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Chang'e 1 24 Oct 2007 Long March 3A 7 Nov 2007 1 Mar 2009 - Lunar orbiter; first Chinese lunar mission. Success -
Chang'e 2 1 Oct 2010 Long March 3C 6 Oct 2010 - - Lunar orbiter; following lunar orbit mission flew extended mission to 4179 Toutatis. Success Success
Phase 2
Chang'e 3 1 Dec 2013 Long March 3B 6 Dec 2013 14 Dec 2013 - Lunar lander and rover; first Chinese lunar landing, landed in Mare Imbrium with Yutu 1. Success Ongoing
Queqiao 1 20 May 2018 Long March 4C 14 Jun 2018 - - Relay satellite located at the Earth-Moon L2 point in order to allow communications with Chang'e 4. Success Ongoing
Chang'e 4 7 Dec 2018 Long March 3B 12 Dec 2018 3 Jan 2019 - Lunar lander and rover; first soft landing on the Far side of the Moon, landed in Von Karman crater with Yutu-2. Success Ongoing
Phase 3
Chang'e 5-T1 23 Oct 2014 Long March 3C 10 Jan 2015 - 31 Oct 2014 Experimental test flight testing technologies ahead of first Lunar sample return; tested return capsule and lunar orbit autonomous rendezvous techniques and other maneuvers. Success Success
Chang'e 5 23 Nov 2020 Long March 5 28 Nov 2020 1 Dec 2020 16 Dec 2020 Lunar orbiter, lander, and sample return; which landed near Mons Rümker and returned 1731g of lunar soil to Earth. The service module made a visit to Lagrange point L1 and also performed a lunar flyby in extended mission. [31] Success Ongoing
Phase 4
Queqiao 2 20 Mar 2024 Long March 8 24 Mar 2024 - - Lunar Relay satellite to support communications for the upcoming lunar missions. [16] Success Ongoing
Chang'e 6 3 May 2024 Long March 5 8 May 2024 1 Jun 2024[32] 25 June 2024 (planned) Lunar orbiter, lander, rover, and sample return; landed at the South Pole–Aitken basin on the far side of the Moon. [17] Ongoing —
Upcoming missions
Mission Launch Date Launch Vehicle Mission Type Notes
Phase 4
Chang'e 7 2026 Long March 5 Lunar surface survey Lunar orbiter, lander, rover, and mini-flying probe; expected to perform in-depth exploration of the lunar south pole to look for resources. [22]
Chang'e 8 2028 Long March 5 Lunar surface survey Full mission details are currently unknown; will test ISRU and 3D-printing technologies, ahead of future crewed exploration of the Moon. [22]
1st crewed lunar mission 2029-2030 Long March 10 Human landing on lunar surface 2 launches using the Long March 10 to place two astronauts on the lunar surface via the Mengzhou crewed lunar spacecraft and the Lanyue crewed lunar lander. [1]
Key technologies
Long-range TT&C
The biggest challenge in Phase I of the program was the operation of the TT&C system, because its transmission capability needed sufficient range to communicate with the probes in lunar orbit. [33] China's standard satellite telemetry had a range of 80,000 kilometers (50,000 miles), but the distance between the Moon and the Earth can exceed 400,000 kilometers (250,000 miles) when the Moon is at apogee. In addition, the Chang'e probes had to carry out many attitude maneuvers during their flights to the Moon and during operations in lunar orbit. The distance across China from east to west is 5,000 kilometers (3,100 miles),[34] forming another challenge to TT&C continuity. At present, the combination of the TT&C system and the Chinese astronomical observation network has met the needs of the Chang'e program,[35] but only by a small margin.
Environmental adaptability
The complexity of the space environment encountered during the Chang'e missions imposed strict requirements for environmental adaptability and reliability of the probes and their instruments. The high-radiation environment in Earth-Moon space required hardened electronics to prevent electromagnetic damage to spacecraft instruments. The extreme temperature range, from 130 degrees Celsius (266 degrees Fahrenheit) on the side of the spacecraft facing the Sun to −170 degrees Celsius (−274 degrees Fahrenheit) on the side facing away from the Sun, imposed strict requirements for temperature control in the design of the detectors.
Orbit design and flight sequence control
Given the conditions of the three-body system of the Earth, Moon and a space probe, the orbit design of lunar orbiters is more complicated than that of Earth-orbiting satellites, which only deal with a two-body system. The Chang'e 1 and Chang'e 2 probes were first sent into highly elliptical Earth orbits. After separating from their launch vehicles, they entered an Earth-Moon transfer orbit through three accelerations in the phase-modulated orbit. These accelerations were conducted 16, 24, and 48 hours into the missions, during which several orbit adjustments and attitude maneuvers were carried out so as to ensure the probes' capture by lunar gravity. After operating in the Earth-Moon orbit for 4–5 days, each probe entered a lunar acquisition orbit. After entering their target orbits, conducting three braking maneuvers and experiencing three different orbit phases, Chang'e 1 and Chang'e 2 carried out their missions.
Attitude control
Lunar orbiters have to remain properly oriented with respect to the Earth, Moon and Sun. All onboard detectors must be kept facing the lunar surface in order to complete their scientific missions, communication antennas have to face the Earth in order to receive commands and transfer scientific data, and solar panels must be oriented toward the Sun in order to acquire power. During lunar orbit, the Earth, the Moon and the Sun also move, so attitude control is a complex three-vector control process. The Chang'e satellites need to adjust their attitude very carefully to maintain an optimal angle towards all three bodies.
Hazard avoidance
During the second phase of the program, in which the spacecraft were required to soft-land on the lunar surface, it was necessary to devise a system of automatic hazard avoidance in order that the landers would not attempt to touch down on unsuitable terrain. Chang'e 3 utilized a computer vision system in which the data from a down-facing camera, as well as 2 ranging devices, were processed using specialized software. The software controlled the final stages of descent, adjusting the attitude of the spacecraft and the throttle of its main engine. The spacecraft hovered first at 100 meters (330 feet), then at 30 meters (98 feet), as it searched for a suitable spot to set down. The Yutu rover is also equipped with front-facing stereo cameras and hazard avoidance technology.
International cooperation
Chang’e 1: The first Chinese lunar orbiter, launched in 2007. It carried a European Space Agency (ESA) instrument called D-CIXS, which measured the elemental composition of the lunar surface. It also received tracking and data relay support from ESA’s ground stations in Australia and Spain.
Chang’e 2: The second Chinese lunar orbiter, launched in 2010. It carried a laser altimeter provided by the German Aerospace Center (DLR), which mapped the lunar topography with high precision. It also used ESA’s deep space network for communication and navigation during its extended mission to the asteroid 4179 Toutatis.
Chang’e 3: The first Chinese lunar lander and rover, launched in 2013. It carried a lunar ultraviolet telescope (LUT) developed by the National Astronomical Observatories of China (NAOC) and the International Lunar Observatory Association (ILOA), which performed the first astronomical observations from the lunar surface. It also received data relay support from NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) for the landing of the Chang’e 3 probe.
