible not to see that the love scenes were filmed like murder scenes, and the murder scenes like love scenes...It occurred to me that in Hitchcock's cinema...to make love and to die are one and the same.\".\nHe never won a best director Academy Award in competition, although he was awarded the Irving Thalberg Memorial Award at the 1967 Academy Awards.\nAlma Reville and Hitchcock had one daughter, Patricia Hitchcock , who appeared in three of his movies: Stage Fright (1950), Strangers on a Train (1951) and Psycho (1960).\nIn the 1980 Queen's New Year's Honours list (only a few months before his death), he was named an Honorary (as he was a United States citizen) Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire.\nFrom 1977 until his death, he worked with a succession of writers on a film to be known as \"The Short Night\". The majority of the writing was done by David Freeman , who published the final screenplay after Hitchcock's death.\nHis bridling under the heavy hand of producer David O. Selznick was exemplified by the final scene of Rebecca (1940). Selznick wanted his director to show smoke coming out of the burning house's chimney forming the letter 'R'. Hitchcock thought the touch lacked any subtlety; instead, he showed flames licking at a pillow embroidered with the letter 'R'.\nFirst visited Hollywood in the late 1930s, but was turned down by virtually all major motion picture studios because they thought he could not make a Hollywood-style picture. He was finally offered a seven-year directing contract by producer David O. Selznick . His first project was supposed to be a film about the Titanic, but Selznick scrapped the project because he \"couldn't find a boat to sink.\" Selznick assigned Hitch to direct Rebecca (1940) instead, which later won the best picture Oscar.\nWhen finishing a cup of tea while on the set, he would often non-discriminatingly toss the cup and saucer over his shoulder, letting it fall (or break) wherever it may.\nHe was director William Girdler 's idol. Girdler made Day of the Animals (1977) borrowing elements from Hitchcock's The Birds (1963).\nAsked writers Pierre Boileau and Thomas Narcejac to write a novel for him after Henri-Georges Clouzot had been faster in buying the rights for \"Celle qui n'était plus\" which became Diabolique (1955). The novel they wrote, \"From Among the Dead\", was shot as Vertigo (1958).\nHe delivered the shortest acceptance speech in Academy Award history: while accepting the Irving Thalberg Memorial Award at the 1967 Academy Awards, he simply said \"Thank you\".\nDestiny (1921) by Fritz Lang was his declared favorite movie.\nIn a recent USC class on Hitchcock (fall 2000), guest speaker Patricia Hitchcock revealed that two guilty pleasures of Hitch's were Smokey and the Bandit (1977) and Benji (1974).\nLent his name and character to a series of adolescent books entitled \"Alfred Hitchcock and the Three Investigators\" (circa late 1960s - early 1970s). The premise was that main character and crime-solver Jupiter Jones won the use of Mr. Hitchcock's limousine in a contest. Hitch also wrote forewords to this series of books. After his death, his famous silhouette was taken off the spine of the books, and the forewords (obviously) stopped appearing as well.\nHe was listed as the editor of a series of anthologies containing mysteries and thillers. However, he had little to do with them. Even the introductions, credited to him, were, like the introductions on his television series, written by others.\nOne of the most successful Hitchcock tie-ins is a pulp publication titled \"Alfred Hitchcock's Mystery Magazine\". The publication is highly respected and has become one of the longest running mystery anthologies. It continues to be published almost a quarter century after Hitchock's death.\nHe allegedly refused the British honour of CBE (Commander of the Order of the British Empire) in 1962.\nWhen he won his Lifetime Achievement award in 1979, he joked with friends that he must be about to die soon. He died a year later.\nWas voted the Greatest Director of all time by Entertainment Weekly. The same magazine's list of the 100 Greatest Films of all time includes more films directed by Hitchcock than by any other director, with four. On the list were his masterworks Psycho (1960) (#11), Vertigo (1958) (#19), North by Northwest (1959) (#44) and Notorious (1946) (#66).\nWas at his heaviest in the late 1930s, when he weighed over 300 pounds. Although always overweight, he dieted and lost a considerable amount of weight in the early 1950s, with pictures from sets like To Catch a Thief (1955) showing a surprisingly thin Hitchcock. His weight continued to fluctuate throughout his life.\nHad a hard time devising one of his signature walk-ons for Lifeboat (1944), a film about a small group of people trying to survive on a small boat. What he eventually came up with was to have his picture in a newspaper advertisement for weight loss that floated among some debris around the boat. He had happened to have lost a considerable amount of weight from dieting around that time, so he was seen in both the \"Before\" and the \"After\" pictures.\nOften said that Shadow of a Doubt (1943) was his favorite film among those he had directed.\nWas a supporter of West Ham United Football Club. He told colleagues in Hollywood that he subscribed to English newspapers in order to keep track of their results.\nSteven Spielberg , Brian De Palma , John Carpenter , Sam Raimi , M. Night Shyamalan , Martin Scorsese , George A. Romero , Peter Bogdanovich , Dario Argento , William Friedkin , David Cronenberg and Quentin Tarantino have named him as an influence.\nHe was infamous with cast and crews for his practical jokes. While some inspired laughs, such as suddenly showing up in a dress, most were said to have been a bit more scar than funny. Usually, he found out about somebody's phobias, such as mice or spiders, and in turn sent them a box full of them.\nHe almost never socialized when not shooting films, and spent most of his evenings quietly at home with his wife Alma Reville and daughter Patricia Hitchcock .\nDirected the pilot episode of the radio series \"Suspense\" (1942-1962), and made a brief appearance at the end. It was an adaptation of his film The Lodger (1927) and starred Herbert Marshall and Edmund Gwenn , who reprised his brother Arthur Chesney 's role as Mr. Bunting.\nHe would work closely with screenwriters, giving them a series of scenes that he wanted in the films, thus closely controlling what he considered the most important aspect of the filmmaking process. Although the screenwriter would write the actual dialogue and blocking, many of the scripts for his films were rigidly based on his ideas.\nDirected eight different actors in Oscar-nominated performances: Laurence Olivier , Joan Fontaine , Judith Anderson , Albert Bassermann , Michael Chekhov , Claude Rains , Ethel Barrymore and Janet Leigh . Fontaine won an Oscar for Suspicion (1941).\nPraised Luis Buñuel as the best director ever.\nAs with W.C. Fields and Arthur Godfrey before him, he was legendary for gently tweaking his sponsors during the run of his television show. One typical example runs, \"We now interrupt our story for an important announcement. I needn't tell you to whom it will be most important of all.\".\nRanked #2 in Empire (UK) magazine's \"The Greatest Directors Ever!\" in 2005.\nEducation: St. Ignatius College, London, School of Engineering and Navigation (Studied mechanics, electricity, acoustics and navigation); University of London (Studied art).\nTold François Truffaut that although he had made two films prior to The Lodger (1927), he considered that to be his first real film.\nDue to his death in 1980, he never got to see Psycho II (1983). It remains unsure as to whether or not he was approached regarding the second movie, or any other \" Psycho (1960) - Expansion\" motion picture.\nGrandfather of Mary Stone , Tere Carrubba and Katie Fiala .\nHe was reportedly furious when Brian De Palma decided to make Obsession (1976), because he thought it was a virtual remake of Vertigo (1958). Ironically, De Palma stopped making mystery/adventure films after Hitchcock's death in 1980, with the possible exception of Body Double (1984).\nAlthough some of the movie going public knew him, his fame really took off after 1955. That was when Alfred Hitchcock Presents (1955) started. When the show was broadcast in homes week after week, it gave him a much bigger exposure in the public eye. He also became quite rich from the show when it was syndicated in the United States and overseas.\nFor Psycho (1960), he deferred his standard $250,000 salary in lieu of 60% of the film's net profits. His personal earnings from the film exceeded $15 million. Adjusted for inflation, that amount would now top $150 million in 2006 terms.\nIs the \"voice\" of the \"Jaws\" ride at Universal Studios.\nOn August 2, 1968, he visited Finland to look filming locations for his next film \"The Short Night\". Of course, the film was never made. In the airport, he was interviewed by Finnish reporters. He was asked why his films were so popular. His answer was: \"Everybody likes to be scared\".\nHe was awarded 2 Stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for Motion Pictures at 6506 Hollywood Boulevard; and for Television at 7013 Hollywood Boulevard in Hollywood, California.\nA statistical survey he did among audiences revealed that according to moviegoers the most frightening noise in films was the siren of a police patrol-car, followed by the crash of a road accident, cracklings of a burning forest, far galloping horses, howling dogs, the scream of a stabbed woman and the steps of a lame person in the dark.\nThough he was Oscar-nominated five times as best director, DGA-nominated six times as best director, and received three nominations from Cannes, he never won in any of these competitive categories, a fact that surprises fans and film critics to this day.\nHe suggested some improvements to a scene in Gone with the Wind (1939) but the shots integrating his improvements were not used.\nHe was naturalized as a United States citizen in 1956.\nWalt Disney refused to allow him to film at Disneyland in the early 1960s because Hitchcock had made \"that disgusting movie Psycho (1960)\".\nIn addition to his fear of the police, Hitchcock possessed one other phobia: eggs.\nAs of the 5th edition of 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die (edited by Steven Jay Schneider), Hitchcock is the most represented director, with 18 films. Included are his films Blackmail (1929), The 39 Steps (1935), Sabotage (1936), Rebecca (1940), Shadow of a Doubt (1943), Spellbound (1945), Notorious (1946), Rope (1948), Strangers on a Train (1951), Rear Window (1954), The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956), The Wrong Man (1956), Vertigo (1958), North by Northwest (1959), Psycho (1960), The Birds (1963), Marnie (1964) and Frenzy (1972).\nAs a long-time friend of Sidney Bernstein (the pair had formed production company Transatlantic Pictures together in the 1940s), Hitch was the first celebrity visitor to the set of long-running British soap opera Coronation Street (1960), during a June 1964 visit to the Manchester studios of Granada Television which Bernstein co-founded with his brother Cecil.\nAt five, he received more Academy Award nominations for Best Picture without a win than anyone other than Clarence Brown . He was nominated for Rebecca (1940), Lifeboat (1944), Spellbound (1945), Rear Window (1954) and Psycho (1960).\nDuring production of Alfred Hitchcock Presents (1955) he was said to have hid from producer Joan Harrison every time there was a problem with production. His favorite hiding place was behind the couch in his office.\nAppears on a 44¢ USA commemorative postage stamp, issued 11 August 2009, in the Early TV Memories issue honoring Alfred Hitchcock Presents (1955).\nHe directed nine of the American Film Institute's 100 Most Heart-Pounding Movies: Psycho (1960) at #1, North by Northwest (1959) at #4, The Birds (1963) at #7, Rear Window (1954) at #14, Vertigo (1958) at #18, Strangers on a Train (1951) at #32, Notorious (1946) at #38, Dial M for Murder (1954) at #48 and Rebecca (1940) at #80.\nHe appears momentarily in a trademark/cameo role in all of his movies. In addition the neon silhouette in Rope (1948), he is seen walking down the street during the opening credits. During the movie, the characters of Mrs. Atwater and Janet are discussing a movie whose one-word title they can not remember. It was a plug for one of Hitchcock's other movies, Notorious (1946).\nHitchcock's wife, Alma Reville , was one day younger than him. They were born on August 13 and August 14, 1899.\nMany of Hitchcock's films have one-word titles: Blackmail (1929), Rebecca (1940), Suspicion (1941), Saboteur (1942), Lifeboat (1944), Spellbound (1945), Notorious (1946), Rope (1948), Vertigo (1958), Psycho (1960), Marnie (1964), Topaz (1969) and Frenzy (1972). He favored one-word titles because he felt that it was uncluttered, clean and easily remembered by the audience.\nDonald Spoto wrote that Hitchcock hid behind the door when Bernard Herrmann went to see him after Torn Curtain (1966) break up. Herrmann's third wife Norma denied this in an interview with Gunther Kogebehn in June 2006. In June 2006 interview with Kogebehn, Norma Herrmann states that she and Bernard Herrmann \"together\" visited Alfred Hitchcock.\nHe was portrayed by Anthony Hopkins in Hitchcock (2012).\nIn the Press Conference for Family Plot (1976), Alfred Hitchcock revealed that his least favorite film out of all the films he directed was Champagne (1928).\nFrom 1942 until his death, the Hitchcocks lived at 10957 Bellagio Road, Bel Air, California. They had been living at 609 St. Cloud Road in Bel Air in a home leased from friends Carole Lombard and Clark Gable .\n(April 27, 2014) Most successful director in IMDB Top 250 movies ever made with 9 entries - Rear Window (1954) (no 31.), Psycho (1960) (no. 32), North by Northwest (1959) (no. 61), Vertigo (1958) (no. 66), Rebecca (1940) (no. 138), Dial M for Murder (1954) (no. 163), Strangers on a Train (1951) (no. 194), Notorious (1946) (no. 198) and Rope (1948) (no. 242).\nHis Dial M for Murder (1954) was re-released in 3D in 1980.\nDeliberately shot much of the setups in Rear Window (1954) so they would appear voyeuristic.\nDirector Alexander Payne could not imagine Hitchcock's Psycho (1960) in color because it's more chilling in black and white, but it was later remade in color as Psycho (1998), to universal disapproval.\nBritish author Anthony Horowitz is a huge fan of Hitchcock and will often pay homage to his work.\nIf you watch his films closely noting the endings or portrayal of cops, you will see that if a cop is required to die, the death will be slow, gruesome or uncompromisingly grisly. If cops survive they are nearly always portrayed as baddies, though in reality they are the good guys. This is because Hitchcock had a life-long phobia of policemen.\nIn 1964, he visited the set of Coronation Street (1960) and had a drink at the Rovers Return.\nIn the early 1950s, he planned an adaption of David Duncan 's novel The Bramble Bush about a disaffected Communist agitator who, on the run from the police, is forced to adopt the identity of a murder suspect. The story would be adapted to take place in Mexico and San Francisco. The project, originally to come after I Confess (1953) as a Transatlantic Pictures production to be released by Warner Brothers, had a high budget which made it a difficult project. Hitchcock did not feel that any of the scripts lifted the movie beyond an ordinary chase story, and Warner Brothers allowed him to kill the project and move on to Dial M for Murder (1954).\nThe Hammond Innes novel The Wreck of the Mary Deare was optioned by MGM with the intention of having Hitchcock direct and Gary Cooper star. Hitchcock had long wanted to work with Cooper, but after developing the script with Ernest Lehman for several weeks, they concluded that it couldn't be done without turning the movie into \"a boring courtroom drama\".\nHitchcock and Lehman made an appearance before MGM executives telling the story of North by Northwest (1959), and said that MGM would get two films out of Hitchcock under his contract with MGM. However, eventually Hitchcock abandoned the idea of Mary Deare and went ahead with that film instead.\nBritish thriller writer Dennis Wheatley had been a guest on the set of many of the early Hitchcock movies, and when The Forbidden Territory was published in January 1933, he presented the director with a copy. Hitchcock so enjoyed the book that he wanted to make a film of it, but he was just in the process of moving to Gaumont-British studios to work for Michael Balcon ; he asked Wheatley to hold onto the rights until he could persuade his new employer to purchase them. When the time came, however, Balcon wasn't interested and instead insisted that Hitchcock direct the musical Waltzes from Vienna. Hitchcock then approached Richard Wainwright , a distinguished producer who had been head of UFA films in Germany, and had recently relocated to Britain. Wainwright was keen to pick up a promising subject for his first British film, and immediately bought the rights. Although there was a verbal understanding that Hitchcock was to direct, Balcon refused to release him, and instead began production of The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934). Wainwright, committed to studio space, technicians and actors, had no alternative but to proceed without him, and placed the film into the hands of American director Phil Rosen . In 1936, at Hitchcock's instigation, Wheatley wrote a screenplay The Bombing of London, but the controversial project could find no backer and was shelved.\nHitchcock remarked in a British film journal interview just before leaving for Hollywood that he hoped to make a film about the tragic loss of RMS Titanic, as the inherent drama of the ocean liner's sinking appealed to him. He went on to make Rebecca (1940) instead.\nFollowing Psycho (1960), Hitchcock re-united with Ernest Lehman for an original screenplay idea: A blind pianist, Jimmy Shearing (a role for James Stewart ), regains his sight after receiving the eyes of a dead man. Watching a Wild West show at Disneyland with his family, Shearing would have visions of being shot and would come to realize that the dead man was in fact murdered and the image of the murderer is still imprinted on the retina of his eyes. The story would end with a chase around the ocean liner RMS Queen Mary. Walt Disney reputedly barred Hitchcock from shooting at Disneyland after seeing Psycho (1960). Stewart left the project, Lehman argued with Hitchcock, and the script was never shot.\nIn 1956, he planned a big-budget adaptation of Laurens van der Post 's novel Flamingo Feather, a story of political intrigue in Southern Africa. James Stewart was expected to take the lead role of an adventurer who discovers a concentration camp for Communist agents; Hitchcock wanted Grace Kelly to play the love interest.\nAfter a disappointing research trip to South Africa where he concluded that he would have difficulty filming, especially on a budget - and with confusion of the story's politics and the seeming impossibility of casting Kelly, Hitchcock deferred the project and instead cast Stewart in The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956). Hitchcock travelled to Livingstone at The Victoria Falls and was a guest of Harry Sossen one of the prominent inhabitants of this pioneer town. Hitchcock and Sossen were photographed together at the newly opened Livingstone Airport and the event was recorded in the local papers. Sossen was also in communication with Laurens van der Post who gave him a signed copy of the book Flamingo Feather during a visit to the Falls (staying at the Victoria Falls Hotel). Sossen's daughter Marion is in possession of the book today and a number of letters between her father and van der Post.\nHitchcock's last, unfinished project was The Short Night, an adaptation of the spy thriller of the same name by Ronald Kirkbride . A British double agent (loosely based on George Blake) escapes from prison and flees to Moscow via Finland, where his wife and children are waiting. An American agent - whose brother was one of the traitor's victims - heads to Finland to intercept him but ends up falling for the wife. It was Hitchcock's third attempt - after Torn Curtain (1966) and Topaz (1969) - to produce a \"realistic Bond film\". Clint Eastwood , and Sean Connery were possible male leads. Liv Ullman was asked to play the double agent's wife. Catherine Deneuve was also asked to star. Walter Matthau was considered for the villain role. Ed Lauter was also discussed for a role as one of Matthau's prison mates.\nThe first writer assigned to the picture, James Costigan , quarreled with the director, who asked for him to be paid off. Then Ernest Lehman agreed to work on the script. Lehman felt the story should focus on the American spy, and left out the double agent's jailbreak. Lehman left the film too, and Hitchcock asked old friend Norman Lloyd to help him write a long treatment. Lloyd, like Universal, was concerned that Hitchcock's failing health meant that the movie might not get made. When Hitchcock suggested moving straight on to the screenplay, Lloyd objected saying they were unprepared. Hitchcock reacted angrily, fired Lloyd, and worked on the treatment himself.\nAfter a while, Hitchcock accepted that he needed another writer to work with him, and Universal suggested Dave Freeman , helped Hitchcock complete the treatment and wrote the screenplay. He wrote about his experiences in the 1999 book The Last Days of Alfred Hitchcock, which includes his completed screenplay. The circumstances surrounding Hitchcock's retirement were given by producer Hilton A. Green during the documentary Plotting \"Family Plot\". According to Green, during pre-production for The Short Night Hitchcock met Green to tell him that his poor health would prevent him from making the film that was to be the follow-up to Family Plot. After trying to talk Hitchcock out of his decision, Green agreed to Hitchcock's request to bring the news of his decision to retire to studio head Lew Wasserman , a long-time friend of Hitchcock.\nHitchcock very much wanted to direct a follow-up to The 39 Steps (1935), and he felt that Greenmantle by John Buchan was a superior book. He proposed that the film would star Cary Grant and Ingrid Bergman , but the rights from the Buchan estate proved too expensive.\nIn the late 1950s, he planned an adaptation of Henry Cecil 's novel No Bail for the Judge, about a London barrister who, with the assistance of a gentleman thief, has to defend her father, a High Court judge, when he is accused of murdering a prostitute. In a change of pace from his usual blonde actresses, Audrey Hepburn would have played the barrister, with Laurence Harvey as the thief, and John Williams as the Hepburn character's father. Some sources, including Writing with Hitchcock author Steven DeRosa say that Hitchcock's interest in the novel started in the summer of 1954 while filming To Catch a Thief (1955), and that Hitchcock hoped to have John Michael Hayes write the screenplay. Hepburn was an admirer of Hitchcock's work and had long wanted to appear in one of his films.\nSamuel A. Taylor , scenarist for Vertigo (1958) and Topaz (1969), wrote the screenplay after Ernest Lehman rejected it. The Taylor screenplay included a scene, not in the original novel, where the heroine disguises herself as a prostitute and has to fend off a rapist. Hepburn left the film, partly because of the near-rape scene, but primarily due to a pregnancy. (Hepburn suffered a miscarriage during the filming of The Unforgiven (1960) then gave birth to son Sean Ferrer in July 1960.) Harvey still ended up working with Hitchcock in 1959, however, on an episode that Hitchcock directed of Alfred Hitchcock Presents (1955).\nWithout Hepburn, the project didn't have the same appeal for Hitchcock. Changes in British law concerning prostitution and entrapment - changes which took place after the novel was published - made some aspects of the screenplay implausible. Hitchcock told Paramount Pictures it was better to write off $200,000 already spent on the film's development than to spend another $3 million for a film he no longer cared for. In the fall of 1959, a Paramount publicity brochure titled \"Success in the Sixties!\" had touted No Bail for the Judge as an upcoming feature film starring Hepburn, to be filmed in Technicolor and VistaVision.\nAlthough Hitchcock made Frenzy (1972), that film's title and some plot points came from an idea Hitchcock had a few years earlier for a prequel to Shadow of a Doubt (1943). Hitchcock approached many writers including Samuel A. Taylor and Alec Coppel , but in the end engaged an old friend, Benn W. Levy to flesh out his sketchy idea.\nThe story would have revolved around a young, handsome bodybuilder (inspired by Neville Heath) who lures young women to their deaths, a version of the character known as 'Merry Widow Murderer' in Shadow of a Doubt (1943). The New York police set a trap for him, with a policewoman posing as a potential victim. The script was based around three crescendos dictated by Hitchcock: the first was a murder by a waterfall; the second murder would take place on a mothballed warship; and the finale, which would take place at an oil refinery with brightly coloured drums.\nHitchcock showed his script to his friend François Truffaut . Though Truffaut admired the script, he felt uneasy about its relentless sex and violence. Unlike Psycho (1960), these elements would not be hidden behind the respectable veneer of murder mystery and psychological suspense, and the killer would be the main character, the hero, the eyes of the audience.\nUniversal vetoed the film, despite Hitchcock's assurances that he would make the film for under $1 million with a cast of unknowns, although David Hemmings , Robert Redford , and Michael Caine had all been suggested as leads. The film - alternatively known as Frenzy or the more \"sixties\"-esque Kaleidoscope - was not made.\nIn 1963, he was scheduled to direct Trap for a Solitary Man in widescreen by Twentieth Century-Fox. The story, based on the French play Piege Pour un Homme Seul by M. Robert Thomas, follows a young married couple on holiday in the Alps. The wife disappears, and after a prolonged search the police bring back someone they claim to be her; she even says she is the man's wife, but the man has never seen her before.\nIn 1964, Hitchcock re-read another Richard Hannay novel by John Buchan , The Three Hostages, with a mind to adapting it. As with Greenmantle a quarter of a century earlier, the rights were elusive. But also the story was dated, very much rooted in the 1930s, and the plot involved a villain whose blind mother hypnotizes the hero. Hitchcock, in interviews, said that he felt that the portrayal of hypnosis did not work on film, and that films that attempted this portrayal, in Hitchcock's opinion, turned out poorly.\nIn the late 1940s, Hitchcock had plans to make a modernized version of Hamlet. Hitchcock's Shakespearean vision was of a \"psychological melodrama\" (set in contemporary England, and starring Cary Grant in the title role). The project was scrapped when Hitchcock's studio caught wind of a potential lawsuit from a professor who had already written a modern-day version of Hamlet.\nHitchcock approached Italian comedy-thriller writers Agenore Incrocci and Furio Scarpelli (Age & Scarpelli), writers of Big Deal on Madonna Street (1958), to write a screenplay around an original idea Hitchcock had carried in his head since the late 1930s. A New York City hotel run by an Italian immigrant and his family who, unknown to him, are using the hotel as cover for crimes, including the theft of a valuable coin from a guest of the hotel. (R.R.R.R. is the highest value of coin.)\nThe Italian screenwriters struggled with the story, and were not helped by the language barrier. Universal Studios were not keen on the idea and persuaded Hitchcock to move on to something else.\nHitchcock had long desired to turn J.M. Barrie 's 1920 play Mary Rose into a film. In 1964, after working together on Marnie (1964), Hitchcock asked Jay Presson Allen to adapt the play into a screenplay. Hitchcock would later tell interviewers that his contract with Universal allowed him to make any film, so long as the budget was under $3 million, and so long as it was not Mary Rose. Whether or not this was actually true, Lew Wasserman was not keen on the project, though Hitchcock never gave up hope of one day filming it.\nHitchcock desperately wanted to direct Norma Shearer , Robert Taylor , and Conrad Veidt in one of the first World War II dramas, Escape (1940). Hitchcock, a long-time admirer of Shearer's acting, had sought for years to find a suitable project for her. However, Hitchcock was shut out of the project when the novel Escape by Ethel Vance (pen name of Grace Zaring Stone) was purchased by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Hitchcock knew he could never work for the notorious MGM studio head Louis B. Mayer , who selected Mervyn LeRoy to produce the film. Years later, Hitchcock made the statement about the lack of true Hollywood leading ladies with the quote, \"Where are the Norma Shearers?\".\nIn 1945, Hitchcock was brought in as a supervising director for a documentary film about Nazi crimes and Nazi concentration camps. The film was originally to include segments produced by military film units from the UK, US, France, and the USSR. Cold War developments meant that the USSR segment was withdrawn, and the film remained uncompleted, with some footage kept in the collection of the Imperial War Museum.\nHowever, a reconstruction of the film was aired as Memory of the Camps in 1984-85 in the UK and the US. The US version was shown on the PBS series Frontline (1983) on May 7, 1985. In October 2014, a new documentary about the unfinished film, Night Will Fall (2014), premiered at the BFI London Film Festival.\nHitchcock bought the rights to the 1960 novel Village of Stars by David Beaty (written under the pen name Paul Stanton) after The Blind Man project was cancelled. The book follows a RAF V bomber crew given an order to drop a nuclear bomb, only to have the order aborted. Unfortunately, the bomb is resisting attempts to defuse it and the plane can only stay in flight for a limited time.\nHe directed Edmund Gwenn in four films: The Skin Game (1931), Strauss' Great Waltz (1934), Foreign Correspondent (1940) and The Trouble with Harry (1955).\nPersonal Quotes (57)\nThere is a dreadful story that I hate actors. Imagine anyone hating James Stewart ... Jack L. Warner . I can't imagine how such a rumor began. Of course it may possibly be because I was once quoted as saying that actors are cattle. My actor friends know I would never be capable of such a thoughtless, rude and unfeeling remark, that I would never call them cattle... What I probably said was that actors should be treated like cattle.\n[on his cameos] One of the earliest of these was in The Lodger (1927), the story of Jack the Ripper. My appearance called for me to walk up the stairs of the rooming house. Since my walk-ons in subsequent pictures would be equally strenuous - boarding buses, playing chess, etc. - I asked for a stunt man. Casting, with an unusual lack of perception, hired this fat man!\nThe length of a film should be directly related to the endurance of the human bladder.\nThere is no terror in the bang, only in the anticipation of it.\nTo me, Psycho (1960) was a big comedy. Had to be.\nEven my failures make money and become classics a year after I make them.\nAlways make the audience suffer as much as possible.\nDrama is life with the dull bits left out.\n[His entire acceptance speech for the Irving Thalberg Memorial Award] Thank you.\n[when accepting the American Film Institute Life Achievement award] I beg permission to mention by name only four people who have given me the most affection, appreciation, and encouragement, and constant collaboration. The first of the four is a film editor, the second is a scriptwriter, the third is the mother of my daughter Pat [ Patricia Hitchcock ], and the fourth is as fine a cook as ever performed miracles in a domestic kitchen. And their names are Alma Reville .\n[on Michelangelo Antonioni and his film Blow-Up (1966)] This young Italian guy is starting to worry me.\nSome films are slices of life, mine are slices of cake.\nI enjoy playing the audience like a piano.\n[to Ingrid Bergman when she told him that she couldn't play a certain character the way he wanted because \"I don't feel like that, I don't think I can give you that kind of emotion.\"] Ingrid - fake it!\nI was an uncommonly unattractive young man.\nIt's only a movie, and, after all, we're all grossly overpaid.\nThere is nothing quite so good as a burial at sea. It is simple, tidy, and not very incriminating.\nMan does not live by murder alone. He needs affection, approval, encouragement and, occasionally, a hearty meal.\n[on Claude Jade , who starred in Topaz (1969)] Claude Jade is a brave nice young lady. But I don't give any guarantee what she will do on a taxi's back seat.\n[on directing Charles Laughton ] You can't direct a Laughton picture. The best you can hope for is to referee.\nThe paperback is very interesting but I find it will never replace the hardcover book -- it makes a very poor doorstop.\nFilm your murders like love scenes, and film your love scenes like murders.\nI am a typed director. If I made Cinderella (1937), the audience would immediately be looking for a body in the coach.\nIf it's a good movie, the sound could go off and the audience would still have a perfectly clear idea of what was going on.\nA good film is when the price of the dinner, the theatre admission and the babysitter were worth it.\nIn feature films the director is God; in documentary films God is the director.\n[on The Birds (1963)] You know, I've often wondered what the Audubon Society's attitude might be to this picture.\nCary Grant is the only actor I ever loved in my whole life.\n[ Walt Disney ] has the best casting. If he doesn't like an actor he just tears him up.\nBlondes make the best victims. They're like virgin snow that shows up the bloody footprints.\nI am scared easily, here is a list of my adrenaline-production: 1: small children, 2: policemen, 3: high places, 4: that my next movie will not be as good as the last one.\nWhen an actor comes to me and wants to discuss his character, I say, \"It's in the script\". If he says, \"But what's my motivation?\", I say, \"Your salary\".\nI don't understand why we have to experiment with film. I think everything should be done on paper. A musician has to do it, a composer. He puts a lot of dots down and beautiful music comes out. And I think that students should be taught to visualize. That's the one thing missing in all this. The one thing that the student has got to do is to learn that there is a rectangle up there - a white rectangle in a theater - and it has to be filled.\nTo make a great film you need three things - the script, the script and the script.\n[on North by Northwest (1959)] Our original title, you know, was \"The Man in Lincoln's Nose\". Couldn't use it, though. They also wouldn't let us shoot people on Mount Rushmore. Can't deface a national monument. And it's a pity, too, because I had a wonderful shot in mind of Cary Grant hiding in Lincon's nose and having a sneezing fit.\nI made a remark a long time ago. I said I was very pleased that television was now showing murder stories, because it's bringing murder back into its rightful setting - in the home.\n[on his lifelong fear of eggs (\"ovophobia\")] I'm frightened of eggs, worse than frightened, they revolt me. That white round thing without any holes... have you ever seen anything more revolting than an egg yolk breaking and spilling its yellow liquid? Blood is jolly, red. But egg yolk is yellow, revolting. I've never tasted it.\nFear isn't so difficult to understand. After all, weren't we all frightened as children? Nothing has changed since Little Red Riding Hood faced the big bad wolf. What frightens us today is exactly the same sort of thing that frightened us yesterday. It's just a different wolf. This fright complex is rooted in every individual.\n[When asked by a member of the press why, at his advanced age, it took so long for the British government to grant him the title of Knight] I think it's just a matter of carelessness.\n[Part of his publicity campaign prior to the release of Psycho (1960)] It has been rumored that Psycho is so terrifying that it will scare some people speechless. Some of my men hopefully sent their wives to a screening. The women emerged badly shaken but still vigorously vocal.\nAll love scenes started on the set are continued in the dressing room.\n[on his history as a practical joker] I once gave a dinner party, oh many years ago, where all the food was blue.\n[on the making of Psycho (1960) and a fake torso made by the special effects department that spurted blood when stabbed with a knife] But I never used it. It was all unnecessary because the cocking of the knife, the girl's face and the feet and everything was so rapid that there were 78 separate pieces of film in 45 seconds.\nI wanted once to do a scene, for North by Northwest (1959) by the way, and I couldn't get it in there. I wanted it to be in Detroit, and two men walking along in front of an assembly line. And behind them you see the automobile being put together. It starts with a frame, and you just take the camera along, the two men are talking. And you know all those cars are eventually driven off the line, they load them with gas and everything. And one of the men goes forward, mind you you've seen a car from nothing, just a frame, opens the door and a dead body falls out.\n[A portion of his AFI Lifetime Achievement Award acceptance speech] Had the beautiful Ms. Reville [his wife Alma Reville ] not accepted a lifetime contract without options as Mrs. Alfred Hitchcock some 53 years ago, Mr. Alfred Hitchcock might be in this room tonight, not at this table but as one of the slower waiters on the floor.\nReality is something that none of us can stand, at any time.\nI like stories with lots of psychology.\nEverything's perverted in a different way.\nCartoonists have the best casting system. If they don't like an actor, they just tear him up.\nThe length of a film should be directly related to the endurance of the human bladder.\n[on how to properly build suspense] Four people are sitting around a table talking about baseball or whatever you like. Five minutes of it. Very dull. Suddenly, a bomb goes off. Blows the people to smithereens. What does the audience have? Ten seconds of shock. Now take the same scene and tell the audience there is a bomb under that table and will go off in five minutes. The whole emotion of the audience is totally different because you've given them that information. In five minutes time that bomb will go off. Now the conversation about baseball becomes very vital. Because they're saying to you, \"Don't be ridiculous. Stop talking about baseball. There's a bomb under there.\" You've got the audience working.\n[on Michelangelo Antonioni and Federico Fellini ] Those Italian fellows are a hundred years ahead of us. Blow-Up (1966) and 8½ (1963) are bloody masterpieces. [1978]\n[to an interviewer on why he does not make comedies] But every film I made IS a comedy!\n[1972] Puns are the highest form of literature.\n[1955, as host of his television series Alfred Hitchcock Presents (1955)] For those of you watching this show in the year 2000, write us a letter and tell us how things are going where you are.\nI deny I ever said that actors are cattle. What I said was, \"Actors should be treated like cattle.\".\nIf you've designed a picture correctly, the Japanese audience should scream at the same time as the Indian audience.\nSalary (8)", "The Complete Alfred Hitchcock - Harvard Film Archive\nJuly 11 - September 28, 2013\nThe Complete Alfred Hitchcock\nWhere the critic Robin Wood once felt it necessary to pose the rhetorical question, “Why should we take Hitchcock seriously?,” the complete retrospective before us, including its new restorations of nine of Hitchcock’s extant silent features, begs a different question: When did Hitchcock become Hitchcock? It would take time for the director’s formal and moral fixations to cohere as the compound effect known all too simply as “suspense,” but there is no mistaking the master’s touch in the persistent ambiguities of The Lodger, theobsessive reiterations of the circle motif in The Ring, the menacing voyeur crowding the edges of Champagne, or the spiraling delineation of guilt in the silent Blackmail. Even within the seemingly inhospitable confines of a comedy of manners (Easy Virtue) or melodramatic fall (Downhill), the young Hitchcock experimented with different styles of point-of-view and disclosure, ever attentive to the audience in relation to the characters. The director learned Expressionism during an early apprenticeship at Berlin’s UFA Studio and Soviet-style montage from London Film Society screenings, quickly absorbing both styles into his own deeply intuitive grasp of entertainment as moral reckoning. Already in the silent films we see the interpolations of subjective and objective viewpoints, the rupture of fantasy in authentic settings, the condensation of whole characterizations into discrete details, and the genius for soliciting the audience’s complicity. From the very first, a Hitchcock film lays special claims to our role as viewer.\nSo fully did Hitchcock match his preoccupations to a distinctly cinematic language that they now seem like basic conditions of narrative film. Whenever a critic theorizes Hollywood’s construction of the “gaze,” you can be sure that Hitchcock is not far behind. The “Hitchcocko-Hawksians” at Cahiers du Cinéma fashioned auteurism from close study of his films, even as his signature cameo appearances give the impression of a preemptive gag on their directorial obsessions. Gus Van Sant’s shot-for-shot remake of Psycho is only the most literal reflection of the director’s haunting afterlife in the post-classical imagination. Even Hitchcock’s self-mythologizing, his image of himself as a showman, seems quintessentially modern, a brilliant piece of conceptual art before there were such a thing. Hitchcock’s influence cuts across Hollywood and the avant-garde, academia and the art world; more than thirty years after his death, his life and work remains the subject of endless speculation and interpretation. For undergraduate film students, close analysis of a Hitchcock sequence has long been a rite of passage, the equivalent of memorizing your Shakespeare. There is simply no getting around him.\nNot that we would ever desire such a shortcut. In the same way that Hitchcock’s mature masterpieces always reward another look, so the lesser works invariably offer a fresh vantage from which to consider his passionate artistry. Hitchcock was the rare filmmaker to successfully traverse several distinct eras of film history: from silent to sound, Gainsborough Studios to Hollywood independent, Technicolor to television. “Summing it up,” the director told François Truffaut, “One might say that the screen rectangle must be charged with emotion.” So it was, and so it is still. – Max Goldberg, writer and frequent contributor to CinemaScope\nThe Hitchcock 9 – the restored silent film collection – is a joint venture of the BFI, Rialto Pictures/Studiocanal, and Park Circus/ITV.\nFilm notes by Max Goldberg, Haden Guest, David Pendleton and Jason Michelitch\nThursday July 11 at 7pm\nVertigo\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With James Stewart, Kim Novak, Barbara Bel Geddes\nUS 1958, 35mm, color, 120 min\nHitchcock’s grand enigma was recently enshrined as the greatest film of all time in the British Film Institute’s respected survey, infamously displacing Citizen Kane for the first time in fifty years. A tantalizing spiral into the abyss, the film follows Scottie Ferguson, an ex-police detective in forced retirement after his last case ended in a tragic death, as he is enlisted as a private investigator to keep an eye on an old friend’s wife. Following Madeline, he is drawn into a sprawling riddle of love and death, from which he may never emerge. This is Hitchcock’s most profound and troubling exploration of his persistent themes: doppelgängers and duality, obsession, women trapped by deceit and the inexorable destructiveness of male desire. A cinematic landmark, Vertigo retains its power as a perplexing and harrowing nightmare.\nLive Piano Accompaniment by Martin Marks\nFriday July 12 at 7pm\nThe Lodger\nPart of the Hitchcock 9 restored silent film collection - full description here .\nFriday July 12 at 9pm\nFrenzy\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Jon Finch, Barry Foster,\nBarbara Leigh-Hunt\nUS 1972, 35mm, color, 116 min\nThe London of Frenzy is seamy, barren and inescapably misogynistic – hardly the nostalgic treatment one might expect of Hitchcock’s first feature set in England since Stage Fright. The film’s plot hearkens all the way back to The Lodger – a man stands wrongly accused for a brutal series of sex crimes – only here the innocent man is coldly unlikeable and the potential for violence seemingly limitless. Hitchcock reveals the true identity of the necktie killer early in the film, the better to situate his crimes in a full range of abject appetites. Controversial for its prolonged murder-rape sequence, Frenzy’s disturbing quality finally rests with its relentlessly macabre humor. The colorful cast of supporting roles includes a police inspector and his wife spinning out various murder plots over dinner – a cinch for Hitchcock and his lifelong co-scenarist Alma.\nLive Piano Accompaniment by Martin Marks\nSaturday July 13 at 7pm\nBlackmail\nPart of the Hitchcock 9 restored silent film collection - full description here .\nSaturday July 13 at 9pm\nTo Catch a Thief\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Cary Grant, Grace Kelly, Jessie Royce Landis\nUS 1955, 35mm, color, 106 min\nLike many of his mid-Fifties' films, To Catch a Thief finds Hitchcock working primarily to entertain his audiences, in preparation for the more challenging work to come. Hitchcock concocted the perfect caprice by bringing together two of the most alluring of his preferred actors: Grace Kelly and Cary Grant. The film’s tale of using a (reformed) thief to catch a thief takes a back seat, for the most part, to the romantic sparring between the stars, and indeed, the juxtaposition of these two plot elements may owe something to Lubitsch, whom Hitchcock acknowledged as “a man of pure Cinema.” An affectionate valentine to the good life, To Catch a Thief pays homage to Hitchcock's sybaritic pleasures with glittering champagne parties, bucolic picnics and a celebratory embrace of Monte Carlo's luxurious pleasure garden.\nSunday July 14 at 4:30pm\nForeign Correspondent\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Joel McCrea, Laraine Day, Herbert Marshall\nUS 1940, 35mm, b/w, 119 min\nDeemed a “masterpiece of propaganda” by Josef Goebbels, Hitchcock’s second American film smuggles its interventionist message under cover of a snappy espionage plot. Joel McCrea’s beat reporter is sent to Europe to scoop the impending war, but once there the guileless American finds danger hiding in plain sight: a debonair Peace Party diplomat conspires for war, an assassin poses as a newspaper photographer, and foretelling the open sightlines of North by Northwest’s crop duster sequence, William Cameron Menzies' brilliantly designed windmill spinning against the wind points the way to subterfuge. Ben Hecht dashed off the prescient closing speech imploring American action amidst rumors of an impending bombing campaign; as it happened, the Blitz began less than a month after Foreign Correspondent’spremiere.\nSunday July 14 at 7pm\nThe Wrong Man\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Henry Fonda, Vera Miles, Anthony Quayle\nUS 1957, 35mm, b/w, 105 min\nAn austere black and white fable dating from the period of Hitchcock’s Technicolor epics, The Wrong Man is the crowning expression of the director’s interest in documentary realism and one of his most overtly religious films. Hitchcock’s favored motif of the cathartic return to a scene of trauma figured into the production itself, with a film employing actual locations and real-life participants to dramatize the true story of a New York musician falsely accused of robbery and his wife’s subsequent mental breakdown. Hitchcock’s characteristic preoccupations with madness, policemen, doppelgangers, money and the transference of guilt are all precisely delineated without the usual leavening of comedy and adventure. Instead, the director patiently interlaces subjective and objective camerawork to draw us into Manny Balestrero’s waking nightmare. A police procedural narrated from the prisoner’s view, in which even the most routine mechanisms of the law seem ominous, The Wrong Man’s saving grace cannot dispel its cruel revelations of fate.\nLive Piano Accompaniment by Stephen Horne\nMonday July 15 at 7pm\nThe Ring\nPart of the Hitchcock 9 restored silent film collection - full description here .\nFriday July 19 at 9pm\nRope\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With James Stewart, John Dall, Farley Granger\nUS 1948, 35mm, color, 80 min\nFrom his innovative silent visuals, pioneering experiments with dialogue and sound effects, and brilliant narrative use of models and optical effects, Hitchcock’s constant formal experimentation became intrinsic to his work. For his first color picture, he produced an audacious technical high-wire act: a film story told in real time with no evident cuts, shot on a series of 10-minute reels which were seamlessly edited together to create an illusion of one 80-minute-long take. Adapted from a play by Patrick Hamilton and loosely based on the real-life Leopold and Loeb case, Rope features a sadistic detective game as two young homosexuals commit a murder and then dare their Nietszche-spouting headmaster who inspired their experiment in amorality to discover their crime.\nLive Piano Accompaniment by Robert Humphreville\nSaturday July 20 at 7pm\nThe Pleasure Garden\nPart of the Hitchcock 9 restored silent film collection - full description here .\nSunday July 21 at 7pm\nBlackmail\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Anny Ondra, Sara Allgood,\nJohn Longden\nUK 1929, 35mm, b/w, 85 min\nBritish International Pictures only asked Hitchcock to remake enough portions of Blackmail with dialogue to make for a passable “part-talkie,” but the ever ambitious director made preparations on the sly to avail himself of the new medium’s creative possibilities. In spite of the restrictive nature of the early sound technology, Hitchcock staged a remarkable series of expressionistic effects. The theme of “guilty woman,” in particular, is reinforced by subjective sound—most famously when a breakfast conversation is smudged out except for the increasingly insistent word “knife.” Idle chatter about the homicide clarifies Hitchcock’s pleasure in revealing our workaday fascination with murder. Joan Barry read the lines for a pantomiming Anny Ondra, the Czech actress whose English film career stalled with the coming of sound.\nFollowed by\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Sara Allgood, Edward Chapman, Sidney Morgan\nUK 1929, 35mm, b/w, 99 min\nHitchcock’s first sound film after Blackmail closely adheres to Sean O’Casey’s hit play about an Irish family’s wildly changing fortunes during the Troubles. The director would later deride Juno and the Paycock as a “photograph of a stage play,” but his camera comes alive in the presence of the family’s wayward son, Johnny, a young man who lost an arm for the same cause he now informs against. Aural hallucinations of gunfire attach to Johnny's point-of-view, a sharp break from the otherwise theatrical conception of character. O’Casey made a lasting impression on Hitchcock, serving as the model for a disheveled doomsayer in The Birds.\nLive Piano Accompaniment by Robert Humphreville\nMonday July 22 at 7pm\nThe Farmer's Wife\nPart of the Hitchcock 9 restored silent film collection - full description here .\nLive Piano Accompaniment by Robert Humphreville\nThursday July 25 at 7pm\nEasy Virtue\nPart of the Hitchcock 9 restored silent film collection - full description here .\nFriday July 26 at 9:15pm\nPsycho\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Anthony Perkins, Vera Miles,\nJohn Gavin\nUS 1960, 35mm, b/w, 109 min\nPhoenix, $40,000, car lot, traffic cop, Bates Motel, taxidermy, keyhole, shower, knife: every cinephile has committed these details to memory, with the composite whole long since contaminating the broader cultural imagination. Filmed in thirty days using Hitchcock’s television crew (along with indelible contributions from composer Bernard Herrmann and title designer Saul Bass), the densely pathological film, arguably Hitchcock’s most complete manipulation of point-of-view, has provided endless fodder for film theorists. With its profit-sharing contracts, incendiary content and shocking narrative reversals, Psycho slammed the door on Hollywood’s classical studio era. The shower scene gave rise to entire film genres, but Hitchcock’s original remains the gold standard for film’s visceral effect. Of the film’s many interpretations, perhaps none remains as unsettling as the director’s own: “To me it’s a fun picture.”\nLive Piano Accompaniment by Robert Humphreville\nSaturday July 27 at 7pm\nThe Manxman\nPart of the Hitchcock 9 restored silent film collection - full description here .\nSunday July 28 at 4pm\nTopaz\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With John Forsythe, Frederick Stafford, Dany Robin\nUS 1969, 35mm, color, 127 min\nOne of Hitchcock’s only overtly political films, Topaz is a densely-layered spy story set during the Cuban Missile Crisis, inspired in part by the director’s admiration for John F. Kennedy. Taken from the best-selling novel by Leon Uris and based on an allegedly true account of a communist spy being discovered within General Charles de Gaulle’s entourage, the film also served as Hitchcock’s opportunity to create a “realistic” counterpoint to the James Bond films, which in his mind had plagiarized and ruined his trademark brand of romantic suspense. Featuring a huge cast without any stars and relying largely on dialogue to forward its complex plot, Topaz engages with reality on a level unseen in Hitchcock’s other films, even incorporating actual footage of Fidel Castro and Che Guevara.\nSunday July 28 at 7pm\nThe Man Who Knew Too Much\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Peter Lorre, Leslie Banks, Edna Best\nUK 1934, 35mm, b/w, 75 min\nThe first of six thrillers that Hitchcock would direct for Gaumont-British and his first international success, the original Man Who Knew Too Much rushes headlong to its street battle finale inspired by the Siege of Sidney Street. A carefree family vacation comes unwound when a debonair friend is shot on the ballroom floor. The dying man entrusts Leslie Banks’ husband with the details of an assassination plot, but before Banks can unburden himself of the time-sensitive information he learns that his daughter’s life depends on his silence. The action swings deliriously from a Swiss chateau to the famous climax at Royal Albert Hall, a marvelously assured orchestration of moral dilemmas and perceptual jolts. In his first role after fleeing Nazi Germany, Peter Lorre fleshes out the continental Hitchcock villain with volatile charisma and a punkish shock of white hair.\nFollowed by\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Edmund Gwenn, Jill Esmond,\nJohn Longden\nUK 1931, 35mm, b/w, 77 min\nAs with John Galsworthy’s original play, The Skin Game pits the genteel Hillcrists against the industrialist upstart Hornblower in a bitter land feud. Hitchcock’s simultaneously dispassionate and incisive dramatization lays bare the self-consuming nature of the class rivalry, with a central auction sequence placing the audience in the midst of the two families’ furious jockeying for power. Long derided as a merely serviceable adaptation hampered by the limitations of early sound, Hitchcock’s Skin Game nevertheless evinces interest for shifting the focus of the play from class warfare to character assassination – an intimate crime that would take many different forms across the director's entire oeuvre.\nLive Piano Accompaniment\nThursday August 1 at 7pm\nChampagne\nPart of the Hitchcock 9 restored silent film collection - full description here .\nFriday August 2 at 9:15pm\nThe Trouble with Harry\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Edmund Gwenn, John Forsythe, Mildred Natwick\nUS 1955, 35mm, color, 99 min\nIn the midst of his dark Fifties’ masterworks Hitchcock found a moment of oddly whimsical and bucolic repose in his second comedy, an affectionate valentine to the small town America that had so captured his imagination earlier on in Shadow of a Doubt. A disastrous failure at the box office, John Michael Hayes’ adaptation of an eponymous play about village folk strangely unperturbed by the appearance of a corpse they each try calmly but unsuccessfully to get rid of, The Trouble With Harry has since been recognized as one of Hitchcock's most surrealist films. Hitchcock's only film set in New England, The Trouble With Harry made dramatic use of its Vermont location and autumnal season, with the fall foliage gorgeously showcased in radiant Technicolor that can be fully appreciated in the splendid and rare vintage print from the Harvard Film Archive collection. Print courtesy Universal Studios.\nLive Piano Accompaniment\nSaturday August 3 at 7pm\nDownhill\nPart of the Hitchcock 9 restored silent film collection - full description here .\nSunday August 4 at 7pm\nThe Secret Agent\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Madeleine Carroll, John Gielgud, Peter Lorre\nUK 1936, 35mm, b/w, 83 min\nMusing over the disappointing box office of Secret Agent, a film he otherwise liked, Hitchcock told Truffaut,“There was too much irony, too many twists of fate.” Those same qualities make it one of the most enduringly complex features of his Gaumont-British years, a film that Raymond Durgnant saw as anticipating the “eerie and unwelcome alloy of freedom and guilt” found in the auteur’s best films. Based on Somerset Maugham’s Ashenden stories, the film serves as a veritable compendium of Hitchcockian motifs: from a fake funeral to a falsified marriage, a spy ring operating out of a chocolate factory to a murder observed through a telescope, a seemingly telepathic dog to an expired organist. Two English agents played by John Gielgud and a curly-haired Peter Lorre track their target by a telltale missing button, but in this case the irresistible Hitchcockian premise proves gravely misleading. Madeleine Carroll is the phony wife whose eagerness to play detective curdles just as quickly as the plot’s farcical tone.\nFollowed by\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Henry Kendall, Joan Barry, Percy Marmont\nUK 1931, 35mm, b/w, 83 min\nFed up with the evening commute and steak-and-kidney pie, Henry Kendall complains to his wife that he wants more from life. Rich and Strange may be relatively free of conventional suspense, but Hitchcock gives the characters plenty of reason to watch what they wish for: an exotic cruise instigates a prolonged crisis of faith. Initially a box office disappointment, the film’s steely-eyed study of a relationship under pressure now seems to directly anticipate later triumphs like The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956) and Marnie. Hitchcock deftly interweaves his protagonists’ blinkered emotions and cultural values in crafting the cautionary tale about the moral danger of pursuing life in fantasy—a peculiar message to find delivered in a film entertainment, to be sure, but one close to the heart of Hitchcock’s knotted art.\nMonday August 5 at 7pm\nThe Paradine Case\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Gregory Peck, Ann Todd,\nCharles Laughton\nUS 1947, 35mm, b/w, 129 min\nHitchcock’s last film for producer David O. Selznick is a courtroom drama about a society woman on trial for murdering her husband. The director’s interest clearly lies in the love triangle linking the defendant, her attorney and his wife, but the film takes advantage of the ensemble nature of the story to provide a panoply of fascinating character studies, including a distasteful judge and his long-suffering wife. Shooting entirely on a soundstage, Hitchcock focuses on the faces of his cast as canvasses on which to juxtapose light and dark, emphasizing the characters’ moral complexities in a reminder of the influence that German Expressionist cinema had on the young filmmaker. Print courtesy Disney.\nFriday August 9 at 9:30pm\nStage Fright\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Jane Wyman, Marlene Dietrich, Michael Wilding\nUS 1950, 35mm, b/w, 113 min\nA man wrongly accused of murder flees the law with the help of a credulous ingénue. But not so fast: Stage Fright proves that not even the standard Hitchcock plot is safe in a Hitchcock film. Dismissed at the time of its release as the director’s third consecutive failed experiment following Rope and Under Capricorn, Stage Fright now seems one of his most intriguingly self-conscious creations. The film’s theatrical setting allows the director unusual leeway in pursuing one of his consummate themes: role-playing. Characters engage in actorly duplicity without realizing their own blinders; even Marlene Dietrich’s resplendently cynical diva is eventually caught unaware. Anticipating the deeply embedded ironies of his richest work, Stage Fright realizes the power of Hitchcock’s technique by revealing its capacity to mislead. Print courtesy Warner Brothers.\nSunday August 11 at 7pm\nSabotage\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Sylvia Sidney, Oscar Homolka, John Loder\nUK 1936, 35mm, b/w, 76 min\nBeginning with a citywide blackout that empties a busy cinema, Hitchcock’s hard-edged adaptation of Conrad’s The Secret Agent never strays far from London’s maddening crowds. The city’s normally innocent diversions are shot through with dire suspense during a celebrated and once controversial sequence of a young boy lolling through the streets unaware of the explosive contents of the package he’s ferrying for Oskar Homolka’s cinema operator and saboteur. Contrasting this masterful manipulation of documentary realism, Sabotage’s second spasm of violence unfolds in the privacy of the family home. Not for the last time in Hitchcock’s oeuvre, the spy thriller ultimately gives way to an altogether more unnerving picture of a marriage disfigured by false premises.\nFollowed by\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Léon M. Lion, Anne Grey, John Stuart\nUK 1932, 35mm, b/w, 64 min\nHitchcock’s final assignment for tiny British International Pictures came freighted with mystery clichés of stolen necklaces, creaky houses, and disappearing corpses. Palpably impatient with his source material, Hitchcock takes every opportunity to color outside the lines, often to rather surreal effect. The film opens with the camera insistently pushing into the titular London address, immediately establishing the rule of style over explication. Expressionist shadows lengthen to the point of self-parody, though listless tracking shots suggest a characteristic undercurrent of disorientation. An intricately edited race to the finish complete with model ships and trains epitomizes the innocent phase of Hitchcockian illusion – velocity without the vertigo. Print courtesy British Film Institute.\nThursday August 15 at 7pm\nRebecca\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Joan Fontaine, Laurence Olivier, Judith Anderson\nUS 1940, 35mm, b/w, 130 min\nHitchcock's debut American film and his first working under his troubled and conflict ridden contract for the ambitious and mercenary independent producer David O. Selznick was a faithful yet subversive adaptation of Daphne du Maurier's best-selling, now beloved, Gothic fable of unrequited, obsessive love. In the inspired casting of coltish Joan Fontaine as Rebecca’s unnamed heroine, Hitchcock found a perfect foil to the indelible, imposing caricature of dark menace played by Judith Anderson's jealous, twisted Mrs. Danvers and the even more imposing character of Manderley, the overwrought labyrinthine mansion brought to life by the restlessly gliding camera. A deeply influential film, Rebecca inspired the wave of dark Gothic romances with haunted mansions – and uncanny portraits – that remained popular in Hollywood throughout the Forties. Print courtesy Disney.\nFriday August 16 at at 7pm\nNotorious\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Cary Grant, Ingrid Bergman,\nClaude Rains\nUS 1946, 35mm, b/w, 101 min\nProclaimed by Truffaut to be “the very quintessence of Hitchcock,” Notorious stands as one of the director’s unquestioned masterpieces and one of his most brazen explorations of sexual power and insecurity. Ingrid Bergman plays Alicia, the daughter of a convicted Nazi spy who, in the wake of her father’s conviction, falls into a life of drunken cynicism and loose morals. Enter Cary Grant as Devlin, an American secret agent who appeals to her patriotism and recruits her for a mysterious mission in South America. While waiting in Rio de Janeiro for the details of the mission, the pair fall in love, only to be crushed by the true nature of her assignment: to infiltrate a Nazi spy ring by seducing one of its members, Alexander Sebastian. Torn between duty and passion, and poisoned by pride, Devlin alternately woos and spurns Alicia, who takes ever-increasing risks to discover Sebastian’s dark secret. Scripted by the legendary Ben Hecht, the definitive romantic thriller features some of Hitchcock’s most masterful filmmaking. Print courtesy Disney.\nSaturday August 17 at 9pm\nRear Window\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With James Stewart, Grace Kelly, Wendell Corey\nUS 1954, 35mm, color, 112 min\nHitchcock's masterpiece is a thrilling and profound meditation on scopophilia and the cinematic imagination that invites the viewer to share the perspective of a crippled photojournalist, played with cranky avuncularity by Jimmy Stewart, whose forced convalescence in a wheelchair allows him to obsessively spy on his Greenwich Village neighbors. Even more perverse than Stewart's stubborn rejection of Grace Kelly's eager advances is Hitchcock's careful restriction of the camera to the titular apartment window, resulting in the film's dramatically suspenseful play between on and off screen space. Among Hitchcock's most beloved late works, Rear Window has been justly canonized as one of the great meta-cinematic films of the studio era. Print courtesy Universal.\nSunday August 18 at 7pm\nThe Lady Vanishes\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Margaret Lockwood, Michael Redgrave, Dame May Whitty\nUK 1938, 35mm, b/w, 96 min\nOne of Hitchcock’s last and most popular British films before departing for Hollywood permanently, The Lady Vanishes is also one of his lightest, most delectably witty creations. Containing both a critique and a celebration of British insularity and classism, Sidney Gilliat and Frank Launder’s disarmingly charming script embroils a band of strangers into a political espionage plot within the microcosmic confines of a moving train. Its mirrored layers of imagination, deception and camouflage craftily conspire to unify a brisk comedy of manners with a political thriller – Hitchcock’s perfect ode to the UK with suggestive shadows of the darker Hollywood productions to come. Print courtesy Park Circus/ITV.\nFollowed by\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Jessie Matthews, Edmund Gwenn, Fay Compton\nUK 1934, 35mm, b/w, 81 min\nOriginally intended by the producers to be a vehicle for Jessie Matthews, a famous star of the British stage and screen, Waltzes From Vienna was dismissed by Hitchcock as one of his lesser efforts. Undertaken when his career was ebbing after the success of The Lodger and Blackmail, Hitchcock did admit that his biopic of Josef Strauss, Jr. – focused on his composition of “The Blue Danube” – allowed him “opportunities for working out ideas in the relation of film and music.” Lacking both the director’s approval and his distinctively suspenseful storyline, this period piece has long been ignored. Seen today, it is a charming example of Hitchcock’s flair for comedy. Print courtesy the British Film Institute.\nThursday August 22 at 7pm\nMarnie\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Tippi Hedren, Sean Connery, Diane Baker\nUS 1964, 35mm, color, 110 min\nA feverish and bittersweet fable about compulsion, repression and the perils of Pygmalion love, Marnie remains among Hitchcock's least understood major works. The film's astonishing opening shot of a mysterious woman and her \"alligator purse\" reveals Marnie's breathtaking formal rigor and the elaborate design shaped by Hitchcock's precisely poetic command of color, camera movement, theatrical artificiality and geometric form. A novice fashion model famously discovered in a television commercial by Hitchcock, Tippi Hedren embodies Marnie's dark paradox, oscillating between destructive cynicism and wide-eyed, traumatized vulnerability. Once a source of ardent controversy among Hitchcockians and detractors confused by the film's willful melodramatic excesses, Marnie is an offbeat and touchingly sincere expression of the strong Romantic tendency running throughout Hitchcock's rich late period. Print courtesy Universal Studios.\nFriday August 23 at 7pm\nDial M for Murder\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Ray Milland, Grace Kelly, Robert Cummings\nUS 1954, 35mm, color, 105 min\nHitchcock defined newcomer Grace Kelly's coolly urbane screen persona in her role as the unknowing victim of her jealous husband's devilish and seemingly perfect plan to have her murdered. Often dismissed as one of Hitchcock's minor films, Dial M for Murder is indeed more stylistically understated and subtle than his other Fifties’ films. Yet, seen in the context of the larger oeuvre, Dial M for Murder pushes to a further extreme Hitchcock's vision of the meticulously designed and plotted murder as a dark metaphor for cinema, with the camera's deadly gaze transforming the beautiful star into potential victim and each object in the frame into a potential weapon. Hitchcock's close adaptation of the eponymous play maintained the taut stageboundness of the original while adding a literal a new dimension through the use of the then still novel 3-D process, the director's first and only foray into the shortly popular format. Dial M for Murder will be shown here in the rarely screened 2-D version, released simultaneously for theaters not equipped for 3-D. Print courtesy Warner Brothers.\nSaturday August 24 at 7pm\nThe 39 Steps\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Robert Donat, Madeleine Carroll, Lucie Mannheim\nUK 1935, 35mm, b/w, 81 min\nFreely adapted from John Buchanan’s spy novel, The 39 Steps set the standard for many Hitchcock chase pictures to follow: a charming and smugly self-satisfied man wrongly accused of a crime, his radiant and initially unwilling blonde accompaniment, a MacGuffin to bait the action, a rapidly evolving scenario, magnetic details, and the sneaking suspicion that the whole thing has more to do with sex than espionage. Robert Donat’s troubles begin after he brings a woman spy to his flat on a presumed one-night stand. Her dying words sets him off to the Scottish Highlands—beautifully photographed by Bernard Knowles—in search of a top spy with the telltale missing finger. The wrong man ends up handcuffed to Madeleine Carroll, a screwball turn that offers a fine preliminary sketch of Hitchcockian sexuality (“much teasing, much dissatisfaction, much tussling for dominance,” in the words of Raymond Durgnat).\nSaturday August 24 at 9pm\nI Confess\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Montgomery Clift, Anne Baxter, Karl Malden\nUS 1953, 35mm, b/w, 95 min\nThe motif of Catholic guilt which many have read as an overriding theme of Hitchcock's oeuvre takes literal form in this lesser known thriller about a priest trapped by his vow of silence and a dark secret from his past life. A young Montgomery Clift quivers with Method angst as the frightened priest forced to challenge his own convictions and duties by an ethical and existential double-bind of the kind so important to the logical absurdity at the heart of Hitchcock's cinema. Shot largely on location in Quebec, I Confess renders the city's chilly baroque grandeur dynamically cinematic, transformed into a menacing labyrinth of dark alleys and accusatory street arrows seen in the film's ingenious opening sequence. Print courtesy Warner Brothers.\nSunday August 25 at 7pm\nJamaica Inn\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Charles Laughton, Maureen O’Hara, Robert Newton\nUK 1939, 35mm, b/w, 99 min\nThe last of Hitchcock’s British pictures, Jamaica Inn was produced by star Charles Laughton through his own company – leading Hitchcock into battle with Laughton’s business partner, the director and German expatriate Erich Pommer, whose meddling oversight infuriated Hitchcock. Siding with Pommer, Laughton brought his own micro-managing to the set, such as instructing Hitchcock on what camera angles to use. Despite the strained production, the film features a thrilling game of cat-and-mouse as disguised lawman Robert Newton attempts to put an end to a gang of thieves who instigate shipwrecks, then loot the wrecks and kill the survivors. This was the first time Hitchcock adapted a Daphne du Maurier story, a source he would return to twice more for Rebecca and The Birds. Print courtesy the British Film Institute.\nFollowed by\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Derrick de Marney, Nova Pilbeam, Percy Marmont\nUK 1937, 35mm, b/w, 80 min\nForegrounding the romantic elements of Hitchcock’s “double chase” plots, Young and Innocent is as much screwball comedy as thriller. A constable’s daughter takes her chances with a wrongly accused man on the run, and the pair encounters all walks of life in their search for an exculpatory raincoat and a chance at unmasking the real murderer by his telltale twitch. Hitchcock’s denouement – a single dolly shot travelling nearly 150 feet from a wide view of a ballroom to a tight close-up of the killer’s eyes – is both an astonishing technical feat and a characteristically complex meditation on spectatorship: our triumph at the disclosure of the man’s identity comes tempered by the killer’s anxiety and the camera’s aggression. The American release of the film excised the birthday party centerpiece, in many ways the most purely Hitchcockian sequence in the film, but nevertheless proved instrumental in convincing David O. Selznick to bring Hitchcock to Hollywood. Print courtesy Park Circus/ITV.\nMonday August 26 at 7pm\nLifeboat\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Tallulah Bankhead, William Bendix, Walter Slezak\nUS 1944, 35mm, b/w, 96 min\nHitchcock's long fascination with entrapment and containment inspired his contribution to the Hollywood war effort, a rousing and cynically sharp-edged anti-adventure of survivors of a sunk cruise ship stranded in the eponymous lifeboat with a mysterious survivor of the Nazi vessel that attacked them. First appearing in an incongruous mink coat with a 16mm camera in hand, Broadway legend Tallulah Bankhead found her strongest screen role as a haughty uppercrust journalist who offers a bridge between the spirited heroines of Hitchcock's brisk British films and the troubled, psychologically complicated women of his long American phase. Although based on an original idea by Hitchcock, Lifeboat included the first writing for the screen by John Steinbeck, hired by the director to write a treatment after Ernest Hemingway declined. Hitchcock in turn reworked and reinvented Steinbeck's structure and characters, resulting in a morally complex conversion narrative that dumbfounded and outraged outspoken critics who contributed to the film's box office failure. Print courtesy 20th Century Fox.\nPreceded by\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With the Moliére Players\nUK 1944, 35mm, b/w, 31 min. French with English subtitles\nOne of two short propaganda films Hitchcock made late in World War II to be shown in newly liberated France to highlight the contribution of the French Resistance, Aventure Malgache grew under Hitchcock’s direction from a simple celebration of heroism to a complex tale of collaboration and deception in the then-French colony of Madagascar during the Vichy regime. Hitchcock courted controversy by incorporating the political fights he observed amongst his French consultants into the story, and the film was held back from distribution for fear of promoting the idea of a divided resistance. The director toyed with re-shooting it as a Paramount feature in the 1950s, but this lost gem remained virtually unseen until unearthed and released on video in the 1990s. Print courtesy Milestone Films.\nThursday August 29 at 7pm\nNorth by Northwest\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Cary Grant, Eva Marie Saint,\nJames Mason\nUS 1959, 35mm, color, 136 min\nNorth by Northwest was Hitchcock’s self-conscious attempt at outdoing his previous chase films, “the Hitchcock picture to end all Hitchcock pictures” in the words of screenwriter Ernest Lehman. It is also one of his most pointedly American films, surveying the country’s monumental landscapes and gleaming surfaces, not least that of the Madison Avenue man. Mistaken as a nonexistent spy with the suggestive middle initial “O,” the man is quintessential Cary Grant. Certainly one of Hitchcock’s most beautifully constructed entertainments, North by Northwest splits the difference between mass entertainment and pop art. At the center of it all is the crop duster sequence, itself a monument of film history and perhaps Hitchcock’s single most audaciously conceived montage. “The fact is,” Hitchcock told Truffaut when pressed on the existential dimensions of the scene, “I practice absurdity quite religiously!” Print courtesy Warner Brothers.\nFriday August 30 at 9pm\nSaboteur\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Priscilla Lane, Robert Cummings, Otto Kruger\nUS 1942, 35mm, b/w, 108 min\nConceived as an American variation on The 39 Steps, Saboteur’s double chase plotgave Hitchcock license to exploit the monumental scale of his adopted homeland. Robert Cummings stars as a factory worker ensnared in a wartime espionage plot that carries him from the California desert to the Statue of Liberty. That the worst of the saboteurs shield themselves behind a veneer of wealth and respectability surely owes something to radical novelist Dorothy Parker’s acerbic screenwriting, though Hitchcock himself showed a subversive streak in wanting to cast cowboy star Harry Carey as the villainous rancher eventually played by Otto Kruger. Art director Robert Boyle helped Hitchcock achieve the mélange of larger than life set pieces, setting the stage for their subsequent collaborations on North by Northwest, The Birds, and Marnie. Produced at a vulnerable moment in the director’s American career, Saboteur was the box office success the director needed to secure that rarest Hollywood commodity: creative control. Print courtesy Universal Studios.\nPreceded by\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With John Blythe, the Moliére Players\nUK 1944, 35mm, b/w, 26 min. French with English subtitles\nDespite the dramatically tight budget of Hitchcock's second propaganda short in support of the French Resistance, the director nevertheless managed to secure the talents of camerman Günther Krampf, who had worked with F.W. Murnau, and composer Benjamin Frankel, a regular collaborator of Noel Coward’s. Fittingly, the cast was drawn primarily from the Moliére Players, a group of French actors exiled to London due to the war. Bon Voyage depicts a tale of escape and survival behind enemy lines from two very different points of view, and unlike Aventure Malagache it was widely distributed throughout liberated France and Belgium. Print courtesy Milestone Films.\nSunday September 1 at 7pm\nMurder!\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Herbert Marshall, Nora Baring,\nPhyllis Konstam\nUK 1930, 35mm, b/w, 108 min\nTaking a page from Hamlet (“The play’s the thing”), Hitchcock used Murder! to explore his interest in melodrama bleeding into reality and vice versa. Herbert Marshall stars as a respected actor serving on the jury when a young actress is brought to trial for killing another woman in her same company. Failing to persuade his fellow jurors of the girl’s innocence, Marshall stages his own investigation. Hitchcock would later disparage the film’s trappings as a whodunit, though the theatrical element brokers a sophisticated analysis of role-playing that encompasses gender and class. Ever willing to go to great technical lengths to achieve a subtle effect, Hitchcock employed a full orchestra to play the prelude from Tristan und Isolde just beyond the set where Marshall contemplates the murder case in a stream-of-conscious voiceover. The innovative approach to film sound expands the subjective tissue of Hitchcock’s filmmaking, but it’s finally the silent and still shocking death of the villain that stays in mind.\nFriday September 6 at 7pm\nMr. and Mrs. Smith\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Carole Lombard, Robert Montgomery, Gene Raymond\nUS 1941, 35mm, b/w, 90 min\nOn loan to RKO early in his Hollywood career, Hitchcock tried his hand at a “comedy of remarriage” starring Carol Lombard and Robert Montgomery as a quarrelsome Park Avenue couple who discover that, because of a bureaucratic mix-up, they are not legally married. Hitchcock would later claim that he didn’t understand the screwball characters, but he seems right at home with the genre’s reliance on duplicity, role-playing, and violent turns of phrase (“Someday when your back is turned I’ll stab you!”). Indeed, the director tips his hand as the Master of Suspense throughout the film, perhaps never more than when an indignant Lombard holds back Montgomery’s head for a worrisome shave. Print courtesy Warner Brothers.\nFriday September 6 at 9pm\nThe Birds\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Rod Taylor, Tippi Hedren,\nJessica Tandy\nUS 1963, 35mm, color, 120 min\n“The antagonists were birds, you know,” set designer Robert Boyle told Cahiers du Cinéma. “It wasn’t a distant country that’s trying to do us in, it wasn’t a murderer or a rapist. It was something... strange.” A magnificent technological achievement involving complex matte work and an innovative electronic soundtrack, The Birds is also one of Hitchcock’s most intensely personal and mysterious films. The director admitted to Truffaut that he experienced an unusual degree of “emotional turmoil” on the set, much of which he invested in Tippi Hedren’s anxiety-ridden performance. Alternatively read in terms of nuclear threat, repressed desires, and the audience’s own complacency, the birds finally stand for forces beyond our control. As much as any of the more expressly modernist films released in 1963, Hitchcock’s masterpieceis precisely about the failure to find meaning—the director’s last word to those critics who would fault his films for being implausible. Print courtesy Universal.\nSaturday September 7 at 9:30pm\nFamily Plot\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Karen Black, Bruce Dern,\nBarbara Harris\nUS 1976, 35mm, color, 120 min\nAlthough his career was revived a bit by the excellence of the brutal Frenzy, Hitchcock remained chastened by the failures of his work of the late 1960s, and he approached warily the making of what would become his last project. In the end, Family Plot marks a marvelous return to the comedies of his British and postwar periods. The film centers on a couple of petty crooks – a fake psychic and a con man – who find themselves in over their heads when they run afoul of more serious-minded criminals. The relaxed eccentricity of Family Plot shows Hitchcock adapting to the New Hollywood of the 1970s, and the film’s bemused attitude towards the scheming of its characters makes it a fitting coda to a career spent examining human foibles.\nSunday September 8 at 4:30pm\nUnder Capricorn\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Ingrid Bergman, Joseph Cotton, Michael Wilding\nUS 1949, 35mm, color, 116 min\nConceived as a star vehicle for Ingrid Bergman, this Gothic romance remains little-seen and underappreciated, perhaps because of its hothouse period setting, despite the esteem in which it is held by numerous critics. Bergman plays the alcoholic spouse of a successful Australian businessman who is nonetheless a social outcast. The arrival of an Irish acquaintance brings out the tortured past that links husband and wife. Hitchcock’s experiment with long takes in Rope pays off here, as the film incorporates several brilliant lengthy shots, climaxing with one built around a tour-de-force monologue by Bergman. Under Capricorn in fact constitutes one of Hitchcock's most moving, and most sensual, portrayals of the power of love and the struggle for fulfillment. Print courtesy the British Film Institute.\nMonday September 9 at 7pm\nThe Man Who Knew Too Much\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With James Stewart, Doris Day,\nBrenda de Banzie\nUS 1956, 35mm, color, 119 min\nFar fewer shots are fired in the remake of The Man Who Knew Too Much, but there’s nothing nearly so harrowing in the earlier version as the scene in which James Stewart’s manifestly anxious husband sedates his wife before explaining that their son has been kidnapped. A prime example of Hitchcock’s tendency to invest his ostensibly lightweight entertainments with rich characterizations and location detail, the second Man Who Knew Too Much turns on a portrait of marriage every bit as devastating as the one found in Rossellini’s Voyage to Italy (1955). The famous Royal Albert Hall sequence is an object lesson of the director’s mastery of point-of-view, though it’s only one piece of this subtly structured puzzle of character and predestination that a euphoric André Bazin claimed as embodying Hitchcock’s art “near the top of its perfection.” Print courtesy Universal.\nSaturday September 14 at 9:30pm\nSpellbound\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Ingrid Bergman, Gregory Peck, Michael Chekhov\nUS 1945, 35mm, b/w, 116 min\nThe tremendous popularization of Freudian psychoanalysis in postwar American cinema and popular culture informs Hitchcock's witty and sophisticated romantic thriller about a bookish analyst falling for a mysterious amnesiac analysand who is either himself a brilliant therapist or a traumatized patient with murderous tendencies. Inspired by David O. Selznick's own \"cure\" through psychoanalysis, Spellbound was Hitchcock's second picture under contract with the mercurial and tyrannical producer who struggled to impose ideas that Hitchcock, working closely with screenwriter Ben Hecht, was largely able to deflect and subvert. Sadly, Hitchcock was unable to prevent Selznick from damaging one of the film's centerpieces – an extended and now lost dream sequence designed by Salvador Dalí which Selznick considered excessive and ordered recut by William Cameron Menzies. Miklos Rozsa's moody score is often credited as the first use of a theremin in a Hollywood film.\nFriday September 20 at 9:30pm\nStrangers on a Train\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Farley Granger, Ruth Roman,\nRobert Walker\nUS 1951, 35mm, b/w, 100 min\nStrangers on a Train’s apparently schematic construction (“mapped out like a diagram,” per Truffaut) belies its deeply insinuating treatment of guilt—a firing shot for Hitchcock’s golden 50s. Dressed to kill in a lobster-adorned tie specially designed by the director, Robert Walker gives an impressively chaotic performance as Bruno, the rogue who proposes a coolly logical murder scheme to tennis star and rising politician Guy Haines: Bruno will kill Guy’s disagreeable wife in exchange for Guy dispatching Bruno’s father. Hitchcock’s incessant doublings and crossings suggest irrepressible forces coinciding with Bruno’s vicarious plan. Guy narrowly triumphs over his fear of exposure, but the precise cuts linking these perfect strangers implies a deeper line of culpability, one that leads directly to the audience’s own stakes in the game. Raymond Chandler was hired to adapt Patricia Highsmith’s novel but proved indifferent to Hitchcock’s visual style of narration; cinematographer Robert Burks, by contrast, became one of the director’s most trusted collaborators.Print courtesy Warner Brothers.\nSunday September 22 at 4:30pm\nTorn Curtain\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Paul Newman, Julie Andrews,\nLila Kedrova\nUS 1966, 35mm, color, 128 min\nTorn Curtain finds Hitchcock returning to the spy thriller at the height of the Cold War. Eschewing the gadgetry and sexual innuendo of the James Bond films, Hitchcock instead crafts a lean, tense portrayal of the quest to rescue the formula for an anti-missile system from behind the Iron Curtain. At the same time, in true Hitchcockian fashion, this quest also serves as a test for the relationship between an American spy and his wife. While the film has never achieved classic status, several of its sequences remain striking examples of the master’s ability to construct heart-stopping set pieces, perhaps most famously in the ambivalent depiction, in real time, of a brutal murder committed out of expedience by the film’s hero.\nFriday September 27 at 9:30pm\nSuspicion\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Cary Grant, Joan Fontaine,\nSir Cedric Hardwicke\nUS 1941, 35mm, b/w, 102 min\nOne of Hitchcock’s most caustic portraits of a disintegrating marriage, Suspicion is also perhaps his purest exercise in suspense. Joan Fontaine plays the smitten wife who gradually comes to believe the worst of her charlatan husband, otherwise known as Cary Grant. Even a glass of milk becomes an object of dread in this poisonous atmosphere, an eerie and oddly beautiful revelation of terror that the surrealists might have envied. After turning down the screwball lead of Mr. and Mrs. Smith for fear of being typecast, Grant here tenders a performance in which the very qualities that made him the consummate romantic lead are cause for alarm. Hitchcock disavowed the ending’s sudden reversal, but subsequent critics have latched on to the film’s inconsistencies as being suggestive of the deeper ways in which the auteur’s work was at odds with itself.\nSaturday September 28 at 9:30pm\nShadow of a Doubt\nDirected by Alfred Hitchcock. With Teresa Wright, Joseph Cotton, MacDonald Carey\nUS 1943, 35mm, b/w, 108 min\nArguably the earliest masterpiece among Hitchcock’s Hollywood films, Shadow of a Doubt engagingly states one of the great themes of his oeuvre: the idea that evil is not something foreign and distant, but close and familiar. This theme emerges naturally from the story of young Charlie and her love for her charming uncle, also named Charlie, who also happens to be a serial killer. Bored by her humdrum existence in all-American Santa Rosa, California, Charlie is thrilled when her uncle shows up; she understands him so well that she becomes the only one to notice he is not what he seems. The contributions of playwright Thornton Wilder – author of Our Town – further intensified the small-town ambiance so crucial to Hitchcock. Throughout his career, the director would count Shadow of a Doubt his own favorite.\nHarvard Film Archive is a division of Fine Arts Library of the Harvard College Library .\nCopyright © 2017 President and Fellows of Harvard College.", "Alfred Hitchcock | Horror Film Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia\nYears active\n1921–1976\nSir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock (13 August 1899 – 29 April 1980 ) was an English filmmaker and producer, who pioneered many techniques in the suspense and psychological thriller genres. After a successful career in his native United Kingdom in both silent films and early talkies, Hitchcock moved to Hollywood. In 1956 he became an American citizen while retaining his British citizenship.\nHitchcock directed more than fifty feature films in a career spanning six decades. Often regarded as the greatest British filmmaker, he came first in a 2007 poll of film critics in Britain's Daily Telegraph newspaper, which said: \"Unquestionably the greatest filmmaker to emerge from these islands, Hitchcock did more than any director to shape modern cinema, which would be utterly different without him. His flair was for narrative, cruelly withholding crucial information (from his characters and from us) and engaging the emotions of the audience like no one else. MovieMaker has hailed him as the most influential filmmaker of all time.\nContents\nEdit\nHitchcock mosaic at Leytonstone Station.Hitchcock was born on 13 August 1899 in Leytonstone, London, the second son and youngest of three children of William Hitchcock (1862–1914), a greengrocer and poulterer, and Emma Jane Hitchcock (née Whelan; 1863–1942). He was named after his father's brother, Alfred. His family was mostly Roman Catholic, with his mother and paternal grandmother being of Irish extraction. Hitchcock was sent to the Jesuit Classic school St Ignatius' College in Stamford Hill, London. He often described his childhood as being very lonely and sheltered, a situation compounded by his obesity.\nHitchcock said he was sent by his father on numerous occasions to the local police station with a note asking the officer to lock him away for ten minutes as punishment for behaving badly. This idea of being harshly treated or wrongfully accused is frequently reflected in Hitchcock's films.\nHitchcock's mother would often make him address her while standing at the foot of her bed, especially if he behaved badly, forcing him to stand there for hours. These experiences would later be used for the portrayal of the character of Norman Bates in his movie Psycho .\nHitchcock's father died when he was 14. In the same year, Hitchcock left St. Ignatius to study at the London County Council School of Engineering and Navigation in Poplar, London. After graduating, he became a draftsman and advertising designer with a cable company.\nDuring this period, Hitchcock became intrigued by photography and started working in film production in London, working as a title-card designer for the London branch of what would become Paramount Pictures. In 1920, he received a full-time position at Islington Studios with its American owner, Famous Players-Lasky and their British successor, Gainsborough Pictures, designing the titles for silent movies. His rise from title designer to film director took five years.\nPre-war British career\nEdit\nHitchcock's last collaboration with Graham Cutts led him to Germany in 1924. The film Die Prinzessin und der Geiger (UK title The Blackguard, 1925), directed by Cutts and co-written by Hitchcock, was produced in the Babelsberg Studios in Potsdam near Berlin. Hitchcock also worked as an art-director on the set of F. W. Murnau's film Der letzte Mann (1924). He was very impressed with Murnau's work and later used many techniques for the set design in his own productions. In his book-length interview with François Truffaut, Hitchcock/Truffaut (Simon and Schuster, 1967), Hitchcock also said he was influenced by Fritz Lang's film Destiny (1921).\nHitchcock's first few films faced a string of bad luck. His first directing project came in 1922 with the aptly-titled Number 13. However, the production was canceled due to financial problems and the few scenes that were finished at that point were apparently lost. In 1925, Michael Balcon of Gainsborough Pictures gave Hitchcock another opportunity for a directing credit with The Pleasure Garden made at UFA Studios in Germany. Unfortunately, The film was a commercial flop. Next, Hitchcock directed a drama called The Mountain Eagle (released under the title Fear o' God in the United States). This film was also eventually lost. In 1926, Hitchcock's luck changed with his first thriller, The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog . The film, released in January 1927, was a major commercial and critical success in the United Kingdom. As with many of his earlier works, this film was influenced by Expressionist techniques. Hitchcock had witnessed first-hand in Germany. Some commentators regard this piece as the first truly \"Hitchcockian\" film, incorporating such themes as the \"wrong man\".\nFollowing the success of The Lodger, Hitchcock hired a publicist to help enhance his growing reputation. On 2 December 1926, Hitchcock married his assistant director, Alma Reville at the Brompton Oratory. Their only child, a daughter Patricia, was born on 7 July 1928. Alma was to become Hitchcock's closest collaborator. She wrote some of his screenplays and (though often uncredited) worked with him on every one of his films.\nIn 1929, Hitchcock began work on his tenth film Blackmail . While the film was still in production, the studio, British International Pictures (BIP), decided to make it one of the UK's first sound pictures. With the climax of the film taking place on the dome of the British Museum, Blackmail began the Hitchcock tradition of using famous landmarks as a backdrop for suspense sequences. In the PBS series The Men Who Made The Movies, Hitchcock had explained how he used early sound recording as a special element of the film, emphasizing the word \"knife\" in a conversation with the woman suspected of murder. During this period, Hitchcock directed segments for a BIP musical film revue Elstree Calling (1930) and directed a short film featuring two Film Weekly scholarship winners, An Elastic Affair (1930 ). Another BIP musical revue, Harmony Heaven (1929), reportedly had minor input from Hitchcock, but his name does not appear in the credits.\nIn 1933, Hitchcock was once again working for Michael Balcon at Gaumont-British Picture Corporation. His first film for the company, The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934), was a success and his second, The 39 Steps (1935), is often considered one of the best films from his early period. This film was also one of the first to introduce the concept of the \"MacGuffin\", a plot device around which a whole story seems to revolve, but ultimately has nothing to do with the true meaning or ending of the story. In The 39 Steps, the Macguffin is a stolen set of design plans. (Hitchcock told French director François Truffaut: \"There are two men sitting in a train going to Scotland and one man says to the other, 'Excuse me, sir, but what is that strange parcel you have on the luggage rack above you?', 'Oh', says the other, 'that's a Macguffin.', 'Well', says the first man, 'what's a Macguffin?', The other answers, 'It's an apparatus for trapping lions in the Scottish Highlands.', 'But', says the first man, 'there are no lions in the Scottish Highlands.', 'Well', says the other, 'then that's no Macguffin.'\").\nHitchcock's next major success was in 1938 with his film The Lady Vanishes , a clever and fast-paced film about the search for a kindly old Englishwoman Miss Froy (Dame May Whitty), who disappears while on board a train in the fictional country of Vandrika (a thinly-veiled version of Nazi Germany).\nBy 1938, Hitchcock had become known for his observation, \"Actors are cattle\". He once said that he first made this remark as early as the late 1920s, in connection to stage actors who were snobbish about motion pictures. However, Michael Redgrave said that Hitchcock had made the statement during the filming of The Lady Vanishes . The phrase would haunt Hitchcock for years to come and would result in an incident during the filming of his 1941 production of Mr. & Mrs. Smith where Carole Lombard brought some heifers onto the set — with name tags of Lombard, Robert Montgomery, and Gene Raymond, the stars of the film — to surprise the director. Hitchcock said he was misquoted: \"I said 'Actors should be treated like cattle'.\"\nAt the end of the 1930s, David O. Selznick signed Hitchcock to a seven-year contract beginning in March 1939 , when the Hitchcocks moved to the United States.\nHollywood\nEdit\nThe suspense and the gallows humor that had become Hitchcock's trademark in film continued to appear in his productions. The working arrangements with Selznick were less than optimal. Selznick suffered from perennial money problems, and Hitchcock was often displeased with Selznick's creative control over his films. In a later interview, Hitchcock summarised the working relationship thus: [Selznick] was the Big Producer. [...] Producer was king, The most flattering thing Mr. Selznick ever said about me - and it shows you the amount of control - he said I was the \"only director\" he'd \"trust with a film\". Selznick loaned Hitchcock to the larger studios more often than producing Hitchcock's films himself. In addition, Selznick, as well as fellow independent producer Samuel Goldwyn, made only a few films each year, so Selznick did not always have projects for Hitchcock to direct. Goldwyn had also negotiated with Hitchcock on a possible contract, only to be outbid by Selznick. Hitchcock was quickly impressed with the superior resources of the American studios compared to the financial restrictions he had frequently encountered in England.\nHitchcock's fondness for his homeland resulted in numerous American films set in, or filmed in, the United Kingdom, including his penultimate film, Frenzy .\nWith the prestigious Selznick picture Rebecca in 1940 , Hitchcock made his first American movie, set in England and based on a novel by English author Daphne du Maurier. The film starred Laurence Olivier and Joan Fontaine. This Gothic melodrama explores the fears of a naive young bride who enters a great English country home and must adapt to the extreme formality and coldness she finds there. The film won the Academy Award for Best Picture of 1940. The statuette was given to Selznick, as the film's producer. The film did not win the Best Director award for Hitchcock.\nThere were additional problems between Selznick and Hitchcock . Selznick was known to impose very restrictive rules upon Hitchcock who was forced to shoot the film as Selznick wanted. At the same time, Selznick complained about Hitchcock's \"goddamn jigsaw cutting\", which meant that the producer did not have nearly the leeway to create his own film as he liked, but had to follow Hitchcock's vision of the finished product. The film Rebecca was the fourth longest of Hitchcock's films, at 130 minutes, exceeded only by The Paradine Case (132 minutes), North by Northwest (136 minutes), and Topaz (142 minutes).\nHitchcock's second American film, the European-set thriller Foreign Correspondent (1940), based on Vincent Sheean's Personal History and produced by Walter Wanger, was nominated for Best Picture that year. The movie was filmed in the first year of World War II and was apparently inspired by the rapidly-changing events in Europe, as fictionally covered by an American newspaper reporter portrayed by Joel McCrea. The film mixed actual footage of European scenes and scenes filmed on a Hollywood back lot. In compliance with Hollywood's Production Code censorship, the film avoided direct references to Germany and Germans.\n1940s films\nEdit\nHitchcock's films during the 1940s were diverse, ranging from the romantic comedy Mr. & Mrs. Smith (1941) to the courtroom drama The Paradine Case (1947), to the dark and disturbing film noir Shadow of a Doubt (1943).\nIn September 1940, the Hitchcocks purchased the 200-acre (0.81 km) Cornwall Ranch, located near Scotts Valley in the Santa Cruz Mountains. The Ranch became the primary residence of the Hitchcocks for the rest of their lives, although they kept their Bel Air home. Suspicion (1941 ) marked Hitchcock's first film as a producer as well as director. Hitchcock used the north coast of Santa Cruz, California for the English coastline sequence. This film was to be actor Cary Grant's first time working with Hitchcock, and it was one of the few times that Grant would be cast in a sinister role. Joan Fontaine won Best Actress Oscar and the New York Film Critics Circle Award for her \"outstanding performance in Suspicion\". \"Grant plays an irresponsible husband whose actions raise suspicion and anxiety by his wife (Fontaine)\". In what critics regard as a classic scene, Hitchcock uses a light bulb to illuminate what might be a fatal glass of milk that Grant is bringing to his wife. In the book upon which the movie is based (Before the Fact by Francis Iles), the Grant character is a killer, but Hitchcock and the studio felt Grant's image would be tarnished by that ending. Though a homicide would have suited him better, as he stated to François Truffaut, Hitchcock settled for an ambiguous finale.\nSaboteur (1942) was the first of two films that Hitchcock made for Universal, a studio where he would continue his career during his later years. Hitchcock was forced to use Universal contract players Robert Cummings and Priscilla Lane, both known for their work in comedies and light dramas. Breaking with Hollywood conventions of the time, Hitchcock did extensive location filming, especially in New York City, and depicted a confrontation between a suspected saboteur (Cummings) and a real saboteur (Norman Lloyd) atop the Statue of Liberty.\nShadow of a Doubt (1943), Hitchcock's personal favourite of all his films and the second of the early Universal films, was about young Charlotte \"Charlie\" Newton (Teresa Wright), who suspects her beloved uncle Charlie Oakley (Joseph Cotten) of being a serial murderer. Critics have said that in its use of overlapping characters, dialogue, and closeups it has provided a generation of film theorists with psychoanalytic potential, including Jacques Lacan and Slavoj Žižek. Hitchcock again filmed extensively on location, this time in the Northern California city of Santa Rosa, California, during the summer of 1942. The director showcased his own personal fascination with crime and criminals when he had two of his characters discuss various ways of killing people, to the obvious annoyance of Charlotte.\nWorking at Century Fox, Hitchcock adapted a script of John Steinbeck's that chronicled the experiences of the survivors of a German U-boat attack in the film Lifeboat ( 1944 ). The action sequences were shot on the small boat. The locale also posed problems for Hitchcock's traditional cameo appearance. That was solved by having Hitchcock's image appear in a newspaper that William Bendix is reading in the boat, showing the director in a before-and-after advertisement for \"Reduco-Obesity Slayer\". While at Fox, Hitchcock seriously considered directing the film version of A.J. Cronin's novel about a Catholic priest in China, The Keys of the Kingdom, but the plans for this fell through. John M. Stahl ended up directing the 1944 film, which was produced by Joseph L. Mankiewicz and starred Gregory Peck, among other luminaries.\nReturning to England for an extended visit in late 1943 and early 1944 , Hitchcock made two short films for the Ministry of Information, Bon Voyage and Aventure Malgache . These - made for the Free French - were the only films Hitchcock made in the French language, and \"feature typical Hitchcockian touches\" In the 1990s , the two films were shown by Turner Classic Movies and released on home video.\nIn 1945, Hitchcock served as \"treatment advisor\" (in effect, a film editor) for a Holocaust documentary produced by the British Army. The film, which recorded the liberation of Nazi Concentration Camps, remained unreleased until 1985, when it was completed by PBS Frontline and distributed under the title Memory of the Camps.\nHitchcock worked for Selznick again when he directed Spellbound , which explored the then-fashionable subject of psychoanalysis and featured a dream sequence designed by Salvador Dalí. Gregory Peck is amnesiac Dr. Anthony Edwardes under the treatment of analyst Dr. Peterson (Ingrid Bergman), who falls in love with him while trying to unlock his repressed past. The dream sequence as it actually appears in the film is considerably shorter than was originally envisioned, which was to be several minutes long, because it proved to be too disturbing for the audience. Some of the original musical score by Miklós Rózsa (which makes use of the theremin) was later adapted by the composer into a concert piano concerto.\nNotorious (1946) followed Spellbound. According to Hitchcock, in his book-length interview with François Truffaut, Selznick sold the director, the two stars (Grant and Bergman) and the screenplay (by Ben Hecht) to RKO Radio Pictures as a \"package\" for $500,000 due to cost overruns on Selznick's Duel in the Sun ( 1946). Notorious starred Hitchcock regulars Ingrid Bergman and Cary Grant, and features a plot about Nazis, uranium, and South America. It was a huge box office success and has remained one of Hitchcock's most acclaimed films. His use of uranium as a plot device led to Hitchcock's being briefly under FBI surveillance. McGilligan writes that Hitchcock consulted Dr. Robert Millikan of Caltech about the development of an atomic bomb. Selznick complained that the notion was \"science fiction\" only to be confronted by the news stories of the detonation of two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan in August 1945.\nAfter completing his final film for Selznick, The Paradine Case (a courtroom drama that critics found lost momentum because it apparently ran too long and exhausted its resource of ideas), Hitchcock filmed his first color film, Rope , which appeared in 1948. Here Hitchcock experimented with marshalling suspense in a confined environment, as he had done earlier with Lifeboat ( 1943 ). He also experimented with exceptionally long takes — up to ten minutes long. Featuring James Stewart in the leading role, Rope was the first of four films Stewart would make for Hitchcock. It was based on the Leopold and Loeb case of the 1920s. Somehow Hitchcock's cameraman managed to move the bulky, heavy Technicolor camera quickly around the set as it followed the continuous action of the long takes.\nUnder Capricorn (1949), set in nineteenth-century Australia, also used the short-lived technique of long takes, but to a more limited extent. He again used Technicolor in this production, then returned to black and white films for several years. For Rope and Under Capricorn. Hitchcock formed a production company with Sidney Bernstein, called Transatlantic Pictures, which became inactive after these two unsuccessful pictures. Hitchcock continued to produce his own films for the rest of his life.\n1950s: Peak years\nEdit\nIn 1950, Hitchcock filmed Stage Fright on location in the UK. For the first time, Hitchcock matched one of Warner Brothers' biggest stars, Jane Wyman, with the sultry German actress Marlene Dietrich. Hitchcock used a number of prominent British actors, including Michael Wilding, Richard Todd, and Alastair Sim. This was Hitchcock's first production for Warner Brothers, which had distributed Rope and Under Capricorn, because Transatlantic Pictures was experiencing financial difficulties.\nWith the film Strangers on a Train (1951), based on the novel by Patricia Highsmith, Hitchcock combined many elements from his preceding films. Hitchcock approached Dashiell Hammett to write the dialogue but Raymond Chandler took over, then left over disagreements with the director. Two men casually meet and speculate on removing people who are causing them difficulty. One of the men takes this banter entirely seriously. With Farley Granger reprising some elements of his role from Rope, Strangers continued the director's interest in the narrative possibilities of blackmail and murder. Robert Walker, previously known for \"boy-next-door\" roles, plays the villain.\nMCA head Lew Wasserman, whose client list included James Stewart, Janet Leigh and other actors who would appear in Hitchcock's films, had a significant impact in packaging and marketing Hitchcock's films beginning in the 1950s.\nThree very popular films starring Grace Kelly followed. Dial M for Murder ( 1954) was adapted from the popular stage play by Frederick Knott. Ray Milland plays the \"suave and scheming\" villain, an ex-tennis pro, who tries to murder his innocent wife Grace Kelly for her money. When the murder goes awry and the assassin is killed by her in self-defense, he manipulates the evidence to pin the murder of the assassin on his wife. Her lover Mark Halliday (Robert Cummings) and police inspector Hubbard ( John Williams ) work urgently to save her from execution. Hitchcock experimented with 3D cinematography, although the film was not released in this format at first. However, it was shown in 3D in the early 1980s . The film marked a return to Technicolor productions for Hitchcock.\nHitchcock moved to Paramount Pictures and filmed Rear Window ( 1954 ), starring James Stewart and Kelly again, as well as Thelma Ritter and Raymond Burr. Here, the wheelchair-using Stewart, a photographer based on Robert Capa, seems obsessed with observing his neighbours across the courtyard, and becomes convinced one of them (Raymond Burr) has murdered his wife. Stewart tries to sway both his glamorous model-girlfriend (Kelly) and his policeman buddy (Wendell Corey) to his theory, and eventually succeeds. Like Lifeboat and Rope , the movie was photographed almost entirely within the confines of a small space: Stewart's tiny studio apartment overlooking the massive courtyard set. Hitchcock uses closeups of Stewart's face to show his character's reactions to all he sees, from the comic voyeurism directed at his neighbors to his helpless terror watching Kelly and Burr in the villain's apartment.\nThe third Kelly film To Catch a Thief ( 1955 ), set in the French Riviera, stars Kelly with Cary Grant again and John Williams. Grant plays retired thief John Robie who becomes the prime suspect for a spate of robberies in the Riviera. An American heiress played by Kelly surmises his true identity, attempts to seduce him with her own jewels, and even offers to assist him in his alleged life of crime. \"Despite the obvious age disparity between Grant and Kelly and a lightweight plot, the witty script (loaded with double-entendres) and the good-natured acting proved a commercial success.\" It was Hitchcock's last film with Kelly because she married Prince Rainier of Monaco in 1956 and the residents of her new homeland refused to allow her to make any more films.\nThe successful remake of Hitchcock's own 1934 film, The Man Who Knew Too Much , in 1956 followed, this time starring Stewart and Doris Day, who sang the theme song, \"Whatever Will Be, Will Be (Que Sera, Sera)\" (which won the Oscar for \"Best Music\", and became a big hit for Day). Stewart and Day, distraught over the kidnapping of their son, struggle with both their emotions and their urgent quest to find their child and stop an assassination, until the song helps re-unite the family. Hitchcock's final film for Warner Brothers, was a low-key black and white production based on a real-life case of mistaken identity reported in Life Magazine in 1953 . This was the only film of Hitchcock's to star Henry Fonda. Fonda plays a Stork Club musician mistaken for a liquor store thief who is arrested and tried for robbery while his wife (newcomer Vera Miles) emotionally collapses under the strain. Hitchcock told Truffaut that his lifelong fear of the police attracted him to the subject and was embedded in many scenes.\nVertigo (1958) again starred Stewart, this time with Kim Novak and Barbara Bel Geddes. Stewart plays \"Scottie\", a former police investigator suffering from acrophobia, who develops an obsession with a woman he is shadowing (Kim Novak). Scottie's obsession leads to tragedy, and this time Hitchcock does not opt for a happy ending. Though the film is widely considered a classic today, Vertigo met with negative reviews and poor box office receipts upon its release, and marked the last collaboration between Stewart and Hitchcock. The film is now placed highly in the Sight & Sound decade polls. It was premiered in the San Sebastián International Film Festival, where Hitchcock won a Silver Seashell.\nEdit\nBy this time, Hitchcock had filmed in many areas of the United States. He followed Vertigo with three more successful films. All are also recognized as among his very best films: North by Northwest ( 1959 ), Psycho ( 1960 ) and The Birds ( 1963 ).\nIn North by Northwest, Cary Grant is Roger Thornhill, a Madison Avenue ad executive who is mistaken for a government agent. He is hotly pursued by enemy agents across America who try to kill him, one of whom is foreign agent Eve Kendall (Eva Marie Saint), who is really an American agent. She seduces Thornhill, sets him up, but then falls in love with him and aids his escape.\nPsycho is considered by some to be Hitchcock's most famous film. Produced on a highly constrained budget of $800,000, it was shot in black-and-white on a spare set. The unprecedented violence of the shower scene, the early demise of the heroine, the innocent lives extinguished by a disturbed murderer were all hallmarks of Hitchcock, copied in many subsequent horror films. After completing Psycho, Hitchcock moved to Universal, where he made the remainder of his films.\nThe Birds, inspired by a Daphne du Maurier short story and by an actual news story about a mysterious infestation of birds in California, was Hitchcock's 49th film. He signed up Tippi Hedren as his latest blonde heroine opposite Rod Taylor. The scenes of the birds attacking included hundreds of shots mixing actual and animated sequences. The cause of the birds' attack is left unanswered, \"perhaps highlighting the mystery of forces unknown\".\nThe latter two films were particularly notable for their unconventional soundtracks, both orchestrated by Bernard Herrmann: the screeching strings played in the murder scene in Psycho exceeded the limits of the time, and The Birds dispensed completely with conventional instruments, instead using an electronically-produced soundtrack and an unaccompanied song by school children (just prior to the infamous attack at the historic Bodega Bay School). Also notable was that Santa Cruz was mentioned again as the place where the bird-phenomenon was said to have first occurred. These films are considered his last great films, after which it is said his career started to lose pace (although some critics such as Robin Wood and Donald Spoto contend that Marnie, from 1964, is first-class Hitchcock, and some have argued that Frenzy is unfairly overlooked).\nFailing health took its toll on Hitchcock, reducing his output during the last two decades of his career. Hitchcock filmed two spy thrillers. The first, Torn Curtain (1966), with Paul Newman and Julie Andrews, was a Cold War thriller. Torn Curtain displays the bitter end of the twelve-year collaboration between Hitchcock and composer Bernard Herrmann. Herrmann was fired when Hitchcock was unsatisfied with his score, so John Addison was hired in Herrmann's place. In 1969, Topaz , another Cold War-themed film (based on a Leon Uris novel), was released. Both received mixed reviews from critics.\nIn 1972, Hitchcock returned to London to film Frenzy , his last major triumph. After two only moderately successful espionage films, the plot marks a return to the murder thriller genre that he made so many films out of earlier in his career. The basic story recycles his early film The Lodger . Richard Blaney (Jon Finch), volatile barkeeper with a history of explosive anger, becomes the likely perpetrator of the \"Necktie Murders\", which are actually committed by his friend Bob Rusk (Barry Foster), a fruit seller. This time Hitchcock makes the victim and villain twins, rather than opposites, as in Strangers on a Train. Only one of them, however, has crossed the line to murder. For the first time, Hitchcock allowed nudity and profane language, which had before been taboo, in one of his films. He also shows rare sympathy for the Chief Inspector and his comic domestic life. Biographers have noted that Hitchcock had always pushed the limits of film censorship, often managing to fool Joseph Breen, the longtime head of Hollywood's Production Code. Many times Hitchcock slipped in subtle hints of improprieties forbidden by censorship until the mid-1960s. Yet Patrick McGilligan wrote that Breen and others often realized that Hitchcock was inserting such things and were actually amused as well as alarmed by Hitchcock's \"inescapable inferences\". Beginning with Torn Curtain, Hitchcock was finally able to blatantly include plot elements previously forbidden in American films and this continued for the remainder of his film career. Family Plot (1976) was Hitchcock's last film. It related the escapades of \"Madam\" Blanche Tyler played by Barbara Harris, a fraudulent spiritualist, and her taxi driver lover Bruce Dern making a living from her phony powers. William Devane, Karen Black and Cathleen Nesbitt co-starred. It was the only Hitchcock film scored by John Williams.\nLast film work and death\nEdit\nNear the end of his life, Hitchcock had worked on the script for a projected spy thriller, The Short Night , collaborating with screenwriters James Costigan and Ernest Lehman. Despite some preliminary work, the story was never filmed. This was due, primarily, to Hitchcock's own failing health and his concerns over the health of his wife, Alma, who had suffered a stroke. The script was eventually published posthumously, in a book on Hitchcock's last years.\nHitchcock died from kidney failure in his Bel Air, Los Angeles, California home at the age of 80. His wife Alma Reville, and their daughter, Patricia Hitchcock O'Connell, both survived him. His funeral service was held at Good Shepherd Catholic Church in Beverly Hills. Hitchcock's body was cremated and his ashes were scattered over the Pacific Ocean.\nThemes, plot devices and motifs\nHitchcock returned several times to cinematic devices such as suspense, the audience as voyeur, and his well-known \"McGuffin\", an apparently minor detail serving as a pivot upon which the narrative turns.\nTechnical innovations\nEdit\nHitchcock seemed to delight in the technical challenges of film making. In the film Lifeboat , Hitchcock stages the entire action of the movie in a small boat, yet manages to keep the cinematography from monotonous repetition (his trademark cameo appearance was a dilemma, given the limitations of the setting; so Hitchcock appears in a fictitious magazine for a weight loss product). Similarly, the entire action in Rear Window either takes place in or is seen from a single apartment. In Spellbound , two unprecedented point-of-view shots were achieved by constructing a large wooden hand (which would appear to belong to the character whose point of view the camera took) and out-sized props for it to hold: a bucket-sized glass of milk and a large wooden gun. For added novelty and impact, the climactic gunshot was hand-colored red on some copies of the black-and-white print of the film.\nRope ( 1948 ) was another technical challenge: a film that appears to have been shot entirely in a single take. The film was actually shot in 10 takes ranging from four and a half to 10 minutes each; a 10 minute length of film being the maximum a camera's film magazine could hold. Some transitions between reels were hidden by having a dark object fill the entire screen for a moment. Hitchcock used those points to hide the cut, and began the next take with the camera in the same place.\nHitchcock's 1958 film Vertigo contains a camera technique developed by Irmin Roberts that has been imitated and re-used many times by filmmakers, wherein the image appears to \"stretch\". This is achieved by moving the camera in the opposite direction of the camera's zoom. It has become known as the Dolly zoom or \"Vertigo Effect.\"\nSignature appearances in his films\nHitchcock appeared briefly in many of his own films, usually playing upon his portly figure in an incongruous manner, for example, seen struggling to get a double bass onto a train.\nPsychology of characters\nEdit\nHitchcock's films sometimes feature characters struggling in their relationships with their mothers. In North by Northwest ( 1959 ), Roger Thornhill (Cary Grant's character) is an innocent man ridiculed by his mother for insisting that shadowy, murderous men are after him. In The Birds ( 1963), the Rod Taylor character, an innocent man, finds his world under attack by vicious birds, and struggles to free himself of a clinging mother (Jessica Tandy). The killer in Frenzy ( 1972 ) has a loathing of women but idolizes his mother. The villain Bruno in Strangers on a Train hates his father, but has an incredibly close relationship with his mother (played by Marion Lorne). Sebastian (Claude Rains) in Notorious has a clearly conflictual relationship with his mother, who is (correctly) suspicious of his new bride Alicia Huberman (Ingrid Bergman). And, of course, Norman Bates' troubles with his mother in Psycho (1960) are well known.\nHitchcock heroines tend to be lovely, cool blondes who seem proper at first but, when aroused by passion or danger, respond in a more sensual, animal, or even criminal way. As noted, the famous victims in The Lodger are all blondes. In The 39 Steps , Hitchcock's glamorous blonde star, Madeleine Carroll, is put in handcuffs. In Marnie ( 1964 ), the title character (played by Tippi Hedren) is a kleptomaniac. In To Catch a Thief ( 1955 ), Francie (Grace Kelly]) offers to help a man she believes is a burglar. In Rear Window , Lisa (Grace Kelly again) risks her life by breaking into Lars Thorwald's apartment. The best known example is in Psycho where Janet Leigh's unfortunate character steals $40,000 and is murdered by a reclusive psychopath. Hitchcock's last blonde heroine was - years after Dany Robin and her \"daughter\" Claude Jade in Topaz - Barbara Harris as a phony psychic turned amateur sleuth in his final film, 1976 's Family Plot . In the same film, the diamond smuggler played by Karen Black could also fit that role, as she wears a long blonde wig in various scenes and becomes increasingly uncomfortable about her line of work.\nSome critics and Hitchcock scholars, including Donald Spoto and Roger Ebert, agree that Vertigo represents the director's most personal and revealing film, dealing with the obsessions of a man who crafts a woman into the woman he desires. Vertigo explores more frankly and at greater length his interest in the relation between sex and death than any other film in his filmography.\nHitchcock often said that his favorite film (of his own work) was Shadow of a Doubt .\nStyle of working\nEdit\nHitchcock once commented, \"The writer and I plan out the entire script down to the smallest detail, and when we're finished all that's left to do is to shoot the film. Actually, it's only when one enters the studio that one enters the area of compromise. Really, the novelist has the best casting since he doesn't have to cope with the actors and all the rest.\" In an interview with Roger Ebert in 1969, Hitchcock elaborated further: Once the screenplay is finished, I'd just as soon not make the film at all... I have a strongly visual mind. I visualize a picture right down to the final cuts. I write all this out in the greatest detail in the script, and then I don't look at the script while I'm shooting. I know it off by heart, just as an orchestra conductor needs not look at the score... When you finish the script, the film is perfect. But in shooting it you lose perhaps 40 per cent of your original conception.\nStoryboards and production\nEdit\nHitchcock's films were strongly believed to have been extensively storyboarded to the finest detail by the majority of commentators over the years. He was reported to have never even bothered looking through the viewfinder, since he didn't need to do so, though in publicity photos he was shown doing so. He also used this as an excuse to never have to change his films from his initial vision. If a studio asked him to change a film, he would claim that it was already shot in a single way, and that there were no alternate takes to consider.\nHowever, this view of Hitchcock as a director who relied more on pre-production than on the actual production itself has been challenged by the book Hitchcock At Work, written by Bill Krohn, the American correspondent of Cahiers du cinéma. Krohn, after investigating several script revisions, notes to other production personnel written by or to Hitchcock alongside inspection of storyboards, and other production material, has observed that Hitchcock's work often deviated from how the screenplay was written or how the film was originally envisioned. He noted that the myth of storyboards in relation to Hitchcock, often regurgitated by generations of commentators on his movies was to a great degree perpetuated by Hitchcock himself or the publicity arm of the studios. A great example would be the celebrated crop spraying sequence of North by Northwest which was not storyboarded at all. After the scene was filmed, the publicity department asked Hitchcock to make storyboards to promote the film and Hitchcock in turn hired an artist to match the scenes in detail.\nEven on the occasions when storyboards were made, the scene which was shot did differ from it significantly. Krohn's extensive analysis of the production of Hitchcock classics like Notorious reveals that Hitchcock was flexible enough to change a film's conception during its production. Another example Krohn notes is the American remake of The Man Who Knew Too Much, whose shooting schedule commenced without a finished script and moreover went over schedule, something which, as Krohn notes, was not an uncommon occurrence on many of Hitchcock's films, including Strangers on a Train and Topaz . While Hitchcock did do a great deal of preparation for all his movies, he was fully cognizant that the actual film-making process often deviated from the best laid plans and was flexible to adapt to the changes and needs of production as his films were not free from the normal hassles faced and common routines utilised during many other film productions.\nKrohn's work also sheds light on Hitchcock's practice of generally shooting in chronological order, a practice which he notes often sent many of his films over budget and over schedule and, more importantly, differed from the standard operating procedure of Hollywood in the Studio System Era. Equally important is Hitchcock's tendency to shoot alternate takes of scenes. This differed from coverage in that the films weren't necessarily shot from varying angles so as to give the editor options to shape the film how he/she chooses (often under the producer's aegis). Rather they represented Hitchcock's tendency of giving himself options in the editing room, where he would provide advice to his editors after viewing a rough cut of the work. According to Krohn, this and numerous other information revealed through his research of Hitchcock's personal papers, script revisions and the like refute the notion of Hitchcock as a director who was always in control of his films, whose vision of his films did not change during production, which Krohn notes has remained the central long-standing myth of Alfred Hitchcock.\nHis fastidiousness and attention to detail also found its way to each film poster for his films. Hitchcock preferred to work with the best talent of his day—film poster designers such as Bill Gold and Saul Bass—and kept them busy with countless rounds of revision until he felt that the single image of the poster accurately represented his entire film.\nApproach to actors\nEdit\nSimilarly, much of Hitchcock's supposed dislike of actors has been exaggerated. Hitchcock simply did not tolerate the method approach, as he believed that actors should only concentrate on their performances and leave work on script and character to the directors and screenwriters. In a Sight and Sound interview, he stated that, 'the method actor is OK in the theatre because he has a free space to move about. But when it comes to cutting the face and what he sees and so forth, there must be some discipline'. During the making of Lifeboat, Walter Slezak, who played the German character, stated that Hitchcock knew the mechanics of acting better than anyone he knew. Several critics have observed that despite his reputation as a man who disliked actors, several actors who worked with him gave fine, often brilliant performances and these performances contribute to the film's success.\nRegarding Hitchcock's sometimes less than pleasant relationship with actors, there was a persistent rumor that he had said that actors were cattle. Hitchcock later denied this, typically tongue-in-cheek, clarifying that he had only said that actors should be treated like cattle. Carole Lombard, tweaking Hitchcock and drumming up a little publicity, brought some cows along with her when she reported to the set of Mr. and Mrs. Smith . For Hitchcock, the actors, like the props, were part of the film's setting.\nIn the late 1950s, French New Wave critics, especially Éric Rohmer, Claude Chabrol and François Truffaut, were among the first to see and promote Hitchcock's films as artistic works. Hitchcock was one of the first directors to whom they applied their auteur theory, which stresses the artistic authority of the director in the film-making process.\nHitchcock's innovations and vision have influenced a great number of filmmakers, producers, and actors. His influence helped start a trend for film directors to control artistic aspects of their movies without answering to the movie's producer.\nAwards and honours\nIrving G. Thalberg Memorial Award\nRebecca, which Hitchcock directed, won the 1940 Best Picture Academy Award for its producer David O. Selznick. In addition to Rebecca and Suspicion, two other films Hitchcock directed, Foreign Correspondent and Spellbound, were nominated for Best Picture. Hitchcock is considered the Best Film Director of all time by The Screen Directory website. Sixteen films directed by Hitchcock earned Oscar nominations, though only six of those films earned Hitchcock himself a nomination. The total number of Oscar nominations (including winners) earned by films he directed is fifty. Four of those films earned Best Picture nominations. Spellbound won the Academy Award for Best Original Music Score. Actress Joan Fontaine won the Academy Award for Best Actress for her performance in Suspicion , the only Academy Award–winning performance under Hitchcock's direction.\nSix of Hitchcock's films are in the National Film Registry: Vertigo , Rear Window , North by Northwest , Shadow of a Doubt , Notorious , and Psycho ; all but Shadow of a Doubt and Notorious were also in 1998's AFI's 100 best American films and the AFI's 2007 update. In 2008 , four of Hitchcock's films were named among the ten best mystery films of all time in the AFI's 10 Top 10. Those films are Vertigo (at No. 1); Rear Window (No. 3); North by Northwest (No. 7); and Dial M for Murder (No. 9).\nAlfred Hitchcock received the AFI Life Achievement Award in 1979 .\nHitchcock was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II in the 1980 New Year's Honours. Although he had adopted American citizenship in 1956 , he was entitled to use the title \"Sir\" because he had remained a British subject. Hitchcock died just four months later, on 29 April, before he could be formally invested.\nFame\nEdit\nHitchcock became famous for his expert and largely unrivaled control of pace and suspense, and his films draw heavily on both fear and fantasy. The films are known for their droll humour and witticisms, and these cinematic works often portray innocent people caught up in circumstances beyond their control or understanding.\nHitchcock began his directing career in the United Kingdom in 1922 . From 1939 onward, he worked primarily in the United States. In September, 1940, Hitchcock had purchased a 200-acre (0.81 km2) mountaintop estate for the sum of $40,000. Known as the 1870 Cornwall Ranch or 'Heart o' the Mountain', the property was perched high above Scotts Valley, California, at the end of Canham Road. The Hitchcocks resided there from 1940 to 1972 . The Hitchcocks became close friends with the parents of Joan Fontaine, after she starred in his film, Rebecca . Years later, after a break-in at his estate, Hitchcock replaced all of the accumulated paintings with studio-made copies. The family sold the estate in 1974 , six years before Hitchcock's death.\nHitchcock and family also purchased a second home in late 1942 at 10957 Bellagio Road in Los Angeles, just across from the Bel Air Country Club.\nRebecca was the only Hitchcock film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture (though the award did not go to Hitchcock); four other films were nominated. In 1967 he was awarded the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award for lifetime achievement. He never won an Academy Award for direction of a film.\nTelevision and books\nEdit\nAlong with Walt Disney, Hitchcock was among the first prominent motion picture producers to fully envisage just how popular the medium of television would become. From 1955 to 1965 , Hitchcock was the host and producer of a television series entitled Alfred Hitchcock Presents . While his films had made Hitchcock's name strongly associated with suspense, the TV series made Hitchcock a celebrity himself. His irony-tinged voice and signature droll delivery, gallows humor, iconic image and mannerisms became instantly recognizable and were often the subject of parody.