Chang’e-4: The first mission to land and explore the far side of the Moon, with four international scientific payloads from the Netherlands, Germany, Sweden, and Saudi Arabia. It also received support from NASA’s LRO team, Russia’s radioisotope heat source, China’s deep space station in Argentina, and the European Space Agency’s tracking station.
Chang’e-5: The first mission to return lunar samples since 1976, with international cooperation in telemetry, tracking, and command from the European Space Agency, Argentina, Namibia, Pakistan, and other countries and organizations. It also carried a French magnetic field detector. Scientists from various countries, including Australia, Russia, France, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Sweden, have participated in scientific research involving Chinese lunar samples.
Cooperation with Russia
In November 2017, China and Russia signed an agreement on cooperative lunar and deep space exploration. [36] The agreement includes six sectors, covering lunar and deep space, joint spacecraft development, space electronics, Earth remote sensing data, and space debris monitoring. [36][37][38] Russia may also look to develop closer ties with China in human spaceflight,[36] and even shift its human spaceflight cooperation from the US to China and build a crewed lunar lander. [39]
Gallery
• Chang'e 4 lander on the Moon | 23167 | 1 |
• Yutu-2 rover on lunar surface
See also
• Chandrayaan Program
• Chinese space program
• Planetary Exploration of China
• Tianwen-1 - 2020 Mars mission
• Exploration of the Moon
• List of missions to the Moon
• Artemis program
References
1. Andrew Jones (17 July 2023). "China sets out preliminary crewed lunar landing plan". spacenews.com. Retrieved 24 July 2023.
2. ""嫦娥奔月"地面主干工程基本完成 云南天文台巨型射电追踪望远镜年底投入使用". Archived from the original on 27 October 2007.
3. "巨型望远镜送"嫦娥"飞月-望远镜,嫦娥-北方网-科技无限". Archived from the original on 24 October 2017. Retrieved 9 March 2007.
4. "China to build moon station in 'about 10 years'". phys.org.
5. "嫦娥工程总指挥兼总设计师叶培建" [Chang'e Project Commander and Chief Designer Ye Peijian]. Sohu. 22 October 2007. Retrieved 7 June 2017.
6. Chang'e 4 press conference. CNSA, broadcast on 14 January 2019.
7. ""嫦娥一号"发射时间确定 但未到公布时机". Xinhua News Agency. 7 July 2007. Archived from the original on 7 February 2012. Retrieved 12 July 2007.
8. "阅读文章". Archived from the original on 5 March 2016.
9. Austin Ramzy (16 December 2013). "China Celebrates Lunar Probe and Announces Return Plans". The New York Times. Retrieved 16 December 2013.
10. Rivers, Matt; Regan, Helen; Jiang, Steven (3 January 2019). "China lunar rover successfully touches down on far side of the moon, state media announces". CNN. Retrieved 3 January 2019.
11. "China recovers Chang'e-5 moon samples after complex 23-day mission". SpaceNews. 16 December 2020. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
12. CNSA. "China's Chang'e-5 retrieves 1,731 kilograms of moon samples". Archived from the original on 4 January 2021.
13. China's Planning for Deep Space Exploration and Lunar Exploration before 2030. (PDF) XU Lin, ZOU Yongliao, JIA Yingzhuo. Space Sci., 2018, 38(5): 591-592. doi:10.11728/cjss2018.05.591
14. A Tentative Plan of China to Establish a Lunar Research Station in the Next Ten Years. Zou, Yongliao; Xu, Lin; Jia, Yingzhuo. 42nd COSPAR Scientific Assembly. Held 14–22 July 2018, in Pasadena, California, USA, Abstract id. B3.1-34-18.
15. "China to advance lunar exploration program". Xinhua. 6 February 2023. Retrieved 7 February 2023.
16. China N' Asia Spaceflight [@CNSpaceflight] (24 November 2022). "Update:
2024 Queqiao-2 data relay
2025 Chang'e-6 lunar sample return from far side
2026 Chang'e-7 lunar landing in south pole
2028 Chang'e-8 basic model of lunar research station" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
17. Jones, Andrew (8 July 2021). "China's Chang'e 6 mission will collect lunar samples from the far side of the moon by 2024". Space.com. Retrieved 9 July 2021.
18. "大陸「嫦娥六號」明年5月發射 擬帶回月球背面岩石採樣" (in Traditional Chinese). 聯合報. 25 April 2023. Retrieved 25 April 2023.
19. "Lunar plans for phase IV". Archived from the original on 15 April 2019. Retrieved 13 January 2019.
20. Lunar program next plan
21. Jones, Andrew (6 May 2024). "China's Chang'e-6 is carrying a surprise rover to the moon". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
22. Jones, Andrew (28 November 2022). "China outlines pathway for lunar and deep space exploration". SpaceNews. Retrieved 29 November 2022.
23. Future Chinese Lunar Missions. David R. Williams, NASA. Accessed on 7 November 2019.
24. China lays out its ambitions to colonize the moon and build a "lunar palace". Echo Huang, Quartz. 26 April 2018.
25. China prepares first manned mission to the Moon. Ben Blanchard, Independent. 7 June 2017.
26. Jones, Andrew (29 May 2023). "China sets sights on crewed lunar landing before 2030". SpaceNews. Retrieved 28 October 2023.
27. Zhao, Lei (24 February 2024). "Chinese lunar lander and new crew spaceship names revealed". China Daily. Retrieved 4 March 2024.
28. "China, Russia open moon base project to international partners, early details emerge". 26 April 2021.
29. "Lunar Research Station: Russia, China Almost Ready To Ink Pact On 'Moon Base' That Will Rival Artemis Accords - Rogozin". Latest Asian, Middle-East, EurAsian, Indian News. 1 June 2022.
30. @CNSpaceflight (25 April 2023). "CNSA announces to establish International Lunar Research Station Cooperation Organization and founding member states to sign agreement by June" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
31. "China's Chang'e-5 orbiter is heading back to the moon". SpaceNews. 6 September 2021. Retrieved 8 September 2021.
32. Jones, Andrew (1 June 2024). "Chang'e-6 lands on far side of the moon to collect unique lunar samples". SpaceNews. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
33. Shen, Rongjun; Qian, Weiping (29 September 2012). Proceedings of the 26th Conference of Spacecraft TT&C Technology in China. Springer. ISBN 9783642336621.
34. "China's Location, Size, Land Boundaries, Length of Coastline, and Maritime Claims".
35. "China Builds Advanced Spacecraft Tracking and Command Network". www.spacedaily.com.
36. China, Russia agree cooperation on lunar and deep space exploration, other sectors. Archived 27 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine GB Times. 2 November 2017.
37. Russia, China to add lunar projects to joint space cooperation program. TASS, Russia. 11 July 2018.
38. China, Russia agree cooperation on lunar and deep space. Janet R. Aguilar, Tunisie Soir. 3 March 2018.
39. Russia's Space Agency Might Break Up With the U.S. To Get With China. Anatoly Zak, Popular Mechanics. 7 March 2018.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chinese Lunar Exploration Program.
• CLEP official website
• Data Release and Information Service System of China's Lunar Exploration Program Archived 10 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine
• "China's Lunar Exploration Program - English". The People's Daily online. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 21 January 2021.