\nThe title-theme of the show pictured a minimalist caricature of Hitchcock's profile (he drew it himself; it is composed of only nine strokes) which his real silhouette then filled. His introductions before the stories in his program always included some sort of wry humor, such as the description of a recent multi-person execution hampered by having only one electric chair, while two are now shown with a sign \"Two chairs--no waiting!\" He directed a few episodes of the TV series himself, and he upset a number of movie production companies when he insisted on using his TV production crew to produce his motion picture Psycho. In the late 1980s , a new version of Alfred Hitchcock Presents was produced for television, making use of Hitchcock's original introductions in a colorised form.\nAlfred Hitchcock Presents was parodied by Friz Freleng's 1961 cartoon The Last Hungry Cat , which contains a plot similar to Blackmail.\n\"Hitch\" used a curious little tune by the French composer Charles Gounod ( 1818–1893 ), the composer of the 1859 opera Faust, as the theme \"song\" for his television programs, after it was suggested to him by composer Bernard Herrmann. Arthur Fiedler and the Boston Pops Orchestra included the piece, Funeral March of a Marionette, in one of their extended play 45 rpm discs for RCA Victor during the 1950s .\nHitchcock appears as a character in the popular juvenile detective book series, Alfred Hitchcock and the Three Investigators . The long-running detective series was created by Robert Arthur, who wrote the first several books, although other authors took over after he left the series. The Three Investigators—Jupiter Jones, Bob Andrews and Peter Crenshaw—were amateur detectives, slightly younger than the Hardy Boys. In the introduction to each book, \"Alfred Hitchcock\" introduces the mystery, and he sometimes refers a case to the boys to solve. At the end of each book, the boys report to Hitchcock, and sometimes give him a memento of their case.\nWhen the real Hitchcock died, the fictional Hitchcock in the Three Investigators books was replaced by a retired detective named Hector Sebastian. At this time, the series title was changed from Alfred Hitchcock and the Three Investigators to The Three Investigators.\nAt the height of Hitchcock's success, he was also asked to introduce a set of books with his name attached. The series was a collection of short stories by popular short-story writers, primarily focused on suspense and thrillers. These titles included Alfred Hitchcock's Anthology , Alfred Hitchcock Presents: Stories to be Read with the Door Locked, Alfred Hitchcock's Monster Museum, Alfred Hitchcock's Supernatural Tales of Terror and Suspense, Alfred Hitchcock's Spellbinders in Suspense, Alfred Hitchcock's Witch's Brew, Alfred Hitchcock's Ghostly Gallery, Alfred Hitchcock's A Hangman's Dozen and Alfred Hitchcock's Haunted Houseful. Hitchcock himself was not actually involved in the reading, reviewing, editing or selection of the short stories; in fact, even his introductions were ghost-written. The entire extent of his involvement with the project was to lend his name and collect a check.\nSome notable writers whose works were used in the collection, include Shirley Jackson (Strangers in Town, The Lottery), T.H. White (The Once and Future King), Robert Bloch, H. G. Wells (The War of the Worlds), Robert Louis Stevenson, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, Mark Twain] and the creator of The Three Investigators, Robert Arthur.\nHitchcock also wrote a mystery story for Look magazine in 1943 , \"The Murder of Monty Woolley\". This was a sequence of captioned photographs inviting the reader to inspect the pictures for clues to the murderer's identity; Hitchcock cast the performers as themselves; such as Woolley, Doris Merrick and make up man Guy Pearce, whom Hitchcock identified, in the last photo, as the murderer. The article was reprinted in Games Magazine in November/December 1980.\nFilmography\n4 films: Cary Grant: Suspicion ( 1941 ), Notorious ( 1946 ), To Catch a Thief ( 1955 ), and North By Northwest ( 1959 )\n4 films: James Stewart: Rope (1948), Rear Window (1954), The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956), and Vertigo (1958)\n4 films: Edmund Gwenn: The Skin Game (1931), Waltzes from Vienna (1934), Foreign Correspondent (1940), andThe Trouble with Harry (1955)\n3 films: Ingrid Bergman: Spellbound (1945), Notorious (1946), and Under Capricorn (1949)\n3 films: Grace Kelly: Dial M for Murder (1954), Rear Window (1954), and To Catch a Thief (1955)\n3 films: John Williams: The Paradine Case (1947), Dial M for Murder, (1954), and To Catch a Thief (1955)\n3 films: Patricia Hitchcock: Stage Fright (1950), Strangers on a Train (1951), Psycho (1960)\nFrequent collaborators", "Alfred Hitchcock - Director - Films as Director:, Other Films:, Publications\nAlfred Hitchcock - Director\nAlfred Hitchcock - Director\nNationality: British. Born: Alfred Joseph Hitchcock in Leytonstone, London, 13 August 1899, became U.S. citizen, 1955. Education: Salesian College, Battersea, London, 1908; St. Ignatius College, Stamford Hill, London, 1908–13; School of Engineering and Navigation, 1914; attended drawing and design classes under E.J. Sullivan, London University, 1917. Family: Married Alma Reville, 2 December 1926, daughter Patricia born 1928. Career: Technical clerk, W.T. Henley Telegraph Co., 1914–19; title-card designer for Famous Players-Lasky at Islington studio, 1919; scriptwriter and assistant director, from 1922; directed two films for producer Michael Balcon in Germany, 1925; signed with British International Pictures as director, 1927; directed first British film to use synchronized sound, Blackmail , 1929; signed with Gaumont-British Studios, 1933; moved to America to direct Rebecca for Selznick International Studios, decided to remain, 1939; returned to Britain to make short films for\nAlfred Hitchcock\nMinistry of Information, 1944; directed first film in color, Rope , 1948; producer and host, Alfred Hitchcock Presents ( The Alfred Hitchcock Hour from 1962), for TV, 1955–65. Awards: Irving Thalberg Academy Award, 1968; Chevalier de la Légion d'Honneur, 1971; Commander of the Order of Arts and Letters, France, 1976; Life Achievement Award, American Film Institute, 1979; Honorary Doctorate, University of Southern California; Knight of the Legion of Honour of the Cinématheque Français; knighted, 1980. Died: Of kidney failure, in Los Angeles, 29 April 1980.\nFilms as Director:\nOnce upon a Time . . . Is Now (Billington, for TV) (role as interviewee)\nPublications\nLe Cinéma selon Hitchcock , with François Truffaut, Paris, 1966; published as Hitchcock , New York, 1985.\nBy HITCHCOCK: articles—\n\"My Own Methods,\" in Sight and Sound (London), Summer 1937.\n\"On Suspense and Other Matters,\" in Films in Review (New York), April 1950.\nInterview with Claude Chabrol, in Cahiers du Cinéma (Paris), February 1955.\nInterview with Catherine de la Roche, in Sight and Sound (London), Winter 1955/56.\n\"Rencontre avec Alfred Hitchcock,\" with François Truffaut, in Cahiers du Cinéma (Paris), September 1956.\n\"Alfred Hitchcock Talking,\" in Films and Filming (London), July 1959.\nInterview with Ian Cameron and V.F. Perkins, in Movie (London), 6 January 1963.\n\"Hitchcock on Style,\" in Cinema (Beverly Hills), August/September 1963.\n\" Rear Window ,\" in Take One (Montreal), November/December 1968.\n\"Alfred Hitchcock: The German Years,\" an interview with B. Thomas, in Action (Los Angeles), January/February 1973.\n\"Hitchcock,\" transcript of address to Film Society of Lincoln Center, 29 April 1974, in Film Comment (New York), July/August 1974.\n\"Hitchcock,\" an interview with Andy Warhol, in Inter/View (New York), September 1974.\n\"Surviving,\" an interview with John Taylor, in Sight and Sound (London), Summer 1977.\nOn HITCHCOCK: books—\nAmengual, Barthélémy, and Raymond Borde, Alfred Hitchcock , Paris, 1957.\nRohmer, Eric, and Claude Chabrol, Hitchcock , Paris, 1957.\nBogdanovich, Peter, The Cinema of Alfred Hitchcock , New York, 1962.\nPerry, George, The Films of Alfred Hitchcock , London, 1965.\nWood, Robin, Hitchcock's Films , London, 1965; published as Hitchcock's Films Revisited , New York, 1989.\nDouchet, Jean, Alfred Hitchcock , Paris, 1967.\nSimsolo, Noel, Alfred Hitchcock , Paris, 1969.\nTaylor, John Russell, Hitch , New York, 1978.\nBellour, Raymond, L'Analyse du film , Paris, 1979.\nFieschi, J.-A., and others, Hitchcock , Paris, 1981.\nHemmeter, Thomas M., Hitchcock the Stylist , Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1981.\nBazin, Andre, The Cinema of Cruelty: From Buñuel to Hitchcock , New York, 1982.\nNarboni, Jean, editor, Alfred Hitchcock , Paris, 1982.\nRothman, William, Hitchcock—The Murderous Gaze , Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1982.\nSpoto, Donald, The Dark Side of Genius: The Life of Alfred Hitchcock , New York, 1982.\nWeis, Elisabeth, The Silent Scream: Alfred Hitchcock's Sound Track , Rutherford, New Jersey, 1982.\nBelton, John, Cinema Stylists , Metuchen, New Jersey, 1983.\nPhillips, Gene D., Alfred Hitchcock , Boston, 1984.\nDouchet, Jean, Alfred Hitchcock , Paris, 1985.\nDeutelbaum, Marshall, and Leland Poague, A Hitchcock Reader , Ames, Iowa, 1986.\nHogan, David J., Dark Romance: Sexuality in the Horror Film , Jefferson, North Carolina, 1986.\nHumphries, Patrick, The Films of Alfred Hitchcock , Greenwich, Connecticut, 1986.\nKloppenburg, Josef, Die Dramaturgische Funktion der Musik in Filmen Alfred Hitchcocks , Munich, 1986.\nRyall, Tom, Alfred Hitchcock and the British Cinema , London, 1986.\nSinyard, Neil, The Films of Alfred Hitchcock , London, 1986.\nLeff, Leonard J., Hitchcock and Selznick: The Rich and Strange Collaboration of Alfred Hitchcock and David O. Selznick in Hollywood , New York, 1987.\nModleski, Tania, The Women Who Knew Too Much: Hitchcock and Feminist Theory , New York, 1988.\nBrill, Linda, The Hitchcock Romance: Love and Irony in Hitchcock's Films , Princeton, New Jersey, 1988.\nLeitch, Thomas M., Find the Director and Other Hitchcock Games , Athens, Georgia, 1991.\nRaubicheck, Walter, and Walter Srebnick, editors, Hitchcock's Rereleased Films: From Rope to Vertigo , Detroit, 1991.\nSharff, Stefan, Alfred Hitchcock's High Vernacular: Theory and Practice , New York, 1991.\nFinler, Joel W., Hitchcock in Hollywood , New York, 1992.\nKapsis, Robert E., Hitchcock: The Making of a Reputation , Chicago, 1992.\nPrice, Theodore, Hitchcock and Homosexuality: His 50-Year Obsession with Jack the Ripper and the Superbitch Prostitute , Metuchen, New Jersey, 1992.\nSpoto, Donald, The Art of Alfred Hitchcock: Fifty Years of His Motion Pictures , New York, 1992.\nCorber, Robert J., In the Name of National Security: Hitchcock, Homophobia, and the Political Construction of Gender in Postwar America , Durham, North Carolina, 1993.\nHurley, Neil P., Soul in Suspense: Hitchcock's Fright and Delight , Metuchen, New Jersey, 1993.\nNaremore, James, North by Northwest: Alfred Hitchcock, Director , New Brunswick, New Jersey, 1993.\nSloan, Jane, Alfred Hitchcock: A Guide to References and Sources , New York, 1993.\nArginteanu, Judy, The Movies of Alfred Hitchcock , Minneapolis, 1994.\nGottlieb, Sidney, editor, Hitchcock on Film: Selected Writings and Interviews , Berkeley, California, 1995.\nSloan, Jane E., Alfred Hitchcock: A Filmography and Bibliography , Berkeley, 1995.\nBoyd, David, editor, Perspectives on Alfred Hitchcock , New York, 1995.\nRebello, Stephen, Alfred Hitchcock and the Making of Psycho , New York, 1998.\nSamuels, Robert, Hitchcock's Bi-Textuality: Lacan, Feminisms, and Queer Theory , Albany, New York, 1998.\nFreedman, Jonathan, and Richard Millington, editors, Hitchcock's America , New York, 1999.\nAuiler, Dan, Hitchcock's Notebooks: An Authorized and Illustrated Look inside the Creative Mind of Alfred Hitchcock , New York, 1999.\nOn HITCHCOCK: articles—\nPratley, Gerald, \"Alfred Hitchcock's Working Credo,\" in Films in Review (New York), December 1952.\n\"Hitchcock Issue\" of Cahiers du Cinéma (Paris), October 1953.\nMay, Derwent, in Sight and Sound (London), October/December 1954.\nBazin, André, \"Alfred Hitchcock,\" in Radio, Cinéma, Télévision (Paris), 23 January 1955.\nSarris, Andrew, \"The Trouble with Hitchcock,\" in Film Culture (New York), Winter 1955.\n\"Hitchcock Issue\" of Cahiers du Cinéma (Paris), August/September 1956.\nPett, John, \"A Master of Suspense,\" in Films and Filming (London), November and December 1959.\nCameron, Ian, \"Hitchcock and the Mechanics of Suspense,\" in Movie (London), October 1962.\nHigham, Charles, \"Hitchcock's World,\" in Film Quarterly (Berkeley), December/January 1962/63.\nHouston, Penelope, \"The Figure in the Carpet,\" in Sight and Sound (London), Autumn 1963.\nTruffaut, François, \"Skeleton Keys,\" in Film Culture (New York), Spring 1964.\nCameron, Ian, and Richard Jeffrey, \"The Universal Hitchcock,\" in Movie (London), Spring 1965.\n\"An Alfred Hitchcock Index,\" in Films in Review (New York), April 1966.\nSonbert, Warren, \"Alfred Hitchcock: Master of Morality,\" in Film Culture (New York), Summer 1966.\nLightman, Herb, \"Hitchcock Talks about Light, Camera, Action,\" in American Cinematographer (Hollywood), May 1967.\nBraudy, Leo, \"Hitchcock, Truffaut, and the Irresponsible Audience,\" in Film Quarterly (Berkeley), Summer 1968.\nHouston, Penelope, \"Hitchcockery,\" in Sight and Sound (London), Autumn 1968.\nMillar, Gavin, \"Hitchcock versus Truffaut,\" in Sight and Sound (London), Spring 1969.\nDurgnat, Raymond, \"The Strange Case of Alfred Hitchcock,\" in Films and Filming (London), February 1970 through November 1970.\nSmith, J.M., \"Conservative Individualism: A Selection of English Hitchcock,\" in Screen (London), Autumn 1972.\nKaplan, G., \"Lost in the Wood,\" in Film Comment (New York), November/December 1972.\nPoague, Lee, \"The Detective in Hitchcock's Frenzy : His Ancestors and Significance,\" in Journal of Popular Film (Bowling Green, Ohio), Winter 1973.\nSarris, Andrew, \"Alfred Hitchcock, Prankster of Paradox,\" in Film Comment (New York), March/April 1974.\nSimer, D., \"Hitchcock and the Well-Wrought Effect,\" in Literature/ Film Quarterly (Salisbury, Maryland), Summer 1975.\nFisher, R., \"The Hitchcock Camera 'I',\" in Filmmakers Newsletter (Ward Hill, Massachusetts), December 1975.\nSilver, A.J., \"Fragments of a Mirror: Uses of Landscape in Hitchcock,\" in Wide Angle (Athens, Ohio), v. 1, no. 3, 1976.\nBellour, Raymond, \"Hitchcock, the Enunciator,\" in Camera Obscura (Berkeley), Fall 1977.\nLehman, Ernest, \"He Who Gets Hitched,\" in American Film (Washington, D.C.), May 1978.\n\"Hitchcock Section\" of Wide Angle (Athens, Ohio), vol. 4, no. 1, 1980.\nCombs, Richard, \"Perché Hitchcock?,\" and Ivor Montagu, \"Working with Hitchcock,\" in Sight and Sound (London), Summer 1980.\n\"Hitchcock Issue\" of Cinématographe (Paris), July/August 1980.\nLehman, Ernest, \"Hitch,\" in American Film (Washington, D.C.), August 1980.\nWollen, P., \"Hybrid Plots in Psycho ,\" in Framework (Norwich, England), Autumn 1980.\nBelton, John, \"Alfred Hitchcock's Under Capricorn : Montage entranced by mise-en-scène,\" in Quarterly Review of Film Studies (New York), Fall 1981.\n\"Hitchcock Issue\" of Camera/Stylo (Paris), November 1981.\nBrown, R.S., \"Herrmann, Hitchcock, and the Music of the Irrational,\" in Cinema Journal (Chicago), Spring 1982.\nRossi, J., \"Hitchcock's Foreign Correspondent ,\" in Film and History (Newark, New Jersey), May 1982.\n\"Hitchcock Issue\" of Avant-Scène du Cinéma (Paris), 1 December 1982.\nWood, Robin, \"Fear of Spying,\" in American Film (Washington, D.C.), November 1983.\nJenkins, Steve, and Richard Combs, \"Hitchcock x 2. Refocussing the Spectator: Just Enough Rope . . . ,\" in Monthly Film Bulletin (London), February 1984.\nSussex, Elizabeth, \"The Fate of F3080,\" in Sight and Sound (London), Spring 1984.\nKehr, Dave, \"Hitch's Riddle,\" in Film Comment (New York), May/June 1984.\n\"Hitchcock Issues\" of Revue Belge du Cinéma (Brussels), Autumn 1984 and Winter 1984/85.\nBannon, B.M., \"Double, Double, Toil and Trouble,\" in Literature/ Film Quarterly (Salisbury, Maryland), January 1985.\nAllen, J. Thomas, \"The Representation of Violence to Women: Hitchcock's Frenzy ,\" in Film Quarterly (Berkeley), Spring 1985.\nFrench, Philip, \"Alfred Hitchcock—The Filmmaker as Englishman and Exile,\" in Sight and Sound (London), Spring 1985.\nKapsis, Robert E., \"Alfred Hitchcock: Auteur or Hack?,\" in Cineaste (New York), vol. 14, no. 3, 1986.\nZirnite, D., \"Hitchcock, on the Level: The Heights of Spatial Tension,\" in Film Criticism (Meadville, Pennsylvania), Spring 1986.\nMiller, G., \"Beyond the Frame: Hitchcock, Art, and the Ideal,\" in Post Script (Jacksonville, Florida), Winter 1986.\nAbel, Richard, \" Stage Fright : The Knowing Performance,\" in Film Criticism (Meadville, Pennsylvania), no. 1/2, 1987.\nAnderegg, Michael, \"Hitchcock's The Paradine Case and Filmic Unpleasure,\" in Cinema Journal (Chicago), vol. 26, no. 4, 1987.\nKapsis, Robert E., \"Hollywood Filmmaking and Reputation–Building: Hitchcock's The Birds ,\" in Journal of Popular Film and TV (Washington, D.C.), Spring 1987.\nGreig, Donald, \"The Sexual Differentiation of the Hitchcock Text,\" in Screen (London), Winter 1987.\nLee, Sander H., \"Escape and Commitment in Hitchcock's Rear Window ,\" in Post Script (Jacksonville, Florida), vol. 7, no. 2, 1988.\nWood, Robin, \"Symmetry, Closure, Disruption: The Ambiguity of Blackmail ,\" in CineAction! (Toronto), no. 15, 1988.\nAmerican Cinematographer (Los Angeles), January 1990.\nDesowitz, Bill, \"Strangers on Which Train?\" in Film Comment (New York), May/June 1992.\nFoley, J., \"The Lady Vanishes,\" in Bright Lights (Cincinnati), no. 10, July 1993.\nWood, Brett, \"Foreign Correspondence: The Rediscovered War Films of Alfred Hitchcock,\" in Film Comment (New York), July/August 1993.\nGreen, Susan, \"The Trouble with Hitch,\" in Premiere , February 1994.\nSalt, Barry, \". . . Film in a Lifeboat?\" in Film History (London), vol. 6, no. 1, Spring 1994.\nKendall, L., \"Better Is To Catch a Thief : A History of Hitchcock II,\" in Film Score Monthly (Chula Vista, California), no. 59–60, July-August 1995.\nHall, John W., \"Touch of Psycho?: Hitchcock's Debt to Welles,\" in Bright Lights (Cincinnati), no. 14, 1995.\nHemmeter, Thomas, \"Hitchcock's Melodramatic Silence,\" in Journal of Film and Video (Atlanta), vol. 48, nos. 1–2, Spring-Summer 1996.\nPerry, Dennis R., \"Imps of the Perverse: Discovering the Poe/Hitchcock Connection,\" in Literature/Film Quarterly , vol. 24, no. 4, October 1996.\nHunter, Evan, \"Me and Hitch,\" in Sight and Sound (London), vol. 7, no. 6, June 1997.\nOn HITCHCOCK: films—\nCasson, Philip, Interview with Alfred Hitchcock , for TV, Great Britain, 1966.\nYa'acovolitz, M., and S. Melul, Im Hitchcock bi Yerushalayin (With Hitchcock in Jerusalem) , short, Israel 1967.\nSchickel, Richard, The Men Who Made the Movies: Alfred Hitchcock , for TV, U.S., 1973.\n* * *\nIn a career spanning just over fifty years (1925–1976), Hitchcock completed fifty-three feature films, twenty-three in the British period, thirty in the American. Through the early British films we can trace the evolution of his professional/artistic image, the development of both the Hitchcock style and the Hitchcock thematic. His third film (and first big commercial success), The Lodger , was crucial in establishing him as a maker of thrillers, but it was not until the mid-1930s that his name became consistently identified with that genre. In the meantime, he assimilated the two aesthetic influences that were major determinants in the formation of his mature style: German Expressionism and Soviet montage theory. The former, with its aim of expressing emotional states through a deformation of external reality, is discernible in his work from the beginning (not surprisingly, as he has acknowledged Lang's Die müde Tod as his first important cinematic experience, and as some of his earliest films were shot in German studios). Out of his later contact with the Soviet films of the 1920s evolved his elaborate editing techniques: he particularly acknowledged the significance for him of the Kuleshov experiment, from which he derived his fondness for the point-of-view shot and for building sequences by cross-cutting between person seeing/thing seen.\nThe extreme peculiarity of Hitchcock's art (if his films do not seem very odd it is only because they are so familiar) can be partly accounted for by the way in which these aesthetic influences from high art and revolutionary socialism were pressed into the service of British middle-class popular entertainment. Combined with Hitchcock's all-pervasive scepticism (\"Everything's perverted in a different way, isn't it?\"), this process resulted in an art that at once endorsed (superficially) and undermined (profoundly) the value system of the culture within which it was produced, be that culture British or American.\nDuring the British period the characteristic plot structures that recur throughout Hitchcock's work are also established. I want here to single out three examples of his work, not because they account for all of the films, but because they link the British to the American period, because their recurrence is particularly obstinate, and because they seem, taken in conjunction, central to the thematic complex of Hitchcock's total oeuvre. The first Hitchcock theme is the story about the accused man : this is already established in The Lodger (in which the male protagonist is suspected of being Jack the Ripper); it often takes the form of the \"double chase,\" in which the hero is pursued by the police and in turn pursues (or seeks to unmask) the actual villains. Examples in the British period are The 39 Steps and Young and Innocent. In the American period it becomes the commonest of all Hitchcock plot structures: Saboteur, Spellbound, Strangers on a Train, I Confess, To Catch a Thief, The Wrong Man, North by Northwest , and Frenzy are all based on it.\nA second Hitchcock plot device is the story about the guilty woman : although there are guilty women in earlier films, the structure is definitively established in Blackmail , Hitchcock's (and Britain's) first sound film. We may also add Sabotage from the British period, but it is in the American period that examples proliferate: Rebecca (Hitchcock's first Hollywood film), Notorious, Under Capricorn, The Paradine Case, Vertigo, Psycho (the first third), The Birds , and Marnie are all variations on the original structure.\nIt is striking to observe that the opposition of the two themes discussed above is almost complete; there are very few Hitchcock films in which the accused man turns out to be guilty after all ( Shadow of a Doubt and Stage Fright are the obvious exceptions; Suspicion would have been a third if Hitchcock had been permitted to carry out his original intentions), and no Hitchcock film features an accused woman who turns out to be innocent ( Dial M for Murder comes closest, but even there, although the heroine is innocent of murder, she is guilty of adultery). Second, it should be noticed that while the falsely accused man is usually (not quite always) the central consciousness of type one, it is less habitually the case that the guilty woman is the central consciousness of type two: frequently, she is the object of the male protagonist's investigation. Third, the outcome of the guilty woman films (and this may be dictated as much by the Motion Picture Production Code as by Hitchcock's personal morality) is dependent upon the degree of guilt: the woman can sometimes be \"saved\" by the male protagonist ( Blackmail, Notorious, Marnie ), but not if she is guilty of murder or an accomplice to it ( The Paradine Case, Vertigo ).\nOther differences between the two types of films are also evident. One should note the function of the opposite sex in the two types, for example. The heroine of the falsely accused man films is, typically, hostile to the hero at first, believing him guilty; she subsequently learns to trust him, and takes his side in establishing his innocence. The function of the male protagonist in the guilty woman films, on the other hand, is either to save the heroine or to be destroyed (at least morally and spiritually) by her. It is important to recognize that the true nature of the guilt is always sexual, and that the falsely accused man is usually seen to be contaminated by this (though innocent of the specific crime, typically murder, of which he is accused). Richard Hannay in The 39 Steps can stand as the prototype of this: when he allows himself to be picked up by the woman in the music hall, it is in expectation of a sexual encounter, the notion of sexual disorder being displaced on to \"espionage,\" and the film systematically moves from this towards the construction of the \"good\" (i.e., socially approved) couple. The very title of Young and Innocent , with its play on the connotations of the last word, exemplifies the same point, and it is noteworthy that in that film the hero's sexual innocence remains in doubt (we only have his own word for it that he was not the murdered woman's gigolo). Finally, the essential Hitchcockian dialectic can be read from the alternation, throughout his career, of these two series. On the whole, it is the guilty woman films that are the more disturbing, that leave the most jarring dissonances: here, the potentially threatening and subversive female sexuality, precariously contained within social norms in the falsely accused man films, erupts to demand recognition and is answered by an appalling violence (both emotional and physical); the cost of its destruction or containment leaves that \"nasty taste\" often noted as the dominant characteristic of Hitchcock's work.\nIt is within this context that the third plot structure takes on its full significance: the story about the psychopath. Frequently, this structure occurs in combination with the falsely accused man plot (see, for example, Young and Innocent, Strangers on a Train, Frenzy ,) with a parallel established between the hero and his perverse and sinister adversary, who becomes a kind of shadowy alter ego. Only two Hitchcock films have the psychopath as their indisputably central figure, but they ( Shadow of a Doubt, Psycho ) are among his most famous and disturbing. The Hitchcock villain has a number of characteristics which are not necessarily common to all but unite in various combinations: a) Sexual \"perversity\" or ambiguity: a number are more or less explicitly coded as gay (the transvestite killer in Murder! , Philip in Rope , Bruno Anthony in Strangers on a Train ); others have marked mother-fixations (Uncle Charlie in Shadow of a Doubt , Anthony Perkins in Psycho , Bob Rusk in Frenzy ), seen as a source of their psychic disorder; (b) Fascist connotations: this becomes politically explicit in the U-boat commander of Lifeboat , but is plain enough in, for example, Shadow of a Doubt and Rope; (c) The subtle associations of the villain with the devil: Uncle Charlie and Smoke in Shadow of a Doubt , Bruno Anthony in the paddle-boat named Pluto in Strangers on a Train , Norman Bates' remark to Marion Crane that \"no one ever comes here unless they've gotten off the main highway\" in Psycho; (d) Closely connected with these characteristics is a striking and ambiguous fusion of power and impotence operating on both the sexual and non-sexual levels. What is crucially significant here is that this feature is by no means restricted to the villains. It is shared, strikingly, by the male protagonists of what are perhaps Hitchcock's two supreme masterpieces, Rear Window and Vertigo. The latter aspect of Hitchcock works also relates closely to the obsession with control (and the fear of losing it) that characterized Hitchcock's own methods of filmmaking: his preoccupation with a totally finalized and story-boarded shooting script, his domination of actors and shooting conditions. Finally, it's notable that the psychopath/villain is invariably the most fascinating and seductive character of the film, and its chief source of energy. His inevitable destruction leaves behind an essentially empty world.\nIf one adds together all these factors, one readily sees why Hitchcock is so much more than the skillful entertainer and master craftsman he was once taken for. His films represent an incomparable exposure of the sexual tensions and anxieties (especially male anxieties) that characterize a culture built upon repression, sexual inequality, and the drive to domination.\n—Robin Wood", "Alfred Hitchcock | Moviepedia | Fandom powered by Wikia\nEdit\nHitchcock's films draw heavily on both fear and fantasy, and are known for their droll humour. They often portray innocent people caught up in circumstances beyond their control or understanding. This often involves a transference of guilt in which the \"innocent\" character's failings are transferred to another character and magnified. Another common theme is the exploration of the compatibility of men and women; Hitchcock's films often take a cynical view of traditional romantic relationships.\nOriginal 1940 poster.\nAlthough Hitchcock was an enormous star during his lifetime, he was not usually ranked highly by contemporaneous film critics. Rebecca was the only one of his films to win the Academy Award for Best Picture , although four others were nominated. Hitchcock never won the Academy Award for Best Director. He was awarded the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award for lifetime achievement in 1967, but never personally received an Academy Award of Merit . The French New Wave critics, especially Eric Rohmer , Claude Chabrol , and François Truffaut, were among the first to promote his films as having artistic merit beyond entertainment. Hitchcock was one of the first directors to whom they applied their auteur theory, which stresses the artistic authority of the director in the movie-making process.\nThrough his fame, public persona, and degree of creative control, Hitchcock transformed the role of the director, which had previously been eclipsed by that of the producer. He is seen today as the quintessential director who managed to combine art and entertainment in a way very few have ever matched. His innovations and vision have influenced a great number of, and .\nBiography\nEdit\nAs a major talent in a new industry with plenty of opportunity, he rose quickly. In 1925, Michael Balcon of Gainsborough Pictures gave him a chance to direct his first film, The Pleasure Garden , made at the Ufaz studios in Germany. However, the commercial failure of this film, and his second, The Mountain Eagle , threatened to derail his promising career, until he attached himself to the thriller genre. The resulting film, The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog , was released in 1927 and was a major commercial and critical success. Like many of his earlier works it was influenced by Expressionist techniques he had witnessed first hand in Germany. In it, attractive blondes are strangled and the new lodger (Ivor Novello) in the Bunting family's upstairs apartment falls under heavy suspicion. This is the first truly \"Hitchcockian\" film, incorporating such themes as the \"wrong man\".\n39 Steps\nFollowing the success of The Lodger, Hitchcock began his first efforts to promote himself in the media, and hired a publicist to cement his growing reputation as one of the British film industry's rising stars. In 1926, he was to marry his assistant director Alma Reville. They had a daughter, Patricia, in 1928. Alma was Hitchcock's closest collaborator. She wrote some of his screenplays and worked with him on every one of his films.\nIn 1929, he began work on Blackmail , his tenth film. While the film was in production, the studio decided to make it one of Britain's first sound pictures. With the climax of the film taking place on the dome of the British Museum, Blackmail also began the Hitchcock tradition of using famous landmarks as the backdrop to a story.\nIn 1933, Hitchcock was once again working for Michael Balcon at Gaumont-British Picture Corporation. His first film for the company, The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934), was a success, while his second, The 39 Steps (1935), is often considered one of the best films from his early period. It was also one of the first to introduce the concept of the \" MacGuffin \", a plot device around which a whole story would revolve. In The 39 Steps, the MacGuffin is a stolen set of blueprints.\nHis next major success was in 1938, The Lady Vanishes , a clever and fast-paced film about the search for a kindly old Englishwoman (Dame May Whitty), who disappears while on board a train in the fictional country of Vandrika (a thinly-veiled version of Nazi Germany).\nBy the end of the 1930s, Hitchcock was at the top of his game artistically, and in a position to name his own terms when David O. Selznick managed to entice the Hitchcocks across to Hollywood.\nHollywood\nEdit\nHitchcock's gallows humour continued in his American work, together with the suspense that became his trademark. However, working arrangements with his new producer were less than optimal. Selznick suffered from perennial money problems and Hitchcock was often unhappy with the amount of creative control demanded by Selznick over his films. Subsequently, Selznick ended up \"loaning\" Hitchcock to the larger studios more often than producing Hitchcock's films himself.\nWith the\nPoster\nprestigious picture Rebecca in 1940, Hitchcock made his first American movie, although it was set in England and based on a novel by English author Dame Daphne du Maurier. This Gothic melodrama explores the fears of a naïve young bride who enters a great English country home and must grapple with a distant husband, a predatory housekeeper, and the legacy of her husband's late wife. It has also subsequently been noted for the lesbian undercurrents in Judith Anderson's performance. The film won the Academy Award for Best Picture of 1940. Hitchcock's second American film, the European-set thriller Foreign Correspondent was also nominated for Best Picture that year.\nHitchcock's work during the 1940s was very diverse, ranging from the romantic comedy, Mr. & Mrs. Smith (1941) and the courtroom drama The Paradine Case (1947), to the dark and disturbing Shadow of a Doubt (1943).\nShadow of a Doubt , his personal favorite, was about young Charlotte \"Charlie\" Newton (Teresa Wright), who suspects her beloved uncle Charlie Spencer (Joseph Cotten) of murder. In its use of overlapping characters, dialogue, and closeups it has provided a generation of film theorists with psychoanalytic potential, including Jacques Lacan and Slavoj Žižek. The film also harkens to one of Cotten's better known films, Citizen Kane .\nSpellbound explored the then very fashionable subject of psychoanalysis and featured a dream sequence which was designed by Salvador Dali . The actual dream sequence in the film was considerably cut from the original planned scene that was to run for some minutes but proved too disturbing for the finished film.\nNotorious (1946) marked Hitchcock's first film as a producer as well as director. As Selznick failed to see the subject's potential, he allowed Hitchcock to make the film for RKO. From this point on, Hitchcock would produce his own films, giving him a far greater degree of freedom to pursue the projects that interested him. Starring Ingrid Bergman and Hitchcock regular Cary Grant, and featuring a plot about Nazis, radium and South America, Notorious was a huge box office success and has remained one of Hitchcock's most acclaimed films. Its inventive use of suspense and props briefly led to Hitchcock being under surveillance by the CIA due to his use of uranium as a plot device.\nRope (his first color film) came next in 1948. Here Hitchcock experimented with marshalling suspense in a confined environment, as he had done earlier with Lifeboat . He also experimented with exceptionally long takes - up to ten minutes (see Themes and devices ). Featuring James Stewart in the leading role, Rope was the first of an eventual four films Stewart would make for Hitchcock. Based on the Leopold and Loeb case of the 1920s, Rope is also among the earliest openly gay-themed films to emerge from the Hays Office controlled Hollywood studio era.\nUnder Capricorn, set in nineteenth-century Australia, also used this short-lived technique, but to a more limited extent. For these two films he formed a production company with Sidney Bernstein, called Transatlantic Pictures, which folded after these two unsuccessful pictures.\nPeak years and decline\nEdit\nLobby Card\nWith Strangers on a Train (1951), his first epic film based on the novel by Patricia Highsmith , Hitchcock combined many of the best elements from his preceding British and American films. Two men casually meet and speculate on removing people who are causing them difficulty. One of the men, though, takes this banter entirely seriously. With Farley Granger reprising some elements of his role from Rope, Strangers continued the director's interest in the narrative possibilities of homosexual blackmail and murder.\nThree very popular films, all starring Grace Kelly , followed. Dial M for Murder was adapted from the popular stage play by Frederick Knott. This was originally another experimental film, with Hitchcock using the technique of 3D cinematography. Rear Window, starred James Stewart again, as well as Thelma Ritter and Raymond Burr . Here the wheelchair-bound Stewart observes the movements of his neighbours across the courtyard and becomes convinced one of them has murdered his wife. Like Lifeboat and Rope , the movie was photographed almost entirely within the confines of a small space: Stewart's tiny studio apartment overlooking the massive courtyard set. To Catch a Thief, set in the French Riviera, starred Kelly and Cary Grant.\nIn 1956, Hitchcock also remade his 1934 film The Man Who Knew Too Much , this time with James Stewart and Doris Day.\nThe spiral motif in Vertigo\n1958's Vertigo again starred Stewart, this time with Kim Novak and Barbara Bel Geddes. The film was a commercial failure, but has come to be viewed by many as one of Hitchcock's masterpieces. Hitchcock followed Vertigo with three very different films, which were all massive commercial successes.\nAll are also recognised as among his very best films: North by Northwest (1959), Psycho (1960), and The Birds (1963). The latter two were particularly notable for their unconventional soundtracks, both by Bernard Herrmann: the screeching strings in the murder scene in Psycho pushed the limits of the time, and The Birds dispensed completely with conventional instruments, using an electronically produced soundtrack. These were his last great films, after which his career slowly wound down. In 1972 Hitchcock returned to London to film Frenzy , his last major success. For the first time, Hitchcock allowed nudity and profane language, which had before been taboo, in one of his films.\nFailing health slowed down his output over the last two decades of his life.\nFamily Plot (1976) was his last film. It related the escapades of \"Madam\" Blanche Tyler played by Barbara Harris , a fraudulent spiritualist, and her taxi driver lover Bruce Dern making a living from her phony powers. William Devane and Katherine Helmond co-starred.\nHitchcock was created a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II in the 1980 New Years Honours. He died just four months later, on April 29, before he had the opportunity to be formally invested by the Queen. He was nevertheless entitled to be known as Sir Alfred Hitchcock and to use the postnominal letters KBE , because he remained a British subject when he adopted American citizenship in 1956.\nLobby Card\nAlfred Hitchcock died from renal failure in his Bel Air, Los Angeles, home aged 80, and was survived by his wife Alma Reville, and their daughter, Patricia Hitchcock O'Connell. His body was cremated, and apparently there was no public funeral or memorial service.\nThemes and devices" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Jacqueline_Kennedy_Onassis.txt" ], "title": [ "Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis" ], "wiki_context": [ "Jacqueline Lee \"Jackie\" Kennedy Onassis (née Bouvier, pronounced; July 28, 1929 – May 19, 1994) was the wife of the 35th President of the United States, John F. Kennedy, and First Lady of the United States during his presidency from 1961 until his assassination in 1963.\n\nBouvier was the elder daughter of Wall Street stockbroker John Vernou Bouvier III and socialite Janet Lee Bouvier. In 1951, she graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in French literature from George Washington University and went on to work for the Washington Times-Herald as an inquiring photographer.\n\nIn 1952, Bouvier met Congressman John F. Kennedy at a dinner party. Shortly after, he was elected to the United States Senate and the couple married the following year. They had four children, two of whom died in infancy. As First Lady, she aided her husband's administration with her presence in social events and with her highly publicized restoration of the White House. On November 22, 1963, she was riding with him in a motorcade in Dallas, Texas, when he was assassinated. She and her children withdrew from public view after his funeral, and she married Aristotle Onassis in 1968.\n\nFollowing her second husband's death in 1975, she had a career as a book editor for the final two decades of her life. She is remembered for her contributions to the arts and preservation of historic architecture, as well as for her style, elegance, and grace. She was a fashion icon; her famous ensemble of pink Chanel suit and matching pillbox hat has become symbolic of her husband's assassination and one of the most iconic images of the 1960s. She ranks as one of the most popular First Ladies and in 1999 was named on Gallup's list of Most Admired Men and Women in 20th century America. \n\nEarly life (1929–1951) \n\nFamily and childhood\n\nJacqueline Lee Bouvier was born on July 28, 1929 at Southampton Hospital in Southampton, New York, to Wall Street stockbroker John Vernou \"Black Jack\" Bouvier III (1891–1957) and socialite Janet Norton Lee (1907–1989). Bouvier's mother was of Irish ancestry, and her father's ancestry included French, Scottish, and English. \nNamed after her father, Bouvier was baptized at the Church of St. Ignatius Loyola in Manhattan; she was raised in the Catholic faith. Her younger sister Lee was born in 1933.\n\nBouvier spent her early childhood years in Manhattan and at Lasata, the Bouviers' country estate in East Hampton on Long Island. She idolized her father, who likewise favored her over her sister, calling his eldest child \"the most beautiful daughter a man ever had\".Leaming (2014), pp. 6-8. Biographer Tina Flaherty attributes her father's praise to fueling Bouvier's confidence in herself, and her sister Lee has stated that she would not have gained her \"independence and individuality\" had it not been for the relationship she had with their father and paternal grandfather.Tracy, pp. 9-10. From an early age, Bouvier was an enthusiastic equestrienne and successfully competed in the sport; horse-riding would remain a lifelong passion. She also took ballet lessons, was an avid reader, and excelled at learning languages, with French being particularly emphasized in her upbringing. \n\nBouvier was enrolled in the Chapin School in Manhattan in 1935, which she attended for grades 1–6. While a bright student, she often misbehaved; one of her teachers described her as \"a darling child, the prettiest little girl, very clever, very artistic, and full of the devil\". Bouvier's mother attributed her behavior to her finishing assignments before classmates and then acting out in boredom.Harris, pp. 540–541 Her behavior improved after the headmistress warned her that none of her positive qualities would matter if she did not behave.\n\nBouvier's parents' marriage was strained by her father's alcoholism and extramarital affairs; the family had also been in constant financial problems since the Wall Street Crash of 1929. They separated in 1936 and divorced four years later, with the press publishing intimate details of the split. According to her cousin John H. Davis, Bouvier was deeply affected by the divorce, and subsequently had a \"tendency to withdraw frequently into a private world of her own\". When her mother married Standard Oil heir Hugh Dudley Auchincloss, Jr., Bouvier and her sister did not attend the ceremony as it was arranged quickly and travel was restricted due to World War II. Bouvier gained three step-siblings from Auchincloss' two previous marriages, Hugh \"Yusha\" Auchincloss III, Thomas Gore Auchincloss, and Nina Gore Auchincloss; she formed the closest bond with Yusha, who became one of her most trusted confidants.Tracy, p. 17. The marriage later produced two more children, Janet Jennings Auchincloss (1945–1985) and James Lee Auchincloss (born 1947).\n\nAfter the remarriage, the Bouvier sisters' primary residence was Auchincloss' Merrywood estate in McLean, Virginia, but they also spent time at his other estate, Hammersmith Farm in Newport, Rhode Island, and in their father's homes in New York City and Long Island. Although she retained a relationship with her father, Bouvier also regarded her stepfather as a close paternal figure. He gave her a stable environment and the pampered childhood she never would have experienced otherwise. While Bouvier adjusted to her mother's remarriage, she sometimes felt like an outsider in the WASP social circle of the Auchinclosses, attributing the feeling to her being Catholic as well as being a child of divorce, which was not common in that social group at that time. \n\nAfter six years at Chapin, Bouvier attended the Holton-Arms School in Bethesda, Maryland from 1942 to 1944, and Miss Porter's School in Farmington, Connecticut, from 1944 to 1947.Pottker, p. 7 She chose Miss Porter's because it was a boarding school, which allowed her to distance herself from the Auchinclosses, and because the school placed an emphasis on college preparatory classes. In her senior year yearbook, Bouvier was acknowledged for \"her wit, her accomplishment as a horsewoman, and her unwillingness to become a housewife\". She graduated among the top students of her class and received the Maria McKinney Memorial Award for Excellence in Literature.Spoto, p. 63.\n\nCollege and early career \n\nBouvier enrolled as a student in Vassar College in Poughkeepsie, New York in the fall of 1947. She had wanted to attend Sarah Lawrence College, closer to New York City, but her parents insisted that she choose the more geographically isolated Vassar. Bouvier was an accomplished student, participated in the school's art and drama clubs and wrote for its newspaper.Spoto, pp. 67-68. Due to her dislike of the college, she did not take an active part in its social life, and instead traveled back to New York City on the weekends. She had made her society debut in the summer before entering college, and became a frequent presence in New York social functions; Hearst columnist Igor Cassini dubbed her the \"debutante of the year\". Bouvier spent her junior year (1949–1950) in France – at the University of Grenoble in Grenoble, and at the Sorbonne in Paris – in a study-abroad program through Smith College. Upon returning home, she transferred to The George Washington University in Washington, D.C., graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree in French literature in 1951. During the early years of her marriage to John F. Kennedy, she took continuing education classes in American History at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C.\n\nWhile attending George Washington, Bouvier won a twelve-month junior editorship at Vogue magazine, selected over several hundred of girls from across the country.Leaming (2014), pp. 19-21 The position entailed six months working in the magazine's New York City office and spending the remaining six in Paris. Before beginning the editorship, Bouvier celebrated her college graduation and the high school graduation of her sister Lee by traveling with her to Europe for the summer. The trip was the subject of her only autobiographical book, One Special Summer, co-authored with her sister; it is also the only one of her published works to feature her drawings. When she returned to the U.S. in the fall of 1951, Bouvier changed her mind about the Vogue editorship and quit after only one day of work. According to biographer Barbara Leaming, she made the decision because she was concerned about her marriage prospects, as at the age of 22 she was already considered almost too old to be single in her social circles.\n\nBouvier moved back to Merrywood, and was hired as a part-time receptionist at the Washington Times-Herald. After a week, she approached editor Frank Waldrop requesting more challenging work, and was given the position of an \"Inquiring Camera Girl\", despite Waldrop's initial concerns about her competence. The position required her to pose witty questions to individuals chosen at random on the street and take their pictures to be published in the newspaper alongside selected quotations from their responses. In addition to the random \"man on the street\" vignettes, she sometimes sought interviews with people of interest such as six-year-old Tricia Nixon after her father Richard Nixon was elected to the vice presidency several days after the 1952 presidential election. During this time, Bouvier was also briefly engaged to a young stockbroker, John G. W. Husted, Jr.; the announcement was published in The New York Times in January 1952, after only a month of dating. She broke off the engagement after three months, as she began to find him \"immature and boring\" once she got to know him better.Spoto, pp. 89-91. \n\nWedding and early years of marriage to John F. Kennedy (1952–1959) \n\nBouvier and then-U.S. Representative John Fitzgerald \"Jack\" Kennedy belonged to the same social circle, and were formally introduced by a mutual friend, journalist Charles L. Bartlett, at a dinner party in May 1952. Bouvier was attracted to Kennedy's physical appearance, charm, wit and wealth. The two also shared similarities in both being Catholic and writers, enjoying reading and previously having lived abroad.O'Brien, pp. 265–266 Kennedy was then busy running for the US Senate but after his election in November, the relationship grew more serious and he proposed marriage to her. Bouvier took some time to accept, due to having been assigned to cover the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in London for The Washington Times-Herald. After a month in Europe, she accepted the proposal upon her return to the United States, and resigned from her position at the newspaper. Their engagement was officially announced on June 25, 1953. \n\nBouvier and Kennedy were married on September 12, 1953, at St. Mary's Church in Newport, Rhode Island, in a Mass celebrated by Boston's Archbishop Richard Cushing. The wedding was considered the social event of the season with an estimated 700 guests at the ceremony and 1,200 at the reception that followed at Hammersmith Farm. The wedding dress, now housed in the Kennedy Library in Boston, Massachusetts, and the dresses of her attendants were created by designer Ann Lowe of New York City. \n\nThe newlyweds honeymooned in Acapulco, Mexico before settling in their new home, Hickory Hill in McLean, Virginia, a suburb of Washington, D.C. Kennedy developed a warm relationship with her husband's parents, Joe and Rose Kennedy.O'Brien, pp. 295-296.Leaming (2001), pp. 31-32. In the early years of their marriage, the couple faced several personal setbacks. John Kennedy suffered from Addison's Disease and from chronic and at times debilitating back pain due to a war injury; in late 1954, he underwent two spinal operations that almost proved fatal. Additionally, Kennedy suffered a miscarriage in 1955 and in August 1956 gave birth to a stillborn daughter, Arabella. They subsequently sold their Hickory Hill estate to John's brother Robert, who occupied it with his wife Ethel and their growing family, and bought a townhouse on N Street in Georgetown. \n\nKennedy gave birth to a daughter, Caroline, on November 27, 1957, via Caesarean section. She and John Kennedy were at the time campaigning for his re-election to the Senate, and posed with their infant daughter for the cover of the April 21, 1958 issue of Life. They traveled together during the campaign, trying to narrow the geographical gap between them that had persisted for the first five years of the marriage. Soon enough, John Kennedy started to notice the value she had for his campaign, Kenneth O'Donnell remembering \"the size of the crowd was twice as big\" when she accompanied her husband, also recalling her as \"always cheerful and obliging\". But her husband's mother observed Kennedy as not being \"a natural-born campaigner\" due to her shyness and being uncomfortable with too much attention. In November 1958, John Kennedy was reelected to a second term. He credited Kennedy's help with securing his victory due to her visibility in both ads and stumping, calling her \"simply invaluable\". \n\nIn July 1959, historian Arthur M. Schlesinger visited the Kennedy Compound in Hyannis Port, having his first conversation with Kennedy and finding her to have \"tremendous awareness, an all-seeing eye and a ruthless judgement\". That year, her husband traveled to fourteen states, with Kennedy taking long breaks from the trips so she could spend time with their daughter. She also counseled her husband on improving his wardrobe in preparation for his intended presidential campaign the following year. In particular, she traveled to Louisiana to visit Edmund Reggie and to help her husband garner support in the state for his presidential bid. \n\nFirst Lady of the United States (1960–1963) \n\nCampaign for presidency \n\nJohn F. Kennedy announced his candidacy for the presidency and launched his nationwide campaign on January 3, 1960. In the early months of the election year, Jacqueline Kennedy accompanied her husband to campaign events such as whistle-stops and dinners. But shortly after the campaign began, she became pregnant again and due to her previous high-risk pregnancies was forced to stay at home in Georgetown. Kennedy subsequently participated in the campaign by writing a weekly syndicated newspaper column, Campaign Wife, answering correspondence, and giving interviews to the media.\n\nDespite not participating on the campaign trail, Kennedy's fashion choices became subject to intense media attention. On the one hand, she was admired for her personal style: frequently featured in women's magazines alongside film stars and named as one of the twelve best-dressed women of the world.Beasley, pp. 72–76 On the other, her preference for French designers and her spending on her wardrobe brought her negative press. In order to downplay her wealthy background, Kennedy stressed the amount of work she was doing for the campaign and declined to publicly discuss her clothing choices.\n\nOn July 13, 1960, John Kennedy was nominated by the Democratic Party for President of the United States in Los Angeles at the 1960 Democratic National Convention. Kennedy did not attend the nomination due to her pregnancy, which had been publicly announced ten days earlier.Spoto, pp. 155-157. She watched the September 26, 1960 debate between her husband and Vice President Richard Nixon at Hyannis Port with Marian Cannon, wife of Arthur Schlesinger. Days after the debates, Kennedy contacted Schlesinger, informing him that her husband wanted his aid along with that of John Kenneth Galbraith in preparing for the third debate on October 13 and wished for them to give him new ideas and speeches. On September 29, 1960, the Kennedys appeared together for a joint interview on Person to Person, interviewed by Charles Collingwood.\n\nAs First Lady \n\nJohn F. Kennedy narrowly beat Republican opponent Richard Nixon in the U.S. presidential election on November 8, 1960, A little over two weeks later, on November 25, Kennedy gave birth to the couple's first son, John F. Kennedy, Jr., via Caesarean section. She spent two weeks recovering in the hospital, during which the most minute details of both her and her son's conditions were reported by the media in what has been considered the first instance of national interest in the Kennedy family. \n\nWhen her husband was sworn in as president on January 20, 1961, 31-year-old Kennedy became the third youngest First Lady in American history. As a presidential couple, the Kennedys differed from their immediate predecessors by their relative youth, and their relationship with the media. Historian Gil Troy has noted that in particular, they \"emphasized vague appearances rather than specific accomplishments or passionate commitments\" and therefore fit in well in the early 1960s' \"cool, TV-oriented culture\". The discussion on Kennedy's fashion choices continued during her years in the White House, and she became a trendsetter, hiring American designer Oleg Cassini to design her wardrobe. She was the first First Lady to have her own press secretary, Helen Thomas, and carefully managed her contact with the media, usually shying away from making public statements, and strictly controlling the extent to which her children were photographed.Beasley, pp. 78–83 Portrayed by the media as the ideal woman, academic Maurine Beasley has stated that Kennedy \"created an unrealistic media expectation for first ladies that would challenge her successors\". Nevertheless, by attracting worldwide positive public attention, the First Lady gained allies for the White House and international support for the Kennedy administration and its Cold War policies. \n\nAlthough Kennedy stated that her priority as a First Lady was to take care of the President and their children, she also dedicated her time to the promotion of American arts and preservation of its history. Her main contribution was the restoration of the White House, but she also furthered the cause by hosting social events which brought together elite figures from politics and the arts. One of her unrealised goals was to found a Department of the Arts, but she did contribute to the establishment of the National Endowment for the Arts and the National Endowment of the Humanities, established during Johnson's tenure.\n\nWhite House restoration \n\nKennedy had visited the White House twice prior to becoming First Lady, once as a tourist in 1941 and as the guest of Mamie Eisenhower in 1960. Already as a child, she had been dismayed to find that the mansion's rooms were furnished with undistinguished pieces with little historical significance. She made it her first major project as a First Lady was to restore the house's historical character. Her first efforts, begun on her first day in residence with the help of society decorator Sister Parish, were to make the family quarters attractive and suitable for family life, by for example adding a kitchen on the family floor and rooms for her children. Upon almost immediately exhausting the $50,000 appropriated for this effort, she established a fine arts committee to oversee and fund the restoration process and asked early American furniture expert Henry du Pont to consult. To solve the funding problem, a White House guidebook was published, sales of which were used for the restoration. Working with Rachel Lambert Mellon, Kennedy also oversaw redesign and replanting of the White House Rose Garden and the East Garden, which was renamed the Jacqueline Kennedy Garden after her husband's assassination. In addition, Kennedy helped to stop the destruction of historic homes in Lafayette Square in Washington, D.C., because she felt these buildings were an important part of the nation's capital and played an essential role in its history. \nPrior to Kennedy's years as First Lady, furnishings and other items from the White House had been taken by presidents and their families after their tenures, leading to the lack of original historical pieces in the mansion. To track down these missing furnishings and other historical pieces of interest, she personally wrote to possible donors. She also initiated a Congressional bill establishing that White House furnishings would be the property of the Smithsonian Institution, rather than available to departing ex-presidents to claim as their own, and founded the White House Historical Association, the Committee for the Preservation of the White House, the position of a permanent Curator of the White House, the White House Endowment Trust, and the White House Acquisition Trust.\n\nOn February 14, 1962, Kennedy took American television viewers on a tour of the White House with Charles Collingwood of CBS News. In the tour she stated that \"I feel so strongly that the White House should have as fine a collection of American pictures as possible. It's so important... the setting in which the presidency is presented to the world, to foreign visitors. The American people should be proud of it. We have such a great civilization. So many foreigners don't realize it. I think this house should be the place we see them best.\" The film was watched by 56 million television viewers in the United States, and was later distributed to 106 countries. Kennedy won a special Academy of Television Arts & Sciences Trustees Award for it at the Emmy Awards in 1962, which was accepted on her behalf by Lady Bird Johnson. \n\nForeign trips \n\nThroughout her husband's presidency, Kennedy made many official visits to other countries, on her own or with the President — more than any of the preceding First Ladies. Despite the initial worry that she might not have \"political appeal\", she proved popular among international dignitaries. Before the Kennedys' first official visit to France in 1961, a television special was shot in French with the First Lady on the White House lawn. After arriving in the country, she impressed the public with her ability to speak French, as well as her extensive knowledge of French history. At the conclusion of the visit, Time magazine seemed delighted with the First Lady and noted, \"There was also that fellow who came with her.\" Even President Kennedy joked, \"I am the man who accompanied Jacqueline Kennedy to Paris – and I have enjoyed it!\" \n\nFrom France, the Kennedys traveled to Vienna, Austria, where Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, when asked to shake the President's hand for a photo, stated, \"I'd like to shake her hand first.\" Khrushchev later sent her a puppy, significant for being the offspring of Strelka, the dog that had gone to space during a Soviet space mission. \n\nAt the urging of John Kenneth Galbraith, U.S. Ambassador to India, Kennedy undertook a tour of India and Pakistan with her sister Lee Radziwill in 1962, which was amply documented in photojournalism of the time as well as in Galbraith's journals and memoirs. She was gifted with a horse called Sardar by the President of Pakistan, Ayub Khan, as he had found out on his visit to the White House that he and the First Lady had a common interest in horses. Life magazine correspondent Anne Chamberlin wrote that Kennedy \"conducted herself magnificently” although noting that her crowds were smaller than those that President Dwight Eisenhower and Queen Elizabeth II attracted when they had previously visited these countries. In addition to these well-publicized trips during the three years of the Kennedy administration, she traveled to countries including Afghanistan, Austria, Canada, Colombia, England, Greece, Italy, Mexico, Morocco, Turkey, and Venezuela.\n\nDeath of infant son \n\nIn early 1963, Kennedy was again pregnant, leading her to curtail her official duties. She spent most of the summer at a home she and her husband had rented on Squaw Island, near the Kennedy compound on Cape Cod, Massachusetts. On August 7, five weeks ahead of her scheduled Caesarean section, she went into labor and gave birth to a boy, Patrick Bouvier Kennedy, via emergency Caesarean section at nearby Otis Air Force Base. His lungs were not fully developed, and he was transferred from Cape Cod to Boston Children's Hospital where he died of hyaline membrane disease two days after birth. Kennedy had remained at Otis Air Force Base to recuperate after the Caesarean delivery; her husband went to Boston to be with their infant son, and was present at his death. He returned to Otis on August 14 to take her home, giving an impromptu speech to thank nurses and airmen that had gathered in her suite, and she presented hospital staff with framed and signed lithographs of the White House.\n\nThe First Lady was deeply affected by the death, entering a state of depression afterward.Leaming (2014), pp. 120-122. But losing their child had a positive impact on the marriage, bringing the couple closer together in their shared grief. Arthur Schlesinger wrote that while President Kennedy always \"regarded Jacqueline with genuine affection and pride\", their marriage \"never seemed more solid than in the later months of 1963\". Aware of her depression, Kennedy's friend Aristotle Onassis invited her to his yacht. Despite President Kennedy initially having reservations, he reportedly believed that it would be \"good for her\". The trip was widely disapproved of within the Kennedy administration and by much of the general public, as well as in Congress. The First Lady returned to the United States on October 17, 1963. She would later say she regretted being away as long as she was, but had \"melancholy after the death of my baby\".\n\nAssassination and funeral of John F. Kennedy \n\nOn November 21, 1963, The First Lady and the President left the White House for a political trip to Texas, the first time she had joined her husband on such a trip in the US. After a breakfast on November 22, they flew from Fort Worth's Carswell Air Force Base to Dallas' Love Field on Air Force One, accompanied by Texas Governor John Connally and his wife Nellie. The First Lady was wearing a bright pink Chanel suit and a pillbox hat, which had been personally selected by President Kennedy. A motorcade was to take them to the Trade Mart, where the President was scheduled to speak at a lunch. The First Lady was seated next to her husband in the presidential limousine, with the Governor and his wife seated in front of them. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson and his wife followed in another car in the motorcade.\n\nAfter the motorcade turned the corner onto Elm Street in Dealey Plaza, the First Lady heard what she thought to be a motorcycle backfiring and did not realize that it was a gunshot until she heard Governor Connally scream. Within 8.4 seconds, two more shots had rung out; yet another shot struck the President in the head. Almost immediately, she reached out across the trunk of the car for something. Her Secret Service agent, Clint Hill, later told the Warren Commission that he thought she had been reaching across the trunk for a piece of the President's skull that had been blown off. Hill ran to the car and leapt onto it, directing her back to her seat. As Hill stood on the back bumper, Associated Press photographer Ike Altgens snapped a photograph that was featured on the front pages of newspapers around the world.Trask, p. 318 She would later testify that she saw pictures \"of me climbing out the back. But I don't remember that at all\". \n\nThe President was taken to Dallas' Parkland Hospital. The First Lady was allowed, at her request, to be present in the operating room. After her husband was pronounced dead, Kennedy refused to remove her blood-stained clothing and reportedly regretted having washed the blood off her face and hands, explaining to Lady Bird Johnson that she wanted \"them to see what they have done to Jack\". She continued to wear the blood-stained pink suit as she went on board Air Force One and stood next to Johnson when he took the oath of office as President. The unlaundered suit was donated to the National Archives and Records Administration in 1964, and under the terms of an agreement with Caroline Kennedy will not be placed on public display until 2103. Johnson's biographer Robert Caro wrote that Johnson wanted Kennedy to be present at his swearing-in in order to demonstrate the legitimacy of his presidency to JFK loyalists and to the world at large. \n\nKennedy took an active role in planning her husband's state funeral, modeling it after Abraham Lincoln's. She requested a closed casket, overruling the wishes of her brother-in-law, Robert. The funeral service was held at Cathedral of St. Matthew the Apostle in Washington D.C., and the burial at Arlington National Cemetery; Kennedy led the procession there on foot and lit the eternal flame at the gravesite, a flame that had been created at her request. Lady Jeanne Campbell reported back to The London Evening Standard: \"Jacqueline Kennedy has given the American people... one thing they have always lacked: Majesty.\"\n\nA week after the assassination, on November 29, the Warren Commission was established by President Johnson to investigate the assassination, concluding that Lee Harvey Oswald was the lone perpetrator. Privately, Kennedy cared little about the investigation, stating that even if they had the right suspect, it would not bring her husband back. Nevertheless, she gave a deposition to the Warren Commission. Following the assassination and the media coverage that had focused intensely on her during and after the burial, Kennedy stepped back from official public view, apart from a brief appearance in Washington to honor the Secret Service agent, Clint Hill, who had climbed aboard the limousine in Dallas to try to shield her and the President.\n\nLife following the assassination (1963–1975) \n\nMourning period and later public appearances \n\nOn November 29, 1963, a week after her husband's assassination, Kennedy was interviewed in Hyannis Port by Theodore H. White of Life. In that session, she famously compared the Kennedy years in the White House to King Arthur's mythical Camelot, commenting that the President often played the title song of Lerner and Loewe's musical recording before retiring to bed. She also quoted Queen Guinevere from the musical, trying to express how the loss felt. The era of the Kennedy administration would subsequently often be referred to as the \"Camelot Era\", although historians have later argued that the comparison is not appropriate, with Robert Dallek stating that Kennedy's \"effort to lionize [her husband] must have provided a therapeutic shield against immobilizing grief\". \n\nKennedy and her children remained in the White House for two weeks following the assassination. Wanting to \"do something nice for Jackie\", President Johnson offered an ambassadorship to France to her, aware of her heritage and fondness for the country's culture, but she turned the offer down, as well as follow-up offers of ambassadorships to Mexico and Great Britain. At her request, he renamed the Florida space center the John F. Kennedy Space Center a week after the assassination. Kennedy later publicly praised Johnson for his kindness to her. \n\nKennedy spent 1964 in mourning and made few public appearances during that time. In the winter following the assassination, she and the children stayed at Averell Harriman's home in Georgetown. On January 14, 1964, Kennedy made a televised appearance from the office of the Attorney General, thanking the public for the \"hundreds of thousands of messages\" she had received since the assassination and said she had been sustained by America's affection for her late husband. She purchased a house for herself and the children in Georgetown, but sold it later in 1964 and bought a 15th floor apartment at 1040 Fifth Avenue on Manhattan in the hopes of having more privacy. \n\nIn the following years, Kennedy attended selected memorial dedications to her late husband. She also oversaw the establishment of the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, which is the repository for official papers of the Kennedy Administration. Designed by architect I.M. Pei, it is situated next to the University of Massachusetts campus in Boston.\n\nKennedy was subject to significant media attention in 1966–1967, when she and Robert Kennedy tried to block the publication of William Manchester's authorized account of President Kennedy's death, despite its having been commissioned by her. They sued its publishers, Harper & Row, in December 1966; the suit was settled the following year with Manchester removing passages detailing President Kennedy's family life. White viewed the ordeal as validation of the measures the Kennedy family, Kennedy in particular, were prepared to take to preserve President Kennedy's public image.\n\nDuring the Vietnam War in November 1967, Life magazine dubbed Kennedy \"America's unofficial roving ambassador\" when she and David Ormsby-Gore, former British ambassador to the United States during the Kennedy administration, traveled to Cambodia, where they visited the religious complex of Angkor Wat with Chief of State Norodom Sihanouk. Alam, p. 32 According to historian Milton Osbourne, her visit was \"the start of the repair to Cambodian-US relations, which had been at a very low ebb\". She also attended the funeral services of Martin Luther King, Jr. in Atlanta, Georgia in April 1968, despite her initial reluctancy due to the crowds and reminders of President Kennedy's death. \n\nRelationship with Robert F. Kennedy \n\nAfter the assassination, Kennedy relied heavily on her brother-in-law Robert F. Kennedy, observing him to be the \"least like his father\" of the Kennedy brothers. He had been a source of support early in her marriage when she had her miscarriage; it was he, not her husband, who stayed with her in the hospital. In the aftermath of the assassination, Robert Kennedy became like a surrogate father for her children, until eventually demands by his own large family and his responsibilities as Attorney General required a reduction in attention.Spoto, pp. 239-240. He credited Kennedy for convincing him to stay in politics, and she supported his 1964 run from New York for the United States Senate. \n\nFollowing the January 1968 Tet offensive in Vietnam, which resulted in a drop in President Johnson's poll numbers, Robert Kennedy's advisors urged him to enter the presidential race. When asked by Art Buchwald if he intended to run, Robert replied, \"That depends on what Jackie wants me to do.\" Kennedy met with him around this time, encouraging him to run after previously advising him to not copy his brother, but to \"be yourself\". Privately, she worried about his safety, believing he was more disliked than her husband had been and that there was \"so much hatred\" in the United States. She confided in him about these feelings, but by her own account, he was \"fatalistic\" like her.Flynt and Eisenbach, p. 216 Despite her concerns, Kennedy campaigned for her brother-in-law and supported him, at one point even showing outright optimism that through his victory, members of the Kennedy family would once again occupy the White House.\n\nJust after midnight PDT on June 5, 1968, Robert Kennedy was shot and mortally wounded, minutes after celebrating his victory in the California Democratic presidential primary with a crowd of his supporters. Jacqueline Kennedy rushed to Los Angeles from Manhattan to join his wife, her brother-in-law Ted Kennedy, and the other Kennedy family members at his hospital bedside. He died 26 hours after the shooting without regaining consciousness. \n\nMarriage to Aristotle Onassis \n\nAfter Robert Kennedy's death, Kennedy reportedly suffered a relapse of the depression she had experienced in the days following her husband's assassination nearly five years prior. She came to fear for her life and those of her children, saying: \"If they're killing Kennedys, then my children are targets ... I want to get out of this country\". \n\nOn October 20, 1968, Kennedy married her long-time friend Aristotle Onassis, a wealthy Greek shipping magnate who was able to provide the privacy and security she sought for herself and her children. The wedding took place on Skorpios, Onassis's private Greek island in the Ionian Sea. Following her marriage and now going by the name Jacqueline Onassis, she lost her right to Secret Service protection, an entitlement to a widow of a U.S. president. The marriage brought her considerable adverse publicity, including talk of excommunication by the Roman Catholic church. She was condemned as a \"public sinner\", and became the target of paparazzi who followed her everywhere and nicknamed her \"Jackie O\". \n\nDuring their marriage the couple inhabited six different residences: her 15-room Fifth Avenue apartment in New York City, her horse farm in New Jersey, his Avenue Foch apartment in Paris, his private island Skorpios, his house in Athens, and his 325 ft yacht The Christina. Kennedy ensured that her children had a connection to the Kennedy family by having Ted Kennedy visit them often. She developed a close relationship with him, and he was involved in her public appearances from then on. \n\nAristotle Onassis' health began deteriorating rapidly following the death of his son Alexander in a plane crash in 1973, and he died of respiratory failure at age 69 in Paris on March 15, 1975. His financial legacy was severely limited under Greek law, which dictated how much a non-Greek surviving spouse could inherit. After two years of legal battle, Kennedy eventually accepted a settlement of $26 million from Christina Onassis, Onassis' daughter and sole heir, waiving all other claims to the Onassis estate. \n\nLater years (1975–1990s) \n\nAfter the death of her husband, Onassis returned permanently to the United States, splitting her time between New York City, Martha's Vineyard, and the Kennedy Compound in Hyannis, Massachusetts. In 1975, she became a consulting editor at Viking Press, a position which she held for two years. After almost a decade of avoiding participation in political events, she attended the 1976 Democratic National Convention, stunning the assembled delegates when she appeared in the visitors' gallery. She resigned from Viking Press in 1977 following the false accusation by The New York Times that she held some responsibility for the company's publication of Jeffrey Archer novel Shall We Tell the President?, which was set in a fictional future presidency of Ted Kennedy and described an assassination plot against him. Two years later, she appeared alongside her mother-in-law Rose Kennedy at Faneuil Hall in Boston when Ted Kennedy announced that he was going to challenge incumbent President Carter for the Democratic nomination for president. She participated in the subsequent presidential campaign, which was unsuccessful. \n\nFollowing her resignation from Viking Press, Onassis moved to Doubleday, where she worked as an associate editor under an old friend, John Turner Sargent, Sr. Among the books she edited for the company are Larry Gonick's The Cartoon History of the Universe, the English translation of the three volumes of Naghib Mahfuz's Cairo Trilogy (with Martha Levin), and autobiographies of ballerina Gelsey Kirkland, singer-songwriter Carly Simon, and fashion icon Diana Vreeland. She also encouraged Dorothy West, her neighbor on Martha's Vineyard and the last surviving member of the Harlem Renaissance, to complete the novel The Wedding (1995), a multi-generational story about race, class, wealth, and power in the U.S..\n\nIn addition to her work as an editor, Onassis participated in cultural and architectural preservation. In the 1970s, she led a historic preservation campaign to save from demolition and renovate Grand Central Terminal in New York. A plaque inside the terminal acknowledges her prominent role in its preservation. In the 1980s, she was a major figure in protests against a planned skyscraper at Columbus Circle which would have cast large shadows on Central Park; the project was cancelled, but a large twin-towered skyscraper, the Time Warner Center, would later fill in that spot in 2003.\n\nOnassis remained the subject of considerable press attention, most notoriously involving the paparazzi photographer Ron Galella who followed her around and photographed her as she went about her day-to-day activities, taking candid photos of her without her permission. She ultimately obtained a restraining order against him, and the situation brought attention to the problem of paparazzi photography. From 1980 until her death, her companion and personal financial adviser was Maurice Tempelsman, a Belgian-born industrialist and diamond merchant who was estranged from his wife. \n\nIn the early 1990s, Onassis became a supporter of Bill Clinton and contributed money to his presidential campaign. Following the election, she met with First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton, and advised her on raising a child in the White House. Clinton wrote in her memoir Living History, that Onassis was \"a source of inspiration and advice for me\", while Democratic consultant Ann Lewis viewed Onassis as having reached out to the Clintons \"in a way she has not always acted toward leading Democrats in the past\". \n\nIllness, death and funeral \n\nIn November 1993, while participating in a fox hunt in Middleburg, Virginia, Onassis fell from her horse and was taken to the hospital to be examined.Leaming, pp. 308–309 A swollen lymph node was discovered in her groin, which was initially believed by the doctor to be caused by an infection. In December, Onassis developed new symptoms, including a stomach ache and swollen lymph nodes on her neck, and was diagnosed with non-Hodgkin lymphoma. She began chemotherapy in January 1994, and publicly announced the diagnosis, initially stating that the prognosis was good. While she continued to work at Doubleday, by March, the cancer had spread to her spinal cord and brain, and by May to her liver. Onassis made her last trip home from New York Hospital–Cornell Medical Center on May 18, 1994. The following night at 10:15 p.m., she died in her sleep, two months before her 65th birthday.\n\nFollowing the death, John F. Kennedy Jr. stated to the press, \"My mother died surrounded by her friends and her family and her books, and the people and the things that she loved. She did it in her own way, and on her own terms, and we all feel lucky for that.\" The funeral was held a few blocks away from her apartment on May 23, 1994, at the Church of St. Ignatius Loyola, the Catholic parish where she was baptized in 1929 and confirmed as a teenager. She was buried alongside President Kennedy, their son Patrick, and their stillborn daughter Arabella at Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia. President Bill Clinton delivered a eulogy at her graveside service. \n\nOnassis was survived by her children Caroline and John Jr., three grandchildren, sister Lee Radziwill, son-in-law Edwin Schlossberg, and half-brother James Lee Auchincloss. She left an estate valued at $43.7 million by its executors. \n\nLegacy \n\nPopularity \n\nAmong the First Ladies of the United States, Jacqueline Kennedy remains one of the most popular. She was featured on the annual Gallop list of the top 10 most admired people of the second half of the 20th century 27 times, a number superseded by only Billy Graham and Queen Elizabeth II and higher than that of any U.S. President. In 2011, she was ranked in fifth place in a list of the five most influential First Ladies of the twentieth century for her \"profound effect on American society.\" In 2014, she ranked third place in a Siena College Institute survey, behind Eleanor Roosevelt and Abigail Adams. In 2015, she was included in a list of the top ten influential U.S. First Ladies due to the admiration for her based around \"her fashion sense and later after her husband's assassination, for her poise and dignity.\" \n\nOnassis is seen as being customary in her role as First Lady, though Magill argues her life was validation that \"fame and celebrity\" changed the way First Ladies are evaluated historically. Hamish Bowles, curator of the “Jacqueline Kennedy: The White House Years” exhibit at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, attributed her popularity to a sense of unknown that was felt in her withdrawal from the public which he dubbed \"immensely appealing.\" Writing after her death, Kelly Barber referred to Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis as \"the most intriguing woman in the world\", furthering that her stature was also due to her affiliation with valuable causes. Historian Carl Sferrazza Anthony summarized that the former First Lady \"became an aspirational figure of that era, one whose privilege might not be easily reached by a majority of Americans but which others could strive to emulate.” Since the late 2000s, Kennedy's traditional persona has been invoked by commentators when referring to fashionable political spouses. \n\nKennedy has been credited with restoring the White House by a wide variety of commentators including Hugh Sidey, Leticia Baldridge, Laura Bush, Kathleen P. Galop, and Carl Anthony. \n\nStyle icon \n\nDuring her husband's presidency, Jacqueline Kennedy became a global fashion icon. She retained French-born American fashion designer and Kennedy family friend Oleg Cassini in the fall of 1960 to create an original wardrobe for her as First Lady. From 1961 to late 1963, Cassini dressed her in many of her most iconic ensembles, including her Inauguration Day fawn coat and Inaugural gala gown, as well as many outfits for her visits to Europe, India, and Pakistan. In 1961, Kennedy spent $45,446 more on fashion than the $100,000 annual salary her husband earned as president. Although Cassini was her primary designer, she also wore ensembles by French fashion legends such as Chanel, Givenchy, and Dior.\n\nAs a First Lady, Kennedy preferred to wear clean-cut suits with a skirt hem down to middle of the knee, three-quarter sleeves on notch-collar jackets, sleeveless A-line dresses, above-the-elbow gloves, low-heel pumps, and pillbox hats. Dubbed the \"Jackie\" look, these clothing items rapidly became fashion trends in the Western world. More than any other First Lady, her style was copied by commercial manufacturers and a large segment of young women. Her influential bouffant hairstyle, described as a \"grown-up exaggeration of little girls' hair,\" was created by Kenneth Battelle, who worked for her from 1954 until 1986. \n\nIn the years after the White House, Kennedy's style underwent a change, with her new looks consisting of wide-leg pantsuits, large lapel jackets, gypsy skirts, silk Hermès head scarves, and large, round, dark sunglasses. She often chose to wear brighter colors and patterns and even began wearing jeans in public. Beltless, white jeans with a black turtleneck, never tucked in, but pulled down over the hips, was another fashion trend that she set.\n\nThroughout her lifetime, Kennedy acquired a large collection of jewelry. Her triple-strand pearl necklace designed by American jeweler Kenneth Jay Lane became her signature piece of jewelry during her time as First Lady in the White House. Often referred to as the \"berry brooch,\" the two-fruit cluster brooch of strawberries made of rubies with stems and leaves of diamonds, designed by French jeweler Jean Schlumberger for Tiffany & Co., was personally selected and given to her by her husband several days prior to his inauguration in January 1961. She wore Schlumberger's gold and enamel bracelets so frequently in the early and mid-1960s that the press called them \"Jackie bracelets\"; she also favored his white enamel and gold \"banana\" earrings. Kennedy wore jewelry designed by Van Cleef & Arpels throughout the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s; her sentimental favorite was the Van Cleef & Arpels wedding ring given to her by President Kennedy.\n\nKennedy was named to the International Best Dressed List Hall of Fame in 1965. Many of her signature clothes are preserved at the John F. Kennedy Library and Museum; pieces from the collection were exhibited at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York in 2001. Titled \"Jacqueline Kennedy: The White House Years,\" the exhibition focused on her time as a First Lady. \n\nHonors and memorials \n\n* A high school named Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis High School for International Careers, was dedicated by New York City in 1995, the first high school named in her honor. It is located at 120 West 46th Street between Sixth and Seventh Avenues, and was formerly the High School for the Performing Arts. \n* The main reservoir in Central Park, located in New York City, was renamed in her honor as the Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis Reservoir. \n* The Municipal Art Society of New York presents the Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis Medal to an individual whose work and deeds have made an outstanding contribution to the city of New York. The medal was named in honor of the former MAS board member in 1994, for her tireless efforts to preserve and protect New York City's great architecture. She made her last public appearance at the Municipal Art Society two months before her death.\n* At George Washington University, a residence hall located on the southeast corner of I and 23rd streets NW in Washington, D.C., was renamed Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy Onassis Hall in honor of the alumna. \n* The White House's East Garden was renamed the Jacqueline Kennedy Garden in her honor. \n* In 2007, her name and her first husband's were included on the list of people aboard the Japanese Kaguya mission to the moon launched on September 14, as part of The Planetary Society's \"Wish Upon The Moon\" campaign. In addition, they are included on the list aboard NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter mission.\n* A school and an award at the American Ballet Theatre have been named after her in honor of her childhood study of ballet. \n* The companion book for a series of interviews between mythologist Joseph Campbell and Bill Moyers, The Power of Myth, was created under her direction prior to her death. The book's editor, Betty Sue Flowers, writes in the Editor's Note to The Power of Myth: \"I am grateful... to Jacqueline Lee Bouvier Kennedy Onassis, the Doubleday editor, whose interest in the books of Joseph Campbell was the prime mover in the publication of this book.\" A year after her death in 1994, Moyers dedicated the companion book for his PBS series, The Language of Life as follows: \"To Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis. As you sail on to Ithaka.\" Ithaka was a reference to the C.P. Cavafy poem that Maurice Tempelsman read at her funeral. \n* A white gazebo is dedicated to Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis on North Madison Street in Middleburg, Virginia. The First Lady and President Kennedy frequented the small town of Middleburg and intended to retire in the nearby town of Atoka. She also hunted with the Middleburg Hunt numerous times." ] }

{ "description": [ "She wasn’t clueless about her husband’s work. ... facts about Jackie Kennedy Onassis in her book ... in terms of advising her husband on policy. Before JFK ...", "10 Things You May Not Know About Jacqueline Kennedy ... marrying John F. Kennedy. Before ever going on her first ... her 1968 marriage to Greek ...", "Life of Jacqueline B. Kennedy Life of ... and wove their answers into her newspaper ... Early on in their marriage, Senator Kennedy suffered crippling pain in his ...", "... Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis Dies ... other treatments in recent months while continuing her work as a book ... Just as Jacqueline picked ..." ], "filename": [ "125/125_4681.txt", "22/22_4683.txt", "38/38_4686.txt", "49/49_4687.txt" ], "rank": [ 3, 5, 8, 9 ], "title": [ "Five myths about Jackie Kennedy - The Washington Post", "10 Things You May Not Know About Jacqueline Kennedy ...", "Life of Jacqueline B. Kennedy - John F. Kennedy ...", "Death of a First Lady ; Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis Dies of ..." ], "url": [ "https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/five-myths-about-jackie-kennedy/2013/10/24/5cf1833a-3b2e-11e3-a94f-b58017bfee6c_story.html", "http://www.history.com/news/10-things-you-may-not-know-about-jacqueline-kennedy-onassis", "http://www.jfklibrary.org/JFK/Life-of-Jacqueline-B-Kennedy.aspx", "http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0728.html" ], "search_context": [ "Five myths about Jackie Kennedy - The Washington Post\nFive myths about Jackie Kennedy\nThe inside track on Washington politics.\nBe the first to know about new stories from PowerPost. Sign up to follow, and we’ll e-mail you free updates as they’re published.\nYou’ll receive free e-mail news updates each time a new story is published.\nYou’re all set!\nJacqueline Kennedy relaxing in a chair, a few weeks after her husband won the presidency. (AFP/Getty Images)\nBy Michael Beschloss By Michael Beschloss October 24, 2013\nMichael Beschloss’s most recent book is “ Jacqueline Kennedy: Historic Conversations on Life with John F. Kennedy .”\nJacqueline Bouvier Kennedy Onassis, the glamorous wife who was beside John F. Kennedy during his presidency and when he was shot, was for 33 years the most famous woman on Earth. Yet after 1964, she never wrote or spoke publicly about her 10-year marriage to JFK, let alone the rest of her life. An avalanche of books, written without her cooperation or access to her papers, have reduced some of the mystery surrounding her but have inevitably left us with myths about Jackie Kennedy that are widely believed to this day.\n1. She grew up an heiress.\nCertainly she was born to a wealthy family and had a privileged upbringing. Her father, John V. Bouvier III, was an investment banking scion, and her mother, Janet Lee, was the daughter of a construction tycoon who built some of the most distinguished apartment houses on Park Avenue in New York. But her father lost most of his money in the Great Depression, her parents divorced bitterly, and she later said that when she was in boarding school, she was sometimes nervous that her father would not be able to pay her tuition bills.\nWhen her mother married the Standard Oil heir Hugh D. Auchincloss Jr., his largesse did not extend to Jacqueline and her sister. So when, after graduating from George Washington University in 1951, Jackie took a job as the “Inquiring Camera Girl” for the Washington Times-Herald, she did it because she needed the salary.\n2. As first lady, she was a stranger to hard work.\nAs Lady Bird Johnson, the wife of JFK’s vice president, said: Jackie “was a worker, which I don’t think was always quite recognized.” Her restoration of the White House was not some minor exercise in redecoration. When she toured the mansion after JFK’s election in 1960, she was astonished to find that the state rooms looked like the lobby of a prosaic Statler Hotel, which to her meant dreariness. That was not an accident; after the White House was gutted and rebuilt with an interior steel frame during Harry Truman’s second term, Truman had saved money by having the New York department store B. Altman furnish the mansion’s main floor.\nJackie was appalled that there were so few artifacts, paintings or pieces of furniture rooted in American history. She took it upon herself to raise private money, recruit scholars and search for such objects that would constitute a permanent White House collection. Within a year, this was sufficiently underway, so that in February 1962, she was able to stage her famous televised tour of the state floor of the mansion in its new incarnation, which, for the most part, was similar to how it looks today. During that TV show, she said she was trying to improve the way “the presidency is presented to the world.”\nAt the same time, she had Air Force One’s exterior redesigned, turned the Oval Office into something more resembling a living room and transformed the rituals for South Lawn arrival ceremonies and state dinners, all of which survive almost intact 50 years later. As a young woman, Jackie once puckishly wrote that her aim was to be the “art director of the twentieth century.” She succeeded in performing that role for her husband’s presidency.\n3. She had little interest in JFK’s political life.\n1 of 12\nBuy Photo\nWait 1 second to continue.\nJacqueline Kennedy was no Eleanor Roosevelt or Hillary Rodham Clinton in terms of advising her husband on policy. Before JFK’s election, she startled reporters by confessing that she did not know the date of the presidential inauguration, and when asked what might be a suitable venue for the next Democratic convention, she said, “Acapulco.” But she wasn’t clueless about her husband’s line of work.\nShe was first lady in a time — which has not quite ended — when many Americans were put off if a president’s wife seemed too involved in his political career. In almost every presidential marriage you will find a first lady who, while she serves, insists that all politics is left to the president — but when viewed in history, she turns out to have been a significant influence on that presidency. Jackie is no exception.\nThe first lady’s oral history for the Kennedy Library, sealed until 2011, reveals her opinions on virtually every major figure of JFK’s administration and makes it quite clear that she shared them with her husband. Although she does not say that explicitly, the historian who reads these comments closely will note that the men and women Jackie praises, such as Defense Secretary Robert McNamara and national security adviser McGeorge Bundy, tended to be promoted or given more power by President Kennedy. And those she disdains, such as Secretary of State Dean Rusk, tended to languish. Had someone else been JFK’s first lady, some of the most important personnel decisions during that presidency might have been different.\n4. In the three decades after November 1963, she managed to get beyond the Dallas tragedy.\nAlas, it’s more likely that she never did. After she left the White House, a fortnight after the assassination, she asked her Secret Service drivers to avoid routes that might cause her to glimpse the mansion, even at a distance. She visited again only once after 1963: She agreed to a secret, unphotographed trip with her children in 1971 to what was by then Richard Nixon’s White House to view Aaron Shikler’s portraits of her and her husband. She later wrote Nixon with thanks, saying, “A day I had always dreaded turned out to be one of the most precious ones I have spent with my children.”\nWhen Hillary Rodham Clinton became first lady in 1993, she and Jackie were friends, and she urged JFK’s widow to revisit the White House. Jackie declined but appreciated the gesture. After she died, her son John wrote to Clinton: “Since she left Washington I believe she resisted ever connecting with it emotionally — or the institutional demands of being a former First Lady. It had much to do with the memories stirred and her desires to resist being cast in a lifelong role that didn’t quite fit.”\n5. She remained a woman of the early-1960s, pre-feminist era.\nSure, in the oral history she gave in 1964, Jackie Kennedy said that women should not go into politics because they are “too emotional” and that in the “best” marriages, wives are subordinate to husbands. But, like millions of American women, she changed emphatically.\nAfter the death of her second husband, Aristotle Onassis, in 1975, she got a job as a New York editor at Viking and then Doubleday, publishing art books, histories and memoirs, and was known to most of her authors as a genuine, hands-on colleague who performed the kind of assiduous line-editing that, even in the 1990s, was growing scarce.\nShe lived through and reflected a crucial period in U.S. history in which women moved into the mainstream of American professional life and redefined their roles.", "10 Things You May Not Know About Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis - History in the Headlines\n10 Things You May Not Know About Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis\nJuly 28, 2014 By Evan Andrews\nShare\nJackie Kennedy epitomized the youth and glamour of the Kennedy family.\nShare this:\n10 Things You May Not Know About Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis\nAuthor\n10 Things You May Not Know About Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis\nURL\nGoogle\nRemembered for her impeccable fashion sense, cosmopolitan lifestyle and repeated brushes with tragedy, Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis captivated the American public both during and after her time in the White House. Check out 10 surprising facts about the life and work of one of America’s most iconic first ladies.\nShe worked as a reporter and photographer.\nAfter attending Vassar University, the Sorbonne and George Washington University, Onassis got her first job working as a reporter for the Washington Times-Herald in 1952. As the paper’s “Inquiring Photographer,” the future first lady roamed the streets of the nation’s capital asking strangers their opinions on everything from personal finance (“Do you approve of joint bank accounts?”) to politics and relationships (“Do you think a wife should let her husband think he’s smarter than she is?”). Among the many people she interviewed was Richard Nixon, the man John F. Kennedy would later defeat in the 1960 presidential election.\nShe was briefly engaged to another man before marrying John F. Kennedy.\nBefore ever going on her first date with Kennedy, Onassis very nearly married another man. In January 1952, the society pages of the Washington Times-Herald announced her engagement to a Yale grad, World War II vet and Wall Street banker named John Husted. The 22-year-old Onassis soon began having doubts about the match, and supposedly expressed reservations about becoming a housewife. In March 1952, she abruptly called off the wedding. Only a few months later, she began dating Kennedy—then a U.S. congressman—after meeting him at a dinner party. The two were married in September 1953.\nShe was both admired and criticized for her fashionable clothing.\nOnassis was one of the defining fashion trendsetters of the 1960s. American women eagerly sought out the famous “Jackie look,” and department stores scrambled to produce affordable imitations of her sleek, classy dresses. Nevertheless, her chic sensibility was often a point of contention. Her obsession with pricy French couture was criticized during the 1960 presidential campaign, and after she became first lady, the Kennedy camp worried her taste for foreign clothing could make the family seem out of touch. To solve the problem, her father-in-law, Joseph Kennedy, helped pair her with American-based designer Oleg Cassini. Cassini went on to design more than 300 of Onassis’ most iconic outfits, and later dubbed himself the First Lady’s “Secretary of Style.”\nShe launched a massive renovation of the White House.\nShortly after Kennedy won the 1960 presidential election, Onassis turned her famous eye for style toward overhauling the shabby décor of the White House. After burning through her $50,000 budget in a matter of days, she created the Fine Arts Committee for the White House, courted private donors and went to work acquiring pieces of historically significant furniture from museums and collectors. She soon transformed the presidential mansion into a more elegant space adorned with antiques and artifacts once owned by the likes of George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. In February 1962, she gave a famous televised tour of the renovated White House to Charles Collingwood of CBS-TV. The performance won her a special Emmy Award, and helped cement her celebrity status.\nShe opened a school in the White House.\nDespite her own background as a reporter, Onassis strived to shield her two children from the media during her time in the White House. When press scrutiny and security concerns made it difficult for her young daughter Caroline to travel into the city, Onassis turned the White House’s third floor solarium into a nursery school and invited other kids—some of them children of Kennedy administration staff—to attend. The school later grew into a fully operational kindergarten complete with around ten students, professional teachers and even a small collection of rabbits, guinea pigs and other animals.\nShe spoke multiple languages.\nOnassis was a lifelong student of foreign cultures, and became fluent in French, Spanish and Italian during her school days and European travels. Her facility with languages often proved a valuable asset to her husband’s political career. She translated French books on Southeast Asia for Kennedy when he was still in the senate, and later wowed campaign audiences by speaking French to voters in Louisiana and Spanish in Texas. Following a 1961 visit to France, where Onassis won over the public with her ability to speak the local tongue, her husband jokingly introduced himself as “the man who accompanied Jackie Kennedy to Paris.” President Lyndon Johnson—no doubt conscious of her fluency in Spanish—later considered making her the U.S. ambassador to Mexico.\nShe refused to change her bloodstained pink dress on the day of the JFK assassination.\nOn November 22, 1963, Onassis was sitting alongside her husband when he was killed by an assassin’s bullet while traveling in an open car through Dallas. Her iconic pink wool suit was spattered with blood, but the stunned first lady continued wearing the garment even during Lyndon Johnson’s swearing in as the new president. Lady Bird Johnson asked if she wanted a fresh outfit, but Onassis supposedly declined, saying, “Oh no, I want them to see what they’ve done to Jack.” The bloodstained suit is now held in the National Archives, but its matching pillbox hat was lost on the day of the assassination and has never been recovered.\nShe was the first to refer to the Kennedy administration as “Camelot.”\nIn an interview with Life Magazine a week after her husband’s death, Onassis described his love for “Camelot,” a musical based on the popular Arthurian novel “The Once and Future King.” She noted that the president enjoyed playing a recording of the musical’s title song, which featured the line, “Don’t let it be forgot, that once there was a spot, for one brief, shining moment, that was known as Camelot.” After quoting the lyrics, Onassis went on to say, “There will be great presidents again, but there will never be another Camelot.” The interview proved hugely popular, and “Camelot” soon became shorthand for the myth and glamour of the Kennedy administration.\nShe won a famous court case against a member of the paparazzi.\nFollowing her 1968 marriage to Greek billionaire Aristotle Onassis, “Jackie O” became a favorite target of the paparazzi. Her most persistent admirer was Ron Galella, a notorious photographer who spent several years trailing her through the streets of New York to get candid snaps of her daily life. In 1973, Onassis sued the paparazzo for harassment and invasion of privacy. After a high profile trial, she won a court order forbidding him to step within 25 feet of her or 30 feet of her children. Galella paid little attention to the injunction, and even began carrying a measuring tape so he could ensure he wasn’t breaking the law. He only gave up his pursuit in the 1980s, after Onassis took him to court a second time.\nShe was a successful book editor.\nOnassis had literary ambitions from an early age, and following Aristotle Onassis’s death in 1975, she moved to New York to pursue a career as a book editor. The former first lady started out as a consulting editor at Viking Press before moving to Doubleday, where she worked as a senior editor until her death in 1994. During her time in the publishing world she had a hand in several popular books including the Michael Jackson autobiography “Moonwalk,” Larry Gonick’s “The Cartoon History of the Universe” and translations of Nobel laureate Naguib Mahfouz’s “Cairo Trilogy.”\nAccess hundreds of hours of historical video, commercial free, with HISTORY Vault . Start your free trial today.\nTags", "Life of Jacqueline B. Kennedy - John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum\nLife of Jacqueline B. Kennedy\nLife of Jacqueline B. Kennedy\nLife of Jacqueline B. Kennedy\nGrowing Up\nJacqueline Lee Bouvier was born on July 28, 1929, in Southampton, New York. Her father, John, was a wealthy stockbroker on Wall Street whose family had come from France in the early 1800s. Her mother, Janet, had ancestors from Ireland and England.\nJanet Bouvier was an accomplished rider, and Jackie was only a year old when her mother first put her on a horse. By age 11, she had already won several national championships. The New York Times wrote in 1940:\n\"Jacqueline Bouvier, an eleven-year-old equestrienne from East Hampton, Long Island, scored a double victory in the horsemanship competition. Miss Bouvier achieved a rare distinction. The occasions are few when a young rider wins both contests in the same show.\"\nJackie also enjoyed reading. Before she started school, she had read all the children’s books on her bookshelves. Her heroes were Mowgli from Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book, Robin Hood, Little Lord Fauntleroy’s grandfather, Scarlett O'Hara from Gone With the Wind, and the poet Byron. Mrs. Bouvier wondered if Jackie might one day be a writer.\nGoing to School\nAfter kindergarten, Jackie started first grade at Miss Chapin’s School on East End Avenue in New York. One of her teachers, Miss Platt, thought Jackie was \"a darling child, the prettiest little girl, very clever, very artistic, and full of the devil.\" At times she did get into mischief and would be sent to the headmistress, Miss Ethel Stringfellow, who wrote on her report card: \"Jacqueline was given a D in Form because her disturbing conduct in her geography class made it necessary to exclude her from the room.\"\nWhen Jackie was ten years old, her parents divorced. It was a difficult period for her, especially because at the time few children had divorced parents. She also came from a Catholic family, and the Catholic Church disapproves of divorces. Jackie had always been a private person, but now she became still quieter, keeping her thoughts to herself.\nDespite these hard times, Jackie had many advantages and opportunities in life. She took classical ballet lessons in the old Metropolitan Opera House. She began taking lessons in French. In 1942, when Jackie was about to turn thirteen, her mother married a businessman named Hugh Auchincloss who had children from previous marriages. Besides her younger sister, Lee, Jackie now had two stepbrothers, Yusha and Tommy, and a stepsister, Nina.\nIn June 1947, Jackie graduated from Miss Porter’s School, a boarding school for girls in Connecticut. She continued her education at Vassar College in New York, where she studied history, literature, art, and French. Jackie spent her junior year studying abroad in Paris, France. She lived with the de Renty family at 76 Avenue Mozart. Madame de Renty had two daughters, Claude and Ghislaine, and one four-year-old son, Christian. Jackie later wrote about her experience:\nI loved it more than any year of my life. Being away from home gave me a chance to look at myself with a jaundiced eye. I learned not to be ashamed of a real hunger for knowledge, something I had always tried to hide, and I came home glad to start in here again but with a love for Europe that I am afraid will never leave me\nShe returned to the United States to finish up her last year of college, transferring from Vassar College to The George Washington University because she preferred being in the city and close to her family.\nJacqueline Bouvier: The Inquiring Photographer\nJacqueline started her first job in the fall of 1951 as the \"Inquiring Camera Girl\" for the Washington Times-Herald newspaper. Roving around the city, she took pictures of people she encountered, asked them questions on the issues of the day, and wove their answers into her newspaper column. Among those she interviewed for her column was Richard M. Nixon. She also covered the first inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower and the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II.\nDuring this time, Jacqueline met John F. Kennedy, who was a congressman and soon to be elected senator from Massachusetts. On September 12, 1953, they married at St. Mary’s Church in Newport, Rhode Island. After their honeymoon in Mexico, the Kennedys returned to Washington DC. Early on in their marriage, Senator Kennedy suffered crippling pain in his back from football and wartime injuries and had two operations. While recovering from surgery, Mrs. Kennedy encouraged him to write a book about several US senators who had risked their careers to fight for the things they believed in. The book, called Profiles in Courage, was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for biography in 1957. That same year, the Kennedys’ first child, Caroline, was born.\nIn January 1960, Senator John F. Kennedy announced his candidacy for the presidency of the United States. He began traveling all around the country and Jacqueline often accompanied him. During the campaign, she learned that she was pregnant and her doctors instructed her to remain at home. From there, she answered hundreds of campaign letters, taped TV commercials, gave interviews, and wrote a weekly newspaper column, \"Campaign Wife,\" which was distributed across the country. On November 8, 1960, John F. Kennedy beat Republican Richard M. Nixon in a very close race. Two and-a-half weeks later, Mrs. Kennedy gave birth to their second child, John Fitzgerald Kennedy Jr.\nJacqueline Kennedy: First Lady of the United States\nOn January 20, 1961, John Fitzgerald Kennedy took the oath of office to become the nation's 35th president. At age 31, Jacqueline Kennedy was the first lady. With her gracious personal style and her passion for history and the arts, she worked hard to be worthy of her new role. While she had a deep sense of obligation to her country, her first priorities were to be a good wife to her husband and mother to her children. She told a reporter that \"if you bungle raising your children, I don't think whatever else you do well matters very much.\"\nRestoring the White House\nMrs. Kennedy soon set about making the White House into a real home for her family. She turned the sun porch on the third floor into a kindergarten school for Caroline and 12 to 15 other children, who came every morning at 9:30. There was also a swimming pool, a swing set, and a tree house on the White House lawn for Caroline and John Jr.\nMrs. Kennedy also thought about what the White House represented to its many visitors and to citizens everywhere. She wanted people to have a greater appreciation of the history of America's most famous residence and its past inhabitants. Her first major project as first lady was to restore and preserve the White House. She enlisted the aid of many experts, established a White House Fine Arts Committee, and created the post of White House curator. Gathering outstanding examples of American art and furniture from around the United States (including many items that had belonged to former presidents and their families), she restored all the public rooms in the White House. CBS Television asked Mrs. Kennedy to present a televised tour of the newly restored White House. Eighty million Americans watched the broadcast, and it earned Jacqueline Kennedy an honorary Emmy Award.\nPromoting the Arts\nThe Kennedys brought a new, youthful spirit to the White House, which they believed should be a place to celebrate American history, culture, and achievement. As first lady, Jacqueline Kennedy planned important dinners and events at the White House and invited artists, writers, scientists, poets, and musicians to mingle with politicians, diplomats, and statesmen. After a visit to the White House, the world-renowned violinist Isaac Stern wrote to Mrs. Kennedy to thank her. \"It would be difficult to tell you,\" he wrote, \"how refreshing, how heartening it is to find such serious attention and respect for the arts in the White House. To many of us it is one of the most exciting developments on the present American cultural scene.\" Mrs. Kennedy also influenced the world of fashion. Her unique and refined sense of style made her a trendsetter, although she discouraged the excessive focus on her appearance by magazines, newspapers, and the general public.\nMrs. Kennedy: Ambassador of Good Will\nMrs. Kennedy also traveled with her husband, representing the United States abroad. Clark Clifford, a respected lawyer and advisor to President Kennedy, was so pleased with Mrs. Kennedy after her trip to Paris, Vienna, and Greece that he sent her a note of appreciation, \"Once in a great while, an individual will capture the imagination of people all over the world. You have done this; and what is more important, through your graciousness and tact, you have transformed this rare accomplishment into an incredibly important asset to this nation.\"\nAs first lady, Mrs. Kennedy also traveled to Italy, India, and Pakistan. Her interest in other cultures and her ability to speak several foreign languages, including French, Spanish, and Italian, brought her good will and admiration around the world.\nA Time of Loss\nOn August 7, 1963, Mrs. Kennedy gave birth to their third child, Patrick Bouvier Kennedy. He suffered from a serious lung ailment and was rushed to the Children's Hospital in Boston, where he died two days later. While still recovering from this loss, another terrible tragedy befell her. On November 22, 1963, President and Mrs. Kennedy were in Dallas, Texas. As their car drove slowly past cheering crowds, shots rang out. President Kennedy was killed and Jacqueline Kennedy became a widow at age 34. She planned the president's state funeral. As it was broadcast around the world, millions of people shared her grief and admired her courage and dignity.\nSoon after President Kennedy’s death, Mrs. Kennedy began the work of creating the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum as a memorial to her husband. She chose the architect I.M. Pei to design the building, which now stands as a landmark overlooking Boston Harbor.\nIn 1968, Jacqueline Kennedy married a Greek shipping magnate Aristotle Onassis. When Mr. Onassis died in 1975, she became a widow a second time. Now that her children were older, Jacqueline decided to begin a new career. She accepted a job as an editor at Viking Press in New York City and later moved to Doubleday as a senior editor. She enjoyed a successful career in publishing until her death on May 19, 1994. Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy Onassis was laid to rest beside President Kennedy in Arlington National Cemetery outside Washington, DC.\nThe Legacy of Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy\nThroughout her life, Jacqueline Kennedy sought to preserve and protect America’s cultural heritage. The results of her work are still visible in Lafayette Square, across from the White House in Washington, DC. While she was first lady, she helped to stop the destruction of historic buildings along the square, including the Renwick Building, now part of the Smithsonian Institution. In New York City, she led a campaign to save and renovate Grand Central Station. Today, more than 500,000 people pass through each day and enjoy its restored beauty, thanks to her efforts.\nJacqueline Kennedy captivated the nation and the rest of the world with her intelligence, beauty, and grace. With a deep sense of devotion to her family and country, she dedicated herself to raising her children and to making the world a better place through art, literature, and a respect for history and public service.", "Death of a First Lady ; Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis Dies of Cancer at 64\nDeath of a First Lady ; Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis Dies of Cancer at 64\nBy ROBERT D. McFADDEN\nJacqueline Kennedy Onassis, the widow of President John F. Kennedy and of the Greek shipping magnate Aristotle Onassis, died of a form of cancer of the lymphatic system yesterday at her apartment in New York City. She was 64 years old.\nMrs. Onassis, who had enjoyed robust good health nearly all her life, began being treated for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in early January and had been undergoing chemotherapy and other treatments in recent months while continuing her work as a book editor and her social, family and other personal routines.\nBut the disease, which attacks the lymph nodes, an important component of the body's immune system, grew progressively worse. Mrs. Onassis entered the New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center for the last time on Monday but returned to her Fifth Avenue apartment on Wednesday after her doctors said there was no more they could do.\nIn recent years Mrs. Onassis had lived quietly but not in seclusion, working at Doubleday; joining efforts to preserve historic New York buildings; spending time with her son, daughter and grandchildren; jogging in Central Park; getting away to her estates in New Jersey, at Hyannis, Mass., and on Martha's Vineyard, and going about town with Maurice Tempelsman, a financier who had become her closest companion.\nShe almost never granted interviews on her past -- the last was nearly 30 years ago -- and for decades she had not spoken publicly about Mr. Kennedy, his Presidency or their marriage.\nMrs. Onassis was surrounded by friends and family since she returned home from the hospital on Wednesday. After she died at 10:15 P.M. on Thursday, Senator Edward M. Kennedy's office issued a statement saying: \"Jackie was part of our family and part of our hearts for 40 wonderful and unforgettable years, and she will never really leave us.\"\nPresident Clinton said he and his wife, Hillary Rodham Clinton, spoke with Mrs. Onassis over the last several days and had been getting regular updates on her condition.\n\"She's been quite wonderful to my wife, to my daughter and to all of us,\" Mr. Clinton said.\nAlthough she was one of the world's most famous women -- an object of fascination to generations of Americans and the subject of countless articles and books that re-explored the myths and realities of the Kennedy years, the terrible images of the President's 1963 assassination in Dallas, and her made-for-tabloids marriage to the wealthy Mr. Onassis -- she was a quintessentially private person, poised and glamorous, but shy and aloof.\nThey were qualities that spoke of her upbringing in the wealthy and fiercely independent Bouvier and Auchincloss families, of mansion life in East Hampton and Newport, commodious apartments in New York and Paris, of Miss Porter's finishing school and Vassar College and circles that valued a woman's skill with a verse-pen or a watercolor brush, at the reins of a chestnut mare or the center of a whirling charity cotillion.\nShe was only 23, working as an inquiring photographer for a Washington newspaper and taking in the capital night life of restaurants and parties, when she met John F. Kennedy, the young bachelor Congressman from Massachusetts, at a dinner party in 1952. She thought him quixotic after he told her he intended to become President.\nBut a year later, after Mr. Kennedy had won a seat in the United States Senate and was already being discussed as a Presidential possibility, they were married at Newport, R.I., in the social event of 1953, a union of powerful and wealthy Roman Catholic families whose scions were handsome, charming, trendy and smart. It was a whiff of American royalty.\nAnd after Mr. Kennedy won the Presidency in 1960, there were a thousand days that seemed to raise up a nation mired in the cold war. There were babies in the White House for the first time in this century, and Jackie Kennedy, the vivacious young mother who showed little interest in the nuances of politics, busily transformed her new home into a place of elegance and culture.\nShe set up a White House fine arts commission, hired a White House curator and redecorated the mansion with early 19th Century furnishings, museum quality paintings and objets d'art, creating a sumptuous celebration of Americana that 56 million television viewers saw in 1961 as the First Lady, inviting America in, gave a guided tour broadcast by the three television networks.\nA Transformation At the White House\n\"She really was the one who made over the White House into a living stage -- not a museum -- but a stage where American history and art were displayed,\" said Hugh Sidey, who was a White House correspondent for Time magazine at the time. He said she told him: \"I want to restore the White House to its original glory.\"\nThere was more. She brought in a French chef and threw elegant and memorable parties. The guest lists went beyond prime ministers and potentates to Nobel laureates and distinguished artists, musicians and intellectuals.\nAmericans gradually became familiar with the whispering, intimate quality of her voice, with the head scarf and dark glasses at the taffrail of Honey Fitz on a summer evening on the Potomac, with the bouffant hair and formal smile for the Rose Garden and the barefoot romp with her children on a Cape Cod beach.\nThere was an avalanche of articles and television programs on her fashion choices, her hair styles, her tastes in art, music and literature, and on her travels with the President across the nation and to Europe. On a visit to New York, she spoke Spanish in East Harlem and French in a Haitian neighborhood.\nArriving in France, a stunning understated figure in her pillbox hat and wool coat as she rode with the President in an open car, she enthralled crowds that chanted \"Vive Jacqui\" on the road to Paris, and later, in an evening gown at a dinner at Versailles, she mesmerized the austere Charles de Gaulle.\nWhen the state visit ended, a bemused President Kennedy said: \"I am the man who accompanied Jacqueline Kennedy to Paris -- and I have enjoyed it.\"\nBut the images of Mrs. Kennedy that burned most deeply were those in Dallas on Nov. 22, 1963: her lunge across the open limousine as the assassin's bullets struck, the Schiaparelli pink suit stained with her husband's blood, her gaunt stunned face in the blur of the speeding motorcade, and the anguish later at Parkland Memorial Hospital as the doctors gave way to the priest and a new era.\nIn the aftermath, some things were not so readily apparent: her refusal to change clothes on the flight back to Washington to let Americans see the blood; her refusal to take sleeping pills that might dull her capacity to arrange the funeral, whose planning she dominated. She stipulated the riderless horse in the procession and the eternal flame by the grave at Arlington.\nAnd in public, what the world saw was a figure of admirable self-control, a black-veiled widow who walked beside the coffin to the tolling drums with her head up, who reminded 3-year-old John Jr. to salute at the service and who looked with solemn dignity upon the proceedings. She was 34 years old.\nA week later, it was Mrs. Kennedy who bestowed the epitaph of Camelot upon a Kennedy Presidency, which, while deeply flawed in the minds of many political analysts and ordinary citizens, had for many Americans come to represent something magical and mythical. It happened in an interview Mrs. Kennedy herself requested with Theodore H. White, the reporter-author and Kennedy confidant who was then writing for Life magazine.\nThe conversation, he said in a 1978 book, \"In Search of History,\" swung between history and her husband's death, and while none of J.F.K.'s political shortcomings were mentioned -- stories about his liaisons with women were known only to insiders at the time -- Mrs. Kennedy seemed determined to \"rescue Jack from all these 'bitter people' who were going to write about him in history.\"\nShe told him that the title song of the musical \"Camelot\" had become \"an obsession with me\" lately. She said that at night before bedtime, her husband had often played it, or asked her to play it, on an old Victrola in their bedroom. Mr. White quoted her as saying:\n\"And the song he loved most came at the very end of this record, the last side of Camelot, sad Camelot. . . . 'Don't let it be forgot, that once there was a spot, for one brief shining moment that was known as Camelot.'\n\". . . There'll never be another Camelot again.\"\nMr. White recalled: \"So the epitaph on the Kennedy Administration became Camelot -- a magic moment in American history, when gallant men danced with beautiful women, when great deeds were done, when artists, writers and poets met at the White House and the barbarians beyond the walls were held back.\"\nBut Mr. White, an admirer of Mr. Kennedy, added that her characterization was a misreading of history and that the Kennedy Camelot never existed, though it was a time when reason was brought to bear on public issues and the Kennedy people were \"more often right than wrong and astonishingly incorruptible.\"\nFive years later, with images of her as the grieving widow faded but with Americans still curious about her life and conduct, Mrs. Kennedy, who had moved to New York to be near family and friends and had gotten into legal disputes with photographers and writers portraying her activities, shattered her almost saintly image by announcing plans to marry Mr. Onassis.\nIt was a field day for the tabloids, a shock to members of her own family and a puzzlement to the public, given Camelot-Kennedy mystique. The prospective bridegroom was much shorter, and more than 28 years older, a canny businessman and not even American. Moreover, her brother-in-law, Robert Kennedy, had been assassinated earlier in the year, and the prospective marriage even posed a problem for the Vatican, which hinted that Mrs. Kennedy might become a public sinner.\nNegotiating A Marriage\nThere were additional unseemly details -- a prenuptial agreement that covered money and property and children. But they were married in 1968, and for a time the world saw a new, more outgoing Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis. But within a few years there were reported fights over money and other matters and accounts that each was being seen in the company of others.\nWhile the couple was never divorced, the marriage was widely regarded as over long before Mr. Onassis died in 1975, leaving her a widow for the second time.\nJacqueline Bouvier was born on July 28, 1929, in East Hampton, L.I., to John Vernou Bouvier 3d and Janet Lee Bouvier. A sister, Caroline, known as Lee, was born four years later. From the beginning, the girls knew the trappings and appearances of considerable wealth. Their Long Island estate was called Lasata, an Indian word meaning place of peace. There was also a spacious family apartment at 765 Park Avenue, near 72d Street, in Manhattan.\nAlthough the family lived well during the Depression, Mr. Bouvier's fortunes in the stock market rose and fell after huge losses in the crash of 1929. The marriage also foundered. In 1936, Mr. and Mrs. Bouvier separated, and their divorce became final in 1940.\nIn June 1942, Mrs. Bouvier married Hugh D. Auchincloss, who, like Mr. Bouvier, was a stockbroker. Mr. Auchincloss had been substantially better able to weather the Great Depression; his mother and benefactor was the former Emma Brewster Jennings, daughter of Oliver Jennings, a founder of Standard Oil with John D. Rockefeller.\nFrom her earliest days, Jacqueline Bouvier attracted attention, as much for her intelligence as for her beauty. John H. Davis, a cousin who wrote \"The Bouviers,\" a family history, in 1993, described her as a young woman who outwardly seemed to conform to social norms. But he wrote that she possessed a \"fiercely independent inner life which she shared with few people and would one day be partly responsible for her enormous success.\"\nMr. Davis said Jacqueline \"displayed an originality, a perspicacity,\" that set her apart, that she wrote credible verse, painted and became \"an exceptionally gifted equestrienne.\" She also \"possessed a mysterious authority, even as a teen-ager, that would compel people to do her bidding,\" he said.\nJacqueline seemed shy with individuals but would flower in large groups, dazzling people. \"It was this watertight, interior suffisance, coupled with a need for attention, and corresponding love of being at center stage, which puzzled her relatives so and which in time would alternately charm and perplex the world,\" Mr. Davis wrote.\nHer natural gifts could not save her from the effects of her parents' divorce, and after it occurred, Mr. Davis said, her relatives noticed her \"tendency to withdraw frequently into a private world of her own.\"\nJohn Vernou Bouvier Jr., her grandfather, wrote a history of the Bouvier family called \"Our Forebears.\" The history indicates that the Bouviers were descended from French nobility. Stephen Birmingham, who wrote the biography \"Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy Onassis\" (Grosset & Dunlap), called the grandfather's book \"a work of massive self-deception.\" Mr. Davis called it \"a wishful history.\" From the documentation at hand, the Bouviers, who originated in southern France, had apparently been drapers, tailors, glovers, farmers and even domestic servants. The very name Bouvier means cowherd.\nThe family's original immigrant, Michel Bouvier, left a troubled France in 1815 after serving in Napoleon's defeated army and settled in Philadelphia. A man of considerable industry, he started as a handyman and later became a furniture manufacturer and, finally, a land speculator.\nAfter the divorce, Jacqueline remained in touch with her father, but later she also spent a great deal of time with the Auchinclosses, who had a large estate in Virginia called Merrywood and another in Newport, R.I., called Hammersmith Farm. When she was 15, Jacqueline picked Miss Porter's School in Farmington, Conn., an institution that in addition to its academic offerings emphasized good manners and the art of conversation. Its students simply called it Farmington.\nShe became popular with classmates as well as with young men who visited Farmington from Hotchkiss, Choate, St. Paul's and other elite preparatory schools in the Northeast. Her teachers regarded her as an outstanding girl, but she once fretted to a friend, \"I'm sure no one will ever marry me, and I'll end up being a housemother at Farmington.\" When she graduated, her yearbook said her ambition in life was \"not to be a housewife.\"\nJust as Jacqueline picked Miss Porter's, she also picked Vassar College, which she entered in 1947, not long after she was named \"Debutante of the Year\" by Igor Cassini, who wrote for the Hearst newspapers under the byline Cholly Knickerbocker. He described her as a \"regal brunette who has classic features and the daintiness of Dresden porcelain.\" He noted that the popular Miss Bouvier had \"poise, is soft-spoken and intelligent, everything the leading debutante should be.\"\nRomance With Paris Starts in College\nShe did well at Vassar, especially in courses on the history of religion and Shakespeare, and made the dean's list. The late Charlotte Curtis, who became society editor of The New York Times and who was a student at Vassar with Miss Bouvier, once wrote that Miss Bouvier was not particularly thrilled with being in Poughkeepsie, N.Y., and referred to her college as \"that damned Vassar,\" even though the invitations continued to flow in from young men at Harvard, Yale, Princeton and other leading universities. In 1949, for her junior year, she decided to apply to a program at Smith College for a year studying in France.\nShe loved Paris, and when the year was up she decided not to return to Vassar to finish her bachelor's degree but to transfer to George Washington University in Washington. If this new institution lacked some of the elan and elegance of Vassar, its saving grace in her eyes was its location, in the capital. She received a bachelor's degree from George Washington University in 1951.\nWhile she was finishing the work for her degree, she won Vogue magazine's Prix de Paris contest, with an essay on \"People I Wish I Had Known,\" beating out 1,279 other contestants. Her subjects were Oscar Wilde, Charles Baudelaire and Sergei Diaghilev. Her victory entitled her to spend some time in Paris, writing about fashion for Vogue, but she was persuaded not to accept the prize.\nC. David Heymann, author of \"A Woman Named Jackie\" (Lyle Stuart, 1989) said Hugh Auchincloss had feared that if Jacqueline had returned to Paris and stayed there for any length of time, she might not have ever returned to the United States. Her mother came to agree with him. They may have been right; Mrs. Onassis would later recall her stay in Paris as a young woman as \"the high point in my life, my happiest and most carefree year.\"\nIn Washington, she met and was briefly engaged to John Husted, a stockbroker. Through her stepfather's contacts, she was able to get a job as a photographer at The Washington Times-Herald, earning $42.50 a week. At the paper, she was an inquiring photographer assigned to do a light feature in which people were asked about a topic of the day; their comments appeared with their photos. Among the questions she asked were: \"Are men braver than women in the dental chair?\" and, \"Do you think a wife should let her husband think he's smarter than she is?\"\nShe continued her work for The Washington Times-Herald and she enjoyed Washington's restaurants and parties. It was at one such party, given in May 1952 by Charles Bartlett, Washington correspondent for The Chattanooga Times, that she met Mr. Kennedy, who would soon capture the Senate seat held by Henry Cabot Lodge.\nSome time afterward, they began seeing each other, and the courtship gathered momentum. In 1953, while she was in London on assignment, Mr. Kennedy called her and proposed. Their engagement was not immediately made public by the Kennedys who feared that it might have headed off a flattering article due to appear in the Saturday Evening Post entitled, \"Jack Kennedy -- Senate's Gay Young Bachelor.\" The article appeared in the June 13 issue and the engagement was announced on June 25. They were married Sept. 12, 1953, at Hammersmith Farm in Newport.\nJohn Bouvier, whose feelings about Mr. Auchincloss had been restrained, did not show up at the wedding, and the bride was given away by Mr. Auchincloss. The couple honeymooned in a villa overlooking Acapulco Bay in Mexico. She later wrote a long letter to her father, forgiving him, but he became withdrawn in the years that followed. He died in 1957.\nIn the late 1950's, Mrs. Kennedy confided to friends that she tired of listening to \"all these boring politicians,\" Mr. Heymann wrote, but she did her duty as the wife of a Senator. There were trials in her personal life. In 1955 she suffered a miscarriage, and in 1956 she had a stillborn child by Caesarean section. Mr. Kennedy, who had only narrowly missed winning the Democratic Vice Presidential nomination in 1956, began to worry that they might not be able to have children. They moved into a rented Georgetown home after Mr. Kennedy sold his Virginia home to his brother, Robert. But in 1957 Caroline Bouvier Kennedy was born. Three years later she gave birth to John F. Kennedy Jr. A third child, Patrick Bouvier Kennedy, lived only 39 hours and died less than four months before President Kennedy's assassination in 1963.\nThe Royal Aura Of the Kennedys\nAfter Mr. Kennedy was elected President in 1960, the mystique and aura around Mrs. Kennedy began to grow rapidly, especially after she and her husband made the state visit to France in 1961.\nHer elegance and fluency in French captured their hearts, and at a glittering dinner at Versailles she seemed to quite mesmerize President de Gaulle, a man not easy to mesmerize, as well as several hundred exuberant French people named Bouvier, all of them apparently claiming some sort of cousinhood. At a luncheon at the Elysee Palace, Theordore C. Sorensen wrote in \"Kennedy\" that President de Gaulle had turned to Mr. Kennedy and said, \"Your wife knows more French history than any French woman.\"\nReturning home by way of London, where she received more approbation, Mrs. Kennedy soon began to make her plans to redecorate the White House, a building that she found lacking in grace. She asked the advice of Henry Francis du Pont, curator of the Winterthur Museum in Wilmington, Del., and set about collecting authentic pieces from the early 1800's. She found some objects in the White House basement; others were donated by private citizens who, like Mrs. Kennedy, were interested in the project.\nSome people said she went too far when she found some antique Zuber wallpaper on a wall in nearby Maryland, had it removed and rehung in the White House at a cost of $12,500, even though the original French printing blocks were still in existence and she could have had the same design on new paper for much less.\nThe social skills she acquired at East Hampton and Farmington were much in evidence. Her parties were nothing short of spectacular. When the president of Pakistan visited Washington, he heard an orchestra, took a boat ride, and had poulet chasseur, accompanied by couronne de riz Clamart and, for dessert, some framboises a la creme Chantilly at a table graced by silverware, glassware and china from Tiffany and Bonwit Teller.\nOperatic and popular voices, the cello of Pablo Casals, string trios and quartets and whole orchestras filled the rooms with glorious sound.\n\"I think she cast a particular spell over the White House that has not been equaled,\" said Benjamin C. Bradlee, former executive editor of The Washington Post, who was a friend of the Kennedys. \"She was young. My God, she was young. She had great taste, a sense of culture, an understanding of art. She brought people like Andre Malraux to the White House who never would have gone there. As personalities, they really transformed the city.\"\nLetitia Baldridge, who was Mrs. Kennedy's chief of staff and social secretary in the White House, remembered her sense of humor. \"She had such a wit. She would have been terrible if she hadn't been so funny. She imitated people, heads of state, after everyone had left a White House dinner. Their accents, the way they talked. She was a cutup. Behind the closed doors, she'd dance a jig.\"\nBefore she left the White House, she placed a plaque in the Lincoln bedroom that said, \"In this room lived John Fitzgerald Kennedy with his wife, Jacqueline, during the 2 years, 10 months and 2 days he was President of the United States -- Jan. 10, 1961 - Nov. 22, 1963.\" Mrs. Richard M. Nixon had the plaque removed after she and her husband moved in in 1969.\nTo some, Jacqueline Kennedy seemed to fall from grace as her year of mourning ended. She was photographed wearing a miniskirt; she was escorted to lunch and dinner and various social gatherings by prominent bachelors, including Frank Sinatra, Marlon Brando and Mike Nichols; she toured the Seville Fair on horseback in 1966 and, in a crimson jacket and a rakish broad-brimmed black hat, tossed down a glass of sherry. \"I know,\" she said, \"that to visit Sevilla and not ride horseback at the fair is equal to not coming at all.\" To some Americans she was no longer just the grieving widow of their martyred President; she was young, attractive and she clearly wanted to live her life with a certain brio.\nBut Mrs. Kennedy found she also needed more privacy. The more private she became the more curious the public seemed about her conduct. New Yorkers might be considered the most private of all Americans; urban apartment-dwelling grants anonymity to those who seek it. And so she moved to New York in 1964 to an apartment at 1040 Fifth Avenue. It was near the homes of family and friends and also not far from the Convent of the Sacred Heart at 91st Street and Fifth Avenue, where Caroline was to attend school.\nNew York was not all she had hoped it would be. For one thing, the photographer Ron Galella seemed to be everywhere she went, taking thousands of photographs of her. The preparation and publication of \"The Death of a President,\" William Manchester's detailed account of the assassination of President Kennedy, turned into an unexpected battle for Mrs. Kennedy that may have cost her some popularity.\nMr. Manchester, whose work was admired by President Kennedy, asked for and received permission from the Kennedy family to do an authorized, definitive work on the assassination. His publisher, Harper & Row, agreed to turn over most of their profits to the Kennedy Library. Mrs. Kennedy, in a rare departure from her usual practice, agreed to be interviewed. Although Mr. Manchester did not stand to profit from the book itself, he did arrange to have it serialized in Look Magazine, starting in the summer of 1966, for which he would be paid $665,000.\nLong Fight For Privacy\nMrs. Kennedy became angry. From her perspective, Mr. Manchester was commercially exploiting her husband's assassination. At one point, she tried to get an injunction in New York State Supreme Court to stop the publication of the book, either by Look or by Harper & Row. The case was settled in 1967, with Mr. Manchester agreeing to pay a large share of his earnings to the Kennedy Library.\nMrs. Onassis never created an oral history, associates said, and her refusal to give interviews has left little for the record that she would have approved. Tapes of two interviews with her -- Mr. White's shortly after the assassination in Dallas and Mr. Manchester's for his book \"Death of a President\" -- are kept under seal at the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library in Boston.\nMr. Manchester's interview, 313 minutes on tape, was sealed for 100 years and is scheduled to be opened in 2067. The interview by Mr. White is to be unsealed a year after Mrs. Onassis's death. William Johnson, chief archivist at the library, said he believes the interviews contain material that the authors did not use in their books and might prove useful to historians.\nHer silence about her past, especially about the Kennedy years and her marriage to the President, was always something of a mystery. Her family never spoke of it; out of loyalty or trepidation over her wrath, her closest friends shed no light on it and there was nothing authoritative to be learned beyond her inner circle.\nThe next year, Mr. Onassis and Mrs. Kennedy announced that they would be married. It had been five years since the President's death. She told a friend, \"You don't know how lonely I've been.\" The ceremony was held on Oct. 20, 1968. She then became Mistress of Skorpios, the Aegean island that Mr. Onassis owned, and held sway over a palace with more than 70 servants on call. There were four other locations where he had homes. Mr. Davis observed that immediately after her marriage, Mrs. Onassis became more cheerful and outgoing but it was not to last. Within a few years, there were reports that Mr. and Mrs. Onassis were arguing. He was again seen in Paris, dining at Maxim's with the soprano Maria Callas. Mrs. Onassis was seen in New York in the company of other escorts.\nMr. Onassis issued a public statement that did little to dampen the rumor-mongering. \"Jackie is a little bird that needs its freedom as well as its security and she gets them both from me,\" he said. \"She can do exactly as she pleases -- visit international fashion shows and travel and go out with friends to the theater or anyplace. And I, of course, will do exactly as I please. I never question her and she never questions me.\"\nThe marriage continued to founder. Mr. Onassis persuaded the Greek Parliament to pass legislation to prevent her from getting the 25 percent portion of his estate that Greek law reserved for widows. When he died in 1975, his daughter Christina was at his side; Mrs. Onassis was in New York. There was a lawsuit and when it was settled, she received $20 million -- far less than the $125 million or more that she might have received.\nMrs. Onassis' began her career in publishing in 1975, when her friend Thomas Guinzburg, then the president of Viking Press, offered her a job as a consulting editor. But she resigned two years later after Mr. Guinzburg published -- without telling her, she said later -- a thriller by Jeffrey Archer called \"Shall We Tell the President,\" which imagined that her brother-in-law, Senator Edward M. Kennedy, was President of the United States and described an assassination plot against him.\nIn 1978, Mrs. Onassis then took a new job as an associate editor at Doubleday under another old friend, John Sargent, and was installed at first in a small office with no windows. It helped, she said, that Nancy Tuckerman, who had been her social secretary at the White House, already had a job there; the two worked closely for the next 15 years.\nAt Doubleday, where she was eventually promoted to senior editor, Mrs. Onassis was known as a gracious and unassuming colleague who had to pitch her stories at editorial meetings, just as everyone else did. She avoided the industry's active social scene, probably because she had so little need to expand her network of contacts. She often ate lunch at her desk, for instance, avoiding the publishing lunchtime crowd at restaurants like the Four Seasons and 44. She worked three days a week -- Doubleday never revealed what days they were, for fear the information would attract celebrity-watchers -- and took long vacations in Martha's Vineyard every summer.\nBut she was very productive, editing 10 to 12 books a year on performing arts and other subjects. Books she published included Bill Moyers's \"Healing and the Mind\"; Michael Jackson's \"Moonwalk\"; and Edvard Radzinsky's \"The Last Tsar: The Life and Death of Nicholas II.\" Her list also testified to her eclectic tastes and to her first-rate contacts. She published a number of children's books by the singer Carly Simon, a friend and Martha's Vineyard neighbor. Her love of Egypt inspired her, among other things, to bring the Cairo Trilogy, \"Palace Walk,\" \"Palace of Desire\" and \"Sugar Street\" by Naguib Mahfouz, the Nobel Prize winner from Egypt, to Doubleday, where they were published in translation.\nAdmiration From Her Writers\nIn an industry where editors often have little time for their authors, Mrs. Onassis's spoke admiringly of her curiosity, her interest in their work and her great attention to detail. \"Working with her was extraordinary,\" said Jonathan Cott, a contributing editor at Rolling Stone who has published several books on Egypt with Mrs. Onassis, the most recent being \"Isis and Osiris: Rediscovering the Goddess Myth.\"\nIt seemed daunting to work with an editor who was also a public figure, but Mr. Cott said he was soon put at his ease. In editing sessions at Mrs. Onassis's home and office, he said, she would make notations on every page of his manuscript, drawing from her own knowledge of Egypt and her extensive collection of Egyptian literature and history books. \"She had an incredible sense of literary style and structure,\" he said. \"She was intelligent and passionate about the material; she was an ideal reader and an ideal editor.\"\nJohn Russell, a former art critic for The New York Times and a longtime friend of Mrs. Onassis, remembered her as a shrewd judge of people, but one who was always mindful of their feelings and was careful not to hurt them if her judgments were negative.\n\"She had an absolutely unfailing antenna for the fake and the fraud in people,\" he said. \"She never showed it when meeting people, but afterwards she had quite clearly sized people up. She never in public let people know she did not like them. People always went away thinking, 'She quite liked me, yes, she was impressed by me.' It was a very endearing quality.\"\nMrs. Onassis gave a rare interview to Publishers Weekly, the industry trade magazine, and it was on the subject of publishing. She agreed to the interview, Mrs. Onassis told the reporter, only on the condition that he use no tape recorder, take no photographs and ask no questions about her personal life. In the interview, in typically self-deprecating style, she said she had joined the profession because of a simple love of books. \"One of the things I like about publishing is that you don't promote the editor -- you promote the book and the author,\" she said.\nIn the years following Mr. Onassis's death, she built a 19-room house on 375 acres of ocean-front land on Martha's Vineyard. She spent considerable time there, as well as in Bernardsville, N.J., where she rented a place and rode horses.\nMrs. Onassis did not marry again. In the last few years, Mr. Tempelsman, a Belgian born industrialist and diamond merchant, had been her frequent companion. The couple, who met about seven years ago, summered together on Martha's Vineyard and visited her horse farm. She told a friend that she admired his \"strength and his success.\"\nMrs. Onassis is survived by her daughter, Caroline Kennedy Schlossberg; a son, John F. Kennedy Jr.; her sister, Lee Radziwill Ross, and three grandchildren, Rose Kennedy, Tatiana Celia Kennedy and John Bouvier Kennedy Schlossberg." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Turkey.txt", "List_of_international_vehicle_registration_codes.txt", "Vehicle_registration_plates_of_Turkey.txt" ], "title": [ "Turkey", "List of international vehicle registration codes", "Vehicle registration plates of Turkey" ], "wiki_context": [ "Turkey (; ), officially the Republic of Turkey (Turkish: ;), is a parliamentary republic in Eurasia, mainly on the Anatolian peninsula in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, constitutional republic with a diverse cultural heritage. \n \nTurkey is bordered by eight countries: Syria and Iraq to the south; Iran, Armenia, and the Azerbaijani exclave of Nakhchivan to the east; Georgia to the northeast; Bulgaria to the northwest; and Greece to the west. The Black Sea is to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and the Aegean Sea to the west. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, which together form the Turkish Straits, divide Thrace and Anatolia; they also separate Europe and Asia. Turkey's location between Europe and Asia makes it strategically important. \n\nTurkey has been inhabited since the paleolithic age by various ancient Anatolian civilizations: Aeolian, Dorian and Ionian Greeks, Thracians, Armenians, and Assyrians. After Alexander the Great's conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process which continued under the Roman Empire and its transition into the Byzantine Empire. The Seljuk Turks began migrating into the area in the 11th century, starting the process of Turkification, which was accelerated by the Seljuk victory over the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, when it disintegrated into small Turkish beyliks.\n\nIn the mid 14th century the Ottomans started uniting Anatolia and created an empire encompassing much of Southeastern Europe, Western Asia and North Africa, becoming a major power in Eurasia and Africa during the early modern period. The empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign (1520–1566) of Suleiman the Magnificent. After the second Ottoman siege of Vienna in 1683 and the end of the Great Turkish War in 1699, the Ottoman Empire entered a long period of decline. The Tanzimat reforms of the 19th century, which aimed to modernize the Ottoman state, proved to be inadequate in most fields, and failed to stop the dissolution of the empire.\n\nEffectively controlled by the Three Pashas after the 1913 coup d'état, the Ottoman Empire entered World War I (1914–1918) on the side of the Central Powers and was ultimately defeated. During the war, the Ottoman government committed ethnic cleansing or genocide against its Armenian, Assyrian and Pontic Greek citizens.Schaller, Dominik J; Zimmerer, Jürgen (2008). \"Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction\". Journal of Genocide Research 10 (1): 7–14. doi:10.1080/14623520801950820 Following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was divided into several new states. \n\nThe Turkish War of Independence (1919–1922), initiated by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and his colleagues in Anatolia, resulted in the establishment of the modern Republic of Turkey in 1923, with Atatürk as its first president. \n\nTurkey's official language is Turkish, a Turkic language, spoken by 85% of the population. 72.5% of the population are ethnic Turks; and 27.5% are legally recognized (Armenians, Greeks, Jews) and unrecognized (Kurds, Circassians, Arabs, Albanians, Bosniaks, Georgians, etc.) ethnic minorities. Kurds are the largest minority group. The vast majority of the population is Sunni Muslim, with Alevis making up the largest religious minority.\n\nTurkey is a charter member of the UN, early member of NATO, and a founding member of the OECD, OSCE, OIC and G-20. After becoming one of the first members of the Council of Europe in 1949, Turkey became an associate member of the EEC in 1963, applied for full EEC membership in 1987, joined the EU Customs Union in 1995 and started accession negotiations with the European Union in 2005. Turkey's growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power.\n\nEtymology\n\nThe name of Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye) is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term \"Türk\" or \"Türük\" as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks (Celestial Turks) of Central Asia (c. 8th century). The English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. \n\nThe Greek cognate of this name, Tourkia () was used by the Byzantine emperor and scholar Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in his book De Administrando Imperio, though in his use, \"Turks\" always referred to Magyars. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the northern shores of the Black and Caspian seas, was referred to as Tourkia (Land of the Turks) in Byzantine sources. The Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its contemporaries.\n\nHistory\n\nPrehistory of Anatolia and Eastern Thrace\n\nThe Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world. Various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family. In fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical center from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty thousand years ago, and is known to have been in the Neolithic era by about 6000 BC.\n\nGöbekli Tepe is the site of the oldest known man-made religious structure, a temple dating to 10,000 BC, while Çatalhöyük is a very large Neolithic and Chalcolithic settlement in southern Anatolia, which existed from approximately 7500 BC to 5700 BC. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date and in July 2012 was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age.\n\nThe earliest recorded inhabitants of Anatolia were the Hattians and Hurrians, non-Indo-European peoples who inhabited central and eastern Anatolia, respectively, as early as ca. 2300 BC. Indo-European Hittites came to Anatolia and gradually absorbed the Hattians and Hurrians ca. 2000–1700 BC. The first major empire in the area was founded by the Hittites, from the 18th through the 13th century BC. The Assyrians conquered and settled parts of southeastern Turkey as early as 1950 BC until the year 612 BC. Urartu re-emerged in Assyrian inscriptions in the 9th century BC as a powerful northern rival of Assyria. \n\nFollowing the collapse of the Hittite empire c. 1180 BC, the Phrygians, an Indo-European people, achieved ascendancy in Anatolia until their kingdom was destroyed by the Cimmerians in the 7th century BC. Starting from 714 BC, Urartu shared the same fate and dissolved in 590 BC, when it was conquered by the Medes. The most powerful of Phrygia's successor states were Lydia, Caria and Lycia.\n\nAntiquity and Byzantine Period\n\nStarting around 1200 BC, the coast of Anatolia was heavily settled by Aeolian and Ionian Greeks. Numerous important cities were founded by these colonists, such as Miletus, Ephesus, Smyrna (now İzmir) and Byzantium (now Istanbul), the latter founded by Greek colonists from Megara in 657 BC. The first state that was called Armenia by neighbouring peoples was the state of the Armenian Orontid dynasty, which included parts of eastern Turkey beginning in the 6th century BC. In Northwest Turkey, the most significant tribal group in Thrace was the Odyrisians, founded by Teres I. \n\nAll of modern-day Turkey was conquered by the Persian Achaemenid Empire during the 6th century BC. The Greco-Persian Wars started when the Greek city states on the coast of Anatolia rebelled against Persian rule in 499 BC. The territory of Turkey later fell to Alexander the Great in 334 BC, which led to increasing cultural homogeneity and Hellenization in the area.\n\nFollowing Alexander's death in 323 BC, Anatolia was subsequently divided into a number of small Hellenistic kingdoms, all of which became part of the Roman Republic by the mid-1st century BC. The process of Hellenization that began with Alexander's conquest accelerated under Roman rule, and by the early centuries AD the local Anatolian languages and cultures had become extinct, being largely replaced by ancient Greek language and culture. From the 1st century BC up to the 3rd century AD, large parts of modern-day Turkey were contested between the Romans and neighboring Parthians through the frequent Roman-Parthian Wars.\n\nIn 324, Constantine I chose Byzantium to be the new capital of the Roman Empire, renaming it New Rome. Following the death of Theodosius I in 395 and the permanent division of the Roman Empire between his two sons, the city, which would popularly come to be known as Constantinople, became the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. This, which would later be branded by historians as the Byzantine Empire, ruled most of the territory of present-day Turkey until the Late Middle Ages; although the eastern regions remained in firm Sasanian hands up to the first half of the 7th century AD. The frequent Byzantine-Sassanid Wars, as part of the centuries long-lasting Roman-Persian Wars, fought between the neighboring rivaling Byzantines and Sasanians, took place in various parts of present-day Turkey and decided much of the latters history from the 4th century AD up to the first half of the 7th century AD.\n\nSeljuks and the Ottoman Empire\n\nThe House of Seljuk was a branch of the Kınık Oğuz Turks who resided on the periphery of the Muslim world, in the Yabghu Khaganate of the Oğuz confederacy, to the north of the Caspian and Aral Seas, in the 9th century. In the 10th century, the Seljuks started migrating from their ancestral homeland into Persia, which became the administrative core of the Great Seljuk Empire.\n\nIn the latter half of the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks began penetrating into medieval Armenia and the eastern regions of Anatolia. In 1071, the Seljuks defeated the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert, starting the Turkification process in the area; the Turkish language and Islam were introduced to Armenia and Anatolia, gradually spreading throughout the region. The slow transition from a predominantly Christian and Greek-speaking Anatolia to a predominantly Muslim and Turkish-speaking one was underway. Alongside the Turkification of the territory, the culturally Persianized Seljuks set the basis for a Turko-Persian principal culture in Anatolia, which their eventual successors, the Ottomans would take over. \n\nIn 1243, the Seljuk armies were defeated by the Mongols, causing the Seljuk Empire's power to slowly disintegrate. In its wake, one of the Turkish principalities governed by Osman I would, over the next 200 years, evolve into the Ottoman Empire. In 1453, the Ottomans completed their conquest of the Byzantine Empire by capturing its capital, Constantinople. \n\nIn 1514, Sultan Selim I (1512–1520) successfully expanded the empire's southern and eastern borders by defeating Shah Ismail I of the Safavid dynasty in the Battle of Chaldiran. In 1517, Selim I expanded Ottoman rule into Algeria and Egypt, and created a naval presence in the Red Sea. Subsequently, a competition started between the Ottoman and Portuguese empires to become the dominant sea power in the Indian Ocean, with a number of naval battles in the Red Sea, the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf. The Portuguese presence in the Indian Ocean was perceived as a threat for the Ottoman monopoly over the ancient trading routes between East Asia and Western Europe (later collectively named the Silk Road). This important monopoly was increasingly compromised following the discovery of a sea route around Africa by Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias in 1488, which had a considerable impact on the Ottoman economy. \n\nThe Ottoman Empire's power and prestige peaked in the 16th and 17th centuries, particularly during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. The empire was often at odds with the Holy Roman Empire in its steady advance towards Central Europe through the Balkans and the southern part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. At sea, the Ottoman Navy contended with several Holy Leagues, such as those in 1538, 1571, 1684 and 1717 (composed primarily of Habsburg Spain, the Republic of Genoa, the Republic of Venice, the Knights of St. John, the Papal States, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Duchy of Savoy), for the control of the Mediterranean Sea. In the east, the Ottomans were often at war with Safavid Persia over conflicts stemming from territorial disputes or religious differences between the 16th and 18th centuries. The Ottoman wars with Persia continued as the Zand, Afsharid, and Qajar dynasties succeeded the Safavids in Iran, until the first half of the 19th century. From the 16th to the early 20th centuries, the Ottoman Empire also fought many wars with the Russian Tsardom and Empire. These were initially about the Ottoman territorial expansion and consolidation in southeastern and eastern Europe; but starting from the latter half of the 18th century, they became more about the survival of the Ottoman state, which began to lose its strategic territories on the northern Black Sea coast to the advancing Russians. Between the 18th and the early 20th centuries, the Ottoman, Persian and Russian empires were neighbouring rivals of each other.\n\nFrom the beginning of the 19th century onwards, the Ottoman Empire began to decline. As it gradually shrank in size, military power and wealth, many Balkan Muslims migrated to the Empire's heartland in Anatolia, along with the Circassians fleeing the Russian conquest. The decline of the Ottoman Empire led to a rise in nationalist sentiment among the various subject peoples, leading to increased ethnic tensions which occasionally burst into violence, such as the Hamidian massacres of Armenians.\n\nThe Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers and was ultimately defeated. During the war, the empire's Armenians were deported to Syria as part of the Armenian Genocide. As a result, an estimated 800,000 to 1,500,000 Armenians were killed. The Turkish government has refused to acknowledge the events as genocide and claims that Armenians were only relocated from the eastern war zone. Large-scale massacres were also committed against the empire's other minority groups such as the Assyrians and Greeks. Following the Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918, the victorious Allied Powers sought to partition the Ottoman state through the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres.\n\nRepublic of Turkey\n\nThe occupation of Constantinople and Smyrna by the Allies in the aftermath of World War I prompted the establishment of the Turkish National Movement. Under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha, a military commander who had distinguished himself during the Battle of Gallipoli, the Turkish War of Independence was waged with the aim of revoking the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres. \n\nBy 18 September 1922 the occupying armies were expelled, and the Ankara-based Turkish regime, which had declared itself the legitimate government of the country on 23 April 1920, started to formalize the legal transition from the old Ottoman into the new Republican political system. On 1 November 1922, the Turkish Parliament in Ankara formally abolished the Sultanate, thus ending 623 years of monarchical Ottoman rule. The Treaty of Lausanne of 24 July 1923 led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the newly formed \"Republic of Turkey\" as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire, and the republic was officially proclaimed on 29 October 1923 in Ankara, the country's new capital. The Lausanne treaty stipulated a population exchange between Greece and Turkey, whereby 1.1 million Greeks left Turkey for Greece in exchange for 380,000 Muslims transferred from Greece to Turkey. \n\nMustafa Kemal became the republic's first President and subsequently introduced many radical reforms with the aim of transforming the old religion-based and multi-communal Ottoman state system (constitutional monarchy) into an essentially Turkish nation state (parliamentary republic) with a secular constitution. With the Surname Law of 1934, the Turkish Parliament bestowed upon Mustafa Kemal the honorific surname \"Atatürk\" (Father of the Turks).\n\nTurkey remained neutral during most of World War II, but entered the closing stages of the war on the side of the Allies on 23 February 1945. On 26 June 1945, Turkey became a charter member of the United Nations. Difficulties faced by Greece after the war in quelling a communist rebellion, along with demands by the Soviet Union for military bases in the Turkish Straits, prompted the United States to declare the Truman Doctrine in 1947. The doctrine enunciated American intentions to guarantee the security of Turkey and Greece, and resulted in large-scale U.S. military and economic support. Both countries were included in the Marshall Plan and OEEC for rebuilding European economies in 1948, and subsequently became founding members of the OECD in 1961.\n\nAfter participating with the United Nations forces in the Korean War, Turkey joined NATO in 1952, becoming a bulwark against Soviet expansion into the Mediterranean. Following a decade of Cypriot intercommunal violence and the coup in Cyprus on 15 July 1974 staged by the EOKA B paramilitary organization, which overthrew President Makarios and installed the pro-Enosis (union with Greece) Nikos Sampson as dictator, Turkey invaded Cyprus on 20 July 1974. Nine years later the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, which is recognized only by Turkey, was established. \n\nThe single-party period ended in 1945. It was followed by a tumultuous transition to multiparty democracy over the next few decades, which was interrupted by military coups d'état in 1960, 1971, and 1980, as well as a military memorandum in 1997. In 1984, the PKK, a Kurdish separatist group, began an insurgency campaign against the Turkish government. The Kurdish-Turkish conflict to date has claimed over 40,000 lives. Over 3,000 Kurdish villages were burned by Turkish security forces and hundreds of thousands of Kurds displaced, and Kurdish political parties were banned. Peace talks were launched in 2012, but hostilities restarted in 2015 following the Suruc bombing. Since the liberalization of the Turkish economy during the 1980s, the country has enjoyed stronger economic growth and greater political stability. In 2013, widespread protests erupted in many Turkish provinces, sparked by a plan to demolish Gezi Park but growing into general anti-government dissent. \n\nOn 15–16 July 2016, an unsuccessful coup attempt tried to oust the government. \n\nAdministrative divisions\n\nTurkey has a unitary structure in terms of administration and this aspect is one of the most important factors shaping the Turkish public administration. When three powers (executive, legislative and judiciary) are taken into account as the main functions of the state, local administrations have little power. Turkey is a unitary not a federal system, and the provinces are subordinated to the centre. Local administrations were established to provide services in place and the government is represented by the governors and city governors. Besides the governors and the city governors, other senior public officials are also appointed by the central government rather than appointed by mayors or elected by constituents.\n\nTurkey is subdivided into 81 provinces for administrative purposes. Each province is divided into districts, for a total of 923 districts. \n\nTurkey is also subdivided into 7 regions and 21 subregions for geographic, demographic and economic purposes; this does not refer to an administrative division.\n\nPolitics\n\nTurkey is a parliamentary representative democracy. Since its foundation as a republic in 1923, Turkey has developed a strong tradition of secularism. Turkey's constitution governs the legal framework of the country. It sets out the main principles of government and establishes Turkey as a unitary centralized state. The President of the Republic is the head of state and has a largely ceremonial role. The president is elected for a five-year term by direct elections and Tayyip Erdoğan is the first president elected by direct voting.\n\nExecutive power is exercised by the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers which make up the government, while the legislative power is vested in the unicameral parliament, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature, and the Constitutional Court is charged with ruling on the conformity of laws and decrees with the constitution. The Council of State is the tribunal of last resort for administrative cases, and the High Court of Appeals for all others. \n\nThe prime minister is elected by the parliament through a vote of confidence in the government and is most often the head of the party having the most seats in parliament. The prime minister is Binali Yıldırım, who replaced Ahmet Davutoğlu on 24 May 2016.\n\nUniversal suffrage for both sexes has been applied throughout Turkey since 1933, and every Turkish citizen who has turned 18 years of age has the right to vote. There are 550 members of parliament who are elected for a four-year term by a party-list proportional representation system from 85 electoral districts.\nThe Constitutional Court can strip the public financing of political parties that it deems anti-secular or separatist, or ban their existence altogether. The electoral threshold is 10 percent of the votes. \n\nSupporters of Atatürk's reforms are called Kemalists, as distinguished from Islamists, representing two extremes on a continuum of beliefs about the proper role of religion in public life. The Kemalist position generally combines a kind of democracy with a laicist constitution and westernised secular lifestyle, while supporting state intervention in the economy, education, and other public services. Since the 1980s, a rise in income inequality and class distinction has given rise to Islamic populism, a movement that in theory supports obligation to authority, communal solidarity and social justice, though what that entails in practice is often contested.\n\nHuman rights\n\nHuman rights in Turkey have been the subject of some controversy and international condemnation. Between 1998 and 2008 the European Court of Human Rights made more than 1,600 judgements against Turkey for human rights violations, particularly regarding the right to life, and freedom from torture. Other issues, such as Kurdish rights, women's rights, LGBT rights, and press freedom, have also attracted controversy. Turkey's human rights record continues to be a significant obstacle to future membership of the EU. According to the Committee to Protect Journalists, the AKP government has waged one of the world's biggest crackdowns on press freedoms. A large number of journalists have been arrested using charges of \"terrorism\" and \"anti-state activities\" such as the Ergenekon and Balyoz cases, while thousands have been investigated on charges such as \"denigrating Turkishness\" or \"insulting Islam\" in an effort to sow self-censorship. In 2012, the CPJ identified 76 jailed journalists in Turkey, including 61 directly held for their published work, ranking 1st in the world, more than in Iran, Eritrea or China while Freemuse identified 9 musicians imprisoned for their work, ranking 3rd after Russia and China. A former U.S. State Department spokesman, Philip J. Crowley, said that the United States had \"broad concerns about trends involving intimidation of journalists in Turkey.\" Turkey has a 'Not Free' rating by Freedom House.\n\nIn its resolution \"The functioning of democratic institutions in Turkey\" on 22 June 2016, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe warned that \"recent developments in Turkey pertaining to freedom of the media and of expression, erosion of the rule of law and the human rights violations in relation to anti-terrorism security operations in south-east Turkey have (...) raised serious questions about the functioning of its democratic institutions.\" \n\nLaw\n\nTurkey has a legal system which has been wholly integrated with the system of continental Europe. For instance, the Turkish Civil Law has been modified by incorporating elements mainly of the Swiss Civil Code, the Code of Obligations and the German Commercial Code. The Administrative Law bears similarities with its French counterpart, and the Penal Code with its Italian counterpart.\n\nTurkey has adopted the principle of the separation of powers. In line with this principle, judicial power is exercised by independent courts on behalf of the Turkish nation. The independence and organization of the courts, the security of the tenure of judges and public prosecutors, the profession of judges and prosecutors, the supervision of judges and public prosecutors, the military courts and their organization, and the powers and duties of the high courts are regulated by the Turkish Constitution.\n\nAccording to Article 142 of the Turkish Constitution, the organization, duties and jurisdiction of the courts, their functions and the trial procedures are regulated by law. In line with the aforementioned article of the Turkish Constitution and related laws, the court system in Turkey can be classified under three main categories; which are the Judicial Courts, Administrative Courts and Military Courts. Each category includes first instance courts and high courts. In addition, the Court of Jurisdictional Disputes rules on cases that cannot be classified readily as falling within the purview of one court system.\n\nLaw enforcement in Turkey is carried out by several departments (such as the General Directorate of Security and Gendarmerie General Command) and agencies, all acting under the command of the Prime Minister of Turkey or mostly the Minister of Internal Affairs. According to figures released by the Justice Ministry, there are 100,000 people in Turkish prisons as of November 2008, a doubling since 2000. \n\nIn the years of government by the AKP and Tayyip Erdoğan, particularly since 2013, the independence and integrity of the Turkish judiciary has increasingly been considered in doubt by institutions, parliamentarians and journalists both within and outside of Turkey; due to political interference in the promotion of judges and prosecutors, and in their pursuit of public duty. The Turkey 2015 report of the European Commission stated that \"the independence of the judiciary and respect of the principle of separation of powers have been undermined and judges and prosecutors have been under strong political pressure.\"\n\nForeign relations\n\nTurkey is a founding member of the United Nations (1945), the OECD (1961), the OIC (1969), the OSCE (1973), the ECO (1985), the BSEC (1992), the D-8 (1997) and the G-20 major economies (1999). Turkey was a member of the United Nations Security Council in 1951–1952, 1954–1955, 1961 and 2009–2010. In September 2013, Turkey became a member of the Asia Cooperation Dialogue (ACD).\n\nIn line with its traditional Western orientation, relations with Europe have always been a central part of Turkish foreign policy. Turkey became one of the first members of the Council of Europe in 1949, applied for associate membership of the EEC (predecessor of the European Union) in 1959 and became an associate member in 1963. After decades of political negotiations, Turkey applied for full membership of the EEC in 1987, became an associate member of the Western European Union in 1992, joined the EU Customs Union in 1995 and has been in formal accession negotiations with the EU since 2005. Today, EU membership is considered as a state policy and a strategic target by Turkey. Turkey's support for Northern Cyprus in the Cyprus dispute complicates Turkey's relations with the EU and remains a major stumbling block to the country's EU accession bid. \n\nThe other defining aspect of Turkey's foreign policy was the country's long-standing strategic alliance with the United States. The common threat posed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War led to Turkey's membership of NATO in 1952, ensuring close bilateral relations with Washington. Subsequently Turkey benefited from the United States' political, economic and diplomatic support, including in key issues such as the country's bid to join the European Union. In the post–Cold War environment, Turkey's geostrategic importance shifted towards its proximity to the Middle East, the Caucasus and the Balkans.\n\nThe independence of the Turkic states of the Soviet Union in 1991, with which Turkey shares a common cultural and linguistic heritage, allowed Turkey to extend its economic and political relations deep into Central Asia, thus enabling the completion of a multi-billion-dollar oil and natural gas pipeline from Baku in Azerbaijan to the port of Ceyhan in Turkey. The Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline forms part of Turkey's foreign policy strategy to become an energy conduit to the West. However Turkey's border with Armenia, a state in the Caucasus, was closed by Turkey in support of Azerbaijan during the Nagorno-Karabakh War and remains closed. \n\nUnder the AKP government, Turkey's influence has grown in the formerly Ottoman territories of the Middle East and the Balkans, based on the \"strategic depth\" doctrine (a terminology that was coined by Ahmet Davutoğlu for defining Turkey's increased engagement in regional foreign policy issues), also called Neo-Ottomanism. Following the Arab Spring in December 2010, the choices made by the AKP government for supporting certain political opposition groups in the affected countries have led to tensions with some Arab states, such as Turkey's neighbour Syria since the start of the Syrian civil war, and Egypt after the ousting of President Mohamed Morsi. , Turkey doesn't have an ambassador in Syria and Egypt. Diplomatic relations with Israel were also severed after the Gaza flotilla raid in 2010, but were normalized following a deal in June 2016. These political rifts have left Turkey with few allies in the East Mediterranean, where rich natural gas fields have recently been discovered; in sharp contrast with the original goals that were set by the former Foreign Minister (later Prime Minister) Ahmet Davutoğlu in his \"zero problems with neighbours\" foreign policy doctrine. In 2015, Turkey, Saudi Arabia and Qatar formed a \"strategic alliance\" against Syrian President Bashar al-Assad. \n\nTurkey has maintained forces in international missions under the United Nations and NATO since 1950, including peacekeeping missions in Somalia and former Yugoslavia, and support to coalition forces in the First Gulf War. Turkey maintains 36,000 troops in Northern Cyprus, though their presence is controversial, and assists Iraqi Kurdistan with security. Turkey has had troops deployed in Afghanistan as part of the United States stabilization force and the UN-authorized, NATO-commanded International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) since 2001. Since 2003, Turkey contributes military personnel to Eurocorps and takes part in the EU Battlegroups. \n\nMilitary\n\nThe Turkish Armed Forces consists of the Land Forces, the Naval Forces and the Air Force. The Gendarmerie and the Coast Guard operate as parts of the Ministry of Internal Affairs in peacetime, although they are subordinated to the Army and Navy Commands respectively in wartime, during which they have both internal law enforcement and military functions. \n\nThe Chief of the General Staff is appointed by the President and is responsible to the Prime Minister. The Council of Ministers is responsible to the Parliament for matters of national security and the adequate preparation of the armed forces to defend the country. However, the authority to declare war and to deploy the Turkish Armed Forces to foreign countries or to allow foreign armed forces to be stationed in Turkey rests solely with the Parliament.\n\nTurkey has the second largest standing military force in NATO, after the U.S. Armed Forces, with an estimated strength of 495,000 deployable forces, according to a 2011 NATO estimate. Turkey is one of five NATO member states which are part of the nuclear sharing policy of the alliance, together with Belgium, Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands. A total of 90 B61 nuclear bombs are hosted at the Incirlik Air Base, 40 of which are allocated for use by the Turkish Air Force in case of a nuclear conflict, but their use requires the approval of NATO. \n\nEvery fit male Turkish citizen otherwise not barred is required to serve in the military for a period ranging from three weeks to a year, dependent on education and job location. Turkey does not recognise conscientious objection and does not offer a civilian alternative to military service. \n\nGeography\n\nTurkey is a transcontinental Eurasian country. Asian Turkey, which includes 97 percent of the country, is separated from European Turkey by the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles. European Turkey comprises 3 percent of the country.\nThe territory of Turkey is more than long and 800 km wide, with a roughly rectangular shape. It lies between latitudes 35° and 43° N, and longitudes 25° and 45° E. Turkey's land area, including lakes, occupies , of which are in Southwest Asia and in Europe. Turkey is the world's 37th-largest country in terms of area. The country is encircled by seas on three sides: the Aegean Sea to the west, the Black Sea to the north and the Mediterranean to the south. Turkey also contains the Sea of Marmara in the northwest.\n\nThe European section of Turkey, East Thrace (the easternmost region of the Balkan peninsula), forms the borders of Turkey with Greece and Bulgaria. The Asian part of the country is comprised mostly by the peninsula of Anatolia, which consists of a high central plateau with narrow coastal plains, between the Köroğlu and Pontic mountain ranges to the north and the Taurus Mountains to the south. Eastern Turkey, located within the western plateau of the Armenian Highlands, has a more mountainous landscape and is home to the sources of rivers such as the Euphrates, Tigris and Aras, and contains Mount Ararat, Turkey's highest point at , and Lake Van, the largest lake in the country. Southeastern Turkey is located within the northern plains of Upper Mesopotamia.\n\nTurkey is divided into seven geographical regions: Marmara, Aegean, Black Sea, Central Anatolia, Eastern Anatolia, Southeastern Anatolia and the Mediterranean. The uneven north Anatolian terrain running along the Black Sea resembles a long, narrow belt. This region comprises approximately one-sixth of Turkey's total land area. As a general trend, the inland Anatolian plateau becomes increasingly rugged as it progresses eastward. \n\nTurkey's varied landscapes are the product of complex earth movements that have shaped the region over thousands of years and still manifest themselves in fairly frequent earthquakes and occasional volcanic eruptions. The Bosphorus and the Dardanelles owe their existence to the fault lines running through Turkey that led to the creation of the Black Sea. The North Anatolian Fault Line runs across the north of the country from west to east, along which major earthquakes took place in history. The latest of those big earthquakes was the 1999 İzmit earthquake.\n\nBiodiversity\n\nTurkey's extraordinary ecosystem and habitat diversity has produced considerable species diversity. Anatolia is the homeland of many plants that have been cultivated for food since the advent of agriculture, and the wild ancestors of many plants that now provide staples for humankind still grow in Turkey. The diversity of Turkey's fauna is even greater than that of its flora. The number of animal species in the whole of Europe is around 60,000, while in Turkey there are over 80,000 (over 100,000 counting the subspecies).\n\nThe Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests is an ecoregion which covers most of the Pontic Mountains in northern Turkey, while the Caucasus mixed forests extend across the eastern end of the range. The region is home to Eurasian wildlife such as the Eurasian sparrowhawk, golden eagle, eastern imperial eagle, lesser spotted eagle, Caucasian black grouse, red-fronted serin, and wallcreeper. The narrow coastal strip between the Pontic Mountains and the Black Sea is home to the Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests, which contain some of the world's few temperate rainforests. The Turkish pine is mostly found in Turkey and other east Mediterranean countries. Several wild species of tulip are native to Anatolia, and the flower was first introduced to Western Europe with species taken from the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century. \n\nThere are 40 national parks, 189 nature parks, 31 nature preserve areas, 80 wildlife protection areas and 109 nature monuments in Turkey such as Gallipoli Peninsula Historical National Park, Mount Nemrut National Park, Ancient Troya National Park, Ölüdeniz Nature Park and Polonezköy Nature Park.\n\nAnkara, the capital of Turkey, is renowned for the Angora cat, Angora rabbit and Angora goat. Another national cat breed of Turkey is the Van cat. The national dog breeds are the Anatolian Shepherd, Kangal, Malaklı and Akbaş.\n\nThe last confirmed death of an Anatolian leopard, closely related to the Persian (Caucasian) leopard and native to the western regions of Anatolia, took place in the Bağözü village of the Beypazarı district in Ankara Province on 17 January 1974. The Persian (Caucasian) leopard is still found in very small numbers in the northeastern and southeastern regions of Turkey.Can, O. E. (2004). Status, conservation and management of large carnivores in Turkey. Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats. Standing Committee, 24th meeting, 29 November-3 December 2004, Strasbourg. The Caspian tiger is an extinct tiger subspecies (closely related to the Siberian tiger) which lived in the easternmost regions of Turkey until the latter half of the 20th century, with the last confirmed death in Uludere, February 1970. The Eurasian lynx and the European wildcat are other felid species which are currently found in the forests of Turkey.\n\nClimate\n\nThe coastal areas of Turkey bordering the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas have a temperate Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry summers and mild to cool, wet winters. The coastal areas bordering the Black Sea have a temperate oceanic climate with warm, wet summers and cool to cold, wet winters. The Turkish Black Sea coast receives the greatest amount of precipitation and is the only region of Turkey that receives high precipitation throughout the year. The eastern part of that coast averages 2200 mm annually which is the highest precipitation in the country.\n\nThe coastal areas bordering the Sea of Marmara, which connects the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea, have a transitional climate between a temperate Mediterranean climate and a temperate oceanic climate with warm to hot, moderately dry summers and cool to cold, wet winters. Snow falls on the coastal areas of the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea almost every winter, but usually melts in no more than a few days. However snow is rare in the coastal areas of the Aegean Sea and very rare in the coastal areas of the Mediterranean Sea.\n\nMountains close to the coast prevent Mediterranean influences from extending inland, giving the central Anatolian plateau of the interior of Turkey a continental climate with sharply contrasting seasons.\n\nWinters on the eastern part of the plateau are especially severe. Temperatures of can occur in eastern Anatolia. Snow may remain at least 120 days of the year. In the west, winter temperatures average below 1 °C (34 °F). Summers are hot and dry, with temperatures often above 30 °C (86 °F) in the day. Annual precipitation averages about 400 millimetres (15 in), with actual amounts determined by elevation. The driest regions are the Konya plain and the Malatya plain, where annual rainfall is often less than 300 millimetres (12 in). May is generally the wettest month, whereas July and August are the driest.\n\nEconomy\n\nTurkey has the world's 17th largest GDP by PPP and 18th largest nominal GDP. The country is among the founding members of the OECD and the G-20 major economies.\n\nThe EU – Turkey Customs Union in 1995 led to an extensive liberalization of tariff rates, and forms one of the most important pillars of Turkey's foreign trade policy. Turkey's exports were $143.5 billion in 2011 and reached $163 billion in 2012 (main export partners in 2012: Germany 8.6%, Iraq 7.1%, Iran 6.5%, UK 5.7%, UAE 5.4%). However, larger imports which amounted to $229 billion in 2012 threatened the balance of trade (main import partners in 2012: Russia 11.3%, Germany 9%, China 9%, US 6%, Italy 5.6%).\n\nTurkey has a sizeable automotive industry, which produced over a million motor vehicles in 2012, ranking as the 17th largest producer in the world. Turkish shipbuilding exports were worth US$1.2 billion in 2011. The major export markets are Malta, Marshall Islands, Panama and the United Kingdom. Turkish shipyards have 15 floating docks of different sizes and one dry dock. Tuzla, Yalova, and İzmit have developed into dynamic shipbuilding centres. In 2011, there were 70 active shipyards in Turkey, with another 56 being built. Turkish shipyards are highly regarded both for the production of chemical and oil tankers up to 10,000 dwt and also for their mega yachts. \n\nTurkish brands like Beko and Vestel are among the largest producers of consumer electronics and home appliances in Europe, and invest a substantial amount of funds for research and development in new technologies related to these fields. \n\nOther key sectors of the Turkish economy are banking, construction, home appliances, electronics, textiles, oil refining, petrochemical products, food, mining, iron and steel, and machine industry. In 2010, the agricultural sector accounted for 9 percent of GDP, while the industrial sector accounted for 26 percent and the services sector for 65 percent. However, agriculture still accounted for a quarter of employment. In 2004, it was estimated that 46 percent of total disposable income was received by the top 20 percent of income earners, while the lowest 20 percent received only 6 percent. The rate of female employment in Turkey was 30 percent in 2012, the lowest among all OECD countries. \n\nForeign direct investment (FDI) was $8.3 billion in 2012, a figure expected to rise to $15 billion in 2013. In 2012, Fitch Group upgraded Turkey's credit rating to investment grade after an 18-year gap; this was followed by a ratings upgrade by Moody's in May 2013, as the service lifted Turkey's government bond ratings to the lowest investment grade Baa3. \n\nHistory\n\nIn the early decades of the Turkish Republic, the government (or banks established and owned by the government, such as Türkiye İş Bankası (1924), Sanayi ve Maadin Bankası (1925), Emlak ve Eytam Bankası (1926), Central Bank of Turkey (1930), Sümerbank (1933), İller Bankası (1933), Etibank (1935), Denizbank (1937), Halk Bankası (1938), etc.) had to subsidize most of the industrial projects, due to the lack of a strong private sector. However, in the period between the 1920s and 1950s, a new generation of Turkish entrepreneurs such as Nuri Demirağ, Vehbi Koç, Hacı Ömer Sabancı and Nejat Eczacıbaşı began to establish privately owned factories, some of which evolved into the largest industrial conglomerates that dominate the Turkish economy today, such as Koç Holding, Sabancı Holding and Eczacıbaşı Holding.\n\nDuring the first six decades of the republic, between 1923 and 1983, Turkey generally adhered to a quasi-statist approach with strict government planning of the budget and government-imposed limitations over foreign trade, flow of foreign currency, foreign direct investment and private sector participation in certain fields (such as broadcasting, telecommunications, energy, mining, etc.). However, in 1983, Prime Minister Turgut Özal initiated a series of reforms designed to shift the economy from a statist, insulated system to a more private-sector, market-based model. \n\nThe reforms, combined with unprecedented amounts of funding from foreign loans, spurred rapid economic growth; but this growth was punctuated by sharp recessions and financial crises in 1994, 1999 (following the earthquake of that year), and 2001; resulting in an average of 4 percent GDP growth per annum between 1981 and 2003. Lack of additional fiscal reforms, combined with large and growing public sector deficits and widespread corruption, resulted in high inflation, a weak banking sector and increased macroeconomic volatility. Since the economic crisis of 2001 and the reforms initiated by the finance minister of the time, Kemal Derviş, inflation has dropped to single-digit figures for the first time in decades (8% in 2005), investor confidence and foreign investment have soared, and unemployment has fallen (10% in 2005). \n\nTurkey has gradually opened up its markets through economic reforms by reducing government controls on foreign trade and investment and the privatization of publicly owned industries, and the liberalization of many sectors to private and foreign participation has continued amid political debate. The public debt-to-GDP ratio peaked at 75.9 percent during the recession of 2001, falling to an estimated 26.9 percent by 2013.\n\nThe real GDP growth rate from 2002 to 2007 averaged 6.8 percent annually, which made Turkey one of the fastest growing economies in the world during that period. However, growth slowed to 1 percent in 2008, and in 2009 the Turkish economy was affected by the global financial crisis, with a recession of 5 percent. The economy was estimated to have returned to 8 percent growth in 2010. According to Eurostat data, Turkish GDP per capita adjusted by purchasing power standard stood at 52 percent of the EU average in 2011. \n\nIn the early years of the 21st century, the chronically high inflation was brought under control; this led to the launch of a new currency, the Turkish new lira (Yeni Türk Lirası) in 2005, to cement the acquisition of the economic reforms and erase the vestiges of an unstable economy. In 2009, after only four years in circulation, the Turkish new lira was renamed back to the Turkish lira with the introduction of new banknotes and coins (and the withdrawal of the Turkish new lira banknotes and coins that were introduced in 2005), but the ISO 4217 code of the Turkish new lira (TRY) remains in use for the current Turkish lira in the foreign exchange market.\n\nTourism\n\nTourism in Turkey has experienced rapid growth in the last twenty years, and constitutes an important part of the economy. In 2013, 37.8 million foreign visitors arrived in Turkey, which ranked as the 6th most popular tourism destination in the world; they contributed $27.9 billion to Turkey's revenues. In 2012, 15 percent of the tourists were from Germany, 11 percent from Russia, 8 percent from the United Kingdom, 5 percent from Bulgaria, 4 percent each from Georgia, the Netherlands and Iran, 3 percent from France, 2 percent each from the United States and Syria, and 40 percent from other countries.\n\nTurkey has 13 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, such as the \"Historic Areas of Istanbul\", the \"Rock Sites of Cappadocia\", the \"Neolithic Site of Çatalhöyük\", \"Hattusa: the Hittite Capital\", the \"Archaeological Site of Troy\", \"Pergamon and its Multi-Layered Cultural Landscape\", \"Hierapolis – Pamukkale\", and \"Mount Nemrut\"; and 51 World Heritage Sites in tentative list, such as the archaeological sites or historic urban centers of Göbekli Tepe, Gordion, Ephesus, Aphrodisias, Perga, Lycia, Sagalassos, Aizanoi, Zeugma, Ani, Harran, Mardin, Konya and Alanya.\n\nTurkey hosts two of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World: the Mausoleum in Halicarnassus and the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus.\n\nInfrastructure\n\nIn 2013 there were 98 airports in Turkey, including 22 international airports. , Istanbul Atatürk Airport is the 11th busiest airport in the world, serving 31,833,324 passengers between January and July 2014, according to Airports Council International. The new (third) international airport of Istanbul is planned to be the largest airport in the world, with a capacity to serve 150 million passengers per annum. Turkish Airlines, flag carrier of Turkey since 1933, was selected by Skytrax as Europe's best airline for five consecutive years in 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014 and 2015. With 435 destinations (51 domestic and 384 international) in 126 countries worldwide, Turkish Airlines is the largest carrier in the world by number of countries served . \n\n, the country has a roadway network of . The total length of the rail network was 10,991 km in 2008, including of electrified and 457 km of high-speed track. The Turkish State Railways started building high-speed rail lines in 2003. The Ankara-Konya line became operational in 2011 while the Ankara-Istanbul line entered service in 2014.\n\nIn 2008, 7555 km of natural gas pipelines and 3636 km of petroleum pipelines spanned the country's territory. The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline, the second longest oil pipeline in the world, was inaugurated on 10 May 2005. The Blue Stream, a major trans-Black Sea gas pipeline, delivers natural gas from Russia to Turkey. New undersea pipeline, with an annual capacity around 63 billion cubic metres (bcm), will allow Turkey to resell Russian gas to Europe. \n\nIn 2013, the energy consumption was 240 billion kilowatt hours. As Turkey imported 72 percent of its energy in 2013, the government decided to invest in nuclear power to reduce imports. Three nuclear power stations are to be built by 2023. Turkey has the fifth highest direct utilization and capacity of geothermal power in the world. Turkey is a partner country of the EU INOGATE energy programme. \n\nTurkey's first nuclear power plants are planned to be built in Mersin's Akkuyu district on the Mediterranean coast; in Sinop's İnceburun district on the Black Sea coast; and in Kırklareli's İğneada district on the Black Sea coast. Turkey has the fifth highest direct utilization and capacity of geothermal power in the world. Turkey is a partner country of the EU INOGATE energy programme, which has four key topics: enhancing energy security, convergence of member state energy markets on the basis of EU internal energy market principles, supporting sustainable energy development, and attracting investment for energy projects of common and regional interest.\n\nTurkey's internet, which has 35 million active users, holds a 'Partly Free' ranking in Freedom House's index.\n\nWater supply and sanitation in Turkey is characterized by achievements and challenges. Over the \npast decades access to drinking water has become almost universal and \naccess to adequate sanitation has also increased substantially. \nAutonomous utilities have been created in the 16 metropolitan cities\nof Turkey and cost recovery has been increased, thus providing the \nbasis for the sustainability of service provision. Intermittent supply, \nwhich was common in many cities, has become less frequent. In 2004, 61% \nof the wastewater collected through sewers was being treated.\n\nRemaining challenges include the need to further increase wastewater treatment, to reduce the high level of non-revenue water\nhovering around 50% and to expand access to adequate sanitation in \nrural areas. The investment required to comply with EU standards in the \nsector, especially in wastewater treatment, is estimated to be in the \norder of Euro 2 billion per year, more than double the current level of \ninvestment. \n\nScience and technology\n\nTÜBİTAK is the leading agency for developing science, technology and innovation policies in Turkey. TÜBA is an autonomous scholarly society acting to promote scientific activities in Turkey. TAEK is the official nuclear energy institution of Turkey. Its objectives include academic research in nuclear energy, and the development and implementation of peaceful nuclear tools. \n\nTurkish government companies for research and development in military technologies include Turkish Aerospace Industries, Aselsan, Havelsan, Roketsan, MKE, among others. Turkish Satellite Assembly, Integration and Test Center (UMET) is a spacecraft production and testing facility owned by the Ministry of National Defence and operated by the Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI). The Turkish Space Launch System (UFS) is a project to develop the satellite launch capability of Turkey. It consists of the construction of a spaceport, the development of satellite launch vehicles as well as the establishment of remote earth stations. \n\nIn 2015, Aziz Sancar, a Turkish professor at the University of North Carolina, won the Nobel Chemistry Prize along with Tomas Lindahl and Paul Modrich, for their work on how cells repair damaged DNA. \n\nDemographics\n\nAccording to the Address-Based Population Recording System of Turkey, the country's population was 74.7 million people in 2011, nearly three-quarters of whom lived in towns and cities. According to the 2011 estimate, the population is increasing by 1.35 percent each year. Turkey has an average population density of 97 people per km². People within the 15–64 age group constitute 67.4 percent of the total population; the 0–14 age group corresponds to 25.3 percent; while senior citizens aged 65 years or older make up 7.3 percent. In 1927, when the first official census was recorded in the Republic of Turkey, the population was 13.6 million. The largest city in Turkey, Istanbul, is also the largest city in Europe in population, and the third-largest city in Europe in terms of size. \n\nArticle 66 of the Turkish Constitution defines a \"Turk\" as \"anyone who is bound to the Turkish state through the bond of citizenship\"; therefore, the legal use of the term \"Turkish\" as a citizen of Turkey is different from the ethnic definition. However, the majority of the Turkish population are of Turkish ethnicity. They are estimated at 70–75 percent. Reliable data on the ethnic mix of the population is not available, because Turkish census figures do not include statistics on ethnicity. The three \"Non-Muslim\" minority groups claimed to be officially recognized in the Treaty of Lausanne are Armenians, Greeks and Jews. Officially unrecognized (mostly Muslim) ethnic groups include Albanians, Arabs, Assyrians, Azeris, Bosniaks, Circassians, Georgians, Lazs, Persians, Pomaks (Bulgarians), Yazidis and Roma. The Kurds, a distinct ethnic group, are the largest non-Turkic ethnicity, around 18–25 percent of the population. Kurds are concentrated in the east and southeast of the country, in what is also known as Turkish Kurdistan. Kurds make up a majority in the provinces of Tunceli, Bingöl, Muş, Ağrı, Iğdır, Elâzığ, Diyarbakır, Batman, Şırnak, Bitlis, Van, Mardin, Siirt and Hakkari, a near majority in Şanlıurfa province (47%), and a large minority in Kars province (20%). In addition, due to internal migration, Kurdish communities exist in all major cities in central and western Turkey, particularly in Istanbul, where there are an estimated 3 million Kurds, making Istanbul the city with the largest Kurdish population in the world. Minorities besides the Kurds are thought to make up an estimated 7–12 percent of the population. Minorities other than the three officially recognized ones do not have any minority rights. The term \"minority\" itself remains a sensitive issue in Turkey, while the Turkish government is frequently criticized for its treatment of minorities. Although minorities are not recognised, state-run Turkish Radio and Television Corporation (TRT) broadcasts television and radio programs in minority languages. Also, some minority language classes can be chosen in elementary schools.\n\nAn estimated 2.5 percent of the population are international migrants. Turkey hosts the largest number of refugees in the world, including 2.2 million Syrian refugees, as of September 2015. \n\nThe country's official language is Turkish, which is spoken by 85.54 percent of the population as mother tongue. 11.97 percent of the population speaks the Kurmanji dialect of Kurdish as mother tongue. Arabic and Zaza are the mother tongues of 2.39 percent of the population, and several other languages are the mother tongues of smaller parts of the population. Endangered languages in Turkey include Abaza, Abkhaz, Adyge, Cappadocian Greek, Gagauz, Hértevin, Homshetsma, Kabard-Cherkes, Ladino (Judesmo), Laz, Mlahso, Pontic Greek, Romani, Suret, Turoyo, Ubykh, and Western Armenian. \n\nReligion\n\nTurkey is a secular state with no official state religion; the Turkish Constitution provides for freedom of religion and conscience. The role of religion has been a controversial debate over the years since the formation of Islamist parties. For many decades, the wearing of the hijab was banned in schools and government buildings because it was viewed as a symbol of political Islam. However, the ban was lifted from universities in 2011, from government buildings in 2013, and from schools in 2014.\n\nIslam\n\nIslam is the dominant religion of Turkey with 99.8 percent of the population being registered as Muslim (although some sources give a slightly lower estimate of 96.4 percent) with the most popular sect being the Hanafite school of Sunni Islam. The highest Islamic religious authority is the Presidency of Religious Affairs (); it interprets the Hanafi school of law, and is responsible for regulating the operation of the country's 80,000 registered mosques and employing local and provincial imams. Academics suggest the Alevi population may be from 15 to 20 million while the Alevi-Bektaşi Federation claims that there are around 25 million and according to Aksiyon magazine, the number of Shiite Twelvers (excluding Alevis) is 3 million (4.2 percent). There are also some Sufi Muslims. Roughly 2 percent are non-denominational Muslims.\n\nThe percentage of non-Muslims in Turkey fell from 19 percent in 1914 to 2.5 percent in 1927, due to events which had a significant impact on the country's demographic structure, such as the Armenian Genocide, the population exchange between Greece and Turkey, and the emigration of non-Muslims (such as Levantines, Greeks, Armenians, Jews, etc.) to foreign countries (mostly in Europe and the Americas) that actually began in the late 19th century and gained pace in the first quarter of the 20th century, especially during World War I and after the Turkish War of Independence. The Wealth Tax on non-Muslims in 1942, the emigration of a portion of Turkish Jews to Israel after 1948, and the ongoing Cyprus dispute which damaged the relations between Turks and Greeks (culminating in the Istanbul pogrom of 6–7 September 1955) were other important events that contributed to the decline of Turkey's non-Muslim population.\n\nChristianity\n\nToday there are more than 120,000 people of different Christian denominations, representing less than 0.2 percent of Turkey's population, including an estimated 80,000 Oriental Orthodox, 35,000 Roman Catholics, 18,000 Antiochian Greeks, 5,000 Greek Orthodox and smaller numbers of Protestants. Currently there are 236 churches open for worship in Turkey. The Eastern Orthodox Church has been headquartered in Istanbul since the 4th century. \n\nJudaism\n\nThere are about 26,000 people who are Jewish, the vast majority of whom are Sephardi. There have been Jewish communities in Asia Minor since at least the 5th century BC and many Spanish and Portuguese Jews expelled from Spain were welcomed into the Ottoman Empire in the late 15th century, twenty centuries later. Despite emigration during the 20th century, modern-day Turkey continues to have a small Jewish population.\n\nAgnosticism and atheism\n\nAccording to a 2010 Eurobarometer poll 94% of Turks believed in God while only 1% did not. This indicates that 5% of the population are agnostic with another 1% being explicitly atheist. However, according to another poll by KONDA the percentage of atheism is 2.9%. \n\nEducation\n\nThe Ministry of National Education is responsible for pre-tertiary education. This is compulsory and lasts twelve years: four years each of primary school, middle school and high school. Less than half of 25- to 34-year-old Turks have completed at least high school, compared with an OECD average of over 80 percent. Basic education in Turkey is considered to lag behind other OECD countries, with significant differences between high and low performers. Turkey is ranked 32nd out of 34 in the OECD's PISA study. Access to high-quality school heavily depends on the performance in the secondary school entrance exams, to the point that some students begin taking private tutoring classes when they are 10 years old. The overall adult literacy rate in 2011 was 94.1 percent; 97.9 percent for males and 90.3 percent for females.\n\nBy 2011, there were 166 universities in Turkey. Entry to higher education depends on the Student Selection Examination (ÖSS). In 2008, the quota of admitted students was 600,000, compared to 1,700,000 who took the ÖSS exam in 2007. Except for the Open Education Faculty (Turkish: Açıköğretim Fakültesi) at Anadolu University, entrance is regulated by the national ÖSS examination, after which high school graduates are assigned to universities according to their performance. According to the 2012–2013 Times Higher Education World University Rankings, the top university in Turkey is Middle East Technical University (in the 201–225 rank range), followed by Bilkent University and Koç University (both in the 226–250 range), Istanbul Technical University and Boğaziçi University (in the 276–300 bracket).\n\nHealthcare\n\nHealth care in Turkey used to be dominated by a centralized state system run by the Ministry of Health. In 2003, the government introduced a sweeping health reform programme aimed at increasing the ratio of private to state health provision and making healthcare available to a larger share of the population. Turkish Statistical Institute announced that 76.3 billion TL was spent for healthcare in 2012; 79.6 percent of which was covered by the Social Security Institution and 15.4 percent of which was paid directly by the patients. In 2012, there were 29,960 medical institutions in Turkey, and on average one doctor per 583 people and 2.65 beds per 1000 people.\n\nLife expectancy () was 71.1 years for men and 75.3 for women, with an overall average of 73.2. \n\nCulture\n\nTurkey has a very diverse culture that is a blend of various elements of the Oğuz Turkic, Anatolian, Ottoman (which was itself a continuation of both Greco-Roman and Islamic cultures) and Western culture and traditions, which started with the Westernisation of the Ottoman Empire and still continues today. This mix originally began as a result of the encounter of Turks and their culture with those of the peoples who were in their path during their migration from Central Asia to the West. Turkish culture is a product of efforts to be a \"modern\" Western state, while maintaining traditional religious and historical values. \n\nArts\n\nTurkish painting, in the Western sense, developed actively starting from the mid 19th century. The very first painting lessons were scheduled at what is now the Istanbul Technical University (then the Imperial Military Engineering School) in 1793, mostly for technical purposes. In the late 19th century, human figure in the western sense was being established in Turkish painting, especially with Osman Hamdi Bey. Impressionism, among the contemporary trends, appeared later on with Halil Paşa. The young Turkish artists sent to Europe in 1926 came back inspired by contemporary trends such as Fauvism, Cubism and even Expressionism, still very influential in Europe. The later \"Group D\" of artists led by Abidin Dino, Cemal Tollu, Fikret Mualla, Fahrünnisa Zeid, Bedri Rahmi Eyüboğlu, Adnan Çoker and Burhan Doğançay introduced some trends that had lasted in the West for more than three decades. Other important movements in Turkish painting were the \"Yeniler Grubu\" (The Newcomers Group) of the late 1930s; the \"On'lar Grubu\" (Group of Ten) of the 1940s; the \"Yeni Dal Grubu\" (New Branch Group) of the 1950s; and the \"Siyah Kalem Grubu\" (Black Pen Group) of the 1960s.\n\nTurkish music and literature are examples of a mix of cultural influences. Interaction between the Ottoman Empire and the Islamic world along with Europe contributed to a blend of Turkic, Islamic and European traditions in modern-day Turkish music and literary arts. Turkish literature was heavily influenced by Persian and Arabic literature during most of the Ottoman era. The Tanzimat reforms introduced previously unknown Western genres, primarily the novel and the short story. Many of the writers in the Tanzimat period wrote in several genres simultaneously: for instance, the poet Nâmık Kemal also wrote the important 1876 novel İntibâh (Awakening), while the journalist Şinasi is noted for writing, in 1860, the first modern Turkish play, the one-act comedy \"Şair Evlenmesi\" (The Poet's Marriage). Most of the roots of modern Turkish literature were formed between the years 1896 and 1923. Broadly, there were three primary literary movements during this period: the Edebiyyât-ı Cedîde (New Literature) movement; the Fecr-i Âtî (Dawn of the Future) movement; and the Millî Edebiyyât (National Literature) movement. The first radical step of innovation in 20th century Turkish poetry was taken by Nâzım Hikmet, who introduced the free verse style. Another revolution in Turkish poetry came about in 1941 with the Garip Movement. The mix of cultural influences in Turkey is dramatized, for example, in the form of the \"new symbols of the clash and interlacing of cultures\" enacted in the novels of Orhan Pamuk, recipient of the 2006 Nobel Prize in Literature. \n\nTurkey has a diverse folkloric dance culture. Hora is performed in East Thrace; Zeybek in the Aegean Region, Southern Marmara and East-Central Anatolia Region; Teke in the Western Mediterranean Region; Kaşık Oyunları and Karşılama in West-Central Anatolia, Western Black Sea Region, Southern Marmara Region and Eastern Mediterranean Region; Horon in the Central and Eastern Black Sea Region; Halay in Eastern Anatolia and the Central Anatolia Region; and Bar and Lezginka in the Northeastern Anatolia Region.\n\nArchitecture\n\nThe architecture of the Seljuk Turks combined the elements and characteristics of the Turkic architecture of Central Asia with those of Persian, Arab, Armenian and Byzantine architecture. The transition from Seljuk architecture to Ottoman architecture is most visible in Bursa, which was the capital of the Ottoman State between 1335 and 1413. Following the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople (Istanbul) in 1453, Ottoman architecture was significantly influenced by Byzantine architecture. Topkapı Palace in Istanbul is one of the most famous examples of classical Ottoman architecture and was the primary residence of the Ottoman Sultans for approximately 400 years. Mimar Sinan (c.1489–1588) was the most important architect of the classical period in Ottoman architecture. He was the chief architect of at least 374 buildings which were constructed in various provinces of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century. \n\nSince the 18th century, Turkish architecture has been increasingly influenced by European styles, and this can be particularly seen in the Tanzimat era buildings of Istanbul like the Dolmabahçe, Çırağan, Feriye, Beylerbeyi, Küçüksu, Ihlamur and Yıldız palaces, which were all designed by members of the Balyan family of Ottoman court architects. The Ottoman era waterfront houses (yalı) on the Bosphorus also reflect the fusion between classical Ottoman and European architectural styles during the aforementioned period. The First National Architectural Movement (Birinci Ulusal Mimarlık Akımı) in the early 20th century sought to create a new architecture, which was based on motifs from Seljuk and Ottoman architecture. The movement was also labelled Turkish Neoclassical or the National Architectural Renaissance. The leading architects of this movement were Vedat Tek (1873–1942), Mimar Kemaleddin Bey (1870–1927), Arif Hikmet Koyunoğlu (1888–1982) and Giulio Mongeri (1873–1953). Notable buildings from this era are the Grand Post Office in Istanbul (1905–1909), Tayyare Apartments (1919–1922), Istanbul 4th Vakıf Han (1911–1926), State Art and Sculpture Museum (1927–1930), Ethnography Museum of Ankara (1925–1928), the first Ziraat Bank headquarters in Ankara (1925–1929), the first Türkiye İş Bankası headquarters in Ankara (1926–1929), Bebek Mosque, and Kamer Hatun Mosque. \n\nSports\n\nThe most popular sport in Turkey is association football (soccer). Galatasaray won the UEFA Cup and UEFA Super Cup in 2000. The Turkish national football team finished 3rd and won the bronze medal at the 2002 FIFA World Cup and at the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup; while also reaching the semi-finals (finishing 3rd by goals difference) at the UEFA Euro 2008.\n\nOther mainstream sports such as basketball and volleyball are also popular. The Turkish men's national basketball team finished 2nd and won the silver medal at the 2010 FIBA World Championship and at EuroBasket 2001, which were both hosted by Turkey. They also won two gold medals (1987 and 2013), one silver medal (1971) and three bronze medals (1967, 1983 and 2009) at the Mediterranean Games. Turkish basketball club Anadolu Efes S.K. won the 1995–96 FIBA Korać Cup, finished 2nd at the 1992–93 FIBA Saporta Cup, and made it to the Final Four of Euroleague and Suproleague in 2000 and 2001, finishing 3rd on both occasions. Another Turkish basketball club, Beşiktaş, won the 2011–12 FIBA EuroChallenge. Galatasaray won the 2015–16 Eurocup, while in the same season, Fenerbahçe finished second in the 2015–16 Euroleague. The Final of the 2013–14 EuroLeague Women basketball championship was played between two Turkish teams, Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe, and won by Galatasaray.\n\nThe Turkish women's national volleyball team won the silver medal at the 2003 European Championship, the bronze medal at the 2011 European Championship, and the bronze medal at the 2012 FIVB World Grand Prix. They also won a gold medal (2005), six silver medals (1987, 1991, 1997, 2001, 2009, 2013) and a bronze medal (1993) at the Mediterranean Games. Women's volleyball clubs in Turkey, namely Fenerbahçe, Eczacıbaşı and Vakıfbank, have won numerous European championship titles and medals. Fenerbahçe won the 2010 FIVB Women's Club World Championship and the 2012 CEV Women's Champions League. Representing Europe as the winner of the 2012–13 CEV Women's Champions League, Vakıfbank also became the world champion by winning the 2013 FIVB Women's Club World Championship.\n\nThe traditional Turkish national sport has been yağlı güreş (oiled wrestling) since Ottoman times. Edirne has hosted the annual Kırkpınar oiled wrestling tournament since 1361. International wrestling styles governed by FILA such as Freestyle wrestling and Greco-Roman wrestling are also popular, with many European, World and Olympic championship titles won by Turkish wrestlers both individually and as a national team. \n\nCuisine\n\nTurkish cuisine is regarded as one of the most prominent in the world, its popularity is largely owed to the cultural influences of the Ottoman Empire and partly because of its major tourism industry. It is largely the heritage of Ottoman cuisine, which can be described as a fusion and refinement of Central Asian, Caucasian, Middle Eastern, Mediterranean and Balkan cuisines. \n\nThe country's position between the East and the Mediterranean Sea helped the Turks gain complete control of major trade routes, and an ideal environment allowed plants and animals to flourish. Turkish cuisine was well established by the mid-1400s, the beginning of the Ottoman Empire's six hundred-year reign. Yogurt salads, fish in olive oil, and stuffed and wrapped vegetables became Turkish staples. The empire, eventually spanning from Austria to northern Africa, used its land and water routes to import exotic ingredients from all over the world. By the end of the 16th century, the Ottoman court housed over 1,400 live-in cooks and passed laws regulating the freshness of food. Since the fall of the empire in World War I (1914–1918) and the establishment of the Turkish Republic in 1923, foreign food such as French hollandaise sauce and western fast food have made their way into the modern Turkish diet.\n\nMedia\n\nHundreds of television channels, thousands of local and national radio stations, several dozen newspapers, a productive and profitable national cinema and a rapid growth of broadband internet use all make up a very vibrant media industry in Turkey. In 2003 a total of 257 television stations and 1,100 radio stations were licensed to operate, and others operated without licenses. Of those licensed, 16 television and 36 radio stations reached national audiences.[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Turkey.pdf Turkey country profile]. Library of Congress Federal Research Division (January 2006). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. The majority of the audiences are shared among public broadcaster TRT and the network-style channels such as Kanal D, Show TV, ATV and Star TV. The broadcast media have a very high penetration as satellite dishes and cable systems are widely available. The Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK) is the government body overseeing the broadcast media. By circulation, the most popular daily newspapers are Zaman, Posta, Hürriyet, Sözcü, Sabah and Habertürk. Turkish television dramas are increasingly becoming popular beyond Turkey's borders and are among the country's most vital exports, both in terms of profit and public relations. Freedom House lists Turkey's media as \"partly free\".", "The country in which a motor vehicle's vehicle registration plate was issued is indicated by an international licence plate country code, formerly known as an International Registration Letter or International Circulation Mark, displayed in bold block uppercase on a small white oval plate or sticker near the number plate on the rear of a vehicle.\nThis is different from the way vehicles belonging to the diplomats of foreign countries with license plate from the host country are marked. That standard is host country specific and varies largely from country to country. For example TR on a diplomatic car in US indicates Italian, not Turkish. Such markings in Norway are indicated with numbers only, again different from international standards (90 means Slovakian -not Turkish as international telephone codes would mean-).\n\nThe allocation of codes is maintained by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe as the Distinguishing Signs Used on Vehicles in International Traffic (sometimes abbreviated to DSIT), authorised by the UN's Geneva Convention on Road Traffic of 1949 and the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic of 1968. Many vehicle codes created since the adoption of ISO 3166 coincide with ISO two- or three-letter codes.\n\nThe 2004 South-East Asian Agreement ... for the Facilitation of Cross-Border Transport of Goods and People uses a mixture of ISO and DSIT codes: Myanmar uses MYA, China CHN, and Cambodia KH (ISO codes), Thailand uses T (DSIT code), Laos LAO, and Vietnam VN (coincident ISO and DSIT codes). \n\nIn the European Economic Area, vehicles from one member state do not need to display the oval while within another state, provided the number plate is in the common EU standard format introduced in the 1990s, which includes the international vehicle registration code on the plate. \n\nCurrent codes\n\nNote: an asterisk (*) indicates that this code is unofficial (does not appear in the UN list of distinguishing codes).\n\nCodes no longer in use", "Turkish car number plates are license plates found on Turkish vehicles. The plates use an indirect numbering system associated with the geographical info. In Turkey, license plates are made by authorized private workshops.\n\nAppearance \n\nThe license plate is rectangular in shape and made of aluminum. On the left, there is the country code \"TR\" in a 4×10 cm blue stripe like in EU countries (without the 12 golden stars). The text is in black characters on white background, and for official vehicles white on black. On all vehicles two plates have to be present, being one in front and the other in rear except motorcycles and tractors. The serial letters use the Turkish letters except Ç, Ş, İ, Ö, Ü and Ğ.\n\nThe blue stripe\n\nThe blue stripe was introduced after the entry of Turkey to the European Customs Union in 1995, in accordance to compliance to EU laws. Since then, the blue stripe area is often modified by car owners (even by some parliament members like Devlet Bahçeli). The predominant modification of this sorts is to replace the blue color with red and put up the crescent and the star of the Turkish flag. This type of modification is in the grey area of the law, for it does not clearly specify which color is to be used in the stripe.\n\nAdditionally, vehicle inspection stickers are often stuck on this area.\n\nSize\n\n*15×24 cm in rear only for motorbikes, motorcycles and tractors with rubber wheels,\n*11×52 cm in front and rear for cars, 21×32 cm rear available for off-roadss, vans, trucks and busses. The size is 15×30 cm for imported vehicles if the regular plate does not fit.\n\nNumbering system \n\nThe text format on the plates is one of the following:\n*\"99 X 9999\", \"99 X 99999\"\n*\"99 XX 999\", \"99 XX 9999\" or\n*\"99 XXX 99\",\n\nIn some provinces, numbering is categorized in groups for tax collecting offices of different districts, for example Dolmuş in Ankara have plates of the form \"06 J 9999\" and a(ny) vehicle from Polatlı, Ankara has plates of the form '06 Pxx 99', \"06 ET XXXX\" from Etimesgut district. On the other hand, a Dolmuş in Eskişehir has a plate of the form \"26 M 9999\".\n\n99 - two digits prefix denoting the location, shows the province code number of the main residence of car holder. There are 81 provinces as listed below:\n\nX/XX/XXX – one, two or three letters.\n\n9999/999/99 – four, three or two digits, depending on the number of letters before, not exceeding six letters and digits altogether.\n\nTypes\n\nLocation codes \n\nFirst two digits indicating the province code:\n\nAs it can also be inferred from the table, province names until code 67 go alphabetically —with the exception of Mersin, Kahramanmaraş and Şanlıurfa provinces for their previous names taken in account were İçel, Maraş and Urfa, respectively. The ones after the original 67 provinces are newer additions. Therefore, these province names go chronologically." ] }

{ "description": [ "Oval car stickers; Other ... or could be incorporated into the vehicle’s number plate and if the international registration letter was incorporated into ... Turkey ...", "Vehicle documents required for international ... able to cross international borders. Vehicle registration ... the international registration letters GB on ...", "Find great deals on eBay for number plate letters classic number plate letters. ... New listing Car Vehicle Number Plate Letters ... for international postage ...", "International License Plate Codes. From ... On the international ... of a vehicle when driving outside the country in which the vehicle registration plate is ...", "International Aircraft Registration Prefix Codes. ... In Australia, early glider registration suffixes began with the letter &ldwquo; ... Turkey: TC: abc ..." ], "filename": [ "100/100_952.txt", "171/171_4726.txt", "141/141_969.txt", "124/124_4728.txt", "19/19_968.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 1, 5, 7, 9 ], "title": [ "Oval car stickers - World Standards", "Vehicle documents required for international road haulage ...", "number plate letters | eBay", "International License Plate Codes - IBWiki - ib.frath.net", "International Aircraft Registration Prefix Codes" ], "url": [ "http://www.worldstandards.eu/cars/oval-stickers/", "https://www.gov.uk/guidance/vehicle-documents-required-for-international-road-haulage", "http://www.ebay.co.uk/sch/i.html?_nkw=number+plate+letters", "http://ib.frath.net/w/International_License_Plate_Codes", "http://www.skytamer.com/5.2.htm" ], "search_context": [ "Oval car stickers - World Standards\nOval car stickers\nGoogle+3\nWhat’s the deal with those white oval-shaped bumper stickers? Good question!\nThe usage of these white oval decals originated in Europe in the early 20th century. European countries are relatively small and drivers have always frequently crossed from country to country. Moreover, in those days European licence plates all looked confusingly similar, so Europe needed to find an easy way to identify each vehicle’s country of registration. They came up with the idea of making it mandatory to put a white oval-shaped sticker with black country initials on the back of all vehicles.\nThis European custom became an international requirement in many countries after the U.N.’s Geneva Convention on Road Traffic (1949) and Vienna Convention on Road Traffic (1968). It was agreed upon that a distinguishing sign of the country of registration had to be displayed on the rear of the vehicle. It also stipulated that the sign could either be placed separately from the registration plate or could be incorporated into the vehicle’s number plate and if the international registration letter was incorporated into the licence plate, it also had to appear on the front number plate.\nThese days, oval stickers with an international circulation mark are not as common anymore in Europe, since standard E.U. number plates have integrated the country code into a blue strip on the left side of the plate. This blue section is actually the flag of Europe (a circle of 12 yellow stars on a blue background), with the country code of the member state underneath it.\nSince only two countries border the United States and the vast majority of Americans, Canadians and Mexicans hire a car instead of bringing their own when they go abroad, there was no need for car ovals at all. This explains why these oval-shaped country stickers have never been subject to any kind of regulation by the American Government. At some point in the early 80s, however, it became trendy for Americans to look European: with the yuppie bimmer craze, it was not uncommon to see BMWs with the German “D” oval sticker (Deutschland) driving on American highways (see picture on the left).\nSoon, some Americans started putting all kinds of other stickers on their cars in order to boast about what amazing (European) destinations they had been to. White oval bumper stickers gradually became a fad status symbol, so people started making Euro-looking stickers with abbreviations for places in the States. Common stickers are for instance things like “MV” for Martha’s Vineyard, “CA” for California, “ACK” for Nantucket (which is the airport code) and “OBX” for the Outer Banks of North Carolina.\nBelow is an extensive listing of all independent countries of the world and their international car code.\nCountry", "Vehicle documents required for international road haulage - GOV.UK\nGOV.UK\nVehicle documents required for international road haulage\nFrom:\nVehicle documents drivers need to legally cross international borders in a UK-registered vehicle.\nContents\nFurther Information\nWhen you drive a goods vehicle from one country to another, you must make sure that you have certain documents on board.\nThis guide provides information about the documents you will need as a driver to make sure that your vehicle is legally able to cross international borders.\nVehicle registration documents\nIf you take a UK-registered vehicle out of the country for less than 12 months, you must take documentation to show that you are authorised to possess the vehicle. This means you must carry the original Vehicle Registration Certificate (V5C) with you.\nIf you have not received the V5C certificate, or the original has been lost, stolen or defaced, you can download the application for a vehicle registration certificate (V62) .\nIf you take your vehicle out of the UK for more than 12 months (permanent export), you must notify the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency ( DVLA ) by completing the purple section, part 11 (V5C/4) of the VC5. It’s important that you take your registration certificate with you as you may have to hand it to the relevant authority when the vehicle is registered abroad.\nRead about taking a vehicle out of the UK permanently or temporarily .\nIf your vehicle is hired or leased, the supplier company is unlikely to let you have the original VC5. Instead you can apply for a Vehicle on Hire Certificate (VE103). This certificate is authenticated proof of permission from the owner to take the vehicle abroad. A Vehicle on Hire Certificate is valid for one year and you can buy one from motoring organisations such as:\nAutomobile Association (AA)\nRoad Haulage Association\nVehicle insurance documents\nThe basic EU legal requirement is third party vehicle insurance. This covers injury to other people, including your passengers, damage to or loss of other peoples’ property resulting from an accident caused by you. It doesn’t cover any costs incurred by you as a result of an accident.\nThird party, fire and theft provides the same cover as third party but also includes fire damage and theft of the vehicle.\nFully comprehensive provides the same cover as third party, fire and theft and additionally covers any damage to your vehicle.\nEvery motor insurance policy issued in the EU must provide the minimum insurance cover required by law in any other EU country.\nGreen Card\nIn many countries, even those within the EU where a UK insurance certificate is acceptable, you may be asked to produce a Green Card. The Green Card is not an insurance cover. It simply provides proof, in those countries where the Green Card is valid, that the minimum third party liability cover required by law in the visited country is in force.\nIf your insurers aren’t able to issue a Green Card, you can find alternative suppliers on the MIB website . The MIB operates the Green Card system in the UK.\nInsurance for goods in transit\nIn some countries, you may need to produce a certificate of insurance for the goods carried to avoid paying a premium. See the guide on moving goods by road .\nIt’s also important to ensure that the risk of goods being damaged, delayed, perished, lost or stolen in transit is properly managed. See the guide on transport insurance .\nGoods vehicle operator’s licence\nTo transport goods abroad in an HGV for hire or reward you must have a standard international operators licence.\nThis allows you to carry goods both in the UK and on international journeys. The licence comes into force once the fee has been paid and the licence documents are issued. Providing the 5 yearly renewal fee is paid and there are no infringements, the licence lasts indefinitely. Identity discs are also issued and must be displayed in each specified motor vehicle. The identity discs show the:\noperator’s name\ntype of licence\nCommunity licences\nA valid Community Licence is required for all hire or reward operations in or through EU countries. They have replaced the need for community permits, bilateral permits between member states and permits for transit traffic through the EU. They do not replace permits for travel to or through non-EU countries, where these are still required. Only operators and hauliers who hold standard international licences can request Community Licences.\nThe guide to Being a goods vehicle operator contains further information on goods vehicle licensing. DVSA is the authority which deals with operator licensing applications.\nYou can find contact details for Traffic Area Offices in England, Scotland and Wales on the Department for Transport ( DfT ) website .\nVehicle tax and nationality signs\nIf you use a vehicle to transport goods abroad you may have to pay a vehicle tax in the countries you drive through. Some countries have an agreement with the UK that means that registered goods vehicles are exempt from this tax.\nAt the moment the following countries charge visiting foreign goods vehicles to use their roads:\nAlbania, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Jordan, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, Sweden, Switzerland and Turkey.\nYou can find out more about the costs of vehicle tax in the Vehicle tax rate tables guide .\nNationality sign or GB sticker\nAll vehicles registered in the UK must display the international registration letters GB on the rear of the vehicle when taken temporarily abroad.\nUK registered vehicles displaying Euro-plates (a circle of 12 stars above the national identifier on a blue background) don’t need to fix a GB sticker to the rear of their vehicle when driving in EU countries. In non-EU countries, a GB sticker must still be displayed on the rear of UK-registered motor vehicles, caravans or trailers.\nMost motoring organisations and many tour operators will supply GB stickers.\nIn addition to the Euro symbol or GB sticker, drivers and keepers of vehicles registered in Great Britain are also permitted to voluntarily display national flags and certain identifiers on their number plates.\nHelp with goods vehicle documentation\nThe following organisations can help with vehicle documentation to ensure that the vehicle can be legally driven across international borders.\nGovernment organisations and agencies\nThe Health & Safety Executive ( HSE ) - provides information and advice on controlling risks in the workplace to ensure the protection of people’s health and safety. View details of the requirements of the carriage of dangerous goods on the HSE website .\nDVSA - a government agency that provides a range of licensing, testing and enforcement services. Find out how to contact DVSA .\nDVLA - facilitates road safety and general law enforcement by maintaining registers of drivers and vehicles, and collects car tax. Find out how to contact the DVLA .\nInsurance associations\nMIB - operates the Green Card system in the UK. Find out about the Green Card system on the MIB website .\nMotoring organisations", "number plate letters | eBay\nnumber plate letters:\nalternative- Black Silver Aluminium Metal Pressed Metal\n£28.95\nCustoms services and international tracking provided\nSPONSORED\n1 2 3\nWe work out the trending price by crunching the data on the product’s sale price over the last 90 days.\nWe work out the trending price by crunching the data on the product’s sale price over the last 90 days. New refers to a brand-new, unused, unopened, undamaged item, while Used refers to an item that has been used previously.\neBay Premium Service\nExcellent customer service as rated by buyers\n14-day returns\nExcellent customer service as rated by buyers\n14-day returns", "International License Plate Codes - IBWiki\nInternational License Plate Codes\n        \nThe Caretaker of this page's subject formally welcomes your participation in fleshing out this\narticle. Please feel free to offer up your own details and thus enrich all of IB !\nOn the international level, the designation of origin for a motor vehicle is distinguished by a supplementary international licence plate country code. This country designator is displayed in bold block uppercase on a small white oval plate or sticker near the number plate on the rear of a vehicle when driving outside the country in which the vehicle registration plate is issued.\nOval bumper sticker from the RTC\n... and from Xliponia\nThe history of these oval plates began somewhere at the start of the twentieth century in Europe. Registration of motor vehicles had started already by the end of the nineteenth century; in most places this was a simple local registration within cities or districts, but near the beginning of the twentieth century a form of registration on a national level had emerged in many European countries. With the increase of international traffic it was deemed necessary to provide vehicles with nationality marks as well. For this purpose, white oval plates with black marks on them were placed at the rear end of a vehicle, near the license plate. By 1910, this system was introduced in 14 European countries: Aragon, Austria, the Batavian Kingdom, Castile and Leon, England, France, Helvetia, Hungary, Italy, Jervaine, Kemr, Monaco, the Scandinavian Realm, and Xliponia. In 1911 followed the Holy Roman Empire, Luxemburg, the Republic of Both Nations, and Scotland. Before the beginning of the First Great War it was also introduced in Nassland and Portugal (1912), in Bohemia, Bulgaria, Greece, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and Muntenia (1913), as well as the first non-European country (the NAL-SLC in 1913). Shortly after the war many other nations followed: newly emerged European states, the remaining old ones. From the 1920s onward, the white oval plate also spread outside Europe: North Africa (1920s), North America and the Middle East (1930s). By the start of the Second Great War nearly all European countries supported the plates, and even those that did not have them officially had distinctive plates anyhow. In 1959, with the paving of the nation's roads, the Monastic Republic chose \"AO\" as its license code. In 1964, with the promulgation of the constitution, Tawantinsuyu chose \"TNS\" as its license code. At present, almost every country in the world have them implemented.\nTurkestani sticker showing three scripts\nModern sticker from the Russian Federation\nThe implementation of the system by Greece in 1913 and Russia in 1919 raised the issue of non-Roman alphabets. Greece initially went with a purely Roman-script nationality oval, but when this proved unpopular with its citizenry, it switched to a dual system with the same code in both Roman and Greek characters. This was not a problem for the Monastic Republic since Alpha and A and Omicron and O have the same shape. The Russians went with a dual system from the beginning: a Latin \"R\" on the left, a Cyrillic \"P\" on the right, with a narrow vertical line separating the two. Unfortunately, in the Latin-cognizant world this caused much amusement as the oval stickers now seemed to read \"R.I.P.\" (Requiescat in Pace) The Russians, meanwhile, appeared not to know or care, and to this day, Russian nationality ovals appear the same, though now the vertical line carries a small Russian flag emblem halfway up.\nOther nations with other scripts began to follow this pattern, and these days, the oval plates of some states show the same code in up to three scripts- the Roman script which has become an international standard for these plates, plus the main local script, plus one other locally- or regionally-important script. For example, Turkestan 's nationality plate bears the 3-letter TKN code in Roman characters, Soğdo script and Cyrillic letters.\nCountry code", "International Aircraft Registration Prefix Codes\nInternational Aircraft Registration Prefixes\nTail Numbers\nAn aircraft registration is a unique alphanumeric string that identifies a civilian aircraft. Because airplanes typically display their registration numbers on the aft fuselage just forward of the tail, in earlier times more often on the tail itself, the registration is often referred to as the “tail number”. In the United States, the registration number is also referred to as an “N-number”, as it starts with the letter N.\nde Haviland DH-88 “Comet” (G-ACSS)\nThe de Havilland DH-88 “Comet” shown above displays the registration “G-ACSS”. The “G-” prefix denotes that it is registered in the United Kingdom.\nInternational Standards\nThe International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) maintains the standards for aircraft registration. Article 20 of the Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation requires that all signatory countries register aircraft over a certain weight with a national aviation authority. Upon registration, the aircraft receives its unique “registration” which must be displayed prominently on the aircraft.\nAnnex 7 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation describes the definitions, location, and measurement of nationality and registration marks. The aircraft registration is made up of a prefix selected from the country's call-sign prefix allocated by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), making the registration a quick way of determining the country of origin, and the registration suffix. Depending on the country of registration, this suffix is a numeric or alphanumeric code and consists of one to five digits or characters respectively. The ICAO provides a supplement to Annex 7 which provides an updated list of approved Nationality and Common Marks used by various countries.\nBoeing 777-200 (4X-ECC)\nWhen painted on the fuselage, the prefix and suffix are separated by a dash … for example 4X-ECC, however when entered in a flight plan, the dash is omitted (for example 4XECC). In the United States, the prefix and suffix are painted without a dash. Private aircraft usually use their registration as their radio call-sign, but most commercial aircraft use the ICAO airline designator or a company call-sign. In some instances, it may be sufficient to simply display the suffix letters, with the country prefix omitted. For example, gliders registered in Australia would omit the VH prefix and simply display the suffix. Obviously this is only suitable where the aircraft does not fly in the airspace of another country. Even if the suffix consists solely of alphabetical characters in a certain country, gliders and ultralights may sometimes use digits instead. For example, in Germany, D-ABCD can be an aircraft while D-1234 is a glider. In Australia, early glider registration suffixes began with the letter &ldwquo;G”, and it is not uncommon to find such gliders only displaying the last two letters of the suffix, as they lacked the range to travel internationally. For example, VH-GIQ would simply be displayed as IQ.\nDifferent countries have different registration schemes: Canadian registrations start with C, British with G, German with D, and so forth. A comprehensive list is tabulated below.\nUnited States of America\nAn “N-number” is an aircraft registration number used in the United States. All aircraft registered there have a number starting with N. Due to the large numbers of aircraft registered in the United States an alpha-numeric system is used. N-numbers may only consist of 1 to 5 characters and must start with a number other than zero and can not end in more than two letters. In addition, N-numbers may not contain the letters I or O, due to their close similarity with the numbers 1 and 0. Each alphabetic character in the suffix can have one of 24 discrete values, while each numeric digit can be one of 10, except the first, which can take on only nine values. This yields a total of 915,399 possible registration numbers in the name-space, though certain combinations are reserved either for government use or for other special purposes.\nGoodyear Blimp “Spirit of America” (N10A)\nThe following are the N-Number combinations that could be used:\nN1 to N9\n(Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) internal use only)\nN1A to N9Z\n(Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) internal use only)\nN10A to N99Z" ] }

{ "aliases": [ "T.R.", "T.r.", "Tr.", "TR (disambiguation)", "TR", "Tr", "T. R.", "T R" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "tr", "tr disambiguation", "t r" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "tr", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "TR" }

{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "The_Turn_of_the_Screw.txt" ], "title": [ "The Turn of the Screw" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Turn of the Screw, originally published in 1898, is a gothic ghost story novella written by Henry James.\n\nDue to its original content, the novella became a favourite text of academics who subscribe to New Criticism. The novella has had differing interpretations, often mutually exclusive. Many critics have tried to determine the exact nature of the evil hinted at by the story. However, others have argued that the true brilliance of the novella comes with its ability to create an intimate confusion and suspense for the reader.\n\nPlot\n\nAn unnamed narrator listens to Douglas, a friend, read a manuscript written by a former governess whom Douglas claims to have known and who is now dead. The manuscript tells the story of how the young governess is hired by a man who has become responsible for his young nephew and niece after the deaths of their parents. He lives mainly in London and is uninterested in raising the children himself.\n\nThe boy, Miles, is attending a boarding school, while his younger sister, Flora, is living at a summer country house in Essex. She is currently being cared for by the housekeeper, Mrs. Grose. The governess' new employer, Miles and Flora's uncle, gives her full charge of the children and explicitly states that she is not to bother him with communications of any sort. The governess travels to her new employer's country house, Bly, and begins her duties.\n\nMiles soon returns from school for the summer just after a letter arrives from the headmaster stating that he has been expelled. Miles never speaks of the matter, and the governess is hesitant to raise the issue. She fears there is some horrible secret behind the expulsion but is too charmed by the adorable young boy to want to press the issue. Soon thereafter, the governess begins to see around the grounds of the estate the figures of a man and woman whom she does not recognize. These figures come and go at will without ever being seen or challenged by other members of the household, and they seem to the governess to be supernatural. She learns from Mrs. Grose that her predecessor, Miss Jessel, and another employee, Peter Quint, had had a sexual relationship. Prior to their deaths, Jessel and Quint spent much of their time with Flora and Miles, and this fact has grim significance for the governess when she becomes convinced that the two children are secretly aware of the ghosts' presence.\n\nLater, without permission, Flora leaves the house while Miles is playing music for the governess. The governess notices Flora's absence and goes with Mrs. Grose in search of her. They find her in a clearing in the wood, and the governess is convinced that Flora has been talking to the ghost of Miss Jessel. When the governess finally confronts Flora, the girl denies seeing Miss Jessel and demands never to see the governess again. At the governess' suggestion Mrs. Grose takes Flora away to her uncle, leaving the governess with Miles, who that night at last talks to her about his expulsion; the ghost of Quint appears to the governess at the window. The governess shields Miles, who attempts to see the ghost. The governess tells Miles he is no longer controlled by the ghost and then finds that Miles has died in her arms, and the ghost has gone.\n\nMajor themes\n\nThroughout his career James was attracted to the ghost story genre. However, he was not fond of literature's stereotypical ghosts, the old-fashioned \"screamers\" and \"slashers\". Rather, he preferred to create ghosts that were eerie extensions of everyday reality—\"the strange and sinister embroidered on the very type of the normal and easy\", as he put it in the New York Edition preface to his final ghost story, \"The Jolly Corner\".\n\nThe Turn of the Screw is no exception to this formula. In fact, some have wondered if he didn't intend the \"strange and sinister\" to be embroidered only on the governess's mind and not on objective reality. The result has been a longstanding critical dispute about the reality of the ghosts and the sanity of the governess. Beyond the dispute, critics have closely examined James's narrative technique for the story. The framing introduction and subsequent first-person narrative by the governess have been studied by theorists of fiction interested in the power of fictional narratives to convince or even manipulate readers.\n\nThe imagery of The Turn of the Screw is reminiscent of the Gothic fiction genre. The emphasis on old and mysterious buildings throughout the novella reinforces this motif. James also relates the amount of light present in various scenes to the strength of the supernatural or ghostly forces apparently at work. The governess refers directly to The Mysteries of Udolpho and indirectly to Jane Eyre, evoking a comparison of the governess not only to Jane Eyres protagonist, but to Bertha, the madwoman confined in Thornfield. \n\nLiterary significance and criticism\n\nThe dispute over the ghosts' reality has had a real effect on some critics, most notably Edmund Wilson, one of the first major proponents of the insane governess theory. Wilson eventually recanted his opinion after considering the governess's point-by-point description of Quint. Then John Silver pointed out hints in the story that the governess might have gained previous knowledge of Quint's appearance in non-supernatural ways. This induced Wilson to recant his recantation and return to his original opinion that the governess was delusional and that the ghosts existed only in her imagination.\n\nWilliam Veeder sees Miles's eventual death as induced by the governess. In a complex psychoanalytic reading, Veeder concludes that the governess expressed her repressed rage toward her father and toward the master of Bly on Miles.\n\nOther critics, however, have strongly defended the governess. They note that James's letters, his New York Edition preface, and his Notebooks contain no definite evidence that The Turn of the Screw was intended as anything other than a straightforward ghost story, and James certainly wrote ghost stories that did not depend on the narrator's imagination. For example, “Owen Wingrave″ includes a ghost that causes its title character's sudden death, although no one actually sees it. James's Notebooks entry indicates that he was inspired originally by a tale he heard from Edward White Benson, the Archbishop of Canterbury. There are indications that the story James was told was about an incident in Hinton Ampner, wherein in 1771 a woman named Mary Ricketts moved from her home after seeing the apparitions of a man and a woman, day and night, staring through the windows, bending over the beds, and making her feel her children were in danger. \n\nPerhaps the critical perspective that best captures James's own thinking and methods, given the work's notably rococo style, which incessantly qualifies statements and counters any attempt at straightforward exposition, is that of Brad Leithauser: All such attempts to 'solve' the book, however admiringly tendered, unwittingly work toward its diminution[; its] profoundest pleasure lies in the beautifully fussed over way in which James refuses to come down on either side... the book becomes a modest monument to the bold pursuit of ambiguity. According to Leithauser, we are meant to entertain both the proposition that the governess is mad and the proposition that the ghosts really do exist, and consider the dreadful implications of each.\n\nJames revised the novella substantially over the years. In The Collier's Weekly Version of The Turn of the Screw, Peter G. Beidler presents the tale in its original serial form and presents a detailed analysis of the changes James made over the years. Among many other changes, James changed the children's ages. \n\nPoet and literary critic Craig Raine, in his essay \"Sex in nineteenth-century literature\", states quite categorically his belief that Victorian readers would have identified the two ghosts as child molesters. \n\nAdaptations and reworkings\n\nThe Turn of the Screw has been the subject of numerous adaptations and reworkings in a variety of media, and these reworkings and adaptations have, themselves, been analysed in the academic literature on Henry James and neo-Victorian culture. It was adapted to an opera by Benjamin Britten, which premiered in 1954, and the opera has been filmed on numerous occasions. The novella was adapted as a ballet score (1980) by Luigi Zaninelli, and separately as a ballet (1999) by Will Tucket for the Royal Ballet. Harold Pinter directed The Innocents (1950), a Broadway play which was an adaptation of The Turn of the Screw, and a subsequent eponymous stage play, adapted by Rebecca Lenkiewicz was presented in a co-production with Hammer at the Almeida Theatre, London, in January 2013. A new musical theater adaptation of the story had its world premiere in the Washington DC area in February 2015. \n\nThere have been numerous film adaptations of the novel. The critically acclaimed The Innocents (1961), directed by Jack Clayton, and Michael Winner's prequel The Nightcomers (1972) are two particularly notable examples. Other feature film adaptations include Rusty Lemorande's 1992 eponymous adaptation (set in the 1960s); Eloy de la Iglesia's Spanish-language Otra vuelta de tuerca (The Turn of the Screw, 1985); Presence of Mind (1999), directed by Atoni Aloy; and In a Dark Place (2006), directed by Donato Rotunno. The Others (2001) is not an adaptation but has some themes in common with James's novella. \n\nTelevision films have included a 1959 American adaptation as part of Ford Startime directed by John Frankenheimer and starring Ingrid Bergman; the West German Die sündigen Engel (The Sinful Angel, 1962), a 1974 adaptation directed by Dan Curtis, adapted by William F. Nolan; a French adaptation entitled Le Tour d'écrou (The Turn of the Screw, 1974); a Mexican miniseries entitled Otra vuelta de tuerca (The Turn of the Screw, 1981); a 1982 adaptation directed by Petr Weigl primarily starring Czech actors lip-synching; a 1990 adaptation directed by Graeme Clifford; The Haunting of Helen Walker (1995), directed by Tom McLoughlin; a 1999 adaptation directed by Ben Bolt; a low-budget 2003 version written and directed by Nick Millard; the Italian-language Il mistero del lago (The Mystery of the Lake, 2009); and a 2009 BBC film adapted by Sandy Welch.\n\nLiterary reworkings of The Turn of the Screw identified by James scholar Adeline R. Tintner include The Secret Garden (1911), by Frances Hodgson Burnett; \"Poor Girl\" (1951), by Elizabeth Taylor; The Peacock Spring (1975), by Rumer Godden; Ghost Story (1975) by Peter Straub; \"The Accursed Inhabitants of House Bly\" (1994) by Joyce Carol Oates; and Miles and Flora (1997)—a sequel—by Hilary Bailey. Further literary adaptations identified by other authors include Affinity (1999), by Sarah Waters; A Jealous Ghost (2005), by A. N. Wilson; and Florence & Giles (2010), by John Harding.\nIn December 1968, the ABC daytime drama Dark Shadows featured a storyline based on The Turn of the Screw. In the story, the ghosts of Quentin Collins and Beth Chavez haunted the west wing of Collinwood, possessing the two children living in the mansion. The story led to a year-long story in the year 1897, as Barnabas Collins traveled back in time to prevent Quentin's death and stop the possession. Despite his beginnings as a malevolent spirit, Quentin became a very popular character on the show.\n\nRecent young adult novels inspired by The Turn of the Screw include The Turning (2012) by Francine Prose and Tighter (2011) by Adele Griffin.\n\nThe Turn of the Screw is occasionally alluded to in the Star Trek universe. Star Trek: The Next Generations 7th-season episodes \"Sub Rosa\" is a loose science fiction adaptation of the story, centered around Doctor Beverly Crusher's encounter with a supposed ghost, and featuring minor characters named Quint and Jessel. In two early episodes of Star Trek: Voyager (\"Learning Curve\" and \"Persistence of Vision\"), Captain Kathryn Janeway is briefly seen on the holodeck acting out scenes from an untitled gothic novel which seems to be an amalgam of The Turn of the Screw and Jane Eyre." ] }