• Encyclopedia Astronautica
• The Scientific Objectives of Chinese Lunar Exploration Project by Ouyang Ziyuan
• 我国发射首颗探月卫星专题
• 嫦娥探月专题 Archived 26 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine
• Sūn Huīxiān (孙辉先); Dài Shùwǔ (代树武); Yáng Jiànfēng (杨建峰); Wú Jì (吴季); Jiāng Jǐngshān (姜景山) (2005). "Scientific objectives and payloads of Chang'E-1 lunar satellite" (PDF). Journal of Earth System Science. 114 (6): 789–794. Bibcode:2005JESS..114..789H. doi:10.1007/BF02715964. S2CID 128428662.
Chinese Lunar Exploration Program
• China National Space Administration
• Chinese space program
Missions | 23167 | 2 |
• Chang'e 1 (Oct 2007)
• Chang'e 2 (Oct 2010)
• Chang'e 3 (Dec 2013)
• Yutu rover
• Chang'e 5-T1 (Oct 2014)
• Queqiao (relay satellite, May 2018)
• Chang'e 4 (Dec 2018)
• Yutu-2 rover
• Chang'e 5 (Nov 2020)
• Queqiao 2 (relay satellite, Mar 2024)
• Tiandu 1 and 2
• Chang'e 6 (May 2024)
• Chang'e 7 (2026)
• Chang'e 8 (2028)
Launch vehicles
• Long March 3A
• Long March 3B
• Long March 3C
• Long March 5
• Long March 8
Facilities
• Xichang Satellite Launch Center
• Wenchang Spacecraft Launch Site
People
• Zhang Qingwei
• Ouyang Ziyuan
• Ma Xingrui
• Ye Peijian
• Category
• Commons
Chinese space program
• China National Space Administration (CNSA)
• China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation
• China Manned Space Agency
• People's Liberation Army Astronaut Corps
Spaceports and landing sites
• Jiuquan
• Taiyuan
• Wenchang
• Xichang
• Siziwang Banner (landing site)
Launch vehicles
• Long March 1
• Long March 2
• Long March 3
• Long March 3A
• Long March 3B
• Long March 3C
• Long March 4
• Long March 4A
• Long March 4B
• Long March 4C
• Long March 5
• Long March 6
• Long March 7
• Long March 8
• Long March 9 (In development)
• Long March 10 (In development)
• Long March 11
• Long March 12
• Kuaizhou
• Kaituozhe
Exploration programs
• Shuguang (cancelled)
• CMS (human spaceflight)
• Chang'e (lunar exploration)
• Tiangong (space station)
• Tianwen (interplanetary exploration)
Projects and missions
Science
Planetary science
• Chang'e 1 (2007–09)
• Chang'e 2 (2010–present)
• Yinghuo 1† (2011)
• Chang'e 3 (2013–present)
• Chang'e 5-T1 (2014–present)
• Yutu rover (2013–2016)
• Chang'e 4 (2018–present)
• Yutu-2 rover (2018–present)
• Tianwen-1 (2020–present)
• Chang'e 5 (2020–present)
• Zhurong rover (2021–present)
• Interstellar Express (2024)
• Chang'e 6 (2025)
• Tianwen-2 (2025)
• Chang'e 7 (2026)
• Tianwen-3 (2028)
• Tianwen-4 (2029)
Astronomy and
cosmology
• DAMPE (2015–present)
• HXMT (2017–present)
• GECAM (2020–present)
• CHASE (2021–present)
• ASO-S (2022–present)
• Einstein Probe (2023)
• SVOM (2024)
• Xuntian (2024)
• Space Solar Telescope
Earth observation
• CSES (2018–present)
• Double Star (2003–07)
• Gaofen Series (2013–present)
• Haiyang Series (2002–present)
• TanSat (2016–present)
• Yaogan Series (2006–present)
• Ziyuan Series (CBERS) (1999–present)
• SMILE (2025)
Human
spaceflight
Uncrewed expeditions
• Shenzhou 1
• Shenzhou 2
• Shenzhou 3
• Shenzhou 4
• Shenzhou 8
Crewed expeditions
• Shenzhou 5
• Shenzhou 6
• Shenzhou 7
• Shenzhou 9
• Shenzhou 10
• Shenzhou 11
• Shenzhou 12
• Shenzhou 13
• Shenzhou 14
• Shenzhou 15
• Shenzhou 16
• (List of Chinese astronauts)
Space laboratories and cargos
• Tiangong 1 (2011–2018)
• Tiangong 2 (2016–2019)
• Tianzhou 1 (2017)
• Tianzhou 2 (2021)
• Tianzhou 3 (2021)
• Tianzhou 4 (2022)
• Tianzhou 5 (2022)
• Tianzhou 6 (2023)
Tiangong space station modules
• Tianhe (2021–present)
• Wentian (2022–present)
• Mengtian (2022–present)
Navigation
• BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS)
Telecommunications
• Apstar Series (1994–present)
• Chinasat Series (1994–present)
• Queqiao (2018–present)
• Tiandu 1 and 2 (2024–present)
• Tianlian I (2008–present)
• Tianlian II (2019–present)
• Queqiao 2 (2024–present)
Technology
demonstrators
• Chinese reusable experimental spacecraft (2020)
• FSW Program (1969–2006)
• QUESS (2016–present)
• Shijian Series (1971–present)
• XPNAV 1 (2016–present)
Related
• Lanyue Lunar Lander
• Future missions marked in italics. Failed missions marked with † sign
Chinese spacecraft
Earth observation
• Double Star (joint with ESA)
• Fengyun
• Gaofen
• FSW
• Huanjing
• HY
• Jilin
• Shiyan
• SMMS
• TanSat
• Tansuo
• Tianhui
• Yaogan
• Ziyuan
Communication and engineering
• Dong Fang Hong
• FH-1
• Apstar
• APMT
• Asiasat
• ChinaSat
• ChinaStar
• HKSTG
• LGSP
• OlympicSat
• Shijian
• Sinosat
• Tiantong 1
• Tsinghua-1
• Xiwang 1
Data relay satellite system
• Queqiao and Queqiao 2
• Tiandu 1 and 2
• Tianlian Constellation
Satellite navigation system
• BeiDou-1
• BeiDou-2
• Beidou-3
Astronomical observation
• ASO-S
• CHASE
• DAMPE
• GECAM
• HXMT
• Kuafu
• Longjiang-2
• Queqiao
• Lobster Eye Imager for Astronomy
• Einstein Probe (joint with ESA)
• SST
• SVOM
• Xuntian
• SMILE
Lunar exploration
• Chinese Lunar Exploration Program
• Chang'e 1
• Chang'e 2
• Chang'e 3
• Yutu
• Chang'e 5-T1
• Chang'e 4
• Yutu-2
• Chang'e 5
• Chang'e 6
• Chang'e 7
• Chang'e 8
Planetary exploration
• Yinghuo-1
• Chang'e 2
• Tianwen-1
• Zhurong
• Shensuo
• Tianwen-2
• Tianwen-3
• Tianwen-4
Microsatellites
• Fengniao
• Xinyan
Future spacecraft in italics.