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Search Texts, Read ...", "Henry James Biography | List of Works, Study Guides ...", "Literature at the Turn of the Century - Ruth Nestvold", "The Turn of the Screw and Other Stories - Broadview Press" ], "url": [ "http://english.columbia.edu/american-literature-1830-turn-century", "http://www.litlovers.com/reading-guides/13-fiction/1077-turn-of-the-screw-james?start=1", "http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/screw/context.html", "http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/entertainment/opera-twentieth-century-opera.html", "http://www.online-literature.com/henry_james/", "http://www.gradesaver.com/author/henry-james/", "http://www.ruthnestvold.com/endcent.htm", "https://broadviewpress.com/product/the-turn-of-the-screw-and-other-stories/" ], "search_context": [ "American Literature from 1830 to the Turn of the Century | Department of English and Comparative Literature\nDepartment of English and Comparative Literature\nAmerican Literature from 1830 to the Turn of the Century\nRATIONALE\nMy objective is to focus on mid-19th century American literature. In the most general terms, I am particularly interested in representations of freedom and captivity during this time period. The following titles are arranged chronologically.\n \n— \"My Kinsman, Major Molineux\" (1831)\n— \"Roger Malvin's Burial\" (1831)\n— \"The May-Pole of Merry Mount\" (1835)\n— \"The Minister's Black Veil\" (1835)\nRalph Waldo Emerson (1880-1882) \"Nature\" (1836)\n— \"The American Scholar\" (1837)\n— Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave (1845)\nNathaniel Hawthorne\n— Selections from Final Harvest (assorted years)\nHarriet Jacobs (c.1813-1897)\n— Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl: (1861)\n— Written by Herself\n— Portrait of a Lady (1881)\n— \"The Art of Fiction\" (1884)\nMark Twain (1835-1910)\n— The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884)\nHerman Melville\n— \"The Turn of the Screw\" (1898)\nKate Chopin (1851-1904)\n— The Souls of Black Folk (1903)\nHenry James\n— \"The Beast in the Jungle\" (1903)\nEdith Wharton (1862-1937)\n— The House of Mirth (1905)\nLatest News\nProf. James Shapiro's Book, The Year of Lear, Shortlisted for PBK Award\nThe Phi Beta Kappa Society is pleased to announce the titles of the fifteen books from among those released in 2015 that are on the short lists for the Society’s annual book awards, The Christian Gauss Award, The Phi Beta Kappa Award in Science, and The Ralph Waldo Emerson Award.", "The Turn of the Screw - Henry James - Author Biography\n• Where—New York, New York, USA\n• Death—February 28, 1916\n• Education—Attended schools in France and Switzerland\n   Harvard Law School\n• Awards—British Order of Merit from King George V\nHenry James was an American-born writer, regarded as one of the key figures of 19th-century literary realism. He was the son of Henry James, Sr. and the brother of philosopher and psychologist William James and diarist Alice James.\nJames alternated between America and Europe for the first 20 years of his life, after which he settled in England, becoming a British subject in 1915, one year before his death. He is primarily known for the series of novels in which he portrays the encounter of Americans with Europe and Europeans.\nJames contributed significantly to literary criticism, particularly in his insistence that writers be allowed the greatest possible freedom in presenting their view of the world. James claimed that a text must first and foremost be realistic and contain a representation of life that is recognisable to its readers. His theatrical work is thought to have profoundly influenced his later novels and tales.\nLife\nJames was born in New York City into a wealthy family. His father, Henry James Sr., was one of the best-known intellectuals in mid-19th-century America. In his youth James traveled back and forth between Europe and America. At the age of 19 he briefly attended Harvard Law School, but preferred reading literature to studying law. James published his first short story, A Tragedy of Error, at age 21, and devoted himself to literature. In 1866–69 and 1871–72 he was a contributor to The Nation and Atlantic Monthly.\nAmong James's masterpieces are Daisy Miller (1879) and The Portrait of a Lady (1881). The Bostonians (1886) is set in the era of the rising feminist movement. What Maisie Knew (1897) depicts a preadolescent girl who must choose between her parents and a motherly old governess. In The Wings of the Dove (1902) an inheritance destroys the love of a young couple. James considered The Ambassadors (1903) his most \"perfect\" work of art. James's most famous novella is The Turn of the Screw, a ghost story in which the question of childhood corruption obsesses a governess. Although James is best known for his novels, his essays are now attracting a more general audience.\nJames regularly rejected suggestions that he marry, and after settling in London proclaimed himself \"a bachelor.\" F. W. Dupee, in several well-regarded volumes on the James family, originated the theory that he had been in love with his cousin Mary (\"Minnie\") Temple, but that a neurotic fear of sex kept him from admitting such affections.\nJames's letters to expatriate American sculptor Hendrik Christian Andersen have attracted particular attention. James met the 27-year-old Andersen in Rome in 1899, when James was 56, and wrote letters to Andersen that are intensely emotional: \"I hold you, dearest boy, in my innermost love, & count on your feeling me—in every throb of your soul\". In a letter from May 6, 1904, to his brother William, James referred to himself as \"always your hopelessly celibate even though sexagenarian Henry\". How accurate that description might have been is the subject of contention among James's biographers, but the letters to Andersen were occasionally quasi-erotic: \"I put, my dear boy, my arm around you, & feel the pulsation, thereby, as it were, of our excellent future & your admirable endowment.\" To his homosexual friend Howard Sturgis, James could write: \"I repeat, almost to indiscretion, that I could live with you. Meanwhile I can only try to live without you.\"\nHe corresponded in almost equally extravagant language with his many female friends, writing, for example, to fellow-novelist Lucy Clifford: \"Dearest Lucy! What shall I say? when I love you so very, very much, and see you nine times for once that I see Others! Therefore I think that—if you want it made clear to the meanest intelligence—I love you more than I love Others.\"\nWork\nJames is one of the major figures of trans-Atlantic literature. His works frequently juxtapose characters from the Old World (Europe), embodying a feudal civilization that is beautiful, often corrupt, and alluring, and from the New World (United States), where people are often brash, open, and assertive and embody the virtues—freedom and a more highly evolved moral character—of the new American society. James explores this clash of personalities and cultures, in stories of personal relationships in which power is exercised well or badly.\nCritics have jokingly described three phases in the development of James's prose: \"James the First, James the Second, and The Old Pretender\" and observers do often group his works of fiction into three periods. In his apprentice years, culminating with the masterwork The Portrait of a Lady, his style was simple and direct (by the standards of Victorian magazine writing) and he experimented widely with forms and methods, generally narrating from a conventionally omniscient point of view. Plots generally concern romance, except for the three big novels of social commentary that conclude this period. In the second period, as noted above, he abandoned the serialised novel and from 1890 to about 1897[citation needed], he wrote short stories and plays. Finally, in his third and last period he returned to the long, serialised novel.\nMore important for his work overall may have been his position as an expatriate, and in other ways an outsider, living in Europe. While he came from middle-class and provincial belongings (seen from the perspective of European polite society) he worked very hard to gain access to all levels of society, and the settings of his fiction range from working class to aristocratic, and often describe the efforts of middle-class Americans to make their way in European capitals. He confessed he got some of his best story ideas from gossip at the dinner table or at country house weekends. He worked for a living, however, and lacked the experiences of select schools, university, and army service, the common bonds of masculine society. He was furthermore a man whose tastes and interests were, according to the prevailing standards of Victorian era Anglo-American culture, rather feminine, and who was shadowed by the cloud of prejudice that then and later accompanied suspicions of his homosexuality.\nMajor Novels\nAlthough any selection of James's novels as \"major\" must inevitably depend to some extent on personal preference, the following books have achieved prominence among his works in the views of many critics. James believed a novel must be organic. Parts of the novel need to go together and the relationship must fit the form. If a reader enjoys a work of art or piece of writing, then they must be able to explain why. The very fact that every reader has different tastes, lends to the belief that artists should have artistic freedom to write in any way they choose to talk about subject matter that could possibly interest everyone.\nThe first period of James's fiction, usually considered to have culminated in The Portrait of a Lady, concentrated on the contrast between Europe and America. The style of these novels is generally straightforward and, though personally characteristic, well within the norms of 19th century fiction. Although the book shows some signs of immaturity—this was James's first serious attempt at a full-length novel—it has attracted favourable comment due to the vivid realisation of the three major characters.\nAlthough Roderick Hudson featured mostly American characters in a European setting, James made the Europe–America contrast even more explicit in his next novel. In fact, the contrast could be considered the leading theme of The American (1877). This book is a combination of social comedy and melodrama concerning the adventures and misadventures of Christopher Newman, an essentially good-hearted but rather gauche American businessman on his first tour of Europe.\nWashington Square (1880) is a deceptively simple tragicomedy that recounts the conflict between a dull but sweet daughter and her brilliant, domineering father. The book is often compared to Jane Austen's work for the clarity and grace of its prose and its intense focus on family relationships. James was not particularly enthusiastic about Jane Austen, so he might not have regarded the comparison as flattering. In fact, James was not enthusiastic about Washington Square itself. He tried to read it over for inclusion in the New York Edition of his fiction but found that he could not. So he excluded the novel from the edition.\nIn The Portrait of a Lady (1881) James concluded the first phase of his career with a novel that remains his most popular piece of long fiction. The narrative is set mainly in Europe, especially in England and Italy. Generally regarded as the masterpiece of his early phase, The Portrait of a Lady is described as a psychological novel, exploring the minds of his characters, and almost a work of social science, exploring the differences between Europeans and Americans, the old and the new worlds.\nThe Bostonians (1886) is a bittersweet tragicomedy that centres on Basil Ransom, an unbending political conservative from Mississippi. The storyline concerns the contest between Ransom and Olive for Verena's allegiance and affection, though the novel also includes a wide panorama of political activists, newspaper people, and quirky eccentrics.\nJames followed with The Princess Casamassima (1886), the story of an intelligent but confused young London bookbinder, Hyacinth Robinson, who becomes involved in far left politics and a terrorist assassination plot. The book is something of a lone sport in the Jamesian canon for dealing with such a violent political subject. But it is often paired with The Bostonians, which is also concerned with political issues.\nJust as James was beginning his ultimately disastrous attempt to conquer the stage, he wrote The Tragic Muse (1890). This novel offers a wide, cheerful panorama of English life and follows the fortunes of two would-be artist. The book reflects James's consuming interest in the theatre and is often considered to mark the close of the second or middle phase of his career.\nCriticism, Biographies and Fictional Treatments\nJames's work has remained steadily popular with the limited audience of educated readers to whom he spoke during his lifetime, and remained firmly in the British canon, but after his death American critics, such as Van Wyck Brooks, expressed hostility towards James's long expatriation and eventual naturalisation as a British citizen. Oscar Wilde once criticised him for writing \"fiction as if it were a painful duty\".\nDespite these criticisms, James is now valued for his psychological and moral realism, his masterful creation of character, his low-key but playful humour, and his assured command of the language.\nEarly biographies of James echoed the unflattering picture of him drawn in early criticism. F.W. Dupee, as noted above, characterised James as neurotically withdrawn and fearful, and although Dupee lacked access to primary materials his view has remained persuasive in academic circles, partly because Leon Edel's massive five-volume work, published from 1953 to 1972, seemed to buttress it with extensive documentation.\nThe published criticism of James's work has reached enormous proportions. The volume of criticism of The Turn of the Screw alone has become extremely large for such a brief work. The Henry James Review, published three times a year, offers criticism of James's entire range of writings, and many other articles and book-length studies appear regularly.\nLegacy\nPerhaps the most prominent examples of James's legacy in recent years have been the film versions of several of his novels and stories. Three of James's novels were filmed: The Europeans (1978), The Bostonians (1984) and The Golden Bowl (2000). The Iain Softley-directed version of The Wings of the Dove (1997) was successful with both critics and audiences. Agnieszka Holland's Washington Square (1997) was well received by critics, and Jane Campion tried her hand with The Portrait of a Lady (1996) but with much less success.\nMost of James's work has remained continuously in print since its first publication, and he continues to be a major figure in realist fiction, influencing generations of novelists. James has allowed the genre of the novel to become worthy of a literary critic's attention. James has formulated a theory of fiction that many today still discuss and debate.\nIn 1954, when the shades of depression were thickening fast, Ernest Hemingway wrote an emotional letter in which he tried to steady himself as he thought James would: \"Pretty soon I will have to throw this away so I better try to be calm like Henry James. Did you ever read Henry James? He was a great writer who came to Venice and looked out the window and smoked his cigar and thought.\" The odd, perhaps subconscious or accidental allusion to \"The Aspern Papers\" is striking. More recently, James' writing was even used to promote Rolls-Royce automobiles: the tagline \"Live all you can, it's a mistake not to\", originally spoken by The Ambassadors' Lambert Strether, was used in one advertisement. This is somewhat ironic, considering the novel's sardonic treatment of the \"great new force\" of mass marketing. (Adapted from Wikipedia.)", "SparkNotes: The Turn of the Screw: Context\nThe Turn of the Screw\nHenry James\nTable of Contents\nPlot Overview\nHenry James (1843–1916), whose mastery of the psychological novel markedly influenced twentieth-century literature, was born in New York City. His father, Henry James, Sr., was an unconventional thinker who had inherited considerable wealth. James, Sr., became a follower of Swedenborgian mysticism, a belief system devoted to the study of philosophy, theology, and spiritualism, and socialized with such eminent writers as Thomas Carlyle, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Washington Irving, and William Makepeace Thackeray. James’s older brother, William James, profoundly influenced the emerging science of psychology through his Principles of Psychology (1890) and The Varieties of Religious Experience (1902). He also distinguished himself as an exponent of a brand of philosophical pragmatism he named “radical empiricism,” the idea that beliefs do not work because they are true but are true because they work.\nThe James children were educated in a variety of schools and with private tutors, in what James later called “small vague spasms” of schooling augmented by his father’s extensive library. In 1855 the James family began a three-year tour of Geneva, London, and Paris, an experience that probably influenced James’s later preference for Europe over his native land. After a year at Harvard Law School, he began writing short stories and book reviews. He continued to travel widely from a base in England, where he chose to settle. He became a British subject in 1915, a year before his death at the age of seventy-three. By the time James died, he had written more than a hundred short stories and novellas, as well as literary and dramatic criticism, plays, travel essays, book reviews, and twenty novels, including The Portrait of a Lady (1881), The Bostonians (1886), The Wings of the Dove (1902), The Ambassadors (1903), and The Golden Bowl (1904).\nAlthough James had many friends and acquaintances, he maintained a certain reserve toward most people. An “obscure hurt,” as James later described a mysterious early injury he suffered in connection with a stable fire, haunted him throughout his life. He never married, and the absence of any known romantic attachments has led some critics to speculate that he was a repressed or closeted homosexual. Others attribute the reason for James’s lifelong celibacy to the early death of his beloved cousin Mary “Minny” Temple, the model for several of his heroines.\nJames wrote The Turn of the Screw in 1897, at a low point in his life. In 1895 he had suffered a tremendous personal and professional blow when his play Guy Domville was booed off the London stage. Deeply wounded, James retreated from London and took refuge in Sussex, eventually taking a long-term lease on a rambling mansion called Lamb House. Shortly thereafter, he began writing The Turn of the Screw, one of several works from this period that revolve around large, rambling houses.\nLike many writers and intellectuals of the time, James was fascinated by “spiritual phenomena,” a field that was taken very seriously and was the subject of much “scientific” inquiry. The field remained popular even after the unmasking of the Fox sisters, whose claims of being able to communicate with the spirit world had started the craze for spiritualism in the 1840s. Henry James, Sr., and William James were both members of the Society for Psychical Research, and William served as its president from 1894 to 1896.\nJames had written ghost stories before The Turn of the Screw. It was a popular form, especially in England, where, as the prologue to The Turn of the Screw suggests, gathering for the purpose of telling ghost stories was something of a Christmastide tradition. According to James’s notebooks and his preface to the 1908 edition of The Turn of the Screw, the germ of the story had been a half-remembered anecdote told to him by Edward White Benson, the archbishop of Canterbury: a story of small children haunted by the ghosts of a pair of servants who wish them ill.\nIn Benson’s story, the evil spirits repeatedly tried to lure the children to their deaths. The spin James put on the story was to make everything—the presence of the ghosts, their moral depravity, their designs on the children—purely a function of hearsay. As careful readers have noted, the ghosts are visible only to one person in the tale—the governess who serves as both narrator and protagonist.\nThe Turn of the Screw first appeared in Collier’s Weekly in twelve installments between January and April 1898. Not until after World War I did anyone question the reliability of the governess as a narrator. With the publication of a 1934 essay by the influential critic Edmund Wilson, a revised view of the story began to gain currency. Wilson’s Freudian interpretation, that the governess is a sexually repressed hysteric and the ghosts mere figments of her overly excitable imagination, echoed what other critics like Henry Beers, Harold Goddard, and Edna Kenton had previously suggested in the 1920s. Throughout the course of his life, Wilson continued to revise and rethink his interpretation of The Turn of the Screw, but all criticism since has had to confront the central ambiguity in the narrative. Is the governess a hopeless neurotic who hallucinates the figures of Peter Quint and Miss Jessel, or is she a plucky young woman battling to save her charges from damnation? Adherents of both views abound, though the former take on the story is rarer. Other critics maintain that the beauty and terror of the tale reside in its utter ambiguity, arguing that both interpretations are possible and indeed necessary to make The Turn of the Screw the tour de force that it is.\nMore Help", "opera: Twentieth-Century Opera\nopera\nTwentieth-Century Opera\nIn the early part of the 20th cent. the foremost operatic composer was Richard Strauss . Although influenced by Wagner, he composed operas with even richer and more stunning orchestrations, often using dissonant harmonies and abandoning tonality to emphasize the humor or drama of a scene. Among his most successful operas are Salomé (1905), Elektra (1909), Der Rosenkavalier (1911), Ariadne auf Naxos (1912), and the allegorical Die Frau ohne Schatten ( The Woman Without a Shadow, 1919).\nAfter World War I a period of innovation began that has continued to the present day. Alban Berg 's Wozzeck (1925) and Lulu (1937; posthumously completed in 1979) have been the most enduring of early atonal operas. Arnold Schoenberg 's serial work (see serial music ) Moses and Aaron (unfinished, 1932) had successful revivals in the United States in the 1960s and again in the United States and Germany in the 1980s. George Gershwin 's Porgy and Bess (1935) is considered the first great American opera, while Paul Hindemith 's Mathis der Maler (1938), dealing with the life of the painter Mathias Grünewald, represents the trend of the 1930s toward lavishly staged, moralistic epics.\nOperatic composers who have emerged since World War II include Gian-Carlo Menotti , Samuel Barber , Alberto Ginastera , and Hans Werner Henze . The former two have composed in traditional musical idiom, such as Menotti's The Medium (1946), The Consul (1950), and Amahl and the Night Visitors (written for television, 1951) and Barber's Vanessa (1957) and Antony and Cleopatra (1966). Henze's The Young Lord (1965) and Ginastera's Bomarzo (1964) and Beatrix Cenci (1971) are highly innovative and controversial. Operas by the Americans Douglas Moore and Carlisle Floyd used American history, legend, and folk music, as reflected in Moore's The Ballad of Baby Doe (1956) and Floyd's Susannah (1955).\nThe most internationally accepted post–World War II composer of operas was the Englishman Benjamin Britten . His first operatic success was Peter Grimes (1945), followed by The Rape of Lucretia (1946). Britten's other works include Billy Budd (after Melville's story, 1951), The Turn of the Screw (after Henry James's story, 1954), A Midsummer Night's Dream (1960), and Death in Venice (after the novella by Thomas Mann, 1973). Britten's operas are cast in traditional musical and dramatic form.\nSome late 20th-century avant-garde operas include The Devils of Loudon (1968–69) by the Polish composer Krzysztof Penderecki ; Le Grand Macabre (1978) by the Hungarian György Ligeti ; and Einstein on the Beach (1976), Satyagraha (1980), Akhnaton (1984), The Voyage (1992), and White Raven (1998), all by the American composer Philip Glass . Other operatic works by Americans in the same period include Nixon in China (1987) and The Death of Klinghoffer (1991) by John Adams ; The Ghosts of Versailles (1991) by John Corigliano ; and McTeague (1992) and A View from the Bridge (1999) by William Bolcom . Owing to widespread indifference to new works on the part of the opera-going public and most major opera houses, plus the financial burden incurred in staging a new work, many composers in the latter part of the 20th cent. turned to community and college opera workshops to produce their works. However, in the 1990s and 2000s this trend was partly reversed, with younger audiences becoming interested in opera, and more large companies presenting operas by contemporary composers.\nSections in this article:", "Henry James - Biography and Works. Search Texts, Read Online. Discuss.\nHenry James\nBiography of Henry James\nHenry James (1843-1916), noted American-born English essayist, critic, and author of the realism movement wrote The Ambassadors (1903), The Turn of the Screw (1898), and The Portrait of a Lady (1881);\n\"I always understood,\" he continued, \"though it was so strange--so pitiful. You wanted to look at life for yourself--but you were not allowed; you were punished for your wish. You were ground in the very mill of the conventional!\"--Ch. 54\nJames's works, many of which were first serialised in the magazine The Atlantic Monthly include narrative romances with highly developed characters set amongst illuminating social commentary on politics, class, and status, as well as explorations of the themes of personal freedom, feminism, and morality. In his short stories and novels he employs techniques of interior monologue and point of view to expand the readers' enjoyment of character perception and insight. Often comparing the Old World with the New, and influenced by Honore de Balzac , Henrik Ibsen , Charles Dickens , and Nathaniel Hawthorne of whose work he wrote \"too original and exquisite to pass away\" James would become widely respected in North America and Europe, earning honorary degrees from Harvard and Oxford Universities, in 1911 and 1912 respectively. He was acquainted with many notable literary figures of the day including Robert Browning , Ivan S. Turgenev , Emile Zola , Lord Alfred Tennyson , and Gustave Flaubert . American-born and never married, James would live the majority of his life in Europe, becoming a British citizen in 1915 after the outbreak of World War I. Many of his works have inspired other author's works and adaptations to the stage and screen.\nHenry James was born on 15 April 1843 in New York City, New York State, United States, the second of five children born to theologian Henry James Sr. (1811-1882) and Mary Robertson nee Walsh. Henry James Sr. was one of the most wealthy intellectuals of the time, connected with noted philosophers and transcendentalists as Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau , as well as Nathaniel Hawthorne , Thomas Carlyle , and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow ; fellow friends and influential thinkers of the time who would have a profound effect on his son's life. Education was of the utmost importance to Henry Sr. and the family spent many years in Europe and the major cities of England, Italy, Switzerland, France, and Germany, his children being tutored in languages and literature.\nAfter several attempts at attending schools to study science and law, by 1864 James decided he would become a writer. He was always a voracious reader and he now immersed himself in French, Russian, English, and American classic literature. He ventured out on his own travels to Europe, wrote book reviews, and submitted stories to magazines such as the North American Review, Nation, North American Tribune, Macmillan's, and The Atlantic Monthly which also serialised his first novel Watch and Ward (1871). James left America and lived for a time in Paris, France before moving to London, England in 1876. He continued his prodigious output of short stories and novels including Roderick Hudson (1875), The American (1877), The Europeans (1878), Confidence (1879), Washington Square (1880), The Pension Beaurepas (1881), and his extended critical critical essay Hawthorne (1879). He also wrote the novella Daisy Miller (1879) which he later based a play on; one of many that proved unsuccessful. A Little Tour In France (1884) was followed by The Bostonians (1886), The Aspern Papers (1888), The Reverberator (1888), The Tragic Muse (1890), The Pupil (1891), Sir Dominick Ferrand (1892), The Death of the Lion (1894), The Coxon Fund (1894), and The Altar of the Dead (1895).\nIn 1897 James retired from the hectic city of London to the quieter town of Rye in East Sussex, where James bought \"Lamb House\" and continued to write What Maisie Knew (1897), In The Cage (1898), The Awkward Age (1899), The Wings of the Dove (1902), The Beast in the Jungle (1903), The Golden Bowl (1904), Italian Hours (1909), and The Outcry (1911). Autobiographies include A Small Boy And Others (1913), Notes Of A Son And Brother (1914), and The Middle Years (1917).\nIn 1904 James travelled to America where he embarked on a cross-country lecture tour, which inspired his series of essays first published in North American Review, Harper's, The Fortnightly Review then in 1907 as The American Scene. When World War I broke out, being an American ex-patriate, James was not happy with America's reluctance to join the war and became a British Citizen in 1915. In 1916 he was awarded the Order of Merit by King George V.\nAfter several years of decline and a stroke a few months earlier, Henry James died of pneumonia on 28 February 1916. His ashes were interred at the Cambridge Cemetery in Massachusetts, United States, his stone inscribed \"Novelist, Citizen of Two Countries, Interpreter of His Generation On Both Sides Of The Sea\". A memorial stone was placed for him in the Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey, London, England in 1976.\n\"Live all you can; it's a mistake not to. It doesn't so much matter what you do in particular so long as you have your life. If you haven't had that what have you had?--from the Preface of The Ambassadors\nBiography written by C. D. Merriman for Jalic Inc. Copyright Jalic Inc. 2008. All Rights Reserved.\nThe above biography is copyrighted. Do not republish it without permission.\nForum Discussions on Henry James\nRecent Forum Posts on Henry James\nI've since seen there's a different place for discussion of this novel and I've copied my post there....\nPosted By Jackson Richardson in James, Henry || 0 Replies\nThe Princess Casamassima\nThe novel tells of a clever young London bookbinder, Hyacinth Robinson, whose young mother had long ago murdered his father, Lord Frederick. Young Hyacinth begins to dabble in revolutionary politics and finally commits himself to an assassination attempt in London. Ultimately he kills himself instead, fearing among other things that his lethal mission will recall the shameful felony and incarceration of his long dead mother. But the novel is titled The Princess Casamassima! The role of the princess in the ending is fascinating. Both her and Hyacinth are manipulated like puppets by the urbane and supremely intelligent Paul Muniment. Hyacinth has been charged to assassinate her e...\nPosted By Gladys in James, Henry || 0 Replies\nHenry James major phase: what do you think?\nSo I'm writing on James' relationship to tradition, focusing on The Ambassadors and Wings of the Dove. Basically, I'd be very interested to find out where you think James' late novels are in relation to modernism, impressionism, realism etc. Any feedback on these two novels or Henry James in general would be appreciated! My argument is that the late novels are not increasingly anti-mimetic but rather undermine the dichotomy of impressions/actuality. I'm using Lacan's work on the Real as a framework, so it would be fantastic if you have any thoughts on that too. :) Thanks in advance!!...\nPosted By tasnim in James, Henry || 4 Replies\nWhy I love reading Henry James: an analysis\nIn these days of fast paced entertainment reading a book can be the equivalent of a walk in a spring forest. The story is handed out at a measured tempo and you can digest it at your leisure. Having read a particularly difficult part you can stare outside for a moment and mull over the words you just read. The story will be waiting there for you to commence reading whenever you are ready. This way of enjoying a book does also allow for appreciating the language used by the author. This is especially important when reading Henry James, I feel. His writing is often intricate and ingenious. It takes time to read a Henry James novel as story, that which makes you turn pages, is of lesser impo...\nPosted By tdaonp in James, Henry || 5 Replies\n\"The Other House\" - a thriller\nHave others read Henry James' 1896 suspense thriller, \"The Other House\"? With blatant and imponderable ambiguity on every page, the novel is so different from his understated earlier novel, \"Washington Square\" (1880). I intend to read \"The Awkward Age\" (1899) next. While I found \"The Other House\" enticing reading, I had immense difficulty in seeing malignity in Rose Armiger until she was exposed as the murderer. On re-reading the first chapter, I see her family background was noxious, she hates children, harmless Mrs Beever dislikes her, and Rose speaks with cryptic irony. Still, murdering Effie on the day she returns from a four year absence seems a bit much. Did she kill to win...\nPosted By Gladys in James, Henry || 1 Reply\nThe New York Edition\nHi all, This is a more materialistic (not literary of cerebral) post. Does anyone now a good website to find rare and collectible books besides Amazon? I was at a library sale two days ago and came across the original Charles Scribners Sons New York Edition of Novels & Tales of Henry James for $12. However, the collection is missing volumes IV & XVIII. So, as you can probably imagine, I am on a quest for the two missing volumes. The set that I have is an old college library set and is in rough condition. I am collecting for myself and not as a financial investment; however, I would like to get originals and not reprints. I've checked Amazon and right now they don't have the vo...\nPosted By epi_lon in James, Henry || 0 Replies\nHelp - Henry James christening present\nMy son, Henry James, is to be christened (baptised) and his great-grandmother wants to get him something to remember her by. I thought she could give a H.J book (namesake) and inscribe a few words to him in the front cover. Which title would you recommend? Many thanks : yawnb::thumbs_up...\nPosted By Hazel from UK in James, Henry || 2 Replies\nplease !!! help me\nIn this year we study The Portrait Of A Lady for Henry James... I have a question and I want you to answer me please this question is \" The international situation plays an important in nearly all James's novels.....Discuss \" we're asked to discuss the above sentence.... please give me your opinions about the international situation in The Portrait Of A Lady as fast as you can ... I am very thankful for you ,who answer me...\nPosted By Saudi in James, Henry || 0 Replies\nJames and the voice of American innocence\nBitterfly had earlier asked me some nicely framed questions about James and American innocence, and I think the issue is worth continued discussion under James as a specific author. Here is how we started the discussion, and as an avid Jamesian, there are many aspects to it: Originally Posted by Bitterfly Speaking about James, I was interested in what you said about the American voice being characterised by its innocence, Jozanny. If you read my post, would you care to explain? Do you mean there are many innocent narrators, or that there's a general wistfulness for a lost age of innocence? I would have said that innocence, its loss and its quest were themes rather than ...\nPosted By Jozanny in James, Henry || 7 Replies\nEdels Complete Tales - why are volumes 9-12 so hard to find?\nI have volumes 1-8 of the Edels Complete Tales and despite years of searching, I've found hardly any of available second hand copies of volumes 9-12 whereas volumes 1-8 are plentiful. Just look on abebooks - many of 1-8 but no volumes 9-12. It's been that way for years. I was wondering why this was - any ideas? I know it's possible to buy compete 1-12 sets but I already have 1-8 and I am now intrigued as to why there is such a disparity in availability?...\nPosted By philkime in James, Henry || 0 Replies\nWas James better understood by his intended audience?\nReading the Ambassadors now, this is just something I began to contemplate over. Do you suppose that James' intended audieence, that is the people who were reading his work at the time he was writing it would have acutally understood his work better than future readers who are reading his work today? Or do you think his work would have been equally difficult and confussing to understand for those reading at the time, as it is for many people reading it now?...\nPosted By Dark Muse in James, Henry || 10 Replies\nThe Jolly Corner\nWhat is this story about? I have recently finnished reading The Jolly Corner, and I found it completely confusing, and only have some very vauge notion as to the meaning and purpose of this story. But I also found it dreadfully difficult to get through the thing. If anyone could offer any insight on the story it would be apperciated....\nPosted By Dark Muse in James, Henry || 2 Replies", "Henry James Biography | List of Works, Study Guides & Essays | GradeSaver\nJames, Henry\nBiography of Henry James\nHenry James (1843-1916) was born on April 15, 1843 to Henry James, Sr., and his wife, Mary Walsh Robertson. His older brother William was born in 1842, and younger siblings Garth Wilkinson, Robertson, and Alice were born in 1845, 1846, and 1848, respectively.\nHenry Sr., the son of an Irish immigrant, was one of thirteen children, born in Albany, New York. By the time his own children were born, he had inherited a great deal of wealth from his father, and the James family. At the time of Henry Jr.'s birth, the family lived in New York City, where Henry Sr. devoted his time to the study of theology, philosophy, and mysticism, rejecting his father's Presbyterian Church to follow the teachings of Swedish Christian mystic Emanuel Swedenborg.\nThe James children were educated in a variety of unorthodox circumstances - sometimes at schools, sometimes with private tutors, always with access to books and new experiences. Margaret Fuller, Washington Irving, William Makepeace Thackeray, and George Ripley visited the James home during Henry Jr.'s boyhood. In 1855, the James family embarked on a three-year-long trip to Geneva, London, and Paris, an experience that influenced Henry Jr.'s decision, as an adult, to live and write in Europe rather than his native America.\nUpon their return from Europe, Henry Sr. moved the family to Cambridge, Massachusetts, allowing for continued contact with prominent writers and thinkers, including nearby Concord's Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, and Bronson Alcott. Henry Jr. was a voracious reader and spent his teenage years divided between Cambridge, Europe, and Newport, Rhode Island, where he studied for a time with painter William Morris Hunt. His brother William was found to be a more adept artist, and Henry soon discontinued his lessons, turning instead to writing.\nIn 1861, Henry suffered a back injury. The injury would cause lingering pain throughout his life, and it prevented him from enlisting and serving in the American Civil War. William did not serve either, although their two younger brothers did. Henry briefly enrolled at Harvard Law School in 1862, but quickly decided that studying law was not for him, and returned to literary pursuits. He began publishing reviews and short fiction in various journals in the early 1860s; he also produced travel writing, since between 1869 and 1870, he traveled independently in Europe. He published his first novel in 1870, and followed this with a series of early works, many of which focused on the experiences of Americans in Europe. After a few unsuccessful attempts at settling in Europe, he moved to Paris in 1875, quickly followed by a move to London. With the exception of a few brief trips, he would remain in Europe for the rest of his life.\nHenry cultivated acquaintances with many of the major artistic and literary figures in both France and England in his lifetime. He remained a prolific novelist, and also displayed a strong interest in literary criticism. Henry was attracted to the idea of writing for the theater. After producing many unadapted scripts and one modest success in the 1890s, Henry wrote a long drama called \"Guy Domville\" which opened to negative reactions in London in 1895. Although public opinion subsequently shifted and the play ended up being moderately successful, Henry was deeply traumatized by the initial negative reaction. He did however recover enough to write other theatrical pieces, some of which he later rewrote as novels.\nHenry remained active late into his life, both producing new works of fiction and editing the \"New York Edition,\" a twenty-four-volume collection of his works. He finally became a British subject in 1915, and died in London in 1916.\nUnlike William, who married and fathered five children, Henry remained a bachelor his entire life. Though lacking in definitive evidence, some critics theorize that he was gay, pointing to what they perceive as homoeroticism in relationships such as that of Pemberton and Morgan Moreen in his story \"The Pupil\" and Peter Quint and Miles in The Turn of the Screw , or to James's facility with female voices in his writing (an ability that may reflect a capacity for empathy rather than evidence of his sexuality). Others suggest his cousin Mary \"Minny\" Temple as the object of his affection and posit her death from tuberculosis at age twenty-four in 1870 as the reason for James's celibacy. James had spent time with her in Newport and based several of his heroines on her. Still others suggest that the injury that had prevented his service in the Civil War had rendered him impotent.\nAmong James's most famous literary works are 1878's The Europeans, 1878 commercial success Daisy Miller , 1880's critically acclaimed Washington Square , 1886's The Bostonians, and 1898's The Turn of the Screw. James met and corresponded with a number of American and European literary figures of his day. Among them, Ivan Turgenov, Joseph Conrad, Oscar Wilde, Robert Lewis Stevenson, Edith Wharton, and Stephen Crane influenced his literary style and his beliefs.\nStudy Guides on Works by Henry James", "Literature at the Turn of the Century\nLiterature at the Turn of the Century (1890 - 1918)\n \nLate Victorianism\nThe last decade of the nineteenth century saw the development of a number of movements which amounted to a rejection of the principles of Victorianism. Early Victorian writers, responding to the social changes due to the shift from an agricultural to an industrial society and the decline of traditional religious beliefs, adopted a moral aesthetic and maintained that literature should provide fresh values and an understanding of the newly emerging society. Novelists such as Elizabeth Gaskell and George Eliot examined complications of forming a personal identity in a world in which traditional social structures were breaking down. Social mores were their subject and realism their form of expression.\nBy the 1870s, opposing what by now was perceived as a repressive aesthetic, writers began to reject any obligation to produce moral art, as exemplified in the theoretical works of Walter Pater, such as Studies in the History of the Renaissance (1873). In fiction, this impulse took various forms, among them a return to prose fantasy as displayed in the works of Robert Lewis Stevenson (The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, 1886) and Lewis Carroll (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, 1865). In his dystopian novel Erewhon, or, Over the Range (1872), Samuel Butler criticized the stringent morals of his time. The late Victorian period also saw a more searching realism, accompanied by the emergence of the so-called 'problem novel' in which the institution of marriage and traditional relations between the sexes were re-examined. In the words of the novelist George Gissing, it was an era of \"sexual anarchy\"; an era in which the laws governing sexual identity and behavior were no longer valid. The 'fallen woman' was replaced by the 'new woman.' Once the door closed behind Ibsen's Nora, social structures oppressing women became the theme of plays by Oscar Wilde and George Bernard Shaw, and novels by George Moore and Thomas Hardy.\nOne of the most widely read and respected English novelists, Hardy created an important artistic bridge between the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The influence of Charles Darwin's recently published Origin of Species (1859) on his thought, and his subsequent loss of orthodox religious faith affected all of his writings. Although his novels were uneven in skill, when he stayed in the rural settings of his youth and focused on relations between the sexes, they took on a tragic power rarely equaled by other English novelists. He is credited with introducing fatalism into Victorian literature -- a pessimistic assessment of humanity's ability to cope with a changing social environment. In two of Hardy's final novels, Tess of the D'Urbervilles (1891) and Jude the Obscure (1896), his bleak and open treatment of sexuality and marriage caused such an outrage among the puritanical Victorian public that he was deeply disillusioned. Hardy abandoned fiction, and for the rest of his life wrote only poetry.\nAt about the time Hardy was active as a novelist, the French writer Emile Zola formulated a branch of literary realism called naturalism, which reflected many of Hardy's concerns as a novelist. The terms naturalism and realism are often used almost interchangeably, but there is a significant distinction between them: while naturalists supported the realists' aim of careful observation and mimetic depiction of the outer world, their view of the human condition and specific method of writing was strongly indebted to advances in the natural sciences, specifically the impact of Darwin's theory of evolution. In their biologistic view, the human animal was a creature conditioned by influences beyond his or her control and therefore largely devoid of free will or moral choice; a creature shaped by external factors such as heredity, environment, and the pressure of immediate circumstances. In this respect, the premises of the naturalists have gained a reputation for pessimism. Their method was indebted to the natural and social sciences as well: according to Zola, the writer was to work as an objective 'experimenter' whose function was to observe and record the chain of cause and effect dispassionately and impersonally, without moral judgments. A further formative influence on naturalism can be found in the social consequences of the Industrial Revolution. The misery of the working classes in urban slums became one of the naturalists' favorite themes in analyzing the human condition.\nA rebel Victorian novelist who was strongly influenced by naturalism was George Gissing. In New Grub Street (1891) and The Nether World (1889), Gissing portrays the grinding effects of poverty. The subjects of many of his twenty-two novels were the poor and the shabby genteel, a world earlier described by Dickens but treated more seriously by Gissing. Gissing's arguably most memorable novel, however, The Odd Women (1891), dealt with the new woman, this time as an 'odd' or unmarried woman -- the feminist Rhoda Nunn, whose principles are tested by the attractive ex-radical, Everard Barfoot. In an interesting twist of literary convention, a woman who does not 'fall' dies in childbirth, and the new woman adopts the child. Gissing's work marks a transition from Victorian realism to a grimmer realistic mode. He was influenced by French and Russian novelists, but English Victorian propriety denied him the freedom of literary naturalists on the continent. He wrote about and lived among the lower classes, but at the same time he was not one of them, and his ideal remained the life of scholarly seclusion evoked in By the Ionian Sea (1901) and his last novel, The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft (1903).\nNaturalism was prominent in drama as well. 'Free' theaters were established throughout Europe for the presentation of naturalist plays, exploring new techniques of acting and production and making use of the potential of artificial lighting. The unsavory, often shocking, but theatrically effective products of naturalism found an expression in the title chosen by George Bernard Shaw for a collection of his dramas, Plays Pleasant and Unpleasant (1898). Shaw began his career as a novelist, publishing in socialist journals. He was active in socialist and anarchist political movements, and in 1883 he became a founding member of the Fabian Society, an influential socialist organization. Although his novels found little favor with the critics and the public, Shaw began to reach a wide audience through his magazine articles and reviews. His first play, Widowers' Houses, was produced in 1892 and was followed in rapid succession by The Philanderer (1893), Mrs. Warren's Profession (1893), Arms and the Man (1894), Candida (1893), and You Never Can Tell (1895), which were all published together in Plays Pleasant and Unpleasant. To make his published plays more accessible to the reading public, Shaw added novelistic stage directions and lengthy prefatory essays revealing his mastery of English prose. During the first decades of the twentieth century, Shaw wrote his greatest and most successful plays: Man and Superman (1904), Major Barbara (1905), and Pygmalion (1913). Although Shaw won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1925 and went on writing plays almost until his death at the age of 94, none of the later plays enjoyed the same kind of success as these earlier works. His influence on twentieth century drama, however, was profound, revolutionizing the overwhelmingly melodramatic Victorian stage with dramas of ideas.\nAnother form which the reaction against Victorianism took was the literary movement known as 'decadence.' An early influence on the movement was the erotic poetry of Algernon Charles Swinburne, which shocked the Victorian reading public in the seventies and eighties. The preoccupation with sensation shown by Swinburne and Dante Gabriel Rossetti led to the literary decadence of the 1890s, epitomized by Oscar Wilde's play Salomé, which he wrote in French for the actress Sarah Bernhardt in 1893. This was followed by Wilde's most famous play, The Importance of Being Earnest (1895).\nIn its ideology of 'aestheticism,' a belief in the notion of art for art's sake, decadence was also a reaction against naturalism. In literary history, the term decadence specifically applies to a late nineteenth century movement marked by supposedly amoral sentiments, extensive use of sensual or exotic imagery, and aestheticism. A number of the principles of decadence are reflected in Wilde's famous novel, The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891). Aestheticism was cultivated in particular by the circle of writers associated with the Rhymers' Club and the periodical The Yellow Book (1894-97) (which also published the drawings of Aubrey Beardsley), among them Wilde, Arthur Symons and Ernest Dowson. It is this group of writers more than any other which is associated with the turn of the century: the term fin de siècle in art and literature is applied primarily to the movements of decadence and aestheticism.\nThe Twentieth Century\nNo sharp dividing line separates the nineteenth from the twentieth century. One of the most highly respected poets of the twentieth century, for example, the Irish poet William Butler Yeats, was a member of the Rhymers' Club during his early twenties. His fame goes beyond his association with this literary movement, however, and in his later years his early aestheticism was replaced by a commitment to social truth and responsibility and a dedication to the Irish cause. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature in 1922. Yeats was considered the greatest poetical influence of the time by T. S. Eliot, whose \"Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock\" (1909-11) is regarded as the first significant \"modernist\" poem.\nUntil the outbreak of World War I, prose fiction also continued to dominated by a group of writers who had already achieved distinction during the nineteenth century, among them Thomas Hardy, Joseph Conrad, Rudyard Kipling, H. G. Wells and Henry James, who became a British citizen shortly before his death. Except for Hardy, who abandoned the novel in disgust after the critical reception of Jude the Obscure, all remained extremely active in fiction. H. G. Wells's most famous science fiction novels, for example, among them The Time Machine (1895), The Invisible Man (1897) and The War of the World (1898), all appeared in the last years of the nineteenth century. Although Wells later wrote a number of serious novels in the naturalist tradition, all but forgotten now, his early science fiction continues to be enjoyed by a wide audience.\nBy contrast, the Anglo-American Henry James was a writers' writer, psychologically penetrating and technically innovative. His recurring theme was the innocent American abroad, but he made of this seemingly simple story numerous personality studies of psychological complexity. In the words of Joseph Conrad, he was \"the historian of fine consciences,\" especially those of women--wealthy young Americans seduced by the culture and duplicity of Europe and European men, like Isabel Archer in The Portrait of a Lady (1881). In these studies, he develops the restricted point of view consistently, characterizing his figures through effective dramatic scenes. His use of ambiguity through layers of narrative perspective is unmatched, especially in his classic tale of the uncanny, The Turn of the Screw (1898). Three novels of the last phase of his career alone would probably have assured James' lasting fame: The Wings of the Dove (1902), The Ambassadors (1903) and The Golden Bowl (1904). His impressionistic examination of consciousness in these late novels laid the groundwork for the narrative technique of 'stream of consciousness,' a term coined by his brother, the philosopher William James. As a result, the experiments of modernism are deeply indebted to the work of James.\nJoseph Conrad greatly admired Henry James, as did most of the important writers of the generation who followed him. Conrad's first novel, Almayer's Folly, appeared in 1895, but his most famous works did not appear until the turn of the century. In Lord Jim (1900), Heart of Darkness (1902), Nostromo (1904) and The Secret Agent (1907), Conrad proved himself a master of intricate structure, sustained irony and the sophisticated manipulation of point of view. Conrad often employed a narrator who filtered all the action for the reader, but in Nostromo, considered by many to be his finest novel, he dispensed with this technique. He was particularly adept at delineating the suffering consciousness, and besides the clash between native cultures and European civilization, his subjects were the effects of isolation and moral deterioration on the individual.\nAnother primary concern of writers of this period was sexuality and sexual mores. Above all it was D. H. Lawrence who abandoned the traditional concerns of the English novel -- manners and morals and society -- to portray sexual relations as a decisive element in human behavior. As a result of his frank portrayal of his favorite subject, two of his major novels, The Rainbow (1915) and Lady Chatterley's Lover (1928), were temporarily banned. Lawrence's forthright depiction of sexuality, however, was an integral part of his crusade against the constricting and sterile values of modern civilization. His importance, and his continuing fame, depend less on technical accomplishments than on his subject matter. His earlier novels such as The White Peacock (1911) and Sons and Lovers (1913) did not go beyond the bounds of what was deemed acceptable, but with the publication of The Rainbow, Lawrence's name began to be associated with sexual license and literary scandal. Methuen, the publisher, was prosecuted and all the copies of the novel were confiscated. Lady Chatterley's Lover, Lawrence's last major novel and an expression of his belief in the possibility of personal fulfillment through sexual relations, was not published in England in an unexpurgated edition until 1961.\nThe novelist E. M. Forster was also concerned with questions of sexuality in his novels, although in his works the subject receives a much more subtle treatment than in Lawrence's. The only novel he ever wrote which treated the subject of homosexuality frankly, Maurice (pub. 1971), did not appear until after his death. Forster began his literary career in 1903 as a writer for The Independent Review, a liberal periodical with anti-imperialist sympathies. His first novel, Where Angels Fear to Tread (1905), explored the emotional and sensual deficiencies of the English upper middle class, a theme he was to repeat in the novels that established his reputation as one of England's leading novelists, A Room with a View (1908) and Howard's End (1910). The last novel he wrote, A Passage to India (1924), is probably also his most enduring. It is both an examination of the social codes and barriers that thwart communication and frustrate human feeling, as well as sharp diagnosis of the less than perfect relationship between the Indians and their English overlords. He eventually gave up writing novels because, as he suggested, of the obligation to write about marriage.\nForster was a member of the Bloomsbury group, the most important member of which was Virginia Woolf. Woolf was instrumental in the development of modernism. Her first two novels The Voyage Out (1915) and Night and Day (1919), were conventional in form, giving little hint of the experiments to come, but in 1919 she also published the essay \"Modern Fiction,\" which anticipated her later experiments and served as a manifesto of literary modernism:\nExamine for a moment an ordinary mind on an ordinary day. The mind receives a myriad of impressions -- trivial, fantastic, evanescent, or engraved with the sharpness of steel. From all sides they come, an incessant shower of innumerable atoms [....] Is it not the task of the novelist to convey this varying, this unknown and uncircumscribed spirit, whatever aberration or complexity it may display, with as little mixture of the alien and external as possible?\nWoolf later playfully asserted that \"in or about December 1910\" -- the date of an important exhibit of modern French art -- \"human nature changed.\" This statement emphasizes how the modernist impulse in literature paralleled anti-traditionalist movements in 'modern' art, beginning with cubism and abstract art in the early years of the new century. Modernism was influenced as well by developments in psychology and anthropology, especially the work of Freud and Jung and Sir James Frazer's The Golden Bough (1890); it stressed the active role of the unconscious mind and the importance of the irrational, and made use of myth as thematic material. The pioneers of literary modernism in prose, notably Woolf and James Joyce, rejected traditional narration, replacing it with impressionistic techniques such as stream of consciousness, in which internal experience rather than outward 'reality' is the focus and conventional chronology and causality all but vanish.\nFor at least a century, realism had been the dominant literary mode in the Western world. When in the twentieth century theoretical physics began to question the causal model of the universe and made room for the random and the relative in the dominant world view, realism ceased to be a compelling force as a literary doctrine. It was not until the 1920s, however, that the framework of the Victorian novel was disrupted for good with the appearance of Joyce's Ulysses and Woolf's Jacob's Room, both published in 1922. In these seminal works of literary modernism, the rejection of traditional literary forms and values of Victorian literature begun in the last decade of the previous century is complete, establishing the narrative techniques which will be integral to twentieth century literature.", "The Turn of the Screw and Other Stories - Broadview Press\nThe Turn of the Screw and Other Stories\nPublication Date: May 7, 2010\nISBN: 9781551119113 / 1551119110\n304 pages; 5½\" x 8½\"\nPrint $14.95\nAvailability: Worldwide\nThe Turn of the Screw and Other Stories\nPublication Date: May 7, 2010\nISBN: 9781551119113 / 1551119110\nAuthors/Editors\nIn 1898, Henry James wrote a novella that would become one of the most famous and critically discussed ghost stories ever written, The Turn of the Screw. Three other examples of James’s tales of the supernatural, “The Altar of the Dead,” “The Beast in the Jungle,” and “The Jolly Corner,” are included in this edition. These texts reveal on both the thematic and narrative levels James’s deepest concerns as a writer.\nThe texts in this edition are all drawn from the New York Edition of James’s works. The introduction traces the extensive critical debate around The Turn of the Screw, and situates the texts in contemporary discussions of the supernatural. Appendices include material on the tales’ reception, James’s writings on the supernatural, and the study of the supernatural in the nineteenth century." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Submarine.txt", "North_Pole.txt" ], "title": [ "Submarine", "North Pole" ], "wiki_context": [ "A submarine is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability. The term most commonly refers to a large, crewed, autonomous vessel. It is also sometimes used historically or colloquially to refer to remotely operated vehicles and robots, as well as medium-sized or smaller vessels, such as the midget submarine and the wet sub. Used as an adjective in phrases such as submarine cable, submarine means \"under the sea\". The noun submarine evolved as a shortened form of submarine boat (and is often further shortened to sub). For reasons of naval tradition, submarines are usually referred to as \"boats\" rather than as \"ships\", regardless of their size.\n\nAlthough experimental submarines had been built before, submarine design took off during the 19th century, and they were adopted by several navies. Submarines were first widely used during World War I (1914–1918), and now figure in many navies large and small. Military usage includes attacking enemy surface ships (merchant and military), submarines, aircraft carrier protection, blockade running, ballistic missile submarines as part of a nuclear strike force, reconnaissance, conventional land attack (for example using a cruise missile), and covert insertion of special forces. Civilian uses for submarines include marine science, salvage, exploration and facility inspection and maintenance. Submarines can also be modified to perform more specialized functions such as search-and-rescue missions or undersea cable repair. Submarines are also used in tourism, and for undersea archaeology.\n\nMost large submarines consist of a cylindrical body with hemispherical (or conical) ends and a vertical structure, usually located amidships, which houses communications and sensing devices as well as periscopes. In modern submarines, this structure is the \"sail\" in American usage, and \"fin\" in European usage. A \"conning tower\" was a feature of earlier designs: a separate pressure hull above the main body of the boat that allowed the use of shorter periscopes. There is a propeller (or pump jet) at the rear, and various hydrodynamic control fins. Smaller, deep-diving and specialty submarines may deviate significantly from this traditional layout. Submarines change the amount of water and air in their ballast tanks to decrease buoyancy for submerging or increase it for surfacing.\n\nSubmarines have one of the widest ranges of types and capabilities of any vessel. They range from small autonomous examples and one- or two-person vessels that operate for a few hours, to vessels that can remain submerged for six months—such as the Russian , the biggest submarines ever built. Submarines can work at greater depths than are survivable or practical for human divers. Modern deep-diving submarines derive from the bathyscaphe, which in turn evolved from the diving bell.\n\nHistory\n\nEarly Modern era\n\nEarly submersibles\n\nAccording to a report in Opusculum Taisnieri published in 1562:\n\nThe first submersible of whose construction there exists reliable information was built in 1620 by Cornelius Drebbel, a Dutchman in the service of James I of England. It was created to the standards of the design outlined by English mathematician William Bourne. It was propelled by means of oars. The precise nature of the submarine type is a matter of some controversy; some claims suggest it was merely a bell towed by a boat.\n\nLate modern era\n\n18th century submarines\n\nBy the mid-18th century, over a dozen patents for submarines/submersible boats had been granted in England. In 1747, Nathaniel Symons patented and built the first known working example of the use of a ballast tank for submersion. His design used leather bags that could fill with water to submerge the craft. A mechanism was used to twist the water out of the bags and cause the boat to resurface. In 1749, the Gentlemen's Magazine reported that a similar design had initially been proposed by Giovanni Borelli in 1680. By this point of development, further improvement in design necessarily stagnated for over a century, until new industrial technologies for propulsion and stability could be applied. \n\nThe first military submarine was the Turtle (1775), a hand-powered acorn-shaped device designed by the American David Bushnell to accommodate a single person. It was the first verified submarine capable of independent underwater operation and movement, and the first to use screws for propulsion. \n\n19th century submarines\n\nIn 1800, France built a human-powered submarine designed by American Robert Fulton, the . The French eventually gave up on the experiment in 1804, as did the British when they later considered Fulton's submarine design.\n\nIn 1864, late in the American Civil War, the Confederate navy's became the first military submarine to sink an enemy vessel, the Union sloop-of-war . In the aftermath of its successful attack against the ship, the Hunley also sank, possibly because it was too close to its own exploding torpedo.\n\nIn 1866, the first submarine that successfully dived, made a controlled underwater cruise and emerged to the surface again all by its own was the Sub Marine Explorer of the German American Julius H. Kroehl (in German, Kröhl), which incorporated many technologies that are still essential to modern submarines. \n\nMechanical power\n\nThe first submarine not relying on human power for propulsion was the French (Diver), launched in 1863, which used compressed air at 180 psi (1241 kPa). There are also claims that Cosme García Sáez produced a viable submersible design in the same epoch.\n\nThe first air–independent and combustion–powered submarine was Ictineo II, designed by the Catalan intellectual, artist and engineer Narcís Monturiol. Launched in Barcelona in 1864, it was originally human-powered, but in 1867 Monturiol invented an air–independent engine to power it underwater. The 14 m long craft was designed for a crew of two, performed dives of 30 m and remained underwater for two hours. Both Ictineo I and Ictineo II were double-hulled vessels that solved pressure and buoyancy control problems that had troubled and limited the functionality of earlier submarines.\n\nThe submarine became a potentially viable weapon with the development of the Whitehead torpedo, the first practical self-propelled or 'locomotive' torpedo. The spar torpedo that had been developed earlier by the Confederate navy was considered to be impracticable, as it was believed to have sunk both its intended target, and probably , the submarine that deployed it. The Whitehead torpedo was designed in 1866 by British engineer Robert Whitehead. His 'mine ship' was an 11 ft long, 14 in diameter torpedo propelled by compressed air, carrying an explosive warhead. The device had a speed of 7 kn and it could hit a target 700 yd away. \n\nDiscussions between the English clergyman and inventor George Garrett and the Swedish industrialist Thorsten Nordenfelt led to the first practical steam-powered submarines, armed with torpedoes and ready for military use. The first was Nordenfelt I, a 56-tonne, vessel similar to Garret's ill-fated Resurgam (1879), with a range of 240 km, armed with a single torpedo, in 1885.\n\nLike Resurgam, Nordenfelt I operated on the surface by steam, then shut down its engine to dive. While submerged the submarine released pressure generated when the engine was running on the surface to provide propulsion for some distance underwater. Greece, fearful of the return of the Ottomans, purchased it. Nordenfelt then built Nordenfelt II () in 1886 and Nordenfelt III (Abdül Mecid) in 1887, a pair of 30 m submarines with twin torpedo tubes, for the Ottoman navy. Abdül Hamid became the first submarine in history to fire a torpedo submerged. Nordenfelt's efforts culminated in 1887 with Nordenfelt IV, which had twin motors and twin torpedoes. It was sold to the Russians, but proved unstable, ran aground, and was scrapped.\n\nA reliable means of propulsion for the submerged vessel was only made possible in the 1880s with the advent of the necessary electric battery technology. The first electrically powered boats were built by James Franklin Waddington in England, Dupuy de Lôme and Gustave Zédé in France, and Isaac Peral in Spain. \n\nWaddington's Porpoise was similar in size to Resurgam and its propulsion system consisted of 45 accumulator cells with a capacity of 660 ampere hours each. These were coupled in series to a motor driving a propeller at about 750 rpm, giving the ship a sustained speed of 8 mph for at least 8 hours. The boat was armed with two externally mounted torpedoes as well as a mine torpedo that could be detonated electrically. Although the boat performed well at trials, Waddington was unable to attract further contracts and went bankrupt. \n\nThe Spanish Peral was launched in 1888, and had three 14 in Schwarzkopf torpedoes and one torpedo tube in the bow, new air systems, hull shape, propeller, and cruciform external controls anticipating later designs. Peral was an all-electrical powered submarine. After two years of trials the project was scrapped by naval officials who cited, among other reasons, concerns over its limited range.\n\nThe submarine Gymnote was launched by the French Navy in the same year. Gymnote was also an electrically powered and fully functional military submarine. It completed over 2,000 successful dives using a 204-cell battery. Although the Gymnote project was terminated due to the vessel's limited range, its side hydroplanes became the standard for future submarine designs.\n\n20th century submarines\n\nSubmarines were not put into service for any widespread or routine use by navies until the early 1900s. This era marked a pivotal time in submarine development, and several important technologies appeared. A number of nations built and used submarines. Diesel electric propulsion became the dominant power system and equipment such as the periscope became standardized. Countries conducted many experiments on effective tactics and weapons for submarines, which led to their large impact in World War I.\n\nThe Irish inventor John Philip Holland built a model submarine in 1876 and a full-scale version in 1878, followed by a number of unsuccessful ones. In 1896 he designed the Holland Type VI submarine, which used internal combustion engine power on the surface and electric battery power underwater. Launched on 17 May 1897 at Navy Lt. Lewis Nixon's Crescent Shipyard in Elizabeth, New Jersey, the Holland VI was purchased by the United States Navy on 11 April 1900, becoming the Navy's first commissioned submarine, christened . \n\nCommissioned in June 1900, the French steam and electric Narval employed the now typical double-hull design, with a pressure hull inside the outer shell. These 200-ton ships had a range of over 100 miles (160 km) underwater. The French submarine Aigrette in 1904 further improved the concept by using a diesel rather than a gasoline engine for surface power. Large numbers of these submarines were built, with seventy-six completed before 1914.\n\nThe Royal Navy commissioned five Holland-class submarines from Vickers, Barrow-in-Furness, under licence from the Holland Torpedo Boat Company from 1901 to 1903. Construction of the boats took longer than anticipated, with the first only ready for a diving trial at sea on 6 April 1902. Although the design had been purchased entire from the US company, the actual design used was an untested improvement to the original Holland design using a new 180 hp petrol engine. \n\nThese types of submarines were first used during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05. Due to the blockade at Port Arthur, the Russians sent their submarines to Vladivostok, where by 1 January 1905 there were seven boats, enough to create the world's first \"operational submarine fleet\". The new submarine fleet began patrols on 14 February, usually lasting for about 24 hours each. The first confrontation with Japanese warships occurred on 29 April 1905 when the Russian submarine Som was fired upon by Japanese torpedo boats, but then withdrew. \n\nWorld War I\n\nMilitary submarines first made a significant impact in World War I. Forces such as the U-boats of Germany saw action in the First Battle of the Atlantic, and were responsible for sinking , which was sunk as a result of unrestricted submarine warfare and is often cited among the reasons for the entry of the United States into the war. \n\nAt the outbreak of war Germany had only 20 submarines immediately available for combat, although these included vessels of the diesel-engined U-19 class with the range (5,000 miles) and speed (eight knots) to operate effectively around the entire British coast. By contrast the Royal Navy had a total of 74 submarines, though of mixed effectiveness. In August 1914, a flotilla of ten U-boats sailed from their base in Heligoland to attack Royal Navy warships in the North Sea in the first submarine war patrol in history. \n\nThe U-boats' ability to function as practical war machines relied on new tactics, their numbers, and submarine technologies such as combination diesel-electric power system developed in the preceding years. More submersibles than true submarines, U-boats operated primarily on the surface using regular engines, submerging occasionally to attack under battery power. They were roughly triangular in cross-section, with a distinct keel to control rolling while surfaced, and a distinct bow. During World War I more than 5,000 Allied ships were sunk by U-boats. \n\nWorld War II\n\nDuring World War II, Germany used submarines to devastating effect in the Battle of the Atlantic, where it attempted to cut Britain's supply routes by sinking more merchant ships than Britain could replace. (Shipping was vital to supply Britain's population with food, industry with raw material, and armed forces with fuel and armaments.) While U-boats destroyed a significant number of ships, the strategy ultimately failed. Although the U-boats had been updated in the interwar years, the major innovation was improved communications, encrypted using the famous Enigma cipher machine. This allowed for mass-attack naval tactics (Rudeltaktik, commonly known as \"wolfpack\"), but was also ultimately the U-boats' downfall. By the end of the war, almost 3,000 Allied ships (175 warships, 2,825 merchantmen) had been sunk by U-boats. \n\nThe Imperial Japanese Navy operated the most varied fleet of submarines of any navy, including Kaiten crewed torpedoes, midget submarines ( and es), medium-range submarines, purpose-built supply submarines and long-range fleet submarines. They also had submarines with the highest submerged speeds during World War II (s) and submarines that could carry multiple aircraft (s). They were also equipped with one of the most advanced torpedoes of the conflict, the oxygen-propelled Type 95. Nevertheless, despite their technical prowess, Japan chose to utilize its submarines for fleet warfare, and consequently were relatively unsuccessful, as warships were fast, maneuverable and well-defended compared to merchant ships.\n\nThe submarine force was the most effective anti-ship weapon in the American arsenal. Submarines, though only about 2 percent of the U.S. Navy, destroyed over 30 percent of the Japanese Navy, including 8 aircraft carriers, 1 battleship and 11 cruisers. US submarines also destroyed over 60 percent of the Japanese merchant fleet, crippling Japan's ability to supply its military forces and industrial war effort. Allied submarines in the Pacific War destroyed more Japanese shipping than all other weapons combined. This feat was considerably aided by the Imperial Japanese Navy's failure to provide adequate escort forces for the nation's merchant fleet.\n\nDuring World War II, 314 submarines served in the US Navy, of which nearly 260 were deployed to the Pacific. When the Japanese attacked Hawaii in December 1941, 111 boats were in commission; 203 submarines from the , , and es were commissioned during the war. During the war, 52 US submarines were lost to all causes, with 48 directly due to hostilities. US submarines sank 1,560 enemy vessels, a total tonnage of 5.3 million tons (55% of the total sunk). \n\nThe Royal Navy Submarine Service was used primarily in the classic Axis blockade. Its major operating areas were around Norway, in the Mediterranean (against the Axis supply routes to North Africa), and in the Far East. In that war, British submarines sank 2 million tons of enemy shipping and 57 major warships, the latter including 35 submarines. Among these is the only documented instance of a submarine sinking another submarine while both were submerged. This occurred when engaged the ; the Venturer crew manually computed a successful firing solution against a three-dimensionally maneuvering target using techniques which became the basis of modern torpedo computer targeting systems. Seventy-four British submarines were lost, the majority, 42, in the Mediterranean.\n\nCold-War military models\n\nThe first launch of a cruise missile (SSM-N-8 Regulus) from a submarine occurred in July 1953, from the deck of , a World War II fleet boat modified to carry the missile with a nuclear warhead. Tunny and its sister boat, , were the United States' first nuclear deterrent patrol submarines. In the 1950s, nuclear power partially replaced diesel-electric propulsion. Equipment was also developed to extract oxygen from sea water. These two innovations gave submarines the ability to remain submerged for weeks or months. Most of the naval submarines built since that time in the US, the Soviet Union, Britain, and France have been powered by nuclear reactors.\n\nIn 1959–1960, the first ballistic missile submarines were put into service by both the United States () and the Soviet Union () as part of the Cold War nuclear deterrent strategy.\n\nDuring the Cold War, the US and the Soviet Union maintained large submarine fleets that engaged in cat-and-mouse games. The Soviet Union lost at least four submarines during this period: was lost in 1968 (a part of which the CIA retrieved from the ocean floor with the Howard Hughes-designed ship Glomar Explorer), in 1970, in 1986, and in 1989 (which held a depth record among military submarines—1000 m). Many other Soviet subs, such as (the first Soviet nuclear submarine, and the first Soviet sub to reach the North Pole) were badly damaged by fire or radiation leaks. The US lost two nuclear submarines during this time: due to equipment failure during a test dive while at its operational limit, and due to unknown causes.\n\nDuring the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, the Pakistan Navy's sank the Indian frigate . This was the first sinking by a submarine since World War II. During the same war, the , a on loan to Pakistan from the US, was sunk. It was the first submarine combat loss since World War II. In 1982 during the Falklands War, the Argentine cruiser was sunk by the British submarine , the first sinking by a nuclear-powered submarine in war.\n\n21st century submarines\n\nUsage\n\nMilitary\n\nBefore and during World War II, the primary role of the submarine was anti-surface ship warfare. Submarines would attack either on the surface, using deck guns or submerged, using torpedoes. They were particularly effective in sinking Allied transatlantic shipping in both World Wars, and in disrupting Japanese supply routes and naval operations in the Pacific in World War II.\n\nMine-laying submarines were developed in the early part of the 20th century. The facility was used in both World Wars. Submarines were also used for inserting and removing covert agents and military forces, for intelligence gathering, and to rescue aircrew during air attacks on islands, where the airmen would be told of safe places to crash-land so the submarines could rescue them. Submarines could carry cargo through hostile waters or act as supply vessels for other submarines.\n\nSubmarines could usually locate and attack other submarines only on the surface, although managed to sink with a four torpedo spread while both were submerged. The British developed a specialized anti-submarine submarine in WWI, the R class. After WWII, with the development of the homing torpedo, better sonar systems, and nuclear propulsion, submarines also became able to hunt each other effectively.\n\nThe development of submarine-launched ballistic missile and submarine-launched cruise missiles gave submarines a substantial and long-ranged ability to attack both land and sea targets with a variety of weapons ranging from cluster bombs to nuclear weapons.\n\nThe primary defense of a submarine lies in its ability to remain concealed in the depths of the ocean. Early submarines could be detected by the sound they made. Water is an excellent conductor of sound (much better than air), and submarines can detect and track comparatively noisy surface ships from long distances. Modern submarines are built with an emphasis on stealth. Advanced propeller designs, extensive sound-reducing insulation, and special machinery help a submarine remain as quiet as ambient ocean noise, making them difficult to detect. It takes specialized technology to find and attack modern submarines.\n\nActive sonar uses the reflection of sound emitted from the search equipment to detect submarines. It has been used since WWII by surface ships, submarines and aircraft (via dropped buoys and helicopter \"dipping\" arrays), but it reveals the emitter's position, and is susceptible to counter-measures.\n\nA concealed military submarine is a real threat, and because of its stealth, can force an enemy navy to waste resources searching large areas of ocean and protecting ships against attack. This advantage was vividly demonstrated in the 1982 Falklands War when the British nuclear-powered submarine sank the Argentine cruiser . After the sinking the Argentine Navy recognized that they had no effective defense against submarine attack, and the Argentine surface fleet withdrew to port for the remainder of the war, though an Argentine submarine remained at sea.\n\nCivilian\n\nAlthough the majority of the world's submarines are military, there are some civilian submarines, which are used for tourism, exploration, oil and gas platform inspections, and pipeline surveys. Some are also used in illegal activities.\n\nThe Submarine Voyage ride opened at Disneyland in 1959, but although it ran under water it was not a true submarine, as it ran on tracks and was open to the atmosphere. The first tourist submarine was , which went in to service in 1964 at Expo64. By 1997 there were 45 tourist submarines operating around the world. Submarines with a crush depth in the range of 400 - are operated in several areas worldwide, typically with bottom depths around 100 to, with a carrying capacity of 50 to 100 passengers.\n\nIn a typical operation a surface vessel carries passengers to an offshore operating area and loads them into the submarine. The submarine then visits underwater points of interest such as natural or artificial reef structures. To surface safely without danger of collision the location of the submarine is marked with an air release and movement to the surface is coordinated by an observer in a support craft.\n\nA recent development is the deployment of so-called narco submarines by South American drug smugglers to evade law enforcement detection. Although they occasionally deploy true submarines, most are self-propelled semi-submersibles, where a portion of the craft remains above water at all times. In September 2011, Colombian authorities seized a 16-meter-long submersible that could hold a crew of 5, costing about $2 million. The vessel belonged to FARC rebels and had the capacity to carry at least 7 tonnes of drugs. \n\nPolar operations\n\n* 1903 – Simon Lake submarine Protector surfaced through ice off Newport, Rhode Island. \n* 1930 – operated under ice near Spitsbergen.\n* 1937 – Soviet submarine Krasnogvardeyets operated under ice in the Denmark Strait.\n* 1941–45 – German U-boats operated under ice from the Barents Sea to the Laptev Sea.\n* 1946 – used upward-beamed fathometer in Operation Nanook in the Davis Strait.\n* 1946–47 – used under-ice sonar in Operation High Jump in the Antarctic.\n* 1947 – used upward-beamed echo sounder under pack ice in the Chukchi Sea.\n* 1948 – developed techniques for making vertical ascents and descents through polynyas in the Chukchi Sea.\n* 1952 – used an expanded upward-beamed sounder array in the Beaufort Sea.\n* 1957 – reached 87 degrees north near Spitsbergen.\n* 3 August 1958 – Nautilus used an inertial navigation system to reach the North Pole.\n* 17 March 1959 – surfaced through the ice at the north pole.\n* 1960 – transited 900 mi under ice over the shallow (125 to deep) Bering-Chukchi shelf.\n* 1960 – transited the Northwest Passage under ice.\n* 1962 – Soviet reached the north pole.\n* 1970 – carried out an extensive undersea mapping survey of the Siberian continental shelf. \n* 1971 – reached the North Pole.\n* conducted three Polar Exercises: 1976 (with US actor Charlton Heston aboard); 1984 joint operations with ; and 1990 joint exercises with . \n* 6 May 1986 – , and meet and surface together at the Geographic North Pole. First multi-submarine surfacing at the Pole.\n* 19 May 1987 – joined and at the North Pole. The first British and American meeting at the North Pole.\n* March 2007 – participated in the Joint US Navy/Royal Navy Ice Exercise 2007 (ICEX-2007) in the Arctic Ocean with the .\n* March 2009 – took part in Ice Exercise 2009 to test submarine operability and war-fighting capability in Arctic conditions.\n\nTechnology\n\nSubmersion and trimming\n\nAll surface ships, as well as surfaced submarines, are in a positively buoyant condition, weighing less than the volume of water they would displace if fully submerged. To submerge hydrostatically, a ship must have negative buoyancy, either by increasing its own weight or decreasing its displacement of water. To control their displacement, submarines have ballast tanks, which can hold varying amounts of water and air.\n\nFor general submersion or surfacing, submarines use the forward and aft tanks, called Main Ballast Tanks (MBT), which are filled with water to submerge or with air to surface. Submerged, MBTs generally remain flooded, which simplifies their design, and on many submarines these tanks are a section of interhull space. For more precise and quick control of depth, submarines use smaller Depth Control Tanks (DCT) – also called hard tanks (due to their ability to withstand higher pressure), or trim tanks. The amount of water in depth control tanks can be controlled to change depth or to maintain a constant depth as outside conditions (chiefly water density) change. Depth control tanks may be located either near the submarine's center of gravity, or separated along the submarine body to prevent affecting trim.\n\nWhen submerged, the water pressure on a submarine's hull can reach 4 MPa for steel submarines and up to 10 MPa for titanium submarines like , while interior pressure remains relatively unchanged. This difference results in hull compression, which decreases displacement. Water density also marginally increases with depth, as the salinity and pressure are higher. This change in density incompletely compensates for hull compression, so buoyancy decreases as depth increases. A submerged submarine is in an unstable equilibrium, having a tendency to either sink or float to the surface. Keeping a constant depth requires continual operation of either the depth control tanks or control surfaces. \n\nSubmarines in a neutral buoyancy condition are not intrinsically trim-stable. To maintain desired trim, submarines use forward and aft trim tanks. Pumps can move water between the tanks, changing weight distribution and pointing the sub up or down. A similar system is sometimes used to maintain stability.\n\nThe hydrostatic effect of variable ballast tanks is not the only way to control the submarine underwater. Hydrodynamic maneuvering is done by several surfaces, which can be moved to create hydrodynamic forces when a submarine moves at sufficient speed. The stern planes, located near the propeller and normally horizontal, serve the same purpose as the trim tanks, controlling the trim, and are commonly used, while other control surfaces may not be present on all submarines. The fairwater planes on the sail and/or bow planes on the main body, both also horizontal, are closer to the center of gravity, and are used to control depth with less effect on the trim. \n\nWhen a submarine performs an emergency surfacing, all depth and trim methods are used simultaneously, together with propelling the boat upwards. Such surfacing is very quick, so the sub may even partially jump out of the water, potentially damaging submarine systems.\n\nHull\n\nOverview\n\nModern submarines are cigar-shaped. This design, visible in early submarines is sometimes called a \"teardrop hull\". It reduces the hydrodynamic drag when submerged, but decreases the sea-keeping capabilities and increases drag while surfaced. Since the limitations of the propulsion systems of early submarines forced them to operate surfaced most of the time, their hull designs were a compromise. Because of the slow submerged speeds of those subs, usually well below 10 kt (18 km/h), the increased drag for underwater travel was acceptable. Late in World War II, when technology allowed faster and longer submerged operation and increased aircraft surveillance forced submarines to stay submerged, hull designs became teardrop shaped again to reduce drag and noise. On modern military submarines the outer hull is covered with a layer of sound-absorbing rubber, or anechoic plating, to reduce detection.\n\nThe occupied pressure hulls of deep diving submarines such as are spherical instead of cylindrical. This allows a more even distribution of stress at the great depth. A titanium frame is usually affixed to the pressure hull, providing attachment for ballast and trim systems, scientific instrumentation, battery packs, syntactic flotation foam, and lighting.\n\nA raised tower on top of a submarine accommodates the periscope and electronics masts, which can include radio, radar, electronic warfare, and other systems including the snorkel mast. In many early classes of submarines (see history), the control room, or \"conn\", was located inside this tower, which was known as the \"conning tower\". Since then, the conn has been located within the hull of the submarine, and the tower is now called the \"sail\". The conn is distinct from the \"bridge\", a small open platform in the top of the sail, used for observation during surface operation.\n\n\"Bathtubs\" are related to conning towers but are used on smaller submarines. The bathtub is a metal cylinder surrounding the hatch that prevents waves from breaking directly into the cabin. It is needed because surfaced submarines have limited freeboard, that is, they lie low in the water. Bathtubs help prevent swamping the vessel.\n\nSingle and double hulls \n\nModern submarines and submersibles, as well as the oldest ones, usually have a single hull. Large submarines generally have an additional hull or hull sections outside. This external hull, which actually forms the shape of submarine, is called the outer hull (casing in the Royal Navy) or light hull, as it does not have to withstand a pressure difference. Inside the outer hull there is a strong hull, or pressure hull, which withstands sea pressure and has normal atmospheric pressure inside.\n\nAs early as World War I, it was realized that the optimal shape for withstanding pressure conflicted with the optimal shape for seakeeping and minimal drag, and construction difficulties further complicated the problem. This was solved either by a compromise shape, or by using two hulls; internal for holding pressure, and external for optimal shape. Until the end of World War II, most submarines had an additional partial cover on the top, bow and stern, built of thinner metal, which was flooded when submerged. Germany went further with the Type XXI, a general predecessor of modern submarines, in which the pressure hull was fully enclosed inside the light hull, but optimized for submerged navigation, unlike earlier designs that were optimized for surface operation.\n\nAfter World War II, approaches split. The Soviet Union changed its designs, basing them on German developments. All post–World War II heavy Soviet and Russian submarines are built with a double hull structure. American and most other Western submarines switched to a primarily single-hull approach. They still have light hull sections in the bow and stern, which house main ballast tanks and provide a hydrodynamically optimized shape, but the main cylindrical hull section has only a single plating layer. Double hulls are being considered for future submarines in the United States to improve payload capacity, stealth and range. \n\nPressure hull\n\nThe pressure hull is generally constructed of thick high-strength steel with a complex structure and high strength reserve, and is separated with watertight bulkheads into several compartments. There are also examples of more than two hulls in a submarine, like the , which has two main pressure hulls and three smaller ones for control room, torpedoes and steering gear, with the missile launch system between the main hulls.\n\nThe dive depth cannot be increased easily. Simply making the hull thicker increases the weight and requires reduction of onboard equipment weight, ultimately resulting in a bathyscaphe. This is acceptable for civilian research submersibles, but not military submarines.\n\nWWI submarines had hulls of carbon steel, with a 100 m maximum depth. During WWII, high-strength alloyed steel was introduced, allowing 200 m depths. High-strength alloy steel remains the primary material for submarines today, with 250 - depths, which cannot be exceeded on a military submarine without design compromises. To exceed that limit, a few submarines were built with titanium hulls. Titanium can be stronger than steel, lighter, and is not ferromagnetic, important for stealth. Titanium submarines were built by the Soviet Union, which developed specialized high-strength alloys. It has produced several types of titanium submarines. Titanium alloys allow a major increase in depth, but other systems must be redesigned to cope, so test depth was limited to 1000 m for the , the deepest-diving combat submarine. An may have successfully operated at 1300 m, though continuous operation at such depths would produce excessive stress on many submarine systems. Titanium does not flex as readily as steel, and may become brittle during many dive cycles. Despite its benefits, the high cost of titanium construction led to the abandonment of titanium submarine construction as the Cold War ended. Deep–diving civilian submarines have used thick acrylic pressure hulls.\n\nThe deepest deep-submergence vehicle (DSV) to date is Trieste. On 5 October 1959, Trieste departed San Diego for Guam aboard the freighter Santa Maria to participate in Project Nekton, a series of very deep dives in the Mariana Trench. On 23 January 1960, Trieste reached the ocean floor in the Challenger Deep (the deepest southern part of the Mariana Trench), carrying Jacques Piccard (son of Auguste) and Lieutenant Don Walsh, USN. This was the first time a vessel, manned or unmanned, had reached the deepest point in the Earth's oceans. The onboard systems indicated a depth of 11521 m, although this was later revised to 10916 m and more accurate measurements made in 1995 have found the Challenger Deep slightly shallower, at 10911 m.\n\nBuilding a pressure hull is difficult, as it must withstand pressures at its required diving depth. When the hull is perfectly round in cross-section, the pressure is evenly distributed, and causes only hull compression. If the shape is not perfect, the hull is bent, with several points heavily strained. Inevitable minor deviations are resisted by stiffener rings, but even a one-inch (25 mm) deviation from roundness results in over 30 percent decrease of maximal hydrostatic load and consequently dive depth. The hull must therefore be constructed with high precision. All hull parts must be welded without defects, and all joints are checked multiple times with different methods, contributing to the high cost of modern submarines. (For example, each attack submarine costs US$2.6 billion, over US$200,000 per ton of displacement.)\n\nPropulsion\n\nThe first submarines were propelled by humans. The first mechanically driven submarine was the 1863 French , which used compressed air for propulsion. Anaerobic propulsion was first employed by the Spanish Ictineo II in 1864, which used a solution of zinc, manganese dioxide, and potassium chlorate to generate sufficient heat to power a steam engine, while also providing oxygen for the crew. A similar system was not employed again until 1940 when the German Navy tested a hydrogen peroxide-based system, the Walter turbine, on the experimental V-80 submarine and later on the naval and type XVII submarines. \n\nUntil the advent of nuclear marine propulsion, most 20th-century submarines used batteries for running underwater and gasoline (petrol) or diesel engines on the surface, and for battery recharging. Early submarines used gasoline, but this quickly gave way to kerosene (paraffin), then diesel, because of reduced flammability. Diesel-electric became the standard means of propulsion. The diesel or gasoline engine and the electric motor, separated by clutches, were initially on the same shaft driving the propeller. This allowed the engine to drive the electric motor as a generator to recharge the batteries and also propel the submarine. The clutch between the motor and the engine would be disengaged when the submarine dived, so that the motor could drive the propeller. The motor could have multiple armatures on the shaft, which could be electrically coupled in series for slow speed and in parallel for high speed (these connections were called \"group down\" and \"group up\", respectively).\n\nElectric \n\nDiesel-electric \n\nEarly submarines used a direct mechanical connection between the engine and propeller, switching between diesel engines for surface running, and battery-driven electric motors for submerged propulsion.\n\nIn 1928, the United States Navy's Bureau of Engineering proposed a diesel-electric transmission. Instead of driving the propeller directly while running on the surface, the submarine's diesel drove a generator that could either charge the submarine's batteries or drive the electric motor. This made electric motor speed independent of diesel engine speed, so the diesel could run at an optimum and non-critical speed. One or more diesel engines could be shut down for maintenance while the submarine continued to run on the remaining engine or battery power. The US pioneered this concept in 1929, in the S-class submarines , , and . The first production submarines with this system were the Porpoise-class of the 1930s, and it was used on most subsequent US diesel submarines through the 1960s. No other navy adopted the system before 1945, apart from the Royal Navy's U-class submarines, though some submarines of the Imperial Japanese Navy used separate diesel generators for low speed running. \n\nOther advantages of such an arrangement were that a submarine could travel slowly with the engines at full power to recharge the batteries quickly, reducing time on the surface or on snorkel. It was then possible to isolate the noisy diesel engines from the pressure hull, making the submarine quieter. Additionally, diesel-electric transmissions were more compact.\n\nDuring World War II the Germans experimented with the idea of the schnorchel (snorkel) from captured Dutch submarines, but didn't see the need for them until rather late in the war. The schnorchel was a retractable pipe that supplied air to the diesel engines while submerged at periscope depth, allowing the boats to cruise and recharge their batteries while maintaining a degree of stealth. It was far from a perfect solution, however. There were problems with the device's valve sticking shut or closing as it dunked in rough weather; since the system used the entire pressure hull as a buffer, the diesels would instantaneously suck huge volumes of air from the boat's compartments, and the crew often suffered painful ear injuries. Speed was limited to 8 kn, lest the device snap from stress. The schnorchel also had the effect of making the boat essentially noisy and deaf in sonar terms. Finally, Allied radar eventually became sufficiently advanced that the schnorchel mast could be detected beyond visual range.\n\nWhile the snorkel renders a submarine far less detectable, it is not perfect. In clear weather, diesel exhaust can be seen on the surface to a distance of about three miles, while 'periscope feather' (the wave created by the snorkel or periscope moving through the water), is visible from far off in calm sea conditions. Modern radar is also capable of detecting a snorkel in calm sea conditions. \n\nThe problem of the diesels causing a vacuum in the submarine when the head valve is submerged still exists in later model diesel submarines, but is mitigated by high-vacuum cut-off sensors that shut down the engines when the vacuum in the ship reaches a pre-set point. Modern snorkel induction masts use a fail-safe design using compressed air, controlled by a simple electrical circuit, to hold the \"head valve\" open against the pull of a powerful spring. Seawater washing over the mast shorts out exposed electrodes on top, breaking the control, and shutting the \"head valve\" while it is submerged.\n\nAir-independent propulsion\n\nDuring World War II, German Type XXI submarines (also known as \"Elektroboote\") were the first submarines designed to operate submerged for extended periods. Initially they were to carry hydrogen peroxide for long-term, fast air-independent propulsion, but were ultimately built with very large batteries instead. At the end of the War, the British and Soviets experimented with hydrogen peroxide/kerosene (paraffin) engines that could run surfaced and submerged. The results were not encouraging. Though the Soviet Union deployed a class of submarines with this engine type (codenamed by NATO), they were considered unsuccessful.\n\nThe United States also used hydrogen peroxide in an experimental midget submarine, X-1. It was originally powered by a hydrogen peroxide/diesel engine and battery system until an explosion of her hydrogen peroxide supply on 20 May 1957. X-1 was later converted to use diesel-electric drive. \n\nToday several navies use air-independent propulsion. Notably Sweden uses Stirling technology on the and s. The Stirling engine is heated by burning diesel fuel with liquid oxygen from cryogenic tanks. A newer development in air-independent propulsion is hydrogen fuel cells, first used on the German Type 212 submarine, with nine 34 kW or two 120 kW cells and soon to be used in the new Spanish s. \n\nNuclear power\n\nSteam power was resurrected in the 1950s with a nuclear-powered steam turbine driving a generator. By eliminating the need for atmospheric oxygen, the time that a submarine could remain submerged was limited only by its food stores, as breathing air was recycled and fresh water distilled from seawater. More importantly, a nuclear submarine has unlimited range at top speed. This allows it to travel from its operating base to the combat zone in a much shorter time and makes it a far more difficult target for most anti-submarine weapons. Nuclear-powered submarines have a relatively small battery and diesel engine/generator powerplant for emergency use if the reactors must be shut down.\n\nNuclear power is now used in all large submarines, but due to the high cost and large size of nuclear reactors, smaller submarines still use diesel-electric propulsion. The ratio of larger to smaller submarines depends on strategic needs. The US Navy, French Navy, and the British Royal Navy operate only nuclear submarines, which is explained by the need for distant operations. Other major operators rely on a mix of nuclear submarines for strategic purposes and diesel-electric submarines for defense. Most fleets have no nuclear submarines, due to the limited availability of nuclear power and submarine technology.\n\nDiesel-electric submarines have a stealth advantage over their nuclear counterparts. Nuclear submarines generate noise from coolant pumps and turbo-machinery needed to operate the reactor, even at low power levels. Some nuclear submarines such as the American can operate with their reactor coolant pumps secured, making them quieter than electric subs. A conventional submarine operating on batteries is almost completely silent, the only noise coming from the shaft bearings, propeller, and flow noise around the hull, all of which stops when the sub hovers in mid-water to listen, leaving only the noise from crew activity. Commercial submarines usually rely only on batteries, since they operate in conjunction with a mother ship.\n\nSeveral serious nuclear and radiation accidents have involved nuclear submarine mishaps. The reactor accident in 1961 resulted in 8 deaths and more than 30 other people were over-exposed to radiation.[http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Magazines/Bulletin/Bull413/article1.pdf Strengthening the Safety of Radiation Sources] p. 14 The reactor accident in 1968 resulted in 9 fatalities and 83 other injuries. The accident in 1985 resulted in 10 fatalities and 49 other radiation injuries.\n\nAlternative propulsion\n\nOil-fired steam turbines powered the British K-class submarines, built during World War I and later, to give them the surface speed to keep up with the battle fleet. The K-class subs were not very successful, however.\n\nToward the end of the 20th century, some submarines—such as the British Vanguard class—began to be fitted with pump-jet propulsors instead of propellers. Though these are heavier, more expensive, and less efficient than a propeller, they are significantly quieter, providing an important tactical advantage.\n\nMagnetohydrodynamic drive (MHD) was portrayed as the operating principle behind the titular submarine's nearly silent propulsion system in the film adaptation of The Hunt for Red October. However, in the novel the Red October did not use MHD, but rather something more similar to the above-mentioned pump-jet.\n\nArmament\n\nThe success of the submarine is inextricably linked to the development of the torpedo, invented by Robert Whitehead in 1866. His invention is essentially the same now as it was 140 years ago. Only with self-propelled torpedoes could the submarine make the leap from novelty to a weapon of war. Until the perfection of the guided torpedo, multiple \"straight-running\" torpedoes were required to attack a target. With at most 20 to 25 torpedoes stored on board, the number of attacks was limited. To increase combat endurance most World War I submarines functioned as submersible gunboats, using their deck guns against unarmed targets, and diving to escape and engage enemy warships. The importance of guns encouraged the development of the unsuccessful Submarine Cruiser such as the French and the Royal Navy's and M-class submarines. With the arrival of Anti-submarine warfare (ASW) aircraft, guns became more for defense than attack. A more practical method of increasing combat endurance was the external torpedo tube, loaded only in port.\n\nThe ability of submarines to approach enemy harbours covertly led to their use as minelayers. Minelaying submarines of World War I and World War II were specially built for that purpose. Modern submarine-laid mines, such as the British Mark 5 Stonefish and Mark 6 Sea Urchin, can be deployed from a submarine's torpedo tubes.\n\nAfter World War II, both the US and the USSR experimented with submarine-launched cruise missiles such as the SSM-N-8 Regulus and P-5 Pyatyorka. Such missiles required the submarine to surface to fire its missiles. They were the forerunners of modern submarine-launched cruise missiles, which can be fired from the torpedo tubes of submerged submarines, for example the US BGM-109 Tomahawk and Russian RPK-2 Viyuga and versions of surface–to–surface anti-ship missiles such as the Exocet and Harpoon, encapsulated for submarine launch. Ballistic missiles can also be fired from a submarine's torpedo tubes, for example missiles such as the anti-submarine SUBROC. With internal volume as limited as ever and the desire to carry heavier warloads, the idea of the external launch tube was revived, usually for encapsulated missiles, with such tubes being placed between the internal pressure and outer streamlined hulls.\n\nThe strategic mission of the SSM-N-8 and the P-5 was taken up by submarine-launched ballistic missile beginning with the US Navy's Polaris missile, and subsequently the Poseidon and Trident missiles.\n\nGermany is working on the torpedo tube-launched short-range IDAS missile, which can be used against ASW helicopters, as well as surface ships and coastal targets.\n\nSensors\n\nA submarine can have a variety of sensors, depending on its missions. Modern military submarines rely almost entirely on a suite of passive and active sonars to locate targets. Active sonar relies on an audible \"ping\" to generate echoes to reveal objects around the submarine. Active systems are rarely used, as doing so reveals the sub's presence. Passive sonar is a set of sensitive hydrophones set into the hull or trailed in a towed array, generally several hundred feet long. The towed array is the mainstay of NATO submarine detection systems, as it reduces the flow noise heard by operators. Hull mounted sonar is employed to back up the towed array, and in confined waters where obstacles could foul a towed array.\n\nSubmarines also carry radar equipment to detect surface ships and aircraft. Submarine captains are more likely to use radar detection gear than active radar to detect targets, as radar can be detected far beyond its own return range, revealing the submarine. Periscopes are rarely used, except for position fixes and to verify a contact's identity.\n\nCivilian submarines, such as the or the Russian Mir submersibles, rely on small active sonar sets and viewing ports to navigate. The human eye cannot detect sunlight below about 300 ft underwater, so high intensity lights are used to illuminate the viewing area.\n\nNavigation\n\nEarly submarines had few navigation aids, but modern subs have a variety of navigation systems. Modern military submarines use an inertial guidance system for navigation while submerged, but drift error unavoidably builds over time. To counter this, the crew occasionally uses the Global Positioning System to obtain an accurate position. The periscope—a retractable tube with a prism system that provides a view of the surface—is only used occasionally in modern submarines, since the visibility range is short. The and s use photonics masts rather than hull-penetrating optical periscopes. These masts must still be deployed above the surface, and use electronic sensors for visible light, infrared, laser range-finding, and electromagnetic surveillance. One benefit to hoisting the mast above the surface is that while the mast is above the water the entire sub is still below the water and is much harder to detect visually or by radar.\n\nCommunication\n\nMilitary submarines use several systems to communicate with distant command centers or other ships. One is VLF (Very Low Frequency) radio, which can reach a submarine either on the surface or submerged to a fairly shallow depth, usually less than 250 ft. ELF (Extremely Low Frequency) can reach a submarine at greater depths, but has a very low bandwidth and is generally used to call a submerged sub to a shallower depth where VLF signals can reach. A submarine also has the option of floating a long, buoyant wire antenna to a shallower depth, allowing VLF transmissions by a deeply submerged boat.\n\nBy extending a radio mast, a submarine can also use a \"burst transmission\" technique. A burst transmission takes only a fraction of a second, minimizing a submarine's risk of detection.\n\nTo communicate with other submarines, a system known as Gertrude is used. Gertrude is basically a sonar telephone. Voice communication from one submarine is transmitted by low power speakers into the water, where it is detected by passive sonars on the receiving submarine. The range of this system is probably very short, and using it radiates sound into the water, which can be heard by the enemy.\n\nCivilian submarines can use similar, albeit less powerful systems to communicate with support ships or other submersibles in the area.\n\nLife support systems\n\nWith nuclear power or air-independent propulsion, submarines can remain submerged for months at a time. Conventional diesel submarines must periodically resurface or run on snorkel to recharge their batteries. Most modern military submarines generate breathing oxygen by electrolysis of water (using a device called an \"Elektrolytic Oxygen Generator\"). Atmosphere control equipment includes a CO2 scrubber, which uses an amine absorbent to remove the gas from air and diffuse it into waste pumped overboard. A machine that uses a catalyst to convert carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide (removed by the CO2 scrubber) and bonds hydrogen produced from the ship's storage battery with oxygen in the atmosphere to produce water, is also used. An atmosphere monitoring system samples the air from different areas of the ship for nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, R-12 and R-114 refrigerants, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and other gases. Poisonous gases are removed, and oxygen is replenished by use of an oxygen bank located in a main ballast tank. Some heavier submarines have two oxygen bleed stations (forward and aft). The oxygen in the air is sometimes kept a few percent less than atmospheric concentration to reduce fire danger.\n\nFresh water is produced by either an evaporator or a reverse osmosis unit. The primary use for fresh water is to provide feedwater for the reactor and steam propulsion plants. It is also available for showers, sinks, cooking and cleaning once propulsion plant needs have been met. Seawater is used to flush toilets, and the resulting \"black water\" is stored in a sanitary tank until it is blown overboard using pressurized air or pumped overboard by using a special sanitary pump. The blackwater–discharge system is difficult to operate, and the German Type VIIC boat was lost with casualties because of human error while using this system. Water from showers and sinks is stored separately in \"grey water\" tanks and discharged overboard using drain pumps.\n\nTrash on modern large submarines is usually disposed of using a tube called a Trash Disposal Unit (TDU), where it is compacted into a galvanized steel can. At the bottom of the TDU is a large ball valve. An ice plug is set on top of the ball valve to protect it, the cans atop the ice plug. The top breech door is shut, and the TDU is flooded and equalized with sea pressure, the ball valve is opened and the cans fall out assisted by scrap iron weights in the cans. The TDU is also flushed with seawater to ensure it is completely empty and the ball valve is clear before closing the valve.\n\nCrew\n\nA typical nuclear submarine has a crew of over 80; conventional boats typically have fewer than 40. The conditions on a submarine can be difficult because crew members must work in isolation for long periods of time, without family contact. Submarines normally maintain radio silence to avoid detection. Operating a submarine is dangerous, even in peacetime, and many submarines have been lost in accidents.\n\nWomen\n\nMost navies prohibited women from serving on submarines, even after they had been permitted to serve on surface warships. The Royal Norwegian Navy became the first navy to allow females on its submarine crews in 1985. The Royal Danish Navy allowed female submariners in 1988. Others followed suit including the Swedish Navy (1989), the Royal Australian Navy (1998), the German Navy (2001) and the Canadian Navy (2002). In 1995, Solveig Krey of the Royal Norwegian Navy became the first female officer to assume command on a military submarine, . \n\nOn 8 December 2011, British Defence Secretary Philip Hammond announced that the UK's ban on women in submarines was to be lifted from 2013. Previously there were fears that women were more at risk from a build-up of carbon dioxide in the submarine. But a study showed no medical reason to exclude women, though pregnant women would still be excluded. Similar dangers to the pregnant woman and her fetus barred females from submarine service in Sweden in 1983, when all other positions were made available for them in the Swedish Navy. Today, pregnant women are still not allowed to serve on submarines in Sweden. However, the policymakers thought that it was discriminatory with a general ban and demanded that females should be tried on their individual merits and have their suitability evaluated and compared to other candidates. Further, they noted that a female complying with such high demands is unlikely to become pregnant. In May 2014, three women became the RN's first female submariners. \n\nWomen have served on US Navy surface ships since 1993, and , began serving on submarines for the first time. Until presently, the Navy only allowed three exceptions to women being on board military submarines: female civilian technicians for a few days at most, women midshipmen on an overnight during summer training for Navy ROTC and Naval Academy, and family members for one-day dependent cruises. In 2009, senior officials, including then-Secretary of the Navy Ray Mabus, Joint Chief of Staff Admiral Michael Mullen, and Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Gary Roughead, began the process of finding a way to implement females on submarines. In 2011, the first class of female submarine officers graduated from Naval Submarine School's Submarine Officer Basic Course (SOBC) at the Naval Submarine Base New London. Additionally, more senior ranking and experienced female supply officers from the surface warfare specialty attended SOBC as well, proceeding to fleet Ballistic Missile (SSBN) and Guided Missile (SSGN) submarines along with the new female submarine line officers beginning in late 2011. \n\nBoth the US and British navies operate nuclear-powered submarines that deploy for periods of six months or longer. Other navies that permit women to serve on submarines operate conventionally powered submarines, which deploy for much shorter periods—usually only for a few months. Prior to the change by the US, no nation using nuclear submarines permitted women to serve on board. \n\nIn 2012, the US Navy announced that women would begin serving on US attack submarines in 2013. In 2013, US Navy Secretary Ray Mabus said that the first women to join Virginia-class attack subs had been chosen. They were newly commissioned female officers scheduled to report to their subs in fiscal year 2015. On 15 October 2013, the US Navy announced that two submarines, and , would have female crew-members by January 2015. By late 2011 several women were assigned to . \n\nAbandoning the vessel\n\nIn an emergency, submarines can transmit a signal to other ships. The crew can use Submarine Escape Immersion Equipment to abandon the submarine. The crew can prevent a lung injury from the pressure change known as pulmonary barotrauma by exhaling during the ascent. Following escape from a pressurized submarine, the crew is at risk of developing decompression sickness. An alternative escape means is via a Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle that can dock onto the disabled submarine.", "The North Pole, also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole, is (subject to the caveats explained below) defined as the point in the Northern Hemisphere where the Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface.\n\nThe North Pole is the northernmost point on the Earth, lying diametrically opposite the South Pole. It defines geodetic latitude 90° North, as well as the direction of true north. At the North Pole all directions point south; all lines of longitude converge there, so its longitude can be defined as any degree value. Along tight latitude circles, counterclockwise is east and clockwise is west.\n\nWhile the South Pole lies on a continental land mass, the North Pole is located in the middle of the Arctic Ocean amid waters that are almost permanently covered with constantly shifting sea ice. This makes it impractical to construct a permanent station at the North Pole (unlike the South Pole). However, the Soviet Union, and later Russia, constructed a number of manned drifting stations on a generally annual basis since 1937, some of which have passed over or very close to the Pole. Since 2002, the Russians have also annually established a base, Barneo, close to the Pole. This operates for a few weeks during early spring. Studies in the 2000s predicted that the North Pole may become seasonally ice-free because of Arctic ice shrinkage, with timescales varying from 2016 to the late 21st century or later.\n\nThe sea depth at the North Pole has been measured at 4261 m by the Russian Mir submersible in 2007 and at 4,087 m (13,410 ft) by USS Nautilus in 1958. The nearest land is usually said to be Kaffeklubben Island, off the northern coast of Greenland about 700 km away, though some perhaps non-permanent gravel banks lie slightly closer. The nearest permanently inhabited place is Alert in the Qikiqtaaluk Region, Nunavut, Canada,which is located 817 km from the Pole.\n\nPrecise definition\n\nThe Earth's axis of rotation – and hence the position of the North Pole – was commonly believed to be fixed (relative to the surface of the Earth) until, in the 18th century, the mathematician Leonhard Euler predicted that the axis might \"wobble\" slightly. Around the beginning of the 20th century astronomers noticed a small apparent \"variation of latitude,\" as determined for a fixed point on Earth from the observation of stars. Part of this variation could be attributed to a wandering of the Pole across the Earth's surface, by a range of a few metres. The wandering has several periodic components and an irregular component. The component with a period of about 435 days is identified with the 8 month wandering predicted by Euler and is now called the Chandler wobble after its discoverer. The exact point of intersection of the Earth's axis and the Earth's surface, at any given moment, is called the \"instantaneous pole\", but because of the \"wobble\" this cannot be used as a definition of a fixed North Pole (or South Pole) when metre-scale precision is required.\n\nIt is desirable to tie the system of Earth coordinates (latitude, longitude, and elevations or orography) to fixed landforms. Of course, given plate tectonics and isostasy, there is no system in which all geographic features are fixed. Yet the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service and the International Astronomical Union have defined a framework called the International Terrestrial Reference System.\n\nExploration\n\nPre-1900\n\nAs early as the 16th century, many eminent people correctly believed that the North Pole was in a sea, which in the 19th century was called the Polynya or Open Polar Sea. It was therefore hoped that passage could be found through ice floes at favorable times of the year. Several expeditions set out to find the way, generally with whaling ships, already commonly used in the cold northern latitudes.\n\nOne of the earliest expeditions to set out with the explicit intention of reaching the North Pole was that of British naval officer William Edward Parry, who in 1827 reached latitude 82°45′ North. In 1871 the Polaris expedition, a US attempt on the Pole led by Charles Francis Hall, ended in disaster. Another British Royal Navy attempt on the pole, part of the British Arctic Expedition, by Commander Albert H. Markham reached a then-record 83°20'26\" North in May 1876 before turning back. An 1879–1881 expedition commanded by US naval officer George W. DeLong ended tragically when their ship, the USS Jeanette, was crushed by ice. Over half the crew, including DeLong, were lost.\n\nIn April 1895 the Norwegian explorers Fridtjof Nansen and Hjalmar Johansen struck out for the Pole on skis after leaving Nansen's icebound ship Fram. The pair reached latitude 86°14′ North before they abandoned the attempt and turned southwards, eventually reaching Franz Josef Land.\n\nIn 1897 Swedish engineer Salomon August Andrée and two companions tried to reach the North Pole in the hydrogen balloon Örnen (\"Eagle\"), but came down 300 km north of Kvitøya, the northeasternmost part of the Svalbard archipelago. They trekked to Kvitøya but died there three months later. In 1930 the remains of this expedition were found by the Norwegian Bratvaag Expedition.\n\nThe Italian explorer Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi and Captain Umberto Cagni of the Italian Royal Navy (Regia Marina) sailed the converted whaler Stella Polare (\"Pole Star\") from Norway in 1899. On 11 March 1900 Cagni led a party over the ice and reached latitude 86° 34’ on 25 April, setting a new record by beating Nansen's result of 1895 by 35 to. Cagni barely managed to return to the camp, remaining there until 23 June. On 16 August the Stella Polare left Rudolf Island heading south and the expedition returned to Norway.\n\n1900–1940\n\nThe US explorer Frederick Cook claimed to have reached the North Pole on 21 April 1908 with two Inuit men, Ahwelah and Etukishook, but he was unable to produce convincing proof and his claim is not widely accepted. \n\nThe conquest of the North Pole was for many years credited to US Navy engineer Robert Peary, who claimed to have reached the Pole on 6 April 1909, accompanied by Matthew Henson and four Inuit men, Ootah, Seeglo, Egingwah, and Ooqueah. However, Peary's claim remains highly disputed and controversial. Those who accompanied Peary on the final stage of the journey were not trained in navigation, and thus could not independently confirm his navigational work, which some claim to have been particularly sloppy as he approached the Pole.\n\nThe distances and speeds that Peary claimed to have achieved once the last support party turned back seem incredible to many people, almost three times that which he had accomplished up to that point. Peary's account of a journey to the Pole and back while traveling along the direct line – the only strategy that is consistent with the time constraints that he was facing – is contradicted by Henson's account of tortuous detours to avoid pressure ridges and open leads.\n\nThe British explorer Wally Herbert, initially a supporter of Peary, researched Peary's records in 1989 and found that there were significant discrepancies in the explorer's navigational records. He concluded that Peary had not reached the Pole. Support for Peary came again in 2005, however, when British explorer Tom Avery and four companions recreated the outward portion of Peary's journey with replica wooden sleds and Canadian Eskimo Dog teams, reaching the North Pole in 36 days, 22 hours – nearly five hours faster than Peary. However, Avery's fastest 5-day march was 90 nautical miles, significantly short of the 135 claimed by Peary. Avery writes on his web site that \"The admiration and respect which I hold for Robert Peary, Matthew Henson and the four Inuit men who ventured North in 1909, has grown enormously since we set out from Cape Columbia. Having now seen for myself how he travelled across the pack ice, I am more convinced than ever that Peary did indeed discover the North Pole.\" \n\nAnother rejection of Peary's claim arrived in 2009, when E. Myles Standish of the California Institute of Technology, an experienced referee of scientific claims, reported numerous alleged lacunae and inconsistencies. \n\nThe first claimed flight over the Pole was made on 9 May 1926 by US naval officer Richard E. Byrd and pilot Floyd Bennett in a Fokker tri-motor aircraft. Although verified at the time by a committee of the National Geographic Society, this claim has since been undermined by the 1996 revelation that Byrd's long-hidden diary's solar sextant data (which the NGS never checked) consistently contradict his June 1926 report's parallel data by over . The secret report's alleged en-route solar sextant data were inadvertently so impossibly overprecise that he excised all these alleged raw solar observations out of the version of the report finally sent to geographical societies five months later (while the original version was hidden for 70 years), a realization first published in 2000 by the University of Cambridge after scrupulous refereeing. \n\nAccording to Standish, \"Anyone who is acquainted with the facts and has any amount of logical reasoning can not avoid the conclusion that neither Cook, nor Peary, nor Byrd reached the North Pole; and they all knew it.\"\n\nThe first consistent, verified, and scientifically convincing attainment of the Pole was on 12 May 1926, by Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen and his US sponsor Lincoln Ellsworth from the airship Norge. Norge, though Norwegian-owned, was designed and piloted by the Italian Umberto Nobile. The flight started from Svalbard in Norway, and crossed the Arctic Ocean to Alaska. Nobile, with several scientists and crew from the Norge, overflew the Pole a second time on 24 May 1928, in the airship Italia. The Italia crashed on its return from the Pole, with the loss of half the crew.\n\nIn May 1937 the world's first North Pole ice station, North Pole-1, was established by Soviet scientists by air 20 kilometres (13 mi) from the North Pole. The expedition members: oceanographer Pyotr Shirshov, meteorologist Yevgeny Fyodorov, radio operator Ernst Krenkel, and the leader Ivan Papanin conducted scientific research at the station for the next nine months. By 19 February 1938, when the group was picked up by the ice breakers Taimyr and Murman, their station had drifted 2850 km to the eastern coast of Greenland. \n\n1940–2000\n\nIn May 1945 an RAF Lancaster of the Aries expedition became the first Commonwealth aircraft to overfly the North Geographic and North Magnetic Poles. The plane was piloted by David Cecil McKinley of the Royal Air Force. It carried an 11-man crew, with Kenneth C. Maclure of the Royal Canadian Air Force in charge of all scientific observations. In 2006, Maclure was honoured with a spot in Canada's Aviation Hall of Fame. \n\nDiscounting Peary's disputed claim, the first men to set foot at the North Pole were a Soviet party including geophysicists Mikhail Ostrekin and Pavel Senko, oceanographers Mikhail Somov and Pavel Gordienko, and other scientists and flight crew (24 people in total) of Aleksandr Kuznetsov's Sever-2 expedition (March–May 1948). It was organized by the Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route. The party flew on three planes (pilots Ivan Cherevichnyy, Vitaly Maslennikov and Ilya Kotov) from Kotelny Island to the North Pole and landed there at 4:44pm (Moscow Time, UTC+04:00) on 23 April 1948. They established a temporary camp and for the next two days conducted scientific observations. On 26 April the expedition flew back to the continent.\n\nNext year, on 9 May 1949, two other Soviet scientists (Vitali Volovich and Andrei Medvedev) became the first people to parachute onto the North Pole. They jumped from a Douglas C-47 Skytrain, registered CCCP H-369. \n\nOn 3 May 1952, U.S. Air Force Lieutenant Colonel Joseph O. Fletcher and Lieutenant William Pershing Benedict, along with scientist Albert P. Crary, landed a modified Douglas C-47 Skytrain at the North Pole. Some Western sources considered this to be the first landing at the Pole until the Soviet landings became widely known.\n\nThe United States Navy submarine USS Nautilus (SSN-571) crossed the North Pole on 3 August 1958. On 17 March 1959 USS Skate (SSN-578) surfaced at the Pole, breaking through the ice above it, becoming the first naval vessel to do so. \n\nSetting aside Peary's claim, the first confirmed surface conquest of the North Pole was that of Ralph Plaisted, Walt Pederson, Gerry Pitzl and Jean Luc Bombardier, who traveled over the ice by snowmobile and arrived on 19 April 1968. The United States Air Force independently confirmed their position.\n\nOn 6 April 1969, Wally Herbert and companions Allan Gill, Roy Koerner and Kenneth Hedges of the British Trans-Arctic Expedition became the first men to reach the North Pole on foot (albeit with the aid of dog teams and airdrops). They continued on to complete the first surface crossing of the Arctic Ocean – and by its longest axis, Barrow, Alaska to Svalbard – a feat that has never been repeated. Bob Headland (15 June 2007). [http://www.guardian.co.uk/obituaries/story/0,,2103675,00.html Sir Wally Herbert], The Guardian. Because of suggestions (later proven false) of Plaisted's use of air transport, some sources classify Herbert's expedition as the first confirmed to reach the North Pole over the ice surface by any means. In the 1980s, Plaisted's pilots Weldy Phipps and Ken Lee signed affidavits asserting that no such airlift was provided. It is also said that Herbert was the first person to reach the pole of inaccessibility. \n\nOn 17 August 1977, the Soviet nuclear-powered icebreaker Arktika completed the first surface vessel journey to the North Pole.\n\nIn 1982 Ranulph Fiennes and Charles R. Burton became the first people to cross the Arctic Ocean in a single season. They departed from Cape Crozier, Ellesmere Island, on 17 February 1982 and arrived at the geographic North Pole on 10 April 1982. They travelled on foot and snowmobile. From the Pole, they travelled towards Svalbard but, due to the unstable nature of the ice, ended their crossing at the ice edge after drifting south on an ice floe for 99 days. They were eventually able to walk to their expedition ship MV Benjamin Bowring and boarded it on 4 August 1982 at position 80:31N 00:59W. As a result of this journey, which formed a section of the three-year Transglobe Expedition 1979–1982, Fiennes and Burton became the first people to complete a circumnavigation of the world via both North and South Poles, by surface travel alone. This achievement remains unchallenged to this day.\n\nIn 1985, Sir Edmund Hillary (the first man to stand on the summit of Mount Everest) and Neil Armstrong (the first man to stand on the moon) landed at the North Pole in a small twin-engined ski plane. Hillary thus became the first man to stand at both poles and on the summit of Everest.\n\nIn 1986, Will Steger, with seven teammates, became the first to be confirmed as reaching the Pole by dogsled and without resupply.\n\nOn 6 May 1986, USS Archerfish (SSN 678), USS Ray (SSN 653) and USS Hawkbill (SSN 666) surfaced at the North Pole, the first tri-submarine surfacing at the North Pole.\n\nOn 21 April 1987, Shinji Kazama of Japan became the first person to reach the North Pole on a motorcycle. \n\nOn 18 May 1987, USS Billfish (SSN 676), USS Sea Devil (SSN 664) and HMS Superb (S 109) surfaced at the North Pole, the first international surfacing at the North Pole.\n\nIn 1988, a 13-man strong team (9 Soviets, 4 Canadians) skied across the arctic from Siberia to northern Canada. One of the Canadians, Richard Weber became the first person to reach the Pole from both sides of the Arctic Ocean.\n\nOn 4 May 1990, Børge Ousland and Erling Kagge became the first explorers ever to reach the North Pole unsupported, after a 58-day ski trek from Ellesmere Island in Canada, a distance of 800 km. \n\nOn 7 September 1991, the German research vessel Polarstern and the Swedish icebreaker Oden reached the North Pole as the first conventional powered vessels. Both scientific parties and crew took oceanographic and geological samples and had a common tug of war and a football game on an ice floe. Polarstern again reached the pole exactly 10 years later with the Healy.\n\nIn 1998, 1999, and 2000 Lada Niva Marshs (special very large wheeled versions made by BRONTO, Lada/Vaz's experimental product division) were driven to the North Pole. The 1998 expedition was dropped by parachute and completed the track to the North Pole. The 2000 expedition departed from a Russian research base around 114 km from the Pole and claimed an average speed of 20–15 km/h in an average temperature of −30 degrees.\n\n21st century\n\nIn recent years, journeys to the North Pole by air (landing by helicopter or on a runway prepared on the ice) or by icebreaker have become relatively routine, and are even available to small groups of tourists through adventure holiday companies. Parachute jumps have frequently been made onto the North Pole in recent years. The temporary seasonal Russian camp of Barneo has been established by air a short distance from the Pole annually since 2002, and caters for scientific researchers as well as tourist parties. Trips from the camp to the Pole itself may be arranged overland or by helicopter.\n\nThe first attempt at underwater exploration of the North Pole was made on 22 April 1998 by Russian firefighter and diver Andrei Rozhkov with the support of the Diving Club of Moscow State University, but ended in fatality. The next attempted dive at the North Pole was organized the next year by the same diving club, and ended in success on 24 April 1999. The divers were Michael Wolff (Austria), Brett Cormick (UK), and Bob Wass (USA). \n\nIn 2005, the United States Navy submarine USS Charlotte (SSN-766) surfaced through 155 cm of ice at the North Pole and spent 18 hours there. \n\nIn July 2007, British endurance swimmer Lewis Gordon Pugh completed a 1 km swim at the North Pole. His feat, undertaken to highlight the effects of global warming, took place in clear water that had opened up between the ice floes. His later attempt to paddle a kayak to the North Pole in late 2008, following the erroneous prediction of clear water to the Pole, was stymied when his expedition found itself stuck in thick ice after only three days. The expedition was then abandoned.\n\nBy September 2007 the North Pole had been visited 66 times by different surface ships: 54 times by Soviet and Russian icebreakers, 4 times by Swedish Oden, 3 times by German Polarstern, 3 times by USCGC Healy and USCGC Polar Sea, and once by CCGS Louis S. St-Laurent and by Swedish Vidar Viking. \n\n2007 descent to the North Pole seabed\n\nOn 2 August 2007, a Russian scientific expedition Arktika 2007 made the first ever manned descent to the ocean floor at the North Pole, to a depth of , as part of the research programme in support of Russia's 2001 extended continental shelf claim to a large swathe of the Arctic Ocean floor. The descent took place in two MIR submersibles and was led by Soviet and Russian polar explorer Artur Chilingarov. In a symbolic act of visitation, the Russian flag was placed on the ocean floor exactly at the Pole. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/6927395.stm Russia plants flag under N Pole], BBC News (2 August 2007). \n\nThe expedition was the latest in a series of efforts intended to give Russia a dominant influence in the Arctic according to the New York Times. The warming Arctic climate and summer shrinkage of the iced area has attracted the attention of many countries, such as China and the United States, toward the top of the world, where resources and shipping routes may soon be exploitable. \n\nMLAE 2009 Expedition\n\nIn 2009, the Russian Marine Live-Ice Automobile Expedition—MLAE 2009 (Vasily Elagin as a leader, and a team of Sergey Larin, Afanasy Makovnev, Vladimir Obikhod, Alexey Ushakov, Alexey Shkrabkin, and Nikolay Nikulshin) reached the North Pole on two custom-built 6 x 6 low-pressure-tire ATVs—Yemelya 1 and Yemelya 2—designed by Vasily Elagin, a known Russian mountain climber, explorer, and engineer. The vehicles reached the North Pole on 26 April 2009, 17:30 (Moscow time). The expedition was supported by the Russian Geographical Society. The Russian Book of Records recognized it as the first successful vehicle trip to the Geographical North Pole.\n\nMLAE 2013 Expedition\n\nOn 1 March 2013, the Russian Marine Live-Ice Automobile Expedition — MLAE 2013 (Vasily Elagin as a leader, and a team of Andrey Vankov, Sergey Isayev, Nikolay Kozlov, Afanasy Makovnev, Vladimir Obikhod, and Alexey Shkrabkin) on two custom-built 6 x 6 low-pressure-tire ATVs—Yemelya 3 and Yemelya 4—started from Golomyanny Island (the Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago) to the North Pole across drifting ice of the Arctic Ocean. The vehicles reached the Pole on 6 April and then continued to the Canadian coast. The coast was reached on 30 April 2013 (83°08N, 075°59W), and on 5 May 2013, the expedition finished in Resolute Bay, NU. The way between the Russian borderland (Machtovyi Island of the Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago, 80°15N, 097°27E) and the Canadian coast (83°08N, 075°59W) took 55 days; it was ~2300 km across drifting ice and about 4000 km in total. The expedition was totally self-dependent and used no external supplies. The expedition was supported by the Russian Geographical Society.\n\nDay and night\n\nThe sun at the North Pole is continuously above the horizon during the summer and continuously below the horizon during the winter. Sunrise is just before the March equinox (around 20 March); the sun then takes three months to reach its highest point of near 23½° elevation at the summer solstice (around 21 June), after which time it begins to sink, reaching sunset just after the September equinox (around 23 September). When the sun is visible in the polar sky, it appears to move in a horizontal circle above the horizon. This circle gradually rises from near the horizon just after the vernal equinox to its maximum elevation (in degrees) above the horizon at summer solstice and then sinks back toward the horizon before sinking below it at the autumnal equinox.\n\nA civil twilight period of about two weeks occurs before sunrise and after sunset, a nautical twilight period of about five weeks occurs before sunrise and after sunset and an astronomical twilight period of about seven weeks occurs before sunrise and after sunset.\n\nThese effects are caused by a combination of the Earth's axial tilt and its revolution around the sun. The direction of the Earth's axial tilt, as well as its angle relative to the plane of the Earth's orbit around the sun, remains very nearly constant over the course of a year (both change very slowly over long time periods). At northern midsummer the North Pole is facing towards the sun to its maximum extent. As the year progresses and the Earth moves around the sun, the North Pole gradually turns away from the sun until at midwinter it is facing away from the Sun to its maximum extent. A similar sequence is observed at the South Pole, with a six-month time difference.\n\nTime\n\nIn most places on Earth, local time is determined by longitude, such that the time of day is more-or-less synchronised to the position of the sun in the sky (for example, at midday the sun is roughly at its highest). This line of reasoning fails at the North Pole, where the sun rises and sets only once per year, and all lines of longitude, and hence all time zones, converge. There is no permanent human presence at the North Pole and no particular time zone has been assigned. Polar expeditions may use any time zone that is convenient, such as Greenwich Mean Time, or the time zone of the country from which they departed.\n\nClimate\n\nThe North Pole is substantially warmer than the South Pole because it lies at sea level in the middle of an ocean (which acts as a reservoir of heat), rather than at altitude on a continental land mass.\n\nWinter temperatures at the North Pole can range from about , averaging around . However, a freak storm caused the temperature to reach for a time at a World Meteorological Organization buoy, located at 87.45°N, on December 30, 2015. It was estimated that the temperature at the North Pole was between 30 and during the storm. Summer temperatures (June, July, and August) average around the freezing point (0 C). The highest temperature yet recorded is 13 C, much warmer than the South Pole's record high of only . \n\nThe sea ice at the North Pole is typically around 2 to thick, although ice thickness, its spatial extent, and the fraction of open water within the ice pack can vary rapidly and profoundly in response to weather and climate. Studies have shown that the average ice thickness has decreased in recent years. It is likely that global warming has contributed to this, but it is not possible to attribute the recent abrupt decrease in thickness entirely to the observed warming in the Arctic. Reports have also predicted that within a few decades the Arctic Ocean will be entirely free of ice in the summer. This may have significant commercial implications; see \"Territorial Claims,\" below.\n\nThe retreat of the Arctic sea ice will accelerate global warming, as less ice cover reflects less solar radiation, and may have serious climate implications by contributing to Arctic cyclone generation. \n\nFlora and fauna\n\nPolar bears are believed rarely to travel beyond about 82° North owing to the scarcity of food, though tracks have been seen in the vicinity of the North Pole, and a 2006 expedition reported sighting a polar bear just 1 mi from the Pole. The ringed seal has also been seen at the Pole, and Arctic foxes have been observed less than 60 km away at 89°40′ N. \n\nBirds seen at or very near the Pole include the snow bunting, northern fulmar and black-legged kittiwake, though some bird sightings may be distorted by the tendency of birds to follow ships and expeditions.\n\nFish have been seen in the waters at the North Pole, but these are probably few in number. A member of the Russian team that descended to the North Pole seabed in August 2007 reported seeing no sea creatures living there. However, it was later reported that a sea anemone had been scooped up from the seabed mud by the Russian team and that video footage from the dive showed unidentified shrimps and amphipods. \n\nTerritorial claims to the North Pole and Arctic regions\n\nCurrently, under international law, no country owns the North Pole or the region of the Arctic Ocean surrounding it. The five surrounding Arctic countries, Russian Federation (the biggest country), Canada, Norway, Denmark (via Greenland), and the United States (via Alaska), are limited to a 200 nmi exclusive economic zone around their coasts, and the area beyond that is administered by the International Seabed Authority.\n\nUpon ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, a country has 10 years to make claims to an extended continental shelf beyond its 200-mile exclusive economic zone. If validated, such a claim gives the claimant state rights to what may be on or beneath the sea bottom within the claimed zone. Norway (ratified the convention in 1996 ), Russia (ratified in 1997), Canada (ratified in 2003) and Denmark (ratified in 2004) have all launched projects to base claims that certain areas of Arctic continental shelves should be subject to their sole sovereign exploitation. \n\nIn 1907 Canada invoked a \"sector principle\" to claim sovereignty over a sector stretching from its coasts to the North Pole. This claim has not been relinquished, but was not consistently pressed until 2013. \n\nCultural associations\n\nIn some children's Western cultures, the geographic North Pole is described as the location of Santa Claus' workshop and residence, although the depictions have been inconsistent between the geographic and magnetic North Pole. Canada Post has assigned postal code H0H 0H0 to the North Pole (referring to Santa's traditional exclamation of \"Ho ho ho!\"). \n\nThis association reflects an age-old esoteric mythology of Hyperborea that posits the North Pole, the otherworldly world-axis, as the abode of God and superhuman beings. The popular figure of the pole-dwelling Santa Claus thus functions as an archetype of spiritual purity and transcendence. \n\nAs Henry Corbin has documented, the North Pole plays a key part in the cultural worldview of Sufism and Iranian mysticism. \"The Orient sought by the mystic, the Orient that cannot be located on our maps, is in the direction of the north, beyond the north.\" \n\nOwing to its remoteness, the Pole is sometimes identified with a mysterious mountain of ancient Iranian tradition called Mount Qaf (Jabal Qaf), the \"farthest point of the earth\". According to certain authors, the Jabal Qaf of Muslim cosmology is a version of Rupes Nigra, a mountain whose ascent, like Dante's climbing of the Mountain of Purgatory, represents the pilgrim's progress through spiritual states. In Iranian theosophy, the heavenly Pole, the focal point of the spiritual ascent, acts as a magnet to draw beings to its \"palaces ablaze with immaterial matter.\"" ] }

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VISIT THE NAUTILUS, THE FIRST NUCLEAR ... she was also the first ship to sail across the North Pole under its ice. ... by cruising under the Arctic ice cap ...", "... Nuclear Sub, Is First to Surface at North Pole. ... nuclear subs could lurk under the Polar Ice Cap, ... shown that the north pole ice cap ...", "... and following a joint operational exercise under the polar ice cap, both submarines ... ice pack at the North Pole has ... first submarine to reach the Pole ...", "1958: first submarine reaches North Pole ... becomes the first submarine to reach the North Pole. After 96 hours and 1830 miles submerged under the Arctic ice cap, ..." ], "filename": [ "105/105_4843.txt", "32/32_4844.txt", "133/133_4845.txt", "44/44_4846.txt", "170/170_4847.txt", "71/71_4848.txt", "146/146_4849.txt", "56/56_4851.txt", "46/46_4852.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9 ], "title": [ "Nautilus travels under North Pole - American & World History", "USS Skate (SSN-578) Becomes the First Submarine to Surface ...", "Nautilus Sails Under the Pole and 1,830 Miles of Arctic ...", "uss nautilus_ssn-571 - 必应 - bing.com", "USS Nautilus (SSN-571) - Military Wiki - Wikia", "THE NAUTILUS, FIRST NUCLEAR SUB", "Ice at the North Pole in 1958 and 1959 – not so thick ...", "Submarines reach North Pole - ATHROPOLIS", "1958: first submarine reaches North Pole - blogspot.com" ], "url": [ "http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/nautilus-travels-under-north-pole", "https://www.navalhistory.org/2011/08/11/uss-skate-ssn-578-becomes-the-first-submarine-to-surface-at-the-north-pole", "http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/0803.html", "http://www.bing.com/knows/uss%20nautilus_ssn-571", "http://military.wikia.com/wiki/USS_Nautilus_(SSN-571)", "http://www.newenglandtimes.com/states/connecticut/nautilus_index.shtml", "https://wattsupwiththat.com/2009/04/26/ice-at-the-north-pole-in-1958-not-so-thick/", "http://www.athropolis.com/news/submarines.htm", "http://4thefirsttime.blogspot.com/2007/08/1958-first-submarine-reaches-north-pole.html" ], "search_context": [ "Nautilus travels under North Pole - Aug 03, 1958 - HISTORY.com\nThis Day in History: 08/03/1958 - Nautilus Reaches North Pole\nThe Nautilus nuclear sub travels under the North Pole, the space shuttle Columbia launches, Jesse Owens wins his 4th gold medal at the Berlin Olympics, and the Statue of Liberty reopens after 9-11 in This Day in History video. The date is August 3rd. The Statue of Liberty is on Liberty Island and was designed by sculptor, Frederic Bartholdi.\nLead Story\nNautilus travels under North Pole\nShare this:\nNautilus travels under North Pole\nAuthor\nNautilus travels under North Pole\nURL\nPublisher\nA+E Networks\nOn August 3, 1958, the U.S. nuclear submarine Nautilus accomplishes the first undersea voyage to the geographic North Pole. The world’s first nuclear submarine, the Nautilus dived at Point Barrow, Alaska, and traveled nearly 1,000 miles under the Arctic ice cap to reach the top of the world. It then steamed on to Iceland, pioneering a new and shorter route from the Pacific to the Atlantic and Europe.\nThe USS Nautilus was constructed under the direction of U.S. Navy Captain Hyman G. Rickover, a brilliant Russian-born engineer who joined the U.S. atomic program in 1946. In 1947, he was put in charge of the navy’s nuclear-propulsion program and began work on an atomic submarine. Regarded as a fanatic by his detractors, Rickover succeeded in developing and delivering the world’s first nuclear submarine years ahead of schedule. In 1952, the Nautilus’ keel was laid by President Harry S. Truman, and on January 21, 1954, first lady Mamie Eisenhower broke a bottle of champagne across its bow as it was launched into the Thames River at Groton, Connecticut. Commissioned on September 30, 1954, it first ran under nuclear power on the morning of January 17, 1955.\nMuch larger than the diesel-electric submarines that preceded it, the Nautilus stretched 319 feet and displaced 3,180 tons. It could remain submerged for almost unlimited periods because its atomic engine needed no air and only a very small quantity of nuclear fuel. The uranium-powered nuclear reactor produced steam that drove propulsion turbines, allowing the Nautilus to travel underwater at speeds in excess of 20 knots.\nIn its early years of service, the USS Nautilus broke numerous submarine travel records and on July 23, 1958, departed Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on “Operation Northwest Passage”–the first crossing of the North Pole by submarine. There were 116 men aboard for this historic voyage, including Commander William R. Anderson, 111 officers and crew, and four civilian scientists. The Nautilus steamed north through the Bering Strait and did not surface until it reached Point Barrow, Alaska, in the Beaufort Sea, though it did send its periscope up once off the Diomedes Islands, between Alaska and Siberia, to check for radar bearings. On August 1, the submarine left the north coast of Alaska and dove under the Arctic ice cap.\nThe submarine traveled at a depth of about 500 feet, and the ice cap above varied in thickness from 10 to 50 feet, with the midnight sun of the Arctic shining in varying degrees through the blue ice. At 11:15 p.m. EDT on August 3, 1958, Commander Anderson announced to his crew: “For the world, our country, and the Navy–the North Pole.” The Nautilus passed under the geographic North Pole without pausing. The submarine next surfaced in the Greenland Sea between Spitzbergen and Greenland on August 5. Two days later, it ended its historic journey at Iceland. For the command during the historic journey, President Dwight D. Eisenhower decorated Anderson with the Legion of Merit.\nAfter a career spanning 25 years and almost 500,000 miles steamed, the Nautilus was decommissioned on March 3, 1980. Designated a National Historic Landmark in 1982, the world’s first nuclear submarine went on exhibit in 1986 as the Historic Ship Nautilus at the Submarine Force Museum in Groton, Connecticut.\nRelated Videos", "Naval History Blog » Blog Archive » USS Skate (SSN-578) Becomes the First Submarine to Surface at the North Pole\nUSS Skate (SSN-578) Becomes the First Submarine to Surface at the North Pole\nBy NHHC\nUSS Skate (SSN-578) made submarine history on 11 August 1958 when it became the first submarine to surface at the North Pole.\nUSS Skate (SSN-578) hung below the Arctic ice like a matchstick suspended an inch from the ceiling of a large room. A knot of sailors in the control room stared intently at an instrument inscribing patterns of parallel lines on a rolling paper tape. The pattern looked like an upside down mountain range.\n“Heavy ice, ten feet,” said one of the sailors.\nSuddenly the lines converged into a single narrow bar. “Clear water!” the sailor called out.\nCommander James Calvert, the skipper, studied the marks on the paper closely. He stopped the submarine, ordered “up periscope,” and peered into the eyepiece. The clarity of the water and the amount of light startled him. At this same depth in the Atlantic—180 feet—the water was black or dark green at best, but here in the Arctic, it was pale blue like the tropical waters off the Bahamas. The crew laughed nervously as Calvert reported seeing nothing but a jellyfish.\nCalvert turned toward the man in charge of the ice-detecting instrument. “How does it look?” The sailor flashed him the okay sign.\n“Bring her up slowly,” Calvert said. The three-thousand ton sub began drifting upward like a giant balloon. The diving officer called the depth as the Skate rose.\nOtherwise the room was deathly quiet. A wrong move or a miscalculation would endanger the mission or even the ship. Calvert continued to peer through the eyepiece. When the top of the periscope came within sixty feet of the surface, he spotted heavy ice to the side. He flipped the prism to look straight up, but saw nothing except the same blurred aquamarine. Sweat appeared on his forehead as he felt all eyes in the control room bear down upon him. If the sub rose too slowly, it could drift away from the opening. If it rose too quickly and struck ice, the collision could tear open the pressure hull and send the sub and all ninety men on board to the bottom.\nCalvert, one of the most decorated naval officers of World War II, had survived eight war patrols in the submarine Jack and later became the third naval officer selected by Admiral Hyman Rickover to command a nuclear powered submarine. It was one of the Navy’s most demanding jobs, for it required the intellect and the courage to operate the Navy’s most sophisticated and dangerous propulsion system. This success of this mission would help Navy planners determine whether submarines could navigate safely under Arctic ice, a question with grave implications for national security, given the emerging Soviet submarine threat.\nCalvert ordered the ballast tanks blown. The roar of high pressure air seemed earsplitting after the tense silence of the last few minutes. Upon surfacing, Calvert ordered the hatch opened, then climbed up to the bridge. The sky was slightly overcast and the damp air felt like an unseasonably warm February day in New England, with the temperature hovering near freezing. The submarine’s black hull stood out in stark relief against the deep blue of the calm lake in which the ship now floated. Beyond the lake, stretching to the horizon in every direction, was the stark white of the permanent polar ice pack. The officer who had climbed to the bridge with Calvert called the skipper’s attention to the port side of the ship. There a full grown polar bear was climbing slowly out of the water and up onto the ice.\nThe date was 11 August 1958 and the Skate had just become the first submarine to surface at the North Pole.\n \nYou can leave a response , or trackback from your own site.\n \n \nGraham P Davis\nUSS Skate did indeed surface at the North Pole but not until 17 March 1959. Ice conditions in August 1958 were too heavy at the Pole for the Skate to surface, as they were for the Nautilus some days earlier. The Skate did surface in several other leads and polynya that August, including one near Ice-station Alfa. The above picture may have been from one of those.\nWhen the Skate sailed for the Arctic the following year, the sail had been strengthened to allow it to break through thin ice. At the Pole, they eventually found a small, refrozen lead, or skylight, and managed to break through it. Later, many of the crew gathered for a service at which the ashes of Sir Hubert Wilkins were sprinkled in the wind. The temperature during this service was -26F (-32C).\nRich Dommer\nGraham,\nYou are mistaken. The USS Skate did indeed surface near the north pole on August 11, 1959 at 9:47 PM EDT and radioed the news back to New London.\nLT Alex King, USN (Retired)\nI concur, it was indeed March 17, 1959, when I was a Navy RM2 in my enlisted days, in contact with the Skate from HICOMM at the Pentagon. For more on this and confirmation, see AUSN Navy magazine, June/July 2012 issue. For the record, please note that my name has since been legally changed.\nJ Doug Swallow", "Nautilus Sails Under the Pole and 1,830 Miles of Arctic Icecap in Pacific-to-Atlantic Passage\nNautilus Sails Under the Pole and 1,830 Miles of Arctic Icecap in Pacific-to-Atlantic Passage\nFOUR-DAY VOYAGE\nNew Route to Europe Pioneered--Skipper and Crew Cited\nBy FELIX BELAIR, JR.\nSpecial to THE NEW YORK TIMES\nRELATED HEADLINES\nNautilus' Skipper Helps to Mitigate a Snub to Rickover\nPolar Trip Opens Defense Frontier: U.S. Strategic Advantage Is Seen as Temporary -- Soviet Effort Expected\nOTHER HEADLINES\nChief of U.N. Gives a Plan for Mideast: Assembly Meets: Hears Call for Step-Up of Its Economic and Political Efforts\nHouse Votes Bill to Aid Education in Science Field: Student Loans Raised in Place of Scholarships by 900 Million Measure\nVeto Threatened on Pensions Bill: Social Security Rate Rise Backed by White House but State Plan Is Fought\nU.S. Leaders Split on Mideast Aims: Eisenhower Action May Be Needed to Fix Policy for Assembly Debate\nU.S. May Reduce Force in Lebanon: Token Removal of Marine Battalion Planned\nPeronists Win Rule of Argentine Labor\nGlennan, Ohio Educator, Named to Direct New U.S. Space Unit\nHogan Is Expected to Enter the Race for Senate Monday\nRackets Unit Asks Prosecution for 13\n479 Get Jaywalking Summonses but Public Is Hailed on Response\nWashington, Aug. 8 -- History's first undersea voyage across the top of the world, a distance of 1,830 miles under the polar icecap, was disclosed at the White House today.\nThe trip was made in four days by the Nautilus, the world's first atomic submarine. The voyage pioneered a new and shorter route from Pacific to the Atlantic and Europe -- a route that might be used by cargo submarines. It also added to man's knowledge of the subsurface of the Arctic basin.\nThe voyage took the Nautilus under the North Pole. The overall trip began at Pearl Harbor July 23 and ended at Iceland Aug. 7.\nDives at Point Barrow\nThe Nautilus went under the icecap at Point Barrow, Alaska, and surfaced four days later at a point in the Atlantic between Spitzbergen and Greenland. She is now on her way to Western Europe.\nThe feat of the Nautilus, with 116 crewmen and scientific observers aboard, was revealed as President Eisenhower decorated the submarine's skipper, Comdr. W. R. Anderson, with the Legion of Merit. A Presidential Unit Citation- the first ever conferred in peacetime- went to the submarine, with a ribbon and special clasp in the form of a golden \"N\" to all who participated in the cruise.\nThe Presidential citation to Commander Anderson said that the Nautilus under his leadership had pioneered a submerged sea lane between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. It added:\n\"This points the way for further exploration and possible use of this route by nuclear powered cargo submarines as a new commercial seaway between the major oceans of the world.\"\nSkipper Tells Story\nA few minutes after the award, Commander Anderson, admittedly \"a little dazed\" by the speed of events that brought him here overnight by helicopter and jet plane from Arctic waters, was telling his story of \"Operation Northwest Passage.\"\nNews of the voyage reached the Capitol with electrifying effect. William F. Knowland of California, the Senate Republican leader, read a brief dispatch to the Senate and remarked:\n\"This should give us courage and remind us to have faith. It shows that this is no time to sell America short.\"\nSenator Mike Mansfield of Montana, the Democratic acting leader, congratulated Commander Anderson and his crew.\nPresident Eisenhower had already extended the Nautilus skipper his own \"very, very best congratulations\" after pinning the decoration on the commander's tunic. He also asked for him in conveying his personal \"well done\" to the submarine's officers and crew.\nWith an occasional glance at his wife who was flown here by Navy plane earlier today from New London, Conn., without being told why, the 37-year-old Navy Officer sat for about half an hour under floodlights telling reporters of the voyage. Newsreel and television cameras recorded the ceremony as did tape recorders for radio broadcasting.\nA circular flat map- based on a polar stereographic projection- of the Pacific and Arctic areas from Pearl Harbor to Greenland was in place in a conference room near the President's office when James C. Hagerty, White House press secretary, broke the secrecy surrounding the \"very good story\" he told reporters would be coming at 1:30 P. M.\nThe press secretary pointed out that the distance from London to Tokyo at the present time was about 11,200 nautical miles- by the Panama Canal. By traversing the Arctic under the icecap the distance was only 6,300 miles- a saving of 4,900 miles, he said.\nMr. Hagerty told how the nautical mileage from Honolulu to London would be cut from the conventional surface route of 9,500 miles to 6,700 miles by the polar route.\nAfter the citations had been read by the President's naval aide, Capt. E. P. Aurand, and the President had talked, Thomas S. Gates Jr., Secretary of the Navy, remarked in an aside to Commander Anderson that \"this is the first time a Presidential Citation has been given in peacetime.\"\nOn hearing the observation, the President remarked: \"I couldn't think of a better time to do it.\"\nBeaming in the background as the President presented the decoration were Vice Admiral James A. Russell, acting Chief of Naval Operations; Admiral Frederick B. Warder, Commander of the Atlantic Fleet Submarine Force; Admiral Jerauld Wright, Supreme Commander Atlantic Forces of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization; John A. McCone, chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission, and Lewis Strauss, Administrative Assistant to the President on Peaceful Purposes of Atomic Energy.\nAnderson Tells Story\nThe group having withdrawn, Commander Anderson began the story of Operation Northwest Passage as it got under way from Pearl Harbor in the predawn hours of July 23 under highest secrecy. He recounted briefly how the Nautilus had cruised submerged on a northerly course past the Aleutian Islands and through the Bering Strait between Alaska and Siberia toward the brittle fringe of the ice pack and then beneath it.\nFrom Pearl Harbor to the Bering Strait, some 2,900 miles, the Nautilus maintained an average speed of \"almost 20 knots.\" Commander Anderson said it was his original plan to make \"a straight shot\" for the polar crossing from the Bering Sea. However, observations showed a stiff northerly wind had pushed the ice pack farther south than anticipated.\nLooking back, Commander Anderson said that the Nautilus probably could have gotten through on that route, but that he wanted to find the best possible \"highway\" and the search for it took him from the vicinity north of the Bering Strait over to the coast of Northern Alaska and Point Barrow.\nAt this point Commander Anderson said that he had discovered the \"lead\" that normally opens into deep water at this time of year was easily accessible. The Barrow Sea Valley, a deep canyon in the ocean floor, was located and followed from a point just north of Point Barrow to its entry into the true Arctic Basin.\nOnce in the Barrow Sea Valley, the skipper explained, \"we were in our true element and able to cruise fast and deep-- we were on our way.\"\nThe Nautilus surfaced only in the Point Barrow area to photograph the area and to track the ocean floor for the sea valley. It periscoped off the Diomedes Islands between Alaska and Siberia and for about thirty seconds sent up its radar for checking bearings.\n\"If the Russians detected us they are awfully good,\" Commander Anderson said in answering a question. He explained that the submarine had been in international waters throughout the trip and well on the American side of Bering Strait while traversing that waterway.\nAbove the Nautilus the covering icecap was plainly visible over the vessel's closed-circuit television, the sixth months period of Arctic daylight making visibility no problem. Now and then great holes appeared in the icecap but the Nautilus sped on.\n\"We were in a hurry,\" Commander Anderson explained.\n\"Why were you in a hurry?\" he was asked.\n\"Navigating under these conditions up close to the pole, making the voyage with the minimum number of turns, speed changes, depth changes, angle changes, facilitates the accuracy of navigation by a very marked degree,\" Commander Anderson went on.\n\"It is possible to get yourself considerably confused by subjecting the ship to a number of turns, and so on, knowing what we know now, we would make the crossing in a much more relaxed fashion. We wouldn't hesitate to change course, or probe openings. However, we were anxious on this trip to show the possibility of utilizing this route some day as a fast commercial route.\"\nCommander Anderson was casual but careful in describing the performance characteristics of his submarine. Its cruising depth and average speed were only generally described because of security reasons.\n\"I am able to tell you,\" the skipper said at one point, \"that the Nautilus cruises at lower than 400 feet. I am able to tell you that we made better than 20 knots. The speed is somewhat faster in cold water.\"\nThe Nautilus skipper was interrupted repeatedly with questions. His answers disclosed among other things that the Arctic Sea at the North Pole was considerably deeper than had been supposed. Precision measurements placed the true depth at 13,410 or 1,927 feet greater than earlier estimates.\nCommander Anderson indicated a distinct lack of curiosity about the precise make up an penetration of the icecap below the surface of the sea. It ranged in thickness from ten to fifteen feet and loses about three feet of its winter depth in summer. But pressures caused by wind and tide, sent it to a depth of fifty feet in unchartered places and these were well above the submarine, he explained.\nHitherto unknown underwater mountain ranges were found to crisscross the Barrow Sea Valley from its beginning near Point Barrow to a point where it enters the Arctic Basin. These ranges were apart from the previously known Lomonosov Ridge extending from Canada almost directly across the Pole into the Soviet Union.\nIt was exactly at 11:!5 P.M. Eastern standard time last Sunday that the atomic-driven submarine passed directly beneath the North Pole with a larger company than ever had been on the spot before. It neither paused nor notified Washington until the Nautilus surfaced some thirty-six hours later in the Greenland Sea.\nNo Mishaps\nThe entire voyage under the icecap- a distance equivalent to that from Chicago to San Francisco- was without a close call or mishap of any kind and without casualty or illness.\nAs he told his story Commander Anderson said that he wanted to \"brag a little about our navigators.\"\n\"I really think that this is the most remarkable job in ship navigation that has ever been done,\" he added.\nA humorous note crept into the recitation as Commander Anderson gave the first public definition of what he called \"longitudinal roulette,\" a passtime not to be indulged in while traversing the arctic sea for the first time in a submarine.\n\"A trip across the North Pole, where there is no opportunity to observe anything outside of the ship, no opportunity to observe stars or do any type of electronic navigation, presents a very formidable problem- or what has been up to now a very formidable problem,\" the skipper explained.\n\"For example, it would be possible for a ship equipped with conventional navigation equipment to become so confused at the North Pole that they might actually work themselves around in a slow circle, thinking that they were going in a straight line, and end up coming into perhaps the ice-locked coast off Greenland, or even more disappointing, back where they came from.\"\nHow did he manage to avoid this confusion?\n\"By having superb navigation equipment- superb compasses- by having this advanced inertial type navigation system, and by having such a complex of navigation equipment to check one thing against the other, and the other thing against something else- repeated over and over again, that we knew we were in business,\" Commander Anderson replied.\nAn inertial guidance system is made up of gyroscopes and other devices that automatically determine a submarine's position even on along submerged cruises.\nThe Nautilus skipper said that no contacts of a hostile nature had been made throughout the nineteen days and 8,146 miles covered from Pearl Harbor. Contacts not of a hostile nature were made, but Commander Anderson did not explain what these might have been.", "uss nautilus_ssn-571 - 必应\nConstruction of NAUTILUS was made possible by the successful development of a nuclear propulsion plant by a group of scientists and engineers at the Naval Reactors ...\nwww.submarinemuseum.org/nautilus/index.shtml\nUSS Nautilus may refer to: USS Nautilus, a 12-gun schooner (1799–1812) USS Nautilus, a 76-foot coast survey schooner (1838–1859) USS Nautilus, a Narwhal-class ...\nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Nautilus", "USS Nautilus (SSN-571) | Military Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia\n6 torpedo tubes\n</td></tr>\nUSS Nautilus (SSN-571) is the world's first operational nuclear-powered submarine . She was the first vessel to complete a submerged transit to the North Pole on 3 August 1958. Sharing names with the submarine in Jules Verne's Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea , and named after another USS Nautilus (SS-168) that served with distinction in World War II, Nautilus was authorized in 1951 and launched in 1954. Because her nuclear propulsion allowed her to remain submerged far longer than diesel-electric submarines, she broke many records in her first years of operation, and traveled to locations previously beyond the limits of submarines. In operation, she revealed a number of limitations in her design and construction. This information was used to improve subsequent submarines.\nNautilus was decommissioned in 1980 and designated a National Historic Landmark in 1982. She has been preserved as a museum of submarine history in Groton, Connecticut, where she receives some 250,000 visitors a year.\nContents\nEdit\nFollowing her commissioning, Nautilus remained dockside for further construction and testing. At 11 am on 17 January 1955 she put to sea for the first time and signaled her historic message: \"Underway on nuclear power.\" [7] On 10 May, she headed south for shakedown. Submerged throughout, she traveled 2,100 kilometres (1,100 nmi; 1,300 mi) from New London to San Juan, Puerto Rico and covered 2,223 km (1,200 nmi; 1,381 mi) in less than ninety hours. At the time, this was the longest submerged cruise by a submarine and at the highest sustained speed (for at least one hour) ever recorded.\nUSS Nautilus during her initial sea trials, 20 January 1955.\nFrom 1955 to 1957, Nautilus continued to be used to investigate the effects of increased submerged speeds and endurance. The improvements rendered the progress made in anti-submarine warfare during the Second World War virtually obsolete. Radar and anti-submarine aircraft, which had proved crucial in defeating submarines during the War, proved ineffective against a vessel able to quickly move out of an area, change depth quickly and stay submerged for very long periods.\nOn 4 February 1957, Nautilus logged her 60,000th nautical mile (110,000 km; 69,000 mi), matching the endurance of her namesake, the fictional Nautilus described in Jules Verne's novel Twenty Thousand Leagues Under The Sea. [8] In May, she departed for the Pacific Coast to participate in coastal exercises and the fleet exercise, operation \"Home Run,\" which acquainted units of the Pacific Fleet with the capabilities of nuclear submarines.\nNautilus passes under the George Washington Bridge during a visit to New York Harbor in 1956\nNautilus returned to New London, Connecticut, on 21 July and departed again on 19 August for her first voyage of 2,226 kilometres (1,202 nmi; 1,383 mi) under polar pack ice. Thereafter, she headed for the Eastern Atlantic to participate in NATO exercises and conduct a tour of various British and French ports where she was inspected by defense personnel of those countries. She arrived back at New London on 28 October, underwent upkeep, and then conducted coastal operations until the spring.\nOperation Sunshine – under the North Pole\nEdit\nIn response to the nuclear ICBM threat posed by Sputnik , President Eisenhower ordered the US Navy to attempt a submarine transit of the North Pole to gain credibility for the soon-to-come SLBM weapons system. [9] On 25 April 1958, Nautilus was underway again for the West Coast, now commanded by Commander William R. Anderson , USN. Stopping at San Diego, San Francisco, and Seattle, she began her history-making polar transit, operation \"Sunshine\", as she departed the latter port on 9 June. On 19 June she entered the Chukchi Sea , but was turned back by deep drift ice in those shallow waters. On 28 June she arrived at Pearl Harbor to await better ice conditions. By 23 July her wait was over, and she set a course northward. She submerged in the Barrow Sea Valley on 1 August and on 3 August, at 2315 (EDT) she became the first watercraft to reach the geographic North Pole. [10] The ability to navigate at extreme latitudes and without surfacing was enabled by the technology of the North American Aviation N6A-1 Inertial Navigation System , a naval modification of the N6A used in the Navaho cruise missile. (The N6A-1 had been installed on Nautilus and Skate after initial sea trials on the USS Compass Island in 1957.) [11] From the North Pole, she continued on and after 96 hours and 1,590 nmi (2,940 km; 1,830 mi) under the ice, surfaced northeast of Greenland, having completed the first successful submerged voyage around the North Pole. The technical details of this mission were planned by scientists from the Naval Electronics Laboratory including Dr. Waldo Lyon who accompanied Nautilus as chief scientist and ice pilot.\nNavigator's report: Nautilus, 90°N, 19:15U, 3 August 1958, zero to North Pole.\nNavigation beneath the arctic ice sheet was difficult. Above 85°N both magnetic compasses and normal gyrocompasses become inaccurate. A special gyrocompass built by Sperry Rand was installed shortly before the journey. There was a risk that the submarine would become disoriented beneath the ice and that the crew would have to play \"longitude roulette\". Commander Anderson had considered using torpedoes to blow a hole in the ice if the submarine needed to surface[ citation needed ].\nThe most difficult part of the journey was in the Bering Strait. The ice extended as much as 60 feet (18 m) below sea level. During the initial attempt to go through the Bering Strait, there was insufficient room between the ice and the sea bottom. During the second, successful attempt to pass through the Bering passage, the submarine passed through a known channel close to Alaska (this was not the first choice as the submarine wanted to avoid detection).\nThe trip beneath the ice cap was an important boost to America as the Soviets had recently launched Sputnik, but had no nuclear submarine of their own. During the address announcing the journey, the president mentioned that one day nuclear cargo submarines might use that route for trade. [12]\nProceeding from Greenland to the Isle of Portland, England, she received the Presidential Unit Citation , the first ever issued in peace time, from American Ambassador J.H. Whitney, and then crossed the Atlantic reaching New London, Connecticut, USA on 29 October. Captain Anderson would also be awarded the Legion of Merit by Eisenhower. [9] For the remainder of the year Nautilus operated from her home port of New London.\nOperational history\nFile:USS Nautilus SSN-571 - 0857101.jpg\nFollowing fleet exercises in early 1959, Nautilus entered the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard in Kittery, Maine, for her first complete overhaul (28 May 1959 – 15 August 1960). Overhaul was followed by refresher training and on 24 October she departed New London for her first deployment with the Sixth Fleet in the Mediterranean Sea, returning to her home-port 16 December.\nNautilus operated in the Atlantic, conducting evaluation tests for ASW improvements, participating in NATO exercises and, during October 1962, in the naval quarantine of Cuba, until she headed east again for a two-month Mediterranean tour in August 1963. On her return she joined in fleet exercises until entering the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard for her second overhaul 17 January 1964.\nOn 2 May 1966, Nautilus returned to her homeport to resume operations with the Atlantic Fleet, and at some point around that month, logged her 300,000th nautical mile (560,000 km; 350,000 mi) underway. For the next year and a quarter she conducted special operations for ComSubLant and then in August 1967, returned to Portsmouth, for another year's stay. During an exercise in 1966 she collided with the aircraft carrier USS Essex on 10 November, while diving shallow. Following repairs in Portsmouth she conducted exercises off the southeastern seaboard. She returned to New London in December 1968.\nIn the spring[ when? ] of 1979, Nautilus set out from Groton, Connecticut on her final voyage under the command of Richard A. Riddell. She reached Mare Island Naval Shipyard of Vallejo, California on 26 May 1979, her last day underway. She was decommissioned and stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 3 March 1980.\nNoise\nEdit\nThe hull and superstructure of Nautilus vibrated sufficiently that sonar became ineffective at more than 4 knots (7.4 km/h; 4.6 mph) speed. [13] Also, noise generation is extremely undesirable in submarines as this makes the vessel vulnerable to detection. Lessons learned from this problem were applied to later nuclear submarines.\nAwards and commendations\n50px\nFor outstanding achievement in completing the first voyage in history across the top of the world, by cruising under the Arctic ice cap from the Bering Strait to the Greenland Sea.\nDuring the period 22 July 1958 to 5 August 1958, U.S.S. NAUTILUS, the world's first atomic powered ship, added to her list of historic achievements by crossing the Arctic Ocean from the Bering Sea to the Greenland Sea, passing submerged beneath the geographic North Pole. This voyage opens the possibility of a new commercial seaway, a Northwest Passage, between the major oceans of the world. Nuclear-powered cargo submarines may, in the future, use this route to the advantage of world trade.\nThe skill, professional competency and courage of the officers and crew of NAUTILUS were in keeping with the highest traditions of the Armed Forces of the United States and the pioneering spirit which has always characterized our country. [14]\nTo commemorate the first submerged voyage under the North Pole, all Nautilus crewmembers who made the voyage may wear a Presidential Unit Citation ribbon with a special clasp in the form of a gold block letter N (image above). [15]\nMuseum\nEdit\nNautilus was designated a National Historic Landmark by the United States Secretary of the Interior on 20 May 1982. [16] [17]\nShe was named as the official state ship of Connecticut in 1983. [18] Following an extensive conversion at Mare Island Naval Shipyard , Nautilus was towed back to Groton, Connecticut arriving on 6 July 1985. On 11 April 1986, Nautilus opened to the public as part of the Submarine Force Library and Museum . [10]\nNautilus now serves as a museum of submarine history, after undergoing a five-month preservation in 2002 at the Electric Boat division of General Dynamics, at a cost of approximately $4.7 million ($6.16 million in present-day terms [19] ). Nautilus attracts some 250,000 visitors annually to her present berth near Naval Submarine Base New London .\nNautilus celebrated the 50th anniversary of her commissioning on 30 September 2004 with a ceremony that included a speech from Vice Admiral Eugene P Wilkinson, the first Commanding Officer of Nautilus, and a designation of the ship as an American Nuclear Society National Nuclear Landmark.\nVisitors may tour the forward two compartments, with guidance from an automated system. Despite similar alterations to exhibit the engineering spaces, tours aft of the control room are not permitted due to safety and security concerns.\nNautilus is the subject of an episode of the syndicated television anthology series , The Silent Service, which aired during the 1957–1958 season.\nSee also", "THE NAUTILUS, FIRST NUCLEAR SUB\nCopyright © 2000-2014 The U.S. Navy Submarine Force Museum . All Rights reserved.\nI found myself somewhat sympathetic with that poor claustrophobic lady, and was a bit leery as I climbed down the thirty steps into the torpedo room.\nBut once coaxed below decks, claustrophobes find it amply spacious, their phobia back in its cage until next time.\nWe all look around in awe at how ingenious the interior design is.\nThe particular submarine about which I write is the NAUTILUS, now permanently docked in a special berth in Groton, CT.\nA small building-like structure is built where a forward hatch once opened. It keeps visitors and the sub's interior dry on rainy days. Stairs within it lead below decks. I'd been an avid sailor all my life, but that was always above the waves. This was decidedly different.\nNow taken for granted, nuclear power is to submarines what \"Warp Drive\" is to the starship Enterprise. As the first sub powered by nuclear fuel, she seemed a miracle at the time.\nThe stairs leading down into the Torpedo Room.\nCopyright © 2000-2014 The U.S. Navy Submarine Force Museum . All Rights reserved.\nPropeller heads of the PhD kind working at the Naval Reactors Branch of the Atomic Energy Commission figured out nuclear propulsion under the watchful eye of Captain (later Admiral) Hyman G. Rickover, USN.\nOnce theory was engineered into fact, Congress authorized the NAUTILUS’s construction in July of 1951.\nPresident Harry Truman actually laid her keel on June 14, 1952 at the Electric Boat Shipyard in Groton, Connecticut, across an inlet from where the sub is now moored.\nThough she saw no combat during the cold war, she did engage in secret missions. Besides being the first nuclear-powered sub, she was also the first ship to sail across the North Pole under its ice. It was a Top Secret mission. According to the sub's Web site (http://www.ussnautilus.org/), on August 3, 1958, her Commanding Officer, William R. Anderson, let the crew know about the historic moment they and their ship were creating. He read a short, famous announcement: \"For the world, our country, and the Navy; the North Pole.\"\nWhile he was thrilled to be the first to make such an improbable trip, the feat would remain unknown until after the NAUTILUS completed her mission and returned to base.\nOUTSTANDING ACHIEVEMENT\nFor its success, the NAUTILUS won a Presidential Unit Citation, which reads in part, \"For outstanding achievement in completing the first voyage in history across the top of the world, by cruising under the Arctic ice cap from the Bering Strait to the Greenland Sea.\"\n\"During the period 22 July 1958 to 5 August 1958, U.S.S. NAUTILUS, the world's first atomic-powered ship, added to her list of historic achievements by crossing the Arctic Ocean from the Bering Sea to the Greenland Sea, passing submerged beneath the geographic North Pole.\"\nCommanding Officer, William R. Anderson, who was the first to skipper a ship across the North Pole.\nCopyright © 2000-2014 The U.S. Navy Submarine Force Museum . All Rights reserved.\nIn 1959, she had her first major overhaul at the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard in Kittery, Maine, and after some training exercises, she set sail for the Mediterranean Sea and became a part of the U.S. Sixth Fleet.\nThe NAUTILUS logged over 300,000 miles underway, another record at the time, and served her country until March 3, 1980 when she was decommissioned. On May 20, 1982, the Secretary of the Interior granted the NAUTILUS National Historic Landmark status. She was towed from the Mare Island Shipyard back to Groton, where she is berthed now.\nIf you’re going to be visiting or going through the southeastern corner of Connecticut on a New England vacation, getaway or long weekend, I strongly advise making the stop in Groton to go aboard the NAUTILUS. It is a real treat, even for claustrophobics.\nTOURING THE SUB\nAs noted above once you reach the bottom of the stairs you’re in the torpedo room. The sub has six torpedo tubes and two Mk 14 torpedoes aboard on display. She was able to carry 24 when on mission.\nContinuing on, you find yourself in the first crew quarters area. Striking is how vertically close each bunk is over the one below it, but the bunks serve a dual purpose. The crew slept on thin mattresses, but they could lift their bunk to stow their personal effects.\nIn this room are ten bunks and privacy was had by drawing a curtain across the front of your bunk. When quarters are this intimate, privacy is nearly impossible anyway, but the curtains helped. In this section of the sub are toilets, sinks and a shower. To keep the space authentic, the Navy convinced ex-crew members to leave photos of wives, girlfriends and what have you taped to the walls. These can be found all over the ship.\nAs you go through the next bulkhead (a water-tight door) you’ll be in the Wardroom and Officer Stateroom. In the lexicon of the era, this was called \"Officer Country.\" Here, officers dined and socialized, and when the need arose, held meetings. On one wall are various dials that let the officers know the sub’s depth, speed and what course it was on.\nJust off the Wardroom are officer’s staterooms, in which there are three bunks, separate desks, and fold-up sinks.\nAfter of the Torpedo Room are ten berths, close together. The only privacy was a curtain submariners could pull to hide their bunks.\nCopyright © 2000-2014 The U.S. Navy Submarine Force Museum . All Rights reserved.\nCommanding and Executive Officer staterooms are across from the Wardroom. The one private room on the vessel was the commanding officer’s stateroom.\nAfter these rooms come the Attack Center and then the Con with two periscopes. The Navigation Center comes behind the Con, where the sub’s position could be tracked. Next is the Sonar Room. Here, crew members could listen for any contacts manifesting as echo-like pings and small dots on a black screen with concentric green circles.\nThe ESM (Electronic Surveillance Measures Center) has the gear needed to hear electronic messages coming from other vessels. It’s here that they make the sub \"invisible\" and are able to eavesdrop on the enemy’s transmissions.\nThe Con is where the sub's position can be tracked and in which there are two periscopes.\nCopyright © 2000-2014 The U.S. Navy Submarine Force Museum . All Rights reserved.\nThe Control Room is next and it’s beneath the Attack Center. It’s here that the controls for steering, diving and surfacing are placed. Orders from the Control Room are taken here by the Diving Officer, who passed orders along to the crew members at the helm and plane controls. Planes on a sub control the angle of descent or ascent.\nAft of the planesmen are the controls for the main ballast tanks, which, when filled with water, cause the sub to submerge. On the right-hand side of the Control Room is where the ship’s radio sits. Specially designed antennae were used when NAUTILUS was submerged.\nIn the crew’s Mess Area are tables at which crew members ate or socialized. Across from it are the quarters for the Chief Petty Officers, where they had a separate living area; a place where they could take it easy when not on watch.\nNOT THE IDEAL SPACE TO COOK FOR THE SUB'S SAILORS\nFinally, you find yourself in the ship’s Galley, better known to land lubbers as the kitchen. It’s small, cramped and enough to make the most patient cook crazy, but that speaks to the special breed of sailor who volunteered to serve on a submarine.\nThe galley is small, but meals are served every six hours to feed crew members who are just coming off duty.\nCopyright © 2000-2008 The U.S. Navy Submarine Force Museum . All Rights reserved.\nWhen you exit, you’ll learn that this is but one large exhibit in the U.S. Navy Submarine Force Museum. There’s much more to be seen in a separate building that harbors all manner of really fascinating exhibits about what life aboard a submarine was really like. The museum has done a magnificent job of collecting the items necessary to specifically guide you through the history of the submarine, and at the same time give you a rich education in these remarkable vessels. But that will be detailed in a future article.\nOutside the museum are displayed a number of submarines, including a two-man submarine similar to the one used by the Japanese at Pearl Harbor.\nWith it are The SS X-1, an experimental sub designed to work in shallow water and the Swimmer Delivery Vehicle (SDV), that took frogmen, usually Navy Seals, to enemy ships where they could place demolition devices on their hulls.\nIt was also here where we learned that Navy Seals aren’t named after the sea-and-land mammals who share the name. Rather, the word \"SEAL\" is an acronym for Sea-Air-Land.\nAll of the exhibits, inside, outside and the NAUTILUS herself provide an amazing panoply of information that is not to be missed. This is one museum complex that gives you not only the full story, but also the experience of actually being aboard a submarine with a very distinguished service record of important \"firsts.\"\nOUR FRIENDS\nLocated in one of America's most sensational, natural paradises, the Stoweflake Mountain Resort & Spa in Stowe, Vermont offers the ultimate, year-round vacation experience. With its celebrated world-class spa, luxurious accommodations, award-winning restaurants and friendly, attentive staff, the Stoweflake is unrivaled as New England's premier spa/resort destination.\nSince 1865, Mountain View has offered visitors a memorable experience. Following a $20 million restoration in 2002, the Mountain View once again welcomes guests in grand style with all the state of the art amenities that today's travelers expect from a Four-Diamond destination resort.\nINSIDE", "Ice at the North Pole in 1958 and 1959 – not so thick | Watts Up With That?\nWatts Up With That?\nThe world's most viewed site on global warming and climate change\nMenu\nAnthony Watts / April 26, 2009\nWhat would NSIDC and our media make of a photo like this if released by the NAVY today? Would we see headlines like “NORTH POLE NOW OPEN WATER”? Or maybe “Global warming melts North Pole”? Perhaps we would. sensationalism is all the rage these days. If it melts it makes headlines.\nSkate (SSN-578), surfaced at the North Pole, 17 March 1959. Image from NAVSOURCE\nSome additional captures from the newsreel below show that the ice was pretty thin then, thin enough to assign deckhands to chip it off after surfacing.The newsreel is interesting, here is the transcript.\n1958 Newsreel: USS Skate, Nuclear Sub, Is First to Surface at North Pole\nED HERLIHY, reporting:\nUSS Skate heads north on another epic cruise into the strange underseas realm first opened up by our nuclear submarines. Last year, the Skate and her sister-sub Nautilus both cruised under the Arctic ice to the Pole. Then, conditions were most favorable. The Skate’s job is to see if it can be done when the Arctic winter is at its worst, with high winds pushing the floes into motion and the ice as thick as twenty-five feet.\nTen times she is able to surface. Once, at the North Pole, where crewmen performed a mission of sentiment, scattering the ashes of polar explorer Sir Hubert Wilkins. In 1931, he was the first to attempt a submarine cruise to the Pole. Now, the Skate’s twelve-day three thousand mile voyage under the ice, shown in Defense Department films, demonstrates that missile-carrying nuclear subs could lurk under the Polar Ice Cap, safe from attack, to emerge at will, and fire off H-bomb missiles to any target on Earth.\nA powerful, retaliatory weapon for America’s defense.\nUSS Skate during an Arctic surfacing in 1959. (US Navy Photo)\nFrom John Daly:\nFor example, one crew member aboard the USS Skate which surfaced at the North Pole in 1959 and numerous other locations during Arctic cruises in 1958 and 1959 said:\n“the Skate found open water both in the summer and following winter. We surfaced near the North Pole in the winter through thin ice less than 2 feet thick. The ice moves from Alaska to Iceland and the wind and tides causes open water as the ice breaks up. The Ice at the polar ice cap is an average of 6-8 feet thick, but with the wind and tides the ice will crack and open into large polynyas (areas of open water), these areas will refreeze over with thin ice. We had sonar equipment that would find these open or thin areas to come up through, thus limiting any damage to the submarine. The ice would also close in and cover these areas crushing together making large ice ridges both above and below the water. We came up through a very large opening in 1958 that was 1/2 mile long and 200 yards wide. The wind came up and closed the opening within 2 hours. On both trips we were able to find open water. We were not able to surface through ice thicker than 3 feet.”\n– Hester, James E., Personal email communication, December 2000\nHere are some screencaps from the newsreel :\nNote the feet of the deckhand for thickness perspective\nIce going over the side after chipping\nIt was that way again in 1962:\nSeadragon (SSN-584), foreground, and her sister Skate (SSN-578) during a rendezvous at the North Pole in August 1962\nAnd of course then there’s this famous photo:\nBut contrast that to 1999, just 12 years later, lots of ice:\nUSS Hawkbill at the North Pole, Spring 1999. (US Navy Photo)\nBut in 1993, it’s back to thin ice again:\nUSS Pargo at the North Pole in 1993. (US Navy Photo)\nThe point illustrated here: the North Pole is not static, ice varies significantly. The Arctic is not static either. Variance is the norm.\nThere’s quite an interesting read at John Daly’s website , including a description of “the Gore Box”. Everybody should have one of those.\nh/t to WUWT commenters Stephen Skinner, Crosspatch, and Glenn.\nSee the Skate image archive at NAVSOURCE\nRate this:\n289 thoughts on “Ice at the North Pole in 1958 and 1959 – not so thick”\nGraeme Rodaughan\nApril 26, 2009 at 9:56 pm\nGee – Global warming must have been bad in the 1950’s, so many poor Polar Bears must have starved and drowned…\nIf only the Catlin team had been alive and active back then – they could have found plenty of thin ice…\nAEGeneral\nI love John Daly, God rest his soul. His was one of the first websites I ever found some years ago that refuted this nonsense.\nBleeding is so last week. If it’s green, it leads.\nJohn in NZ\nApril 26, 2009 at 10:03 pm\nGreat images.\nWithout images like these it would be easy for the Catlin explorers and others to say that open water at the pole is unusual.\nI have saved these images to show my friends.\nRobert Bateman\nWhatever happened to the days when we were treated to new vistas minus the agenda?\nSubs at the North Pole (wasn’t so bad, was it?), Mercury, Gemini, Apollo, Pioneer, Voyager.\nWhen Science delivered without the attendant sermon.\nWhat happened?\nIf it weren’t for the Rovers operating on Mars, we’d be S.O.L., and right now, Sol is out to lunch. So appears to be Earth Science.\nSure do miss NASA and JPL.\nRobert Bateman\nIf only the Catlin team had been alive and active back then – they could have found plenty of thin ice…\nThey ARE skating on thin ice, if the ARE there.\nLooking over the media blitz, it would be par for their agenda for monkeybusiness to be afoot.\nKath\nNice pictures. I wonder how Dr.Serreze of the NSIDC and other global warmists would attempt to explain this variability. They’ll probably fall back on the old “it’s the weather” excuse.\nClimate change: It’s natural.\nThat photo wasn’t “released by the NAVY today” – I have had it on my Arctic regional summary page for months: http://www.appinsys.com/GlobalWarming/RS_Arctic.htm\nREPLY: I discussed “what if”?…not that it was- Anthony\nRobert Bateman\nLooks like 1st year ice those subs were breaking through.\nAm I seeing that right?\nGraeme Rodaughan\nDoes Flanagan have an opinion on the above pictures?\nSo much open water at the North Pole in 1959?\nHow do you explain it?\nThis inquiring mind would like to be informed.\nLeon Brozyna\nApril 26, 2009 at 10:28 pm\nOh dear me. How ever will Al Gore handle this?\nI know! He’ll say the skeptics made it all up. These were photoshopped or even shot in a Hollywood Special Effects studio. That’s how he’ll do it.\nEverybody knows that the North Pole has never melted ever before. Everybody knows that Santa Claus lives at the North Pole in a big castle filled with merry little elves.\nAnd Catlin is getting ready for their third resupply flight. Now according to their website, there were only three resupplies planned. 43 days and 540+ km to the pole? I don’t think so. Not unless they’ve had a change of plan in the number of resupplies.\nApril 26, 2009 at 10:34 pm\nWell, it just goes to show how much warming human activity has caused. Where are the pictures of submarines at the north pole before the industrial revolution? Eh? Where are they? There are none. Not a single one. My case is proved.\nOnly since mankind has pursued its wicked desires for warm homes, clean water and plentiful food have submarines been able to surface at the north pole.\nAnd just look at the dates of these pictures – 1958, 1959, 1962, 1987, 1993 and 1999. More than 200 years of savage attack on mother nature’s fridge had already occurred, it’s hardly surprising the ice was thin enough for these dreadful machines to wreak their havoc.\nAnd what about the damage they did to the fragile, naturally balanced ice sheets as the submarines (designed, you might note in a distinctly phallic shape) thrust upwards and breached the delicate hymen that was all between natures virtue and man’s disgusting lusts? How long do you think it took for the broken ice to heal from this savage act of macho oppression?\nAll the efforts of those who really care about mother nature have been dedicated to trying to ease her pain yet nothing, nothing I say again, can restore the wounds created by such brutal aggression to the intimate soul of her being.\nYou seek to make a cheap point about the thickness of the ice having been less in the past than it is now? How dare you? What an affront to those who have dedicated their lives to profiting from carbon credits, ahem, sorry, I meant protecting mother nature’s virtue.\nYou should be ashamed of yourself Mr Watts.\nI need to take a cold shower now.\nThe faithful will probably say that those photos weren’t right at the pole, or that the pole had shifted to the equator, or that aliens made those photos in photoshop or something.\nG Alston\nApril 26, 2009 at 10:40 pm\nRobert Bateman — Looks like 1st year ice those subs were breaking through.\nAlthough on the surface the claim that multi-year ice is thicker sounds logical, is this really true? What seems logical may not be, e.g. thinking the earth must be closer to the sun is when we get summer sounds logical yet isn’t true. One would think that ice compacts and thickness in any area is as much a factor of local currents (or lack thereof) and such as much as anything else.\nGraeme Rodaughan\nLeon Brozyna (22:28:27) :\nOh dear me. How ever will Al Gore handle this?\nI know! He’ll say the skeptics made it all up. These were photoshopped or even shot in a Hollywood Special Effects studio. That’s how he’ll do it.\nNo way he can wriggle his way out of that one.\nThose pictures, I remember seeing them in Time or Life magazine 50 years ago. They may even have made the Huntley-Brinkley report, or a Walter Cronkite blurb.\nI remember when it happened.\nBillboard it. Spread it all over the place.\nFront page it.\nRun it all over the Internet.\nMake buttons for it.\nMake a moniker out of it:\nRemember the Skate.\nMake Al Gore eat it.\nBill Sticker\nAnd no run away positive feedbacks or worldwide flooding occurred each time the ice was that thin.\nrephelan\nApril 26, 2009 at 11:33 pm\nBill Sticker (22:55:30) :\nIsn’t there a record of a Chinese fleet finding the Arctic relatively ice free around 1276? Curse those medieval SUV’s!\nYou are referring to Gavin Menzies’ book “1421: The Year China Discovered America”. There are no actual records of a Chinese expedition to the pole, but Menzies makes an interesting circumstantial case for it. Unfortunately, a lot of the evidence he presents was also used by Erich von Daniken in “Chariots of the Gods”. Oddly enough, the evidence exists…. it just doesn’t speak for itself.\nF. Ross\nI was always a global warming sceptic,because of the poem that I was taught in school.I am not a poetry person,but this one struck a chord,and should be taught to every Australian child.It was written in 1906 by Dorothea MacKellar\nThe love of field and coppice,\nOf green and shaded Lanes,\nOf ordered woods and gardens,\nIs running in your veins;\nStrong love of grey-blue distance,\nBrown streams and soft, dim skies –\nI know but cannot share it,\nMy love is otherwise.\nI love a sunburnt country,\nA land of sweeping plains,\nOf ragged mountain ranges,\nOf drought and flooding rains,\nI love her far horizons,\nI love her jewel sea,\nHer beauty and her terror –\nThe wide brown land for me.\nThe tragic ring-barked forests\nStark white beneath the moon,\nThe sapphire-misted mountains,\nThe hot gold hush of noon.\nGreen tangle of the brushes\nWhere lithe lianas coil,\nAn orchids deck the tree-tops\nAnd ferns the crimson soil.\nCore of my heart, my country!\nHer pitiless blue sky,\nWhen sick at heart around us\nWe see the cattle die –\nBut then the grey clouds gather\nAnd we can bless again\nThe drumming of an army,\nThe steady, soaking rain.\nCore of my heart, my country!\nLand of the Rainbow Gold,\nFor flood and fire and famine,\nShe pays us back threefold;\nOver the thirsty paddocks,\nThe filmy veil of greenness\nThat thickens as we gaze.\nAn opal-hearted country,\nAll you who have not loved her,\nYou will not understand –\nThough Earth holds many splendours,\nWherever I may die,\nI know to what brown Country\nMy homing thoughts will fly.\nIt’s a poem that could be written today,and any time in the next 100 years.Nothing’s changed.\nGraeme Rodaughan\nAron (23:33:29) :\nAnd no run away positive feedbacks or worldwide flooding occurred each time the ice was that thin.\n(eye twitching uncontrollably) Of course not, the positive feedbacks are due to Man Made Emissions of CO2!!!. Dang it!!! And since CO2 had not yet peaked to the alarming levels that it has reached today, the positive feedbacks had not yet kicked in.\nThe ice melt back then was due to Man Made Emissions of CO2 that occurred prior to 1958 – haven’t you heard of the Industrial Revolution.\nNow don’t go on about the arctic freezing up between 1958 and 2000 – that’s just weather and the CO2 warming was stuck in the pipeline just waiting to boil out – like it is now….\nGaaaaaa – run away.\nApril 27, 2009 at 12:32 am\nObviously it was done by the same team that did “The Dark Side of the Moon”. It reckoned the man walking on the moon was done in a Hollywood Movie lot.\nCan we get better images so that they can be made into a computer wall paper. I would like to put it up on my computer. Fan bloody tastic!!\nStephen Daivs\nApril 27, 2009 at 12:43 am\nThe level to which you ignore basic facts is becoming more and more obvious as James Hester, crew member mentions (polynyas) and as Hester also mentions they were using sonar to find these areas. The Arctic (as I hope you know) is just floating ice, on average only a few meters thick, these areas can form even at the pole\nPolynyas are a phenomenon known for quite a long period of time, they are areas of open water that form (sometimes briefly) (sometimes in the same spot) they occur in both the Arctic and Antarctic sea ice.\nWhile I realize you are cherry picking this to support [snip], but as proof for that cause this is worth nothing.\nApril 27, 2009 at 12:49 am\nOn the recent blog on Dr Serreze you had a couple of critical posts from someone you referred to as birdman. When I was allowed to post on RealClimate (sadly I’m now banned for disagreeing) Bird Man gave me a roasting. It is very pleasing to see that you don’t ban and don’t roast this guy. But will he post on this blog as his post quoted Dr Seereze as saying\n“There is this thin first-year ice even at the North Pole at the moment,” says Serreze. “This raises the spectre – the possibility that you could become ice free at the North Pole this year.”\nI do so very much hope Bird MAn returns to make a comment on the ice free North Pole of some 50 years ago. However, I doubt he will.\nGerard\nRobert Bateman (22:07:02) :\n“Whatever happened to the days when we were treated to new vistas minus the agenda?”\nRead Eisenhowers last speech of 1961. Government became the leading funder of science. It’s that simple. And those who influence government with campaign contributions also provide endowments to Universities, so have say on what gets taught and researched.\nRichard Heg\nApril 27, 2009 at 12:59 am\nJust reading in wiki about the russian drifting ice stations which started in 1937, they must have a huge amount of data on ice pre satellite.\n“On average, an “NP” station is the host for 600 to 650 ocean depth measurements, 3500 to 3900 complex meteorology measurements, 1200 to 1300 temperature measurements and sea water probes for chemical analysis, 600 to 650 research balloon launches. Magnetic, ionosphere, ice and other observations are also carried out there. Regular measurements of the ice floe coordinates provide the data on the direction and speed of its drift.”\nthat is quite some information you have assembled there, Alan ! … thanks a lot … :-)\nAdam Soereg\nApril 27, 2009 at 1:59 am\nIt seems first year ice to me, and Mr. Serezze at NSIDC have said it: it is much more vulnerable and is expected to disappear in the summer melt season…\nLast year our friends at NSIDC said that the percentage of multi year ice in the Arctic reached a record low level, and this will lead to an ice-free North Pole in the summer of 2008. Of course they were wrong, but their obvious failure was completely ignored by the mainstream media. This year, they are trying to scare us with a record low level of first and second year ice. They don’t even mention the fast recovery of Arctic sea ice extent to near-normal levels. Let I guess, next year they will come out with an unprecedented low level of 1st, 2nd, and 3rd year ice.\nWhy do they put the Arctic sea ice anomaly chart to their main page for advocating purposes and try to hide the constantly above normal Antarctic ice from the public? If you are at the first time on their website, your chances to find any information from the current situation of Antarctic sea ice is not significantly different from zero. All in all, the NSIDC is lightyears away from the Neutral Point Of View.\nMore than a year ago I used to believe in this nonsense. Not anymore.\n-A former AGW believer from Hungary-\nRobert Bateman\nApril 27, 2009 at 2:06 am\nAlan Cheetham (22:21:05) :\nThat photo wasn’t “released by the NAVY today” – I have had it on my Arctic regional summary page for months:\nThe whole world saw those pictures the years they were taken.\nIt was a feat at the time. Neato. Boss. Swell. Gosh.\nLittle did we know how important they would turn out to be.\nSomebody deliver them to Congress with a TV camera & a microphone.\nLet’s see what expletives the world will now attach to them.\nRun it front page on the NY Times.\nHand them to George Will, Charles Gibson, Katie Couric, Martha Radich.\nWhat about it, Gore?\nenvirotex (00:50:13) :\nDon’t forget the magnetic North Pole moves (and quite fast.) Do we mean geographic or Magnetic?\nPiece of cake. Just dig up the original story that hit the TV, radio, newspapers and magazines. US bragging rights, and right up there with the space race and all the other FIRSTS of the time. We did stuff, and oh how we let the world know how advanced we were.\nAlan the Brit\nApril 27, 2009 at 2:16 am\nThis cannot be serious. It’s all a big lie. Now to debunk it.\nLet’s see, err……..I know, these weren’t actually taken at the north pole but many miles further south & was a publicity stunt! (I’ll think of some dumb reason for a stunt in a while)…errr……….the submarines all fired torpedos into the ice to break it up…. then used the uranium from their reactors to melt the remainder of the ice & scare away the polar bears that’s why you can’t see any! The three captains & their crews all lied about it, every one of them, as part of a cold war conspiracy to blame the Russians for melting it! errr……they aren’t real pictures but merely simulations on a laptop by those co-conspiritors all working for dirty oil Christopher Monckton, Richard Courtney, Richard Lindzen, Roy Spencer, Piers Corbyn, Stephen Wilde, et al especially all those at WUWT & anyone who went to the ICCC in March 09! errrr………….aliens melted the ice back in the 1950’s, & again in the 1980’s, no, no ,no that’s far too silly. Oh I know, a giant asteroid was on a collision course (yet again) with earth, these three intrepid submarine commanders were on a top secret mission to launch special surface-to-asteroid missiles that would deflect it away from civilisation, & they managed to knock it into the north pole, & they went there to make sure it was all gone & it had! Yes that’s the best one I think, far more plausible! What do you think Al Gorey? Got any better suggestions that you could use during your next bout of Senate testimoney? (I should be a screen writer – not!) BTW can I see three figures in the background pulling sledges in one area, a canoe in another, & a sailing boat on the horizon, all bearing union jacks? Hee hee!\nSeriously though, can I just copy these pictures without too much difficulty because I really would like to show them to one or two idoits I know?\nBarry Foster\nApril 27, 2009 at 2:31 am\nJust wanted to say how much I miss John Daly. His was the very first website I read on global warming after I converted from a believer. The sceptic cause lost a huge man when he died. Imagine the beating he’d be giving the warming-worriers today! I hope the relatives of Mr Daly appreciate how much we miss him.\nApril 27, 2009 at 2:44 am\nApologies for repeating a very relevant post I made several months ago. It illustrates that ‘history’ quickly becomes forgotten and that if the authorities make a detemined enough effort inconvenient history can be effectively erased.\n” Claims of unprecedented warmth and abnormal melting of meltic arctic ice are unfounded if we look at history;\n1 The following link describes the ancient cultures of the warmer arctic 5000 to 1000 years ago\n2 This relates to an Arctic culture thriving in warmer times 2000 years ago\nFrom the Eskimo Times Monday, Mar. 17, 1941\nThe corner of Alaska nearest Siberia was probably man’s first threshold to the Western Hemisphere. So for years archeologists have dug there for a clue to America’s prehistoric past. Until last year, all the finds were obviously Eskimo. Then Anthropologists Froelich G. Rainey of the University of Alaska and two collaborators struck the remains of a town, of inciedible size and mysterious culture. Last week in Natural History Professor Rainey, still somewhat amazed, described this lost Arctic city.\nIt lies at Ipiutak on Point Hope, a bleak sandspit in the Arctic Ocean, where no trees and little grass survive endless gales at 30° below zero. But where houses lay more than 2,000 years ago, underlying refuse makes grass and moss grow greener. The scientists could easily discern traces of long avenues and hundreds of dwelling sites. A mile long, a quarter-mile wide, this ruined city was perhaps as big as any in Alaska today (biggest: Juneau, pop. 5,700).\nOn the Arctic coast today an Eskimo village of even 250 folk can catch scarcely enough seals, whales, caribou to live on. What these ancient Alaskans ate is all the more puzzling because they seem to have lacked such Arctic weapons as the Eskimo harpoon.\nYet they had enough leisure to make many purely artistic objects, some of no recognizable use. Their carvings are vaguely akin to Eskimo work but so sophisticated and elaborate as to indicate a relation with some centre of advanced culture — perhaps Japan or southern Siberia —certainly older than the Aztec or Mayan.\n3 This link leads to the Academy of science report of the same year regarding the Ipiutak culture described above\nhttp://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1078291\n4 This refers to the Vikings living in a warmer arctic culture 1000 years ago\nPeople might be interested in reading a very interesting book about the Vikings called ‘The Viking world’. It is a very scholarly and highly referenced book running to some 700 pages and deals with all aspects of the Vikings. It is good because it does not have an axe to grind, but deals matter of factly with all aspects of Viking culture and exploration.\nThere is a large section on their initial exploration of Greenland, the subsequent establishment of their farms there, everyday life, how they gradually lost access to the outside world as the sea lanes closed through ice, a record of the last wedding held In Greenland and how trade dried up. It also deals with Vinland/Newfoundland and it seems that it was wild grapes that helped give the area its name, it being somewhat warmer than today.\nThis is one of a number of similar books that record our warmer and cooler past throughout the Northern Hermisphere. Al Gore wrote a good book in 1992 called ‘Earth in the Balance’ in which he explored the changing climate that devastated the civilisations in the Southern Hemishpere.\nThe book ‘The Viking World’ is Edited by Stefan Brink with Neil Price Published by Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 33315-3\nI suggest you borrow it from the local library as it costs $250!\n5 This refers to a warmer arctic 75 years ago recorded on Pathe newsreel by Bob Bartlett on the Morrisey during his journeys there in the 1920’s and 1930’s and reported in all the media.\nWednesday, 10th August 1932\nThe ship rolled heavily all night and continues to do so….\nThe glacier continues its disturbances. No real bergs break off but great sheets of ice slide down into the water and cause heavy seas. About noon, the entire face of the glacier, almost a mile in length and six or eight feet deep slid off with a roar and a rumble that must have been heard at some distance. We were on deck at the time for a preliminary report like a pistol shot had warned us what was coming. The Morrissey rolled until her boats at the davits almost scooped up the water and everything on board that was not firmly anchored in place crashed loose. But this was nothing to the pandemonium on shore. I watched it all through the glasses. The water receded leaving yards of beach bare and then returned with a terrific rush, bringing great chunks of ice with it. Up the beach it raced further and further, with the Eskimos fleeing before it. It covered all the carefully cherished piles of walrus meat, flowed across two of the tents with their contents, put out the fire over which the noonday meal for the sled drivers was being prepared, and stopped a matter of inches before it reached the pile of cement waiting to be taken up the mountain. Fortunately, in spite of heavy sea, which was running, the Captain had managed to be set shore this morning so he was there with them to help straighten out things and calm them down.”\nThe arctic has periodically warmed to greater amounts than today-there is adiutional data from the Rpyal society, The Hudson Bay co and many other souyrces illustrating that there seems to be a cycle of extensive warming every 80 years or so contauined within a longher cycle of melt and cold. A tiny reduction in ice extent since 1979 ( A high point in ice levels) is of no consequence if you look at the historical record of this region\nTonyb\nThis all goes to prove that Al Gore is living in the past !\nbtw – has anyone had trouble accessing NSIDC ?\nI have been tracking the current NH extent in anticipation of it intersecting the long term average anomly line, and just as it seems about to create some history…… WEBSITE GOES DOWN !\nNot sure if this is a local issue or not ?\nA. Longiv\nApril 27, 2009 at 3:54 am\nAl Gore and the North Pole. Interesting that Al Gore only allowed partial release of Arctic datas since he became Vice Presitent, although he had visited the North Pole already 1990, and has said in his book back in 1992 “that the polar cap plays such a crucial role in the world’s weather system”, (see: a recent comment ; ca. 23 April; Monkton – Al Gore):\n“We were crashing through that ice, surfacing, and I was standing in an eerily beautiful snowscape, windswept, and sparkling white, with the horizon defined by little hummocks, or ‘pressure ridges’ of ice that are pushed up like tiny mountains ranges when separate sheets collide. But here too, CO2 levels are rising just as rapidly, …As the polar air warms, the ice here will thin; and since the polar cap plays such a crucial role in the world’s weather system, the consequences of a thinning cap could be disastrous. ” More at: http://www.oceanclimate.de/ , referring to Al Gores North Pole visit (Gore, Al (Albert), (1992); “The Earth in Balance”, London, 1992.)\nA very impressive and far sighted work by the late John Daly.\nSteven Goddard\nApril 27, 2009 at 3:58 am\nThe Ice at the polar ice cap is an average of 6-8 feet thick\nThis blows away the crux of the alarmists arguments who have been claiming it is “supposed to be” twice that thick. The ice in those pictures is clearly first year ice.\nWalt Meier has told me that the ice in the early 1980s (at the beginning of the satellite record) was exceptionally thick.\nUbique of Perth, WA\nDidn’t Al Gore invent the submarine?\nak\nApril 27, 2009 at 4:04 am\n“Ice at the North Pole in 1958 and 1959 – not so thick?” lol – should be “Polynyas exist then as they do now”\n“The Ice at the polar ice cap is an average of 6-8 feet thick, but with the wind and tides the ice will crack and open into large polynyas (areas of open water), these areas will refreeze over with thin ice. We had sonar equipment that would find these open or thin areas to come up through”\nThe state of the Arctic Sea Ice is declining – in thickness and extent – even if the US Navy found some polynyas back in the 60’s. Judging by the comments in this thread: https://wattsupwiththat.com/2009/03/18/arctic-ice-thickness-measured-from-buoys/ , you guys will love the results found by the arctic ice buoys of the US Army.\n“Results from Rothrock et al. (1999) shows changes in ice thickness comparing submarine results from the 1958 through 1976 to results from the 1990’s. The results show that there was thinning at every point of comparison. The thinning averaged 40%, representing a decrease from about 3 m to less than 2 m (see figure below).”\n@vukcevic\nMany thanks for that link.\nOnce before I almost fell off my chair when reading a climate change article – this was when I first heard about the opinion polls that show pretty conclusively that the majority of ordinary people believe the warming is mostly natural.\nOnce again I almost fell off my chair while reading this report – ok, a slight exaggeration!\nThe Independent is one of the major UK national newspapers and as far as I know is completely pro-AGW. This news report is almost perfectly balanced and actually questions AGW in the light of past historical knowledge of solar activity and climate. The report also passes what I could call the Solar Activity Test.\nI have seen a number of documentaries and articles that discuss a possible cooling due to falling solar activity – I think one documentary was entitled ‘Saved by the Sun?’\nBut I noticed an extraordinary thing: not one of these mentioned a rather important fact, that the sun had been extraordinarily active during the 20th century. According to some scientists the sun was the most active for a few thousand years.\nIt’s obvious why this fact was suppressed. The spin was that the ‘disastrous’ warming was caused by CO2, but that the sun might come to our rescue by offsetting some of the warming. Of course, the other, and some might say blindingly obvious explanation is that the 20th century warming was caused by the overactive sun, and that now the sun has calmed down the world will start to cool. But of course that wouldn’t do, would it? If true then it means that CO2 has an insignificant role to play in climate change.\nThis article does state that solar activity was high in the 20th century, so it passes the test with flying colours.\nI know it may be wishful thinking, but I do get the sense that the tide is slowly turning in favour of the truth. And this article in a major UK newspaper is just one more sign of this.\nChris\nApril 27, 2009 at 4:25 am\nSubs at the north pole does not really mean much as the quote from James Hester shows, they picked thin or ice-free if possible areas to surface at. It does show the action of the ice and that ice-free areas are not unusual in the arctic.\nNon-icebreakers forcing the Northwest passage are much more telling because that can only be done when there is a significant decrease in ice over large areas. Of course that has been done a few times over the last 100 years. Question did any non-icebreakers make it though in 2007?\nApril 27, 2009 at 4:29 am\nAre there any newspaper types reading these posts? Is there anyone here that has a connection with a large newspaper that would publish a good article. Can we get a copy of the submarines at the pole newsreel to give to TV stations. I think the media is just about ready to take a look at this kind of stuff. Here is a chance to put together a terrific article with US Navy 1950s-60s, the British Navy 1817 etc showing global warming ranges of today as not unusual. I’m concerned as I can see there is a scurry to get expensive global warming policies in place -as they have in Europe with their cap and trade and hype. There is also a president that is “conciliatory” to the Old World malarkey and is greener than Kilarney. If they managed to pass the cap and trade stuff in North America then this cooling period would be seen as having been the result of these new policies even before a mole of CO2 had been bought and sold. Preaching to ourselves has had some spin off but I think we have to find a way to push the best stuff out there.\nCold Play\nApril 27, 2009 at 4:32 am\nCome on Guys we all know that the conditions prevailing previously was weather not climate?\nThese weather conditions have been going on for millions of years but the underlying trend and past records of Polar bear extinction demonstrate that the climate is changing.\nAre people really trying to say that numerous weather events are climate?\nUsing ambient moisture content readings from Scots pine and other proxies such as those I choose, I will be able to show for sure that the arctic ice being so thin in 1958, 1959 1936 and 1922 was due to CO2 emissions. In fact I don’t need to do any more research because the Hockey Stick Graph shows this warming.\nOn another point it is clear that the swine virus originating in Mexico is due to global warming and this is obvious.\nApril 27, 2009 at 5:06 am\n@TonyB,\nTony, I was fascinated by your reference to Ipiutak, which I had not come across before. Two references gave dates, one about 100BC, the other around the 6th century. The first date corresponds perfectly with the Roman Warm Period, the second with a significant warming that occurred between the Roman and Medieval Warm Periods (according to an ice core graph that I often refer to). According to the ice core, around the 7th century there was a cooling that was actually deeper than the LIA, and the MWP may have occurred as the climate bounced back from this sharp cooling.\nHere’s an interesting link:\nhttp://explorenorth.com/articles/billjones/ipiutak.html\nThe writer mentions several mysteries, for example the nearest source of wood being hundreds of miles away. He was clearly assuming that the climate was the same as today’s. If the climate were indeed warmer than today’s then most if not all of those mysteries are neatly explained.\nIt looks as if the Ipiutak can be added to the list of civilisations/cultures that prospered when the world was warm and died out when the world was cold.\nChris\nApril 27, 2009 at 5:24 am\nak (04:04:21) :\n“Ice at the North Pole in 1958 and 1959 – not so thick?” lol – should be “Polynyas exist then as they do now”\nak,\nThe title of the article is perfect and we don’t want to make it too complicated by using difficult scientific words like “Polynyas”.\nThat is because we want the “Incoming Director of the NSIDC to understand the story. We all like to see Dr. Mark Serreze succeed his career.\nUnfortunately, from his position as “Incoming Director of the NSIDC” made some remarks about the Arcic Sea Ice that left us with the conclusion that he was a little confused and mixed up some basic thermodynamics.\nIt could also be that he has mixed up the understanding of the words “warm and cold”. It happens and it is perfectly human to make a mistake.\nThat is why I am very pleased with this publication and I really hope Dr. Mark Serreze\ngets a chance to read it.\nIt would be a shame if the “Incoming Director of the NSIDC would become the “Outgoing Director of the NSIDC” only because of such a miner issue of understanding.\nSo, just for the record Dr. Mark Serreze, if you get a chance to read this, just repeat after me:\nCold is not warm and warm is not cold.\nWarm = water\nExcept in the Arctic Region where:\ncold + water + wind + sea currents = dynamic circumstances + Dr. Mark Serreze =\nNO PANIC\nNow if Dr. Mark Serreze will concentrate on last remark, I am sure he will be a fine director.\nYou see how easy it is to help some people.\nalex verlinden\nhttp://www.arcticwebsite.com/WhaleNativeBoat.html\nIn terms of sea ice thickness, there is data from the Canadian Ice Service of sea ice monitoring at various communities across the Arctic that goes back to 1947. This would be coastal sea ice versus north pole pack ice but here is Alert and Eureka Canada where ice thickness has been measured basically once a week since 1947. The NSIDC ice movement maps say this area has the most multi-year ice remaining so it is the anomaly now.\nSome ups, some downs, maybe a little down recently but still difficult to tell.\nArn Riewe\nApril 27, 2009 at 6:01 am\nBarry Foster (02:31:10) :\n“Just wanted to say how much I miss John Daly. His was the very first website I read on global warming after I converted from a believer. The sceptic cause lost a huge man when he died. Imagine the beating he’d be giving the warming-worriers today! I hope the relatives of Mr Daly appreciate how much we miss him.”\nAmen!\nFor those that have not seen the John Daly info, it’s an excellent resource for Arctic infomation. Worthy of reading and bookmarking.\nAll that is missing is an apology from the apologist here.\nBut has not the 30 percent decrease happened since 1979?\nIan L. McQueen\nApril 27, 2009 at 6:48 am\nAlan the Brit (02:16:23) wrote:\n“Seriously though, can I just copy these pictures without too much difficulty because I really would like to show them to one or two idiots I know?”\nAlan-\nhttp://wisdom-soft.com/products/screenhunter_free.htm\nYou can download (free!!) ScreenHunter software that will let you screen capture whatever is showing on your screen (or parts thereof). I have been using it for months with great satisfaction. (On the rare occasion that it doesn’t go to the screen that you want, right click and try again. That cancels that attempt withot a blank exposure.) You can then e-mail whatever you copy.\nIan in Canada [[email protected]]\nApril 27, 2009 at 6:50 am\nGreat and informative post!\nHowever, is the first photo really of the Skate surfacing at the Pole on 17 March 1959? Or is it really just a file photo, taken elsewhere on another date, of the Skate, which surfaced at the Pole on 17 March 1959?\nIf the photo was really taken during the last week of winter, why is there so little ice in comparison with the other photos, many of which were taken in mid-summer? According to Hester’s account, the sub had to break through 2 feet of ice to do a winter surfacing. I see the ice in other photos, but not in this one.\nREPLY: There is ice floating in the water, look carefully. – Anthony\nEnduser\nvukcevic (03:08:45) :\nFrom today’s Independent:\n“This is the quietest Sun we’ve seen in almost a century,” says NASA solar scientist David Hathaway. But this is not just a scientific curiosity. It could affect everyone on Earth and force what for many is the unthinkable: a reappraisal of the science behind recent global warming.\nhttp://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/the-missing-sunspots-is-this-the-big-chill-1674630.html\nThe Independent article article mentions that a .01 change in sun irradiance equals 1.3 watts pr meter squared of energy, yet the Goddard Institute for Space Studies states that greenhouse gasses only cause an increase of energy of .035 watts per meter squared. http//data.giss.nasa.gov.gisstemp.2008\nWow! 1.3 versus .035. that means that the sun has 1.3/.035=35 times the global warming potential as all of the permanent greenhouse gasses put together.\nDouglas DC\n“All that is missing is an apology from the apologist here.\nBut has not the 30 percent decrease happened since 1979?” -Gerald Machnee\n“Comparison of sea-ice draft data acquired on submarine cruises between 1993 and 1997 with similar data acquired between 1958 and 1976 indicates that the mean ice draft at the end of the melt season has decreased by about 1.3 m in most of the deep water portion of the Arctic Ocean, from 3.1 m in 1958–1976 to 1.8 m in the 1990s.” – http://psc.apl.washington.edu/thinning/Rothrock_Thinn.pdf\nSince this paper provides data from the US Navy subs, not just anecdotal pictures, could it be added to the original post for all to see? The timeframe of the study is comparable to that of the original post. The anecdotal evidence of showing the subs in polynyas might mislead readers to think that all the ice in the region was of the same thickness, where in reality, these spots were specifically sought so as not to damage the subs. Thanks.\nDavid Porter\nThe NSIDC has been down now for at least 30 hours. [snip – baseless accusation]\nJohn Galt\nApril 27, 2009 at 7:50 am\nI’m convinced that most of the world, including scientists of all fields, get their conception of the North Pole from Hollywood.\nRemember the film ‘Ice Station Zebra’? The ice was portrayed as several feet thick, a uniform plain of white stretching as far as the eye can see. There was no gaps or open water, no ridges, just a vast expanse of ice and snow drifts.\nPeople believe the Arctic ice cap to be a stable mass of ice, as if it just sits there, unmoving, forever. The believe it only melts around the edges and don’t understand how the ice drifts and flows from Alaska towards Greenland and Iceland.\nAGW alarmists play upon this ignorance. Scientists who know better but do not correct the misreporting of the popular media are doing no favor to their profession.\njgfox\nApril 27, 2009 at 8:11 am\nrephelan (23:33:35) :\nYou are referring to Gavin Menzies’ book “1421: The Year China Discovered America”. There are no actual records of a Chinese expedition to the pole, but Menzies makes an interesting circumstantial case for it. Unfortunately, a lot of the evidence he presents was also used by Erich von Daniken in “Chariots of the Gods”. Oddly enough, the evidence exists…. it just doesn’t speak for itself.\nI think I saw an HC show about this, where they were looking for evidence of chinese ships on the US west coast. Which is fine, except they were relying on dowsing to find them. They didn’t find anything…\nRobert Rust\nApril 27, 2009 at 8:17 am\nProbably the best short video of a US sub breaking through the polar ice is on the Stargate SG1 straight to DVD movie, Continuum, with a special feature of how they shot the sub breaking through the ice on cue.\nThere IS some merit to the “cherry picking” claim by the warmists over the US subs at the North Pole, because those “Polynyas” perhaps were used in preference to more icy areas nearby. The “ice free North Pole” claim is to have vast stretches of the polar region ice free (less than 15% ?) and we’ll know that when we see it. I don’t think anyone can make the claim that vast stretches of the North Pole have been ice free yet, BUT at the same token, I don’t think that event will happen anytime soon, either.\nFurthermore, we all can guess that the “ice free North Pole” is rhetoric more than it is practical, due to the angle of incidence at 90deg anyway. It would take one hell of a stormy season to push that much ice out of the polar region in order to get that much free ice area so as to really make all that much difference in the direct solar forcing of the Arctic ocean.\nSomething I’ve not seen as yet when reading these Arctic ice threads — We’ve all seen the animated ice graphics, of how the ice flows past the eastern coast of Greenland, out into the Atlantic Ocean. The river of ice flowing always seems the same from year to year, covering approximately the same area, but I would hazard a guess that perhaps when the Arctic is very stormy, and the ice is really pushed toward and around the east coast of Greenland, the speed (and thus area/volume) of ice physically pushed out of the Arctic is perhaps markedly different from year to year. Perhaps significantly so. Has this ever been quantified?\nKath\nApril 27, 2009 at 8:17 am\nI fear that revisionism is alive and well today. In George Orwell’s 1984, Winston was employed by the Ministry of Truth to revise history to ensure that Big Brother’s predictions remain accurate. Today, inconvenient truths like the submarine photos, will be ignored or twisted by the AGW revisionists to ensure that current doctrine is maintained and “accurate”.\nDavid Porter\nGeorge Carlin has a message with more clarity than Algore and his acolytes. George’s language is interspersed with vulgarity but is basic common sense applied to Nature and the planet Earth.\n—————————————————————\nGeorge Carlin on Global Warming\nKarl Koehler\nApril 27, 2009 at 8:36 am\nFirst I’d like to echo the admiration expressed for John Daly. One of the pioneer sceptics who relentlessly posed credible comon sense questions to the AGW community; many of which have yet to be answerred in kind. He is missed.\nSecond a question: what’s the funny little bump in the ASMR-E Sea Ice Extent graph that occurs frequently around June 1?\nLuke\nREPLY: Perhaps the NAVY can help, even if we throw out that photo, there are others listed that support the same idea. – Anthony\nTed Clayton\nApril 27, 2009 at 8:53 am\nThis is another reason why the military makes it their business to know so much more about Arctic ice than the civilian sector: Open leads and polynyas are critical strategic resources.\nHe who knows the whereabouts and behavior of opportunities to surface through the ice – or equivalently, to move men & equipment across the surface unimpeded – holds a decisive ‘comman and control’ advantage over the competition.\nTo function as a global power today (and for decades now) it is vital to know where openings are in the ice, on a near real-time, continuous basis.\nIt’s not just a matter of scientific interest to know how, when & where openings occur in the Arctic icecap, but a matter of security at the highest level.\nIt is no accident or mere indulgence, that among the first & most important missions of nuclear submarines, was to demonstrate their value in understanding how to exploit the Arctic realm. These pictures that have been released were as much for the benefit of the Soviets etc, as they were for the curious publics in America & Britain.\nGreat collection of pics, WUWT – thanks!\narctic-astronomy\nThere are two easily-accessible references, which describe the surfacing of the USS Skate at the North Pole on the 17th March 1959 (the first submarine to do so):\n*\nCalvert, J.F., 1959. Up through the ice of the North Pole, The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. CXVI, No. 1, July 1959, pp. 1-41.\n*\nCalvert, J., 1996. Surface at The Pole, Bluejacket Books (originally printed by McGraw-Hill, 1960).\nand which say:\n* That the sun was still below the horizon and it was quite dark (it did not appear until 19 March):\nThe sun was still just below the horizon and a very heavy overcast made for late twilight darkness\n* That the weather was terrible:\n*\nthe wind ….. was roaring around us at about 30 knots, blowing the snow until one could see no more than a quarter of a mile\n*\nThe swirling snow loomed around the red torches\n*\nin the 26-below-zero cold….. The wind blew snow into our noses and mouths, and it was difficult to talk or even breathe\n*\nThe wind and bitter cold made it physically difficult to hold and read the prayer book\n*\nthe gale was increasing and the temperature dropping\n*\nBoth sides of the lead were piled with the heaviest and ruggedest hummocks I had yet seen in the Arctic. It was a wild and forbidding scene\nRichard M\nApril 27, 2009 at 9:01 am\nEnduser (07:04:56),\nThe GISS chart (the fig. 4 you mentioned) shows total solar forcing at .2 w/m2. That is quite a difference from your calculation. Do you know why?\nApril 27, 2009 at 9:04 am\nThank you! Thank you! Thank you! for posting those old Navy pictures. I’m 61 years old and remember seeing some of those pictures in news magazines in the past. I have some good friends my same age who are absolutely convinced that the polar ice is melting, that the polar bears are going extinct and that Manhattan Island, the Maldives and Florida will soon be inundated. They have completely bought the media hype, and no amount of contradictory evidence can get them to change their minds. These pictures are the best visual evidence of the AGW hoax I have seen. Believe me, I will be forwarding these pictures to quite a few people.\nksspyder\nApril 27, 2009 at 9:05 am\nModels are great at forecasting the past – something I learned from modeling population and energy usage. Biggest factor in modeling was the outlier, data that doesn’t fit – or in my case – when the biggest manufacturer shut down.\nSeems to me that an accurate summer ice at the pole model would include temperature. Extreme cold dries out the atmosphere. As the earth is inclined about 22 degrees toward the sun, photons [fancy word for energy] striking the ice would cause it to sublimate more – sort of like evaporation – and thin the ice. The ice would thin from the top down.\nSublimation is no mystery. But it is counterintuitive to some.\nWhen the ice ages covered the earth [relatively speaking], the most ice free zones were directly in front of the floe [sp] . The air was desiccated and vast drifts of wind blown soil built up – leaving hills hundreds of feet thick – Loess. Again – counterintuitive – but shows how a model builder using certain presumptions, can model the wrong thing. Desiccation is not a mystery.\nIceberg calving from glaciers. Hopefully every grade school student has learned that the proportion of ice below the sea’s surface is huge in an iceberg. Glacier Iceberg calving is merely the force of gravity breaking ice that is not supported enough by the strength of frozen freshwater in its bulk while flowing into saltwater that tends to melt away the bottom of the birthing berg. The modeling has to take into account snow fall versus temperatures and the specific ocean bed conditions at the glacier front. Does the modeler then confuse the long-term snowfall conditions with the formation of sea ice at the North Pole? The two are counter-intuitively not related.\nTom\nFinal sentence in ksspyder comment should more plainly say – the interplay between snowfall over decades of time on glaciers and the formation of sea ice is not intuitive.\nDavid Ball\nApril 27, 2009 at 9:28 am\nak, you must look at the dates of the submarine data. The initial measure was taken in October, and subsequent measure taken in September,etc. It will show the ice to be thinner, of course, due to seasonal variation. Most people don’t realize that an area the size of the U.S. melts and freezes every year. TonyB mentioned the Hudson’s Bay records ( they go back almost 400 years) , which indicate a cyclical variation in ice extent and thickness. These are accurate records for their lives and livelihood depended on good data. This leads me to believe that we are well within naturally occurring variations of the polar ice. We live on a planet where water can exist in all three states at any given time. With a climate that is as complex as earths ( think of all the variables), there is going to be fluctuation in ice extent, thickness, movement due to winds, water temperature, salinity. The list goes on. You have to ignore a great deal of paleoclimate evidence to say that we are “outside” this natural variation.\nBook burning.\nHowever, the entire world + dog would know what happened & why.\nTherefore, the agendists will try to bury and ignore the Skate & Seadragon at the North Pole in the late 50’s early 60’s.\nJohn D\nApril 27, 2009 at 10:01 am\nCome up with pictures of subs poking up through the SOUTH POLE and you may have a shot at getting attention form the mainstream media.\nREPLY: Actually, following Waxman’s lead, there’s probably pictures of subs poking up through the Arctic tundra. ;-) Anthony\nAlan the Brit\nApril 27, 2009 at 10:08 am\nIan L. Mcqueen;-)\nDone thanks. It seems to have been a security filter issue at my end but thanks for the tip!\nAtB\nApril 27, 2009 at 10:31 am\nKath (08:17:56) : I fear that revisionism is alive and well today. . . . revise history to ensure that Big Brother’s predictions remain accurate”\nJames Hansen has done this. Scott Pelley on 60 Minutes yesterday introduced Hansen as “NASA’s top climate scientist, credited with the earliest and most accurate projections on climate change.”\nI recall Hansen’s 1988 testimony before Congress in which he predicted a warmer climate by 1.2°C in twenty years. Here in 2009, the global average is only 0.17 to 0.22°C warmer than the 20th Century benchmark. He then had the audacity to publish a paper with himself as the lead author extolling the virtues of the accuracy of his 1988 projections. Looking back, none of his three scenarios came even within 50% of being accurate, yet the ya-hoos over at RealClimate.org insist Hansen was and is spot on.\nApril 27, 2009 at 10:35 am\nEnduser (07:04:56) :\n“Wow! 1.3 versus .035. that means that the sun has 1.3/.035=35 times the global warming potential as all of the permanent greenhouse gasses put together.”\nAnthony/Steve:\nI’ve been trying to get everyone to stop looking up at the sun for a minute and take a look where the sun gets some assistance from the earth’s interior:\nhttp://esrc.stfx.ca/pdf/halifaxtalk.pdf :\n“Canada’s geothermal database indicate that the ground heat flux has increased an average of 24 mW/m2 over the last 200years. Application of this method to the global geothermal data base allowed for a quantification of the global ground energy balance at the Earth’s surface for the past few centuries. Preliminary global ground surface temperature and surface heat\nflux histories indicate that the Earth’s continents have warmed by about 0.5 K and received an additional 26 mW/m2 of energy in the last 100 years.”\nEveryone appears to have dismissed the heat flux as too small. The average is small but take a look at the next link and you will see that it is quite high in certain places – particularly in the pacific where El Nino lives. Looking at the east pacific heat flux anomally (scroll down to the maps) and imagine the currents converging on the equator and gathering up this hot band into a narrow band along the equator. :\nEnduder: quoting from the link: “…ANNUAL GROWTH RATE {upper case mine} of climate forcing by long-lived greenhouse gases (GHGs) slowed from a peak close to 0.05 W/m2 PER YEAR {upper case mine} year around 1980-85 to about 0.035”\nIt would help if everyone would read things carefully before responding.\nJohnT\nApril 27, 2009 at 11:06 am\nNews Flash!! Dateline September 25, 1957, Wednesday\nU.S. Cutters Conquer Northwest Passage; 3 Coast Guard Craft First of the Nation to Make Transit CUTTERS CONQUER ARCTIC PASSAGE Canadian Ship on 2d Voyage Spar Assists Freighter\nBy JOHN H. FENTON Special to The New York Times.U.S. Coast Guard\nSeptember 25, 1957, Wednesday\nPage 1, 811 words\nBOSTON, Sept. 24–Two Coast Guard cutters were saluted in Boston Harbor today at the end of a successful mission to find a practical Northwest Passage–a route around the top of the North American Continent. …\nHere is the link to the NYT article.\nMike86, sharp eyes, but that’s not what I’m looking for. I’m surprised nobody noticed this other feature before now.\nstorky\nApril 27, 2009 at 11:25 am\nThe North Pole is NOT the center of the Arctic Ice Pack. The majority of the Arctic Ice Pack is on the Pacific side of the pack – typically as far south as 65° latitude. That side of the pack is protected from warm water currents by the Aleutian Islands as well as the Bering Straight.\nThe Atlantic approach to the Arctic Ice Pack, however, is exposed to the warm water currents of the Thermohaline Circulation. Extending north and east from the Gulf Stream, the North Atlantic Drift reduces ice and provides a path toward the Pole as far north as latitude 85°. Because of its proximity to the warmest edge of the ice field, ice at the North Pole is frequently thin and occasionally open.\nSorry folks, this information doesn’t contradict evidence of retreating polar sea ice or Global Warming. Perhaps you should research your subjects more thoroughly.\nAron\nApril 27, 2009 at 11:31 am\nstorky,\nPlease get up to speed on this. No one is questioning global warming. The planet has been warming since the glaciers retreated 11,000 years ago at the end of the last great Ice Age.\nAnd as you can see in this chart, global sea ice extent has broken above its long term average: click\nJason Calley\nApril 27, 2009 at 11:31 am\nre the Hawkbill, do you mean the position of the sun? If it were the first day of spring, it would be on the horizon, but this could be in late spring. Hard to tell the scale and exactly how high in the sky the Sun is.\nak\nApril 27, 2009 at 11:34 am\nDavid Ball, The data used from the 50’s and 60’s spans July-October. The seasonal change was taken into account. Effectively, they reduced the thickness of the old ice and today, it’s still 40-50% thinner!\nYou can’t disagree though, that actually looking at the data collected on these trips (beautiful photos btw) is much more illuminating than just the photos themselves!\nAron\nEarth Day 1970. Then and Now.\nEarth Day 1970 Quotes.\nDemographers agree almost unanimously on the following grim timetable: by 1975 widespread famines will begin in India; these will spread by 1990 to include all of India, Pakistan, China and the Near East, Africa. By the year 2000, or conceivably sooner, South and Central America will exist under famine conditions….By the year 2000, thirty years from now, the entire world, with the exception of Western Europe, North America, and Australia, will be in famine.\n• Peter Gunter, professor, North Texas State University\nWe have about five more years at the outside to do something.\n• Kenneth Watt, ecologist\nCivilization will end within 15 or 30 years unless immediate action is taken against problems facing mankind.\n• George Wald, Harvard Biologist\nWe are in an environmental crisis which threatens the survival of this nation, and of the world as a suitable place of human habitation.\n• Barry Commoner, Washington University biologist\nPopulation will inevitably and completely outstrip whatever small increases in food supplies we make. The death rate will increase until at least 100-200 million people per year will be starving to death during the next ten years.\n• Paul Ehrlich, Stanford University biologist\nBy…[1975] some experts feel that food shortages will have escalated the present level of world hunger and starvation into famines of unbelievable proportions. Other experts, more optimistic, think the ultimate food-population collision will not occur until the decade of the 1980s.\n• Paul Ehrlich, Stanford University biologist\nIt is already too late to avoid mass starvation,\n• Denis Hayes, chief organizer for Earth Day\nScientists have solid experimental and theoretical evidence to support…the following predictions: In a decade, urban dwellers will have to wear gas masks to survive air pollution…by 1985 air pollution will have reduced the amount of sunlight reaching earth by one half….\n• Life Magazine, January 1970\nAt the present rate of nitrogen buildup, its only a matter of time before light will be filtered out of the atmosphere and none of our land will be usable.\n• Kenneth Watt, Ecologist\nAir pollution…is certainly going to take hundreds of thousands of lives in the next few years alone.\n• Paul Ehrlich, Stanford University biologist\nWe are prospecting for the very last of our resources and using up the nonrenewable things many times faster than we are finding new ones.\n• Martin Litton, Sierra Club director\nBy the year 2000, if present trends continue, we will be using up crude oil at such a rate…that there wont be any more crude oil. Youll drive up to the pump and say, `Fill ‘er up, buddy, and hell say, `I am very sorry, there isnt any.\n• Kenneth Watt, Ecologist\nDr. S. Dillon Ripley, secretary of the Smithsonian Institute, believes that in 25 years, somewhere between 75 and 80 percent of all the species of living animals will be extinct.\n• Sen. Gaylord Nelson\nThe world has been chilling sharply for about twenty years. If present trends continue, the world will be about four degrees colder for the global mean temperature in 1990, but eleven degrees colder in the year 2000. This is about twice what it would take to put us into an ice age.\n• Kenneth Watt, Ecologist\nChris Wright\nThanks for your kind comment on my 04 22 47. You then went on to say;\n“According to the ice core, around the 7th century there was a cooling that was actually deeper than the LIA, and the MWP may have occurred as the climate bounced back from this sharp cooling.”\nYou may be interested in this document that relates closely to your cooling reference and includes the remarkable contemporary observation as follows;\n“One huge iceberg crushed the wharf at the Acropolis, close to the tip of Constantinople’s peninsula, and another extremely large one hit the city wall, shaking it and the houses on the other side, before breaking into three large pieces; it was higher than the city walls.”\nAnyway, here is a detailed extract with the link given at the end.\n“On the Continent eighth-century minor annals record the severe winter in the\narea from which they drew their information, Austrasia. This was the power center of the new Carolingian dynasty around the Meuse and Moselle rivers and west of the Rhine. In this region that “worst freeze” began on 14 December 763 and continued until 16 March 764.32 A generation later, the royal court still remembered the winter for its unprecedented bitter cold. About that time someone in the same or a related milieu wrote up the most detailed record, in the Chronicon Moissiacense. It observes under the year 762 that the freeze reached as far as the western provinces of the Byzantine Empire:\n“A great freeze oppressed the Gauls, Illyricum and Thrace and, wasted by the freeze, many olive and fig trees withered; the sprouts of the crops withered, and in the following year, hunger oppressed these regions very severely, such that many people died from scarcity of bread.”\nIn response to the Frankish king’s request for news about the papal and royal\nambassadors whose return from Byzantium he had expected earlier, Pope Paul I protested that “it has assuredly not escaped you that because of the very cruel harshness of this winter season, no one is coming from those parts” with news of the envoys. In fact, the pope’s unusually specific expression of relief that the king himself, the queen, and their three children were “healthy and safe and unharmed” probably reflects the receding terrors of that extreme winter.\nThe special processions that King Pippin enjoined on the bishop of Mainz for God’s mercy for “the great and marvelous consolation and abundance of the fruit of the earth” after the terrible “tribulation for our sins” surely reflects the return to normalcy in 765. The economic impact on the Carolingian kingdom was serious enough to force Pippin to suspend his long-standing effort to conquer Aquitaine.\nSome 2,000 kilometers to the southeast, a well-informed observer at Constantinople recorded that great and extremely bitter cold settled on the Byzantine Empire and the lands to the north, west (confirming the Chronicon Moissiacense’s statement concerning Illyricum and Thrace), and east. The north coast of the Black Sea froze solid 100 Byzantine miles out from shore (157.4 km). The ice was reported to be 30 Byzantine “cubits” deep, and people and animals could walk on it as on dry land.38 Drawing on the same lost written source, another contemporary, the patriarch of Constantinople, Nicephorus I, emphasized that it particularly affected the “hyperborean and northerly regions,” as well as the many great rivers that lay north of the Black Sea.39 Twenty cubits of snow accumulated on top of the ice, making it very difficult to discern where land stopped and sea began, and the Black Sea became unnavigable. In February the ice began to break up and\nflow into the Bosporus, entirely blocking it.\nTheophanes’ account recalls how, as a child, the author (or his source’s author) went out on the ice with thirty other children and played on it and that some of his pets and other animals died. It was possible to walk all over the Bosporus around Constantinople and even cross to Asia on the ice. One huge iceberg crushed the wharf at the Acropolis, close to the tip of Constantinople’s peninsula, and another extremely large one hit the city wall, shaking it and the houses on the other side, before breaking into three large pieces; it was higher than the city walls. The terrified Constantinopolitans wondered what it could possibly portend.\nAt 66 ppb, the spike in the GISP2 sulfate deposit on Greenland dated 767 is\nthe highest recorded for the eighth century (see Fig. 5) and shows that this terrible winter in Europe and western Asia was connected with a volcanic aerosol that left marked traces on Greenland.\nhttp://www.medievalacademy.org/pdf/Volcanoes.pdf\nI think modern people in their air conditioned cars or centrally heated homes believe that climate is relatively constant and forget that throughout our history we continually experience extremes of heat and cold caused by entirely natural forces.\nThis is nowhere better illustrated than in the climate references from the Byzantine Empire 383 to 1453AD which includes considerable detail on the events described above, and provides drawings of the various irrigation systems devised to beat the droughts during warm times, and the famine that ensued during cold times. It is remarkable to think that the Holy Roman Empire can still teach modern man a thing or two-in this case that there is nothing new- climatically-under the sun.\nTonyb\nRichard M (09:01:00) :\nEnduser (07:04:56),\nThe GISS chart (the fig. 4 you mentioned) shows total solar forcing at .2 w/m2. That is quite a difference from your calculation. Do you know why?\nThere is something odd about that graph. On the left, if you look between the blue lines, you see a difference of close to 1.5 watts/m^2, yet on the left of the graph, NSIDC added the notation “Solar forcing; .20 W/M^2.”\nI do not know how 1.5 W/M^2 of increased irradiance translates into .20 W/M^2 of “solar forcing.” Someone wish to elucidate?\nRichard Sharpe\njorgekafkazar says:\nYou’re getting closer, Jason Calley. And you don’t need to know the date.\nHmmm, is that land in the background off to the left? How far from land is the NP, anyway?\nBob\nApril 27, 2009 at 12:14 pm\nThe North pole is located over the Arctic Ocean. The sea ice is free to drift around on the wind and current. Sea ice thickness and distribution must be followed over the course of several decades before an accurate picture of climate can be deduced. Sea ice has been declining in average range and and average thickness since constant satellite monitoring began more than 2 decades ago. Politicians and interest groups can spin this anyway they like, but the facts are the facts.\nBTW, the sun in the pictures in the above articles looks to be about 30 degrees above the horizon. The sun a maximum of 23 degrees above the horizon at the geographic pole on or about June 20. Perhaps the pictures were taken at lower latitudes in the Arctic and the authors of the articles just forgot to mention that.\nFuelmaker\nApril 27, 2009 at 12:15 pm\nThe ignorance and short memories in the media are astounding. As another example of this, my grandfather worked to retrofit an oil tanker into an ice-breaking oil tanker to transport Alaskan oil from the North Slope before the pipeline was built. The name of the original tanker or the rechristened one was the “Manhattan”.\nThe story I remember him telling was that the tanker had no trouble making the passage, but the damage from the ice made the tanker uncompetitive.\nThanks for reminding me of my grandfather.\nIn Memoriam for Anthony Gilardi 1907-1997\nApril 27, 2009 at 12:19 pm\nAron (11:28:18) : If we ask ourselves what bothers us more of all this global warming or climate change creed, propaganda or whatever it is, is its political agenda which could make our grand children live in a kind of Aldous Huxley´s “Brave new world” where, for example, Al Gore´s descendants would have been chosen as the more “fitted” to rule the world. Can you imagine that?\nI think people like the jewish people or like those who were seggregated not so long time ago in the balkans, can help in awakening the world of the danger these ideas entail to humanity. To all those fanatics, our pledge: Live and let the people live!\nCathy\nThin ice/Thin tent walls . . .\nFrom the Catlin Survey:\n“Yesterdays weather window has now firmly closed. The ice team are positioned in the path of a huge storm. Pen reported this morning that winds are picking up, and the Ops team can see that over the next 36 hours the team will experience blizzard conditions with winds of up to 40 knots and a strong possibility of heavy snowfall.\nDuring such extreme conditions, the only course of action is to sit it out and try and get some rest whilst the storm howls outside and batters the thin walls of the tent.”\nIt’s not just the thin tent that is getting battered by harsh reality. Seems their AGW premise is taking a sound drubbing.\nApril 27, 2009 at 12:43 pm\nBob says: “BTW, the sun in the pictures in the above articles looks to be about 30 degrees above the horizon. The sun a maximum of 23 degrees above the horizon at the geographic pole on or about June 20. Perhaps the pictures were taken at lower latitudes in the Arctic and the authors of the articles just forgot to mention that.”\nCertainly you are correct about the 23 degrees, and it is also possible that the photo is mis-documented. I would, however, respectfully disagree that we are able to make a good estimate of the sun’s elevation in the photo without having more information about the camera and the lens used for the picture.\nRon de Haan\nApril 27, 2009 at 12:55 pm\nJason Calley (12:03:43) : “Hey Jorge, nope, I do not think I see what you are looking at. There are a lot of little details to indicate thick ice, ie the planes down, the periscope and antennas retracted, some pressure ridges on the horizon — but I do not think those are what you are looking at. What do you see?”\nRichard Sharpe (12:10:23) : ‘Hmmm, is that land in the background off to the left? How far from land is the NP, anyway?”\nOkay, this should nail it, guys: From the sun, drop a longish perpendicular through the horizon. Construct a circle with its center on the intersection, and passing through the sun. Now look below the horizon, at the point where the circle intersects the perpendicular again. What do you see?\nSmokey\nApril 27, 2009 at 12:59 pm\nRon de Haan (12:45:23) & Ian (00:49:23),\nThe reason that Gavin Schmidt lost the GW debate is because he’s short: click . He claims it is the reason the alarmists, who went into the debate well ahead, ended up losing the debate [even though the debaters were seated].\nSo Gavin has a Napoleon complex. Who knew? But that explains his little-man response to posters who disagree with him; he just censors them — because he finally has the power!\nPee Wee Herman would probably understand.\nreid\nApril 27, 2009 at 1:09 pm\nOff topic but how many more hours before the alarmists claim the swine flu outbreak is due to global warming?\nI predict a number of made to order studies will be released before Copenhagen linking flu pandemics to global warming. You know the thinking. If emissions aren’t reduced 20% by 2020 then 50% of the population will die by 2050 from flu pandemics.\nThe alarmists are so predictable. There is no way they won’t try to capitalize on the fear of the year.\nDaveH\nLook for USS Skate, Sea Dragon, Billfish, Sea Devil, Queenfish.\nsuziam48\nApril 27, 2009 at 1:11 pm\nI am alarmed that WordPress.com seems to be associated with folks who denounce the concept of global warming. I cannot find any way to contact WordPress. I see that two anti-global warming blogs are prominently featured on the WordPress home page. What’s up with this?\nA. Longiv\nApril 27, 2009 at 1:12 pm\n@Adolfo Giurfa\nIf Albert Gore wrote in his book “The Earth in Balance “, almost 20 years ago, that he had been at the North Pole, we should trusr him in this respect, that indeed he had been visiting the North Pole.\nInteresting what he wrote in the NYT four months before being honered with the Nobel Prize (at : http://www.1ocean-1climate.com );\nAl Gore: “Moving Beyond Kyoto”, The New York Times, July 1, 2007;\n“We – the human species – have arrived at a moment of decision.”\n“What is at risk of being destroyed is not our planet itself, but the conditions that have made it hospitable for human beings”.\n“We – all of us – now face a universal threat. Though it is not from outside this world, it is nevertheless cosmic in scale.”\nwith the conclusion:\n“Just in the last few months, new studies have shown that the north pole ice cap – which helps the planet cool itself – is melting nearly three times faster than the most pessimistic computer models predicted”;\nLooking at what John Daly presented long ago, was Al Gore better informed then he claims he was??\nApril 27, 2009 at 1:18 pm\nBob (12:14:44) :”BTW, the sun in the pictures in the above articles looks to be about 30 degrees above the horizon. The sun (is) a maximum of 23 degrees above the horizon at the geographic pole on or about June 20. Perhaps the pictures were taken at lower latitudes in the Arctic and the authors of the articles just forgot to mention that.”\nWell, I think we can make a better estimate. The conning tower looks to me to be between 25 and 30 feet tall, and I’d guess it’s about 100 yards away from the camera. The sine of the tower’s subtended angle is about .08, so the top of the tower is 4.8°. The sun’s azimuth angle is roughly two and a half times that, or roughly 12° above the horizon. Maybe 15°, max; nowhere near 30°.\nClaude Harvey\nCancel my last. I see Jorge answered the question while I was walking the dog.\nKarmakaze\nApril 27, 2009 at 1:35 pm\nWell done on intentionally misleading your audience – you’ll fit right in beside the MSM!\nThe article itself shows why this is utterly misleading. Holes in the ice are perfectly natural and in this case the sub used sonar to find them. You will also note that the hole they found closed up again within two hours.\nThis is VERY different from the ice free pole that is being predicted.\nBut good try none the less.\n[Reply: Always identify who you are responding to.\n~ dbstealey, mod.]\n“suziam48 (13:11:17) :\nI am alarmed…”\nSomehow that does not surprise me. Al gore and the media are counting on that. You have been conditioned to be alarmed at the slightest provocation. Try to calm down and remember that we still live in a free country. I know it’s hard to believe that there might be some people who disagree with you. Try to remember a long time ago when you heard the expression, “I may not agree with what you are saying, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.” Do you rememner that saying? Maybe you can google it…\nNick Luke\nHey moderator, where is my last post? It displayed right below Smokey (12:59:55) : Why did you pull it?\nAre your values so fragile that thy cannot withstand scrutiny? Apparently so.\nRon de Haan\nApril 27, 2009 at 2:44 pm\nsuziam48 (13:11:17) :\nI am alarmed that WordPress.com seems to be associated with folks who denounce the concept of global warming. I cannot find any way to contact WordPress. I see that two anti-global warming blogs are prominently featured on the WordPress home page. What’s up with this?\nsuziam48 (13:11:17) :\nDo you have any problems with that?\nCodeTech\nApril 27, 2009 at 2:46 pm\nI am alarmed that people like suziam48 are apparently interested in stifling the views of those she/he disagrees with.\nPerhaps she/he will now be organizing marches in the street against WordPress, along with boycotts and other actions against someone she/he disagrees with.\nYou know what’s amazing? These people think they “stopped the war” in Vietnam by their marches and protests. Yep. Now they’re going to march and protest to “stop global warming”, and I promise you it will be just as effective.\nA little south of the Arctic in the lower 48, there is this: http://www.wunderground.com/cgi-bin/findweather/getForecast?query=59427&wuSelect=WEATHER\n===============\nWinter Storm Warning in effect until 6 am MDT Thursday…\nTonight\nSnow showers. Areas of blowing snow. Snow accumulation 4 to 5 inches. Lows around 25. North winds 5 to 15 mph… increasing to 15 to 25 mph with gusts to 35 mph after midnight. Chance of snow 90 percent.\nTuesday\nSnow. Areas of blowing snow. Windy. Snow accumulation 6 to 9 inches. Highs around 30. North winds 20 to 30 mph with gusts to 40 mph. Chance of snow near 100 percent.\nTuesday Night\nSnow. Areas of blowing snow. Windy. Snow accumulation 6 to 9 inches. Lows around 25. North winds 10 to 20 mph…increasing to 20 to 30 mph after midnight. Gusts up to 45 mph. Chance of snow near 100 percent.\nWednesday\nWindy…snow. Accumulations possible. Highs 30 to 35. North winds 25 to 35 mph with gusts to 50 mph. Chance of snow near 100 percent.\nWednesday Night\nSnow likely. Accumulations possible. Lows 20 to 25. North winds 5 to 15 mph. Chance of snow 70 percent.\nThursday\nMostly cloudy with a 40 percent chance of snow showers. Highs around 35.\nThursday Night\nPartly cloudy with a 20 percent chance of snow showers. Lows 15 to 20.\n==============\nPerhaps suziam48 would like to explain to these Montana folks why they can’t plant their crops with all that global warming.\nak\nApril 27, 2009 at 2:57 pm\nSmokey,\nIn a thread about Arctic Sea Ice, wouldn’t it be more apropos to use Arctic Sea Ice trends?\nPompous Git\nWalt Stone: “I don’t think anyone can make the claim that vast stretches of the North Pole have been ice free yet…”\nLess ice in Arctic ocean 6000-7000 years ago\nDate: Oct 2008 Source: Science Daily\nScienceDaily — Recent mapping of a number of raised beach ridges on the north coast of Greenland suggests that the ice cover in the Arctic Ocean was greatly reduced some 6000-7000 years ago. The Arctic Ocean may have been periodically ice free.\n”The climate in the northern regions has never been milder since the last Ice Age than it was about 6000-7000 years ago. We still don’t know whether the Arctic Ocean was completely ice free, but there was more open water in the area north of Greenland than there is today,” says Astrid Lyså, a geologist and researcher at the Geological Survey of Norway (NGU).\nShore features\nTogether with her NGU colleague, Eiliv Larsen, she has worked on the north coast of Greenland with a group of scientists from the University of Copenhagen, mapping sea-level changes and studying a number of shore features. She has also collected samples of driftwood that originated from Siberia or Alaska and had these dated, and has collected shells and microfossils from shore sediments.\n”The architecture of a sandy shore depends partly on whether wave activity or pack ice has influenced its formation. Beach ridges, which are generally distinct, very long, broad features running parallel to the shoreline, form when there is wave activity and occasional storms. This requires periodically open water,” Astrid Lyså explains.\nPack-ice ridges which form when drift ice is pressed onto the seashore piling up shore sediments that lie in its path, have a completely different character. They are generally shorter, narrower and more irregular in shape.\nOpen sea\n”The beach ridges which we have had dated to about 6000-7000 years ago were shaped by wave activity,” says Astrid Lyså. They are located at the mouth of Independence Fjord in North Greenland, on an open, flat plain facing directly onto the Arctic Ocean. Today, drift ice forms a continuous cover from the land here.\nAstrid Lyså says that such old beach formations require that the sea all the way to the North Pole was periodically ice free for a long time.\n”This stands in sharp contrast to the present-day situation where only ridges piled up by pack ice are being formed,” she says.\nHowever, the scientists are very careful about drawing parallels with the present-day trend in the Arctic Ocean where the cover of sea ice seems to be decreasing.\n“Changes that took place 6000-7000 years ago were controlled by other climatic forces than those which seem to dominate today,” Astrid Lyså believes.\nInuit immigration\nThe mapping at 82 degrees North took place in summer 2007 as part of the LongTerm project, a sub-project of the major International Polar Year project, SciencePub. The scientists also studied ruined settlements dating from the first Inuit immigration to these desolate coasts.\nThe first people from Alaska and Canada, called the Independence I Culture, travelled north-east as far as they could go on land as long ago as 4000-4500 years ago. The scientists have found out that drift ice had formed on the sea again in this period, which was essential for the Inuit in connection with their hunting. No beach ridges have been formed since then.\n”Seals and driftwood were absolutely vital if they were to survive. They needed seals for food and clothing, and driftwood for fuel when the temperature crept towards minus 50 degrees. For us, it is inconceivable and extremely impressive,” says Eiliv Larsen, the NGU scientist and geologist.\n——————————————————————————–\n@Smokey (11:31:45) :\n“No one is questioning global warming.”\nTrue, most of us here agree that there has been some warming since the little ice age. Global warming and AGW are definitely not similes.\nstorky: Huh? This website is almost exclusively devoted to questioning Anthropogenic Global Warming.\nYes, definitely, but we also are interested in weather and related phenomena.\nsmokey: “And as you can see in this chart, global sea ice extent has broken above its long term average”\nstorky: “Yeah . . . so . . . With so few data points contrary to the long term downward trend, what evidence is there that this blip is indicative of a new trend. Until a new trend is defined by more data, this is nothing more than noise.”\nTwo can play at this game. Since when is 30 years of satellite data enough to declare a long term trend? Especially when anecdotal evidence hints at a cyclical nature to Arctic ice coverage. Recent trends may be “noise” but the recent trends are “noise” that flies in the faces of ice free Arctic predictions.\npwl\nEverything that was old is new again.\nSmokey\nApril 27, 2009 at 3:04 pm\nI don’t want to be off topic, so I hope suziam48 goes on a personal fact finding mission to the North Pole. I should also remind suzi that WordPress hosts something like 3 million blogs, so she’s got a big censorship job ahead. The size of her job is even more alarming because she can’t figure out how to contact WordPress [hint: try a search engine].\nThat said, Code Tech, not only did the protests fail to stop the war [Nixon stopped it, fulfilling a campaign pledge], but UN Sec-Gen Kofi Annan presided over the murders of about 500,000 Darfur civilians, and the forcible eviction of two million more. Kofi Annan did, however, issue some very stern statements concerning the situation.\nFor doing nothing to stop the Darfur killings, Kofi Annan was awarded the Nobel Peace prize in 2001. The Darfur killings continued.\nAKD\nApril 27, 2009 at 3:08 pm\nHowever, the scientists are very careful about drawing parallels with the present-day trend in the Arctic Ocean where the cover of sea ice seems to be decreasing.\n“Changes that took place 6000-7000 years ago were controlled by other climatic forces than those which seem to dominate today,” Astrid Lyså believes.\nThat may be one of the weakest AGW cover clauses yet.\nThis partially answers your question about arctic cycles.\n“Historical records of sea ice change\nDetailed studies have been made of possible correlations\nbetween Viking and other early European\nexcursions to the High Arctic and the historical or\nice core records of climate change. The earliest\nevidence of Vikings in the High Arctic is in the twelfth\ncentury on Bache Peninsula (Schledermann 1980).\nOgalvie (1984) compared a decadal sea-ice index for\nIceland with that of earlier, less accurate work by\nKoch (1945) and showed that for the earliest interval\nof reliable historical records (1601–1780 A.D.), the\namount of sea ice between Greenland and Iceland\nfluctuated from brief (10–30 years) lows of no or\nminimal ice at intervals of about 90 years (1651–\n1681 and in the 1740s). These low ice years alternated\nwith ~20 year periods of considerable ice in 1610–\n1630, 1680–1710 and 1740–1760 (~50 year recurrence\nIntervals”\nAs regards Hudson bay records, google ‘Polar Bear Alley’ and delve into the archives\nhope this helps\nSo free speech for those who disagree with you must be stifled?\nDr. Hansen and Gore must be very proud of you.\nDavid Ball\nApril 27, 2009 at 3:24 pm\nSuziam48, you go ahead and prepare for warming, and I will prepare for both warming and cooling. Both have happened before, and will happen again. I am proud to say I have a very small carbon footprint, not because I believe carbon is bad in any way, but because I think it is lunacy to be wasteful, no matter what we have at our disposal. You are being rather self-righteous, if I may say so.\nstorky\n@Craig Moore (14:55:39) :\n“A little south of the Arctic”\nCut Bank, Montana is 1200 miles south of the arctic circle, 2600 short of the pole – that’s a little?\nClearly you don’t know the difference between weather and climate. Allow me to help:\nWeather\n1. the state of the atmosphere with respect to wind, temperature, cloudiness, moisture, pressure, etc.\nClimate\n–noun\n1. the composite or generally prevailing weather conditions of a region, as temperature, air pressure, humidity, precipitation, sunshine, cloudiness, and winds, throughout the year, averaged over a series of years.\nSo, has the climate been getting colder over the past several years or warmer? Show us!\nJust Want Truth...\nThe Arctic trend you posted is indeed interesting. Up nearly 3,000,000 km2 in just two years.\nMike Lorrey\nApril 27, 2009 at 3:41 pm\nSuzi,\nUnlike you and the other alarmists, WordPress believes in and celebrates freedom of speech, no matter how much that speech is inconvenient, politically incorrect, or dangerous to your political agenda.\nstorky\nApril 27, 2009 at 3:46 pm\n@Robert Austin (15:00:39)\n“Two can play at this game. Since when is 30 years of satellite data enough to declare a long term trend?”\nRelative to multiple daily data points and seasonal trends, 30 years is a long-term trend.\n“Especially when anecdotal evidence hints at a cyclical nature to Arctic ice coverage.”\nThe plural of anecdote is anecdotes, not data.\n“Recent trends may be “noise” but the recent trends are “noise” that flies in the faces of ice free Arctic predictions.”\nSo what? Until it redefines a new trend or reinforces the current one, noise is noise.\nCraig Moore\nGary Pearse (10:35:31) :\nEnduser (07:04:56) :\n“Wow! 1.3 versus .035. that means that the sun has 1.3/.035=35 times the global warming potential as all of the permanent greenhouse gasses put together.”\nAnthony/Steve:\nI’ve been trying to get everyone to stop looking up at the sun for a minute and take a look where the sun gets some assistance from the earth’s interior:\nGary, the document (page 3) contains hockey stick graphs only.\nThe time line of the graphs start in the year 1.000 until 2.000.\nWe see a flat lining flux and temp graph until the year 1.500 that is followed by a dramatic increase.\nThis is interesting because the period that shows a rise in flux includes the Maunder and the Dalton Minimum.\nThere should also be an indication that would point to the Midieval Warmth Period which covered the period from 800 to 1.300 AC, a period in time where temperatures were higher than today. At least the first 300 years of the graph should show higher flux/surface temp data.\nAm I the only person smelling a rat here?\nApril 27, 2009 at 4:06 pm\nRegarding the Hawkbill photo: There should be a reflected image of the sun on the ice. Instead, there’s a dim pattern of specks of light scattered over an area about the size of a beach towel. If the albedo of the ice were 100%, the reflection would be exactly as bright as the sun itself. It’s not; it’s a lot dimmer. This indicates an albedo much less than 100%, probably as low as 30% or less, judging from the difference in brightness between the solar image and the ice. At zenith angles between 75° to 90°, the albedo of still water can be as high as 100%. A typical range would be 60% to 80%. The albedo of this particular ice is probably lower than the water under it! The average high latitude albedo of ice is not very different from open water, and often (as seen here) is even less.