Lunar rovers
Active
• Yutu-2 (2019–present, on Chang'e 4)
Past
Lunokhod | 23167 | 3 |
• Lunokhod 0 (1A)† (1969)
• Lunokhod 1 (1970–1971, on Luna 17)
• Lunokhod 2 (1973, on Luna 21)
Apollo
• Lunar Roving Vehicle (1971, Apollo 15)
• LRV-2 (1972, Apollo 16)
• LRV-3 (1972, Apollo 17)
CLEP
• Yutu (2013–2016, on Chang'e 3)
• Yidong Xiangji (2024, on Chang'e 6)
Chandrayaan
• Pragyan† (2019, on Chandrayaan-2)
• Pragyan (2023, on Chandrayaan-3)
Rashid
• Rashid† (2022–2023, on Hakuto-R Mission 1)
CLPS
• Iris† (2024, on Peregrine Mission One)
• Colmena × 5† (2024, on Peregrine Mission One)
JAXA
• Sora-Q† (2022–2023, on Hakuto-R Mission 1)
• LEV-1 (2024, on SLIM)
• LEV-2 (Sora-Q) (2024, on SLIM)
Planned
• MoonRanger (2023)
• VIPER (2024)
• Chang'e 7 (Rashid 2) (2026)
• Lunar Terrain Vehicle
Proposed
• ATHLETE
• Audi Lunar Quattro ×2 (PTScientists)
• Deep Space Systems
• ECA
• HERACLES
• Lunar Cruiser
• Luna-Grunt rover
• LUPEX rover
• Moon Diver
• Moon Express
• OrbitBeyond rover
• Polaris
• Scarab
• Space Exploration Vehicle
• Team Puli
Cancelled
• Lunokhod 3 (1977)
• Resource Prospector
Related
• Tank on the Moon (2007 documentary)
• List of missions to the Moon
• Mars rover
• Rover (space exploration)
• List of extraterrestrial rovers
Missions are ordered by launch date. Sign † indicates failure en route or before intended mission data returned.
Spacecraft missions to the Moon
Exploration
programs
• American
• Apollo
• Artemis
• CLPS
• Lunar Orbiter
• Lunar Precursor
• Pioneer
• Ranger
• Surveyor
• Chinese
• Chang'e
• Indian
• Chandrayaan
• Japanese
• Japanese Lunar Exploration Program
• South Korean
• Danuri
• Russian
• Luna-Glob
• Soviet
• Crewed
• Luna
• Lunokhod
• Zond
Active
missions
Orbiters
• ARTEMIS
• CAPSTONE
• Chandrayaan-2 Orbiter
• Chang'e 5-T1 (service module)
• Danuri
• Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter
• Queqiao 1 (relay satellite at L2)
• 2
• Tiandu-1
• 2
• ICUBE-Q
Landers
• Chang'e 3
• 4
• 6
• SLIM
Rovers
• Yutu-2
Flybys
• ArgoMoon
Past
missions
Crewed landings
• Apollo 11
• 12
• 14
• 15
• 16
• 17
• (List of Apollo astronauts)
Orbiters
• Apollo 8
• 10
• Apollo Lunar Module
• Artemis 1
• Chang'e 1
• 2
• 5
• Chandrayaan-1
• Chandrayaan-3 (propulsion module)
• Clementine
• Explorer 35
• 49
• GRAIL
• Hiten
• LADEE
• Longjiang-2
• Luna 10
• 11
• 12
• 14
• 19
• 22
• Lunar Orbiter 1
• 2
• 3
• 4
• 5
• Lunar Prospector
• PFS-1
• PFS-2
• SMART-1
• SELENE (Kaguya, Okina, Ouna)
Impactors
• LCROSS
• Luna 2
• Moon Impact Probe
• Ranger 4
• 6
• 7
• 8
• 9
Landers
• Apollo Lunar Module ×6
• Chang'e 5
• Luna 9
• 13
• 16
• 17
• 20
• 21
• 23
• 24
• Surveyor 1
• 3
• 5
• 6
• 7
• Vikram (Chandrayaan-3)
• EagleCam
• IM-1
Rovers
• Lunar Roving Vehicle
• Apollo 15
• 16
• 17
• Lunokhod 1
• 2
• Yutu
• Pragyan (Chandrayaan-2)
• (Chandrayaan-3)
• LEV-1
• LEV-2 (Sora-Q)
• Yidong Xiangji
Sample return
• Apollo 11
• 12
• 14
• 15
• 16
• 17
• Luna 16
• 20
• 24
• Chang'e 5
Failed landings
• Beresheet
• Emirates Lunar Mission
• Hakuto-R M1
• Luna 5
• 7
• 8
• 15
• 18
• 25
• OMOTENASHI
• Surveyor 2
• 4
• Vikram (Chandrayaan-2)
• Peregrine Mission One
Flybys
• 4M
• Apollo 13
• Chang'e 5-T1
• Geotail
• Galileo
• ICE
• Longjiang-1
• Luna 1
• 3
• 4
• 6
• LunaH-Map
• Lunar Flashlight
• Lunar IceCube
• LunIR
• Mariner 10
• NEA Scout
• Nozomi
• Pioneer 4
• Ranger 5
• STEREO
• TESS
• WMAP
• Wind
• Zond 3
• 5
• 6
• 7
• 8
• PAS-22
Planned
missions
Artemis
• Artemis 2 (2025)
• Lunar Gateway
• Artemis 3 (2026)
• Artemis 4 (2028)
• Artemis 5 (2029)
• Artemis 6 (2030)
• Artemis 7 (2031)
• Artemis 8 (2032)
CLPS
• VIPER (Nov 2024)
• IM-2 (2024)
• Lunar Trailblazer
• Blue Ghost (2024)
Luna-Glob
• Luna 26 (2027)
• Luna 27 (2028)
• Luna 28 (2030)
• Luna 29 (2030s)
• Luna 30 (2030s)
• Luna 31 (2030s)
CLEP
• Chang'e 7 (2026)
• Chang'e 8 (2028)
Others
• Hakuto-R M2 (2024)
• DESTINY+ (2025)
• Beresheet 2 (2025)
• ispace M3 (2026)
• Lunar Pathfinder (2026)
• Cislunar Explorers (2020s)
• CU-E3 (2020s)
• MoonRanger (2020s)
• International Lunar Research Station (late 2020s)
Proposed
missions
Robotic
• Lunar Polar Exploration Mission
• ALINA
• Artemis-7
• Blue Moon
• BOLAS
• Garatéa-L
• ISOCHRON
• LunaNet
• Lunar Crater Radio Telescope
• McCandless | 23167 | 4 |
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• See also: Timeline of first orbital launches by country
• 1 Preceded by the Soviet space program
• 2 Preceded by Interkosmos participation | 23167 | 7 |
Ferdinand Verbiest
Ferdinand Verbiest, SJ (9 October 1623 – 28 January 1688) was a Flemish Jesuit missionary in China during the Qing dynasty. He was born in Pittem near Tielt in the County of Flanders (now part of Belgium). [1] He is known as Nan Huairen (南懷仁) in Chinese.