\nRemember, also, that the vertical emissivity of the Arctic Ocean is about 0.993; the typically quoted emissivity of ice is only a fraction of that, about 0.20. Here, as shown in the photo, it might be as high as 0.70, still significantly below that of open water. Open water can shed heat in the Arctic winter even faster than ice. Add to that the insulating properties of ice, and the net result is that it’s extremely unlikely that the Earth will over heat due to the polar caps disappearing in some imaginary and irreversible “tipping point.”\n[picture of kayaker fleeing from polar bear goes HERE]\nCodeTech\nApril 27, 2009 at 4:09 pm\nSmokey, as I’m sure you know, that was my point. IN fact, protests etc. likely prolonged Vietnam and certainly cost lives on both sides. Protests heartened the enemy.\nBut that wasn’t my main point. I am ALWAYS entertained by people who see something they disagree with or that clashes with their worldview, and the first instinct is to ban it, block it, stop it, silence it, shut it down, etc.\nMe? I believed in AGW. I really did. I studied a lot about it before realizing there even WAS a “debate”. I am glad I found John Daly’s site, and am more amazed every day that the sham continues, even though the wheels fell off after 1998.\nAlso, this thread got me started on studying the Skate, and I ended up wasting a couple of hours today browsing information about Nuclear Subs, and eventually Hanford (which is actually just a few hours drive from me). Fun stuff!\nSmokey\nApril 27, 2009 at 4:19 pm\nak (14:57:30) :\nIn a thread about Arctic Sea Ice, wouldn’t it be more apropos to use Arctic Sea Ice trends?\nak, you’ve been bamboozled. But don’t feel bad, lots of folks have been tricked by cryosphere’s “adjusted” charts. Compare their before and after ‘adjusted’ chart with yours: click .\nJust Want Truth...\nApril 27, 2009 at 4:39 pm\nNew York Times, February 20, 1969 article :\n“Col. Joseph O. Fletcher. a retired Air Force polar specialist now with the Rand Corporation in California, has cited the presence or absence of pack ice around Iceland as an index of such trends (i.e. sunspot activity trends). From the 9th century to the 13th century almost no ice was reported there. This was the period of Norse colonization of Iceland and Greenland.”\nRobert Austin\nstorky (15:46:40) :\n@Robert Austin (15:00:39)\n“Two can play at this game. Since when is 30 years of satellite data enough to declare a long term trend?”\nRelative to multiple daily data points and seasonal trends, 30 years is a long-term trend.\n30 years is still a blink of an eye in climate history, saying it is a long term trend relative to a shorter trend does not validate it. Both the 30 year and recent trends tell us nothing worth knee-capping our economy over and you know this perfectly well. If we here take small pleasure from the discomfiture of those predicting imminent Arctic meltdown, well too bad.\n“Especially when anecdotal evidence hints at a cyclical nature to Arctic ice coverage.”\nThe plural of anecdote is anecdotes, not data.\nThat is just a snark, not a rebuttal. Sorry, “scientists” do not appear to have dedicated their time to reconstructing historical Arctic ice coverage to the same degree as they devoted to teasing climactic data from proxies. Incredible statistical gymnastics were applied to produce the “hockey stick” but no similar efforts have been applied to historical Arctic ice coverage. So what is left is anecdotal evidence which is not quantitative or definitive but it may be a hint that you are on the wrong track.\n“Recent trends may be “noise” but the recent trends are “noise” that flies in the faces of ice free Arctic predictions.”\nSo what? Until it redefines a new trend or reinforces the current one, noise is noise.\nSo you feel confident in extrapolating the 30 year trend to an ice free Arctic. Yes, it is a well known fact in some circles that climate phenomena always follow a linear path to catastrophe when man is implicated. How about we just take a deep breath and wait and see what happens before we officially declare that the sky is falling.\nMIkeT\nApril 27, 2009 at 5:08 pm\nTonyB (15:11:39)\nThanks for the leads. Original Schledermann 1980 and Ogilvie 1984 seem hard to get hold off, but I’ll keep trying. And looking for them led me to new interesting sources. I’m in touch with HBC archives on another matter and may ask if they have papers.\nYour help much appreciated.\nApril 27, 2009 at 5:28 pm\nI find this to be TERRIFYING news!!. I don’t know about all of you but if the Ice caps DO melt, and water goes up all over the WORLD my Home will be submerged in the ocean!!!.Glad I don’t tend to panic too much or be an ALARMIST, like some people i know.. Science can be a “Good Thing” if it is handled properly.. I KNOW this to be true, because I am one of the few men on this planet that can call themselves a “MOLECULAR GASTRONOMIST” and do it in the TRUE sense of the word.. Nothing happens by accident..I believe that GoD and Magic(k) led me here for a reason!!. If you like food check out my brand new web Page on Newsvine.com\nJust Want Truth...\nNorth Pole ice not so thick in 58-59, but it’s getting thick now.\nJason Calley\nApril 27, 2009 at 5:29 pm\nHey Jorge, interesting point about the lack of solar reflection, and yes, we would certainly expect a brighter spot on the ice under normal circumstances. I kept looking at the photo and never noticed that it was lacking until you pointed it out. On the other hand, we really do not have enough information about the photo and how it was made. For instance, the light coming off of the ice will be strongly dominated by the horizontally polarized component of the sunlight. Most good photographers will carry a polarizing filter with their gear so that they can cut out that reflection and glare. You make a good point, but we may just have a photo taken with a polarized filter on the lens!\nak\nApril 27, 2009 at 5:36 pm\n“ak, you’ve been bamboozled. But don’t feel bad, lots of folks have been tricked by cryosphere’s “adjusted” charts. Compare their before and after ‘adjusted’ chart with yours: click.”\nstill a downward trend, right? ok. similar to the downward trend in thickness over the same time. you don’t see that with a handful of pics, you see that with data.\nand anyway, i only used that source because i followed your link, and then looked around a bit. do you trust the source enough to make a point with it, or not? (or do you get to have it both ways?)\nlisten, i think it’s great how worked up you (guys in general) get worked up about small blips in this or that record, but blips are blips. remember the cold temps up north this past winter? think that could have something to do with the spike in ice extent (which to re-iterate is still at/below the mean)? heard anything about the sun’s quiescence recently? think that might have anything to do with NOT melting as much ice as it could?\n2007 was wholly unremarkable from the rest of the recent record until July. 2008 didn’t deviate much until August. I don’t expect anything different for 2009… we’ll see come summer time.\nKarmakaze\n“[Reply: Always identify who you are responding to.\n~ dbstealey, mod.]”\nActually, I was responding to the article.\nLet me repost the quote included in the article:\n“the Skate found open water both in the summer and following winter. We surfaced near the North Pole in the winter through thin ice less than 2 feet thick. The ice moves from Alaska to Iceland and the wind and tides causes open water as the ice breaks up. The Ice at the polar ice cap is an average of 6-8 feet thick, but with the wind and tides the ice will crack and open into large polynyas (areas of open water), these areas will refreeze over with thin ice. We had sonar equipment that would find these open or thin areas to come up through, thus limiting any damage to the submarine. The ice would also close in and cover these areas crushing together making large ice ridges both above and below the water. We came up through a very large opening in 1958 that was 1/2 mile long and 200 yards wide. The wind came up and closed the opening within 2 hours. On both trips we were able to find open water. We were not able to surface through ice thicker than 3 feet.”\nRead that again and tell me this article is [snip]\nA man on the sub TELLS you that what this article is claiming is FALSE.\n“We surfaced near the North Pole in the winter through thin ice less than 2 feet thick.”\nThe North Pole was not even REMOTELY Ice free – the sub had to come up through 2 feet of ice, and that was only when they managed to find a thin spot, with most of the area covered with ice 6 to 8 feet thick.\n“The ice moves from Alaska to Iceland and the wind and tides causes open water as the ice breaks up. The Ice at the polar ice cap is an average of 6-8 feet thick, but with the wind and tides the ice will crack and open into large polynyas (areas of open water), these areas will refreeze over with thin ice. We had sonar equipment that would find these open or thin areas to come up through, ”\nHoles in the ice appear naturally and soon refreeze. These subs used those holes to surface. The fact is, the ice today is much thinner all over.\nSo not only is the premise of this article WRONG it is PROVED wrong by a quote it includes!\nAnyone debating this [snip] about trends etc is wasting their time. He is a [snip] and will twist any “factoid” to suit his argument.\nReply: Play nice. Continued use of pejoratives and comments will be deleted in their entirety ~ charles the moderator\nSmokey\nApril 27, 2009 at 5:53 pm\nak,\nDoes it not bother you that the chart you posted looked like it did only because the data was “adjusted” to make it look that way?\nAnd Cryosphere doesn’t only adjust recent data, they adjust all the data. They can make their graphs look like whatever they want. When they adjust older data, they make the more recent chart look even scarier.\nI posted a chart showing that global sea ice is now above its thirty year trend line. That is to be expected, given this year’s cold temperatures. Total sea ice oscillates around the trend line .\nLiterally hundreds of $Billions to $Trillions are proposed to be spent on a non-problem — based on fiddled charts like the one you posted.\nDo you not see that as a problem? Is data manipulation to support a repeatedly falsified hypothesis OK with you?\nhunter\nApril 27, 2009 at 6:08 pm\nKarmakaze,\nThe post that is the basis of this thread, as well as the quote, exactly prove the point:\nThe ice is not fixed, it opens closes independent of temperature, and that thinning ice in the Arctic is not unusual.\nYour AGW faith does not permit you to comprehend that this exactly disproves the fear mongering of the AGW promoters. You are a true believer and are being taken on a ride, as long as you willingly participate by fooling yourself.\nak\n@smokey “And Cryosphere doesn’t only adjust recent data, they adjust all the data… They can make their graphs look like whatever they want…\nI posted a chart showing that global sea ice is now above its thirty year trend line…”\nSo it is ‘get to have it your way’. Same source of data and graphs, but mine is bad – yours is good. Thanks for the clarification.\nAlso, why are you posting southern ice extent graphs now? How come it seems nobody wants to talk about Arctic ice extent/thickness in a thread specifically about Arctic ice extent/thickness? (Probably because the data doesn’t support the premise.)\n“So not only is the premise of this article WRONG it is PROVED wrong by a quote it includes!”\n@Karmakaze – Relax, this sort of thing isn’t so atypical around here… :)\nMike Bryant\nRE: Karmakaze (17:48:26) :\nThe claim was not “ice free” the claim was\n“We came up through . We came up through a very large opening in 1958 that was 1/2 mile long and 200 yards wide. The wind came up and closed the opening within 2 hours. On both trips we were able to find open water.”\nThis statement\n“We surfaced near the North Pole in the winter through thin ice less than 2 feet thick.”\nOnly indicates that in one area near the North Pole they found ice less than two feet thick. The reason for the thin ice (rather than 6 to 8 feet) is explained..\n“The Ice at the polar ice cap is an average of 6-8 feet thick, but with the wind and tides the ice will crack and open into large polynyas (areas of open water), these areas will refreeze over with thin ice.”\nNote the relevant facts.\nThin ice near the pole is not “global warming” but rather a refreeze after wind and tides cause a break up.\nWe know from 2007 that wind and waves can cause a significant ice loss.\nWe know that if the Catlin team makes it to the pole area finding sections of thin ice would not be abnormal.\nstorky\n” ‘The plural of anecdote is anecdotes, not data.’ That is just a snark, not a rebuttal.”\nActually, it is among the first things you’re taught in Probabilities and Statistics.\n“So what is left is anecdotal evidence which is not quantitative or definitive but it may be a hint that you are on the wrong track.”\nNope. It means NOTHING until the next data point arrives.\n“So you feel confident in extrapolating the 30 year trend to an ice free Arctic.”\nNo, not from 30 years of satellite data alone. But when it is reinforced by 11,000 years of core ice sample data from glaciers all over the planet, I have greater confidence.\nak\nApril 27, 2009 at 6:25 pm\n“The ice is not fixed, it opens closes independent of temperature, and that thinning ice in the Arctic is not unusual.”\n@hunter, just to be precise, it should say ‘and that [i]thin[/i] ice in the Arctic is not unusual’. Submarines don’t surface in ice greater than 2-3 feet. That hasn’t changed since the 1950’s.\nHowever the ice [i]around[/i] the polynyas, where the subs surface, [i]has[/i] thickened. Check out this scientific paper I linked to earlier:\nApril 27, 2009 at 6:26 pm\nTom (11:55:45) :\nI basically do not wish harm to any human being, but I cannot banish from my mind the concept of ultimate environmental justice: Al Gore being eaten by a polar bear.\nNo self-respecting polar bear would touch Gore with a 10 foot, north pole.\nSmokey\nApril 27, 2009 at 6:41 pm\nak,\nYour mind is already made up. But for others following this issue, when ak said: “Same source of data and graphs, but mine is bad – yours is good. Thanks for the clarification”, he was referring to the following two charts. The top chart is the one ak originally posted, and the second one I posted to show the devious data manipulation by Cryosphere Today:\nThe final, “adjusted” chart: click .\nak can’t be helped [cognitive dissonance is by definition incurable; when the world doesn’t end as predicted, those afflicted by CD simply re-set the goal posts, and await the next doomsday. They can not admit they’re wrong when CD takes hold; cognitive dissonance is a root worm that blinds the afflicted to any other point of view].\nOthers, however, can get a very clear snapshot of how we got to this point in the debate, by clicking on this .\nAnd for your reading pleasure, here is another description of recent events: click . If you haven’t read it, you really should. Because $Trillion policy decisions are being decided, right now, based on these outright shenanigans in the corrupt climate peer-review process.\nGraeme Rodaughan\nApril 27, 2009 at 6:41 pm\nsuziam48 (13:11:17) :\nI am alarmed that WordPress.com seems to be associated with folks who denounce the concept of global warming. I cannot find any way to contact WordPress. I see that two anti-global warming blogs are prominently featured on the WordPress home page. What’s up with this?\nWordPress has a home page?!\n(Jaw drops) I thought word press was some sort of extension of this highly trafficked site. Ref: https://wattsupwiththat.com/\nThanks for the info – I feel illuminated, (I see that two anti-global warming blogs are prominently featured on the WordPress home page) I’ll check it out.\nRoyfOMR\nApril 27, 2009 at 7:02 pm\nsuziam48 (13:11:17) :\nI am alarmed that WordPress.com seems to be associated with folks who denounce the concept of global warming. I cannot find any way to contact WordPress. I see that two anti-global warming blogs are prominently featured on the WordPress home page. What’s up with this?\n===================\nI’m sorry you feel alarmed suziam. You’re right to be worried I think but, and please don’t walk away just yet, I think you’re worried about the wrong things.\nLike you I was, also very worried about the consequences of global warming. Unlike you, however, I got lucky and overcame my fears before they affected my mental well-being!\nI feel a bit embarrassed about what I’m about to say – it doesn’t come easy to a crusty old Scotsman like me to be indelicate- but I think you need help. I may be 100% wrong- ach weel it’ll not be the first time  – but in for a penny, in for a pound!\nYou want anti-global warming viewpoints to be put into quarantine, crated up and buried.\nIs that really you?\nIs dissension and debate about climate science so distasteful as to be ranked alongside holocaust-denial, racial hatred and religious intolerance?\nAre all ‘denialists’ so intellectually challenged that they believe the world is flat?\nDoes the questioning of ‘consensus’ projections about the consequences of AGW make one an ‘Earth-Hater’ or a shill of Big-Oil?\nIf your answer to any of the above is ‘yes’, then you, truly, are at a critical cross-road in life. The step you next take may well define your future. Choose well!\nIt should be about the science – the data – the facts- and every argument deserves an airing. Yes, you’ll always get the crazies – there’s no magic bullet for them – never has been, never will be! But, and this is crucial, by exposing the crazies to the oxygen of open and objective debate we can identify and thus exclude their hypotheses. What we should have left over is a payload, untainted by subjective, commercial and political contamination. That is not where we are at!\nMy road to recovery began for all the wrong reasons. So convinced was I that mankind was headed to ignominious oblivion that I kept looking for examples of catastrophe that supported that view. I found lots and lots of doomsday predictions that reinforced my worldview until the ‘law of unintended consequences’ puckishly intruded and planted a seed of doubt!\nI found skeptical sites and found out that the debate was not over as far as some were concerned. Not a problem, I initially thought, that’s the Internet for you and God bless the crazies!\nThen I started to notice anomalies that, however hard I resisted, kept on niggling me. Why was I getting the impression that pro-AGW sites, such as those hosted by Gavin and Tamino, were so intolerant of opposing opinions that they came over as rude, ill-tempered bullies unlike WUWT and CA?\nThe endless repetition by the aforementioned AGW proponents of ‘appeal to authority’ argument, followed by ad-hominem attack and denigration rapidly turned me against those who employed such tactics – It seemed to me that such a public display of bad manners was more a symptom of blustering arrogance than that of reasoned and helpful persuasion!\nSuziam48, that’s when the doubts first crept in – maybe for the wrong reasons – in short I started out by disliking the messengers which led to me question their motives; and that made me question the message itself! Agreed that doesn’t make the Science wrong if the message is correct but it should ring a warning bell. Take care when choosing where your next step will take,\nPS – I still worry about AGW\nI worry that the ‘current consensual perception of certainty’ of the actions needed to combat it, far exceeds the scientific evidence that it is actually a problem.\nI worry that the ‘current consensual perception of certainty’ will bring to fruition sets of measures and counter-measures that will achieve precisely the opposite of what they attempt to do.\nMostly, however, I worry about people like you Suziam48. Your passion, intelligence and anger are not in doubt – fantastic attributes – but are you able to re-trace and then re-examine your sources?\nWhat’s up with this? \n[Oops – I submitted this to the wrong post. Sigh.]\narctic-astronomy (08:54:38) :\n> There’s an awful lot of light in the “17 March 1959” north pole picture, given that the sun is still about 1.5° below the horizon and hasn’t yet risen at the north pole on March 17.\nAccording to my software, the Sun’s declination was -1.53° on that date. Unfortuately, I’m not quite sure which hour that’s for (hey, I wrote it in 1980 or so!) The declination is changing about 0.40° per day then. American sunrise/sunset is defined as the moment the upper limb of the sub is on the horizon. Given the the size of the Sun and refraction, that moment is close to when the center of the sun is about 0.5° below the horizon.\nCivil twilight is defined as the period when the Sun is between -0.5° and -6°, so if the photo was taken right at the North Pole, it would be during bright twilight. At temperate latitudes, civil twilight lasts for about a half an hour, duting this period in the US most states (all?) permit drivers to drive without headlights on.\nSmokey\nApril 27, 2009 at 7:16 pm\nFrom the article [the John Daly report by a sailor who was there]:\nThe Ice at the polar ice cap is an average of 6-8 feet thick, but with the wind and tides the ice will crack and open into large polynyas (areas of open water), these areas will refreeze over with thin ice.\nThere’s your thin ice. And ice 6 – 8 feet thick ice is what the Three Stooges/Catlin gang found this year. That deconstructs the most recent moving of the goal posts by the alarmist contingent. Current ice conditions are essentially the same as they were fifty years ago, the desperate arm-waving of the warmers notwithstanding.\nWe’re skeptics here, and all we’re saying is: prove it. Or if you can’t, at least show some strong, real world evidence [in other words, no GCM “evidence”] that the current climate is outside of its normal and natural historical parameters.\nThe global warming alarmists are really grasping at straws here, still trying to convince everyone else that a rise in a minor trace gas will eliminate the North Pole ice cap.\nThey need to get a grip.\nak\nSmokey,\nwell played! misdirection is the first skill learned by any good magician.\nhere are the timestamps of the images i refered to previously. I’m affixing timestamps so that the readers (and I do apologize for having to post this again) can verify the chronology and sleight of hand: Ak said… “Same source of data and graphs, but mine is bad – yours is good.”\nhttp://arctic.atmos.uiuc.edu/cryosphere/IMAGES/current.anom.jpg Ak @ (14:57:30)\nSame host, same directories, but one graph is good. the other bad. After which I was publicly shamed: ‘lots of folks have been tricked by cryosphere’s “adjusted” charts” ‘ Smokey @ (16:19:15)\nListen, let’s drop the image things ( and my response to the cool animated gif stills stands – ak (17:36:05) – consider this my second time stating so).\nAk reiterates… “How come it seems nobody wants to talk about Arctic ice extent/thickness in a thread specifically about Arctic ice extent/thickness? (Probably because the data doesn’t support the premise.)”\n(please, i’ll probably lose the debate if you guys challenge me on the data ( the very essence! ) of this post!)\nak\nApril 27, 2009 at 8:37 pm\narctic-astronomy (08:54:38) : There’s an awful lot of light in the “17 March 1959″ north pole picture, given that the sun is still about 1.5o below the horizon and hasn’t yet risen at the north pole on March 17.\nOr fast film and a fast lens. The soft focus foreground and slightly soft at the tail of the boat indicate a very open fast lens. There seems to be a graininess (though hard to tell through the binary translation) that would indicate a fast B&W film. There appears to be slight motion blur to some of the peoples heads that would indicate a shutter speed of about 1/30 to 1/50 second (though again, access to a better image would let me make a more reliable evaluation). The overall flatness of the image implies fast film, pushed processing, or very flat lighting (such as indirect lighting from cloud diffusion / reflection) or all three.\nI would speculate that this is a picture taken on about an ASA 400 film, perhaps an ASA 200 pushed to 800 at most, with an f stop of about F2 to F4, and a shutter speed of about 1/30 of a second. I would speculate it was 120 format, since 35mm was still relatively new then, but it could be 35mm as Tri-X was introduced in that format in 1954. If 35mm, the photographer had to have a very steady hand or a stable gunwale to brace against. IIRC, a 2 stop push was well known then and Kodak Tri-X was introduced in the ’40s with an ASA of 200. I don’t remember the 1959 speed, by 1970 it was ASA 400. Given that I’ve taken street pictures at night with such settings, diffuse over the horizon sunlight from cloud bounce ought to provide more than enough light. I see nothing in the picture to indicate it is fraudulent.\nThe general poor sharpness argues for a not very great lens or a good one so far open on the f stop that it has lost significant sharpness and some more sharpness lost to push processing. There is not enough in the corners to evaluate corner sharpness, though the slight blur to the edge of the bow says edge sharpness is a bit low, though finding an equivalent distance center frame target for relative sharpness is hard. There is either a slight motion blur or the overall sharpness is softer than I’d like, but I think there is a bit more center than edge sharpness. Lens open wide or poor edge of frame sharpness. Hard to tell in this size digital conversion, it could just be an artifact of the copy process.\nThe very flat washed out overexposed sky says that the light is coming from the clouds and the Skate had far less light on it than the clouds had, so the clouds get washed out in over exposure to get proper light from the Skate / water. Indirect lighting from cloudy overcast sky, not much direct lighting at the water surface.\nCompare it with the second picture of the Skate. Much higher contrast with hot spots, sharp edges, greater depth of field, even what looks like a small quantity of cloud detail near the conning tower. Much more light, lens stopped down, shutter faster, less / no push processing, and though the figures are smaller making it harder to determine – they do not seem to show motion blur (even though there is what might be an expectation of motion given the bent posture of the bodies).\nFinally, though they are color pictures, the more recent photos such as the Hawkbill show a hard crisp sharpness with great detail and depth of field of a full daylight snow scene consistent with a full sun environment. That is what is missing from the Skate pictures and what you would expect to see if the pictures had been taken in full sun with the sun above the horizon.\nAgain, access to better copies of the image would allow a more definitive analysis and less rampant speculation, but these pictures are all consistent with their asserted context.\n(And yes, working in security and forensics warps how you see pictures for a very long time… though I can still turn it off and just enjoy the art of them.)\nJust Want Truth...\nApril 27, 2009 at 9:23 pm\nWell in 1956 the Arctic ‘calved’ more icebergs than ever today…\nOne other important thing is that before 1959 no regular data are available for the North Pole’s inner parts in series of reading. Why? Simply because before there was even one scientistic group living over longer periods in the inner parts of the Arctic no such readings could be done….\nOne other important thing to remember. The ice under a certain spot today aren’t the ice from same longitud/latitude of yesterday. Ice moves.\nE.M.Smith\nApril 27, 2009 at 10:07 pm\nLooking at the original here:\nIt’s a bit better image, but not by much. Less flat contrast, but not by enough to change my opinion. Sharpness is better, so I’m less critical of the lens quality. If the image format reflects the film format, it’s closest to 122 film size (also called ‘postcard’) though it doesn’t exactly match anything. Aspect ratio of about 1.66 : 1 where 35mm is 1.5 : 1 and 120 format 6×9 is also 1.5:1 and some odd 120 frame sizes are 1.5x : 1 with postcard at 1.69:1 so I’d guess at this point it was a ‘postcard’ camera in 122 film format or 1.5:1 image with the foreground cropped to remove excess water and raft to fit on a postcard. It is possible it’s a 35mm rangefinder camera (they were around then and would fit easier on a small sub) and if this image is as sharp as it gets, well, even old poor 120 film in 6 x 9 had better sharpness than this image. I’d expected the original to be much larger than this and with better resolution. My error of assumption / guessing.\nSo at this point the only change I’d make is to say I think it’s a 35mm rangefinder with Tri-X in ASA 200, possibly push processed a stop or two, stabilized by resting on the raft gunwale and with the image cropped to remove excess foreground from that ersatz ‘tripod’.\nmasonmart\nApril 27, 2009 at 10:24 pm\nThis picture is the most fantastic thing I’ve seen in the whole AGW pantomime. Of course it’s naughty but nothing compared to the polar bears, penguins and melting glaciers. this is the deniers polar bear. Keep up the good work gentlemen\nRobert Austin\nsRobert Austin (17:05:56)\n“So you feel confident in extrapolating the 30 year trend to an ice free Arctic.”\nsNo, not from 30 years of satellite data alone. But when it is reinforced by 11,000 years of core ice sample data from glaciers all over the planet, I have greater confidence.\nSo does your “greater confidence” extend so far that you consider the science “settled”? I imagine one can rationally favour the AGW hypothesis without raving about tipping points and polar bears dieing. The fact is that we are not going to appreciably reduce or CO2 production in the near future so it will be interesting to follow climate trends over the next decade.\nMike Lorrey\nApril 27, 2009 at 11:00 pm\nI have added the photo of the USS Skate at the North Pole to the wikipedia articles here. Hope everybody can help make sure they stay up there in the face of historical revisionism from the alarmists, and complain to wiki admins if certain individuals persist in removing them….\nApril 27, 2009 at 11:25 pm\nStephen Daivs (00:43:46) : Polynyas are a phenomenon known for quite a long period of time, they are areas of open water that form (sometimes briefly) (sometimes in the same spot) they occur in both the Arctic and Antarctic sea ice.\nOh, golly, you mean when those ice shelves in Antarctica break and get a big water gap in them it isn’t due to global warming, it’s strictly natural? Why thank you for enlightening me and making that clear.\nE.M.Smith\nApril 27, 2009 at 11:33 pm\nAdam Soereg (01:59:58) : even mention the fast recovery of Arctic sea ice extent to near-normal levels. Let I guess, next year they will come out with an unprecedented low level of 1st, 2nd, and 3rd year ice.\nAnd don’t forget that with that 2nd and 3rd year ice in the way, they can legitimately state “Less new ice formed at the arctic this year than last!!!”\nApril 27, 2009 at 11:37 pm\nJason Calley (17:29:38) : “Hey Jorge, interesting point about the lack of solar reflection, and yes, we would certainly expect a brighter spot on the ice under normal circumstances. I kept looking at the photo and never noticed that it was lacking until you pointed it out. On the other hand, we really do not have enough information about the photo and how it was made. For instance, the light coming off of the ice will be strongly dominated by the horizontally polarized component of the sunlight. Most good photographers will carry a polarizing filter with their gear so that they can cut out that reflection and glare. You make a good point, but we may just have a photo taken with a polarized filter on the lens!”\nYes, I’d agree. A polarized filter would account for almost zero visible specular reflection, if it’s there. I did consider a filter, but the surface of the ice here seemed quite rough, consistent with much lower than normal albedo. Under either scenario, the rest of my post is unaffected; Arctic ice just isn’t the ideal reflector it’s assumed to be. Good comment, Jason.\nDaveH\nApril 28, 2009 at 12:25 am\nNorth Pole and Submarines.\nThere seems quite a lot of interest in the sources of the images in the post. Here are the sources of most of the pictures in the post and a few more.\nSkate (SSN-578), surfaced at the North Pole, 17 March 1959. http://www.navsource.org/archives/08/0857806.jpg\nSailors from the Seadragon (SSN-584), background, clowning around on the ice during the craft’s August 1960 Arctic operation. The batter is ready to receive the first baseball ever pitched at the North Pole. http://www.navsource.org/archives/08/0858412.jpg\nSkate (SSN-578), at the North Pole, 1962. http://www.navsource.org/archives/08/0857801.jpg\nSeadragon (SSN-584), foreground, and her sister Skate (SSN-578) during a rendezvous at the North Pole in August 1962. Note the men on the ice beyond the submarines. http://www.navsource.org/archives/08/0858411.jpg\nSkate (SSN-578), and Seadragon (SSN-584) surfaced at the North Pole, 1962. http://www.navsource.org/archives/08/0857805.jpg\nSeadragon (SSN-584), in the background, and Skate (SSN-578) surfaced at the North Pole, 1962. http://www.navsource.org/archives/08/0857805.jpg\nSeadragon (SSN-584), foreground, and her sister Skate (SSN-578) during a rendezvous at the North Pole in August 1962. Note the men on the ice beyond the submarines http://www.navsource.org/archives/08/0858411.jpg\nThe Queenfish (SSN-651) at the North Pole on 6 Aug. 1970. http://navsource.org/archives/08/658/0865127.jpg\nSanta Claus greets crewmen of the Queenfish (SSN-651) at the North Pole (Chief Quartermaster Jack Pataterson as Santa), summer 1970. http://www.navsource.org/archives/08/0865104.jpg\nMakeshift number. On 5 Aug. the Queenfish (SSN-651) became the 10th American submarine to reach the geographic North Pole. It then surfaced through a hole in the ice about 500 yards away. http://navsource.org/archives/08/658/0865118.jpg\nAn elevated view of the attack submarines Ray (SSN-653), Hawkbill (SSN-666), and & Archerfish (SSN-678) surfaced at the geographic North Pole, 6 May 1986 during ICEX 86. This is the first time three nuclear-powered submarines have simultaneously surfaced at the pole. http://www.navsource.org/archives/08/0866623.jpg\nThe sail of the nuclear-powered attack submarine Billfish (SSN-676) protudes from the ice while the ship is surfaced at the North Pole. The sail-mounted diving planes are in the vertical position for breaking through the ice on 30 Mar 1987. http://navsource.org/archives/08/500/0867605.jpg\nU.S. and British sailors explore the Arctic ice cap while conducting the first U.S./British coordinated surfacing at the North Pole. The ships are, left to right: the nuclear-powered attack submarine Sea Devil (SSN-664), the fleet submarine HMS Superb (S-109) , and the nuclear-powered attack submarine Billfish (SSN-676), 18 May 1987. http://www.navsource.org/archives/08/0866408.jpg\nU.S. and British sailors explore the Arctic ice cap while conducting the first U.S./British coordinated surfacing at the North Pole. The ships are, left to right: the nuclear-powered attack submarine Sea Devil (SSN-664), the fleet submarine HMS Superb (S-109) , and the nuclear-powered attack submarine Billfish (SSN-676), 18 May 1987. http://www.navsource.org/archives/08/0866403.jpg\nHawkbill (SSN-666), at the North Pole, 1999.\nNorth Polar Region (Apr. 19, 2004) – The Royal Navy Trafalgar class attack submarine HMS Tireless sits on the surface of the North Pole. Tireless surfaced with the U.S. Navy Los Angeles-class attack submarine USS Hampton (SSN 767) for ICEX 04, a joint operational exercise beneath the polar ice cap. http://www.news.navy.mil/view_single.asp?id=13821\nNorth Polar Region (Apr. 19, 2004) – The crew of the Los Angeles-class attack submarine USS Hampton (SSN 767) posted a sign reading “North Pole” made by the crew after surfacing in the polar ice cap region http://www.news.navy.mil/view_single.asp?id=13822\nWhile USS Honolulu (SSN-718) is the 24th Los Angeles-class submarine to surface at the North Pole, she is the first of the first-flight 688 to perform operations Arctic. http://www.navy.mil/navydata/cno/n87/usw/issue_23/north.htm\nSubmarine North Pole timeline.\nApril 28, 2009 at 5:17 am\nLook at a properly laid out, accurately built armillary sphere: It will show th esun’s position above the horizon for every day of the year – at the latitude the pole of the armillary is set for.\nThe sun’s height above the horizon – which is proportional to the length of each day – only very slowly moves from its minimum height (on Dec 22) to exactly even (12 hours from sunup to sundown) on March 22 to maximum height on June 22, and back to a twelve hour day on Sept 22.\n(Yeah – I know – sometimes its the 21st, not the 22nd – but notice that the photo’s taken of the submarines at the north pole were dated March 17. Very close to the 12 hour day (midpoint or equinox) of March 21-22.)\nSo, when the photo was taken, the pole had 12 hours of daylight, and an hour or so before (and after) of twilight when the light was only slightly lower quality. Only much later in the year does the pole (the area above the Arctic Circle/below the Antarctic Circle) get the proverbial 24 hours of sunlight. In winter, same rule applies: 24 hours of darkness doesn’t suddenly change to 24 hours of sunlight in one day.\nNoelene\nFlanagan, this is a wake-up call, don’t go away, all is forgiven, come back.\nJari\nApril 28, 2009 at 8:28 am\nYddar,\nthank you very much for this news. If this turns out to be true, the whole arctic ice melting thing is proven to be a total scam.\nFrom Radio Bremen interview:\n“The research aircraft Polar 5 ended today in Canada a recent Arctic expedition. During the flight, researchers have measured the current ice thickness at the North Pole, and in areas that have never before been overflown. Result: The sea-ice in the surveyed areas is apparently thicker than scientists had suspected.\nNormally, after two years newly formed ice is over two meters thick. “Here ice thickness was up to four meters,” said a spokesman of Bremerhaven’s Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research. For scientists, this result is contradicting the warming of the seawater.\nBesides the ice thickness, also the composition of the air was investigated. With the help of a laser, the researchers reviewed how polluted the atmosphere by emissions from industrialized countries. In the next few weeks the results are evaluated. On the expedition were some 20 scientists from the U.S., Canada, Italy and Germany.”\nThe translation is mine so I cannot guarantee the accuracy.\nHere is more about the expedition:\nApril 28, 2009 at 8:38 am\nHere is a quote from the Alfred Wegener Institute web site about their Arctic measurement campaign (which ended today):\n“The extent of Arctic sea ice has declined stronger than predicted by climate models. However, little is known about changes of its thickness. Sea ice is in constant movement and it can become thicker by deformation than by freezing. Therefore, not only the areal extent of the ice is an important variable in the Arctic climate system, but also its thickness. “We hope to gain an appraisal of the whole Arctic ice volume for the first time ever in order to be able to compare the changes in the different regions”, says Dr. Andreas Herber, physicist and in charge of the research aircrafts of the Alfred Wegener Institute. The operation of the research aircraft Polar 5 will allow for the first time to carry out large scale ice thickness measurements in Arctic key areas which could hitherto not be reached by the German research vessel Polarstern.”\ngvheard\nApril 28, 2009 at 9:20 am\nI made a similar sort of comment a few days ago, I can remember being surprised at submarines surfacing at the North pole.\nArctic Ice volume has, I think, varied over long periods, I believe I read somewhere, but haven’t recently been able to verify, that Chinese mariners over a thousand years ago reported that there were big gaps in the ice and the North East Passage to, what is now, Russia was open for tens of years.\nThere must also be a cycle of single and multi year ice, my own interpretation is that it’s very dependent on the AMO, with strong Westerlies in a Positive AMO period, more warm water, relatively speaking, is pushed North of Europe and melts the Ice from below.\nWe had, until this last 2008-9 winter, nailed on westerlies for 4-6 week periods for each of the last 7 years, perhaps someone could try to calculate what the heat transfer from South West to North East is, I think it’s probably enough to raise the temperature of the sea below the ice by a few degrees, possibly enough to accentuate the melting and thinning.\nThis last winter, on the other hand has seen a much more neutral to negative AMO, so if my theory has any merits, there will be less melting, therefore more ice this year.\np.s. guess what, by next year it will be multi year ice as well !!\ngvheard\nHu McCulloch (06:50:07) : According to Hester’s account, the sub had to break through 2 feet of ice to do a winter surfacing. I see the ice in other photos, but not in this one.\nREPLY: There is ice floating in the water, look carefully. – Anthony\nAlso, notice the slab of ice that one of the mariners is standing on. At the front of the bow, the first guy is about 1.5 feet off the deck. That is ice he is standing on. Also notice the ice crusts on the bow itself. This boat has just come through a couple of feet of ice somewhere. It is also a bit easier to see the floating ice in this archive copy:\nwhere if you look carefully you can also see some of the subsurface ice near the foreground below the surface ice blobs. What looks a bit like surface wind / ripple haze in the smaller picture is more easily seen to be subsurface portions of the ice chunk that is supporting the foreground blobs in the slightly larger picture. Finally, there is a chunk of ice visible in the background just behind the center of the bow as a line to the edge of the picture. It’s hard to tell if that’s a floater or the edge of a shelf, since the background starts to fuzz up due to depth of field issues behind it. My guess based on the relative fuzziness is that it’s about the same distance away as the stern of the boat and is the broken edge of a thin ice field with depth matching the chunk the sailor is standing upon.\nSo my photo interpretation of his is that the boat surfaced through about 1.5 to 2 feet of ice sheet while underway (making forward progress) at very slow speed (such that a chunk could get stuck on the bows) and left an open trail behind it. Upon stopping, the captain had a bit of extra ‘stern screws’ going and the boat drifted backwards just a little from this. The photographer was put over the side in a small raft into the open water thus made and set his camera (as detailed in prior photo-oriented interpretation postings here) while the rest of the crew adopted the positions shown in the photo. I could speculate that the party appears to be appropriate to Captain with the conning tower, deck officer and raft launch party on deck, photographer / science or mid grade officer in the raft; but that’s stretching it a bit from the actual data in the photo. They all do have period appropriate clothing that is also arctic appropriate and indicative of very cold weather. 2 or possibly 3 of the mariners have left hand positions indicative of holding coffee cups (possibly cocoa … can’t tell that from the photo 8-) but I don’t think it was as common as coffee then.\nOh, and if you look at the bow fin lower edge and the side of the boat, you see evidence of water runoff freezing into surface ice. Wherever they surfaced, the air temperature is below freezing, most likely by a significant amount or the boat skin heat would have prevented rapid freezing\nAnd one human perspective note. If the open water had been behind the boat, due to no reverse screws, the raft would have been to the rear and the photo would have had a different perspective, but still had the open water because that is where you put the raft. That there is open water in the picture just tells you what people do with rafts and prudence about not walking on thin recently fractured ice; it does not tell you that ice is missing elsewhere including on the other side of the boat nor at the other end of the boat where it disappears into a haze of soft edge focus, depth of field limits, and contrast falloff.\nIsn’t photo interpretation fun?\nBTW, when folks challenge these kinds of photos it really would be a good idea to practice a bit more precise observation skills before hitting “submit”. It is really just a matter of looking, small area by small area, at the photo and asking yourself “What is everything I can learn from the objects and lighting in this area?”. (We’ll leave issues of provenance and photo technology for another day…) Then sort it into Known, Probable, and Speculative. You will find much more in any photo than you might expect…\nE.M.Smith\nhttp://web.archive.org/web/20060218082437/ […]\nMakes the assertion that since the Captains retelling of his surfacing has wind and cold and blowing snow (not in the picture) that the picture must be totally fraudulent. Folks, this is called weather. It changes.\nNow I can’t say if the photo was taken on exactly the 17th or within an hour of surfacing. My GUESS would be that it was probably after a day or so of the actual surfacing. Were I captaining the boat, I’d come up, do a weather check at the conning tower AND have a crew hull inspection for damages AND do a brief 5 foot under to check for hard to see leaks AND do a radio check / wait for orders AND probably have a nice cup of coffee and maybe even a long congratulatory talk to the crew. Then, and only then, would I think about putting out a “shore party”. Plenty of time for a storm to fade.\nWhich brings me to part two: Human Factors.\nDo you really think the Captain would put crew overboard in a dingy or raft in a blowing storm? Or do you think that just maybe he would wait a day or so for the storm to blow on by? Since there is no day / night cycle of sun rise / set at this point, it would take a ships chronometer to really say when one day ended and the next began and sub crews work around the clock. The boat never sleeps.\nSo I’m the photographer. We surface and work for 12 to 14 hours making ready. At some point, I take a picture of us at the pole during our event of surfacing at the pole initiated on the 17th. Am I really all that concerned about placarding that picture as “Skate, surfaced on the 17th, then dunked for a hull check, then resurfaced 4 hours later, then did a maintenance check, finally got to go in the raft and took this picture that might have been the 18th or 19th but I don’t really know ’cause I’m just a grunt and don’t have chronometer access and they work us 24 hrs a day anyway at times like this” or would I instead say “We surfaced on the 17th and here is a picture of us at the pole then (meaning the event)”.\nThe complaint really comes down to ought the caption be: “Skate, had surfaced on the 17th” or “Skate, surfacing and photo on exactly the 17th”.\nJHPC folks, if AGW had to meet that standard of proof we’d all be issued arctic coats by NASA by now…\nThe captain wrote his memoirs and talked up the cold on surfacing a bit. A while (ill defined, but a day maybe two max given low snow level on the deck) later the storm has a break and they do a quick photo op (which explains the ice on the bow fin and skin, it had TIME to get cold on the skin) and the photo is labeled with the EVENT not the CHRONOMETER. Big eff… deal.\nREPLY: Perhaps the NAVY can help, even if we throw out that photo, there are others listed that support the same idea. – Anthony\nThere is no reason what so ever to toss out that photo. It is completely consistent with the location, time, event, historical context, historical record, etc. ad. nauseum. It has a trivial discrepancy with a memoir of an initial surface condition as the boat broke the surface that is not at all a persistent state (i.e. the weather changes) and at most might have a trivial 1 to 2 day time stamp issue. Big Whoop.\nGiven what GIStemp does with rewriting historical temperatures 100 years in the past and 1500 km away from a station, I would count this picture as a solid gold standard of accuracy in comparison. So toss GIStemp, keep the photo.\nE.M.Smith\nApril 28, 2009 at 11:47 am\nFWIW:\nShows a full color full sun picture of the Skate from the same period (the wiki story says the surfaced 10 times on their polar run). Notice that it is full color and high resolution.\nThis tells me that they had nice color film that needed lots of light but could not use it for their polar picture (i.e. it was dark and they needed more than ASA 100 to get any picture at all). Assuming it’s the same camera (reasonable assumption on a small boat, consistent with pictures) we know the lens when stopped down gives very good depth of field and reasonable edge sharpness (confirming prior estimates of camera settings for polar picture as opposed to it just being a bad camera). There is an interesting fuzzy cloud at the stern again. I suspect now that there is a purging of the air systems going on and that is vapor condensation in both pictures. In this picture you can see the open water behind the boat where it surfaced before butting up to the ice to let off a ‘shore party’. This picture IMHO, confirms that the polar picture was taken before significant sun was above the horizon (i.e. indirect light from high cloud) and puts the date at 17, 18, 19th interval. After that, you had sun above the horizon and would have had significantly more light with a harsher side lighting effect.\nis the same picture as in the WUWT article, but includes a bit of legal reference to the provider and cites the taker of the photo as a navy employee for purposes of public domain copyright (i.e. it’s isn’t photoshopped or someone is on the hook for a copyright violation…)\nand the article:\nhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Skate_(SSN-578)\nSites multiple subs making multiple trips to the arctic and pole with multiple surfacings including:\nIn early March 1959 , she again headed for the Arctic to pioneer operations during the period of extreme cold and maximum ice thickness. The submarine steamed 3,900 miles (6,300 km) under pack ice while surfacing through it ten times. On 17 March, she surfaced at the North Pole to commit the ashes of the famed explorer Sir Hubert Wilkins to the Arctic waste. When the submarine returned to port, she was awarded a bronze star in lieu of a second Navy Unit Commendation for demonstrating “… for the first time the ability of submarines to operate in and under the Arctic ice in the dead of winter….” In the fall of 1959 and in 1960, Skate participated in exercises designed to strengthen American antisubmarine defenses.\nSo you can argue with the Navy about wether or not they awarded a Bronze Star and Unit Commendation based on the truth, or not. Me, I’m of the opinion that Bronze Stars and Unit Commendations are a bit hard to come by and not handed out willy nilly. Might even take some photo documentation…\nE.M.Smith\nApril 28, 2009 at 12:35 pm\nBob (12:14:44) : BTW, the sun in the pictures in the above articles looks to be about 30 degrees above the horizon. The sun a maximum of 23 degrees above the horizon at the geographic pole on or about June 20. Perhaps the pictures were taken at lower latitudes in the Arctic and the authors of the articles just forgot to mention that.\nUnless you know the focal length of the lens used, it’s distortion figure, and the distance of the camera from the objects, you can not accurately determine angle of the sun above the horizon. Certainly not to single digit degrees. Sorry.\n(Think of a fisheye lens as an extreme case. The sun will always be in the picture if you point the camera straight up… 180 degrees of photo angle gets compressed into about 45 to 20 degrees of viewing angle for a print, less for the images here… mild wide angle was normal in the cameras of that era – about 45 mm being common, 35mm for some, with greater distortion near the edges.)\nE.M.Smith\nApril 28, 2009 at 1:06 pm\njorgekafkazar (16:06:25) : Regarding the Hawkbill photo: There should be a reflected image of the sun on the ice. Instead, there’s a dim pattern of specks of light scattered over an area about the size of a beach towel.\nI’ve had that in snow pictures before. The reflectance depends greatly on the texture of the snow / ice crystals. Internal reflections in ice grains can soak up a lot of sun. IIRC, snow with a bit of grain in it gives this kind of picture. Also notice that the surface is heavily stippled. Much of the incident sun will be reflected in directions away from the camera. I was more taken by the fact that the sun is directly in the picture, yet no rainbow artifacts from the lens coating and no phantom aperture shape is in the frame. Nice Lens! (Or uncoated optics stopped way down…)\nThere is a fair amount of washout around the sun from flare. You can’t just judge the size of the sun from the size of its image due to this overexposure flare and washout.\nFinally, notice that the snow is about 10% to 15% grey scale approaching 18% near the edges in the photo while the tower is flat black. This image is exposed for the SNOW not the boat nor the people. This means WAY stopped down which means further attenuation of any solar reflectance off the stippled surface. IFF the photo had been exposed for the boat and people I would have expected an overexposed sun reflectance patch.\nI see nothing inconsistent in this photo, though the falloff in the darkness of the sky in the corners and generally deep blue make me wonder if a polarizing filter was used (as does the light rays from the sun image…). That is what I would do to cut specular reflection off the snow / ice surface, intensify the sky, get a neat solar image with a bit of rays, and generally flatten the glare out of the whole thing.\nMike Lorrey\n@Robert Austin (17:05:56)\n“So does your “greater confidence” extend so far that you consider the science ‘settled’?”\nScientific theory is never “settled,” but until better theories resolve minor inconsistencies (like the tropospheric masking effects provided by volcanic eruptions and the mitigating effects on Atlantic storm formation by airborne Saharan sand), the current ones serve adequately. Solar forcing, however, has been demonstrated to be a minor contributor to Global Warming. Those who claim the last 8-10 years show a cooling trend never respond to requests for studies in support of that assertion, so what am I to imply other than they don’t exist?\n“I imagine one can rationally favour the AGW hypothesis without raving about tipping points and polar bears dying.”\nI am not an alarmist, but I take extreme exception to current attempts by unqualified individuals to discredit studies supporting AGW. Claiming elitism is a spurious rebuttal for one’s lack of training in statistical analysis. If one wants to challenge science, one should be adequately trained in the tools of the trade.\n“The fact is that we are not going to appreciably reduce or CO2 production in the near future so it will be interesting to follow climate trends over the next decade.”\nUnfortunately true and ultimately discouraging. The prospect of accurately forecasting AGW effects, with the consequences like crop failure, famine, and competition for water rights and arable land, isn’t a comforting thought. It’s perhaps the only time we hope we’re wrong.\n@TonyB,\nTony,\nmany thanks, that’s a fascinating reference. The thought of icebergs at Constantinople is amazing! It would make a wonderful background for a historical novel. It’s also fascinating to wonder how our modern world would respond to such a catastrophe triggered by a volcano. But at least it might wipe the grin off Al Gore’s face!\nIt may be true that the lack of climate-changing volcanoes in recent decades may have contributed to the late 20th century warming. Also, if this historical eruption had occurred a bit later, at the height of the MWP, then maybe it would have been a bit less severe.\nBoth this and the Ipiutak discovery seventy years ago tend to confirm my belief that history can teach us a lot about climate change. Ipiutak does seem to provide very strong proof that, in one part of the Arctic at least, the climate was considerably warmer around two thousand years ago. I wonder how many other Ipiutak’s are waiting to be discovered underneath the ice sheets?\nI do find it quite funny when, with regard to Arctic ice, the scientists tell us to ignore the last year or so – when, inconveniently, the ice appears to be increasing – and to look at the long term trend. Trouble is, by ‘long term’ they probably mean around thirty years, the period covered by the satellites. Of course, if you really look at the long term evidence, including the historical record, then a very different picture emerges. Something very strange and suspicious emerges. It’s called ‘natural variability’. It also strongly suggests that – like shares – temperatures can go down as well as up.\nChris\nApril 29, 2009 at 9:39 am\nMike Lorrey (14:06:59) :\nHey folks, a StephenHudson fellow from Norway is vandalizing my edits on Wikipedia on the arctic articles adding the USS Skate. Can we get some support there? He is apparently an alarmist according to his user page.\nPerhaps you should give us the link where you are trying to edit?\nWillie Mac\nApril 29, 2009 at 5:02 pm\nYou simply have to stop publishing things factual Anthony. Research done in the ’70’s was succinct in determining that the human being is nine times more susceptible to rumor than it is to fact. Keeping that in mind, and observing that very mindset these days, we simply cannot have such things as facts and truth bandied about like so much scientific knowledge. Peoples brains might burst for goodness sakes! If the current iteration of Homo sapiens were to realize that not only is the planet more than 6k years old, but that between 6k to 7k years ago we had a sea level peak about 20 feet (6 meters) higher than today, or that at the LGM (Last Glacial Maximum, or ~17k years ago) sea levels were a mere 300 feet below present, they might be faced between the now time honored choice of whether or not to believe potential future facts (also known as model results) or rootin tootin facts themselves. Time honored in the context that all the way back to the Mid Pleistocene Transition interglacials tend to last just about half of a precessional cycle (which means this one is pretty much kaput since those cycles are 23k years and the Holocene is now at 11.5k years….), and that during the the last one (meaning interglacial, of course), the Eemian (also the one in which H. sapiens debuted on the evolutionary stage) sea levels only crested present day sea levels five times, and only a smidge higher than today (between 65 and 170 feet, depending on whose highstand data passes your rumor filter) we are probably right at pretty much where we should be, right at this very moment. That being, of course, on the precipice of the next abrupt climate change event. Those pesky reliable, dramatic and wholly unavoidable thingies that just happen to be responsible for the fastest encephalization of any creature in the entire fossil record. That being us of course. In the past 3 or so million years, or 33 said climate change events, Homo whatever went from an average of 500cc to 2500cc, and did so in the closest thing to a non-straight line as one can imagine. You don’t suppose it took near freezing to death during at least the past 7 deep freezes (90k or so years cold for every half precessional cycle warm) to weed out those amongst us prone to that thing we now define as a fatal mistake do you? Of course not! Homo neanderthalensis, H. heidelbergensis, H. erectus, H. ergaster, H. rudolfensis and H. habilis (first tool user and first homo derived from the australopithecines)? Oops! I wandered back into the days of the 41k year ice age/interglacial cycles (which match the obliquity in our orbit). My mistake. Too much fact for that hot global salsa, huh? What I was attempting to convey is that if those reliable, dramatic and completely unavoidable abrupt climate change events are remotely on schedule, we may very well be due for a long overdue braincase upgrade once again. By golly, given what I see being bandied about today about climate change, we could sure use one…….\nReply: If I may offer some friendly constructive criticism, the use of that clever invention known as paragraphs, combined with the joy of line breaks would make the above post easier to read as well as potentially more humorous. ~ charles the comedy critic moderator\nRobert Austin\n@Robert Austin (17:05:56)\n“So does your “greater confidence” extend so far that you consider the science ’settled’?”\nScientific theory is never “settled,” but until better theories resolve minor inconsistencies (like the tropospheric masking effects provided by volcanic eruptions and the mitigating effects on Atlantic storm formation by airborne Saharan sand), the current ones serve adequately. Solar forcing, however, has been demonstrated to be a minor contributor to Global Warming. Those who claim the last 8-10 years show a cooling trend never respond to requests for studies in support of that assertion, so what am I to imply other than they don’t exist?\nAGW at this stage is a hypothesis, not a theory. Your faction champions atmospheric concentration CO2 as a major driver of climate change but others feel your science is too weak and premature to justify Draconian measures against our way of life.\nSolar forcing has not been “demonstrated” (which I read as proved) to have only a minor role in climate variability. While TSR does not vary much over the short term, research continues on other solar factors and how they relate to earth’s climate. Besides, we have Lief here to rein us in if we stray too far into solar nonsense.\nWho needs a study to see a recent flat to cooling trend. You can look for yourself at the RSS or UAH global temperature anomaly charts and see that temperature trends have been flat to decreasing since 2002.\n“I imagine one can rationally favour the AGW hypothesis without raving about tipping points and polar bears dying.”\nI am not an alarmist, but I take extreme exception to current attempts by unqualified individuals to discredit studies supporting AGW. Claiming elitism is a spurious rebuttal for one’s lack of training in statistical analysis. If one wants to challenge science, one should be adequately trained in the tools of the trade.\nYour closing sentence below somewhat belies your claim of not being an alarmist. You are simply a well mannered alarmist. Take courteous extreme exception if you wish but it does not advance your case. Railing against criticism by alleged unqualified individuals is merely a back door appeal to authority. Your citation of skeptic lack of training in statistical analysis is a particularly inappropriate example on your part. The first string contributors at Climate Audit are easily a match in statistical analysis for your vaunted Taminos, Gavins and Manns.\n“The fact is that we are not going to appreciably reduce or CO2 production in the near future so it will be interesting to follow climate trends over the next decade.”\nUnfortunately true and ultimately discouraging. The prospect of accurately forecasting AGW effects, with the consequences like crop failure, famine, and competition for water rights and arable land, isn’t a comforting thought. It’s perhaps the only time we hope we’re wrong.\nIt is refreshing and reassuring to have an AGW proponent say that they hope they are wrong. Oddly, many of them convey the impression that they relish being right (and righteous!). Catastrophism has always had a perverse appeal to mankind.\nApril 29, 2009 at 7:14 pm\nQuestion ?\nIf it is accepted that our planet Earth has evolved over millions of years through ice ages and hot periods, why does man, whose existance here is minuscule, have the right to designate the “correct” climate for planet Earth. It has obviously and factually changed drasticaly through time, what gives us the right to select the “proper” climate?\nbarry\nMay 1, 2009 at 12:41 pm\nI don’t understand the fuss of the top post. Occasionally the ice floes constantly moving around the North Pole separate enough to leave some open water, and have done so for as long as we’ve had people studying 90 degrees North. No one has EVER claimed differently. It has always been impossible to establish a station at the NP because the ice shifts around a great deal. There are floating stations that pass over it and near it. It’s located in the ARCTIC OCEAN.\nhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Pole\nA year ago, there was scientific speculation that the North Pole (not the whole of the Arctic) melted out by the end of summer – that the sea ice might retreat in that location to leave the area ice free for days rather than hours.\nhttp://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/06/080620-north-pole.html\nThat didn’t happen. But polyanas opened up sporadically around the North Pole. Nothing unusual there.\nYou can make a new point about that, if you like, or hit back with any other deflection, even mention Gore, thereby invoking a variant of Godwin’s law.\nBut get this straight – the premise for all the above cheering and jeering is a straw man. Open water happens occasionally at the North Pole, allowing subs to surface, but its always surrounded by sea ice. Most often they have to break through the ice or push it aside. It’s never (since the last glacial maximum) been ice free from MELTING, only from ice movement, and only briefly. And the mid-20th century military expiditions are well-known by the climate scientists studying sea ice patterns up there.\nTwo year’s data, whether consecutive or far apart, does not make a climate trend. Period.\nbarry\nMay 1, 2009 at 12:51 pm\n“If it is accepted that our planet Earth has evolved over millions of years through ice ages and hot periods, why does man, whose existance here is minuscule, have the right to designate the “correct” climate for planet Earth. It has obviously and factually changed drasticaly through time, what gives us the right to select the “proper” climate?”\nThere is no ‘proper’ climate. All we know is we have flourished in a stable climate. The concern is not that climate will change. We know it will in the long run. We’re concerned with how fast we might be changing the climate now, if that will be bad for us, and if we shouldn’t change our behaviour.\nWe might ask if damning a river is a good idea. Some people downstream might take exception to their creek drying up. We answer that we’re ‘managing resources’, and then we sell them the water they used to get for free.\nOr how about a company polluting the river? Do we have any right to codify what is “good” water in that case?\nIt’s not like taking responsibility for the environment and resources is a new concept.\nnorah4you\nI would like to know where Al Gore was 20,000 years ago when my home state of Michigan was covered by ICE.\nrobot\nMay 6, 2009 at 12:55 pm\nplease help saving our precious earth just by switching of the A.C when not in the room you think u can do that or are to lazy. people please read and follow and tell other people to do the same and you will see the improvement.If you care about our world please tell other people to try to follow\nSmokey\nMay 6, 2009 at 1:25 pm\nrobot,\nMy wife makes fun of me because I follow her around the house, turning off lights. So I guess I’m doing my part, huh?\nMay 14, 2009 at 6:50 pm\nFools. Nuclear Subs are tracked by their hot water released from the nuclear reactor. Hot water rises. A nuke sitting in ice that it broke will melt the ice as it sits there. Notice that the water is around the the subs. The subs are not in open water, but nuke reactor melted pools. Duh. You do know that nuclear reactors have back up cooling systems because they operate at 600 degrees plus. Duh.\nREPLY: Bob, unless you are “being facetious”, as another commenter put it, you raised a point worth considering, so I looked to find an answer. A fellow employee happened to have several tours in a nuclear sub under his belt as a weapons officer and I asked him about the waste heat issue in this context.\nHe said it was negligible. I asked about older sub designs from the Skate era and he said they also had no detectable heat signature.\nHe said designers go to great lengths in sub design not to allow waste heat from the closed nuclear steam system into the water, since it would in fact become a signature that could be tracked. He also said that the NAVY had developed several test systems, trying to track waste heat as a way to track subs, and also to fine tune their own designs. He said that the systems were not successful in those tests.\nGiven that the premise of any submarine is stealth, the idea of allowing a big heat signature to escape into the surrounding water for an enemy to follow like a trail of bread crumbs seem highly unlikely.\nThe fact that the NAVY tried and failed to build such a detection system that actually functioned for that purpose seems to disprove the idea of significant wast heat. – Anthony\nbob is being facetious, I assume.\nmamapajamas\nMay 17, 2009 at 2:59 pm\nRobert… I sure HOPE he’s being facetious! The bottom pic shows exactly what he’s talking about… a pool of sub-warmed water around the sub, but several of those pics show subs on the surface in open ocean. Which is the point of the story… that Arctic ice is extremely variable.\ntyrred\nMay 18, 2009 at 10:58 am\nAl Gore is a politician, not a scientist. Do any of you even know a scientist? If you are intelligent enough to be a skeptic, do the rest of us a favor and get smarter – DO YOUR HOMEWORK. Scientists make mistakes, but the beauty of the scientific method is that you can always get more data, BUT YOU CAN NEVER HAVE ALL THE DATA. One must act on what one knows when there is a call for action. “Climate change” cannot possibly be “man-made”. However, only an idiot can deny that man irrevocably changes his environment. Ask yourself the question, “Do I consciously leave a positive change as my legacy to my children, or do I ignorantly leave a depleted and barren world to the rats and cockroaches?”\nGary Crough\nMay 23, 2009 at 10:22 am\nThe 1st photo labeled “Skate (SSN-578), surfaced at the North Pole, 17 March 1959. Image from NAVSOURCE” is not a photo of that historical surfacing … although the 2nd photo may be. The source “NAVSOURCE” does have that photo (online) and implies it is the historic 1st surfacing at the North Pole.\nI just read “Surface at the Pole” by Vice ADM. James Calvert, USN… the captain of the Skate during her 1st two missions (the surfacing in question & the maiden voyage of the sub to the Pole the previous summer).\nAccording to Captain Calvert the surfacing was in an ice-covered lead (as all these cracks in arctic ice tend to be in the winter). The lead was much to narrow for them to surface the previous summer but with the addition of a remote control TV (to view the surface) and armament (to allow the sub to break ice without damaging its periscope, radio equipment, etc.) it was possible. The problem is ice flows move and having one crash into the rudder or propeller would be disaster. But in the winter when they broke through the thin ice (it takes about a day to form 6 inches of ice over a new lead in the winter) the thin ice would hold them fast causing them to drift with the ice eliminating the possibility of having an ice flow (or worse the larger hummock often at the edge of a flow) damage the sub. There was no clear water around the sub during any wintertime surfacing. The previous summer they surfaced in the much larger melt lakes called polynyas. That is what the 1st photo looks like.\nI also disagree with the posting indicating the sub’s nuclear reactor melted ice around the sub. Subs may be tracked via tempature but that amount of heat is not allowed to escape. The water exposed to the reactor is in a closed loop (it is radioactive). It is brought into close proximity to the loop used to create the steam that ultimately drives the ship. That water is also recycled (the desire is to start with hot water when making steam).\nThe crew held a service at the pole and distributed the ashes of artic explorer Sir Hubert Wilkins in the “26-below-zero cold” (F). (The average winter temp is supposed to be –30F and the coldest the crew reported at any surfacing was –50F).\nAbout 30 of the crew walked out on the ice for this ceremony. There was no “open water” around the sub. According to Captain Calvert the polynyas of the summer did not exist that far north. The mission was to search for “sky lights” … thin ice formed in leads and then surface. This trick had been learned from beluga whales that would break through 6-8 inch thick ice in leads to get air.\nAs far as finding open water at the pole itself I agree with posters that point out the flows will have breaks in them and eventually there will be open water (in the summer) and thin ice (in the winter). In the summer the Skate was unable to surface at the pole. That winter they circled around for “several hours” before a lead appeared. That was no sure thing … but ice travels about 2.5 miles/day at the pole so they were hopeful and lucky.\n–this is my 1st posting so I hope it does not come across as negative\n–this is by-far the best site on GW issues\nBob_FJ\nGary Crough, you wrote about the Wilkins ceremony at the North Pole, which was discussed at the Guardian-Monboit thread: “How to disprove Booker in 26 seconds”\nHere is an abbreviated copy of post that I made over there\n~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~\nOnthefence, as indicated earlier, there are a number of things about the photograph that you posted commemorating the scattering of Wilkins’s ashes that I find puzzling… …let’s firstly look solely at CONTRAST in photography, that is relevant to your post.\nThe first thing that struck me about your photo, was the excessive contrast. (on my 78 cm widescreen high quality TV monitor).\nThis gives a very forbidding or grim view on the scene, that I, (being a past enthusiast hobbyist with B & W photography), did not believe to be uhm “genuine“. Of course, it is only partially possible to recover any “errors” in “correction” of contrast without the original, but working backwards from a probably corrupt version, I’ve improved the original HEREWITH, (using basic Nero), and have red-highlighted some points to follow:\nIf you then look at the separately contrast enhanced images of the two individuals highlighted, let me say firstly of (1) that this person, despite the heavy clothing appears to have a bust-line, and, if , depending on the quality of your monitor, and if you zoom out to maybe 200% or more, and even squint if necessary, this person appears to be female. Additionally the height of this individual is typically female WRT to the others that are probably male\nWRT individual 2, although the very low light behind the conning tower does not enable the outline of a bust to be detected, the hairstyle does not appear to be according to military practice with males. Again, if you zoom as necessary depending on your monitor, what can be made of the face, perhaps aided by squinting, suggests that this individual is female. Additionally, the said person has a stature typically female compared with those adjacent.\nAlso, 3, might be female.\nI would be a bit surprised if a nuclear submarine back in 1959 had a crew including 2, maybe 3 or more females!\nI repeat that depending on your monitor, (which should be of good quality) you need to zoom out A/R\nMore to come on some other issues.\n~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~\nHowever, the thread has been terminated for no apparent reason\nGary Crough\nMay 25, 2009 at 12:08 pm\nBob_FJ There were no females on the Skate during either of the 1st two deployments (both to North Pole … 2nd in March). The entire crew ( ~ 90 and 11 scientists/technicians) is listed in the book. They are all male.\nThe photo you provide is in the book (listed as an official USN photo). This is winter (March) so there was not a lot of sunlight. The caption in the book says”by the lurid light of red flares” … maybe that is meaningful to photo experts.\nThere are very likely civilians in the photo as they were a key part of the “crew”. They included arctic experts and Wado Lyon (the WW2 expert on sub detection who was also the inventor of the “ice detector” used to measure ice thickness above the sub).\nBTW: I expect the photo you reference is authentic.\nI also think the 1st photo on this thread is authentic. NAVSOURCE (not a part of the Navy) incorrectly (in my opinion) implies it is the original surfacing at the North Pole. In the arctic winter seawater (at 28 F) will start to freeze in seconds when exposed to -30 F air. For that reason “open water” does not persist at the North Pole in the winter.\nBob_FJ\nMay 26, 2009 at 12:54 am\nGary Crough, you wrote in part to me:\n“…The entire crew ( ~ 90 and 11 scientists/technicians) [of the Skate in 1959] is listed in the book… …The photo you provide is in the book (listed as an official USN photo). This is winter (March) so there was not a lot of sunlight. The caption in the book says” by the lurid light of red flares” …”\nWell actually, the image I provided was an IMPROVED version, where excessive contrast is ameliorated as far as is capable from the original possibly corrupt very forbidding Byrd image. (See below)\nI don’t want to sound like a lecturer, but a feature of diffused lighting such as in twilight is that shadows are much softened or are absent. Conversely, in bright unfiltered sunshine, there is little diffusion and shadows tend to be problematic photographically, and a common technique to overcome this problem, is to use flash illumination, to fill-in foreground subjects that may be shaded, despite that it is a bright sunny day. This is seldom necessary on an overcast day, where the light is less, but much more diffuse. What is more, twilight in polar regions is typically even more diffuse, (for various reasons), and more prolonged than at lower latitudes.\nI can explain later that it appears that a high quality camera was used, yet out of some 101 people aboard the sub, it seems that no one knew how to take a twilight photo!\nIf you examine the image above, the people on the left are seemingly silhouetted and rather overexposed to diffused light from their rear. (they do not cast shadows). However, those on the right, on this side of the conning tower, are seemingly badly underexposed! This simply does NOT make sense! If there was apparent shade to port of the conning tower, why did they not simply walk around the starboard side where it was brighter?\nOK, you refer to flares being used to illuminate the scene. So where are they? Surely they would not be on the starboard side. The only sensible location would be behind the field of view of the camera, and since the conning tower is a mid grey in colour, it should be well brightened, but it is not. Additionally the light from flares (or flash) is NOT diffused, (except in fog), and should cast shadows behind the foreground people. So where are the shadows? Do you seriously believe that they would not have with them photographic flash if there was any suspicion that it might be dark there, momentarily before the equinox!\nThere are yet other points that strongly suggest that this image is a commemorative RECONSTRUCTION, but meanwhile let’s return to my analysis that two or more of the people in the commemorative image are women.\nHuMcCulloch, (He impresses me as very analytical, either for or against various topics), on the original thread did not disagree with me that two or more of the persons at the commemorative image appear to be female, because he suggested that maybe the wife or daughters were invited along for the ceremony.\nHowever, you say that there were no females aboard Skate!\nI also seem to recall that there were reportedly some thirty celebrants (out of some 101 aboard you say) out on the ice, but I can only see thirteen. What does your book say?\nGary Crough\nMay 26, 2009 at 5:15 am\nBob_FJ, I have no expertise in photo reconstruction and am not going to get into that. I just met the photos were of the same subject not that they are identical.\nThe civilians aboard were: Craamer Bacque, Waldo Lyon, Robert Merton, Zane Sandusky, W Schatzburg, David Scull, Robert Wadell and Walter Whitman. All others were Navy officers and enlisted … including James Hester (quoted in the original piece … below 2nd photo).\nAt that time females were not part of any USN ship’s crew. Given the book’s account and normal logic I would say: there were no females at the service.\nThe ship’s official photographer was Lt. Bruce Meader but the book does not state that he took that photo. Back then an official photographer would have some training but might not be considered an expert by today’s standards.\nA note on taking photos at the pole … the captain took off his mittens to take a photo at an early surfacing and got frostbite in the “-20 F air”. Also the camera equipment for the official photographer froze up at the 1st surfacing (they did something to prevent that in the future … just covering the camera body I assume).\nThe person just below the “7” should be Captain Calvert since the caption says “the author reads a memorial service for Sir Hubert Wilkins”. He is 6′ 2″ (that’s what he says when talking about stooping slightly to move down the passages of the sub”).\nThe photo in question was the only photo in the book listed as “U.S. Navy, Official”. Others were by the Captain or from Naval records but not listed as “Official”. That may imply the photo was taken by Lt. Meader … I don’t know.\nThe book says a there was a “wind (about 30 knots)” … “about 30 of the crew formed ranks on either side of the table in 26-below-zero cold” … we were on the port side of the Skate and as much to its lee as possible … it was to difficult to read without some light so men held red flares on both sides of the alterlike table”. I had forgotten that detail but retrieved the book to answer your questions. “The remainder of the crew lined up on the deck of the Skate and a rifle squad formed at the bow.” I don’t think they ever leave an active ship without a duty squad aboard but it sounds like most of the crew was outside for the service. (85-90 people including civilians I would guess)\nLt. David Boyd is likely a figure next to the captain since he was the one that took the urn and “sprinkled the ashes to the wind”. (I assume the alter (table) is in the immediate foreground of the photo — had to be close enough so the red flares would have provided light for reading?)\nMay 26, 2009 at 7:03 am\nThe ship’s official photographer was Lt. Bruce Meader but the book does not state that he took that photo. Back then an official photographer would have some training but might not be considered an expert by today’s standards.\nNot sure how things were back then, but my son-in-law is the “official photographer for the Destroyer he’s on. He was given that position because he had a camera and was willing to do it. That’s it.\nGary Crough\nMay 26, 2009 at 9:34 am\nA sub would normally not have any more “official photographer” than your son but this was a research mission and they took apparently took along some fancy equipment … including a movie camera. My guess is Lt. Meader was NOT a full-time photographer but did have some training. Apparently Lt. Meader had a lot of camera equipment … the book mentions him lugging it down while attempting to keep from banging it into the sub. Between deployments men were sent to school for training … given the nature of this mission having a trained photographer would have been a higher priority than normal. But this is pure speculation on my part.\nGary Crough, thankyou for your interest and your (05:15:45) :\nTaking some of your points from the top\n“…The person just below the “7? should be Captain Calvert since the caption says “the author reads a memorial service for Sir Hubert Wilkins”. He is 6′ 2? (that’s what he says when talking about stooping slightly to move down the passages of the sub”)…”\nI had noted that the reader appears to have a tall torso, however, the “table or alter” in front of him seemingly shields view of his feet, but I get your point about the relative stature of individuals 1 and 2, if the reader in this image is indeed Calvert. (I still think 1 and 2 are female). I might optimise the image contrast on the reader, and take another look.\n“…The book says a there was a “wind (about 30 knots)” [~35 mph/56 kmh]… … we were on the port side of the Skate and as much to its lee as possible …”\nWell, shelter from any wind of some of the celebrants is a good reason for some of them to be on the relatively dark port side of the conning tower, but as mentioned earlier, the light would be very diffuse, and various methods of contrast adjustment are available. I believe the published image is either incompetent, or, the contrast has been deliberately exaggerated to make it look like a grim scene, or it is a grim reconstruction.\nIncidentally several individuals appear to be wearing relatively light gloves, and the reader might be bare left handed. One appears to be bare headed, and another maybe or lightly so.\n“…about 30 of the crew formed ranks on either side of the table in 26-below-zero cold”…”\nHowever, only ten such people are deployed in the image.\n“…it was to difficult to read without some light so men held red flares on both sides of the alterlike table”…”\nThere is no evidence of this in the image, including no shadows behind the celebrants, and no apparent brightening of the mid-grey conning tower.\n“The remainder of the crew lined up on the deck of the Skate and a rifle squad formed at the bow.” I don’t think they ever leave an active ship without a duty squad aboard but it sounds like most of the crew was outside for the service. (85-90 people including civilians I would guess)\nHowever, where is the deck in this image? In this image, Skate has not actually surfaced, with apparently only the conning tower having punched through the ice. The deck would be beneath 1 or 2 feet of ice! Why is there no one near the front of the conning tower? Three individuals are seen way to starboard of the vessel on the ice, fully exposed to alleged wind, and do not appear to be hooded.\nThere some other things about this image that are rather strange, but maybe this is enough for now.\n~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~\nIn an earlier post, you wrote in part:\n“…In the arctic winter seawater (at 28 F) will start to freeze in seconds when exposed to -30 F air. For that reason “open water” does not persist at the North Pole in the winter…”\nI think, (as a professional engineer), that this is an exaggeration. Water is a good conductor of heat, (from below to the surface), and has been shown to be rather dynamic up there!\nHave you followed the antics of the Catlin Expedition, and Pen Haddow’s earlier adventure? The latest trip suffered several problems including that on some days they made negative progress because inconveniently, the ice that they were trekking on was moving more rapidly towards their rear. (and they only got part-way to their destination; the NP)\nGary Crough\nMay 27, 2009 at 5:51 am\nBob_FJ: I made up the part about “seconds”. In the trip the previous summer the captain used the periscope to survey a melt lake prior to completing a surface but the periscope proved useless in the winter. When they broke through the ice and then raised the periscope they could see nothing. A water film had frozen and made the periscope useless for wintertime use above water. That happens in seconds; instantly as far as the Captain could tell. Also, according to famous arctic explorer Vilohjalmur Stefansson (who the Captain met at Dartmonth where he taught) “In still air and tempatures at 30 below, the sea water will freeze 6 inches the 1st day, four more the second day and so on. In a week you’d have a foot and a half or so.”\nYou mention the sub is not completely surfaced. Normally the deck would be several feet above the ice (over 6 feet). In this case it looks to me that the deck is a foot or two above the ice … you can see a bit of the deck to the left of the tower. Thicker ice (and this was apparently the thickest they surfaced in) did not fall away from the sub but remained in slabs against the sub. The deck being only 2-3 feet above the ice would be consistent with the account in the book. If the deck is not above water no one is going to be leaving the sub.\nAs for the Catlin adventure … I think it is misguided. Clearly much more than they hoped to learn (and they learned only a fraction of what they hoped) could be obtained via any sub in a fraction of the time. In addition, more detailed information on ice thickness was obtained via a scientific fly-over that took place before the Catlin adventure ended.\nAt the time of the Skate adventure the “ice machine” (a modified version of the tool used by subs to record depth could detect “thin and thick ice” but to an accuracy of only a couple of feet … my bet is current subs can make measurements within inches??\nDA. Freiberg\nMay 27, 2009 at 7:40 am\nBob_FJ, could you take a look at my summary of Comdr. Calvert’s National Geographic article on the https://wattsupwiththat.com/2009/05/17/quote-of-the-week-8-monbiot-looks-like-ive-boobed/ link? The original of the picture (I assume you’re talking about the OSU picture of the ceremony) is actually in COLOR, not B/W. The picture posted as OSU is a very poor copy.\nIn the National Geographic article, the torch in on individual’s hand (to the left as you look at the picture) is quite clear and very red.\nAlso, there are two other pictures from the ceremony. Both of them are in color and the lighting is better.\nComdr. Calvert did mention that they were in a storm. Since, as far as I can tell, he’d never been in a storm at the Pole before, he may have attributed less to the storm than correct. If you look at the NOAA artic picture for May 17th or so, they were having a storm then. Looked pretty dark and yet it was well after sunrise.\nDA. Freiberg\nMay 27, 2009 at 7:57 am\nP.S. to Bob_FJ, the National Geographic article shows personnel in the tower (I think it’s called the “sail” but I’m no submariner, that seems to be what Comdr. Calvert is referring to), as well as all the way down to the ice. The personnel are putting up flags of the US, GB and Australia if I remember correctly, for the service. The picture is also in color. It may have been taken from the other side versus the side the ceremony was held on. The sub seems to be about as far “surfaced” as in any other picture we’ve seen.\nGary Crough, thanks for the link to the book! If it’s as good as the National Geographic article, it must be a gem.\nBottom line is, air temps -26 to -30 [F], March 17-25, 1959. Water temp 30 ABOVE [F]. Catlin expedition encountered air temp of -40 [F] in 2009. That twit that took a swim in July 2007 did so in 29 above [F] water.\nStill no ice breakup as of May 27 per NOAA http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/latest/noaa1.jpg yet we’ve got the “triple surfacing” picture from the 1980’s.\nIf water and air temps are the same, the differences have to be winds and currents, not global warming. Comdr. Calvert’s data must be referenced in the future any time we get the “ice free north pole” drivel.\nGary Crough\nMay 27, 2009 at 10:25 am\nDA. Freiberg: Thanks for the input … especially reference to a color photo. You are right about the flags. Sir Wilkins was born in Australia, did his famous feats (fly over Pole etc.) for GB and made his final home in the US.\nSome final comments on conditions: This was the most difficult surfacing they did due to the small size of the lead and the thickness of the ice. Once outside Walt Whitman (arctic expert aboard) warned that they should not linger. The ice appeared to be on the move. (a big danger was having a lead close and capture the sub). So they did the ceremony … placed an American flag at the pole … and left.\nNow back to the topic of this site: GW. The flag and the note left in a waterproof container are expected to end up on the shores of Greenland. That’s where the currents carried the ship Jeannette. The arctic ocean currents carry things southeast from the pole at 2-3 miles/day. What this implies to me is there is 2nd-year ice and maybe some 3rd year ice but not much older than that. All the arctic ice is on the move and will eventually leave the arctic and melt?\nIn the previous trip (summer) the Skate visited Alfa (a research station placed on an ice flow which was drifting with the currents. Alfa was about 300 miles southwest of the pole and how the Skate located this moving target is an interesting story.\nAlfa was established in April 1957 “about 550 miles north of Barrow Alaska”. By August 1958 it was 900 miles NE of Barrow. The ice was to thin and weak to land planes in the summer so the sub was the only visitors the research team had seen in months. (They got mail & supplies via air drop) The flow was selected with hopes it would drift to the pole but that was not going to happen. In 2-3 years that flow was expected to reach Greenland … as does the ice at the pole itself.\nBecause of these currents it seems to me that the importance of “multi-year ice” is overstated. The arctic ocean is a big ice machine with water flowing in from the N Pacific, freezing and then melting as it moves to the N Atlantic. There are a couple of circular currents that may delay some ice but ice older than 3-4 years is rare??? Is that true? Anyway, once the ice reaches S Greenland in the summer it does not matter how old it is … it is going to melt.\na reader\nMay 27, 2009 at 1:14 pm\nDA. Freiberg\nIf you still have your NatGeo CD, would you see if you can find the July 1940 issue and skim through the article by Robert Bartlett on Greenland since 1898 and see if it is worth reading. I can’t find a copy locally and am not sure I want to spend the money to purchase it online. Can you read the articles on that CD without printing them out or is the technology so old that it doesn’t work on modern computers? If it’s a long article and is expensive to print, don’t go to any trouble–I just thought it might be interesting. Bartlett had a very long history of arctic exploration.\nBob_FJ\nGary Crough (05:51:41) : DA. Freiberg (07:40:58) & (07:57:25) :\nVery interesting, and thanks!\nI will try with considerable interest, when I have time, to dig-up the National Geographic article with its “better” photos etc…. my word, what a strange and interesting affair!\nAccording to that great purveyor of truth; Onthefence, at the Guardian:\n“…Ohio State University Libraries Exhibitions, [is] part of the Byrd Polar Research Center Archival Program. This archive collects material about Sir George Hubert Wilkins…”\nIt thus seems very strange that National Geographic has a better photographic record than the said devoted archive! Oh well, whatever is behind all this, it seems that I was correct in suggesting that the OSU-Byrd archival B & W photo of the ceremony, first posted by Onthefence at the Guardian, is, in a word; crap. (please advise if you disagree)\nThere are several things in our exchanges here that I still have problems with, and a simple example is that I do not believe it to be practical for the crew to assemble in numbers on the deck, covered in ice. (no such crew being visible in the ceremonial image, and the sensible {safest?} place might be near the conning tower, within camera view!)\nDespite all this confusion, I think it has been well demonstrated that polar sea ice in the Arctic, and newly OPENING leads are very dynamic. Furthermore, maybe our recent very multi-faceted discussions are getting us bogged-down. What‘s more, the same sort of message as launched by Anthony’s lead post (especially in the first image) can also be seen, and arguably more dramatically in the 18 May 1987 rendezvous of three submarines at the NP. (See lead photo above).\nAh; but it was not at the peak of winter freeze right? True, but take a look at the following graphic, and it shows that mid May is characteristically not much different to mid March in terms of ice levels!\nSo, the alarmist claim is that in recent years, there has been a dramatic acceleration in melt of sea-ice around the Arctic/NP. Well what about the conning tower break-through of the USS Charlotte through not 1 or 2 feet of ice, or water, as previously, but ~5 feet of ice in 2005”, Here follows some discussion, with links to the text and the photo:\nIn recent years, journeys to the North Pole by air (landing by helicopter or on a runway prepared on the ice) or by icebreaker have become relatively routine, and are even available to small groups of tourists through adventure holiday companies.\nIn 2005, the United States Navy submarine USS Charlotte (SSN-766) surfaced through 155 cm (61 inches) of ice at the North Pole and spent 18 hours there.[21]\nIncidentally, in checking the Boyd-Wilkins archive, I found this STARBOARD view:\nUSS Skate surfacing at the North Pole, March 17, 1959. Wilkins 35-5-1.\nHMM! WRPT various other comments!!!!!\nBob_FJ\nMay 28, 2009 at 11:29 pm\nGary Crough (05:51:41), I did not have time before this to comment on your:\n“…As for the Catlin adventure … I think it is misguided. Clearly much more than they hoped to learn (and they learned only a fraction of what they hoped) could be obtained via any sub in a fraction of the time. In addition, more detailed information on ice thickness was obtained via a scientific fly-over that took place before the Catlin adventure ended…”\nI agree, but also putting aside that it is impossible to measure change without some comparative datum, what really irritates me about the whole adventure, is that despite his previous “accident prone” polar screw-up, Haddow et al somehow managed to convince some gullible people to cough-up a great chunk of money to fund it!!!!!\nLudicrous!\nMay 28, 2009 at 11:51 pm\nDA. Freiberg (07:57:25), you wrote in part:\n“…If water and air temps are the same, the differences have to be winds and currents, not global warming. Comdr. Calvert’s data must be referenced in the future any time we get the “ice free north pole” drivel.”\nGary Crough (10:25:23) , you also wrote in part:\n“…Because of these currents it seems to me that the importance of “multi-year ice” is overstated. The arctic ocean is a big ice machine with water flowing in from the N Pacific, freezing and then melting as it moves to the N Atlantic. There are a couple of circular currents that may delay some ice but ice older than 3-4 years is rare??? Is that true? Anyway, once the ice reaches S Greenland in the summer it does not matter how old it is … it is going to melt.”\nConcerning the so-called record melts in 2007 & 2008, here is an extract from a NASA – JPL study, that we don’t hear a lot about at NSIDC or from the usual alarmists:\n“…Nghiem said the rapid decline in winter perennial ice the past two years was caused by unusual winds. “Unusual atmospheric conditions set up wind patterns that compressed the sea ice, loaded it into the Transpolar Drift Stream and then sped its flow out of the Arctic,” he said. When that sea ice reached lower latitudes, it rapidly melted in the warmer waters…”\nMay 30, 2009 at 1:20 am\nI was drafting an anti cap-and-trade letter to my Congressman and was going to include that 1st sub photo. So I thought I would verify it was legit; It is posted with a misleading label on NAVSOURCE but I could not find any other source. Then I stumbled on “Surface at the Pole” and got a copy. That book made it clear Skate never surfaced in open water at the pole in the winter. Bad news for deniers.\nBut it also made it clear that arctic ice is in constant motion and the idea of using it as a proxy for global temp is a stretch. At any given specific point a given ice flow will linger only a few days. So if you measured the depth of ice at the pole one day and came back in a week chances are you would be sampling a different ice flow … one that may have taken a very different path to get to the pole … so it could be thicker or thinner based on how long it had lingered in the arctic. And if you were lucky (like the Skate) you may even find fresh (thin) ice formed over a lead. Until that sunk in I thought the Navy studies were silly.\nHere is a Navy study: http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA474361&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf\nThe Navy takes ice thickness readings with its subs and produces average arctic ice thickness data. The readings are almost continuous during a given trip (and apparently accurate within a centimeter) but each sub takes a totally different route so how can you compare month-to-month or year-to-year with the Navy data. You can’t. Nor does it matter since a given ice flow does not linger anywhere for a month much less a year. So the Navy approach actually makes sense?? They cover a huge area taking lots of samples and simply conclude the average ice thickness in the arctic circle is X. They have been doing that for years.\nMore bad news for alarmists: As late as 2007 the Nave thought arctic ice was decreasing in thickness.\nBut I recall reading a comment from a Navy officer stating (just prior to the Catlin trip) that arctic ice had been growing over a centimeter a year for the past couple years. That comment struck me because the Navy seemed to know what the Catlin team wanted to find out??? Problem is I have been unable to relocate that statement. Does anyone recall a such a statement? I believe it was an answer to a question of what the Catlin group could expect to find.\ncommonsense\nJune 6, 2009 at 10:09 am\nBefore posting these old news to claim that thin ice is usual in the arctic, you must READ these news. If you have did so, you would have find this:\n” The Ice at the polar ice cap is an AVERAGE of 6-8 feet thick, but with the wind and tides the ice will crack and open into large polynyas (areas of open water), these areas will refreeze over with thin ice.”\nThat obviously mean that ice in 1958-59 was thick (2-3 meters), and these were only HOLES made by wind and tides.\nBy contrast, ice in last year hit an AVERAGE of 2 m (6 feet) in winter and less than 1m (3 feet) in summer. That means that between 1980 and 2007 ( in 2008-2009 the numbers are probably worse) , combining thickness and area data, the arctic loss approximately 30-40% of winter ice volume and 70 % of summer ice volume.\nTHIS POST IS , FOR ALL THIS , SELF-CONTRADICTORY.\njacquesdelacroix\nI believe you jogged my memory. I have a recollection of the same pictures of subs at the North Pole with caps in French about that time, in a French newspaper. Thanks.\njacquesdelacroix\nJune 21, 2009 at 6:50 pm\nI also want to make a comment on some of the comments on this blog: Of course, isolated evidence is only anecdotal evidence. If there is enough of it though, it’s no isolated any more and therefore, not anecdotal. The accusation of “cherry-picking” is void. That’s how reversals of evidence begin, with tiny attempts by opposing parties to choose between two or more hypotheses. It’s been like this since before Aristotle. It seems to me that globalwarmists have lost track of the simple idea of competing hypotheses. I don’t really expect them to change their minds. I only hope such evidence as the sub pictures will introduce a doubt about dogma in the minds of the many people who are honestly undecided. I have hope because I know many of these.", "Submarines reach North Pole\nBritish and Americans Rendezvous at Pole\nHMS Tireless pops up for a peek.\nThe Arctic was a little less tranquil on April 19, 2004 when the American fast-attack submarine USS Hampton and the Royal Navy submarine HMS Tireless popped up at the \"top of the world\". They surfaced at the North Pole through two naturally occurring leads or \"gaps\" in the ice about 1/2 mile / .8 km from each other.\nThe ice exercise demonstrated the U.S. and British Submarine Force's ability to navigate freely in international waters, including under the ice in the Arctic Ocean - the harshest maritime environment on Earth!\nNuclear submarines can stay submerged for months at a time, and following a joint operational exercise under the polar ice cap, both submarines surfaced and the crews met on the ice. Crewmembers had been crammed on board the submarines under the ice for weeks, so they were glad to get out for a stroll and take in the stark beauty of the Arctic wilderness.\nUSS Hampton at the North Pole.\nHey! Watch out for polar bears ! On a previous US submarine mission, the crew watched in amazement as a curious bear chewed the fin and external casing of their vessel.\nWhen the British and American crews met, they hoped to play a game of soccer on the ice cap, but the game was called off due to too much snow on the playing field. The crew of the USS Hampton did, however, make a sign reading \"North Pole\" and posted it on the ice.\nScientists were also on board to monitor global warming effects on the polar cap and take measurements of the thickness of the ice underwater. The permanent ice pack at the North Pole has retreated 100 miles / 160 km north in recent years and can thin in the summer to as little as 6 ft / 1.8 meters. Overall, ice in the Arctic has diminished by about 40% in the past 20 years, according to research.\n\"INVADERS!\"\nThe first submarine to reach the Pole was the nuclear powered submarine USS Nautilus . The sub left Pearl Harbor, Hawaii on July 28, 1958, travelled through the Bering Strait and under the Arctic ice pack and reached the geographic North Pole on August 3. It then completed the trans-polar voyage by continuing to Portland, England.\nWe have been unable to confirm whether or not the navies were also looking for a missing iceberg - thought to be inhabited by Throps and Squallhoots.\nLINKS:", "For The First Time (or the last time): 1958: first submarine reaches North Pole\nFor The First Time (or the last time)\nwhen things changed in society and technology\nThursday, August 30, 2007\n1958: first submarine reaches North Pole\nExpeditions to the South and North Poles began as early as the 1500s, but many of them encountered extreme conditions that forced them to turn back. Other expeditions suffered great tragedy and losses due to rampant illness among crew members, violent encounters with indigenous peoples, and navigation difficulties. The earliest seafaring vessels were wooden ships powered only by sails, hardly a worthy match for the extreme ice conditions at the ends of the Earth. But as sea trade increased, ships became more powerful, sturdy, and capable of enduring the severe conditions faced by crews as they made their way north and southward.\nThe timeline below represents some of the milestones in exploration and science in the Earth's polar regions during the last 200 years or so.\n1773: Using his exceptional navigation skills, Captain James Cook and his crew become the first to cross the Antarctic Circle, confirming that the southern continent is an extremely icy and forbidding place. Previously, there had been hopes of a \"second Europe\" somewhere at high southern latitudes in the South Pacific.\n1823: Englishman James Weddell sails to 74° South and penetrates the sea that bears his name today. This is the farthest south reached up to that time. The Weddell Sea would not be reached again until 1914, by Ernest Shackleton.\n1827: Sir William Edward Parry, with James Clark Ross, attempts to reach the North Pole by sledge from Spitsbergen. He is forced to turn back, due to the fatigue of his party, but gets as far as 82° 45' North, establishing a Farthest North record that will stand for 50 years.\n1881-84: As America's contribution to the International Polar Year, Adolphus Greely leads an expedition to the Arctic to establish a station at remote Lady Franklin Bay on Ellesmere Island. A major goal of the expedition was to try and reach the Pole, or at least plant the U.S. flag on a new Farthest North point. Although he managed to reach 83° 24' North, farther than any previous attempts, he never reached the North Pole, and 19 of his 25 men died waiting for a rescue expedition.\n1882-83: The first International Polar Year (IPY) is established, with eleven nations agreeing to establish 15 new observation stations in the Arctic and Antarctica.\n1892: Norwegian Carl Larsen lands his ship, the Jason, near the Antarctic Peninsula on Seymour Island. He discovers fossils that become the first evidence of a previous warmer climate in Earth's polar regions.\n1893-95: One man's demise was another man's claim to fame. When wreckage from the ill-fated Jeannette expedition was found on the southwest coast of Greenland, it was quickly deduced that the wood fragments had drifted across the Arctic Ocean. Norwegian explorer Fridtjof Nansen concluded that perhaps a ship could do the same thing. In a new, state-of-the-art ship designed to rise under lateral pressure from the ice, called the Fram, Nansen and Otto Sverdrup drifted across the Arctic Ocean. When the ship became frozen in the Arctic pack ice near the New Siberian Islands, Nansen and Frederik Johansen left the Fram and tried to reach the North Pole by traveling over the ice. Although they were forced to turn back, they surpassed 86° North and established a new Farthest North Record. The entire expedition took nearly three years, during which time a significant amount of scientific data were collected.\n1903-05: Roald Amundsen completes the first successful navigation of the Northwest Passage on his ship, the Gjoa. The survival skills he learned from the Inuit people while wintering at Gjoa Haven played a large role in his future exploration successes.\n1908: Explorers Ernest Shackleton, Frank Wild, Eric Marshall, and Jameson Adams attempt to reach the South Pole. Within 30 days, they surpass Robert Scott's 1903 effort, but illness and under-nourishment forces them to turn back, despite having come within 97 nautical miles of the South Pole. Shackleton reaches a greater latitude during this trip than had yet been reached in the North.\n1909: After two previous attempts (1902 and 1906), Robert Peary reaches the North Pole on April 6, 1909. Peary had learned from his assistant Matthew Henson the value of observing Eskimo ways, and he also believed that his chances of success would be greater by starting in late winter, when the ice was firmer, than in summer. The expedition set off from Ellesmere Island on March 1, 1909, with 23 men, 133 dogs, and 19 sleds. Only six men (Peary, Hensen, and four Eskimos) completed the final 133 miles to the North Pole, the remaining men having returned to land after completing their portions of the expedition. Peary's claim comes just days after Frederick Cook's false claim of having reached the North Pole a year earlier.\n1911-12: Both Roald Amundsen and Robert Scott reach the South Pole. Amundsen's team arrives first on December 14, 1911, after discovering a new route that took only 57 days. Scott's team arrives on January 18, 1912, only to find that Amundsen had already been there and planted a Norwegian flag. Completely dispirited by their failure to reach the Pole first and physically ravaged by a tortuous journey, Scott and all five members of the team that accompanied him to the Pole perish on the return trip.\n1926: In a joint American-Italian-Norwegian expedition, Roald Amundsen and Lincoln Ellsworth set out from Spitsbergen on the airship Norge, commanded by Umberto Nobile and piloted by Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen. After a 16-hour flight, the crew reaches the North Pole on the morning of May 12, 1926, where they drop the Norwegian, Italian, and American flags.\n1930: On November 29, flying from a base at the Bay of Whales, Richard Byrd and three fellow explorers become the first to fly over the South Pole in a flight that lasted 18 hours, 41 minutes.\n1932-33: The Second International Polar Year takes place, with 40 nations participating in Arctic research. Due to the worldwide depression, the second IPY is smaller than originally envisioned.\n1957-58: The Third International Polar Year (later renamed the International Geophysical Year) begins with a strong Antarctic effort by scientists from 67 countries. The Amundsen-Scott Base at the South Pole is constructed to facilitate Operation Deepfreeze, a series of scientific expeditions to Antarctica.\n1958: On August 3, the USS Nautilus becomes the first submarine to reach the North Pole. After 96 hours and 1830 miles submerged under the Arctic ice cap, it surfaces in the Greenland Sea. (info from the University of Arizona)\nPosted by" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "John_Glenn.txt" ], "title": [ "John Glenn" ], "wiki_context": [ "John Herschel Glenn, Jr. (born July 18, 1921), (Col, USMC, Ret.), is a former aviator, engineer, astronaut, and United States senator. He was selected as one of the \"Mercury Seven\" group of military test pilots selected in 1959 by NASA to become America's first astronauts and fly the Project Mercury spacecraft. On February 20, 1962, Glenn flew the Friendship 7 mission and became the first American to orbit the Earth and the fifth person in space, after cosmonauts Yuri Gagarin and Gherman Titov and the sub-orbital flights of Mercury astronauts Alan Shepard and Gus Grissom. Glenn is the earliest-born American to go to orbit, and the second earliest-born man overall after Soviet cosmonaut Georgy Beregovoy. Glenn received the Congressional Space Medal of Honor in 1978, and was inducted into the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame in 1990. With the death of Scott Carpenter on October 10, 2013, Glenn became the last surviving member of the Mercury Seven.\n \nGlenn resigned from NASA on January 16, 1964, and the next day announced plans to run for a U.S. Senate seat from Ohio; however, a bathroom fall which resulted in a concussion caused him to withdraw from the race in March. He retired from the Marine Corps on January 1, 1965. A member of the Democratic Party, he finally won election to the Senate in 1974 and served through January 3, 1999. With the death of Edward Brooke on January 3, 2015, Glenn became the oldest living former United States Senator.\n\nOn October 29, 1998, while still a sitting senator, he became the oldest person to fly in space, and the only one to fly in both the Mercury and Space Shuttle programs, when at age 77, he flew as a Payload Specialist on Discovery mission STS-95. He was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2012.\n\nEarly life, education and military service\n\nJohn Glenn was born on July 18, 1921, in Cambridge, Ohio, the son of John Herschel Glenn, Sr. (1895–1966) and Teresa () Glenn (1897–1971). He was raised in New Concord, Ohio. \n\nAfter graduating from New Concord High School in 1939, he studied Engineering at Muskingum College. He earned a private pilot's license for credit in a physics course in 1941. Glenn did not complete his senior year in residence or take a proficiency exam, both requirements of the school for the Bachelor of Science degree. However, the school granted Glenn his degree in 1962, after his Mercury space flight. \n\nWorld War II\n\nWhen the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor brought the United States into World War II, Glenn quit college to enlist in the U.S. Army Air Corps. However, he was never called to duty, and in March 1942 enlisted as a United States Navy aviation cadet. He went to the University of Iowa for preflight training, then continued on to NAS Olathe, Kansas, for primary training. He made his first solo flight in a military aircraft there. During his advanced training at the NAS Corpus Christi, he was offered the chance to transfer to the U.S. Marine Corps and took it. \n\nUpon completing his training in 1943, Glenn was assigned to Marine Squadron VMJ-353, flying R4D transport planes. He transferred to VMF-155 as an F4U Corsair fighter pilot, and flew 59 combat missions in the South Pacific. He saw combat over the Marshall Islands, where he attacked anti-aircraft batteries on Maloelap Atoll. In 1945, he was assigned to NAS Patuxent River, Maryland, and was promoted to captain shortly before the war's end.\n\nGlenn flew patrol missions in North China with the VMF-218 Marine Fighter Squadron, until it was transferred to Guam. In 1948 he became a flight instructor at NAS Corpus Christi, Texas, followed by attending the Amphibious Warfare School.\n\nKorean War\n\nDuring the Korean War, Glenn was assigned to VMF-311, flying the new F9F Panther jet interceptor. He flew his Panther in 63 combat missions, gaining the nickname \"magnet ass\" from his alleged ability to attract enemy flak. On two occasions, he returned to his base with over 250 holes in his aircraft. For a time, he flew with Marine reservist Ted Williams, a future Hall of Fame baseball player for the Boston Red Sox, as his wingman. He also flew with future Major General Ralph H. Spanjer. \n\nGlenn flew a second Korean combat tour in an interservice exchange program with the United States Air Force, 51st Fighter Wing. He logged 27 missions in the faster F-86F Sabre and shot down three MiG-15s near the Yalu River in the final days before the ceasefire.\n\nFor his service in 149 combat missions in two wars, he received numerous honors, including the Distinguished Flying Cross (six occasions) and the Air Medal with eighteen clusters.\n\nTest pilot\n\nGlenn returned to NAS Patuxent River, appointed to the U.S. Naval Test Pilot School (class 12), graduating in 1954. He served as an armament officer, flying planes to high altitude and testing their cannons and machine guns. He was assigned to the Fighter Design Branch of the Navy Bureau of Aeronautics (now Bureau of Naval Weapons) as a test pilot on Navy and Marine Corps jet fighters in Washington, D.C., from November 1956 to April 1959, during which time he also attended the University of Maryland.\n\nGlenn has nearly 9,000 hours of flying time, with approximately 3,000 hours in jet aircraft.\n\nOn July 16, 1957, Glenn completed the first supersonic transcontinental flight in a Vought F8U-3P Crusader. The flight from NAS Los Alamitos, California, to Floyd Bennett Field, New York, took 3 hours, 23 minutes and 8.3 seconds. As he passed over his hometown, a child in the neighborhood reportedly ran to the Glenn house shouting \"Johnny dropped a bomb! Johnny dropped a bomb! Johnny dropped a bomb!\" as the sonic boom shook the town. Project Bullet, the name of the mission, included both the first transcontinental flight to average supersonic speed (despite three in-flight refuelings during which speeds dropped below 300 mph), and the first continuous transcontinental panoramic photograph of the United States. For this mission Glenn received his fifth Distinguished Flying Cross. \n\nNASA career\n\nIn 1958, the newly formed NASA began a recruiting program for astronauts. Requirements were that each had to be a military test pilot between the ages of 25 and 40 with sufficient flight hours, no more than 5'11\" in height, and possess a degree in a scientific field. 508 pilots were subjected to rigorous mental and physical tests, and finally the selection was narrowed down to seven astronauts (Glenn, Alan Shepard, Gus Grissom, Scott Carpenter, Wally Schirra, Gordon Cooper, and Deke Slayton), who were introduced to the public at a NASA press conference in April 1959. Glenn just barely met the requirements as he was close to the age cutoff of 40 and also lacked the required science-based degree at the time. During this time, he remained an officer in the United States Marine Corps.\n\nGlenn became the first American to orbit the Earth, aboard Friendship 7 on February 20, 1962, on the Mercury-Atlas 6 mission, circling the globe three times during a flight lasting 4 hours, 55 minutes, and 23 seconds. This made Glenn the third American in space and the fifth human being in space.\n\nPerth, Western Australia, became known worldwide as the \"City of Light\" when residents turned on their house, car and streetlights as Glenn passed overhead. (The city repeated the act when Glenn rode the Space Shuttle in 1998). During the first mission there was concern over a ground indication that his heat shield had come loose, which could allow it to fail during re-entry through the atmosphere, causing his capsule to burn up. Flight controllers had Glenn modify his re-entry procedure by keeping his retrorocket pack on over the shield in an attempt to keep it in place. He made his splashdown safely, and afterwards it was determined that the indicator was faulty.\n\nAs the first American in orbit, Glenn became a national hero, met President Kennedy, and received a ticker-tape parade in New York City, reminiscent of that given for Charles Lindbergh and other great dignitaries.\n\nGlenn's fame and political attributes were noted by the Kennedys, and he became a personal friend of the Kennedy family. On February 23, 1962, President Kennedy escorted him in a parade to Hangar S at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, where he awarded Glenn with the NASA Distinguished Service Medal.\n\nIn July 1962 Glenn testified before the House Space Committee in favor of excluding women from the NASA astronaut program. Although NASA had no official policy prohibiting women, in practice the requirement that astronauts had to be military test pilots excluded them entirely. The impact of the testimony of so prestigious a hero is debatable, but no female astronaut flew on a NASA mission until Sally Ride in 1983 (in the meantime, the Soviets had flown two women on space missions), and none piloted a mission until Eileen Collins in 1995, more than 30 years after the hearings. In the late 1970s, Glenn is reported to have supported Shuttle Mission Specialist Astronaut Judith Resnik in her career. \n\nGlenn resigned from NASA on January 16, 1964, and the next day announced his candidacy as a Democrat for the U.S. Senate from his home state of Ohio. On February 26, 1964, Glenn suffered a concussion from a slip and fall against a bathtub; this led him to withdraw from the race on March 30. Glenn then went on convalescent leave from the Marine Corps until he could make a full recovery, necessary for his retirement from the Marines. He retired on January 1, 1965, as a Colonel and entered the business world as an executive for Royal Crown Cola.\n\nPolitical career\n\nU.S. Senate\n\nNASA psychologists had determined during Glenn's training that he was the astronaut best suited for public life. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy suggested to Glenn and his wife in December 1962 that he should run against incumbent United States Senator Stephen M. Young of Ohio in the 1964 Democratic primary election. In 1964 Glenn announced that he was resigning from the space program to run against Young, but withdrew when he hit his head on a bathtub. Glenn sustained a concussion and injured his inner ear, and recovery left him unable to campaign. Glenn remained close to the Kennedy family and was with Robert Kennedy when he was assassinated in 1968.\n\nIn 1970, Glenn was narrowly defeated in the Democratic primary for nomination for the Senate by fellow Democrat Howard Metzenbaum, by a 51% to 49% margin. Metzenbaum lost the general election race to Robert Taft, Jr. In 1974, Glenn rejected Ohio governor John J. Gilligan and the Ohio Democratic party's demand that he run for Lieutenant Governor. Instead, he challenged Metzenbaum again, whom Gilligan had appointed to the Senate to replace William B. Saxbe, who had resigned to become Attorney General of the United States.\n\nIn the primary race, Metzenbaum contrasted his strong business background with Glenn's military and astronaut credentials, saying his opponent had \"never held a payroll\". Glenn's reply came to be known as the \"Gold Star Mothers\" speech. He told Metzenbaum to go to a veterans' hospital and \"look those men with mangled bodies in the eyes and tell them they didn't hold a job. You go with me to any Gold Star mother and you look her in the eye and tell her that her son did not hold a job.\" Many felt the \"Gold Star Mothers\" speech won the primary for Glenn. Glenn won the primary by 54 to 46%. After defeating Metzenbaum, Glenn defeated Ralph Perk, the Republican Mayor of Cleveland, in the general election, beginning a Senate career that would continue until 1999. In 1980, Glenn won re-election to the seat, defeating Republican challenger Jim Betts, by over 40 percentage points.\n\nIn 1986, Glenn defeated challenger U.S. Representative Tom Kindness. Metzenbaum would go on to seek a rematch against Taft in 1976, winning a close race on Jimmy Carter's coattails.\n\nIn the late 1970s and early 1980s, Glenn and Metzenbaum had strained relations. There was a thaw in 1983, when Metzenbaum endorsed Glenn for president, and again in 1988, when Metzenbaum was opposed for re-election by Cleveland mayor George Voinovich. Voinovich accused Metzenbaum of being soft on child pornography. Voinovich's charges were criticized by many, including Glenn, who now came to Metzenbaum's aid, recording a statement for television refuting Voinovich's charges. Metzenbaum won the election by 57% to 41%.\n\nSavings and loan scandal\n\nGlenn was one of the five U.S. senators caught up in the Lincoln Savings and Keating Five Scandal after accepting a $200,000 contribution from Charles Keating. Glenn and Republican senator John McCain were the only senators exonerated. The Senate Commission found that Glenn had exercised \"poor judgment\". The association of his name with the scandal gave Republicans hope that he would be vulnerable in the 1992 campaign. Instead, Glenn defeated Lieutenant Governor Mike DeWine to keep his seat, though his percentage was reduced to a career low of 51%. DeWine used the memorable campaign slogan, \"What on earth has John Glenn done?\" This 1992 re-election victory was the last time a Democrat won a statewide race in Ohio until 2006; DeWine later won Metzenbaum's seat upon his retirement.\n\nPresidential politics\n\nIn 1976, Glenn was a candidate for the Democratic vice presidential nomination. However, Glenn's keynote address at the Democratic National Convention failed to impress the delegates and the nomination went to veteran politician Walter Mondale. Glenn also ran for the 1984 Democratic presidential nomination. A November 1983 New York Times/CBS News poll found him second, supported by 41% of those polled, to Mondale's 49%.\n\nGlenn and his staff worried about the 1983 release of The Right Stuff, a film about the original seven Mercury astronauts based on the best-selling Tom Wolfe book of the same name. The book had depicted Glenn as a \"zealous moralizer\", and he did not attend the film's Washington premiere on October 16, 1983. Reviewers saw Ed Harris' portrayal of Glenn as heroic, however, and his staff immediately began to emphasize the film to the press. Aide Greg Schneiders suggested an unusual strategy, similar to Glenn's personal campaign and voting style, in which he would avoid appealing to narrow special interest groups and instead seek to win support from ordinary Democratic primary voters, the \"constituency of the whole\". Mondale defeated Glenn for the nomination however, and he was left with $3 million in campaign debt for over 20 years before he was granted a reprieve by the Federal Election Commission. He was a potential vice presidential running mate in 1984, 1988, and 1992.\n\nIssues\n\nDuring Glenn's time in the Senate, he was chief author of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Act of 1978, served as chairman of the Committee on Governmental Affairs from 1987 until 1995, sat on the Foreign Relations and Armed Services committees and the Special Committee on Aging. Once Republicans regained control of the Senate, Glenn also served as the ranking minority member on a special Senate investigative committee chaired by Tennessee senator Fred Dalton Thompson that looked into illegal foreign donations by China to U.S. political campaigns for the 1996 election. There was considerable acrimony between the two very high-profile senators during the life of this committee, which reached a level of public disagreement between the five leaders of a congressional committee seldom seen in recent years, amid allegations that Glenn suppressed these issues prior to his subsequent Space Shuttle flight which had to be approved by President Clinton. In 1998, Glenn declined to run for re-election. Mary O. Boyle was the Democratic party nominee. She faced Republican nominee and sitting governor George Voinovich in the general election, which Voinovich won.\n\nReturn to space\n\nGlenn returned to space on the Space Shuttle on October 29, 1998, becoming, at age 77, the oldest person to go into space as a Payload Specialist on Discovery's STS-95 mission. According to The New York Times, Glenn \"won his seat on the Shuttle flight by lobbying NASA for two years to fly as a human guinea pig for geriatric studies\", which were named as the main reasons for his participation in the mission. Glenn states in his memoir that he had no idea NASA was willing to send him back into space when NASA announced the decision. \n\nGlenn's participation in the nine-day mission was criticized by some in the space community as a political favor granted to Glenn by President Clinton. It was noted that Glenn's flight offered valuable research on weightlessness and other aspects of space flight on the same person at two points in life 36 years apart—by far the longest interval between space flights by the same person—providing information on the effects of spaceflight and weightlessness on the elderly, with an ideal control subject. Shortly before the flight, researchers learned that Glenn had to be disqualified from one of the flight's two main priority human experiments (about the effects of melatonin) because he did not meet one of study's medical conditions; he still participated in two other experiments about sleep monitoring and protein use. \n\nUpon the safe return of the STS-95 crew, Glenn (and his crewmates) received another ticker-tape parade, making him the tenth, and latest, person to have received multiple ticker-tape parades in a lifetime (as opposed to that of a sports team). Just prior to the flight, on October 15, 1998, and for several months after, the main causeway to the Johnson Space Center, NASA Road 1, was temporarily renamed \"John Glenn Parkway\".\n\nIn 2001, Glenn vehemently opposed the sending of Dennis Tito, the world's first space tourist, to the International Space Station on the grounds that Tito's trip served no scientific purpose. \n\nPublic affairs institute\n\nGlenn helped found the John Glenn Institute for Public Service and Public Policy at The Ohio State University in 1998 to encourage public service. On July 22, 2006, the institute merged with OSU's School of Public Policy and Management to become the John Glenn School of Public Affairs. Today Glenn holds an adjunct professorship at the Glenn School. In February 2015, it was announced that the School would become the John Glenn College of Public Affairs beginning in April 2015. \n\nPersonal life\n\nOn April 6, 1943, Glenn married his childhood sweetheart, Anna Margaret Castor (b. 1920). Both Glenn and his wife attended Muskingum College in New Concord, Ohio. He also was a member of the Stag Club Fraternity at Muskingum College. \n\nGlenn was also one of the original owners of a Holiday Inn franchise near Orlando, Florida, that is today known as the Seralago Hotel & Suites Main Gate East. \n\nGlenn is an honorary member of the International Academy of Astronautics; a member of the Society of Experimental Test Pilots, Marine Corps Aviation Association, Order of Daedalians, National Space Club Board of Trustees, National Space Society Board of Governors, International Association of Holiday Inns, Ohio Democratic Party, State Democratic Executive Committee, Franklin County (Ohio) Democratic Party, and 10th District (Ohio) Democratic Action Club.\n\nA Freemason, Glenn is a member of Concord Lodge # 688 New Concord, Ohio, and DeMolay International, the Masonic youth organization, and is an ordained elder in the Presbyterian Church. \n\nGlenn's name was used for the character of John Tracy in the 1960s children's TV series Thunderbirds.\n\nGlenn's boyhood home in New Concord has been restored and made into an historic house museum and education center. \n\nIn 2001, Glenn appeared as a guest star on the American television sitcom Frasier. \n\nOn August 4, 2006, Glenn and his wife were injured in an automobile accident on I-270 near Columbus, Ohio, and were hospitalized for two days. Glenn suffered a \"very sore chest\" and a fractured sternum. Annie Glenn was treated for minor injuries. Glenn was cited for failure to yield the right-of-way. \n\nOn September 5, 2009, John and Annie Glenn dotted the \"i\" during The Ohio State University's Script Ohio marching band performance, at the Ohio State-Navy football game halftime show. Bob Hope, Woody Hayes, Buster Douglas, E. Gordon Gee, Novice Fawcett, Robert Ries, and Jack Nicklaus are the only other non-band members to have received this honor. \n\nOn February 20, 2012, to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the Friendship 7 flight, Glenn was surprised with the opportunity to speak with the orbiting crew of the International Space Station while Glenn was on-stage with NASA Administrator Charlie Bolden at Ohio State, where the public affairs school is named for him. \n\nOn April 19, 2012, Glenn participated in the ceremonial transfer of the retired Space Shuttle Discovery from NASA to the Smithsonian Institution for permanent display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center. Speaking at the event, Glenn criticized the \"unfortunate\" decision to end the Space Shuttle program, expressing his opinion that grounding the shuttles delayed research. \n\nOn June 28, 2016, the Columbus, Ohio airport was officially renamed the John Glenn Columbus International Airport. Just before his 95th birthday, Glenn and his wife Annie attended the ceremony, and he spoke eloquently about how visiting that airport as a child inspired his interest in flying. \n\nGlenn has stated that he sees no contradiction between believing in God and the knowledge that evolution is \"a fact\", and that he believes evolution should be taught in schools. \n\nImage gallery\n\nFile:John Glenn at the Mercury Control Center.jpg|Glenn at the Mercury Control Center on the Cape Canaveral Air Force Base\nFile:19620220-JohnGlennMedical.jpg|Medical debriefing of Major John H. Glenn, Jr., USMC after orbital flight of Friendship 7 on February 20, 1962 aboard the aircraft carrier . The debriefing team for Lt. Colonel Glenn (center) was led by Commander Seldon C. \"Smokey\" Dunn, MC, USN (FS) (RAM-qualified) (far right w/EKG in hands).\nFile:19620220-JohnGlennEKG.jpg|\"Best regards and many thanks for all the help, 'Smokey' John H. Glenn Jr Mercury Astronaut a good date -- 20 February 62\"\nFile:LC-14 Glenn plaque.jpg|Plaque near Mercury launch pad\n\nAwards and honors\n\n*Congressional Gold Medal\n*The Woodrow Wilson Award\n*National Geographic Society's Hubbard Medal, 1962\n*John J. Montgomery Award, 1963\n*Golden Plate Award for Science and Exploration, 1964\n*General Thomas D. White National Defense Award. \n\nThe NASA John H. Glenn Research Center at Lewis Field in Cleveland, Ohio, is named after him. Also, Senator John Glenn Highway runs along a stretch of I-480 in Ohio across from the NASA Glenn Research Center. Colonel Glenn Highway, which runs by Wright-Patterson Air Force Base and Wright State University near Dayton, Ohio, John Glenn High School in his hometown of New Concord, Ohio, and Col. John Glenn Elementary in Seven Hills, Ohio, are named for him as well. High Schools in Westland and Bay City, Michigan; Walkerton, Indiana; San Angelo, Texas; Elwood, Long Island, New York; and Norwalk, California were also named after him.\n\nThe fireboat John H. Glenn Jr. was named for him. This fireboat is operated by the DCFD and protects the sections of the Potomac River and the Anacostia River that run through Washington, D.C.\n\nThe USNS John Glenn (T-MLP-2), a mobile landing platform that is scheduled to be delivered to the U.S. Navy in 2014 is named for him. It was christened February 1, 2014, in San Diego at General Dynamics’ National Steel and Shipbuilding Company. \n\nIn 1961, Glenn received an Honorary LL.D from Muskingum University, the college he had attended before joining the military in World War II.\n\nHe also received Honorary Doctorates from Nihon University in Tokyo, Japan, Wagner College in Staten Island, New York, and New Hampshire College in Manchester, New Hampshire.\n\nGlenn was enshrined in the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1976. \n\nGlenn was inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame in 1977.\n\nIn 1990, Glenn was inducted into the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame. \n\nIn 2000, Glenn received the U.S. Senator John Heinz Award for Greatest Public Service by an Elected or Appointed Official, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards. \n\nIn 2004, Glenn was awarded the Woodrow Wilson Award for Public Service by the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars of the Smithsonian Institution. \n\nIn 2009, Glenn received an Honorary LL.D from Williams College, and in 2010, he received an Honorary Doctorate of Public Service from Ohio Northern University. \n\nIn 2013, Flying magazine ranked Glenn No. 26 on their \"51 Heroes of Aviation\" list. \n\nOn January 3, 2015, with the death of Edward Brooke, Glenn became the oldest former United States senator still living. Glenn is the 60th person to hold this distinction.\n\nPhysical description\n\n*Weight: 170 lb (77 kg)\n*Height: 5 ft 10½ in (1.79 m)\n*Hair: Red\n*Eyes: Green" ] }