The Reverend
Ferdinand Verbiest
SJ
Portrait of Ferdinand Verbiest
Born(1623-10-09)9 October 1623
Pittem, Tielt, County of Flanders, Spanish Netherlands
Died28 January 1688(1688-01-28) (aged 64)
Beijing, Qing dynasty, China
He was an accomplished mathematician and astronomer and proved to the court of the Kangxi Emperor that European astronomy was more accurate than Chinese astronomy. He then corrected the Chinese calendar and was later asked to rebuild and re-equip the Beijing Ancient Observatory, being given the roles of Head of the Mathematical Board and Director of the Observatory.
He became close friends with the Kangxi Emperor, who frequently requested his instruction in geometry, philosophy and music. Verbiest worked as a diplomat, cartographer, and translator; he spoke Latin, German, Dutch, Spanish, Hebrew, Italian and Manchu. He wrote more than thirty books.
During the 1670s, Verbiest designed what some claim to be the first ever self-propelled vehicle, in spite of its small size, not being able to carry a driver or goods, and the lack of evidence that it was actually built. He died in 1688.
Early life
Ferdinand Verbiest was the eldest child of Joos Verbiest, a bailiff and tax collector of Pittem near Kortrijk, Belgium. [2] Verbiest studied humanities with the Jesuits, in Bruges and Kortrijk, and next went to the Lelie College in Leuven for a year to study philosophy and mathematics. [2] He joined the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) on 2 September 1641. [1] Verbiest continued studying theology in Seville, where he was ordained as a priest in 1655. [1] He completed his studies in astronomy and theology in Rome. [2] His intention had been to become a missionary in the Spanish missions to Central America, but this was not to be. His call was to the Far East, where the Roman Catholic Church was 'on a mission' to compensate for the loss of (Catholic) believers to the emerging Protestantism in Europe. [2]
On 4 April 1657, Verbiest left for China from Lisbon, accompanied by Father Martino Martini, thirty-five other missionaries, the Portuguese Viceroy of the Indies and some other passengers. Their boat reached Macau on 17 July 1658, by which time all but ten of the passengers, including the Viceroy and most of the missionaries, had died. [3] Verbiest took up his first posting in Shaanxi, leading the mission until 1660 when he was called to assist – and later replace – Father Johann Adam Schall von Bell, the Jesuit Director of the Beijing Observatory and Head of the Mathematical Board, in his work in astronomy. Unfortunately for them, the political situation shifted dramatically in 1661, after the death of the young Shunzhi Emperor aged 23. His son and successor, Xuanye (the Kangxi Emperor), was only 7, so the government was placed in the hands of four regents. Unlike Shunzhi, the regents were not in favour of the Jesuits,[3] who suffered increased persecution as a result.
Astronomy contests
In 1664, the Chinese astronomer Yang Guangxian (1597–1669), who had published a pamphlet against the Jesuits, challenged Schall von Bell to a public astronomy competition. Yang won and took Schall von Bell's place as Head of Mathematics. Having lost the competition, Schall von Bell and the other Jesuits were chained and thrown into a filthy prison, accused of teaching a false religion. They were bound to wooden pegs in such a way that they could neither stand nor sit and remained there for almost two months until a sentence of strangulation was imposed. A high court found the sentence too light and ordered them to be cut up into bits while still alive. [5] Fortunately for them, on 16 April 1665,[6] a violent earthquake destroyed the part of the prison chosen for the execution. An extraordinary meteor was seen in the sky, and a fire destroyed the part of the imperial palace where the condemnation was pronounced. [7] This was seen as an omen and all the prisoners were released. However, they still had to stand trial, and all the Jesuits but Verbiest, Schall von Bell and two others were exiled to Canton. Schall von Bell died within a year, due to the conditions of his confinement. [3]
In 1669, the Kangxi Emperor managed to take power by having the last remaining corrupt regent Oboi arrested. In the same year, the emperor was informed that serious errors had been found in the calendar for 1670, which had been drawn up by Yang Guangxian. Kangxi commanded a public test to compare the merits of European and Chinese astronomy. The test was to predict three things: the length of the shadow thrown by a gnomon of a given height at noon of a certain day; the absolute and relative positions of the Sun and the planets on a given date; and the exact time of an anticipated lunar eclipse. It was decided that Yang and Verbiest should each use their mathematical skills to determine the answers and that "The Heavens would be the judge". The contest was held at the Bureau of Astronomy in the presence of senior-ranking government ministers and officials from the observatory. Unlike Yang, Verbiest had access to the latest updates on the Rudolphine Tables, and was assisted by telescopes for observation. He succeeded in all three tests and was immediately installed as the Head of the Mathematical Board and Director of the Observatory. Out of consideration for him, the exiled Jesuits were authorized to return to their missions. Meanwhile, Yang was sentenced to the same death he had planned for his Jesuit rival, but the sentence was reduced to exile and he died en route to his native home. [1][3][5][8]
Initial projects
The 1670 calendar included an extra month unnecessarily added to hide other errors and to bring the lunar months in line with the solar year. Verbiest suggested the errors should be corrected, including removing the extra month. This was an audacious move, as the calendar had been approved by the emperor himself. Fearing the emperor's response, the observatory officials begged him to withdraw this request, but he responded: "It is not within my power to make the heavens agree with your calendar. The extra month must be taken out." Much to their surprise, the emperor after studying the research agreed, and it was done. [5]
After this, Verbiest and the emperor formed a real friendship, with the Jesuit teaching him geometry, philosophy and music. He was frequently invited to the palace and to accompany the Emperor on his expeditions throughout the empire. He translated the first six books of Euclid into Manchu and took every opportunity to introduce Christianity. In response, the Emperor elevated him to the highest grade of the mandarinate and granted permission for him to preach Christianity anywhere in the empire. [5]
Verbiest undertook many projects, including the construction of an aqueduct, the casting of 132 cannons for the imperial army – far superior to any previous Chinese weapons – and the design of a new gun carriage. He created star charts for the Kangxi Emperor in order to tell the time at night. [9] Other inventions included a steam engine to propel ships.
Instruments for Beijing Observatory
Having resolved the issues surrounding the calendar, Verbiest went on to compose a table of all solar and lunar eclipses for the next 2000 years. Delighted with this, the emperor awarded him complete charge of the imperial astronomy observatory, which he rebuilt in 1673. The existing equipment was obsolete, so Verbiest consigned it to a museum and set about designing six new instruments:[5]
• Altazimuth, used to measure the position of celestial bodies relative to the celestial horizon and the zenith – the altitude azimuth. [10]
• Celestial globe, six feet in diameter, used to map and identify celestial objects. [11]
• Ecliptic armilla, armillary sphere, six feet in diameter, used to measure the ecliptic longitude difference and latitudes of celestial bodies. This was the traditional European device while the Chinese had developed the equatorial armilla. [12]
• Equatorial armilla, armillary sphere, six feet in diameter, used primarily for measuring true solar time as well as right ascension difference and declination of celestial bodies. [13]
• Quadrant Altazimuth, six feet in radius, for measuring altitudes or zenith distances of celestial bodies. [14]
• Sextant, eight feet in radius, used to measure the angle of elevation of a celestial object above the horizon. It is used to calculate the angle between two objects, although it is limited to 60 degrees of arc. In navigation, it is used to take a measure of the angle of the Sun at noon to determine latitude. [15] | 23168 | 0 |
These instruments were all very large, made of brass and highly decorated, with bronze dragons forming the supports. Despite their weight, they were very easy to manipulate, demonstrating Verbiest's aptitude for mechanical design.
Final days and death
Verbiest died in Beijing shortly after receiving a wound from falling off a bolting horse. [16] He was succeeded as the chief mathematician and astronomer of the Chinese empire by another Belgian Jesuit, Antoine Thomas (1644–1709). He was buried in the Jesuits' Zhalan Cemetery in Beijing, near those of other Jesuits including Matteo Ricci and Johann Adam Schall von Bell, on 11 March 1688. [5]
Verbiest was the only Westerner in Chinese history to ever receive the honour of a posthumous name by the Emperor.
Verbiest's 'car'
Besides his work in astronomy, Verbiest also experimented with steam. Around 1672 he designed – as a toy for the Kangxi Emperor – a steam-propelled trolley which was, quite possibly, the first working steam-powered vehicle ('auto-mobile'). [17] Verbiest describes it in his manuscript Astronomia Europea[18] that was finished in 1681. A friar brought it to Europe and it was then printed in 1687 in Germany. In this work, Verbiest first mentioned the (latin) term motor in its present meaning. With one filling of coal, he wrote that the vehicle was able to move more than one hour. [19] As it was only 65 cm (25.6 in) long, and therefore effectively a scale model, not designed to carry human passengers, nor a driver or goods, it is not strictly accurate to call it a 'car'. [20] Despite this, it was the first vehicle that was able to move by 'self-made' engine power.
Since the steam engine was still not known at that time, Verbiest used the principle of an impulse turbine. Steam was generated in a ball-shaped boiler, emerging through a pipe at the top, from where it was directed at a simple, open "steam turbine" (rather like a water wheel) that drove the rear wheels.
It is not verified by other known sources if Verbiest's model was ever built at the time and no authentic drawing of it exists, although he had access to China's finest metal-working craftsmen who were constructing precision astronomical instruments for him.
The Brumm model
The Italian model manufacturer Brumm produced a non-working 1:43 scale model of the Veicolo a turbina de Verbiest (1681) [sic],[21] in their "Old Fire" range of 2002. This model was 9 cm (3.54 in) long, which, when scaled-up, would have suggested that Verbiest's original would have been nearly 4 metres (13 ft 1 in) in length.
However, comparison with drawings in Hardenberg's study shows that this model is not the same as Verbiest's. It is actually modelled on a small steam turbine car built in the late 18th century (presumably 1775) by a German mechanic that was inspired by Verbiest's vehicle but different, for example, only with three wheels. [19] Unfortunately, the original was probably destroyed during a bombing raid on the Technische Hochschule Karlsruhe during World War II. However, a photo of the original car can be seen at the Deutsches Museum. Hardenberg notes that this steam turbine car operated on the same principle as Verbiest's carriage (the impulse turbine), but employed a more modern arrangement of the drive train. [22]
Major works
In Chinese
• 仪象志 (Yixiang zhi), 1673 (on astronomical instruments and apparatus)
• 康熙永年历法 (Kangxi yongnian lifa), 1678 (on the calendar of the Kangxi Emperor)
• 方言教要序论 (Jiaoyao xulun) (explanation of the basics of the faith)
Latin
• Astronomia Europea, 1687
Memorials
Verbiest is commemorated on several postage stamps. One, featuring his face, was issued in Belgium on 24 October 1988, to mark the tri-centenary of his death,[23] with a matching pictorial cancellation postmark. [24] Several more stamps were issued in Macau, in 1989 and 1999, featuring a sketch by Verbiest of the Observatory in Peking, where he worked. [23] The Chevalier Medal for Oriental Art was instituted in his memory to reward exceptional contributions to the sciences and arts.
See also
• Christianity in China
• History of steam road vehicles
• Jesuit China missions
• List of Belgians
• List of Roman Catholic scientist-clerics
• Religion in China
• Roman Catholicism in China
Notes
1. Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Ferdinand Verbiest" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
2. "Ferdinand Verbiest (1623–1688) mathematician and astronomer". Famous Belgians. Belgium – Federal Portal. Archived from the original on 9 March 2008. Retrieved 21 March 2008.
3. Hobden, Heather. "Astronomy in the 17th Century". The telescope revolution. Archived from the original on 7 March 2008. Retrieved 20 March 2008.
4. "Details of original engraving in Washington State University collection". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016.
5. MacDonnell, Joseph. "Fr. Ferdinand Verbiest, S.J. (1623–1688)". A Jesuit scientist in China. Fairfield University. Archived from the original on 20 February 2008. Retrieved 20 March 2008.
6. Pingyi Chu (1997). "Scientific Dispute in the Imperial Court: The 1664 Calendar Case". Chinese Science (14): 16. JSTOR 43290406.
7. Campbell, Thomas Joseph (1921). The Jesuits, 1534–1921: A History of the Society of Jesus from Its Foundation to the Present Time, Volume 1. Encyclopedia Press. p. 258.
8. Mungello, David (7 April 2005). The great encounter of China and the West, 1500–1800. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. ISBN 978-0-7425-3815-3.
9. Spence, 15–16.
10. Marilyn Shea (May 2007). "Altazimuth – 地平经仪". University of Maine Farmington. Archived from the original on 11 October 2008. Retrieved 22 March 2008.
11. Marilyn Shea (May 2007). "Celestial Globe – 1673 – 天体仪". University of Maine Farmington. Archived from the original on 28 August 2008. Retrieved 22 March 2008.
12. Marilyn Shea (May 2007). "Ecliptic Armilla – 1673 – 黄道经纬仪". University of Maine Farmington. Archived from the original on 1 December 2008. Retrieved 22 March 2008.
13. Marilyn Shea (May 2007). "Equatorial Armilla – 1673 – 赤道经纬仪". University of Maine Farmington. Archived from the original on 11 October 2008. Retrieved 22 March 2008.
14. Marilyn Shea (May 2007). "Quadrant – 1673 – 象限仪". University of Maine Farmington. Archived from the original on 7 May 2009. Retrieved 22 March 2008.
15. Marilyn Shea (May 2007). "Sextant – 1673 – 纪限仪". University of Maine Farmington. Archived from the original on 1 December 2008. Retrieved 12 November 2008.
16. Spence, 12.
17. "A brief note on Ferdinand Verbiest". Curious Expeditions. 2 July 2007. Archived from the original on 3 April 2008. Retrieved 18 March 2008. – Note that the vehicle pictured is the Brumm model, not a replica of Verbiest's design.
18. Verbiest, Ferdinand (1993). The Astronomia Europaea of Ferdinand Verbiest, S.J. (Dillingen, 1687): text, translation, notes and commentaries. Nettetal: Steyler Verlag. ISBN 3-8050-0327-7.
19. Zur Geschichte des Kraftfahrzeugs. In: Automobiltechnische Zeitschrift. 2/1949, page 40.
20. "1679–1681 R P Verbiest's Steam Chariot". History of the Automobile: origin to 1900. Hergé. | 23168 | 1 |
Retrieved 8 May 2009.