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He made three turns around the planet before returning safely.\nFebruary 20, 1962. John Glenn became the first American to orbit the Earth on this date. He made three turns around the planet before returning safely in his space capsule, which was called Friendship 7. He followed two Russian cosmonauts in making this early orbit of our planet: Yuri Gagarin ( April 1961) and Gherman Titov (August 1961).\nWhile Glenn was in orbit, NASA controllers received an indication that the heat shield on his craft had come loose. They instructed Glenn not to jettison the rockets underneath the heat shield during re-entry, because the rockets might be able to hold the shield in place. Fortunately, the indication turned out to be a false alarm.\nGlenn returned to space at age 77 aboard the space shuttle Discovery in 1998, making him the oldest person to fly in space. His mission’s primary scientific aim at that time was to study the effects of spaceflight on seniors.\nJohn Glenn climbs into the Friendship 7 spacecraft just before making his first trip into space on February 20, 1962. Photo via NASA\nJohn Glenn and Friendship 7\nHere’s what John Glenn saw on February 20, 1962. Just 5 minutes and 44 seconds after launch, Glenn offered his first words about the view from his porthole: “This is Friendship 7. Can see clear back; a big cloud pattern way back across towards the Cape. Beautiful sight.” Three hours later, at the beginning of his third orbit, Glenn photographed this panoramic view of Florida from the Georgia border (right, under clouds) to just north of Cape Canaveral. His American homeland was 162 miles (260 kilometers) below. “I have the Cape in sight down there,” he noted to mission controllers. “It looks real fine from up here. I can see the whole state of Florida just laid out like on a map. Beautiful.” Image via NASA\nBottom line: John Glenn became the first American to orbit Earth on February 20, 1962. His space capsule was called Friendship 7.", "Astronaut Bio: John Glenn, Jr. 1/99\nJohn Herschel Glenn, Jr. (Colonel, USMC, Ret.)\nNASA Astronaut (former)\nPERSONAL DATA: Born July 18, 1921 in Cambridge, Ohio. Married to the former Anna Margaret Castor of New Concord, Ohio. They have two grown children and two grandchildren.\nEDUCATION: Glenn attended primary and secondary schools in New Concord, Ohio. He attended Muskingum College in New Concord and received a Bachelor of Science degree in Engineering. Muskingum College also awarded him an honorary Doctor of Science degree in engineering. He has received honorary doctoral degrees from nine colleges or universities.\nSPECIAL HONORS: Glenn has been awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross on six occasions, and holds the Air Medal with 18 Clusters for his service during World War II and Korea. Glenn also holds the Navy Unit Commendation for service in Korea, the Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal, the American Campaign Medal, the World War II Victory Medal, the China Service Medal, the National Defense Service Medal, the Korean Service Medal, the United Nations Service Medal, the Korean Presidential Unit Citation, the Navy's Astronaut Wings, the Marine Corps' Astronaut Medal, the NASA Distinguished Service Medal, and the Congressional Space Medal of Honor.\nEXPERIENCE: He entered the Naval Aviation Cadet Program in March 1942 and was graduated from this program and commissioned in the Marine Corps in 1943. After advanced training, he joined Marine Fighter Squadron 155 and spent a year flying F-4U fighters in the Marshall Islands.\nDuring his World War II service, he flew 59 combat missions. After the war, he was a member of Marine Fighter Squadron 218 on the North China patrol and served on Guam. From June 1948 to December 1950 Glenn was an instructor in advanced flight training at Corpus Christi, Texas. He then attended Amphibious Warfare Training at Quantico, Virginia. In Korea he flew 63 missions with Marine Fighter Squadron 311. As an exchange pilot with the Air Force Glenn flew 27 missions in the in F-86 Sabrejet. In the last nine days of fighting in Korea Glenn downed three MIG's in combat along the Yalu River.\nAfter Korea, Glenn attended Test Pilot School at the Naval Air Test Center, Patuxent River, Maryland. After graduation, he was project officer on a number of aircraft. He was assigned to the Fighter Design Branch of the Navy Bureau of Aeronautics (now Bureau of Naval Weapons) in Washington from November 1956 to April 1959, during which time he also attended the University of Maryland.\nIn July 1957, while project officer of the F8U Crusader, he set a transcontinental speed record from Los Angeles to New York, spanning the country in 3 hours and 23 minutes. This was the first transcontinental flight to average supersonic speed. Glenn has nearly 9,000 hours of flying time, with approximately 3,000 hours in jet aircraft.\nNASA EXPERIENCE: Glenn was assigned to the NASA Space Task Group at Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia, in April 1959 after his selection as a Project Mercury Astronaut. The Space Task Group was moved to Houston and became part of the NASA Manned Spacecraft Center in 1962. Glenn flew on Mercury-6 (February 20, 1962) and STS-95 (October 29 to November 7, 1998), and has logged over 218 hours in space. Prior to his first flight, Glenn had served as backup pilot for Astronauts Shepard and Grissom. When astronauts were given special assignments to ensure pilot input into the design and development of spacecraft, Glenn specialized in cockpit layout and control functioning, including some of the early designs for the Apollo Project. Glenn resigned from the Manned Spacecraft Center on January 16, 1964. He was promoted to the rank of Colonel in October 1964 and retired from the Marine Corps on January 1, 1965. He was a business executive from 1965 until his election to the United States Senate in November 1974. Glenn retired from the U.S. Senate in January 1999.\nSPACE FLIGHT EXPERIENCE: On February 20, 1962, Glenn piloted the Mercury-Atlas 6 \"Friendship 7\" spacecraft on the first manned orbital mission of the United States. Launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, he completed a successful three-orbit mission around the earth, reaching a maximum altitude (apogee) of approximately 162 statute miles and an orbital velocity of approximately 17,500 miles per hour. Glenn's \"Friendship 7\" Mercury spacecraft landed approximately 800 miles southeast of KSC in the vicinity of Grand Turk Island. Mission duration from launch to impact was 4 hours, 55 minutes, and 23 seconds.\nSTS-95 Discovery (October 29 to November 7, 1998) was a 9-day mission during which the crew supported a variety of research payloads including deployment of the Spartan solar-observing spacecraft, the Hubble Space Telescope Orbital Systems Test Platform, and investigations on space flight and the aging process. The mission was accomplished in 134 Earth orbits, traveling 3.6 million miles in 213 hours and 44 minutes.\nJANUARY 1999\nThis is the only version available from NASA. Updates must be sought direct from the above named individual.", "John Glenn's Historic Spaceflight Was No Sure Thing\nJohn Glenn's Historic Spaceflight Was No Sure Thing\nBy Mike Wall, Space.com Senior Writer |\nFebruary 20, 2012 12:00am ET\nMORE\nAstronaut John Glenn photographed in space by an automatic sequence motion picture camera during his historic orbital flight on \"Friendship 7\" on Feb. 20, 1962.\nCredit: NASA\nWhen John Glenn launched on the United States' first orbital spaceflight 50 years ago today (Feb. 20), NASA scientists weren't sure where he'd come down — or if he'd even survive the trip.\nBefore Glenn completed three laps of Earth on Feb. 20, 1962, no American had spent more than 15 minutes in space. So NASA top brass and medical personnel had a laundry list of worries, from where Glenn's spacecraft would touch down to whether or not the astronaut's eyes would function properly in microgravity.\n\"There were a lot of unknowns in the early days of spaceflight ,\" former astronaut Scott Carpenter, who completed an orbital mission of his own in May 1962, said Friday (Feb. 17) at a NASA event commemorating Glenn's flight. \"We were considered guilty of being unable to fly in space and required to prove our innocence, counter to the American custom.\"\nOn Feb. 20, 1962, John Glenn rode the Friendship 7 capsule into space, the first time an American orbited the Earth. In this image, Glenn enters the capsule with assistance from technicians.\nCredit: NASA\nMedical concerns\nBy the time of Glenn's flight, space-race rival the Soviet Union had already launched two manned orbital missions. Cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin circled the Earth once in April 1961, and his countryman Gherman Titov orbited our planet 17 times in August of that year, staying aloft for more than 24 hours.\nBoth Gagarin and Titov returned to Earth safely after their flights. But NASA had no experience with human spaceflight beyond the 15-minute suborbital jaunts of Alan Shepard and Gus Grissom in 1961, so agency personnel worried about how Glenn's body would hold up during nearly five hours in space.\nDoctors were particularly concerned about how prolonged exposure to microgravity would affect Glenn's vision. [ Photos: John Glenn's Space Legacy ]\n\"Some of the ophthamologists were literally concerned at that time that your eyes might change shape and your vision might change enough you couldn't even see the instrument panel enough to make an emergency re-entry if you had to,\" Glenn said during Friday's festivities.\n\"They were enough concerned about it, we actually put a little miniaturized eye chart at the top of the instrument panel,\" he added. \"And that's still in Friendship 7, up in the Smithsonian [National Air and Space Museum].\"\nNASA also worried that spaceflight might cause fluid to move around randomly in Glenn's inner ear, perhaps resulting in nausea and vertigo. And doctors weren't even sure if the astronaut would be able to swallow properly in microgravity, Glenn said.\nConcern and curiosity about digestive functions persisted through Carpenter's flight, three months later. Doctors weren't convinced astronauts would be able to metabolize food on orbit, so they had Carpenter perform a little experiment. [ Biggest Revelations of the Space Age ]\n\"I was given some radioactive food — pap — in a toothpaste tube,\" Carpenter said. \"And I was told to eat that on the first orbit.\"\nHistory has shown, of course, that the human body can perform basic functions in space. Astronauts routinely live on the International Space Station for six-month stints, though they must exercise assiduously to minimize the effects of microgravity, which include muscle wasting and decreased bone density.\nA dicey re-entry\nGlenn's flight plan called for Friendship 7 to splash down in the Atlantic Ocean several hundred miles southeast of Florida. But NASA wasn't entirely sure that would work out, so Glenn prepared for the possibility of landing among \"primitive\" aboriginal peoples in backcountry Australia, Papua New Guinea or southern Africa.\n\"You land, and the side blows off, and out steps this thing in a silver suit. You're going to be either like the god-king or dead pretty quick,\" Glenn said. \"So I wanted a message for these people.\"\nSo linguists at the Library of Congress translated a basic message of peace and friendship for Glenn, arming him with a few phrases in various aboriginal languages should the need arise.\nFriendship 7 eventually did re-enter roughly where it was supposed to, dropping into the Atlantic just 40 miles (67 kilometers) short of the planned landing zone. But the capsule's return to Earth was a bumpy and somewhat harrowing one.\nAs Glenn prepared to re-enter the atmosphere, mission managers told him that Friendship 7's protective heat shield may have come loose. This was bad news; if the heat shield came off, the capsule would almost certainly burn up.\nStrapped to the outside of Friendship 7 was a package of small retro-rockets, which were designed to help slow the capsule's re-entry. Glenn was told not to jettison the rockets after firing them, in the hopes that the straps would help hold the heat shield on.\nDuring re-entry, \"there were flaming chunks of the retro-pack burning off and coming back by the window,\" Glenn said. \"I didn't know for sure whether it was the retro-pack or the heat shield, but there wasn't anything I could do about it either way, except just keep trying to work and keep the spacecraft on its actual best attitude coming back in.\"\nThough everything worked out in the end, Glenn's success was far from assured or pre-ordained. In fact, launching him into orbit was something of a game of Russian roulette, experts say. The odds of success were comparable, anyway.\n\"His odds of not surviving this was about one in six,\" former astronaut Steve Lindsey, who flew with Glenn on the space shuttle Discovery's STS-95 mission in 1998, said in a recent NASA video. \"So it was an extremely high-risk, unknown effort that they were going into, having never done it before.\"\nYou can follow SPACE.com senior writer Mike Wall on Twitter: @michaeldwall . Follow SPACE.com for the latest in space science and exploration news on Twitter @Spacedotcom and on Facebook .\nEditor's Recommendations", "John Glenn's First Spaceflight | Astronotes\nadmin\n– February 20, 2012 Posted in: Human Exploration\nOn 20 February 1962, John Glenn (1921-2016) became the fifth human to enter space. For his spaceflight Glenn, a US Marine Corps aviator was strapped into a tiny Mercury capsule (named Friendship 7) just as Alan Shepard and “Gus” Grissom, the two earlier US astronauts had been. There was a big difference for Glenn’s flight; Friendship 7 sat atop an Atlas rocket rather than the rather smaller Redstone used to launch the first two Mercury missions. They had been simple ballistic lobs, but Glenn was going all the way into orbit.\n“Godspeed John Glenn”: A reminder of the days when NASA could send astronauts into orbit. (Image credit: NASA)\n \nWatched by a TV audience of 100 million, the Atlas functioned beautifully and Glenn became the first American (and third human; Gagarin and Titov preceded him) in orbit. Glenn enjoyed both the view and the novel sensation of microgravity.  At one point he noticed through his tiny window that his craft was surrounded by a swarm of tiny glowing motes which he called “fireflies”, he reported them to Mission Control and was surprised by how interested the men on the ground were by this phenomenon.  There was a reason for this;  a warning light at Mission Control suggested that Friendship 7’s heat shield had come loose, possibly the fireflies were debris released by this failure. If the heatshield was indeed faulty, Glenn’s mission would end with his horrific death as his craft disintegrated around him.\nGlenn looks every inch the space hero in this 1962 portrait. (Image credit: NASA)\n \nWhen Glenn was eventually told about this threat he was instructed to retain rather than release the Mercury’s retrorocket pack as he reentered the atmosphere. This was a risky action but it was hoped that the retrorocket pack’s hefty metal retaining straps would hold the shield in place.  Glenn endured a frightening re-entry; the capsule violently shook as he watched white-hot shards of metal stream from the inferno mere centimetres behind him ( a scene memorably recreated in the classic movie The Right Stuff – a movie which Glenn himself disliked).\nThe small size of the Mercury spacecraft is apparent in this diagram. Note too the retrorocket pack just visible at the vehicle extreme rear. The door shown open on the spacecraft’s nose released a drogue parachute to slow the Mercury’s descent. (Image credit: NASA/Aerospace Projects Review)\n \nAs it turn out it was the warning light rather than the heatshield that was faulty (the fireflies’ exact origin remains mysterious), and Glenn splashed down safely. His flight lasted just under five hours. Glenn was celebrated as a national hero, and retired from NASA shortly after. Controversially Glenn opposed NASA’s intention to recruit female astronauts and publicly stated this. No female astronaut flew on a NASA mission until Sally Ride’s flight in 1983 , by then Glenn had changed his position. After leaving NASA Glenn entered the world of politics and served as senator for Ohio from 1974 to 1995.\nHis astronaut career had a strange coda; in 1998 Glenn made a second space flight at the age of 77 when he flew on Space Shuttle Discovery (STS-95), ostensibly as part of an experiment to study the effects of space flight on the elderly. Glenn became the oldest person to go into space, a record unbroken to this day.\nNo Comments\nStart the ball rolling by posting a comment on this article!\nLeave a Reply", "7 Things You May Not Know About John Glenn - History in the Headlines\n7 Things You May Not Know About John Glenn\nDecember 8, 2016 By Barbara Maranzani\nShare\nHISTORY honors astronaut and former Ohio senator John Glenn, who died on December 8, 2016 at the age of 95.\nShare this:\n7 Things You May Not Know About John Glenn\nAuthor\n7 Things You May Not Know About John Glenn\nURL\nGoogle\nOn February 20, 1962, John H. Glenn became the third American in space and the first to orbit the Earth when he successfully completed three orbits aboard the space capsule “Friendship 7.” In the midst of Cold War tensions and amid the very real fear that the Soviet Union was winning the space race, Glenn’s accomplishment brought a sense of pride and relief to Americans and instantly made the 31-year-old Glenn a national hero. Glenn resigned from NASA in 1964, and was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1974, representing Ohio for 25 years. In October 1998, Senator Glenn returned to space at the age of 77 as a payload specialist aboard the space shuttle Discovery, making him the oldest person to fly in space. Glenn died on December 8, 2016, at the age of 95, following several years of declining health.\nJohn Glenn was a star before joining the Mercury program.\nJohn Glenn (Credit: NASA)\nGlenn had fallen in love with flying at an early age, building model airplanes while growing up in Ohio. In 1941, Glenn discovered a U.S. Department of Commerce program looking for students to train as pilots. Just six months after he received his license, the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor. Glenn initially enlisted in both the U.S. Army Air Corps and U.S. Navy aviation cadet program, but was eventually assigned to the U.S. Marine Corps. Glenn flew 59 missions in the South Pacific, where one of his wingmen was baseball legend Ted Williams. After serving in the Korean War, Glenn was appointed to a naval test pilot program, where he completed one of the world’s first supersonic transcontinental flights in 1957. Glenn received an enormous amount of publicity following this feat, which brought him to the attention of the NACA, the predecessor to NASA, who selected him to become one of the Mercury 7 astronauts.\nJohn Glenn gave his space capsule it’s famous nickname.\nGlenn inspecting the artwork design for “Friendship 7.” (Credit: NASA)\nThe official name for Glenn’s mission was Mercury-Atlas 6. “Mercury” for the mission program itself (named after the Roman god of speed), and “Atlas 6” to indicate that this was the 6th mission to use the newer, faster Atlas rocket as a launch vehicle. As was common practice among most pilots, the astronauts selected for the Mercury program often gave their capsules personal nicknames—Glenn asked his children for suggestions on what he should name the vessel before finally deciding on the word “Friendship” and adding the number “7” to honor his fellow Mercury members.\nGlenn’s mission was delayed numerous times, leading to concern and anxiety.\nGuenter Wendt, the original pad leader for NASA’s manned programs, coaxes a smile from Glenn after a postponement of the mission. (Credit: NASA)\nOriginally scheduled for December 1961 and then pushed to January 13, problems with the new Atlas rocket that would serve as the space capsule’s launching pad caused a two-week delay. On January 27, with television crews already set up to broadcast from both the launch site and Glenn’s home, where his wife, Annie, and his children were anxiously watching, poor weather conditions forced another postponement. When the mission was scrapped, the reporters, accompanied by none other than Vice President Lyndon Johnson, tried to gain access to Glenn’s home in hopes of interviewing his wife. Annie refused to speak to them, and when John heard about the pressure put on his wife, he backed her up, leading to a clash with government officials. The launch was delayed yet again on January 30 after a fuel leak was discovered, followed by yet another weather delay. Finally, with all mechanical issues solved and fair weather forecasted, Glenn was once again strapped into Friendship 7 early on the morning of February 20, 1962.\nGlenn didn’t actually hear the legendary words “Godspeed, John Glenn.”\nJohn Glenn and Scott Carpenter reviewing the flight plan for the Mercury-Atlas 7 mission at Cape Canaveral, Florida. (Credit: NASA)\nAs mission control performed its final system checks, test conductor Tom O’Malley initiated the launch sequence, adding a personal prayer, “May the good Lord ride all the way,” to which Carpenter, the backup astronaut for the mission, added, “Godspeed, John Glenn.” Carpenter later explained that he had come up with the phrase on the spot, but its did hold significance for most test pilots and astronauts: “In those days, speed was magic…and nobody had gone that fast. If you can get that speed, you’re home-free.” The phrase soon became part of the public consciousness, but Glenn himself didn’t hear Carpenter’s comment until he had returned to Earth. Due to a glitch in Glenn’s radio, Carpenter’s microphone wasn’t on his frequency.\nThere were several scary moments aboard Friendship 7.\nGlenn aboard Friendship 7 on February 20, 1962.\nThe launch of Friendship 7 went flawlessly, and Glenn encountered few issues in the early stages of the flight. During his second orbit, mission control noticed a sensor was issuing a warning that Friendship 7’s heat shield and landing bag were not secure, putting the mission, and Glenn in danger. Officials did not immediately inform Glenn of the potential problem, instead asking him to run a series of small tests on the system to see if that resolved the issue, which eventually clued Glenn in to their concerns. After a series of discussions, it was decided that rather than following standard procedures to discard the retrorocket (an engine designed to slow down the capsule upon reentry), Glenn would keep the rocket in place to help secure the heat shield. He successfully reentered the Earth’s atmosphere and splashed down in the Atlantic Ocean after a flight of 4 hours and 55 minutes. When officials inspected the recovered capsule, they determined that the heat shield had never been in danger and a faulty sensor had caused the problem.\nGlenn—and NASA—were mystified by an unusual sighting during the mission.\nA photo of Earth taken by John Glenn during the mission. (Credit: NASA)\nDuring the first of Glenn’s three orbits, he reported seeing a series of small particles floating outside his capsule. As he reported to NASA, he had never seen anything like it, and he thought it looked like a series of luminescent stars surrounding him. Glenn referred to the specks as “fireflies,” and tried banging on his capsule walls to see if he could make them move, which he could. Some NASA scientists worried that the sparks were a malfunctioning part of the space capsule or that’s Glenn’s mysterious vision was caused by a medical condition he encountered while in space, while others tried to find a more spiritual meaning to the celestial “fireflies.” So, what were they? The mystery was solved later that year, when Mercury astronaut Scott Carpenter made his orbital flight aboard Aurora 7. Carpenter also reported seeing the particles, and to him they looked like snowflakes. Turns out, Carpenter was pretty close to the truth. They were indeed bits of frozen condensation on the capsule’s exterior that broke off as it moved from through areas of varying temperatures.\nGlenn returned to space, 36 years after Friendship 7.\nSTS-95 payload specialist John Glenn aboard the space shuttle Discovery in November 1998. (Credit: NASA)\nJohn Glenn remained with NASA until 1964, but did not return to space in any of the later Mercury missions. It is believed that President Kennedy and other government officials, well aware of the symbolic importance of the first man to orbit the Earth, ordered NASA to keep him grounded, for fear of his being injured or killed in a space program that was still, in many ways, in the developmental stage. Glenn returned to Ohio, where he became a successful businessman. He later entered politics, and was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1974, serving four terms. Glenn maintained close contacts with NASA, and spoke often of his regret at not having been part of subsequent missions, including the lunar landings. In 1998, however, John Glenn got his wish and returned to space. Though it had been more than 35 years since he had last suited up, Glenn was selected as part of the crew aboard the space shuttle Discovery. His participation, at the age of 77, would allow scientists to study the affects of space travel on the elderly. When Glenn returned from the nine-day mission, he and his fellow crew members were welcomed home with a ticker-tape parade in New York City, marking the second time Glenn had received such an honor.\nTags", "At 90, John Glenn Looks Back - The New York Times\nThe New York Times\nSpace & Cosmos |50 Years Later, Celebrating John Glenn’s Feat\nSearch\nMEMORIES John Glenn with President John F. Kennedy.\nIn the winter of 1962, the nation needed a hero.\nAmericans had yet to recover from the Soviet Union’s launching of the first spacecraft, Sputnik, in October 1957 — a rude jolt to our confidence as world leaders in all things technological. The space race was on.\nSoon after he took office in 1961, President John F. Kennedy had thrown down the challenge to send men to the Moon by the end of the decade. But the Russians still set the pace, boastfully. They launched a dog into orbit, then the first man, Yuri A. Gagarin, and another, Gherman S. Titov.\nThe United States lagged, managing only two 15-minute suborbital astronaut flights — only five minutes of weightlessness each time.\nThen, on Feb. 20, 1962 — 50 years ago next Monday — a Marine Corps fighter pilot from small-town America stepped forward in response to the country’s need. The astronaut was John Glenn , whom the author Tom Wolfe has called “the last true national hero America has ever had.”\nContinue reading the main story\nSqueezed into the cockpit of a Mercury spacecraft called Friendship 7, launched by an Atlas rocket from Cape Canaveral, Fla., Mr. Glenn circled the Earth three times, becoming the first American to orbit the planet. Perhaps no other spaceflight — all 4 hours, 55 minutes and 23 seconds of it — has been followed by so many with such paralyzing apprehension.\nPhoto\nCredit Illustration by Sean Mccabe; Photograph by NASA\nMr. Glenn saw three sunsets and sunrises that Tuesday, from a maximum altitude of 162 miles. At each sunrise, an explosion of what looked like fireflies appeared outside the window, mystifying him. Then came a signal of a suspected problem that had ground controllers bracing for an uncertain, possibly catastrophic re-entry into the atmosphere.\nThe ending was a happy one. A collective sigh of relief was heard across the land. The president rushed off to Cape Canaveral to hail the returning hero. Bands played. Ticker tape streamed from the high windows of Broadway. People cried. Never mind that a Soviet cosmonaut had already spent 25 hours in orbit. As Mr. Wolfe has written, “John Glenn made us whole again!”\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\nNow, at 90, Mr. Glenn was reminded in one of two lengthy interviews that the author of “The Right Stuff” had judged him the country’s last true hero. His response was a kind of dismissive aw shucks. “Hero” is an elastic word, after all, stretchable to fit a favorite ballplayer or a great conqueror in war or discovery — almost anyone admirable.\n“I don’t think of myself that way,” Mr. Glenn said. “I get up each day and have the same problems others have at my age. As far as trying to analyze all the attention I received, I will leave that to others.”\n(For his part, Mr. Wolfe stood by his characterization, saying a national hero was someone seen as “a great protector” of the people. “He really wasn’t their protector, but that’s what people felt and thought,” he said of Mr. Glenn in an interview last week. “He made them cry, and this made him a hero.”)\nPhoto\nJohn Glenn in 2009.\nOn Saturday, Mr. Glenn will again get a hero’s welcome at Cape Canaveral for a reunion with the dwindling Mercury space team, those remaining managers, engineers and technicians who sent the first Americans into space. On Monday and Tuesday, he will be honored with a dinner and a spaceflight forum at Ohio State University, home of the John Glenn School of Public Affairs.\nMr. Glenn keeps an office at the school, holds seminars with students and is close to the archive of papers from his careers as an astronaut and, later, a four-term United States senator from Ohio and a candidate in the 1984 Democratic presidential primaries. It is quite an archive: about 1,800 boxes of materials. “I was a pack rat,” he said.\nHe and his wife, Anna (he calls her Annie), divide their time between a house in a suburb of Washington and a condominium in Columbus. She was his childhood sweetheart, and their marriage has stood the test of almost 69 years of devotion in the turbulence of spaceflight and politics. From the time they came to public attention, each has seemed the other’s center of gravity.\nThrough years of therapy, Mr. Glenn said, Annie has overcome the severe stammer that had made her ill at ease at public appearances. “She can give speeches now,” he said, and she likes talking to students of speech pathology. Both have had knee-replacement surgery.\nTheir knees had made it hard for them, especially Annie, to climb on the wing and into the cabin of their twin-engine Beechcraft Baron. They used to fly it on vacations and back and forth to Washington, sometimes logging as many as 160 airborne hours a year. Last month, as a concession to their aging knees, the Glenns sold their airplane, but Mr. Glenn was pleased to say he still has a valid pilot’s license.\nPhoto\nJohn Glenn's 1962 flight into orbit captivated the nation.\nThe other honored guest at the anniversary events in Cape Canaveral will be M. Scott Carpenter, the Mercury astronaut who was Mr. Glenn’s backup and radio link, called capcom, in the launching blockhouse that day of flight. The two are the only surviving members of what were known as the Mercury Seven. Virgil I. Grissom died in 1967 in an Apollo spacecraft fire during a launching-pad test. Donald K. Slayton died of cancer in 1993. Alan B. Shepard Jr. died of leukemia in 1998. L. Gordon Cooper Jr. died of natural causes in 2004. Walter M. Schirra Jr. died of a heart attack in 2007.\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\nIn 1998, his last year in the Senate, the first American to orbit Earth became, at 77, the oldest person to travel in space. Mr. Glenn felt he still had enough of the right stuff. He had continued to pilot his own airplane and had kept in shape — “attitude and exercise,” he said, “that’s what keeps you going” — and he persuaded NASA to let him fly on the space shuttle Discovery and conduct tests on the physiological effects of nine days of weightlessness on older people.\nIn the recent interviews, Mr. Glenn said, “I am not at all happy with some of the directions the space program is going, in particular retiring the space shuttles before we have a new heavy-lift launching system in place.”\nMr. Glenn said he was concerned that since the final shuttle flight last July, the United States must depend on the Russian Soyuz space vehicles for ferrying astronauts to and from the International Space Station, assembled in orbit at a cost well over $100 billion, mainly from American taxpayers. The Soyuz is limited to three passengers and about 125 pounds of gear, hardly sufficient for hauling replacement parts for the space station.\n“If the Russians had a hiccup with Soyuz, our manned space program would be ended, maybe for years,” Mr. Glenn said.\nPhoto\nJohn Glenn in 1961 with the other Mercury astronauts.\nIn a meeting with President Obama two years ago, Mr. Glenn made his case for continuing shuttle flights and full space station operations for several more years, contrary to President George W. Bush’s policy that a new generation of boosters and spacecraft would be developed with the savings from the cancellation of shuttle operations. “The president didn’t disagree with any of my arguments,” he recalled. “He said we just don’t have the money.”\nAs Mr. Glenn settled into recollections of that February day in 1962, the interview glided into easy conversation over shared memories. Ten times over almost a month the launching was scheduled, only to be scrubbed because of poor weather or mechanical glitches. “On again, off again,” Mr. Glenn said. “I actually suited up four times, and two times was up on top of the Atlas, strapped into Friendship 7, ready to go.”\nReporters from all over the world grew restive, desperate for anything to write about. After one cancellation, Mercury information officers begged Mr. Glenn to give them something to tell the journalists. When he got off the booster, he went running on the beach and happened to see where sea turtles had buried their eggs. This was duly reported, and one writer remarked that it was understood the astronaut had a good recipe for turtle egg soup.\nAdvertisement\nContinue reading the main story\n“Well, that got me into a whole lot of trouble with environmentalists,” Mr. Glenn recalled. “I got mail calling me everything but a good guy, and should be replaced.”\nThe waiting got so tiresome for the press corps that when a waitress at one of the watering holes was shot dead by her boyfriend around midnight, some reporters rushed to file the story. A London tabloid declared it “the first successful shot here in weeks.”\nVideo\nAn Interview with John Glenn\nJohn Schwartz talks with the astronaut John Glenn about his mission as the first American to orbit the Earth.\nBy Erik Olsen on Publish Date February 13, 2012. . Watch in Times Video »\nembed\nMr. Glenn said he had not heard that tale before.\nAt last, on the 11th attempt, with his backup, Mr. Carpenter, bidding “Godspeed, John Glenn,” Friendship 7 lifted off for its three orbits of Earth. Christopher C. Kraft Jr., the flight director, remembers, “Nothing about John Glenn’s flight was easy.”\nAt first sunrise, Mr. Glenn saw a swarm of greenish-yellow lights outside the craft, reminding him of fireflies. He saw them again at the other sunrises. “No one had anticipated this, and it was fascinating,” he said. “Turns out these were tiny moisture particles vented from the heat-exchange system, but I don’t know if we have ever explained their particular colors.”\nNear the end of the first orbit, trouble with the automatic control system forced Mr. Glenn to take manual control for much of the remaining orbits. He felt he was truly the pilot, not a passenger on autopilot. Not “Spam in a can,” in the minds of the veteran test pilots unimpressed by these new astronauts.\nThen a signal sent to the ground warned of a potentially more serious problem. It indicated that the craft had a loose heat shield. Flight controllers suspected it was a spurious signal, but could not be sure. They decided not to jettison the retro rockets after they braked the capsule for its descent. The retro-pack should keep the heat shield in place and prevent serious damage to the capsule.\n“Glancing out the window during re-entry,” Mr. Glenn recalled, “I was seeing big chunks of something coming off. It was the retro-pack, not the heat shield, thank goodness. It had been a false alarm. If you go to the Air and Space Museum in Washington, you can see the burn patterns on Friendship 7.”\nIn the epilogue to “The Right Stuff,” his best seller on the original seven astronauts, Mr. Wolfe wrote that the day of Glenn the hero “when an astronaut could parade up Broadway while traffic policemen wept in the intersections,” was no more. An era, he continues, “had come, and it had gone, perhaps never to be relived.”\nBut in a time short of heroes, John Glenn keeps alive the memory.\nA version of this article appears in print on February 14, 2012, on Page D1 of the New York edition with the headline: At 90, John Glenn Looks Back. Order Reprints | Today's Paper | Subscribe", "Godspeed\nGodspeed, John Glenn: 1st American in Orbit Reflects on NASA's Space Legacy\nBy Denise Chow, SPACE.com Staff Writer |\nFebruary 17, 2012 07:00am ET\nMORE\nAstronaut John Glenn photographed in space by an automatic sequence motion picture camera during his historic orbital flight on \"Friendship 7\" on Feb. 20, 1962.\nCredit: NASA\nFifty years ago, John Glenn became the first American to orbit the Earth, and his nearly five-hour expedition ushered in a new era of spaceflight for the nation.\nOn Feb. 20, 1962, Glenn piloted NASA's Mercury capsule , known as Friendship 7, three times around Earth, reaching a maximum altitude of about 162 miles (261 kilometers). Glenn's orbital milestone matched the groundbreaking achievement of the rival Soviet Union, which launched cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin into orbit 10 months earlier.\nOn Monday (Feb. 20), NASA will salute 50 years of Americans in orbit by honoring Glenn and his Friendship 7 flight. Since that fateful journey, the agency landed astronauts on the moon, flew 135 space shuttle flights and constructed a $100 billion laboratory in space, among many other accomplishments.\nFollowing the Friendship 7 flight, Glenn was heralded as an American hero , and five decades later, his orbital journey still resonates with the public.\n\"Fifty years seems like two weeks more than 50 years,\" Glenn, who will turn 91 on July 18, told SPACE.com. \"I think the duration that people have been interested in that, the first flights back there, have been somewhat of a surprise. We're so used to the new and the untried in this country, whether it is the equivalent in automobiles or whatever it is, that I think we've gotten used to that. So it has been a little bit of a surprise that attention has been and keeps coming back to some of those very early flights.\" [ Photos: John Glenn's Space Legacy ]\nThe social and political climate\nPart of this fascination is because the success of Glenn's Friendship 7 flight altered the tide in the fierce Cold War competition between the U.S. and the former Soviet Union. The Soviets launched the first artificial satellite, Sputnik I, in October 1957, four years later, Gagarin became the first person to reach space (and the first to orbit Earth) on April 12, 1961.\n\"The Soviets at that time were claiming technical superiority to the United States because they could do rocket flights and ours were blowing up on the pad too often,\" Glenn said. \"So it was against that backdrop and their claims of superiority in rocketry that we came into the program. It was something that we felt at that time, so there was a big effort to get us back on top again.\"\nOn Feb. 20, 1962, John Glenn rode the Friendship 7 capsule into space, the first time an American orbited the Earth. In this image, Glenn enters the capsule with assistance from technicians.\nCredit: NASA\nAfter years of Soviet dominance , Glenn's success in orbit evened the playing field and reinvigorated America's space program, said John Logsdon, space policy expert and professor emeritus at George Washington University in Washington, D.C.\n\"It was a time of head-on-head superpower rivalries for global leadership,\" Logsdon told SPACE.com. \"Everyone was recovering from World War II and it was a very tense time in U.S.-Soviet relations. Having something positive happen, particularly in an area where the Soviet Union looked like it was ahead, was politically very important.\" [ Giant Leaps: Top Milestones of Human Spaceflight ]\nThe flight also captivated the public, and after returning to Earth, Glenn received a hero's welcome in New York City.\n\"It was the first of the ticker-tape parades through Manhattan,\" Logsdon said. \"Everyone was glued to their television sets. It was new, exciting and adventurous.\"\nIt was after seeing Glenn's New York City parade that Logsdon himself was inspired to pursue a career related to space.\n\"I was in transition back to graduate school that spring and going into political science, and I remember very vividly seeing Colonel Glenn parade through Manhattan on March 1, 1962. And it was that more than Kennedy's speech or Sputnik that got me interested in space.\"\nThis image shows the launch of Friendship 7, the first American manned orbital space flight. With astronaut John Glenn aboard, the Mercury-Atlas rocket is launched from Pad 14, February 20, 1962.\nCredit: NASA\nThe original seven\nGlenn, who was born in Cambridge, Ohio, in 1921, was one of NASA's original seven astronauts — the so-called Mercury Seven. The trials and tribulations of those involved in Project Mercury were later immortalized by author Tom Wolfe in \"The Right Stuff.\"\nSelected in 1959 for the agency's first astronaut class, Glenn beat out a pool of 508 skilled, high-flying pilots and military men. While fellow Mercury Seven astronauts Alan Shepard and Virgil (Gus) Grissom flew to space before Glenn, the maximum altitude for both their flights put them only in the suborbital reaches.\nOn that February day in 1962, Glenn circled the Earth three times in the Friendship 7 capsule before splashing down in the Atlantic Ocean. He became a pioneer for orbital spaceflight, and NASA would continue to push the boundaries of exploration.\nAnd after years of Americans in orbit, Glenn hopes to see that tradition continue.\n\"I see exploration going two directions: one is macro, which is out to Mars or wherever we're going out into space and back,\" Glenn said. \"But to me, wherever we go we should try to maximize the research return of the capabilities we are developing. And that is what develops the support for the program. It does more good for people right here on Earth and does more to support the program for the long term than anything else we could do.\"\nFor instance, more emphasis should be put on the research capabilities of the International Space Station , he added.\n\"To me, we have never really exploited our ability in low-Earth orbit,\" Glenn said. \"The International Space Station is the most unique laboratory ever built by human beings. It cost us over $100 billion and about 18 years to get it to the condition that it is in. We should be working on ways to do the research that makes the whole program doubly beneficial in addition to just seeing how far we can go and keep someone alive and bring him back.\"\nLife after Project Mercury\nGlenn left NASA in 1964 and entered into business and politics. He was elected to the United States Senate, representing his native Ohio as a Democrat, and served from 1974 to 1999.\n\"Glenn's space career is only one facet of his life,\" Logsdon said. \"He was a very productive senator and he made his mark on American society in a number of ways.\"\nThroughout his tenure, Glenn remained a fervent supporter of NASA and a strong voice for the American space program. [ 50 Years of Presidential Visions for Space Exploration ]\nAnd in 1998, at age 77, Glenn flew to space again on the shuttle Discovery's STS-95 mission. After spending almost nine days in space, Glenn became the world's oldest astronaut, a title he still holds.\nShortly before his return to space, Glenn announced the creation of the John Glenn Institute (now the John Glenn School of Public Affairs) at Ohio State University in Columbus. The school featured a special exhibit about the Friendship 7 flight on campus and will lead a series of spaceflight forums and panels to mark the 50th anniversary.\n\"John Glenn is, quite simply, an extraordinary American patriot,\" E. Gordon Gee, president of Ohio State University, said in a statement. \"He is a man of boundless courage, limitless optimism and unswerving honor. I am deeply grateful for this opportunity to celebrate his tremendous achievements and his important leadership at Ohio State. He is one of this university’s — and this nation’s — greatest treasures.\"\nThe school is also hosting a gala dinner Monday to honor Glenn and his achievements. Former NASA astronaut Mark Kelly, who commanded the space shuttle Endeavour's final flight, will speak at the event.\nThe seven crew members in training for the STS-95 mission aboard Discovery pose for photographers prior to participating in a training session at NASA's Johnson Space Center. Pictured, from the left, are Pedro Duque, Curtis Brown, Chiaki Nauto-Mukai, then-U.S. Sen. John H. Glenn Jr. (D.-Ohio), Stephen Robinson, Steven Lindsey and Scott Parazynski.\nCredit: NASA\nNASA is also holding special events to mark the occasion.\nToday (Feb. 17) at 10 a.m. EST, NASA chief Charles Bolden and Kennedy Space Center director Bob Cabana will host a special program on NASA Television with Glenn and fellow Mercury astronaut Scott Carpenter. Three months after Glenn's Friendship 7 flight, Carpenter became the second American in orbit on May 24, 1962.\nA news conference will be held at 3 p.m. EST at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex in Cape Canaveral, Fla., in the Mercury Mission Control exhibit. This event will be broadcast on NASA TV.\nOn Saturday (Feb. 18), Glenn and Carpenter will participate in a ceremony at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex honoring those who made Project Mercury possible. Cabana, Sen. Bill Nelson (D-Fla.) and astronaut Steve Robinson, who flew with Glenn on Discovery's STS-95 mission in 1998 will speak at the event.\nOn Monday (Feb. 20) at 1:30 p.m. EST, Glenn and NASA administrator Charles Bolden will speak live with the crew aboard the International Space Station.\nOn March 2, Glenn will deliver the keynote address at a special event, called \"Celebrating John Glenn's Legacy: 50 Years of Americans in Orbit,\" hosted by NASA's Glenn Research Center in Cleveland, Ohio. The agency's Glenn Research Center is named for the astronaut.\nSPACE.com contributor Robert Pearlman, editor of the website collectSPACE.com , contributed to this report. You can follow SPACE.com staff writer Denise Chow on Twitter @denisechow . Follow SPACE.com for the latest in space science and exploration news on Twitter @Spacedotcom and on Facebook .\nEditor's Recommendations", "6/12/2006 • American History\nOn the morning of February 20, 1962, millions of Americans collectively held their breath as the world’s newest pioneer swept across the threshold of one of man’s last frontiers. Roughly a hundred miles above their heads, astronaut John Glenn sat comfortably in the weightless environment of a 9 1/2-by-6-foot space capsule he called Friendship 7. Within these close quarters he worked through his flight plan and completed an array of technical and medical tests as he cruised through the heavens.\nIt offered the leg room of a Volkswagen ‘Beetle’ and the aesthetics of a garbage can, but the small capsule commanded an extraordinary view of the planet Earth. Through the craft’s window, Glenn saw thick, puffy, white clouds blanketing much of southern Africa and the Indian Ocean. The Atlas Mountains of North Africa stood like proud, majestic statues on a planet that seemed as timeless as the stars that twinkled an eternity away. Dust storms blew across the deserts, and smoke from brush fires swirled into the atmosphere.\n‘Oh, that view is tremendous,’ Glenn remarked over the radio to capsule communicator (Capcom) Alan Shepard, his fellow Mercury astronaut stationed back at mission control. As Friendship 7 passed over the Indian Ocean, Glenn witnessed his first sunset from space, a panorama of beautiful, brilliant colors. Before the conclusion of that historic day, he would witness a total of four sunsets–three while in earth orbit, and the fourth from the deck of his recovery ship.\nFor Glenn, the historic voyage of Friendship 7 remains as vivid today as if it had happened yesterday. People still ask him what it felt like to be the first American to orbit the earth. And often he thinks of his capsule’s breathtaking liftoff and those subtle, emotionally empowering sunrises and sunsets.\n‘Here on earth you see a sunrise, it’s golden, it’s orange,’ Glenn recalled recently. ‘When you’re in space, and you’re coming around on a sunset or sunrise, where the light comes to you refracted through the earth’s atmosphere and back out into space, to the space craft that refraction has the same glowing color for all the colors of the spectrum . . . .’\nThere have been more than ten thousand sunsets since his orbital flight helped launch the United States deeper into a space race with the former Soviet Union. And although Glenn’s political career as a Democratic senator from Ohio has kept him in the public eye, he is remembered by many of his countrymen as the first American to circle the planet and as the affable spokesman for the seven Mercury astronauts.\nGlenn marvels at how people all over the world still recall the heady days of the Mercury program. ‘It’s been heartwarming in some respects and it’s amazing in others,’ he says. ‘I don’t go around all day, saying ‘Don’t you want to hear about my space experience?’ Quite the opposite. But if the kids come to the office here, or if I run into them on the subway and they want to stop a minute, I don’t hesitate to stop and talk. I think it’s good; I think that’s a duty we [former astronauts] have.’\nBy the time Glenn and Friendship 7 burst through the earth’s atmosphere, the United States was already a distant second in space technology, behind the Soviet Union. The race to begin to explore the universe had unofficially begun on October 4, 1957, when the Soviets launched Sputnik I, the world’s first artificial satellite.\n‘I think Sputnik sort of forced the hand,’ explains Gene Kranz, who served as Project Mercury’s assistant flight director and section chief for flight control operations. ‘I think we found ourselves an embarrassing second in space and related technologies. We were second best, and Americans generally don’t like that kind of a role.’\nPresident Dwight D. Eisenhower, however, was more concerned about the country’s security than its self-esteem. With the Soviets having the rocket power to propel a satellite into space, he wondered how long it would be before they were capable of launching a nuclear bomb toward the United States. In response to this perceived Soviet threat, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) into being on July 29, 1958. One of the first assignments given to the new agency was to launch a man into space and return him safely to earth, and that fall, Project Mercury was created to fulfill that daunting task.\nOn April 9, 1959, NASA formally introduced to the world the seven test pilots who would, it was hoped, carry the U.S. banner to the heavens. Selected were: Lieutenant Commanders Malcolm Scott Carpenter, Walter Marty Schirra, and Alan B. Shepard of the Navy; Air Force captains Leroy Gordon Cooper, Virgil I. ‘Gus’ Grissom, and Donald ‘Deke’ Slayton; and Lieutenant Colonel John H. Glenn of the Marine Corps.\nBorn on July 18, 1921, Glenn was the oldest of the group, arguably the most celebrated, and an obvious candidate for Mercury from the beginning. A veteran of World War II and the Korean War, Glenn had flown 149 combat missions and been awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross five times. After completing test-pilot school in 1954, Glenn went to work testing the fastest jets America could produce. His rsum sparkled even more in 1957 after he set a transcontinental speed record for the first flight to average supersonic speed (seven hundred miles per hour) from Los Angeles to New York.\nFrom their first public appearance together, the Mercury 7 astronauts, as they came to be known, were celebrities and heroes. ‘We were at first extremely surprised when we were announced to the whole world, and how crazy everybody went over the whole thing,’ laughs Cooper.\nBut enthusiasm for the project was one thing; making it a success was more difficult. There were countless variables and unknowns to conquer: weightlessness, a new capsule, an inconsistent booster in the Atlas rocket, and of course, the awesome specter of space. ‘To put it bluntly, we didn’t know what we were doing in many areas of the Mercury program and we were fortunate our country understood there was no achievement without risk,’ admits Kranz.\nAs the Mercury project evolved and moved into the next decade, NASA found a crucial supporter in President John F. Kennedy. Just weeks into his term, however, the Soviets scored another technological coup. On April 2, 1961, Soviet Cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human to fly in space, orbiting the earth once during his one hour, forty-eight minute flight, which came just three months after a U.S. Redstone rocket had carried a chimp named Ham into space and brought him safely back.\nOn May 5, 1961, Alan Shepard made America’s first, manned suborbital voyage, flying for 15 minutes and reaching an altitude of 116 miles. Compared to Gagarin’s flight around the world, Shepard’s 302-mile mission was a mere stopover between ports of call. It was, however, a major boost to America’s pride. While Gagarin flew under a cloak of secrecy, Shepard’s flight was broadcast live on television.\nThe early success of the Mercury Program spurred President Kennedy to inspire NASA to reach for new heights. On May 25, he grabbed the world’s attention when he told Congress that the nation’s new goal was to complete a manned trip to the moon before the end of the decade. For the first time in its space duel with the Soviet Union, the United States, which had so far amassed just 15 minutes of manned space-flight time, had set the stakes. Gene Kranz recalls with a laugh that ‘. . . we thought he was crazy,’ but the astronauts also felt energized to meet the new challenge.\nNASA turned its efforts up a notch that summer. In July, Gus Grissom replicated Shepard’s short suborbital flight, and by the fall, NASA was ready to attempt putting a spacecraft in orbit. As a final test in preparation for a manned trip, a chimpanzee named Enos was launched into space in late November. The craft carrying Enos completed two orbits before landing safely back on earth, after which NASA announced that on December 20 of that year, John Glenn would make the first American orbital flight.\nBefore taking this next giant leap toward the moon, however, NASA had to ensure that an astronaut could function in a weightless environment for an extended period of time. Some scientists feared that without proper equipment and technology, a space traveler’s eyeballs would bulge out of their sockets and change shape. This, in turn, would distort his vision and preclude his flying the craft should any of the automatic controls fail. Also, scientists feared that fluid in the inner ear might float freely into the air and that Glenn would become so nauseated and disoriented that he would be unable to perform his tasks.\nIn addition to its concerns about Glenn’s adaptability to weightlessness, NASA worried about the inconsistent Atlas booster, the huge rocket designed to push Glenn’s ship into orbit. Two of the five unmanned test firings conducted on the 93-foot Atlas prior to Glenn’s mission had failed. The memory of one of those failures has remained vivid for Glenn. It was a night test, he remembers, ‘and it was very dramatic–searchlights and a beautiful starlit night. Not a cloud in the sky. They light this thing, and up she goes . . . . At about 27,000 feet it blew up right over our heads. It looked like an atom bomb went off right there.’\nTo add to the mounting tension, poor weather and mechanical problems with the rocket forced NASA to’scrub’ Glenn’s scheduled mission nine times. Finally, on February 20, 1962, seven months after America’s last manned flight, John Glenn would don his bulky pressure suit for what would be the final time.\nRising out of bed in his ‘ready room’ at NASA’s space craft center at Cape Canaveral, Florida, at 2:20 a.m., he checked the weather report, which indicated a fifty percent chance of rain. Glenn showered and shaved and had the customary astronaut’s breakfast of steak and eggs, before taking a pre-flight physical. If the many weeks of anticipation weighed on Glenn’s mind, his body did not reflect it.\nFour hours later, Glenn made the short ride to the rocket’s launch site. When he emerged from the transfer van, Launch Pad 14 resembled a movie set as giant floodlights waved streams of milky white upon the rocket and the surrounding area. The huge Atlas was a glowing silver sword in the coal black night. ‘My flight was–it was like you staged it,’ recalls Glenn. ‘It was Hollywoodesque.’\nTwo hours before his scheduled liftoff, Glenn squeezed into the cramped cabin of Friendship 7, perched atop the Atlas rocket. The sky was clearing, and just before 8:00 a.m. technicians began the laborious task of bolting on the entry hatch of the craft. Sealed inside the capsule, Glenn felt truly alone. The minutes ticked by slowly as he calmly and methodically worked through his preflight checklist. Finally, Glenn heard the flight team give his mission an ‘A-OK’ over the radio. With all systems functioning normally, Glenn acknowledged his preparedness with a firm ‘ready.’ As the final countdown to liftoff began, backup pilot Scott Carpenter’s voice crackled over Glenn’s radio: ‘Godspeed, John Glenn.’\nAt 9:47 a.m. the rocket’s three engines ignited. Friendship 7 began to vibrate as the mighty Atlas built up 350,000 pounds of thrust, the force needed to lift Glenn and his craft into orbit. For a few interminable seconds, the massive rocket held steady. Finally, its hold-down clamps released, and the Atlas slowly, agonizingly clutched and pulled at the bright blue sky. ‘We are under way,’ Glenn reported to Mercury Control.\nMinutes later, Glenn was a hundred miles above the earth and traveling at more than 17,000 miles per hour. With all systems running smoothly during his initial orbit, Control advised him that he ‘had a go’ for at least seven turns around the earth. Unlike Soviet Cosmonaut Gherman Titov, who had experienced nausea and dizziness during his recent 16-orbit flight, Glenn worked and ate without difficulty. As he gazed earthward through the capsule’s window, he noted how fragile the planet appeared, shielded from the unforgiving vacuum of space by a film of atmosphere that seemed no more dense than an eggshell.\nBack at Mercury Control, the flight team, headed by Chris Kraft and Kranz, kept their focus on more practical considerations. After Glenn’s first orbit, Control had received a telemetry signal indicating that his capsule’s heat shield might be loose. If that signal was correct, Glenn and the spacecraft would disintegrate in the three-thousand-degree heat generated by reentry into Earth’s atmosphere. There seemed to be only one solution to this potentially tragic problem. If Glenn refrained from jettisoning the ship’s retro-rocket package, a normal procedure just before reentry, its titanium straps might hold the shield in place. Control advised Glenn of their decision to end his flight and ordered him to plan for reentry after his third orbit.\nUnwilling to burden Glenn with concern over the possible heat-shield malfunction, Control offered no explanation for their decision until he was safely home. Glenn was suspicious, but all parts of Friendship 7 seemed to him to be working properly so he concerned himself only with what was within his control. Before long, the capsule splashed down safely in the Atlantic Ocean.\n‘When I started back in through the atmosphere, when the straps that held the retropack on burned off, one of them popped up in front of the window,’ Glenn remembers. ‘I thought the retropack or the heat shield was breaking up. It was a real fireball. But the heat shield worked fine.’\nGlenn’s flight was a public relations boon for the U.S. space program. He returned to a hero’s welcome and a wildly emotional New York City ticker-tape parade. The United States had made a significant step forward in its competition with the Soviet Union and its quest for the moon. Few people knew, however, that the nation’s most famous pilot would never again fly in space.\nAs Glenn recalls, ‘President Kennedy had passed word to NASA, and I didn’t know this for some years, that I was not to be used again on a flight, at least for a while. You can’t believe being the focal point of that kind of attention when we came back. I don’t know if he was concerned about political fallout, or what.’ Glenn was disappointed that he never again traveled into space, but declares,’I don’t feel cheated because I had such a tremendous flight.’\nThree years after the confetti and streamers had blown away, John Glenn left NASA and, relegating space flight to a vivid memory, moved into another public arena. Politics is a high-profile world in which Glenn’s clean-cut image and amiable personality easily endeared him to his constituents and to the public in general. In 1974, he was elected to the U.S. Senate by his home state of Ohio, an office he has held through three more terms.\nDespite the passage of more than a quarter century, Glenn easily recalls the innocent joy he found in those wondrous space sunsets. He has never lost the ability to draw inspiration from his experiences and to channel it into a positive outlook. ‘I think its an attitude,’ he says, of maintaining his inner youth. ‘I think kids have an expectation of what’s going to happen tomorrow. I think some people are able to maintain that whole thing, this expectation about what they’re looking forward to.’\nNot surprisingly, Senator Glenn can easily find his time consumed by the business of Capitol Hill. But when a red-headed, freckle-faced teenager with blue eyes ablaze asks Glenn to describe a launch or splashdown, the senator from Ohio again becomes one of America’s first astronauts, as he relives that historic day in 1962 when time stood still and three space sunsets blazed like campfires of a thousand sparkling colors.\n \nThis article was written by Bryan Ethier and originally published in October 1997 issue of American History Magazine.\nFor more great articles, subscribe to American History magazine today!" ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Medicine.txt", "Blood.txt" ], "title": [ "Medicine", "Blood" ], "wiki_context": [ "Medicine (British English; American English) is the science and practice of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. The word medicine is derived from Latin medicus, meaning \"a physician\". Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. Contemporary medicine applies biomedical sciences, biomedical research, genetics, and medical technology to diagnose, treat, and prevent injury and disease, typically through pharmaceuticals or surgery, but also through therapies as diverse as psychotherapy, external splints and traction, medical devices, biologics, and ionizing radiation, amongst others. \n\nMedicine has existed for thousands of years, during most of which it was an art (an area of skill and knowledge) frequently having connections to the religious and philosophical beliefs of local culture. For example, a medicine man would apply herbs and say prayers for healing, or an ancient philosopher and physician would apply bloodletting according to the theories of humorism. In recent centuries, since the advent of modern science, most medicine has become a combination of art and science (both basic and applied, under the umbrella of medical science). While stitching technique for sutures is an art learned through practice, the knowledge of what happens at the cellular and molecular level in the tissues being stitched arises through science.\n\nPrescientific forms of medicine are now known as traditional medicine and folk medicine. They remain commonly used with or instead of scientific medicine and are thus called alternative medicine. For example, evidence on the effectiveness of acupuncture is \"variable and inconsistent\" for any condition, but is generally safe when done by an appropriately trained practitioner. In contrast, treatments outside the bounds of safety and efficacy are termed quackery.\n\nClinical practice\n\nMedical availability and clinical practice varies across the world due to regional differences in culture and technology. Modern scientific medicine is highly developed in the Western world, while in developing countries such as parts of Africa or Asia, the population may rely more heavily on traditional medicine with limited evidence and efficacy and no required formal training for practitioners. Even in the developed world however, evidence-based medicine is not universally used in clinical practice; for example, a 2007 survey of literature reviews found that about 49% of the interventions lacked sufficient evidence to support either benefit or harm. \n\nIn modern clinical practice, doctors personally assess patients in order to diagnose, treat, and prevent disease using clinical judgment. The doctor-patient relationship typically begins an interaction with an examination of the patient's medical history and medical record, followed by a medical interview and a physical examination. Basic diagnostic medical devices (e.g. stethoscope, tongue depressor) are typically used. After examination for signs and interviewing for symptoms, the doctor may order medical tests (e.g. blood tests), take a biopsy, or prescribe pharmaceutical drugs or other therapies. Differential diagnosis methods help to rule out conditions based on the information provided. During the encounter, properly informing the patient of all relevant facts is an important part of the relationship and the development of trust. The medical encounter is then documented in the medical record, which is a legal document in many jurisdictions.\n Follow-ups may be shorter but follow the same general procedure, and specialists follow a similar process. The diagnosis and treatment may take only a few minutes or a few weeks depending upon the complexity of the issue.\n\nThe components of the medical interview and encounter are:\n* Chief complaint (CC): the reason for the current medical visit. These are the 'symptoms.' They are in the patient's own words and are recorded along with the duration of each one. Also called 'chief concern' or 'presenting complaint'.\n* History of present illness (HPI): the chronological order of events of symptoms and further clarification of each symptom. Distinguishable from history of previous illness, often called past medical history (PMH). Medical history comprises HPI and PMH.\n* Current activity: occupation, hobbies, what the patient actually does.\n* Medications (Rx): what drugs the patient takes including prescribed, over-the-counter, and home remedies, as well as alternative and herbal medicines/herbal remedies. Allergies are also recorded.\n* Past medical history (PMH/PMHx): concurrent medical problems, past hospitalizations and operations, injuries, past infectious diseases and/or vaccinations, history of known allergies.\n* Social history (SH): birthplace, residences, marital history, social and economic status, habits (including diet, medications, tobacco, alcohol).\n* Family history (FH): listing of diseases in the family that may impact the patient. A family tree is sometimes used.\n* Review of systems (ROS) or systems inquiry: a set of additional questions to ask, which may be missed on HPI: a general enquiry (have you noticed any weight loss, change in sleep quality, fevers, lumps and bumps? etc.), followed by questions on the body's main organ systems (heart, lungs, digestive tract, urinary tract, etc.).\n\nThe physical examination is the examination of the patient for medical signs of disease, which are objective and observable, in contrast to symptoms which are volunteered by the patient and not necessarily objectively observable. The healthcare provider uses the senses of sight, hearing, touch, and sometimes smell (e.g., in infection, uremia, diabetic ketoacidosis). Four actions are the basis of physical examination: inspection, palpation (feel), percussion (tap to determine resonance characteristics), and auscultation (listen), generally in that order although auscultation occurs prior to percussion and palpation for abdominal assessments. \n\nThe clinical examination involves the study of:\n* Vital signs including height, weight, body temperature, blood pressure, pulse, respiration rate, and hemoglobin oxygen saturation\n* General appearance of the patient and specific indicators of disease (nutritional status, presence of jaundice, pallor or clubbing)\n* Skin\n* Head, eye, ear, nose, and throat (HEENT)\n* Cardiovascular (heart and blood vessels)\n* Respiratory (large airways and lungs)\n* Abdomen and rectum\n* Genitalia (and pregnancy if the patient is or could be pregnant)\n* Musculoskeletal (including spine and extremities)\n* Neurological (consciousness, awareness, brain, vision, cranial nerves, spinal cord and peripheral nerves)\n* Psychiatric (orientation, mental state, evidence of abnormal perception or thought).\n\nIt is to likely focus on areas of interest highlighted in the medical history and may not include everything listed above.\n\nThe treatment plan may include ordering additional medical laboratory tests and medical imaging studies, starting therapy, referral to a specialist, or watchful observation. Follow-up may be advised. Depending upon the health insurance plan and the managed care system, various forms of \"utilization review\", such as prior authorization of tests, may place barriers on accessing expensive services. \n\nThe medical decision-making (MDM) process involves analysis and synthesis of all the above data to come up with a list of possible diagnoses (the differential diagnoses), along with an idea of what needs to be done to obtain a definitive diagnosis that would explain the patient's problem.\n\nOn subsequent visits, the process may be repeated in an abbreviated manner to obtain any new history, symptoms, physical findings, and lab or imaging results or specialist consultations.\n\nInstitutions\n\nContemporary medicine is in general conducted within health care systems. Legal, credentialing and financing frameworks are established by individual governments, augmented on occasion by international organizations, such as churches. The characteristics of any given health care system have significant impact on the way medical care is provided.\n\nFrom ancient times, Christian emphasis on practical charity gave rise to the development of systematic nursing and hospitals and the Catholic Church today remains the largest non-government provider of medical services in the world. Advanced industrial countries (with the exception of the United States) and many developing countries provide medical services through a system of universal health care that aims to guarantee care for all through a single-payer health care system, or compulsory private or co-operative health insurance. This is intended to ensure that the entire population has access to medical care on the basis of need rather than ability to pay. Delivery may be via private medical practices or by state-owned hospitals and clinics, or by charities, most commonly by a combination of all three.\n\nMost tribal societies provide no guarantee of healthcare for the population as a whole. In such societies, healthcare is available to those that can afford to pay for it or have self-insured it (either directly or as part of an employment contract) or who may be covered by care financed by the government or tribe directly.\n\nTransparency of information is another factor defining a delivery system. Access to information on conditions, treatments, quality, and pricing greatly affects the choice by patients/consumers and, therefore, the incentives of medical professionals. While the US healthcare system has come under fire for lack of openness, new legislation may encourage greater openness. There is a perceived tension between the need for transparency on the one hand and such issues as patient confidentiality and the possible exploitation of information for commercial gain on the other.\n\nDelivery\n\nProvision of medical care is classified into primary, secondary, and tertiary care categories.\n\nPrimary care medical services are provided by physicians, physician assistants, nurse practitioners, or other health professionals who have first contact with a patient seeking medical treatment or care. These occur in physician offices, clinics, nursing homes, schools, home visits, and other places close to patients. About 90% of medical visits can be treated by the primary care provider. These include treatment of acute and chronic illnesses, preventive care and health education for all ages and both sexes.\n\nSecondary care medical services are provided by medical specialists in their offices or clinics or at local community hospitals for a patient referred by a primary care provider who first diagnosed or treated the patient. Referrals are made for those patients who required the expertise or procedures performed by specialists. These include both ambulatory care and inpatient services, emergency rooms, intensive care medicine, surgery services, physical therapy, labor and delivery, endoscopy units, diagnostic laboratory and medical imaging services, hospice centers, etc. Some primary care providers may also take care of hospitalized patients and deliver babies in a secondary care setting.\n\nTertiary care medical services are provided by specialist hospitals or regional centers equipped with diagnostic and treatment facilities not generally available at local hospitals. These include trauma centers, burn treatment centers, advanced neonatology unit services, organ transplants, high-risk pregnancy, radiation oncology, etc.\n\nModern medical care also depends on information – still delivered in many health care settings on paper records, but increasingly nowadays by electronic means.\n\nIn low-income countries, modern healthcare is often too expensive for the average person. International healthcare policy researchers have advocated that \"user fees\" be removed in these areas to ensure access, although even after removal, significant costs and barriers remain. \n\nBranches\n\nWorking together as an interdisciplinary team, many highly trained health professionals besides medical practitioners are involved in the delivery of modern health care. Examples include: nurses, emergency medical technicians and paramedics, laboratory scientists, pharmacists, podiatrists, physiotherapists, respiratory therapists, speech therapists, occupational therapists, radiographers, dietitians, and bioengineers, surgeons, surgeon's assistant, surgical technologist.\n\nThe scope and sciences underpinning human medicine overlap many other fields. Dentistry, while considered by some a separate discipline from medicine, is a medical field.\n\nA patient admitted to the hospital is usually under the care of a specific team based on their main presenting problem, e.g., the Cardiology team, who then may interact with other specialties, e.g., surgical, radiology, to help diagnose or treat the main problem or any subsequent complications/developments.\n\nPhysicians have many specializations and subspecializations into certain branches of medicine, which are listed below. There are variations from country to country regarding which specialties certain subspecialties are in.\n\nThe main branches of medicine are:\n* Basic sciences of medicine; this is what every physician is educated in, and some return to in biomedical research\n* Medical specialties\n* Interdisciplinary fields, where different medical specialties are mixed to function in certain occasions.\n\nBasic sciences\n\n* Anatomy is the study of the physical structure of organisms. In contrast to macroscopic or gross anatomy, cytology and histology are concerned with microscopic structures.\n* Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry taking place in living organisms, especially the structure and function of their chemical components.\n* Biomechanics is the study of the structure and function of biological systems by means of the methods of Mechanics.\n* Biostatistics is the application of statistics to biological fields in the broadest sense. A knowledge of biostatistics is essential in the planning, evaluation, and interpretation of medical research. It is also fundamental to epidemiology and evidence-based medicine.\n* Biophysics is an interdisciplinary science that uses the methods of physics and physical chemistry to study biological systems.\n* Cytology is the microscopic study of individual cells.\n\n* Embryology is the study of the early development of organisms.\n* Endocrinology is the study of hormones and their effect throughout the body of animals.\n* Epidemiology is the study of the demographics of disease processes, and includes, but is not limited to, the study of epidemics.\n* Genetics is the study of genes, and their role in biological inheritance.\n* Histology is the study of the structures of biological tissues by light microscopy, electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry.\n* Immunology is the study of the immune system, which includes the innate and adaptive immune system in humans, for example.\n* Medical physics is the study of the applications of physics principles in medicine.\n* Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, including protozoa, bacteria, fungi, and viruses.\n* Molecular biology is the study of molecular underpinnings of the process of replication, transcription and translation of the genetic material.\n* Neuroscience includes those disciplines of science that are related to the study of the nervous system. A main focus of neuroscience is the biology and physiology of the human brain and spinal cord. Some related clinical specialties include neurology, neurosurgery and psychiatry.\n* Nutrition science (theoretical focus) and dietetics (practical focus) is the study of the relationship of food and drink to health and disease, especially in determining an optimal diet. Medical nutrition therapy is done by dietitians and is prescribed for diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, weight and eating disorders, allergies, malnutrition, and neoplastic diseases.\n* Pathology as a science is the study of disease—the causes, course, progression and resolution thereof.\n* Pharmacology is the study of drugs and their actions.\n* Photobiology is the study of the interactions between non-ionizing radiation and living organisms.\n* Physiology is the study of the normal functioning of the body and the underlying regulatory mechanisms.\n* Radiobiology is the study of the interactions between ionizing radiation and living organisms.\n* Toxicology is the study of hazardous effects of drugs and poisons.\n\nSpecialties\n\nIn the broadest meaning of \"medicine\", there are many different specialties. In the UK, most specialities have their own body or college, which have its own entrance examination. These are collectively known as the Royal Colleges, although not all currently use the term \"Royal\". The development of a speciality is often driven by new technology (such as the development of effective anaesthetics) or ways of working (such as emergency departments); the new specialty leads to the formation of a unifying body of doctors and the prestige of administering their own examination.\n\nWithin medical circles, specialities usually fit into one of two broad categories: \"Medicine\" and \"Surgery.\" \"Medicine\" refers to the practice of non-operative medicine, and most of its subspecialties require preliminary training in Internal Medicine. In the UK, this was traditionally evidenced by passing the examination for the Membership of the Royal College of Physicians (MRCP) or the equivalent college in Scotland or Ireland. \"Surgery\" refers to the practice of operative medicine, and most subspecialties in this area require preliminary training in General Surgery, which in the UK leads to membership of the Royal College of Surgeons of England (MRCS). At present, some specialties of medicine do not fit easily into either of these categories, such as radiology, pathology, or anesthesia. Most of these have branched from one or other of the two camps above; for example anaesthesia developed first as a faculty of the Royal College of Surgeons (for which MRCS/FRCS would have been required) before becoming the Royal College of Anaesthetists and membership of the college is attained by sitting for the examination of the Fellowship of the Royal College of Anesthetists (FRCA).\n\nSurgical specialty\n\nSurgery is an ancient medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a patient to investigate and/or treat a pathological condition such as disease or injury, to help improve bodily function or appearance or to repair unwanted ruptured areas (for example, a perforated ear drum). Surgeons must also manage pre-operative, post-operative, and potential surgical candidates on the hospital wards. Surgery has many sub-specialties, including general surgery, ophthalmic surgery, cardiovascular surgery, colorectal surgery, neurosurgery, oral and maxillofacial surgery, oncologic surgery, orthopedic surgery, otolaryngology, plastic surgery, podiatric surgery, transplant surgery, trauma surgery, urology, vascular surgery, and pediatric surgery. In some centers, anesthesiology is part of the division of surgery (for historical and logistical reasons), although it is not a surgical discipline. Other medical specialties may employ surgical procedures, such as ophthalmology and dermatology, but are not considered surgical sub-specialties per se.\n\nSurgical training in the U.S. requires a minimum of five years of residency after medical school. Sub-specialties of surgery often require seven or more years. In addition, fellowships can last an additional one to three years. Because post-residency fellowships can be competitive, many trainees devote two additional years to research. Thus in some cases surgical training will not finish until more than a decade after medical school. Furthermore, surgical training can be very difficult and time-consuming.\n\nInternal specialty\n\nInternal medicine is the medical specialty dealing with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of adult diseases. According to some sources, an emphasis on internal structures is implied. In North America, specialists in internal medicine are commonly called \"internists.\" Elsewhere, especially in Commonwealth nations, such specialists are often called physicians. These terms, internist or physician (in the narrow sense, common outside North America), generally exclude practitioners of gynecology and obstetrics, pathology, psychiatry, and especially surgery and its subspecialities.\n\nBecause their patients are often seriously ill or require complex investigations, internists do much of their work in hospitals. Formerly, many internists were not subspecialized; such general physicians would see any complex nonsurgical problem; this style of practice has become much less common. In modern urban practice, most internists are subspecialists: that is, they generally limit their medical practice to problems of one organ system or to one particular area of medical knowledge. For example, gastroenterologists and nephrologists specialize respectively in diseases of the gut and the kidneys. \n\nIn the Commonwealth of Nations and some other countries, specialist pediatricians and geriatricians are also described as specialist physicians (or internists) who have subspecialized by age of patient rather than by organ system. Elsewhere, especially in North America, general pediatrics is often a form of Primary care.\n\nThere are many subspecialities (or subdisciplines) of internal medicine:\n\n*Angiology/Vascular Medicine\n*Cardiology\n*Critical care medicine\n*Endocrinology\n*Gastroenterology\n*Geriatrics\n*Hematology\n*Hepatology\n*Infectious disease\n*Nephrology\n*Neurology\n*Oncology\n*Pediatrics\n*Pulmonology/Pneumology/Respirology/chest medicine\n*Rheumatology\n*Sports Medicine\n\nTraining in internal medicine (as opposed to surgical training), varies considerably across the world: see the articles on Medical education and Physician for more details. In North America, it requires at least three years of residency training after medical school, which can then be followed by a one- to three-year fellowship in the subspecialties listed above. In general, resident work hours in medicine are less than those in surgery, averaging about 60 hours per week in the USA. This difference does not apply in the UK where all doctors are now required by law to work less than 48 hours per week on average.\n\nDiagnostic specialties\n\n* Clinical laboratory sciences are the clinical diagnostic services that apply laboratory techniques to diagnosis and management of patients. In the United States, these services are supervised by a pathologist. The personnel that work in these medical laboratory departments are technically trained staff who do not hold medical degrees, but who usually hold an undergraduate medical technology degree, who actually perform the tests, assays, and procedures needed for providing the specific services. Subspecialties include transfusion medicine, cellular pathology, clinical chemistry, hematology, clinical microbiology and clinical immunology.\n* Pathology as a medical specialty is the branch of medicine that deals with the study of diseases and the morphologic, physiologic changes produced by them. As a diagnostic specialty, pathology can be considered the basis of modern scientific medical knowledge and plays a large role in evidence-based medicine. Many modern molecular tests such as flow cytometry, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), immunohistochemistry, cytogenetics, gene rearrangements studies and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) fall within the territory of pathology.\n* Diagnostic radiology is concerned with imaging of the body, e.g. by x-rays, x-ray computed tomography, ultrasonography, and nuclear magnetic resonance tomography. Interventional radiologists can access areas in the body under imaging for an intervention or diagnostic sampling. \n* Nuclear medicine is concerned with studying human organ systems by administering radiolabelled substances (radiopharmaceuticals) to the body, which can then be imaged outside the body by a gamma camera or a PET scanner. Each radiopharmaceutical consists of two parts: a tracer that is specific for the function under study (e.g., neurotransmitter pathway, metabolic pathway, blood flow, or other), and a radionuclide (usually either a gamma-emitter or a positron emitter). There is a degree of overlap between nuclear medicine and radiology, as evidenced by the emergence of combined devices such as the PET/CT scanner.\n* Clinical neurophysiology is concerned with testing the physiology or function of the central and peripheral aspects of the nervous system. These kinds of tests can be divided into recordings of: (1) spontaneous or continuously running electrical activity, or (2) stimulus evoked responses. Subspecialties include electroencephalography, electromyography, evoked potential, nerve conduction study and polysomnography. Sometimes these tests are performed by techs without a medical degree, but the interpretation of these tests is done by a medical professional.\n\nOther major specialties\n\nThe followings are some major medical specialties that do not directly fit into any of the above-mentioned groups.\n* Anesthesiology (also known as anaesthetics): concerned with the perioperative management of the surgical patient. The anesthesiologist's role during surgery is to prevent derangement in the vital organs' (i.e. brain, heart, kidneys) functions and postoperative pain. Outside of the operating room, the anesthesiology physician also serves the same function in the labor & delivery ward, and some are specialized in critical medicine.\n* Dermatology is concerned with the skin and its diseases. In the UK, dermatology is a subspecialty of general medicine.\n* Emergency medicine is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of acute or life-threatening conditions, including trauma, surgical, medical, pediatric, and psychiatric emergencies.\n* Family medicine, family practice, general practice or primary care is, in many countries, the first port-of-call for patients with non-emergency medical problems. Family physicians often provide services across a broad range of settings including office based practices, emergency room coverage, inpatient care, and nursing home care.\n\n* Obstetrics and gynecology (often abbreviated as OB/GYN (American English) or Obs & Gynae (British English)) are concerned respectively with childbirth and the female reproductive and associated organs. Reproductive medicine and fertility medicine are generally practiced by gynecological specialists.\n* Medical Genetics is concerned with the diagnosis and management of hereditary disorders.\n* Neurology is concerned with diseases of the nervous system. In the UK, neurology is a subspecialty of general medicine.\n* Ophthalmology is exclusively concerned with the eye and ocular adnexa, combining conservative and surgical therapy.\n* Pediatrics (AE) or paediatrics (BE) is devoted to the care of infants, children, and adolescents. Like internal medicine, there are many pediatric subspecialties for specific age ranges, organ systems, disease classes, and sites of care delivery.\n* Pharmaceutical medicine is the medical scientific discipline concerned with the discovery, development, evaluation, registration, monitoring and medical aspects of marketing of medicines for the benefit of patients and public health.\n* Physical medicine and rehabilitation (or physiatry) is concerned with functional improvement after injury, illness, or congenital disorders.\n* Podiatric medicine is the study of, diagnosis, and medical & surgical treatment of disorders of the foot, ankle, lower limb, hip and lower back.\n* Psychiatry is the branch of medicine concerned with the bio-psycho-social study of the etiology, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of cognitive, perceptual, emotional and behavioral disorders. Related non-medical fields include psychotherapy and clinical psychology.\n* Preventive medicine is the branch of medicine concerned with preventing disease.\n** Community health or public health is an aspect of health services concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population health analysis.\n\nInterdisciplinary fields\n \nSome interdisciplinary sub-specialties of medicine include:\n* Aerospace medicine deals with medical problems related to flying and space travel.\n* Addiction medicine deals with the treatment of addiction.\n* Medical ethics deals with ethical and moral principles that apply values and judgments to the practice of medicine.\n* Biomedical Engineering is a field dealing with the application of engineering principles to medical practice.\n* Clinical pharmacology is concerned with how systems of therapeutics interact with patients.\n* Conservation medicine studies the relationship between human and animal health, and environmental conditions. Also known as ecological medicine, environmental medicine, or medical geology.\n* Disaster medicine deals with medical aspects of emergency preparedness, disaster mitigation and management.\n* Diving medicine (or hyperbaric medicine) is the prevention and treatment of diving-related problems.\n* Evolutionary medicine is a perspective on medicine derived through applying evolutionary theory.\n* Forensic medicine deals with medical questions in legal context, such as determination of the time and cause of death, type of weapon used to inflict trauma, reconstruction of the facial features using remains of deceased (skull) thus aiding identification.\n* Gender-based medicine studies the biological and physiological differences between the human sexes and how that affects differences in disease.\n* Hospice and Palliative Medicine is a relatively modern branch of clinical medicine that deals with pain and symptom relief and emotional support in patients with terminal illnesses including cancer and heart failure.\n* Hospital medicine is the general medical care of hospitalized patients. Physicians whose primary professional focus is hospital medicine are called hospitalists in the USA and Canada. The term Most Responsible Physician (MRP) or attending physician is also used interchangeably to describe this role.\n* Laser medicine involves the use of lasers in the diagnostics and/or treatment of various conditions.\n* Medical humanities includes the humanities (literature, philosophy, ethics, history and religion), social science (anthropology, cultural studies, psychology, sociology), and the arts (literature, theater, film, and visual arts) and their application to medical education and practice.\n* Health informatics is a relatively recent field that deal with the application of computers and information technology to medicine.\n* Nosology is the classification of diseases for various purposes.\n* Nosokinetics is the science/subject of measuring and modelling the process of care in health and social care systems.\n* Occupational medicines principal role is the provision of health advice to organizations and individuals to ensure that the highest standards of health and safety at work can be achieved and maintained.\n* Pain management (also called pain medicine, or algiatry) is the medical discipline concerned with the relief of pain.\n* Pharmacogenomics is a form of individualized medicine.\n* Podiatric medicine is the study of, diagnosis, and medical treatment of disorders of the foot, ankle, lower limb, hip and lower back.\n* Sexual medicine is concerned with diagnosing, assessing and treating all disorders related to sexuality.\n* Sports medicine deals with the treatment and prevention and rehabilitation of sports/exercise injuries such as muscle spasms, muscle tears, injuries to ligaments (ligament tears or ruptures) and their repair in athletes, amateur and professional.\n* Therapeutics is the field, more commonly referenced in earlier periods of history, of the various remedies that can be used to treat disease and promote health. \n* Travel medicine or emporiatrics deals with health problems of international travelers or travelers across highly different environments.\n* Tropical medicine deals with the prevention and treatment of tropical diseases. It is studied separately in temperate climates where those diseases are quite unfamiliar to medical practitioners and their local clinical needs.\n* Urgent care focuses on delivery of unscheduled, walk-in care outside of the hospital emergency department for injuries and illnesses that are not severe enough to require care in an emergency department. In some jurisdictions this function is combined with the emergency room.\n* Veterinary medicine; veterinarians apply similar techniques as physicians to the care of animals.\n* Wilderness medicine entails the practice of medicine in the wild, where conventional medical facilities may not be available.\n* Many other health science fields, e.g. dietetics\n\nEducation and legal controls\n\nMedical education and training varies around the world. It typically involves entry level education at a university medical school, followed by a period of supervised practice or internship, and/or residency. This can be followed by postgraduate vocational training. A variety of teaching methods have been employed in medical education, still itself a focus of active research. In Canada and the United States of America, a Doctor of Medicine degree, often abbreviated M.D., or a Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine degree, often abbreviated as D.O. and unique to the United States, must be completed in and delivered from a recognized university.\n\nSince knowledge, techniques, and medical technology continue to evolve at a rapid rate, many regulatory authorities require continuing medical education. Medical practitioners upgrade their knowledge in various ways, including medical journals, seminars, conferences, and online programs.\n\nIn most countries, it is a legal requirement for a medical doctor to be licensed or registered. In general, this entails a medical degree from a university and accreditation by a medical board or an equivalent national organization, which may ask the applicant to pass exams. This restricts the considerable legal authority of the medical profession to physicians that are trained and qualified by national standards. It is also intended as an assurance to patients and as a safeguard against charlatans that practice inadequate medicine for personal gain. While the laws generally require medical doctors to be trained in \"evidence based\", Western, or Hippocratic Medicine, they are not intended to discourage different paradigms of health.\n\nIn the European Union, the profession of doctor of medicine is regulated. A profession is said to be regulated when access and exercise is subject to the possession of a specific professional qualification.\nThe regulated professions database contains a list of regulated professions for doctor of medicine in the EU member states, EEA countries and Switzerland. This list is covered by the Directive 2005/36/EC.\n\nDoctors who are negligent or intentionally harmful in their care of patients can face charges of medical malpractice and be subject to civil, criminal, or professional sanctions.\n\nMedical ethics\n\nMedical ethics is a system of moral principles that apply values and judgments to the practice of medicine. As a scholarly discipline, medical ethics encompasses its practical application in clinical settings as well as work on its history, philosophy, theology, and sociology. Six of the values that commonly apply to medical ethics discussions are:\n* autonomy - the patient has the right to refuse or choose their treatment. (Voluntas aegroti suprema lex.)\n* beneficence - a practitioner should act in the best interest of the patient. (Salus aegroti suprema lex.)\n* justice - concerns the distribution of scarce health resources, and the decision of who gets what treatment (fairness and equality).\n* non-maleficence - \"first, do no harm\" (primum non-nocere).\n* respect for persons - the patient (and the person treating the patient) have the right to be treated with dignity.\n* truthfulness and honesty - the concept of informed consent has increased in importance since the historical events of the Doctors' Trial of the Nuremberg trials, Tuskegee syphilis experiment, and others.\n\nValues such as these do not give answers as to how to handle a particular situation, but provide a useful framework for understanding conflicts. When moral values are in conflict, the result may be an ethical dilemma or crisis. Sometimes, no good solution to a dilemma in medical ethics exists, and occasionally, the values of the medical community (i.e., the hospital and its staff) conflict with the values of the individual patient, family, or larger non-medical community. Conflicts can also arise between health care providers, or among family members. For example, some argue that the principles of autonomy and beneficence clash when patients refuse blood transfusions, considering them life-saving; and truth-telling was not emphasized to a large extent before the HIV era.\n\nHistory\n\nAncient world\n\nPrehistoric medicine incorporated plants (herbalism), animal parts, and minerals. In many cases these materials were used ritually as magical substances by priests, shamans, or medicine men. Well-known spiritual systems include animism (the notion of inanimate objects having spirits), spiritualism (an appeal to gods or communion with ancestor spirits); shamanism (the vesting of an individual with mystic powers); and divination (magically obtaining the truth). The field of medical anthropology examines the ways in which culture and society are organized around or impacted by issues of health, health care and related issues.\n\nEarly records on medicine have been discovered from ancient Egyptian medicine, Babylonian Medicine, Ayurvedic medicine (in the Indian subcontinent), classical Chinese medicine (predecessor to the modern traditional Chinese Medicine), and ancient Greek medicine and Roman medicine.\n\nIn Egypt, Imhotep (3rd millennium BC) is the first physician in history known by name. The oldest Egyptian medical text is the Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus from around 2000 BCE, which describes gynaecological diseases. The Edwin Smith Papyrus dating back to 1600 BCE is an early work on surgery, while the Ebers Papyrus dating back to 1500 BCE is akin to a textbook on medicine. \n\nIn China, archaeological evidence of medicine in Chinese dates back to the Bronze Age Shang Dynasty, based on seeds for herbalism and tools presumed to have been used for surgery. The Huangdi Neijing, the progenitor of Chinese medicine, is a medical text written beginning in the 2nd century BCE and compiled in the 3rd century. \n\nIn India, the surgeon Sushruta described numerous surgical operations, including the earliest forms of plastic surgery. Earliest records of dedicated hospitals come from Mihintale in Sri Lanka where evidence of dedicated medicinal treatment facilities for patients are found. \n\nIn Greece, the Greek physician Hippocrates, the \"father of western medicine\", laid the foundation for a rational approach to medicine. Hippocrates introduced the Hippocratic Oath for physicians, which is still relevant and in use today, and was the first to categorize illnesses as acute, chronic, endemic and epidemic, and use terms such as, \"exacerbation, relapse, resolution, crisis, paroxysm, peak, and convalescence\". The Greek physician Galen was also one of the greatest surgeons of the ancient world and performed many audacious operations, including brain and eye surgeries. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the onset of the Early Middle Ages, the Greek tradition of medicine went into decline in Western Europe, although it continued uninterrupted in the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire.\n\nMost of our knowledge of ancient Hebrew medicine during the 1st millennium BC comes from the Torah, i.e. the Five Books of Moses, which contain various health related laws and rituals. The Hebrew contribution to the development of modern medicine started in the Byzantine Era, with the physician Asaph the Jew. \n\nMiddle Ages\n\nAfter 750 CE, the Muslim world had the works of Hippocrates, Galen and Sushruta translated into Arabic, and Islamic physicians engaged in some significant medical research. Notable Islamic medical pioneers include the Persian polymath, Avicenna, who, along with Imhotep and Hippocrates, has also been called the \"father of medicine\". He wrote The Canon of Medicine, considered one of the most famous books in the history of medicine. Others include Abulcasis, Avenzoar, Ibn al-Nafis, and Averroes. Rhazes [http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst372/readings/tschanz.html copy] was one of the first to question the Greek theory of humorism, which nevertheless remained influential in both medieval Western and medieval Islamic medicine. Al-Risalah al-Dhahabiah by Ali al-Ridha, the eighth Imam of Shia Muslims, is revered as the most precious Islamic literature in the Science of Medicine. The Islamic Bimaristan hospitals were an early example of public hospitals. \n\nIn Europe, Charlemagne decreed that a hospital should be attached to each cathedral and monastery and the historian Geoffrey Blainey likened the activities of the Catholic Church in health care during the Middle Ages to an early version of a welfare state: \"It conducted hospitals for the old and orphanages for the young; hospices for the sick of all ages; places for the lepers; and hostels or inns where pilgrims could buy a cheap bed and meal\". It supplied food to the population during famine and distributed food to the poor. This welfare system the church funded through collecting taxes on a large scale and possessing large farmlands and estates. The Benedictine order was noted for setting up hospitals and infirmaries in their monasteries, growing medical herbs and becoming the chief medical care givers of their districts, as at the great Abbey of Cluny. The Church also established a network of cathedral schools and universities where medicine was studied. The Schola Medica Salernitana in Salerno, looking to the learning of Greek and Arab physicians, grew to be the finest medical school in Medieval Europe. \n\nHowever, the fourteenth and fifteenth century Black Death devastated both the Middle East and Europe, and it has even been argued that Western Europe was generally more effective in recovering from the pandemic than the Middle East. In the early modern period, important early figures in medicine and anatomy emerged in Europe, including Gabriele Falloppio and William Harvey.\n\nThe major shift in medical thinking was the gradual rejection, especially during the Black Death in the 14th and 15th centuries, of what may be called the 'traditional authority' approach to science and medicine. This was the notion that because some prominent person in the past said something must be so, then that was the way it was, and anything one observed to the contrary was an anomaly (which was paralleled by a similar shift in European society in general – see Copernicus's rejection of Ptolemy's theories on astronomy). Physicians like Vesalius improved upon or disproved some of the theories from the past. The main tomes used both by medicine students and expert physicians were Materia Medica and Pharmacopoeia.\n\nAndreas Vesalius was the author of De humani corporis fabrica, an important book on human anatomy. Bacteria and microorganisms were first observed with a microscope by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1676, initiating the scientific field microbiology. Independently from Ibn al-Nafis, Michael Servetus rediscovered the pulmonary circulation, but this discovery did not reach the public because it was written down for the first time in the \"Manuscript of Paris\" in 1546, and later published in the theological work for which he paid with his life in 1553. Later this was described by Renaldus Columbus and Andrea Cesalpino. Herman Boerhaave is sometimes referred to as a \"father of physiology\" due to his exemplary teaching in Leiden and textbook 'Institutiones medicae' (1708). Pierre Fauchard has been called \"the father of modern dentistry\". \n\nModern\n\nVeterinary medicine was, for the first time, truly separated from human medicine in 1761, when the French veterinarian Claude Bourgelat founded the world's first veterinary school in Lyon, France. Before this, medical doctors treated both humans and other animals.\n\nModern scientific biomedical research (where results are testable and reproducible) began to replace early Western traditions based on herbalism, the Greek \"four humours\" and other such pre-modern notions. The modern era really began with Edward Jenner's discovery of the smallpox vaccine at the end of the 18th century (inspired by the method of inoculation earlier practiced in Asia), Robert Koch's discoveries around 1880 of the transmission of disease by bacteria, and then the discovery of antibiotics around 1900.\n\nThe post-18th century modernity period brought more groundbreaking researchers from Europe. From Germany and Austria, doctors Rudolf Virchow, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, Karl Landsteiner and Otto Loewi made notable contributions. In the United Kingdom, Alexander Fleming, Joseph Lister, Francis Crick and Florence Nightingale are considered important. Spanish doctor Santiago Ramón y Cajal is considered the father of modern neuroscience.\n\nFrom New Zealand and Australia came Maurice Wilkins, Howard Florey, and Frank Macfarlane Burnet.\n\nIn the United States, William Williams Keen, William Coley, James D. Watson, Italy (Salvador Luria), Switzerland (Alexandre Yersin), Japan (Kitasato Shibasaburō), and France (Jean-Martin Charcot, Claude Bernard, Paul Broca) and others did significant work. Russian Nikolai Korotkov also did significant work, as did Sir William Osler and Harvey Cushing.\n\nAs science and technology developed, medicine became more reliant upon medications. Throughout history and in Europe right until the late 18th century, not only animal and plant products were used as medicine, but also human body parts and fluids. Pharmacology developed in part from herbalism and some drugs are still derived from plants (atropine, ephedrine, warfarin, aspirin, digoxin, vinca alkaloids, taxol, hyoscine, etc.). Vaccines were discovered by Edward Jenner and Louis Pasteur.\n\nThe first antibiotic was arsphenamine (Salvarsan) discovered by Paul Ehrlich in 1908 after he observed that bacteria took up toxic dyes that human cells did not. The first major class of antibiotics was the sulfa drugs, derived by German chemists originally from azo dyes.\n\nPharmacology has become increasingly sophisticated; modern biotechnology allows drugs targeted towards specific physiological processes to be developed, sometimes designed for compatibility with the body to reduce side-effects. Genomics and knowledge of human genetics is having some influence on medicine, as the causative genes of most monogenic genetic disorders have now been identified, and the development of techniques in molecular biology and genetics are influencing medical technology, practice and decision-making.\n\nEvidence-based medicine is a contemporary movement to establish the most effective algorithms of practice (ways of doing things) through the use of systematic reviews and meta-analysis. The movement is facilitated by modern global information science, which allows as much of the available evidence as possible to be collected and analyzed according to standard protocols that are then disseminated to healthcare providers. The Cochrane Collaboration leads this movement. A 2001 review of 160 Cochrane systematic reviews revealed that, according to two readers, 21.3% of the reviews concluded insufficient evidence, 20% concluded evidence of no effect, and 22.5% concluded positive effect.\n\nTraditional medicine\n\nTraditional medicine (also known as indigenous or folk medicine) comprises knowledge systems that developed over generations within various societies before the era of modern medicine. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines traditional medicine as \"the sum total of the knowledge, skills, and practices based on the theories, beliefs, and experiences indigenous to different cultures, whether explicable or not, used in the maintenance of health as well as in the prevention, diagnosis, improvement or treatment of physical and mental illness.\" \n\nIn some Asian and African countries, up to 80% of the population relies on traditional medicine for their primary health care needs. When adopted outside of its traditional culture, traditional medicine is often called alternative medicine. Practices known as traditional medicines include Ayurveda, Siddha medicine, Unani, ancient Iranian medicine, Irani, Islamic medicine, traditional Chinese medicine, traditional Korean medicine, acupuncture, Muti, Ifá, and traditional African medicine.\n\nThe WHO notes however that \"inappropriate use of traditional medicines or practices can have negative or dangerous effects\" and that \"further research is needed to ascertain the efficacy and safety\" of several of the practices and medicinal plants used by traditional medicine systems. The line between alternative medicine and quackery is a contentious subject.\n\nTraditional medicine may include formalized aspects of folk medicine, that is to say longstanding remedies passed on and practised by lay people. Folk medicine consists of the healing practices and ideas of body physiology and health preservation known to some in a culture, transmitted informally as general knowledge, and practiced or applied by anyone in the culture having prior experience. Folk medicine may also be referred to as traditional medicine, alternative medicine, indigenous medicine, or natural medicine. These terms are often considered interchangeable, even though some authors may prefer one or the other because of certain overtones they may be willing to highlight. In fact, out of these terms perhaps only indigenous medicine and traditional medicine have the same meaning folk medicine, while the others should be understood rather in a modern or modernized context.", "Blood is a body fluid in animals that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells. \n\nIn vertebrates, it is composed of blood cells suspended in blood plasma. Plasma, which constitutes 55% of blood fluid, is mostly water (92% by volume), and contains dissipated proteins, glucose, mineral ions, hormones, carbon dioxide (plasma being the main medium for excretory product transportation), and blood cells themselves. Albumin is the main protein in plasma, and it functions to regulate the colloidal osmotic pressure of blood. The blood cells are mainly red blood cells (also called RBCs or erythrocytes), white blood cells (also called WBCs or leukocytes) and platelets. The most abundant cells in vertebrate blood are red blood cells. These contain hemoglobin, an iron-containing protein, which facilitates oxygen transport by reversibly binding to this respiratory gas and greatly increasing its solubility in blood. In contrast, carbon dioxide is mostly transported extracellularly as bicarbonate ion transported in plasma.\n\nVertebrate blood is bright red when its haemoglobin is oxygenated and dark red when it is deoxygenated. Some animals, such as crustaceans and mollusks, use hemocyanin to carry oxygen, instead of hemoglobin. Insects and some mollusks use a fluid called hemolymph instead of blood, the difference being that hemolymph is not contained in a closed circulatory system. In most insects, this \"blood\" does not contain oxygen-carrying molecules such as hemoglobin because their bodies are small enough for their tracheal system to suffice for supplying oxygen.\n\nJawed vertebrates have an adaptive immune system, based largely on white blood cells. White blood cells help to resist infections and parasites. Platelets are important in the clotting of blood. Arthropods, using hemolymph, have hemocytes as part of their immune system.\n\nBlood is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart. In animals with lungs, arterial blood carries oxygen from inhaled air to the tissues of the body, and venous blood carries carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism produced by cells, from the tissues to the lungs to be exhaled.\n\nMedical terms related to blood often begin with hemo- or hemato- (also spelled haemo- and haemato-) from the Greek word (haima) for \"blood\". In terms of anatomy and histology, blood is considered a specialized form of connective tissue, given its origin in the bones and the presence of potential molecular fibers in the form of fibrinogen.\n\nFunctions\n\nBlood performs many important functions within the body including:\n* Supply of oxygen to tissues (bound to hemoglobin, which is carried in red cells)\n* Supply of nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids (dissolved in the blood or bound to plasma proteins (e.g., blood lipids))\n* Removal of waste such as carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid\n* Immunological functions, including circulation of white blood cells, and detection of foreign material by antibodies\n* Coagulation, the response to a broken blood vessel, the conversion of blood from a liquid to a semi-solid gel to stop bleeding\n* Messenger functions, including the transport of hormones and the signaling of tissue damage\n* Regulation of body pH\n* Regulation of core body temperature\n* Hydraulic functions\n\nConstituents\n\nBlood accounts for 7% of the human body weight, with an average density of approximately 1060 kg/m3, very close to pure water's density of 1000 kg/m3. The average adult has a blood volume of roughly 5 L, which is composed of plasma and several kinds of cells. These blood cells (which are also called corpuscles or \"formed elements\") consist of erythrocytes (red blood cells, RBCs), leukocytes (white blood cells), and thrombocytes (platelets). By volume, the red blood cells constitute about 45% of whole blood, the plasma about 54.3%, and white cells about 0.7%.\n\nWhole blood (plasma and cells) exhibits non-Newtonian fluid dynamics. If all human hemoglobin were free in the plasma rather than being contained in RBCs, the circulatory fluid would be too viscous for the cardiovascular system to function effectively.\n\nFile:Krew Frakcjonowana.jpg|Human blood fractioned by centrifugation. Plasma (upper, yellow layer), buffy coat (middle, thin white layer) and erythrocyte layer (bottom, red layer) can be seen.\nFile:Blutkreislauf.png|Blood circulation:Red oxygenated Blue \n deoxygenated\nFile:Blausen 0425 Formed Elements.png|Illustration depicting formed elements of blood.\nFile:Blut-EDTA.jpg|Two tubes of EDTA-anticoagulated blood. Left tube: after standing, the RBCs have settled at the bottom of the tube. Right tube: contains freshly drawn blood.\n\nCells\n\nOne microliter of blood contains:\n* 4.7 to 6.1 million (male), 4.2 to 5.4 million (female) erythrocytes: Red blood cells contain the blood's hemoglobin and distribute oxygen. Mature red blood cells lack a nucleus and organelles in mammals. The red blood cells (together with endothelial vessel cells and other cells) are also marked by glycoproteins that define the different blood types. The proportion of blood occupied by red blood cells is referred to as the hematocrit, and is normally about 45%. The combined surface area of all red blood cells of the human body would be roughly 2,000 times as great as the body's exterior surface. \n* 4,000–11,000 leukocytes: White blood cells are part of the body's immune system; they destroy and remove old or aberrant cells and cellular debris, as well as attack infectious agents (pathogens) and foreign substances. The cancer of leukocytes is called leukemia.\n* 200,000–500,000 thrombocytes: Also called platelets, they take part in blood clotting (coagulation). Fibrin from the coagulation cascade creates a mesh over the platelet plug.\n\nPlasma\n\nAbout 55% of blood is blood plasma, a fluid that is the blood's liquid medium, which by itself is straw-yellow in color. The blood plasma volume totals of 2.7–3.0 liters (2.8–3.2 quarts) in an average human. It is essentially an aqueous solution containing 92% water, 8% blood plasma proteins, and trace amounts of other materials. Plasma circulates dissolved nutrients, such as glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids (dissolved in the blood or bound to plasma proteins), and removes waste products, such as carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid.\n\nOther important components include:\n* Serum albumin\n* Blood-clotting factors (to facilitate coagulation)\n* Immunoglobulins (antibodies)\n* lipoprotein particles\n* Various other proteins\n* Various electrolytes (mainly sodium and chloride)\n\nThe term serum refers to plasma from which the clotting proteins have been removed. Most of the proteins remaining are albumin and immunoglobulins.\n\npH values\n\nBlood pH is regulated to stay within the narrow range of 7.35 to 7.45, making it slightly basic. Blood that has a pH below 7.35 is too acidic, whereas blood pH above 7.45 is too basic. Blood pH, partial pressure of oxygen (pO2), partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2), and HCO3− are carefully regulated by a number of homeostatic mechanisms, which exert their influence principally through the respiratory system and the urinary system in order to control the acid-base balance and respiration. An arterial blood gas test will measure these. Plasma also circulates hormones transmitting their messages to various tissues. The list of normal reference ranges for various blood electrolytes is extensive.\n\nBlood in non-mammalian vertebrates\n\nHuman blood is typical of that of mammals, although the precise details concerning cell numbers, size, protein structure, and so on, vary somewhat between species. In non-mammalian vertebrates, however, there are some key differences:\n* Red blood cells of non-mammalian vertebrates are flattened and ovoid in form, and retain their cell nuclei\n* There is considerable variation in the types and proportions of white blood cells; for example, acidophils are generally more common than in humans\n* Platelets are unique to mammals; in other vertebrates, small nucleated, spindle cells called thrombocytes are responsible for blood clotting instead\n\nPhysiology\n\nCardiovascular system\n\nBlood is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart. In humans, blood is pumped from the strong left ventricle of the heart through arteries to peripheral tissues and returns to the right atrium of the heart through veins. It then enters the right ventricle and is pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs and returns to the left atrium through the pulmonary veins. Blood then enters the left ventricle to be circulated again. Arterial blood carries oxygen from inhaled air to all of the cells of the body, and venous blood carries carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism by cells, to the lungs to be exhaled. However, one exception includes pulmonary arteries, which contain the most deoxygenated blood in the body, while the pulmonary veins contain oxygenated blood.\n\nAdditional return flow may be generated by the movement of skeletal muscles, which can compress veins and push blood through the valves in veins toward the right atrium.\n\nThe blood circulation was famously described by William Harvey in 1628. \n\nProduction and degradation of blood cells\n\nIn vertebrates, the various cells of blood are made in the bone marrow in a process called hematopoiesis, which includes erythropoiesis, the production of red blood cells; and myelopoiesis, the production of white blood cells and platelets. During childhood, almost every human bone produces red blood cells; as adults, red blood cell production is limited to the larger bones: the bodies of the vertebrae, the breastbone (sternum), the ribcage, the pelvic bones, and the bones of the upper arms and legs. In addition, during childhood, the thymus gland, found in the mediastinum, is an important source of T lymphocytes. \nThe proteinaceous component of blood (including clotting proteins) is produced predominantly by the liver, while hormones are produced by the endocrine glands and the watery fraction is regulated by the hypothalamus and maintained by the kidney.\n\nHealthy erythrocytes have a plasma life of about 120 days before they are degraded by the spleen, and the Kupffer cells in the liver. The liver also clears some proteins, lipids, and amino acids. The kidney actively secretes waste products into the urine.\n\nOxygen transport\n\nAbout 98.5% of the oxygen in a sample of arterial blood in a healthy human breathing air at sea-level pressure is chemically combined with the Hgb. About 1.5% is physically dissolved in the other blood liquids and not connected to Hgb. The hemoglobin molecule is the primary transporter of oxygen in mammals and many other species (for exceptions, see below). Hemoglobin has an oxygen binding capacity of between 1.36 and 1.40 ml O2 per gram hemoglobin, which increases the total blood oxygen capacity seventyfold, compared to if oxygen solely were carried by its solubility of 0.03 ml O2 per liter blood per mm Hg partial pressure of oxygen (approximately 100 mm Hg in arteries).\n\nWith the exception of pulmonary and umbilical arteries and their corresponding veins, arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart and deliver it to the body via arterioles and capillaries, where the oxygen is consumed; afterwards, venules, and veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart.\n\nUnder normal conditions in adult humans at rest; hemoglobin in blood leaving the lungs is about 98–99% saturated with oxygen, achieving an oxygen delivery of between 950 and 1150 ml/min[http://www.edwards.com/SiteCollectionImages/edwards/products/presep/ar04313hemodynpocketcard.pdf Edwards Lifesciences LLC - Normal Hemodynamic Parameters – Adult] 2009 to the body. In a healthy adult at rest, oxygen consumption is approximately 200 - 250 ml/min, and deoxygenated blood returning to the lungs is still approximately 75% (70 to 78%) saturated. Increased oxygen consumption during sustained exercise reduces the oxygen saturation of venous blood, which can reach less than 15% in a trained athlete; although breathing rate and blood flow increase to compensate, oxygen saturation in arterial blood can drop to 95% or less under these conditions. Oxygen saturation this low is considered dangerous in an individual at rest (for instance, during surgery under anesthesia). Sustained hypoxia (oxygenation of less than 90%), is dangerous to health, and severe hypoxia (saturations of less than 30%) may be rapidly fatal. \n\nA fetus, receiving oxygen via the placenta, is exposed to much lower oxygen pressures (about 21% of the level found in an adult's lungs), and, so, fetuses produce another form of hemoglobin with a much higher affinity for oxygen (hemoglobin F) in order to function under these conditions. \n\nCarbon dioxide transport\n\nCO2 is carried in blood in three different ways. (The exact percentages vary depending whether it is arterial or venous blood). Most of it (about 70%) is converted to bicarbonate ions by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase in the red blood cells by the reaction CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 → H+ + ; about 7% is dissolved in the plasma; and about 23% is bound to hemoglobin as carbamino compounds. \nHemoglobin, the main oxygen-carrying molecule in red blood cells, carries both oxygen and carbon dioxide. However, the CO2 bound to hemoglobin does not bind to the same site as oxygen. Instead, it combines with the N-terminal groups on the four globin chains. However, because of allosteric effects on the hemoglobin molecule, the binding of CO2 decreases the amount of oxygen that is bound for a given partial pressure of oxygen. The decreased binding to carbon dioxide in the blood due to increased oxygen levels is known as the Haldane effect, and is important in the transport of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. A rise in the partial pressure of CO2 or a lower pH will cause offloading of oxygen from hemoglobin, which is known as the Bohr effect.\n\nTransport of hydrogen ions\n\nSome oxyhemoglobin loses oxygen and becomes deoxyhemoglobin. Deoxyhemoglobin binds most of the hydrogen ions as it has a much greater affinity for more hydrogen than does oxyhemoglobin.\n\nLymphatic system\n\nIn mammals, blood is in equilibrium with lymph, which is continuously formed in tissues from blood by capillary ultrafiltration. Lymph is collected by a system of small lymphatic vessels and directed to the thoracic duct, which drains into the left subclavian vein where lymph rejoins the systemic blood circulation.\n\nThermoregulation\n\nBlood circulation transports heat throughout the body, and adjustments to this flow are an important part of thermoregulation. Increasing blood flow to the surface (e.g., during warm weather or strenuous exercise) causes warmer skin, resulting in faster heat loss. In contrast, when the external temperature is low, blood flow to the extremities and surface of the skin is reduced and to prevent heat loss and is circulated to the important organs of the body, preferentially.\n\nHydraulic functions\n\nThe restriction of blood flow can also be used in specialized tissues to cause engorgement, resulting in an erection of that tissue; examples are the erectile tissue in the penis and clitoris.\n\nAnother example of a hydraulic function is the jumping spider, in which blood forced into the legs under pressure causes them to straighten for a powerful jump, without the need for bulky muscular legs. \n\nInvertebrates\n\nIn insects, the blood (more properly called hemolymph) is not involved in the transport of oxygen. (Openings called tracheae allow oxygen from the air to diffuse directly to the tissues). Insect blood moves nutrients to the tissues and removes waste products in an open system.\n\nOther invertebrates use respiratory proteins to increase the oxygen-carrying capacity. Hemoglobin is the most common respiratory protein found in nature. Hemocyanin (blue) contains copper and is found in crustaceans and mollusks. It is thought that tunicates (sea squirts) might use vanabins (proteins containing vanadium) for respiratory pigment (bright-green, blue, or orange).\n\nIn many invertebrates, these oxygen-carrying proteins are freely soluble in the blood; in vertebrates they are contained in specialized red blood cells, allowing for a higher concentration of respiratory pigments without increasing viscosity or damaging blood filtering organs like the kidneys.\n\nGiant tube worms have unusual hemoglobins that allow them to live in extraordinary environments. These hemoglobins also carry sulfides normally fatal in other animals.\n\nColor\n\nThe coloring matter of blood (hemochrome) is largely due to the protein in the blood responsible for oxygen transport. Different groups of organisms use different proteins.\n\nHemoglobin\n\nHemoglobin is the principal determinant of the color of blood in vertebrates. Each molecule has four heme groups, and their interaction with various molecules alters the exact color. In vertebrates and other hemoglobin-using creatures, arterial blood and capillary blood are bright red, as oxygen imparts a strong red color to the heme group. Deoxygenated blood is a darker shade of red; this is present in veins, and can be seen during blood donation and when venous blood samples are taken. This is because the spectrum of light absorbed by hemoglobin differs between the oxygenated and deoxygenated states. \n\nBlood in carbon monoxide poisoning is bright red, because carbon monoxide causes the formation of carboxyhemoglobin. In cyanide poisoning, the body cannot utilize oxygen, so the venous blood remains oxygenated, increasing the redness. There are some conditions affecting the heme groups present in hemoglobin that can make the skin appear blue—a symptom called cyanosis. If the heme is oxidized, methaemoglobin, which is more brownish and cannot transport oxygen, is formed. In the rare condition sulfhemoglobinemia, arterial hemoglobin is partially oxygenated, and appears dark red with a bluish hue.\n\nVeins close to the surface of the skin appear blue for a variety of reasons. However, the factors that contribute to this alteration of color perception are related to the light-scattering properties of the skin and the processing of visual input by the visual cortex, rather than the actual color of the venous blood. \n\nSkinks in the genus Prasinohaema have green blood due to a buildup of the waste product biliverdin. \n\nHemocyanin\n\nThe blood of most mollusks – including cephalopods and gastropods – as well as some arthropods, such as horseshoe crabs, is blue, as it contains the copper-containing protein hemocyanin at concentrations of about 50 grams per liter. Hemocyanin is colorless when deoxygenated and dark blue when oxygenated. The blood in the circulation of these creatures, which generally live in cold environments with low oxygen tensions, is grey-white to pale yellow, and it turns dark blue when exposed to the oxygen in the air, as seen when they bleed. This is due to change in color of hemocyanin when it is oxidized. Hemocyanin carries oxygen in extracellular fluid, which is in contrast to the intracellular oxygen transport in mammals by hemoglobin in RBCs.\n\nChlorocruorin\n\nThe blood of most annelid worms and some marine polychaetes use chlorocruorin to transport oxygen. It is green in color in dilute solutions.Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh, The Handy Science Answer Book, p. 465, Visible Ink Press, 2011 ISBN 1578593212.\n\nHemerythrin\n\nHemerythrin is used for oxygen transport in the marine invertebrates sipunculids, priapulids, brachiopods, and the annelid worm, magelona. Hemerythrin is violet-pink when oxygenated.\n\nHemovanadin\n\nThe blood of some species of ascidians and tunicates, also known as sea squirts, contains proteins called vanadins. These proteins are based on vanadium, and give the creatures a concentration of vanadium in their bodies 100 times higher than the surrounding sea water. Unlike hemocyanin and hemoglobin, hemovanadin is not an oxygen carrier. When exposed to oxygen, however, vanadins turn a mustard yellow.\n\nPathology\n\nGeneral medical disorders\n\n* Disorders of volume\n** Injury can cause blood loss through bleeding. A healthy adult can lose almost 20% of blood volume (1 L) before the first symptom, restlessness, begins, and 40% of volume (2 L) before shock sets in. Thrombocytes are important for blood coagulation and the formation of blood clots, which can stop bleeding. Trauma to the internal organs or bones can cause internal bleeding, which can sometimes be severe.\n** Dehydration can reduce the blood volume by reducing the water content of the blood. This would rarely result in shock (apart from the very severe cases) but may result in orthostatic hypotension and fainting.\n* Disorders of circulation\n** Shock is the ineffective perfusion of tissues, and can be caused by a variety of conditions including blood loss, infection, poor cardiac output.\n** Atherosclerosis reduces the flow of blood through arteries, because atheroma lines arteries and narrows them. Atheroma tends to increase with age, and its progression can be compounded by many causes including smoking, high blood pressure, excess circulating lipids (hyperlipidemia), and diabetes mellitus.\n** Coagulation can form a thrombosis, which can obstruct vessels.\n** Problems with blood composition, the pumping action of the heart, or narrowing of blood vessels can have many consequences including hypoxia (lack of oxygen) of the tissues supplied. The term ischemia refers to tissue that is inadequately perfused with blood, and infarction refers to tissue death (necrosis), which can occur when the blood supply has been blocked (or is very inadequate)\n\nHematological disorders\n\n* Anemia\n** Insufficient red cell mass (anemia) can be the result of bleeding, blood disorders like thalassemia, or nutritional deficiencies; and may require blood transfusion. Several countries have blood banks to fill the demand for transfusable blood. A person receiving a blood transfusion must have a blood type compatible with that of the donor.\n** Sickle-cell anemia\n* Disorders of cell proliferation\n** Leukemia is a group of cancers of the blood-forming tissues and cells.\n** Non-cancerous overproduction of red cells (polycythemia vera) or platelets (essential thrombocytosis) may be premalignant.\n** Myelodysplastic syndromes involve ineffective production of one or more cell lines.\n* Disorders of coagulation\n** Hemophilia is a genetic illness that causes dysfunction in one of the blood's clotting mechanisms. This can allow otherwise inconsequential wounds to be life-threatening, but more commonly results in hemarthrosis, or bleeding into joint spaces, which can be crippling.\n** Ineffective or insufficient platelets can also result in coagulopathy (bleeding disorders).\n** Hypercoagulable state (thrombophilia) results from defects in regulation of platelet or clotting factor function, and can cause thrombosis.\n* Infectious disorders of blood\n** Blood is an important vector of infection. HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, is transmitted through contact with blood, semen or other body secretions of an infected person. Hepatitis B and C are transmitted primarily through blood contact. Owing to blood-borne infections, bloodstained objects are treated as a biohazard.\n** Bacterial infection of the blood is bacteremia or sepsis. Viral Infection is viremia. Malaria and trypanosomiasis are blood-borne parasitic infections.\n\nCarbon monoxide poisoning\n\nSubstances other than oxygen can bind to hemoglobin; in some cases this can cause irreversible damage to the body. Carbon monoxide, for example, is extremely dangerous when carried to the blood via the lungs by inhalation, because carbon monoxide irreversibly binds to hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin, so that less hemoglobin is free to bind oxygen, and fewer oxygen molecules can be transported throughout the blood. This can cause suffocation insidiously. A fire burning in an enclosed room with poor ventilation presents a very dangerous hazard, since it can create a build-up of carbon monoxide in the air. Some carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin when smoking tobacco.\n\nMedical treatments\n\nBlood products\n\nBlood for transfusion is obtained from human donors by blood donation and stored in a blood bank. There are many different blood types in humans, the ABO blood group system, and the Rhesus blood group system being the most important. Transfusion of blood of an incompatible blood group may cause severe, often fatal, complications, so crossmatching is done to ensure that a compatible blood product is transfused.\n\nOther blood products administered intravenously are platelets, blood plasma, cryoprecipitate, and specific coagulation factor concentrates.\n\nIntravenous administration\n\nMany forms of medication (from antibiotics to chemotherapy) are administered intravenously, as they are not readily or adequately absorbed by the digestive tract.\n\nAfter severe acute blood loss, liquid preparations, generically known as plasma expanders, can be given intravenously, either solutions of salts (NaCl, KCl, CaCl2 etc.) at physiological concentrations, or colloidal solutions, such as dextrans, human serum albumin, or fresh frozen plasma. In these emergency situations, a plasma expander is a more effective life-saving procedure than a blood transfusion, because the metabolism of transfused red blood cells does not restart immediately after a transfusion.\n\nBloodletting\n\nIn modern evidence-based medicine, bloodletting is used in management of a few rare diseases, including hemochromatosis and polycythemia. However, bloodletting and leeching were common unvalidated interventions used until the 19th century, as many diseases were incorrectly thought to be due to an excess of blood, according to Hippocratic medicine.\n\nHistory\n\nAccording to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word \"blood\" dates to the oldest English, circa 1000 CE. The word is derived from Middle English, which is derived from the Old English word blôd, which is akin to the Old High German word bluot, meaning blood. The modern German word is (das) Blut.\n\nClassical Greek medicine\n\nFåhræus (a Swedish physician who devised the erythrocyte sedimentation rate) suggested that the Ancient Greek system of humorism, wherein the body was thought to contain four distinct bodily fluids (associated with different temperaments), were based upon the observation of blood clotting in a transparent container. When blood is drawn in a glass container and left undisturbed for about an hour, four different layers can be seen. A dark clot forms at the bottom (the \"black bile\"). Above the clot is a layer of red blood cells (the \"blood\"). Above this is a whitish layer of white blood cells (the \"phlegm\"). The top layer is clear yellow serum (the \"yellow bile\"). \n\nHuman blood\n\nThe ABO blood group system was discovered in the year 1900 by Karl Landsteiner. Jan Janský is credited with the first classification of blood into the four types (A, B, AB, and O) in 1907, which remains in use today. In 1907 the first blood transfusion was performed that used the ABO system to predict compatibility. The first non-direct transfusion was performed on March 27, 1914. The Rhesus factor was discovered in 1937.\n\nCultural and religious beliefs\n\nDue to its importance to life, blood is associated with a large number of beliefs. One of the most basic is the use of blood as a symbol for family relationships through birth/parentage; to be \"related by blood\" is to be related by ancestry or descendance, rather than marriage. This bears closely to bloodlines, and sayings such as \"blood is thicker than water\" and \"bad blood\", as well as \"Blood brother\".\n\nBlood is given particular emphasis in the Jewish and Christian religions, because Leviticus 17:11 says \"the life of a creature is in the blood.\" This phrase is part of the Levitical law forbidding the drinking of blood or eating meat with the blood still intact instead of being poured off.\n\nMythic references to blood can sometimes be connected to the life-giving nature of blood, seen in such events as childbirth, as contrasted with the blood of injury or death.\n\nIndigenous Australians\n\nIn many indigenous Australian Aboriginal peoples' traditions, ochre (particularly red) and blood, both high in iron content and considered Maban, are applied to the bodies of dancers for ritual. As Lawlor states:\nIn many Aboriginal rituals and ceremonies, red ochre is rubbed all over the naked bodies of the dancers. In secret, sacred male ceremonies, blood extracted from the veins of the participant's arms is exchanged and rubbed on their bodies. Red ochre is used in similar ways in less-secret ceremonies. Blood is also used to fasten the feathers of birds onto people's bodies. Bird feathers contain a protein that is highly magnetically sensitive. Lawlor comments that blood employed in this fashion is held by these peoples to attune the dancers to the invisible energetic realm of the Dreamtime. Lawlor then connects these invisible energetic realms and magnetic fields, because iron is magnetic.\n\nEuropean paganism\n\nAmong the Germanic tribes, blood was used during their sacrifices; the Blóts. The blood was considered to have the power of its originator, and, after the butchering, the blood was sprinkled on the walls, on the statues of the gods, and on the participants themselves. This act of sprinkling blood was called blóedsian in Old English, and the terminology was borrowed by the Roman Catholic Church becoming to bless and blessing. The Hittite word for blood, ishar was a cognate to words for \"oath\" and \"bond\", see Ishara.\nThe Ancient Greeks believed that the blood of the gods, ichor, was a substance that was poisonous to mortals.\n\nAs a relic of Germanic Law, the cruentation, an ordeal where the corpse of the victim was supposed to start bleeding in the presence of the murderer, was used until the early 17th century.\n\nChristianity\n\nIn Genesis 9:4, God prohibited Noah and his sons from eating blood (see Noahide Law). This command continued to be observed by the Eastern Orthodox.\n\nIt is also found in the Bible that when the Angel of Death came around to the Hebrew house that the first-born child would not die if the angel saw lamb's blood wiped across the doorway.\n\nAt the Council of Jerusalem, the apostles prohibited certain Christians from consuming blood—this is documented in Acts 15:20 and 29. This chapter specifies a reason (especially in verses 19-21): It was to avoid offending Jews who had become Christians, because the Mosaic Law Code prohibited the practice.\n\nChrist's blood is the means for the atonement of sins. Also, ″… the blood of Jesus Christ his [God] Son cleanseth us from all sin.\" (1 John 1:7), “… Unto him [God] that loved us, and washed us from our sins in his own blood.\" (Revelation 1:5), and \"And they overcame him (Satan) by the blood\nof the Lamb [Jesus the Christ], and by the word of their testimony …” (Revelation 12:11).\n\nSome Christian churches, including Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, and the Assyrian Church of the East teach that, when consecrated, the Eucharistic wine actually becomes the blood of Jesus for worshippers to drink. Thus in the consecrated wine, Jesus becomes spiritually and physically present. This teaching is rooted in the Last Supper, as written in the four gospels of the Bible, in which Jesus stated to his disciples that the bread that they ate was his body, and the wine was his blood. \"This cup is the new testament in my blood, which is shed for you.\" ().\n\nMost forms of Protestantism, especially those of a Wesleyan or Presbyterian lineage, teach that the wine is no more than a symbol of the blood of Christ, who is spiritually but not physically present. Lutheran theology teaches that the body and blood is present together \"in, with, and under\" the bread and wine of the Eucharistic feast.\n\nJudaism\n\nIn Judaism, animal blood may not be consumed even in the smallest quantity (Leviticus 3:17 and elsewhere); this is reflected in Jewish dietary laws (Kashrut). Blood is purged from meat by rinsing and soaking in water (to loosen clots), salting and then rinsing with water again several times. Eggs must also be checked and any blood spots removed before consumption. Although blood from fish is Biblically kosher, it is rabbinically forbidden to consume fish blood to avoid the appearance of breaking the Biblical prohibition. \n\nAnother ritual involving blood involves the covering of the blood of fowl and game after slaughtering (Leviticus 17:13); the reason given by the Torah is: \"Because the life of the animal is [in] its blood\" (ibid 17:14). In relation to human beings, Kabbalah expounds on this verse that the animal soul of a person is in the blood, and that physical desires stem from it.\n\nLikewise, the mystical reason for salting temple sacrifices and slaughtered meat is to remove the blood of animal-like passions from the person. By removing the animal's blood, the animal energies and life-force contained in the blood are removed, making the meat fit for human consumption. \n\nIslam\n\nConsumption of food containing blood is forbidden by Islamic dietary laws. This is derived from the statement in the Qur'an, sura Al-Ma'ida (5:3): \"Forbidden to you (for food) are: dead meat, blood, the flesh of swine, and that on which has been invoked the name of other than Allah.\"\n\nBlood is considered unclean, hence there are specific methods to obtain physical and ritual status of cleanliness once bleeding has occurred. Specific rules and prohibitions apply to menstruation, postnatal bleeding and irregular vaginal bleeding. When an animal has been slaughtered, the animal's neck is cut in a way to ensure that the spine is not severed, hence the brain may send commands to the heart to pump blood to it for oxygen. In this way, blood is removed from the body, and the meat is generally now safe to cook and eat. In modern times, blood transfusions are generally not considered against the rules.\n\nJehovah's Witnesses\n\nBased on their interpretation of scriptures such as Acts 15:28, 29 (\"Keep abstaining...from blood.\"), Jehovah's Witnesses neither consume blood nor accept transfusions of whole blood or its major components: red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets (thrombocytes), and plasma. Members may personally decide whether they will accept medical procedures that involve their own blood or substances that are further fractionated from the four major components. \n\nEast Asian culture\n\nIn south East Asian popular culture, it is often said that if a man's nose produces a small flow of blood, he is experiencing sexual desire. This often appears in Chinese-language and Hong Kong films as well as in Japanese and Korean culture parodied in anime, manga, and drama. Characters, mostly males, will often be shown with a nosebleed if they have just seen someone nude or in little clothing, or if they have had an erotic thought or fantasy; this is based on the idea that a male's blood pressure will spike dramatically when aroused. \n\nVampire legends\n\nVampires are mythical creatures that drink blood directly for sustenance, usually with a preference for human blood. Cultures all over the world have myths of this kind; for example the 'Nosferatu' legend, a human who achieves damnation and immortality by drinking the blood of others, originates from Eastern European folklore. Ticks, leeches, female mosquitoes, vampire bats, and an assortment of other natural creatures do consume the blood of other animals, but only bats are associated with vampires. This has no relation to vampire bats, which are new world creatures discovered well after the origins of the European myths.\n\nApplications\n\nIn the applied sciences\n\nBlood residue can help forensic investigators identify weapons, reconstruct a criminal action, and link suspects to the crime. Through bloodstain pattern analysis, forensic information can also be gained from the spatial distribution of bloodstains.\n\nBlood residue analysis is also a technique used in archeology.\n\nIn art\n\nBlood is one of the body fluids that has been used in art. In particular, the performances of Viennese Actionist Hermann Nitsch, Istvan Kantor, Franko B, Lennie Lee, Ron Athey, Yang Zhichao, Lucas Abela and Kira O' Reilly, along with the photography of Andres Serrano, have incorporated blood as a prominent visual element. Marc Quinn has made sculptures using frozen blood, including a cast of his own head made using his own blood.\n\nIn genealogy and family history\n\nThe term blood is used in genealogical circles to refer to one's ancestry, origins, and ethnic background as in the word bloodline. Other terms where blood is used in a family history sense are blue-blood, royal blood, mixed-blood and blood relative." ] }