21. Brumm website: photograph of the Brumm model (ref X06) – accessed 8 May 2009
22. The Leuven Local Heroes in Thermal Sciences and Engineering Archived 26 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 22 March 2008)]
23. "Father Ferdinand Verbiest, SJ, (1623–1688) President of the Imperial Board of Mathematics". (Jesuits on stamps). Retrieved 18 March 2008.
24. "Postal Markings (Jesuits)". (scroll down just beyond half-way). Archived from the original on 10 May 2008. Retrieved 18 March 2008.
References
• Brucker, Joseph. The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1912, Robert Appleton Company.
• Spence, Jonathan D. (1988). Emperor of China: Self-Portrait of K'ang-hsi. New York: Vintage Books, a Division of Random House. ISBN 0-679-72074-X
Further reading
• The Oldest Precursor of the Automobile – Ferdinand Verbiest's Steam Turbine-Powered Vehicle Model – Horst O. Hardenberg
– Society of Automotive Engineers (Feb 1995, 32 pages) ISBN 1-56091-652-4
• Ickx, V., Ainsi naquit l'automobile, Lausanne, 1961.
• Blondeau, R. A., Mandariin en astronoom aan het hof van de Chinese Keizer, Bruges, 1970.
• Witek, J. W. (ed), F. Verbiest, Jesuit Missionary, Scientist, Engineer and Diplomat, Nettetal, 1994.
• Golvers, N. (ed), The Christian Mission in China in the Verbiest era, Louvain, 1999.
External links
Media related to Ferdinand Verbiest at Wikimedia Commons
• Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Ferdinand Verbiest" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
• Ferdinand Verbiest, a Jesuit scientist in China Archived 20 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine (Fairfield University)
• The Verbiest Map – map of the world printed on silk around 1674 (now part of the collections of the National Library of Australia)
• Brumm promotional photograph of the 1:43 steam vehicle model (in Italian) – (From Internet Archive)
• Typus eclipsis lunæ – Description of the lunar eclipse of 25 March 1671 (Ghent University Library)
– Babelfish literal auto-translation of caption: "First vehicle moved from one turbine. In the model the gears work truly!"
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Chang'e 1
Chang'e 1 ( /tʃæŋˈʌ/; simplified Chinese: 嫦娥一号; traditional Chinese: 嫦娥一號; pinyin: Cháng'é yī hào) was an uncrewed Chinese lunar-orbiting spacecraft, part of the first phase of the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program. The spacecraft was named after the Chinese Moon goddess, Chang'e.
Chang'e 1
Mission typeLunar orbiter[1][2]
OperatorChina National Space Administration
COSPAR ID2007-051A
SATCAT no.32273
Mission durationPlanned: 1 year
Achieved: 1 year, 4 months, 4 days
Spacecraft properties
Launch mass2,350 kg[3]
Start of mission
Launch date24 October 2007, 10:05:04.602 (2007-10-24UTC10:05:04Z) UTC
RocketChang Zheng 3A
Launch siteXichang LC-3
End of mission
DisposalDeorbited (Moon impact)
Decay date1 March 2009, 08:13:10 (2009-03-01UTC08:13:11Z) UTC
Orbital parameters
Reference systemSelenocentric
Periselene altitude200 kilometres (120 mi)
Aposelene altitude200 kilometres (120 mi)
Inclination64 degrees
Period127 minutes
Lunar orbiter
Orbital insertion5 November 2007
Impact site1.50°S 52.36°E / -1.50; 52.36
Chinese Lunar Exploration Program
Chang'e 1 was launched on 24 October 2007 at 10:05:04 UTC from Xichang Satellite Launch Center. [4] It left lunar transfer orbit on 31 October and entered lunar orbit on 5 November. [5] The first picture of the Moon was relayed on 26 November 2007. [6] On 12 November 2008, a map of the entire lunar surface was released, produced from data collected by Chang'e 1 between November 2007 and July 2008. [7][8]
The mission was scheduled to continue for a year, but was later extended and the spacecraft operated until 1 March 2009, when it was taken out of orbit. It impacted the surface of the Moon at 08:13 UTC. [2] Data gathered by Chang'e 1 was used to create an accurate and high resolution 3-D map of the lunar surface. [9] Chang'e 1 was the first lunar probe to conduct passive, multi-channel, microwave remote sensing of the Moon by using a microwave radiometer. [10]
Its sister orbital probe Chang'e 2 was launched on 1 October 2010. [11]
Overview
The Chinese Lunar Exploration Program is designed to be conducted in four [12] phases of incremental technological advancement: The first is simply reaching lunar orbit, a task completed by Chang'e 1 in 2007 and Chang'e 2 in 2010. The second is landing and roving on the Moon, as Chang'e 3 did in 2013 and Chang'e 4 did in 2019. The third is collecting lunar samples from the near-side and sending them to Earth, a task for the Chang'e 5 and future Chang'e 6 missions. The fourth phase consists of development of a robotic research station near the Moon's south pole. [12][13][14] The program aims to facilitate a crewed lunar landing in the 2030s and to possibly build an outpost near the south pole. [15]
Objectives
The Chang'e 1 mission had four major goals:[8][16]
1. Obtaining three-dimensional images of the landforms and geological structures of the lunar surface, so as to provide a reference for planned future soft landings. The orbit of Chang'e 1 around the Moon was designed to provide complete coverage, including areas near the north and south poles not covered by previous missions.
2. Analysing and mapping the abundance and distribution of various chemical elements on the lunar surface as part of an evaluation of potentially useful resources on the Moon. China hopes to extend the number of elements studied to 14 (potassium (K), thorium (Th), uranium (U), oxygen (O), silicon (Si), magnesium (Mg), aluminium (Al), calcium (Ca), tellurium (Te), titanium (Ti), sodium (Na), manganese (Mn), chromium (Cr), and lanthanum (La)),[17] compared with the 10 elements (K, U, Th, Fe (iron), Ti, O, Si, Al, Mg, and Ca)[18] previously probed by NASA's Lunar Prospector.
3. Probing the features of the lunar soil and assessing its depth, as well as the amount of helium-3 (³He) present. [17]
4. Probing the space environment between 40,000 km. (24854.8 mi) and 400,000 km (248548.5 mi) from the Earth, recording data on the solar wind and studying the impact of solar activity on the Earth and the Moon.
In addition, the lunar probe engineering system, composed of five major systems – the satellite system, the launch vehicle system, the launch site system, the monitoring and control system and the ground application system – accomplished five goals:
• Researching, developing and launching China's first lunar probe
• Mastering the basic technology of placing satellites in lunar orbit
• Conducting China's first scientific exploration of the Moon
• Initially forming a lunar probe space engineering system
• Accumulating experience for the later phases of China's lunar exploration program
Mission
According to the schedule, detailed design of the first program milestone was completed by September 2004. Research and development of a prototype probe and relevant testing of the probe were finished before the end of 2005. Design, manufacture, general assembly, test and ground experiments of the lunar orbiter were finished before December 2006.
Originally scheduled for April 2007, the launch was postponed until October as this was "a better time for sending a satellite into the Moon's orbit". [19] Chang'e 1 was launched by a Long March 3A rocket at 10:05 GMT on October 24, 2007, from Xichang Satellite Launch Center in Sichuan Province.