{ "description": [ "Branches of medicine are the different filds that ... Hematology is the study of blood diseases, ... Therapeutics is the branch of medicine concerned with the ...", "Diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the blood, spleen, ... A branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the urinary tract in both ...", "Specialty Guide. Allergy and ... diagnosis and treatment of diseases affecting the heart and blood ... Medicine - A branch of medicine concerned with an individual ...", "Physician Directory. ... A branch of medicine concerned with the care, ... treatment of heart and blood vessel diseases in children." ], "filename": [ "121/121_4890.txt", "58/58_4891.txt", "5/5_4896.txt", "122/122_4897.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 1, 6, 7 ], "title": [ "Branches of medicine - Medical schools | Medical careers", "Find a provider - Keystone First", "Physicians - Speciality Guide - Navicent Health", "Physician Directory ‹ Lakeland Regional Medical Center" ], "url": [ "http://www.aboutmedicalschools.com/medicine/branches.asp", "https://www.keystonefirstpa.com/apps/provider-directory/glossary.asp", "http://w3.mccg.org/physicians/specialtyguide.asp?Page=5", "http://doctors.lrmc.com/specialty/definitions.asp?view=new" ], "search_context": [ "Branches of medicine | Medicine branches | Medicine | Medical Schools\nBranches of Medicine\nMedical schools »  Medicine »  Branches of medicine\nBranches of medicine\nMedicine as a career has a variety of specializations; but focusing in the branches with more demand that help you as a future doctor to define your specialty, the list is as follow. Consider that depend of your country, some of the branches of medicine could get a difference in the names. In this sense we make a reference to the main branches offered in the majority of countries.\nBasic sciences\nIn general the basic sciences are related to the study and to the training; receive by every student as a part of their medicine career.\nAnatomy is the branch of medicine and biology which is concerned with the shape and structure of body and the relationship of its organs. Also related to morphology of animals and plants.\nBiochemistry is the branch of chemistry studying the chemical behavior in living systems. It also applied to dentistry, veterinary medicine and pharmacology in which a biochemist could investigate a drug action.\nBiostatistics, also referred as a biometry, it is the use of statistical tests to analyze biological data and the interpretation of its results.\nCytology or cell biology is the branch of science life that deals with the structure, composition, function of cells, and also the interaction between them in an environment in which they exists.\nEmbryology is the branch of biology that studies the formation and early development of living organisms, from the ovum´s fertilization to the fetus stage.\nEndocrinology is the branch of medicine and biology related to the specific secretions called hormones and their effect of the endocrine organs which include thyroid, adrenals, pituitary, ovaries, pancreas and testes.\nEpidemiology is the study of the occurrence, distribution, and control of diseases in populations within public health, causes by a virus, bacteria or some other factor.\nGenetics is part of the biology and concern the study of genes, heredity and their effects on inheritance of specific traits and on other biological processes.\nHistology is the branch of medicine and biology that study the microscopic structure of cells and tissues under a light microscope.\nImmunology considered as the main branch of medical science that deals with all mechanics physiological of the biological integral defense of all organisms, called the immune system.\nMicrobiology is the science that studies microscopic organisms, specifically for them which are under the power of human eye.\nMolecular biology is the branch of biology and chemistry and deals with the study molecular of the process developed in the organisms.\nNeuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system. Actually is part of chemistry, engineering, mathematics, philosophy and psychology fields.\nNutrition is the study of dietary requirements for people. Know the composition of food will help to prevent health problems.\nPathology is the study of disease, its causes, mechanisms and effects on the organisms.\nPharmacology is the study of drugs and their origin, nature, properties and effects upon living organisms. Is related to biological effects causes by drugs on organisms.\nPhysiology is the branch of medicine and closely related to the anatomy, physiology deals with the activities and processes of living organisms, as well as mechanical and physical functions.\nToxicology is closely related to medicine, chemistry and biology, basically is the study of the nature, effects and detection of poisons and the treatment of poisoning.\nMedical Specialties\nOnce students have concluded the medical school is common that they want to reinforce their studies following a specialty of medicine inside surgical, internal medicine, diagnostic or clinical specialties. Consider these common specialties around world-wide to take a final decision.\nDiagnostic Specialties\nThese specialties are generally take place inside a clinical laboratory, where investigation and screening procedures are realized also taking a count transfusion and the cell therapy.\nAllergology concern the study of allergies and hypersensitivity disorder on immunology system.\nAngiology is the study of circulatory and lymphatic system, their arteries, vases, veins and its diseases.\nCardiology deals with the disorders of the heart as a subspecialty of internal medicine and at the same time it is divided in congenital heart defects, coronary artery disease and electrophysiology.\nCellular pathology is the study of cellular alterations in disease.\nClinical chemistry is related with diagnosis by making biochemical analysis of blood, body fluids and tissues.\nClinical microbiology is concerned with the in vitro diagnosis of diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites.\nClinical immunology is a broad branch of biomedical science that covers the study of all aspects of the immune system in all organisms.\nEndocrinology as a subspecialty of internal medicine concern the diagnostic and treat of endocrine organs.\nGastroenterology is part of internal medicine and comprises the study of gastrointestinal tract whereby the digestive system, diseases and treatments.\nHematology is the study of blood diseases, including leukemia, lymphoma, and myeloma.\nInterventional radiology is an area of specialty within the field of radiology which uses various radiological techniques.\nNephrology is a branch of the internal medicine and study the function of kidney, treatments and disease that include dialysis and renal transplant.\nNuclear Medicine is a branch of medicine specializing within the field of radiology in the use of radionuclides for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.\nOphtalmology is dealing with disorders and surgery of the visual pathways closely related to anatomy, physiology of the eye.\nPaediatrics or pediatrics deals with the health care of children to adolescents´ average to 18 years old.\nPlastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgery is a branch of internal medicine and it concerns all operations in order to restore parts of body to look normal.\nTransfusion medicine is related with the transfusion of blood and blood component, as well as the maintenance of a \"blood bank\".\nUrology is inside surgical and internal specialty and are closely related to the nephrology, it study the diseases of the male reproductive system and the urinary tract.\nClinical Specialties\nAs a part of medical specialties we can mention the main specialties considered world-wide.\nAnesthesiology (AE) or anaesthesia (BE) an anesthesiologist administers anesthesia and monitors patients under anesthesia during surgery and other medical procedures.\nDermatology is the branch of medicine and the unique specialty that join medical and surgery specialties. It deals with diseases and disorders of the skin and its appendages.\nEmergency medicine is the branch of medicine that deals with care and treatment of a condition resulting from an accident or other urgent need.\nHospital medicine is the general medical care of hospitalized patients. Doctors whose principal professional focus is hospital medicine are called hospitalists.\nInternal medicine is the branch of medicine that deals with the diagnosis and treatment of many medical conditions for adult people.\nNaturopathic medicine is a system of medicine that believes in the body's natural healing forces.\nNeurology is the branch of science that deals with the structure, functioning and diseases of the nervous system.\nObstetrics and gynecology (often abbreviated as Ob/Gyn) is the field of medicine devoted to conditions specific to women.\nPalliative care is an approach to life-threatening chronic illnesses, especially at the end of life.\nInterdisciplinary fields\nThe interdisciplinary fields include sub-specialties of medicine. Consider the list below.\nAviation medicine applies medical knowledge to human activities to prevent diseases in pilots and aircrews as patients, in the aviation field.\nBioethics is the branch of ethics that studies moral values in the biomedical sciences.\nBiomedical Engineering is a field that deals with the application of engineering principles to medical practice.\nClinical pharmacology is a field of medicine that studies the effects of drugs on people.\nConservation medicine is the study the connection between human and animal health, and environmental conditions.\nDiving medicine (or hyperbaric medicine) is the avoidance and treatment of diving-related problems.\nForensic medicine is the branch of medical science that uses medical knowledge for legal purposes.\nKeraunomedicine is a division of medical study pertaining to lightning injuries.\nMedical informatics, medical computer science, medical information and eHealth are moderately recent fields that deal with the application of computers and information technology to medicine.\nNosology is the branch of medical science dealing with the classification of disease.\nPharmacogenomics is the study of genetic variation underlying differential response to drugs.\nSports medicine deals with the treatment and preventive care of athletes, amateur and professional\nTherapeutics is the branch of medicine concerned with the treatment of disease.\nTravel medicine or emporiatrics is the branch of medicine that deals with the prevention and management of health problems of international.", "Find a provider - Keystone First\nAllergy & Immunology:\nKeywords: Asthma, eczema, reaction to drugs\nDiagnosis and treatment of hypersensitive states resulting from exposure to a particular allergen and diseases of the immune system.\nAnesthesiology:\nKeywords: Pain relief, surgery preparation\nThe administration of anesthetics to cause insensibility to pain.\nAudiology:\nKeywords: Hearing\nThe evaluation of the hearing function to detect hearing impairment and, if there is a hearing disorder, to determine the anatomical site involved and its cause.\nCardio & Thoracic Surgery\nKeywords: Heart, lungs\nA branch of medicine dealing with the use of surgery to treat diseases of the chest and lungs.\nCardiology:\nKeywords: Heart and blood vessels\nDiagnosis and treatment of diseases of the heart and blood vessels of adults.\nCardiovascular Disease:\nThe study of the structure, function and diseases of the heart\nChild & Adolescent Psychiatry:\nKeywords: Child/teen mental, addictions, emotional disorders\nA branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of mental illness of children and adolescents\nChiropractic\nThe non-drug treatment of musculoskeletal problems, including joint sprains and disk injuries.\nClinical Neuropsychology:\nKeywords: Brain and nervous system\nA science concerned with the integration of psychological observations on behavior and the mind with neurological observations on the brain and nervous system.\nClinical Psychology:\nKeywords: Mental, addictions, emotional disorders\nSpecialist in psychotherapy who works with individuals, groups or families to resolve problems.\nColon & Rectal Surgery:\nKeywords: Colon, rectum and large intestine\nSurgery for the treatment of disorders of the large intestine and rectum.\nDermatology:\nDiagnosis and treatment of diseases of the skin.\nDermatopathology:\nThe study of the skin.\nElectrophysiology:\nKeywords: Electric connections to parts of the body, pacemakers\nThe study of the electrical aspects of the body or body parts.\nEmergency Medicine: Keywords: ER – immediate medical need\nA medical specialty concerned with the care and treatment of acutely ill or injured patients who need immediate medical attention.\nEndocrinology:\nKeywords: Diabetes, glands, thyroid, adrenal\nThe diagnosis and treatment of disorders of the internal (glands such as the thyroid and adrenal glands. Also includes diagnosis and treatment of diabetes, pituitary diseases, and menstrual and sexual problems.\nFamily Practice:\nKeywords: All family members\nThe field of medicine specializing in the treatment of all members of a family (children and adults) for the most common illnesses. The family practitioner is concerned with the total health care for the individual and family.\nGastroenterology:\nKeywords: Stomach, intestines, colon, liver, gallbladder, pancreas\nDiagnosis and treatment of diseases and disorders of the digestive system including the stomach, intestines, colon, liver, gallbladder and the pancreas.\nGeneral Practice:\nKeywords: Treats all medical conditions\nA physician or group of physicians who provide general medical care.\nGeriatric Medicine:\nThe branch of medicine concerned with the physiological and pathological aspects of the elderly.\nGynecologic Oncology:\nDiagnosis and treatment of tumors and malignancies of the female reproductive organs, including the breasts.\nGynecology:\nKeywords: Women's\nA branch of medicine that deals with the diseases and routine physical care of the reproductive system of women.\nGynecology Surgery:\nSurgery for the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the reproductive system of women.\nHand Surgery:\nDiagnosis and treatment of deformities and/or injuries of the hand and wrist.\nHematology:\nKeywords: Blood, spleen, lymph nodes\nThe study of blood, blood clotting mechanisms, bone marrow, lymph nodes and the disorders associated with them.\nHematology/Oncology:\nKeywords: Blood, spleen, lymph nodes, cancer\nDiagnosis and treatment of diseases of the blood, spleen, lymph glands, tumors and malignancies.\nInfectious Disease:\nDiagnosis of acute and chronic infections, which may or may not be contagious.\nInternal Medicine:\nKeywords: Adults, all body systems\nDiagnosis and treatment, in adults, of the internal organs and functions of the body pertaining to the heart, circulatory system, lungs, digestive system, kidneys, nervous system and endocrine system.\nMaternal & Fetal Medicine:\nThe diagnosis and treatment of complications of pregnancy.\nMedical Oncology:\nThe diagnosis and treatment of all types of cancer and other benign and malignant tumors.\nNeonatal-Perinatal Medicine:\nKeywords: Baby care, both before and after birth\nThe branch of medicine concerned with the newborn shortly before and after birth.\nNeonatology:\nA branch of medicine concerned with the care, development, and diseases of newborn infants.\nNephrology:\nKeywords: Kidneys\nDiagnosis and treatment of diseases of the kidneys, high blood pressure, fluid and mineral balance, and dialysis of body wastes when the kidneys do not function.\nNeurological Surgery:\nKeywords: Nervous systems, spinal cord, brain, muscles, surgery\nSurgery for the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the nervous system which include illnesses involving the brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves and muscles.\nNeurology:\nKeywords: Nervous systems, spinal cord, brain, muscles\nThe study of the structure, functioning and diseases of the nervous system, including the brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves.\nNurse Midwife:\nProfessional nurses who have received postgraduate training in assisting women in childbirth.\nNurse Practitioner:\nKeywords: Advanced training nurse\nA registered nurse who through advanced training is qualified to assume some of the duties and responsibilities formerly assumed only by a physician.\nObstetrician:\nA specialist that deals with the medical science of child birth.\nObstetrics & Gynecology:\nKeywords: Pregnancy, women's health\nThe branch of medicine concerned with the care of women during pregnancy and the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the female reproductive system.\nOccupational Medicine:\nKeywords: Workplace functions\nA subspecialty of Preventive Medicine that focuses on the relationships among the health of workers, the ability to perform work, the arrangements of work, and the physical and chemical environments of the workplace.\nOccupational Therapy:\nKeywords: Workplace skills\nThe development of adaptive skills, increased performance capacity, and those factors that may impede or restrict ability to function.\nOncology:\nDiagnosis and treatment of diseases and disorders of the eye.\nOrthopedic Surgery:\nKeywords: Bones, joints, muscles\nSurgery for correction of deformities and treatment of disorders in joints, muscles, tendons, ligaments, cartilage and related structures.\nOrthopedic: Bones, joints, muscles\nDiagnosis and treatment of disorders in joints, muscles, tendons, ligaments, cartilage and related structures.\nOtolaryngology:\nKeywords: Ear, nose and throat\nDiagnosis and treatment of diseases and disorders of the ear, nose and throat.\nPain Medicine:\nThe process of providing medical care that alleviates or reduces pain.\nPathology:\nKeywords: Study of disease\nThe branch of medicine concerned with disease, especially its structure and its functional effect on the body.\nPediatric Cardiology:\nKeywords: Child/teen heart conditions\nDiagnosis and treatment of diseases of the heart and blood vessels of infants, children and adolescents.\nPediatric Endocrinology:\nKeywords: Child/teen diabetes, glands\nThe diagnosis and treatment of disorders of the internal (glands such as the thyroid and adrenal glands of infants, children and adolescents.\nPediatric Gastroenterology:\nKeywords: Child/teen stomach, intestines, colon, liver, gallbladder, pancreas\nDiagnosis and treatment of diseases and disorders of the digestive system including the stomach, intestines, colon, liver, gallbladder and the pancreas of infants, children and adolescents.\nPediatric Hematology-Oncology:\nKeywords: Child/teen, blood, spleen, lymph nodes, cancer\nDiagnosis and treatment of diseases of the blood, spleen, lymph glands, tumors and malignancies.\nPediatric Infectious Disease:\nKeywords: Child/teen, contagious disease\nDiagnosis of acute and chronic infections, which may or may not be contagious of infants, children and adolescents.\nPediatric Nephrology:\nDiagnosis and treatment of diseases of the kidney of infants, children and adolescents.\nPediatric Neurology:\nKeywords: Child/teen, nervous systems, spinal cord, brain, muscles\nThe study of the structure, functioning and diseases of the nervous system, including the brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves in infants, children, and adolescents.\nPediatric Orthopaedics:\nKeywords: Child/teen, bones, joints, muscles\nDiagnosis and treatment of disorders in joints, muscles, tendons, ligaments, cartilage and related structures of infants, children and adolescents.\nPediatric Pulmonology:\nKeywords: Child/teen, lungs and bronchial tubes\nDiagnosis and treatment of diseases of the lungs and other chest tissues of infants, children and adolescents.\nPediatric Surgery:\nKeywords: Child/teen, surgery\nSurgery dealing with a variety of problems, including disorders of the stomach, small intestine and colon as well as the liver, gallbladder and pancreas, and a wide variety of cancers in infants, children and adolescents.\nPediatric Urology:\nKeywords: Child/teen, urinary and genital tract\nA branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the urinary tract in both sexes and the genital tract in the male.\nPediatrics:\nDiagnosis and treatment of the diseases of infants, children and adolescents.\nPerinatology:\nKeywords: Before and after Childbirth\nA branch of medicine concerned with perinatal care.\nPhysical Medicine And Rehabilitation:\nKeywords: Restoring physical function\nTreatment of disease by physical agents such as heat, cold, light, electricity, manipulation or the use of mechanical devices for the restoration of physiologic function.\nPhysical Therapy:\nKeywords: Restoring physical function\nThe evaluation and treatment of any person by the employment of the effective properties of physical measures, the performance of tests and measurements as an aid to evaluation.\nPlastic Surgery:\nKeywords: Surgery for physical restoration/repair\nSurgery concerned with the repair or restoration of defective or missing structures, frequently involving the transference of tissue from a part or person to another part or person.\nPodiatry:\nCare and treatment of the foot.\nPsychiatry:\nKeywords: Mental, addictions, emotional disorders\nA branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of mental illness.\nPsychology:\nKeywords: Mental, addictions, emotional disorders\nSpecialist in psychotherapy who works with individuals, groups or families to resolve problems.\nPulmonary Disease:\nKeywords: Lungs and bronchial tubes\nA subspecialty of internal medicine concerned with the study of the respiratory system. It is especially concerned with diagnosis and treatment of diseases and defects of the lungs and bronchial tree.\nRadiation Oncology:\nKeywords: X-rays, ultrasound, MRI for cancer treatment\nThe therapeutic applications of radiant energy and its modifiers to the treatment of disease, especially malignant tumors.\nRadiology:\nKeywords: X-rays, ultrasound, MRI\nDiagnosis and treatment of illnesses and injuries with the use of electromagnetic radiation, ultrasonics, and other forms of radiant energy.\nRheumatology:\nA branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of arthritis.\nSocial Worker:\nKeywords: Social needs\nAn individual specializing in organized work intended to advance the social conditions of a community, and especially of the disadvantaged, by providing psychological counseling, guidance, and assistance, especially in the form of social services.\nSpeech Pathology:\nThe study of communication or expression of thoughts in spoken words.\nSports Medicine:\nKeywords: Sports\nThe field of medicine concerned with physical fitness and the diagnosis and treatment of injuries sustained in sports activities.\nSurgery:\nKeywords: Cutting of the body to treat a disease or condition\nA surgical specialty that involves largely the surgical management of diseases of the bowel, gallbladder, stomach and other digestive organs.\nThoracic Surgery:\nKeywords: Chest, lung\nA branch of medicine dealing with the use of surgery to treat diseases of the chest and lungs.\nUrology:\nKeywords: Urinary and genital tract\nA branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the urinary tract in both sexes and the genital tract in the male.\nVascular Surgery:\nKeywords: Blood vessels\nA branch of medicine dealing with the use of surgery to treat diseases of the blood vessels.", "Physicians - Speciality Guide\nSpecialty Guide\nAllergy and Immunology - A medical specialty concerned with the hypersensitivity of the individual to foreign substances and protection from the resultant infection or disorder.\nAnesthesiology - The medical study of how to eliminate pain and sensation in people undergoing surgery and other medical procedures. An anesthesiologist is a doctor administers anesthesia during surgery.\nBehavioral Med - The study, prevention, and treatment of medical and psychosomatic disorders and of undesirable behaviors.\nCardiology (Cardiologist) - The medical study of the diagnosis and treatment of diseases affecting the heart and blood vessels.\nDermatology - The field of medicine that specializes in the treatment of skin disorders.\nDentistry - (General) General Dentistry is defined as the evaluation, diagnosis, prevention and/or treatment (nonsurgical, surgical or related procedures) of diseases, disorders and/or conditions of the oral cavity, maxillofacial area and/or the adjacent and associated structures and their impact on the human body; provided by a dentist, within the scope of his/her education, training and experience, in accordance with the ethics of the profession and applicable law.\nDentistry: (Orthodontics) Orthodontics is that area of dentistry concerned with the supervision, guidance and correction of the growing or mature dentofacial structures, including those conditions that require movement of teeth or correction of malrelationships and malformations of their related structures and the adjustment of relationships between and among teeth and facial bones by the application of forces and/or the stimulation and redirection of functional forces within the craniofacial complex. Major responsibilities of orthodontic practice include the diagnosis, prevention, interception and treatment of all forms of malocclusion of the teeth and associated alterations in their surrounding structures; the design, application and control of functional and corrective appliances; and the guidance of the dentition and its supporting structures to attain and maintain optimum occlusal relations in physiologic and esthetic harmony among facial and cranial structures.\nDentistry-Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery - Oral and maxillofacial surgery is the specialty of surgery which involves the diagnosis, surgery, and adjunctive treatment of diseases and defects involving both the functional and aesthetic aspects of the hard and soft tissues of the oral and maxillofacial region.\nDentistry: (Pediatric Dentistry) Pediatric Dentistry is an age-defined specialty that provides both primary and comprehensive preventive and therapeutic oral health care for infants and children through adolescence, including those with special health care needs.\nEmergency Medicine - A branch of medicine concerned with an individual's resuscitation, transportation and care from the point of injury or beginning of illness through the hospital or other emergency treatment facility.\nEndocrinology (Endocrine) - The scientific study of the function and pathology of the endocrineglands (for example the thyroid gland, pituitary gland, etc.)\nFamily Practice - A medical specialty concerned with the provision of continuing, comprehensive primary health care for the entire family.\nGastroenterology (GI) - The diagnosis and treatment of diseases and disorders affecting the stomach, intestines, and associated organs.\nGeneral Surgery - The branch of medicine that deals with the diagnosis and treatment of injury, deformity, and disease by manual and instrumental means.\nGynecology (OB/GYN) - A branch of medicine dealing with the diagnosis and treatment of disorders affecting the female reproductive organs.\nHematology/Oncology (Hem/Onc) - Hematology - The study of the morphology of the blood and blood forming tissues. Oncology - The study of diseases that cause cancer.\nInfectious Disease - Any disease caused by the entrance, growth, and multiplication of bacteria or protozoans in the body; a germ disease.\nIntensivist - Coordinates clinical care and manages the ICU staff and resources\nInternal Medicine - The specialty of the general medicine of the internal organs.\nNeonatology (Neonatologist) - The art and science of caring medically for the newborn.\nNephrology - A treatise on, or the science which treats of, the kidneys, and their structure and functions.\nNeurology - The branch of science which treats of the nervous system.\nNeurosurgery - A surgical specialty concerned with the treatment of diseases and disorders of the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral and sympathetic nervous system.\nOB/GYN - A commonly used abbreviation. GYN is short for gynecology (or a gynecologist).\nOccupational Medicine - A branch of medicine concerned with the treatment of patients with occupational and environmental illness and injury.\nOphthalmology - The area of medicine dealing with the eye.\nOrtho/Hand - Pertaining to the correction of deformities of the musculoskeletal system, pertaining to the hand.\nOrthopaedics - Pertaining to the correction of deformities of the musculoskeletal system, pertaining to orthopaedics.\nOtolaryngology - A branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of disorders and diseases of the ears, nose and throat.\nPathology - The branch of medicine concerned with disease, especially its structure and its functional effects on the body.\nPediatrics - Pediatrics is concerned with the health of infants, children and adolescents, their growth and development, and their opportunity to achieve full potential as adults.\nPhysical Medicine/Rehab. - A medical specialty concerned with the use of physical agents, mechanical apparatus, and manipulation in rehabilitating physically diseased or injured patients.\nPlastic Surgery - The branch of surgery concerned with restoration, reconstruction, or improvement of defective, damaged, or missing structures.\nPodiatry - The medical study of the diagnosis and treatment of disorders of the foot.\nPsychiatry - A branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of mental illness.\nPulmonology - Of, relating to, or affecting the lungs\nRadiology - The study of X-rays in the diagnosis of a disease.\nRheumatology - A branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of arthritis.\nThoracic - Relating to the chest or thorax.\nUrology - A branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the urinary tract and urogenital system.", "Physician Directory ‹ Lakeland Regional Medical Center\nA branch of science that deals with the phenomena and cause of immunity and immune responses.\nAnesthesiology\nThe branch of science dealing with anesthesia and anesthetics.\nCardiac Electophysiology\nA branch of science concerned with the electrical phenomena associated with a physiological process such as the function of a body or a bodily part.\nCardiology\nThe study of the heart and its action and diseases.\nChild & Adolescent Psychiatry\nDiagnosis and treatment of mental or emotional conditions, including substance abuse in children.\nClinical Psychology\nThe branch of psychology concerned with the treatment of abnormal mentation and behavior\nCritical Care Medicine\nIntensive care medicine or critical care medicine is concerned with providing greater than ordinary medical care and observation to people in a critical or unstable condition\nDermatology\nA branch of science dealing with the skin, its structure, function and diseases.\nDiagnostic Radiology\nThe application of radiology including X-rays, radioactive isotopes and ionizing radiation for the application of information for diagnosis and treatment of disease.\nEmergency Medicine\nA branch of medicine where unforeseen combination of circumstances call for immediate medical attention.\nEndocrinology\nA science dealing with the glands of the body, such as the thyroid and pituitary.\nFamily Practice\nGeneral medical practice regularly called by a family in time of medical need.\nGastroenterology\nThe study of the disease and pathology of the stomach and intestines.\nGeneral Dentistry\nThe branch of science which deals with the care of teeth and associated structures.\nGeneral Surgery\nA branch of medicine concerned with diseases and conditions requiring or amenable to operative or manual procedures.\nGeriatrics\nA branch of medicine that deals with the problems and disease of old age and aging people\nGynecologic Oncology\nA branch of medicine that deals with the cancers of female reproductive track.\nGynecology\nThe branch of medicine that deals with the diseases and hygiene of women.\nHand Surgery\nA hand surgeon specializes in treatment of injuries to the hand.\nHematology/Oncology\nThe specialty of medicine that deals with study of the blood, blood-forming organs, tumors and malignancies.\nHematopathology\nThe study of blood, bone marrow, and the organs and tissues that use blood cells to perform their functions.\nInfectious Disease\nThe study of a disease caused by the entrance into the body of organisms which grow and multiply.\nInternal Medicine\nA branch of medicine that deals with the diagnosis and treatment of nonsurgical disease.\nInterventional Cardiology\nA branch of the medical specialty of cardiology that deals specifically with the mechanical treatment of heart diseases.\nInterventional Radiology\nArea of specialty within the field of radiology which uses various radiological techniques (such as x-ray, computed tomography (CT) scans, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, and ultrasounds) to place wires, tubes, or other instruments inside a patient to diagnose or treat an array of conditions.\nMaternal Fetal Medicine\nA branch of medicine that deals with expectant mothers and their fetuses.\nMedical Oncology\nDiagnosis and treatment of tumors and cancer.\nNeonatology\nA branch of medicine concerned with the care, development and diseases of the newborn infant.\nNephrology\nA medical specialty concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of disease of the kidneys.\nNeurology\nThe scientific study of the nervous system, its structure, function and abnormalities.\nNeuroradiology\nA subspecialty of radiology devoted to diagnosis and treatment of conditions affecting the brain, spine, and other parts of the nervous system.\nNeurosurgery\nNeurosurgeons specialize in the surgical treatment of disorders of the brain, spinal cord and nerves.\nObstetrics and Gynecology\nThe branch of medicine dealing with birth and the diseases & hygiene of women.\nOccupational Medicine\nThe branch of medicine dealing with the study, prevention, and treatment of workplace injuries and occupational diseases and with the promotion of optimal health and safety in the workplace.\nOphthalmology\nThe branch of medicine dealing with the structure, functions and diseases of the eye.\nOral & Maxillofacial Surgery\nDiagnosis and treatment of deformities, injuries and diseases in or near the mouth.\nOrthodontics\nA special field in dentistry which involves diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of bite abnormalities or facial irregularities.\nOrthopaedic Surgery\nThe branch of surgery concerned with acute, chronic, traumatic and recurrent injuries and other disorders of the locomotor system, its musclular and bone parts.\nOtolaryngology\nThe diagnosis and medical or surgical treatment of ear, nose and throat disease and injuries.\nPain Management\nA subspecialty of anesthesiology that is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of the entire range of painful disorders.\nPediatric Cardiology\nPediatric cardiologists specialize in the prevention, diagnosis and medical (non-surgical) treatment of heart and blood vessel diseases in children.\nPediatric Dentistry\nA pediatric dentist is a dental specialist who is trained in the pharmacokinetic, physiologic, anatomic, and psychologic factors peculiar to children and the care of their teeth.\nPediatric Neurology\nDiagnosis and treatment of diseases of the nervous system which include illnesses involving the brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves and muscles in infants, children and adolescents.\nPediatrics\nA branch of medicine dealing with the development, care and disease of children.\nPeripheral Vascular Surgery\nThese physicians specialize in the diseases of the arteries and veins of the extremities, especially those conditions that interfere with adequate flow of blood to or from the extremities, such as atherosclerosis or hardening of the arteries.\nPlastic Surgery\nThe branch of surgery concerned with the repair, restoration, or improvement of lost, injured, defective, or misshapen parts of the body by transfer of tissue.\nPodiatric Surgery\nThe specialty of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of conditions and diseases of the foot and ankle.\nPsychiatry\nA branch of medicine that deals with mental, emotional or behavioral disorders.\nPulmonary Disease\nA branch of medicine concerning the diagnosis and treatment of the disease of the lungs.\nRadiation Oncology\nA branch of medicine concerning the treatment of tumors and malignancies with radiant energy.\nRadiology\nThe branch of medicine concerned with the use of radiant energy in the diagnosis and treatment of disease.\nRheumatology\nA medical science that deals with rheumatic diseases, characterized by inflammation and pain in muscles and joints.\nSleep Disorders\nDiagnosis and treatment of an abnormality which disturbs and prevents the body and mind from acquiring a period of rest\nSurgical Oncology\nThe branch of surgery which focuses on the surgical managment of malignant neoplasms (cancer).\nThoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery\nThoracic and cardiovascular surgeons specialize in the treatment of diseases and injuries of the heart, lung, esophagus and major blood vessels by surgical repair and removal of damaged tissues.\nUrology\nThe branch of medicine dealing with the urinary or urogenital organs.\nVascular Surgery\nA vascular surgeon is specially trained to perform surgery involving vessels in any part of the body including the extremities." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Iron_Triangle_(Vietnam).txt" ], "title": [ "Iron Triangle (Vietnam)" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Iron Triangle (Vietnamese:Tam Giác Sắt) was a 120 sqmi area in the Bình Dương Province of Vietnam, so named due to it being a stronghold of Viet Minh activity during the war. The region was under control of the Viet Minh throughout the French war in Vietnam and continued to be so throughout the phase of American involvement in the Vietnam War, despite concerted efforts on the part of US and South Vietnamese forces to destabilize the region as a power base for their enemy, the communist North Vietnamese–sponsored and–directed South Vietnamese insurgent movement, the National Liberation Front or Viet Cong (NLF).\n\nGeography \n\nThe Location of the Iron Triangle was between the Saigon River on the west and the Tinh River on the east and bordering Route 13 about 25 miles (40 km) north of Saigon. The southern apex of the \"triangle\" was seven miles (11 km) from Phu Cong, the capital of Bình Dương Province. Its proximity to Saigon was both a reason for American and South Vietnamese efforts to eradicate it, as well as why it remained a crucial area for Communist forces to control.\n\nHistory \n\nThe French War \n\nDuring the French war in Indochina, from 1946 to 1954, the Viet Minh elaborated on a network of hidden fortifications and tunnels throughout the region to defend themselves against the superior military power of the French. These tunnel networks had begun as early as the 1880s to resist French occupation. The network afforded communist fighters the ability to \"disappear\" into the countryside. This became especially important during the Vichy Regime, when Vietnam was dually occupied by French and Japanese forces, so as to remain undetected by not one but two occupying enemies.\n\nThe American War\n\nThe tunnels were expanded further after the war with the French as a base for underground operations against the Ngo Dinh Diem government and later US-backed South Vietnamese governments. The tunnel system at its height was said to have over 30000 mi of tunnels throughout North and South Vietnam, with hundreds of miles of these located in the Iron Triangle, especially concentrated in the area around the town of Cu Chi. Due to the threat that the Củ Chi tunnels posed to the Saigon government, the United States stepped up its military offensive in the region in the fall of 1966 and 1967. They launched three operations during this time: Operation Attleboro, Operation Cedar Falls, and Operation Junction City. Operation Cedar Falls was an especially intensive attack involving nearly 16,000 American troops and 14,000 soldiers of the South Vietnamese Army. The operation took nineteen days, and 72 Americans and 720 Viet Cong were killed. Despite their massive attack with B-52 bombers and Rome plows and efforts to destroy the tunnel system with explosives, flooding, and \"tunnel rats\" (specially trained soldiers who would infiltrate the tunnels armed only with a flashlight and a handgun), the Americans failed to totally destroy the Viet Cong support system that had been built for over two decades.\n\nThe Iron Triangle at the end of the Vietnam War \n\nThe area remained an active organizing center for the Viet Cong right through to the end of the war, due to both its undeniable strategic importance, as well as support from local populations who had been negatively impacted by the American bombing campaign. In April 1975, General Văn Tiến Dũng, political bureau members Phạm Hùng and Lê Đức Thọ, and southern military commander Trần Văn Trà all joined together in the Iron Triangle region to orchestrate the final, decisive attack on Saigon. The area had remained allied with the nationalist communist forces from the beginning of the French war in 1946 to the fall of Saigon in 1975: an exception in a country often torn region by region between control by American forces and control by the Viet Cong.\n\nNotes" ] }

{ "description": [ "Title: The Iron Triangle (1989) 5.9 /10. Want to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below. You must be a registered ...", "The Iron Triangle Photos. View All Photos (2) Movie Info. To date, there have been few American cinematic attempts devoted completely to including the ...", "Buy The Iron Triangle on Amazon.com FREE SHIPPING on qualified orders" ], "filename": [ "68/68_5034.txt", "66/66_5038.txt", "168/168_5039.txt" ], "rank": [ 2, 6, 7 ], "title": [ "The Iron Triangle (1989) - IMDb", "The Iron Triangle (1988) - Rotten Tomatoes", "The Iron Triangle - amazon.com" ], "url": [ "http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0097593/", "https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/iron_triangle/", "https://www.amazon.com/Iron-Triangle-Beau-Bridges/dp/B0052SO0PQ" ], "search_context": [ "The Iron Triangle (1989) - IMDb\nIMDb\nThere was an error trying to load your rating for this title.\nSome parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later.\nX Beta I'm Watching This!\nKeep track of everything you watch; tell your friends.\nError\nBased on the diary of an unknown Viet Cong soldier, this film provides a sympathetic look at a Viet Cong soldier who protected a captured American soldier whom he believed did not kill him ... See full summary  »\nDirector:\na list of 43 titles\ncreated 18 Feb 2011\na list of 68 titles\ncreated 03 Sep 2011\na list of 200 titles\ncreated 12 Sep 2012\na list of 1037 titles\ncreated 22 Apr 2013\na list of 24 titles\ncreated 4 months ago\nTitle: The Iron Triangle (1989)\n5.9/10\nWant to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below.\nYou must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin.\nThe title refers to the U.S. Army's former \"MOS\" (job code) for a combat cameraman.\nDirector: Patrick Sheane Duncan\nThe final movie in Oliver Stone's Vietnam trilogy follows the true story of a Vietnamese village girl who survives a life of suffering and hardship during and after the Vietnam war. As a ... See full summary  »\nDirector: Oliver Stone\nThe memories of a US private in Vietnam who slowly gets disillusioned as the war progresses.\nStars: Brad Davis, Keith Carradine, Michael O'Keefe\nMarvin, a heavy-drinking widower who has seen better days and now ekes out a living at odd jobs, meets Tige, an 11-year-old black boy about to kill himself because his mother has just died.... See full summary  »\nDirector: Eric Weston\nA tough sergeant and his sidekick roll into a demoralized firebase and proceed to rebuild morale and fortifications in advance of the climactic battle with the VietCong.\nDirector: Brian Trenchard-Smith\nAn outcast military cadet taps into a way to summon demons and cast spells on his tormentors through his computer.\nDirector: Eric Weston\nForced by the imminent foreclosure of their friend's bar, two lifelong buddies will decide to rob a bank's armored car, not knowing that its cargo is not money, but a new street drug.\nDirector: Simon Wincer\nA classic tale of love and survival in the brutal world of bare knuckle fighting. Powerfully told and acted by a wonderful ensemble of actors... See full synopsis  »\nDirector: Eric Weston\n    1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 4.8/10 X  \nA team of corrupt L.A. cops who thrive on brutality and extortion is being murdered one by one. Two young cops, Egan and McAllister, are put on the case. As the body count rises, evidence points to Egan as the suspect.\nDirector: Eric Weston\nTrue story of Army man John Paul Vann, whose military success provided him the fulfillment he never found in his personal life.\nDirector: Terry George\nDuring the early 1960s, U.S. military advisers in South Vietnam discover the same challenges that plagued the French army in Indochina ten years prior.\nDirector: Ted Post\nFollows a group of men as they prepare for the Vietnam war and their eventual tour of Vietnam.\nDirector: Sidney J. Furie\nEdit\nStoryline\nBased on the diary of an unknown Viet Cong soldier, this film provides a sympathetic look at a Viet Cong soldier who protected a captured American soldier whom he believed did not kill him when the American had the opportunity. Written by John Sacksteder <[email protected]>\nThe deadliest chunk of real estate in the world.\nGenres:\n24 January 1989 (USA) See more  »\nAlso Known As:\n(usa) – See all my reviews\nThis was really a good movie, should have got more traction or promotion. Only Vietnam War movie I've ever seen that gives both a Vietnamese and an American point of view. I would have never seen it had I not been visiting a friend who insisted I had to watch it. I wish more people had seen it because I've never met anyone else who has, and Its very hard to find now that video stores have gone the way of the dinosaurs. If you ever get the chance to see this movie I promise it wont be a waste of two hours of your time. The acting was spot on, the special effects were great, no CGI, they used real explosives in this. Good luck finding it if you can because it seems nobody has ever heard of it. If the Vietnam War is your genre you have to see it.\n2 of 2 people found this review helpful.  Was this review helpful to you?\nYes", "View All Photos (2)\nMovie Info\nTo date, there have been few American cinematic attempts devoted completely to including the nationalist Vietnamese perspective during the American involvement in Vietnam. This film attempts to provide a more inclusive perspective. An American soldier, Captain Keene (Beau Bridges) is captured by Ho (Liem Whatley, an idealistic young Vietcong soldier. At first highly distrustful of the young man, a bond develops between them when it becomes clear that the young man is protecting the American from mistreatment by his superiors. A crucial moment comes when the boy chooses to flee with his American captive in order to protect the man's life. Haing S. Ngor, who won an Academy Award for his performance in Killing Fields, makes a brief appearance as a North Vietnamese military man.\nRating:", "Amazon.com: The Iron Triangle: Beau Bridges, Haing S. Ngor, Liem Whatley, Eric Weston, John A. Bushelman, Angela P. Schapiro, Ben Scotti, Fred Scotti, Tony Scotti, Larry Hilbrand: Movies & TV\nBy Dan Mx on February 7, 2005\nFormat: VHS Tape\nWhile obviously not a high budget film, this one delivers with great battle scenes and an awesome story. Definitely needs to be on DVD and i'm very surprised it's not. The film artfully cuts through scenes from both the VC and American points of view and although cheesy and a bit stereotypical in it's representation of the Viet Cong, I have yet to see a Vietnam film that does justice to them and attempts to protray them as honestly this one does. I loved this movie, the final battle scene is so wicked. It's not one of those gung ho, totally unbelivable movies where the hero kill 100 enemy and still lives. This film is gripping and you will be glued to your seat as events slowly unfold. I only wish it was 3 hours long! Things like this really happened in the war and the writers and directors should be commended at doing such a wonderfull job of protraying it. Get it for the sweet battle scenes if nothing else. This film is a true gem in the rough for those really interested in the history of this war, and are tired of the same old unrealistic war movies that have been produced in Hollywood.\nBy Acute Observer on December 22, 2013\nFormat: DVD\nThe Iron Triangle, 1989 film\nThis story is set in 1960s Vietnam. It is unusual to present the viewpoints of the Viet Cong. One Viet Cong reminds the others how they defeated the Chinese centuries ago, and will do the same to the Americans today. There interpersonal conflict [as part of human nature everywhere]. The “Iron Triangle” referred to that part of Vietnam where the “National Liberation Army” was strongest. Can you get to killing men in combat? Two soldiers tell of their past and family history. Will land be distributed to the people who work the fields? Yes, in the future. Ho has been ordered to kill a woman, this troubles him. She does propaganda work.\nThe old man who questioned her is killed. [Why would they send one man against a house guarded by many? A test? Her boyfriend suspects something. Is it “too quiet”? Ho shows his talents. “Please.” Ho follows orders. Dead bodies are displayed to educate and warn the others. The American troops walk into an ambush, then call for help. Their Captain is captured alive. The weapons of the fallen are collected (for reuse). The captured Captain is beaten to get him to talk, then kept awake and hungry. Ho explains his reasons to Phung. [“The end justifies the means” is from Machiavelli and always quoted out of context.] Ho frees the Captain and takes him n a long walk to deliver him to Captain Tung.\nThey are fighting to get back the land they won from the French. A bridge built under water is unnoticed by aerial photography. There is news about Ho’s friend Phung. The Captain makes his escape and is rescued by a helicopter. The VC fires on the Americans, they are intermixed with the villagers. There are casualties on both sides. The VC retreat. Helicopters shoot at the fleeing enemy. A lone woman is shot, she has a last statement. A bazooka fires at a machine gunner. A jet drops napalm bombs in the jungle. Ho crawls away into the bush. “Hold your fire!” Ho does not pull the pin on his grenade. Afterwards the Captain reads Ho’s diary (he never saw him again).\nThe end credits tell about the actors and its funding. It was filmed in Sri Lanka (a former colonial country). This is a story that tries to provide a balanced portrayal of both sides without offending either. Was it educational?\nByA customeron July 24, 2001\nFormat: VHS Tape\nI think this is a must see film for Vietnam War movie buffs as well as anyone who wants to see a somewhat atypical Vietnam movie. It actually manages to be more balanced than your typical vietnam movies like Platoon or Full Metal Jacket etc. all hardcore American macho vs. the Vietnamese pyama wearers. This movie makes the effort to show both sides of the war. The story includes an American POW, a young Viet-Cong recruit with a conscience!?, and even a left over mercenary from the French colonial forces who stayed on after Bien-Phu. The movie has a lot more realistic and historically accurate feel to it and definately worth watching. I highly recommend it. Enjoy.\nBy C. Irwin on March 16, 2014\nFormat: DVD|Verified Purchase\nI bought this DVD mainly because a dear friend of mine wrote the script. But I was not disappointed as I knew\nthe author was a good writer. This story is from the point of view of the enemy side, i.e. the View Cong. This\nis something most folks would not consider until they have actually seen the movie. I recommend the DVD\njust to get an idea of how everyone thinks. I know, in the end, you will agree, war never helps anyone except\nthe fools that start them.\nBy // deep:blue // on May 3, 2005\nFormat: VHS Tape\nI give this uber low-budget Vietnam movie a salute for showing the Enemy side of the conflict through an objective lens. I've watched alot of Vietnam movies, most of which suffer from low-budget historical inaccuracies in weapons, uniforms, vehicles: mainly because its no longer possible to acquire all US-Vietnam era gear from renting third world armories, like in the Philipines. This movie has those flaws but most war movies w/out big budgets from the 80's did, so bear that in mind.\nThe intro shows the main character, Han, a Viet Cong, snipe down to 2 Americans in the triple canopy forest: they all look like just kids...Beau Bridges plays an American officer who eventually falls into the hands of the Viet Cong. Han is forced to take him on a forced march back to his communist superiors; away from a meglomaniac ambitious comrade who is angerly pursuing. Clearly shows the Viet Cong's use of terrorism as Han assignments involve assignation and hit squads against their more vulnerable enemies. The final confrontation involves a large battle.\nDespite some melodramitic moments, this movie definetly made me think about the opposing force's view of the Vietnam War and read the Sorrow of War, by Dith Pran: the most sobering book I have ever read, about Vietnam or any other conflict." ] }

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{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Nitrous_oxide.txt" ], "title": [ "Nitrous oxide" ], "wiki_context": [ "Nitrous oxide, commonly known as laughing gas, nitrous, nitro, or NOS is a chemical compound with the formula . It is an oxide of nitrogen. At room temperature, it is a colorless, non-flammable gas, with a slightly sweet odor and taste. It is used in surgery and dentistry for its anaesthetic and analgesic effects. It is known as \"laughing gas\" due to the euphoric effects of inhaling it, a property that has led to its recreational use as a dissociative anaesthetic. It is also used as an oxidiser in rocket propellants, and in motor racing to increase the power output of engines. At elevated temperatures, nitrous oxide is a powerful oxidizer similar to molecular oxygen.\n\nNitrous oxide gives rise to nitric oxide (NO) on reaction with oxygen atoms, and this NO in turn reacts with ozone. As a result, it is the main naturally occurring regulator of stratospheric ozone. It is also a major greenhouse gas and air pollutant. Considered over a 100-year period, it is calculated to have between 265 and 310 times more impact per unit mass (global-warming potential) than carbon dioxide. \n\nIt is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a health system. \n\nApplications\n\nRocket motors\n\nNitrous oxide can be used as an oxidizer in a rocket motor. This has the advantages over other oxidisers in that it is not only non-toxic, but also, due to its stability at room temperature, easy to store and relatively safe to carry on a flight. As a secondary benefit it can be readily decomposed to form breathing air. Its high density and low storage pressure (when maintained at low temperature) enable it to be highly competitive with stored high-pressure gas systems.\n\nIn a 1914 patent, American rocket pioneer Robert Goddard suggested nitrous oxide and gasoline as possible propellants for a liquid-fuelled rocket. Nitrous oxide has been the oxidiser of choice in several hybrid rocket designs (using solid fuel with a liquid or gaseous oxidizer). The combination of nitrous oxide with hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene fuel has been used by SpaceShipOne and others. It is also notably used in amateur and high power rocketry with various plastics as the fuel.\n\nNitrous oxide can also be used in a monopropellant rocket. In the presence of a heated catalyst, will decompose exothermically into nitrogen and oxygen, at a temperature of approximately 1070 F. Because of the large heat release, the catalytic action rapidly becomes secondary as thermal autodecomposition becomes dominant. In a vacuum thruster, this can provide a monopropellant specific impulse (Isp) of as much as 180 s. While noticeably less than the Isp available from hydrazine thrusters (monopropellant or bipropellant with dinitrogen tetroxide), the decreased toxicity makes nitrous oxide an option worth investigating.\n\nNitrous oxide is said to deflagrate somewhere around 600 C at a pressure of 21 atmospheres.Munke, Konrad (2 July 2001) [http://hobbyspace.com/AAdmin/archive/SpecialTopics/Misc/eindhoven.pdf Nitrous Oxide Trailer Rupture], Report at CGA Seminar \"Safety and Reliability of Industrial Gases, Equipment and Facilities\", 15–17 October 2001, St. Louis, Missouri At 600  for example, the required ignition energy is only 6 joules, whereas at 130 psi a 2500-joule ignition energy input is insufficient. \n\nInternal combustion engine\n\nIn vehicle racing, nitrous oxide (often referred to as just \"nitrous\") allows the engine to burn more fuel by providing more oxygen than air alone, resulting in a more powerful combustion. The gas itself is not flammable at a low pressure/temperature, but it delivers more oxygen than atmospheric air by breaking down at elevated temperatures. Therefore, it is often mixed with another fuel that is easier to deflagrate. Nitrous oxide is a strong oxidant roughly equivalent to hydrogen peroxide and much stronger than oxygen gas.\n\nNitrous oxide is stored as a compressed liquid; the evaporation and expansion of liquid nitrous oxide in the intake manifold causes a large drop in intake charge temperature, resulting in a denser charge, further allowing more air/fuel mixture to enter the cylinder. Nitrous oxide is sometimes injected into (or prior to) the intake manifold, whereas other systems directly inject right before the cylinder (direct port injection) to increase power.\n\nThe technique was used during World War II by Luftwaffe aircraft with the GM-1 system to boost the power output of aircraft engines. Originally meant to provide the Luftwaffe standard aircraft with superior high-altitude performance, technological considerations limited its use to extremely high altitudes. Accordingly, it was only used by specialized planes like high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft, high-speed bombers, and high-altitude interceptor aircraft. It could sometimes be found on Luftwaffe aircraft also fitted with another engine-boost system, MW 50, a form of water injection for aviation engines that used methanol for its boost capabilities.\n\nOne of the major problems of using nitrous oxide in a reciprocating engine is that it can produce enough power to damage or destroy the engine. Very large power increases are possible, and if the mechanical structure of the engine is not properly reinforced, the engine may be severely damaged or destroyed during this kind of operation. It is very important with nitrous oxide augmentation of petrol engines to maintain proper operating temperatures and fuel levels to prevent \"pre-ignition\", or \"detonation\" (sometimes referred to as \"knock\"). Most problems that are associated with nitrous do not come from mechanical failure due to the power increases. Since nitrous allows a much denser charge into the cylinder it dramatically increases cylinder pressures. The increased pressure and temperature can cause problems such as melting the piston or valves. It may also crack or warp the piston or head and cause pre-ignition due to uneven heating.\n\nAutomotive-grade liquid nitrous oxide differs slightly from medical-grade nitrous oxide. A small amount of sulfur dioxide () is added to prevent substance abuse. Multiple washes through a base (such as sodium hydroxide) can remove this, decreasing the corrosive properties observed when is further oxidised during combustion into sulfuric acid, making emissions cleaner.\n\nAerosol propellant\n\nThe gas is approved for use as a food additive (also known as E942), specifically as an aerosol spray propellant. Its most common uses in this context are in aerosol whipped cream canisters, cooking sprays, and as an inert gas used to displace oxygen, to inhibit bacterial growth, when filling packages of potato chips and other similar snack foods.\n\nThe gas is extremely soluble in fatty compounds. In aerosol whipped cream, it is dissolved in the fatty cream until it leaves the can, when it becomes gaseous and thus creates foam. Used in this way, it produces whipped cream four times the volume of the liquid, whereas whipping air into cream only produces twice the volume. If air were used as a propellant, oxygen would accelerate rancidification of the butterfat; nitrous oxide inhibits such degradation. Carbon dioxide cannot be used for whipped cream because it is acidic in water, which would curdle the cream and give it a seltzer-like \"sparkling\" sensation.\n\nHowever, the whipped cream produced with nitrous oxide is unstable and will return to a more liquid state within half an hour to one hour. Thus, the method is not suitable for decorating food that will not be immediately served.\n\nSimilarly, cooking spray, which is made from various types of oils combined with lecithin (an emulsifier), may use nitrous oxide as a propellant; other propellants used in cooking spray include food-grade alcohol and propane.\n\nUsers of nitrous oxide often obtain it from whipped cream dispensers that use nitrous oxide as a propellant (see above section), for recreational use as a euphoria-inducing inhalant drug. It is not harmful in small doses, but risks due to lack of oxygen do exist (see Recreational use below).\n\nMedicine\n\nNitrous oxide has been used for anaesthesia in dentistry since December 1844, where Horace Wells made the first 12–15 dental operations with the gas in Hartford. Its debut as a generally accepted method, however, came in 1863, when Gardner Quincy Colton introduced it more broadly at all the Colton Dental Association clinics, that he founded in New Haven and New York City. The first devices used in dentistry to administer the gas, known as Nitrous Oxide inhalers, were designed in a very simple way with the gas stored and breathed through a breathing bag made of rubber cloth, without a scavenger system and flowmeter, and with no addition of oxygen/air. Today these simple and somewhat unreliable inhalers have been replaced by the more modern relative analgesia machine, which is an automated machine designed to deliver a precisely dosed and breath-actuated flow of nitrous oxide mixed with oxygen, for the patient to inhale safely. The machine used in dentistry is designed as a simplified version of the larger anaesthetic machine used by hospitals, as it doesn't feature the additional anaesthetic vaporiser and medical ventilator. The purpose of the machine allows for a simpler design, as it only delivers a mixture of nitrous oxide and oxygen for the patient to inhale, in order to depress the feeling of pain while keeping the patient in a conscious state.\n\nRelative analgesia machines typically feature a constant-supply flowmeter, which allow the proportion of nitrous oxide and the combined gas flow rate to be individually adjusted. The gas is administered by dentists through a demand-valve inhaler over the nose, which will only release gas when the patient inhales through the nose. Because nitrous oxide is minimally metabolised in humans (with a rate of 0.004%), it retains its potency when exhaled into the room by the patient, and can pose an intoxicating and prolonged exposure hazard to the clinic staff if the room is poorly ventilated. Where nitrous oxide is administered, a continuous-flow fresh-air ventilation system or nitrous scavenger system is used to prevent a waste-gas buildup.\n\nHospitals administer nitrous oxide as one of the anaesthetic drugs delivered by anaesthetic machines. Nitrous oxide is a weak general anaesthetic, and so is generally not used alone in general anaesthesia. In general anaesthesia it is used as a carrier gas in a 2:1 ratio with oxygen for more powerful general anaesthetic drugs such as sevoflurane or desflurane. It has a minimum alveolar concentration of 105% and a blood/gas partition coefficient of 0.46.\n\nThe medical grade gas tanks, with the tradename Entonox and Nitronox contain a mixture with 50%, but this will normally be diluted to a lower percentage upon the operational delivery to the patient. Inhalation of nitrous oxide is frequently used to relieve pain associated with childbirth, trauma, oral surgery, and acute coronary syndrome (includes heart attacks). Its use during labour has been shown to be a safe and effective aid for women wanting to give birth without an epidural. Its use for acute coronary syndrome is of unknown benefit.\n\nIn Britain and Canada, Entonox and Nitronox are commonly used by ambulance crews (including unregistered practitioners) as a rapid and highly effective analgesic gas.\n\nNitrous oxide has been shown to be effective in treating a number of addictions, including alcohol withdrawal. \n\nNitrous oxide is also gaining interest as a substitute gas for carbon dioxide in laparoscopic surgery. It has been found to be as safe as carbon dioxide with better pain relief. \n\nRecreational use\n\nNitrous oxide can cause analgesia, depersonalisation, derealisation, dizziness, euphoria, and some sound distortion. Research has also found that it increases suggestibility and imagination. Inhalation of nitrous oxide for recreational use, with the purpose of causing euphoria and/or slight hallucinations, began as a phenomenon for the British upper class in 1799, known as \"laughing gas parties\". Until at least 1863, a low availability of equipment to produce the gas, combined with a low usage of the gas for medical purposes, meant it was a relatively rare phenomenon that mainly happened among students at medical universities. When equipment became more widely available for dentistry and hospitals, most countries also restricted the legal access to buy pure nitrous oxide gas cylinders to those sectors. Despite only medical staff and dentists today being legally allowed to buy the pure gas, a Consumers Union report from 1972 found that the use of the gas for recreational purpose was [then] still taking place, based upon reports of its use in Maryland 1971, Vancouver 1972, and a survey made by Dr. Edward J. Lynn of its non-medical use in Michigan 1970.\n\nIn Australia, nitrous oxide bulbs are known as nangs, possibly derived from the sound distortion perceived by consumers. \n\nIn the United Kingdom, nitrous oxide is used by almost half a million young people at nightspots, festivals and parties. In August 2015, the London Borough of Lambeth Council banned the use of the drug for recreational purposes, making offenders liable to an on-the-spot fine of up to £1,000. \n\nMechanism of action\n\nThe pharmacological mechanism of action of in medicine is not fully known. However, it has been shown to directly modulate a broad range of ligand-gated ion channels, and this likely plays a major role in many of its effects. It moderately blocks NMDA and β2-subunit-containing nACh channels, weakly inhibits AMPA, kainate, GABAC, and 5-HT3 receptors, and slightly potentiates GABAA and glycine receptors. It has also been shown to activate two-pore-domain channels. While affects quite a few ion channels, its anaesthetic, hallucinogenic, and euphoriant effects are likely caused predominantly or fully via inhibition of NMDA receptor-mediated currents. In addition to its effects on ion channels, may act to imitate nitric oxide (NO) in the central nervous system, and this may be related to its analgesic and anxiolytic properties.\n\nAnxiolytic effect\n\nIn behavioural tests of anxiety, a low dose of is an effective anxiolytic, and this anti-anxiety effect is associated with enhanced activity of GABAA receptors, as it is partially reversed by benzodiazepine receptor antagonists. Mirroring this, animals which have developed tolerance to the anxiolytic effects of benzodiazepines are partially tolerant to . Indeed, in humans given 30% , benzodiazepine receptor antagonists reduced the subjective reports of feeling \"high\", but did not alter psychomotor performance, in human clinical studies. \n\nAnalgesic effect\n\nThe analgesic effects of are linked to the interaction between the endogenous opioid system and the descending noradrenergic system. When animals are given morphine chronically they develop tolerance to its pain-killing effects, and this also renders the animals tolerant to the analgesic effects of . Administration of antibodies which bind and block the activity of some endogenous opioids (not β-endorphin) also block the antinociceptive effects of . Drugs which inhibit the breakdown of endogenous opioids also potentiate the antinociceptive effects of . Several experiments have shown that opioid receptor antagonists applied directly to the brain block the antinociceptive effects of , but these drugs have no effect when injected into the spinal cord.\n\nConversely, α2-adrenoceptor antagonists block the pain reducing effects of when given directly to the spinal cord, but not when applied directly to the brain. Indeed, α2B-adrenoceptor knockout mice or animals depleted in norepinephrine are nearly completely resistant to the antinociceptive effects of . Apparently -induced release of endogenous opioids causes disinhibition of brain stem noradrenergic neurons, which release norepinephrine into the spinal cord and inhibit pain signalling. Exactly how causes the release of endogenous opioid peptides is still uncertain.\n\nEuphoric effect\n\nIn rats, stimulates the mesolimbic reward pathway via inducing dopamine release and activating dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens, presumably through antagonisation of NMDA receptors localised in the system. This action has been implicated in its euphoric effects, and notably, appears to augment its analgesic properties as well.\n\nHowever, it is remarkable that in mice, blocks amphetamine-induced carrier-mediated dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens and behavioural sensitisation, abolishes the conditioned place preference (CPP) of cocaine and morphine, and does not produce reinforcing (or aversive) effects of its own. Studies on CPP of in rats is mixed, consisting of reinforcement, aversion, and no change. In contrast, it is a positive reinforcer in squirrel monkeys, and is well known as a drug of abuse in humans. These discrepancies in response to may reflect species variation or methodological differences. In human clinical studies, was found to produce mixed responses similarly to rats, reflecting high subjective individual variability. \n\nNeurotoxicity and neuroprotection\n\nLike other NMDA antagonists, was suggested to produce neurotoxicity in the form of Olney's lesions in rodents upon prolonged (several hour) exposure. However, new research has arisen suggesting that Olney's lesions do not occur in humans, and similar drugs like ketamine are now believed not to be acutely neurotoxic. It has been argued that, because has a very short duration under normal circumstances, it is less likely to be neurotoxic than other NMDA antagonists. Indeed, in rodents, short-term exposure results in only mild injury that is rapidly reversible, and permanent neuronal death only occurs after constant and sustained exposure. Nitrous oxide may also cause neurotoxicity after extended exposure because of hypoxia. This is especially true of non-medical formulations such as whipped-cream chargers (also known as \"whippets\" or \"nangs\"), which are not necessarily mixed with oxygen. \n\nAdditionally, nitrous oxide depletes vitamin B12 levels. This can cause serious neurotoxicity with even acute use if the user has preexisting vitamin B12 deficiency. \n\nNitrous oxide is also neuroprotective, inhibiting glutamate-induced excitotoxicity.\n\nSafety\n\nThe major safety hazards of nitrous oxide come from the fact that it is a compressed liquefied gas, an asphyxiation risk, and a dissociative anaesthetic. Exposure to nitrous oxide causes short-term decreases in mental performance, audiovisual ability, and manual dexterity. Abusing nitrous oxide can lead to oxygen deprivation resulting in loss of blood pressure, fainting and even heart attacks. \n\nLong-term exposure can cause vitamin B deficiency, numbness, reproductive side effects (in pregnant females), and other problems (see Biological). The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health recommends that workers' exposure to nitrous oxide should be controlled during the administration of anaesthetic gas in medical, dental, and veterinary operators. People can be exposed to nitrous oxide in the workplace by breathing it in or getting the liquid on their skin or in their eyes. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a Recommended exposure limit (REL) of 25 ppm (46 mg/m3) exposure to waste anaesthetic. \n\nChemical/physical\n\nAt room temperature (20 °C (68 °F)) the saturated vapour pressure is 58.5 bar, rising up to 72.45 bar at —the critical temperature. The pressure curve is thus unusually sensitive to temperature. Liquid nitrous oxide acts as a good solvent for many organic compounds; liquid mixtures may form shock sensitive explosives.\n\nAs with many strong oxidisers, contamination of parts with fuels have been implicated in rocketry accidents, where small quantities of nitrous/fuel mixtures explode due to \"water hammer\"-like effects (sometimes called \"dieseling\"—heating due to adiabatic compression of gases can reach decomposition temperatures). Some common building materials such as stainless steel and aluminium can act as fuels with strong oxidisers such as nitrous oxide, as can contaminants, which can ignite due to adiabatic compression. \n\nThere have also been accidents where nitrous oxide decomposition in plumbing has led to the explosion of large tanks.\n\nBiological\n\nNitrous oxide inactivates the cobalamin form of vitamin B12 by oxidation. Symptoms of vitamin B12 deficiency, including sensory neuropathy, myelopathy, and encephalopathy, can occur within days or weeks of exposure to nitrous oxide anaesthesia in people with subclinical vitamin B12 deficiency. Symptoms are treated with high doses of vitamin B12, but recovery can be slow and incomplete. People with normal vitamin B12 levels have stores to make the effects of nitrous oxide insignificant, unless exposure is repeated and prolonged (nitrous oxide abuse). Vitamin B12 levels should be checked in people with risk factors for vitamin B12 deficiency prior to using nitrous oxide anaesthesia. \n\nA study of workers \nand several experimental animal studies indicate that adverse reproductive effects for pregnant females may also result from chronic exposure to nitrous oxide.\n\nNitrous oxide reductase is an important enzyme which limits the emission of the gas to the atmosphere. \n\nEnvironmental\n\n is a greenhouse gas with a large global warming potential (GWP). When compared to carbon dioxide (), has 298 times the ability per molecule of gas to trap heat in the atmosphere. is produced naturally in the soil during the microbial processes of nitrification and denitrification. \n\nThe United States of America signed and ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ([http://unfccc.int/2860.php UNFCCC]) in 1992, agreeing to inventory and assess the various sources of greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change. The agreement requires parties to \"develop, periodically update, publish and make available... national inventories of anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of all greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol, using comparable methodologies...\". In response to this agreement, the U.S. is obligated to inventory anthropogenic emissions by sources and sinks, of which agriculture is a key contributor. In 2008, agriculture contributed 6.1% of the total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions and cropland contributed nearly 69% of total direct nitrous oxide () emissions. Additionally, estimated emissions from agricultural soils were 6% higher in 2008 than 1990.\n\nAccording to 2006 data from the United States Environmental Protection Agency, industrial sources make up only about 20% of all anthropogenic sources, and include the production of nylon, and the burning of fossil fuel in internal combustion engines. Human activity is thought to account for 30%; tropical soils and oceanic release account for 70%. However, a 2008 study by Nobel Laureate Paul Crutzen suggests that the amount of nitrous oxide release attributable to agricultural nitrate fertilizers has been seriously underestimated, most of which would presumably come under soil and oceanic release in the Environmental Protection Agency data. Atmospheric levels have risen by more than 15% since 1750. Nitrous oxide also causes ozone depletion. A new study suggests that NO emission currently is the single most important ozone-depleting substance (ODS) emission and is expected to remain the largest throughout the 21st century. \n\nProduction\n\nNitrous oxide is most commonly prepared by careful heating of ammonium nitrate, which decomposes into nitrous oxide and water vapour. The addition of various phosphates favours formation of a purer gas at slightly lower temperatures. One of the earliest commercial producers was George Poe in Trenton, New Jersey.\n\n(s) → 2 (g) + (g)\n\nThis reaction occurs between 170 and, temperatures where ammonium nitrate is a moderately sensitive explosive and a very powerful oxidizer. Above 240 C the exothermic reaction may accelerate to the point of detonation, so the mixture must be cooled to avoid such a disaster. Superheated steam is used to reach reaction temperature in some turnkey production plants. \n\nDownstream, the hot, corrosive mixture of gases must be cooled to condense the steam, and filtered to remove higher oxides of nitrogen. Ammonium nitrate smoke, as an extremely persistent colloid, will also have to be removed. The cleanup is often done in a train of three gas washes; namely base, acid and base again. Any significant amounts of nitric oxide (NO) may not necessarily be absorbed directly by the base (sodium hydroxide) washes.\n\nThe nitric oxide impurity is sometimes chelated out with ferrous sulfate, reduced with iron metal, or oxidised and absorbed in base as a higher oxide. The first base wash may (or may not) react out much of the ammonium nitrate smoke. However, this reaction generates ammonia gas, which may have to be absorbed in the acid wash.\n\nAs a byproduct\n\nThe synthesis of adipic acid; one of the two reactants used in nylon manufacture, produces nitrogen oxides including nitric oxides This might become a major commercial source, but will require the removal of higher oxides of nitrogen and organic impurities. Currently much of the gas is decomposed before release for environmental protection.\n\nOther routes\n\nHeating a mixture of sodium nitrate and ammonium sulfate. \n2 + (NH4)2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2+ 4.\n\nThe reaction of urea, nitric acid and sulfuric acid \n2 (NH2)2CO + 2 + → 2 + 2 + (NH4)2SO4 + 2.\n\nDirect oxidation of ammonia with a manganese dioxide-bismuth oxide catalyst: cf. Ostwald process.\n2 + 2 → + 3 \n\nReacting Hydroxylammonium chloride with sodium nitrite. If the nitrite is added to the hydroxylamine solution, the only remaining by-product is salt water. However, if the hydroxylamine solution is added to the nitrite solution (nitrite is in excess), then toxic higher oxides of nitrogen are also formed.\n+ → + NaCl + 2 \n\nReacting with and HCl:\n2 + 8 HCl + 4 → 5 + 4 + \n\nHyponitrous acid decomposes to N2O and water with a half-life of 16 days at 25 °C at pH 1–3.Egon Wiberg, Arnold Frederick Holleman (2001) Inorganic Chemistry, Elsevier ISBN 0-12-352651-5\nH2N2O2→ H2O + N2O\n\nSoil\n\nOf the entire anthropogenic emission (5.7 teragrams -N per year), agricultural soils provide 3.5 teragrams –N per year. Nitrous oxide is produced naturally in the soil during the microbial processes of nitrification, denitrification, nitrifier denitrification and others:\n* aerobic autotrophic nitrification, the stepwise oxidation of ammonia () to nitrite () and to nitrate () (e.g., Kowalchuk and Stephen, 2001),\n* anaerobic heterotrophic denitrification, the stepwise reduction of to , nitric oxide (NO), and ultimately , where facultative anaerobe bacteria use as an electron acceptor in the respiration of organic material in the condition of insufficient oxygen () (e.g. Knowles, 1982), and\n* nitrifier denitrification, which is carried out by autotrophic −oxidizing bacteria and the pathway whereby ammonia () is oxidised to nitrite (), followed by the reduction of to nitric oxide (NO), and molecular nitrogen () (e.g., Webster and Hopkins, 1996; Wrage et al., 2001).\n* Other production mechanisms include heterotrophic nitrification (Robertson and Kuenen, 1990), aerobic denitrification by the same heterotrophic nitrifiers (Robertson and Kuenen, 1990), fungal denitrification (Laughlin and Stevens, 2002), and non-biological process chemodenitrification (e.g. Chalk and Smith, 1983; Van Cleemput and Baert, 1984; Martikainen and De Boer, 1993; Daum and Schenk, 1998; Mørkved et al., 2007).\nSoil emissions are reported to be controlled by soil chemical and physical properties such as the availability of mineral N, soil pH, organic matter availability, and soil type, and climate related soil properties such as soil temperature and soil water content (e.g., Mosier, 1994; Bouwman, 1996; Beauchamp, 1997; Yamulki et al. 1997; Dobbie and Smith, 2003; Smith et al. 2003; Dalal et al. 2003).\n\nProperties and reactions\n\nNitrous oxide is a colourless, non-toxic gas with a faint, sweet odour.\n\nNitrous oxide supports combustion by releasing the dipolar bonded oxygen radical, thus it can relight a glowing splint.\n\n is inert at room temperature and has few reactions. At elevated temperatures, its reactivity increases. For example, nitrous oxide reacts with at 460 K to give :\n2 + → + NaOH + \nThe above reaction is the route adopted by the commercial chemical industry to produce azide salts, which are used as detonators. \n\nOccurrence\n\nNitrous oxide is emitted by bacteria in soils and oceans, and is thus a part of Earth's atmosphere. Agriculture is the main source of human-produced nitrous oxide: cultivating soil, the use of nitrogen fertilisers, and animal waste handling can all stimulate naturally occurring bacteria to produce more nitrous oxide. The livestock sector (primarily cows, chickens, and pigs) produces 65% of human-related nitrous oxide. Industrial sources make up only about 20% of all anthropogenic sources, and include the production of nylon, and the burning of fossil fuel in internal combustion engines. Human activity is thought to account for 40%; tropical soils and oceanic release account for the rest. \n\nNitrous oxide reacts with ozone in the stratosphere. Nitrous oxide is the main naturally occurring regulator of stratospheric ozone. Nitrous oxide is a major greenhouse gas. Considered over a 100-year period, it has 298 times more impact per unit weight than carbon dioxide. Thus, despite its low concentration, nitrous oxide is the fourth largest contributor to these greenhouse gases. It ranks behind water vapour, carbon dioxide, and methane. Control of nitrous oxide is part of efforts to curb greenhouse gas emissions. \n\nHistory\n\nThe gas was first synthesised by English natural philosopher and chemist Joseph Priestley in 1772, who called it phlogisticated nitrous air (see phlogiston). Priestley published his discovery in the book Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air (1775), where he described how to produce the preparation of \"nitrous air diminished\", by heating iron filings dampened with nitric acid. \n\nEarly use\n\nThe first important use of nitrous oxide was made possible by Thomas Beddoes and James Watt, who worked together to publish the book Considerations on the Medical Use and on the Production of Factitious Airs (1794). This book was important for two reasons. First, James Watt had invented a novel machine to produce \"Factitious Airs\" (i.e. nitrous oxide) and a novel \"breathing apparatus\" to inhale the gas. Second, the book also presented the new medical theories by Thomas Beddoes, that tuberculosis and other lung diseases could be treated by inhalation of \"Factitious Airs\".\n\nThe machine to produce \"Factitious Airs\" had three parts: A furnace to burn the needed material, a vessel with water where the produced gas passed through in a spiral pipe (for impurities to be \"washed off\"), and finally the gas cylinder with a gasometer where the gas produced, \"air\", could be tapped into portable air bags (made of airtight oily silk). The breathing apparatus consisted of one of the portable air bags connected with a tube to a mouthpiece. With this new equipment being engineered and produced by 1794, the way was paved for clinical trials, which began when Thomas Beddoes in 1798 established the \"Pneumatic Institution for Relieving Diseases by Medical Airs\" in Hotwells (Bristol). In the basement of the building, a large-scale machine was producing the gases under the supervision of a young Humphry Davy, who was encouraged to experiment with new gases for patients to inhale. The first important work of Davy was examination of the nitrous oxide, and the publication of his results in the book: Researches, Chemical and Philosophical (1800). In that publication, Davy notes the analgesic effect of nitrous oxide at page 465 and its potential to be used for surgical operations at page 556. \n\nDespite Davy's discovery that inhalation of nitrous oxide could relieve a conscious person from pain, another 44 years elapsed before doctors attempted to use it for anaesthesia. The use of nitrous oxide as a recreational drug at \"laughing gas parties\", primarily arranged for the British upper class, became an immediate success beginning in 1799. While the effects of the gas generally make the user appear stuporous, dreamy and sedated, some people also \"get the giggles\" in a state of euphoria, and frequently erupt in laughter. \n\nAnaesthetic use\n\nThe first time nitrous oxide was used as an anaesthetic drug in the treatment of a patient was when dentist Horace Wells, with assistance by Gardner Quincy Colton and John Mankey Riggs, demonstrated insensitivity to pain from a dental extraction on 11 December 1844. In the following weeks, Wells treated the first 12–15 patients with nitrous oxide in Hartford, and according to his own record only failed in two cases. In spite of these convincing results being reported by Wells to the medical society in Boston already in December 1844, this new method was not immediately adopted by other dentists. The reason for this was most likely that Wells, in January 1845 at his first public demonstration to the medical faculty in Boston, had been partly unsuccessful, leaving his colleagues doubtful regarding its efficacy and safety. The method did not come into general use until 1863, when Gardner Quincy Colton successfully started to use it in all his \"Colton Dental Association\" clinics, that he had just established in New Haven and New York City. Over the following three years, Colton and his associates successfully administered nitrous oxide to more than 25,000 patients. Today, nitrous oxide is used in dentistry as an anxiolytic, as an adjunct to local anaesthetic.\n\nHowever, nitrous oxide was not found to be a strong enough anaesthetic for use in major surgery in hospital settings. Being a stronger and more potent anaesthetic, sulfuric ether was instead demonstrated and accepted for use in October 1846, along with chloroform in 1847. When Joseph Thomas Clover invented the \"gas-ether inhaler\" in 1876, it however became a common practice at hospitals to initiate all anaesthetic treatments with a mild flow of nitrous oxide, and then gradually increase the anaesthesia with the stronger ether/chloroform. Clover's gas-ether inhaler was designed to supply the patient with nitrous oxide and ether at the same time, with the exact mixture being controlled by the operator of the device. It remained in use by many hospitals until the 1930s. Although hospitals today are using a more advanced anaesthetic machine, these machines still use the same principle launched with Clover's gas-ether inhaler, to initiate the anaesthesia with nitrous oxide, before the administration of a more powerful anaesthetic.\n\nAs a patent medicine\n\nColton's popularization of nitrous oxide led to its adoption by a number of less than reputable quacksalvers, who touted it as a cure for consumption, scrofula, catarrh, and other diseases of the blood, throat, and lungs. Nitrous oxide treatment was administered and licensed as a patent medicine by the likes of C. L. Blood and Jerome Harris in Boston and Charles E. Barney of Chicago.\n\nLegality\n\nIn the United States, possession of nitrous oxide is legal under federal law and is not subject to DEA purview. It is, however, regulated by the Food and Drug Administration under the Food Drug and Cosmetics Act; prosecution is possible under its \"misbranding\" clauses, prohibiting the sale or distribution of nitrous oxide for the purpose of human consumption.\n\nMany states have laws regulating the possession, sale, and distribution of nitrous oxide. Such laws usually ban distribution to minors or limit the amount of nitrous oxide that may be sold without special license. For example, in the state of California, possession for recreational use is prohibited and qualifies as a misdemeanour. \n\nIn New Zealand, the Ministry of Health has warned that nitrous oxide is a prescription medicine, and its sale or possession without a prescription is an offence under the Medicines Act. This statement would seemingly prohibit all non-medicinal uses of the chemical, though it is implied that only recreational use will be legally targeted.\n\nIn India, for general anaesthesia purposes, nitrous oxide is available as Nitrous Oxide IP. India's gas cylinder rules (1985) permit the transfer of gas from one cylinder to another for breathing purposes. This law benefits remote hospitals, which would otherwise suffer as a result of India's geographic immensity. Nitrous Oxide IP is transferred from bulk cylinders ( capacity gas) to smaller pin-indexed valve cylinders ( of gas), which are then connected to the yoke assembly of Boyle's machines. Because India's Food & Drug Authority (FDA-India) rules state that transferring a drug from one container to another (refilling) is equivalent to manufacturing, anyone found doing so must possess a drug manufacturing license." ] }

{ "description": [ "What is laughing gas? ... Laughing gas is nitrous oxide, N 2 O (more properly called dinitrogen oxide). It is a colorless gas with a sweet odor and taste.", "Laughing gas definition ... Nitrous oxide gas is generally known by the name of “laughing gas,” from the jolly sensations ... laughing gas; laughing gull;", "Dental nitrous oxide or laughing gas is a safe and effective sedative agent that is mixed ... Nitrous oxide is a safe and effective sedative agent that is mixed ...", "Laughing gas (nitrous oxide) ... You will feel a bit light headed and often people get ‘the giggles’ (hence the name laughing gas!). As an interesting aside, ...", "Laughing gas: Nitrous oxide, a gas that can cause general anesthesia. Nitrous oxide is sometimes given in the company of other anesthetic agents but it is ...", "Laughing gas is party drug of choice for young people Potentially deadly “laughing gas” has become one of the most popular recreational drugs among ...", "Have you ever wondered how laughing gas works? ... What Is Laughing Gas? Laughing gas is the common name for nitrous oxide or N 2 O.", "Laughing Gas is a medicine available in a number of countries worldwide. ... ← International Drug Name Search. Important Notice: ..." ], "filename": [ "105/105_868018.txt", "5/5_192592.txt", "133/133_98155.txt", "86/86_98136.txt", "57/57_2592692.txt", "165/165_98125.txt", "157/157_2493456.txt", "16/16_2592694.txt" ], "rank": [ 0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9 ], "title": [ "What is laughing gas? - Frostburg State University", "Laughing gas | Define Laughing gas at Dictionary.com", "Dental Nitrous Oxide - Laughing Gas - American Dental ...", "Laughing Gas - Nitrous Oxide - Relative Analgesia ...", "Definition of Laughing gas - MedicineNet", "Laughing gas is the party drug of choice for young people ...", "How Laughing Gas or Nitrous Oxide Works - About.com Education", "Laughing Gas - Drugs.com" ], "url": [ "http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/inorganic/faq/laughing-gas.shtml", "http://www.dictionary.com/browse/laughing-gas", "http://www.mouthhealthy.org/en/az-topics/n/nitrous-oxide/", "http://www.dentalfearcentral.org/help/sedation-dentistry/laughing-gas/", "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=7794", "http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/crime/10202484/Laughing-gas-is-party-drug-of-choice-for-young-people.html", "http://chemistry.about.com/od/drugs/fl/How-Laughing-Gas-or-Nitrous-Oxide-Works.htm", "https://www.drugs.com/international/laughing-gas.html" ], "search_context": [ "General Chemistry Online: FAQ: Introduction to inorganic chemistry: What is laughing gas?\nIntroduction to inorganic chemistry\nNext Question\nWhat is laughing gas?\nLaughing gas is nitrous oxide, N2O (more properly called dinitrogen oxide). It is a colorless gas with a sweet odor and taste. Inhalation leads to disorientation, euphoria, numbness, loss of motor coordination, dizziness, and ultimately a loss of consciousness. The gas is used as an anaesthetic, as a propellant in whipped cream cans, and as an oxidizing agent in racing cars.\nWhat is the structure of nitrous oxide?\nLinear structure of N2O. Click on the picture for a 3D Chime model.\nFormal charge considerations suggest that the most important resonance structures are\nA third structure involving a triple bond between the nitrogen and oxygen is unlikely because that would result in high formal charges. These resonance structures can be used to explain experimental bond lengths. The nitrogen-nitrogen bond is 1.126 Angstroms long which is slightly longer than the triple bond length in N2 (1.098 Angstroms). The nitrogen-oxygen bond is 1.186 Angstroms long. This is longer than the typical N=O bond (about 1.14 Angstroms), which agrees with the prediction of partial single-bond character for the NO bond in N2O.\nThe molecule is not strongly polar, despite the large electronegativity difference between nitrogen and oxygen. The resonance structures again can be used to explain why: the negative formal charge is concentrated on the terminal nitrogen in the structure at left,. The oxygen bears a negative formal charge in the other structure. Each structure is polar, but the dipole moments point in opposite directions. The dipole moment is expected to be small due to cancellation of the contributions from both structures.\nThe low polarity of the gas makes it both fat and water soluble. This allows it to travel through the bloodstream and into the fatty membranes of nerve cells where it produces its characteristic effects. Nitrous oxide's fat solubility and low toxicity make it an ideal propellant for whipped cream. It dissolves easily in cream under pressure and bubbles out of solution when the pressure is released, creating a fine creamy foam.\nHow was nitrous oxide discovered?\nJoseph Priestley (the discover of oxygen, soda pop , and carbon dioxide) described the preparation of \"nitrous air diminished\" in his classic 1772 paper Observations on Different Kinds of Air. The gas he collected over mercury supported combustion, but did not itself burn. He described the bizarre enlarged double-cone of a candle flame in nitrous oxide with great excitement: \"I have now discovered an air five or six times as good as common air... nothing I ever did has surprised me more, or is more satisfactory.\" But Priestley seems to have overlooked the powerful psychoactive effects of breathing nitrous oxide.\nOver 20 years later, Humphry Davy wrote about the intoxicating effects of nitrous oxide , comparing them to the effects of alcohol. Breathing air after inhaling high concentrations of the gas sometimes lead to hysterical laughter. It also lead to a cessation of pain and \"laughing gas\" became the first artifical anaesthetic. It was in common use by surgeons in the late 19th century, and is still widely used in dentistry today.\nWhy is nitrous oxide used in rocket fuels and racing cars?\nNitrous oxide supports combustion better than air does. The N2O molecule dissociates at temperatures well below what is required for combustion, delivering an atom of oxygen and freeing molecular nitrogen:\nN2O(g)\nN2(g) + O(g)\nThe free oxygen atom quickly reacts with the fuel. A huge gain in horsepower results, since more fuel can be burned in less time.\nIf there is a large excess of nitrous oxide in the engine, the fuel will detonate. At the extremely high temperature produced by the explosion, oxygen atoms freed by decomposing N2O will attack the engine metal, severely damaging it.\nHow is nitrous oxide prepared?\nThe gas is present in trace amounts in Earth's atmosphere as a result of high temperature reactions between nitrogen and oxygen.\nIndustrially the gas is prepared by gently heating ammonium nitrate [ Archibald ]:\nNH4NO3(s)\n2 H2O(g) + N2O(g)\nThe preparation is dangerous because of N2O's tendency to explosively decompose into nitrogen and oxygen at high temperatures. (The World Trade Center and Oklahoma City bombings involved detonation of nitrous oxide produced by rapid high temperature decomposition.) N2O manufactured this way should NOT be inhaled, because it is contaminated with NO2 (a corrosive, irritating gas that can cause permanent lung and genetic damage!)\nIs breathing nitrous oxide dangerous?\nWhile anaesthetists mix nitrous oxide with oxygen, recreational users sometimes do not. Breathing gas rushing from a cylinder can quickly flush all air out of the lungs and cause suffocation.\nAnother hazard of nitrous oxide stems from the fact that it is NOT an ideal gas. N2O molecules attract each other. The attractions require energy to break, so the expansion absorbs heat and the temperature of the gas plummets. A rapid expansion of nitrous oxide can cool it enough to cause frostbite. People doing whippets have actually frozen their lips, tongues, or vocal cords- and under the anaesthetic influence of nitrous oxide, the damage is done before any pain is felt.\nNitrous oxide has also been linked to birth defects, nerve damage, and permanent organ damage.\nReferences and Links\nA Short History of Chemistry, J. R. Partington, Dover, New York, 1989.\nEngravings showing the apparatus Priestley used to isolate nitrous oxide can be found in Partington's book, along with much interesting biographical information.\nThe Preparation of Pure Inorganic Substances, E. H. Archibald, Wiley, New York, 1932.\nPreparation of nitrous oxide by thermal decomposition of ammonium nitrate.", "Laughing gas | Define Laughing gas at Dictionary.com\nlaughing gas\nExamples from the Web for laughing gas\nExpand\nGina Gershon’s Trip to Heaven in the Dentist’s Chair Gina Gershon October 22, 2012\nHistorical Examples\nHe experimented with nitrous oxide (laughing gas) for ten months until he had thoroughly learned its intoxicating effects.\nHistoric Inventions Rupert S. Holland\nOn one occasion a company of young men went to Dr. Long's office and asked him to make them a supply of \"laughing gas.\"\nStories Of Georgia Joel Chandler Harris\nThe oxide of nitrogen so formed is called nitrous oxide or laughing gas.\nThe most familiar example of this occurs at the beginning of the inhalation of laughing gas.\nPsychotherapy James J. Walsh\nHe is always as bad as you and I were for a short time, M'Nicholl, under the laughing gas!", "Dental Nitrous Oxide - Laughing Gas - American Dental Association\nEmail Print Share\nNitrous Oxide\nNitrous oxide is a safe and effective sedative agent that is mixed with oxygen and inhaled through a small mask that fits over your nose to help you relax.\nNitrous oxide, sometimes called “laughing gas,” is one option your dentist may offer to help make you more comfortable during certain procedures. It is not intended to put you to sleep. You will be able to hear and respond to any requests or directions the dentist may have. Your dentist will ask you to breathe normally through your nose, and within a few short minutes you should start to feel the effects of the nitrous oxide. You may feel light-headed or a tingling in your arms and legs. Some people say their arms and legs feel heavy. Ultimately, you should feel calm and comfortable. The effects of nitrous oxide wear off soon after the mask is removed.\nTalk to your dentist about whether nitrous oxide would be a good option for you.", "Laughing Gas - Nitrous Oxide - Relative Analgesia - Inhalation Sedation\nInhalation Sedation\n \nInhalation Sedation (Laughing Gas)\nInhalation sedation, laughing gas, relative analgesia, RA, happy gas, gas and air, nitrous, nitrous oxide, N2O-O2… this one has more names than any other sedation technique! And deservedly so. Inhalation sedation with nitrous oxide (N2O) and oxygen (O2) has been described as “representing the most nearly ‘ideal’ clinical sedative circumstance”…\nWhat is it? And what does it do?\nNitrous oxide (N2O) is simply a gas which you can breathe in. It has no color, smell, and doesn’t irritate. It was discovered in 1772. Humphrey Davy (1778-1829), one of the pioneers of N2O experimentation, described the effects of N2O on himself following self-administration for a toothache and gum infection as follows:\n“On the day when the inflammation was the most troublesome, I breathed three large doses of nitrous oxide. The pain always diminished after the first four or five inspirations; the thrilling came on as usual, and uneasiness was for a few minutes swallowed up in pleasure.”\nSounds like fun!! The extract above pretty much summarizes the effects of nitrous oxide: it kills pain – and it induces a pleasurable feeling. After 5 minutes or so of breathing in the gas, you should feel a euphoric feeling spread throughout your body. It really kind of feels like a ‘happy drunk’ feeling. Some people find that there are auditory or visual effects as well. You will feel a bit light headed and often people get ‘the giggles’ (hence the name laughing gas!). As an interesting aside, nitrous oxide was one of the drugs of choice for young people in the late 1700s and early 1800s, when laughing gas demonstrations were a popular source of entertainment and enjoyment.\nFirst-hand accounts of Relative Analgesia\n“I started feeling warm all over. The elevator-type music they had on was starting to all sound the same and I could have sworn that they were looping the same song over and over and over. I remember somewhat the dentist coming in and telling me that this is going to be a “Three Martini Cleaning” and asked me if I preferred Strawberry Daiquiri or Pina Colada. The taste of Pina Colada filled my gums and then I saw the needle with the local anesthesia for a second, but he must have decided not to use it because I seriously didn’t feel anything. I was already under a nice level buzz from the N20 and I could feel myself relaxing into the chair — the drugs were finally kicking in. The Pina Colada taste in my mouth made me start thinking of previous Caribbean vacations…”\n“I’m still smelling cherry flavor :-).You start with O2 of course and a few minutes later he asked how i was doing and basically nothing happened so he had to increase it a couple of times and finally I started to relax a bit. No real loopiness but just a sense of yeah I can get thru this. The biggest sensation was my legs felt kinda heavy as if to say maybe I want to stay here a while. Thinking like that I knew the gas was definitely working!! I WANTED TO STAY AT THE DENTIST!!!! Can you believe this.”\nHow does nitrous oxide work?\nToday, we know that nitrous oxide (N2O) on its own can only safely be used for short periods of time (because the lack of oxygen in pure N2O can lead to unconsciousness and even death) – but that it’s safe to use for longer periods of time if you mix it with oxygen (O2). Hence, the “laughing gas” used now is called N2O-O2, and contains at least 30% oxygen (that’s all the machines used nowadays will permit). Usually, the mix is about 70% oxygen to 30% nitrous oxide.\nIn medicine, sometimes a mix of 50% oxygen to 50% nitrous oxide is used. This is known as entonox or, more commonly, “gas and air”.\nDepending on the concentration and length of administration of laughing gas, four levels of sedation can be experienced (after an initial feeling of light-headedness):\na tingling sensation, especially in the arms and legs, or a feeling of vibration (“parasthesia”), quickly followed by\nwarm sensations, and\na feeling of well-being, euphoria and/or floating. During heavier sedation, hearing may dissolve into a constant, electronic-like throbbing.\nAt a deeper level of sedation again, sleepiness, difficulty to keep one’s eyes open or speak (“dream”) can occur. Should nausea set in, it means you’re definitely oversedated!\nIf you experience any unpleasant symptoms, let your dentist know so that they can adjust the percentage of N2O. Alternatively, just take the mask off.\nDuring relative analgesia, you should stay within the first three stages. The “dream” stage means that the N2O concentration is too high, or that the gas has been administered for too long. This stage can be associated with side effects such as nausea and other potentially unpleasant sensations, including flashbacks. N2O concentration should always be gradually increased (“titrated”) at each visit, because people’s tolerance can vary from day to day. If you’ve had bad experiences with laughing gas in the past, it is highly likely that these were due to improper administration and too high a concentration of N2O.\nInterestingly, the actual mechanism of action of N2O is still unknown (it appears that there are quite a few different mechanisms at work)! However, it’s been observed that N2O depresses almost all forms of sensation – especially hearing, touch and pain, and that it seems to disinhibit some emotional centers in the brain. The ability to concentrate or perform intelligent acts is only minimally affected, as is memory.\nHow is nitrous oxide administered?\nThe equipment used for delivering “happy gas” is quite simple. It consists of a supply of compressed gases and an apparatus which delivers the gases to the client. By turning some knobs and flipping on/off switches, the administrator can produce the desired mix of N2O-O2 in the desired quantities. Flowmeters and pressure gauges allow the administrator to keep an eye on the flow of gases.\nThe desired N2O-O2 mix is fed through a tube to which a nasal hood or cannula is attached. This hood is put over your nose. All you have to do now is breathe normally through your nose – bingo!\nIn modern machines there is a sort of double mask (see photo) where the outside mask is connected to a vacuum machine to suck away the waste gas – you wouldn’t want your dentist to get a face full of N2O… The white inside mask, which is placed over your nose, comes in lots of yummy scents – such as vanilla, strawberry, and mint! The one pictured to the left is scented with vanilla (that’s the one I’d go for), but Gordon likes the minty one best…\nThe twin tubes running to the mask are for “gas in” and “gas out”. The “gas out” line is attached to the vacuum machine, while the “gas in” line is attached to the RA (short for relative analgesia) machine. The inner mask is attached to the “line in”, you breathe out through a one-way valve in the inner mask, and the exhaust gas is collected inside the outer grey mask (pictured to your right) and sucked into the vacuum machine.\nWhat are the advantages of nitrous oxide?\nNitrous oxide works very rapidly – it reaches the brain within 20 seconds, and relaxation and pain-killing properties develop after 2 or 3 minutes.\nThe depth of sedation can be altered from moment to moment, allowing the person who administers the gas to increase or decrease the depth of sedation. Other sedation techniques don’t allow for this. For example, with IV sedation, it’s easy to deepen the level of sedation, but difficult to lessen it. Whereas with laughing gas, the effects are almost instant.\nOther sedation techniques have a fixed duration of action (because the effects of pills or intravenous drugs last for a specific time span), whereas gas can be given for the exact time span it’s needed for. It can also be switched off when not needed and then switched on again (though to avoid a roller-coaster effect, you shouldn’t do this too abruptly).\nThere’s no “hangover” effect – the gas is eliminated from the body within 3 to 5 minutes after the gas supply is stopped. You can safely drive home and don’t need an escort.\nWith nitrous oxide, it’s easy to give incremental doses until the desired action is obtained (this is called “titration”). So the administrator has virtually absolute control over the action of the drug, preventing the possibility of accidental overdoses. While giving incremental doses is possible with IV sedation, it’s not possible with oral sedation (as a result, oral sedation can be a bit of a hit-and-miss affair).\nFor certain procedures – those involving gums rather than teeth (e. g. deep cleaning) – it may be possible to use nitrous instead of local anaesthesia. N2O acts as a painkiller on soft tissues such as gums. However, its pain-relieving effects vary a lot from person to person and can’t be relied upon.\nNo injection is required. In cases of very severe needle phobia, getting laughing gas first can help you feel relaxed enough to allow the needle required for IV sedation to be inserted in your arm or hand. The very deep state of sedation achievable through IV sedation will then allow you to accept local anaesthetic.\nInhalation sedation is very safe. It has very few side effects and the drugs used have no ill effects on the heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, or brain.\nInhalation sedation has been found to be very effective in eliminating or at least minimizing severe gagging.\nAre there any disadvantages?\nSome people are not comfortable with the effects of laughing gas (either because they’re afraid they might lose control or because it makes them feel nauseous – this is quite rare, though, and usually due to oversedation). If you’re prone to nausea, it’s a good idea to have a meal (not a huge one) about 4 hours before your appointment. If that’s not possible (e. g. an early morning appointment), make sure your stomach isn’t completely empty – but don’t stuff yourself straight beforehand either. According to Gordon, who’s a bit of an expert in the field, the normal working concentration of gases is about 70% oxygen to 30% nitrous oxide: “It’s rare to go beyond that because that’s what brings on the nausea, more than 45% N2O and you’re going to have the patient puke on you :grin:”.\nSome people will not achieve adequate sedation with permissible levels of oxygen.\nIf you can’t breathe through your nose (either because you’re a pure mouth breather, or because your nose is blocked), or you feel too claustrophobic when something is put over your nose, it can’t be used.\nDepending on where you live, a dentist who offers nitrous oxide may be hard to come by.\nApart from that, most of the disadvantages of inhalation sedation don’t affect you, but the dental team: there’s training required, the equipment is quite bulky and takes up a lot of space, and there is a possibility that dental staff who are chronically exposed to nitrous oxide might develop health problems. The cost of the equipment and gases is high, so you’ll have to contribute to the cost – but it’s quite a bit cheaper than IV sedation.\nWhat about bad experiences with laughing gas?\nOn rare occasions, people have reported a bad experience with nitrous oxide. Usually this is due to oversedation – getting too much N2O in the mix. This is easily reversible by reducing the amount of N2O. For example, a few people have reported auditory and “physical” hallucinations, dizziness, or vertigo.\nDon’t panic if you should experience this. While these symptoms are usually due to the N2O concentration being too high for you, the machines used nowadays have built-in safety features preventing an accidental overdose. Nonetheless, these sensations can be unpleasant – let your dentist know asap about any unpleasant sensations or symptoms so that they can adjust the percentage of N2O. Laughing, becoming giddy, crying, or uncoordinated movements are other signs that the NO2 concentration is too high, but these will easily be spotted by your dentist. Alternatively, just rip the mask off your nose! Don’t confuse “dizziness” with the normal feeling of lightheadedness which many people who’ve never had N2O before experience after maybe 60 or 90 seconds. The feeling of lightheadedness will pass as the concentration of N2O is increased.\nSome experts in this field (e. g. Stanley Malamed) argue that nitrous oxide should always be “titrated”. This means gradually increasing the percentage of nitrous oxide in the N2O – O2 mix until a comfortable level is reached. The reason why titration should ideally be used every single time is because of potential adverse effects in the event of oversedation (including flashbacks of traumatic past events, as well as physical ill-effects).\nHowever, other experts (e.g. Fred Quarnstrom) say that it’s ok to use a mix based on prior experience (a concentration which a particular patient has experienced as pleasant during previous appointments). Quite a lot of dentists do this because it’s quicker.\nThe problem with this approach is that tolerance can vary from visit to visit, depending on both psychological and physiological factors. What is experienced as pleasant varies from person to person and from day to day. And once a person has been oversedated, they may come to dislike nitrous oxide so much that they don’t want to try it again.\nAre there any contraindications?\nThere aren’t any major contraindications to relative analgesia, except for M.S., emphysema and some exotic chest problems. It hasn’t been proven to be safe during the first trimester of pregnancy, so you can’t use it then.\nBecause you have to breathe it in through your nose, it’s not suitable for people who have a cold or some other condition which prevents them from breathing through their nose.\nYou can’t be allergic to N2O. It’s also safe to use if you suffer from epilepsy, liver disease, heart disease, diabetes, or cerebrovascular disease. It is also used quite successfully in many people with respiratory disease – but it depends on the exact nature of the disease, so check with your dentist!\nHow do I know if it’s for me?\nWhy not ask if you can have a 5 minute ‘sample’ so that you know what to expect on the day of your procedure?\nMany thanks to Gordon Laurie BDS for his advice and help while writing this page – and for the photos.", "Definition of Laughing gas\nDefinition of Laughing gas\nWeight Gain Shockers Slideshow Pictures\nLaughing gas: Nitrous oxide , a gas that can cause general anesthesia . Nitrous oxide is sometimes given in the company of other anesthetic agents but it is never used today as the only anesthetic agent because the concentration of nitrous oxide needed to produce anesthesia is close to the concentration that seriously lowers the blood oxygen level and creates a hazardous state of hypoxia .\nNitrous oxide figured in the history of anesthesiology . In 1840 a dentist named Horace Wells had the idea that, with the recently discovered \"exhilarating or laughing gas\", teeth might be extracted without pain. Under its influence he had one of his own teeth pulled in 1844 and afterwards frequently used nitrous oxide in his practice. At the Massachusetts General Hospital, Wells gave a demonstration with a patient. Things did not go too well. The patient suffered great pain. Wells became depressed, addicted (to chloroform , another anesthetic agent) and in 1848 committed suicide.\nLast Editorial Review: 5/13/2016", "Laughing gas is party drug of choice for young people - Telegraph\nCrime\nLaughing gas is party drug of choice for young people\nPotentially deadly “laughing gas” has become one of the most popular recreational drugs among teenagers and young adults, official government figures have revealed.\nNitrous oxide - often inhaled from party balloons - has potentially fatal side-effects Photo: Christopher Pledger\nBy David Barrett , Home Affairs Correspondent\n3:45PM BST 25 Jul 2013\nComments\nHuge numbers of young people are inhaling nitrous oxide - better known as laughing gas - as a party drug to experience the hallucinations and feelings of euphoria which it can generate.\nHome Office statistics showed more than 350,000 people aged 16 to 24 admitted using the gas in the last year, making it the second most popular drug among the age group after cannabis.\nTraditionally associated with the dentist’s chair and the labour ward, canisters of the gas intended for legitimate commercial use are being obtained by young people who then inhale or sniff the gas, usually from party balloons.\nThe drug has become popular at music festivals, with its effects likened to those of hard drugs such as heroin and crack cocaine.\nIt is the first time the government’s official drug survey has gathered data on its growing prevalance along young Britons.\nRelated Articles\nGoogle under pressure to stop illegal drug ads\n03 Jul 2013\nCanisters providing several doses can be bought for as little as £2. Also known as “hippy crack” and “sweet air”, nitrous oxide can lead to strokes, seizures and even death.\nThe Home Office’s 2012-13 drug misuse findings revealed 6.1 per cent of those aged 16 to 24 had taken the drug in the last year, while in the wider 16 to 59 age group the figure was 2 per cent.\nLast August Joe Benett, a 17 year-old public schoolboy, suffered a heart attack and brain damage after taking what he thought was laughing gas while at a party with friends. Joe, from Golders Green, north London, died after being in a coma for a month.\nIt was later established that the canister from which he inhaled had been mis-labelled and it contained other gases, including butane.\nThere have been documented deaths involving recreational use of nitrous oxide in other countries.\nIn another new trend, the Home Office figures revealed 2 per cent of 16 to 24 year-olds admitted using salvia, a legal herbal high that can produce hallucinations.\nUse of mephedrone - which was banned by the government in 2010 declined from 1.1 per cent of all adults in 2011-12, to 0.5 per cent in 2012-13.\nOverall drug use continued to decline, with 8.2 per cent of adults admitting taking illicit drugs in the last year, down from 8.9 per cent in the previous 12 months.\nA Home Office spokesman said: \"Nitrous oxide is a legal substance which has a number of legitimate medical and industrial uses but any suggestion of abuse, particularly by young people, is of concern.\n“Home Office minister Jeremy Browne wrote to summer festival organisers earlier this year highlighting the government’s concerns about the availability of nitrous oxide and asking that they take steps to prevent its sale at events.”", "How Laughing Gas or Nitrous Oxide Works\nHow Laughing Gas or Nitrous Oxide Works\nHow Laughing Gas or Nitrous Oxide Works\nWhat Laughing Gas Does in the Body\nLaughing gas reduces pain and anxiety by binding to a host of receptors in the brain.  Andersen Ross, Getty Images\nBy Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D.\nUpdated August 25, 2015.\nLaughing gas or nitrous oxide is used in the dentist's office to reduce patient anxiety and relieve pain. It's also a common recreational drug. Have you ever wondered how laughing gas works? Here's a look at how laughing gas reacts in the body and whether it's safe or not.\nWhat Is Laughing Gas?\nLaughing gas is the common name for nitrous oxide or N2O. It is also known as nitrous, nitro, or NOS. It's a nonflammable, colorless gas that has a slightly sweet flavor and odor. In addition to its use in rockets and to boost engine performance for motor racing, laughing gas has several medical applications. It has been used in dentistry and surgery as an analgesic and anesthetic since 1844, when dentist Dr. Horace Wells used it on himself during a tooth extraction. Since that time, its used has become commonplace in medicine, plus the euphoric effect from inhaling the gas has led to use as a recreation drug.\nHow Laughing Gas Works\nAlthough the gas has been used for a long time, the exact mechanism of its action in the body is incompletely understood, in part because the various effects depend upon different reactions.\ncontinue reading below our video\n10 Facts About the Titanic That You Don't Know\nIn general, nitrous oxide moderates several ligand -gated ion channels. Specifically, the mechanisms for the effects are:\nAnxiolytic or Anti-Anxiety Effect\nStudies indicate the anti-anxiety effect from inhalation of laughing gas derives from increased activity of GABAA receptors. The GABAA receptor acts as the central nervous system's principal inhibitory neurotransmitter\nPainkiller or Analgesic Effect\nLaughing gas reduces the perception of pain by facilitating an interaction between the descending noradrenergic system and the endogenous opioid system. Nitrous oxide causes the release of endogenous opioids, but how this happens is unknown.\nEuphoria Effect\nNitrous produces euphoria by causing dopamine to be released, which stimulates the mesolimbic reward pathway in the brain. This contributes to the analgesic effect, too.\n \nIs Nitrous Oxide Safe?\nWhen you get laughing gas at the dentist's or doctor's office, it's very safe. A mask is used to first administer pure oxygen and then a mixture of oxygen and laughing gas. The effects on vision, hearing, manual dexterity, and mental performance are temporary. Nitrous oxide has both neurotoxic and neuroprotective effects, but limited exposure to the chemical tends not to cause a permanent effect, one way or the other.\nThe primary risks from laughing gas is from inhaling a compressed gas directly from its canister, which could cause severe lung damage or death. Without supplemental oxygen, inhaling nitrous oxide can cause hypoxia or oxygen deprivation effects, including lightheadedness, fainting, low blood pressure, and potentially a heart attack. These risks are comparable to those of inhaling helium gas .\nProlonged or repeated exposure to laughing gas can lead to a vitamin B12 deficiency, reproductive problems in pregnant women, and numbness. Because very little nitrous oxide is absorbed by the body, a person inhaling laughing gas breathes out most of it. This can lead to risks to medical personnel who routinely use the gas in their practice.", "Laughing Gas - Drugs.com\nLaughing Gas\nLaughing Gas may be available in the countries listed below.\nIngredient matches for Laughing Gas\nNitrous Oxide is reported as an ingredient of Laughing Gas in the following countries:\nJapan\n← International Drug Name Search\nImportant Notice: The Drugs.com international database is in BETA release. This means it is still under development and may contain inaccuracies. It is not intended as a substitute for the expertise and judgement of your physician, pharmacist or other healthcare professional. It should not be construed to indicate that the use of any medication in any country is safe, appropriate or effective for you. Consult with your healthcare professional before taking any medication.\nFDA Consumer Updates" ] }

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