After liftoff, Chang'e 1 made three orbits around the Earth, a burn at perigee extending the orbit's apogee further each time, until a final translunar injection burn placed it on course for the Moon on October 31, 2007. Another burn placed it in a polar orbit around the Moon, with burns at the periselenium of the first three orbits decreasing the aposelenium until it entered a final circular orbit. Lunar orbit insertion was achieved on the November 5, 2007. To mark this occasion, the probe transmitted 30 classical Chinese songs and musical pieces, including "My Motherland", "The Song of the Yangtze River", and "High Mountains and Flowing Water".
The probe was remotely controlled from stations at Qingdao and Kashgar, as the first use of the Chinese Deep Space Network. The ESA Maspalomas Tracking Station was also used to transmit signals to and from the probe.
The first pictures of the Moon were relayed on November 26, 2007. The probe was designed to orbit the Moon for one year,[17] but operations were later extended, and it remained in lunar orbit until March 1, 2009.
End of mission
On 1 March 2009, at 08:13:10 UTC, Chang'e 1 crashed onto the surface of the Moon, ending its mission. According to the State Administration of Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense (China), this was a planned and controlled impact. [20] Impact point was 1.50°S 52.36°E / -1.50; 52.36. [21][22][23] During its orbital mission the probe transmitted 1,400 gigabits or 175 gigabytes (GB) of data. [24]
Design and instrumentation
The Chang'e 1 spacecraft had a mass of 2,350 kilograms (5,180 lb), with a 130-kilogram (290 lb) payload, carrying 24 instruments including a charge-coupled device (CCD) stereo camera, microprobe instruments, and a high-energy solar particle detector.
• Stereo camera with an optical resolution of 120 metres (390 ft) and spectrometer imager operating at wavelengths of 0.48 to 0.96 μm (4,800–9,600 Å)
• Laser altimeter with 1,064 nm, 150 mJ laser, a range resolution of 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) and a spot size of 300 metres (980 ft)
• Imaging spectrometer
• Gamma and X-ray spectrometer working in an energy range of 0.5 to 50 keV for X-rays and 300 keV to 9 MeV for gamma rays | 23169 | 0 |
• Microwave radiometer detecting 3, 7.8, 19.35 and 37 GHz with a maximal penetration depth of 30, 20, 10, 1 m (98.4, 65.6, 32.8, 3.3 ft) and a thermal resolution of 0.5 K
• High energy particle detector and two solar wind detectors capable of the detection of electrons and heavy ions up to 730 MeV
Achievements
• Chang'e 1 created an accurate and high resolution 3-D map ever of the lunar surface.
• Chang'e 1 conducted world's first passive, multi-channel, microwave remote sensing of the Moon. [10]
See also
• Chinese space program
• Chinese Lunar Exploration Program (CLEP)
• Exploration of the Moon
• List of missions to the Moon
• List of artificial objects on the Moon
References
1. "China's first lunar probe Chang'e-1 blasts off". SINA Corporation. October 24, 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-24.
2. Guodong, Du (2009-03-01). "China's lunar probe Chang'e-1 impacts Moon". Xinhua. Archived from the original on March 2, 2009. Retrieved 2009-03-01.
3. "Chang'e 1". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Retrieved November 30, 2022.
4. "China's 1st Moon orbiter enters Earth orbit". Xinhua News Agency. October 24, 2007. Archived from the original on October 25, 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-24.
5. "China's Chang'e-I Enters Moon Orbit". www.efluxmedia.com. Archived from the original on November 7, 2007.
6. "China publishes first Moon picture". China National Space Administration. November 26, 2007. Archived from the original on November 28, 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-26.
7. "China publishes first map of whole lunar surface". 12 November 2008. Retrieved 2008-11-12.
8. "Chang'E-1 Lunar Mission: An Overview and Primary Science Results" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-11-09. Retrieved 2011-08-23.
9. "China's map leaps over the moon" Asia Times
10. "Chang'e-1 – eoPortal Directory – Satellite Missions". directory.eoportal.org.
11. "BBC 中文网 – 两岸三地 – 嫦娥二号奔月有助提升军事威慑力". Bbc.co.uk. 2010-10-01. Retrieved 2013-11-16.
12. Chang'e 4 press conference. CNSA, broadcast on 14 January 2019.
13. China's Planning for Deep Space Exploration and Lunar Exploration before 2030. (PDF) XU Lin, ZOU Yongliao, JIA Yingzhuo. Space Sci., 2018, 38(5): 591-592. doi:10.11728/cjss2018.05.591
14. A Tentative Plan of China to Establish a Lunar Research Station in the Next Ten Years. Zou, Yongliao; Xu, Lin; Jia, Yingzhuo. 42nd COSPAR Scientific Assembly. Held 14–22 July 2018, in Pasadena, California, USA, Abstract id. B3.1-34-18.
15. China lays out its ambitions to colonize the moon and build a "lunar palace". Echo Huang, Quartz. 26 April 2018.
16. "Chang'e-1 – new mission to Moon lifts off". European Space Agency. Retrieved 2007-10-24.
17. Sūn Huīxiān (孙辉先); Dài Shùwǔ (代树武); Yáng Jiànfēng (杨建峰); Wú Jì (吴季) & Jiāng Jǐngshān (姜景山) (2005). "Scientific objectives and payloads of Chang'E-1 lunar satellite" (PDF). Journal of Earth System Science. 114 (6): 789–794. Bibcode:2005JESS..114..789H. doi:10.1007/BF02715964. S2CID 128428662.
18. D. J. Lawrence; W. C. Feldman; B. L. Barraclough; A. B. Binder; et al. (1998). "Global Elemental Maps of the Moon: The Lunar Prospector Gamma-Ray Spectrometer". Science. 281 (5382): 1484–1489. Bibcode:1998Sci...281.1484L. doi:10.1126/science.281.5382.1484. PMID 9727970.
19. "Chang'e-1 Satellite Launch Delayed". China Radio International. March 15, 2007. Archived from the original on March 17, 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-24.
20. "China lunar probe mission ends with planned crash". USA Today. Associated Press. 2009-03-02. Retrieved 2009-03-02.
21. "NASA NSSDC Master Catalog – Chang'e 1". Retrieved 2011-01-01.
22. "Chang'e-1 impacts Moon (coordinates)". China People's Daily Online. 2 March 2009. Retrieved 2011-01-01.
23. "Smackdown". Aviation Week & Space Technology. Vol. 70, no. 10. 9 March 2009. p. 16.
24. "Chang'e-1 - eoPortal Directory - Satellite Missions". directory.eoportal.org. Retrieved 2021-11-18.
External links
Wikinews has related news:
• China launches space probe to the Moon
• CLEP Official site
• Chang'e 1 Mission Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration
• Encyclopedia Astronautica
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• China Manned Space Agency
• People's Liberation Army Astronaut Corps
Spaceports and landing sites | 23169 | 2 |
• Jiuquan
• Taiyuan
• Wenchang
• Xichang
• Siziwang Banner (landing site)
Launch vehicles
• Long March 1
• Long March 2
• Long March 3
• Long March 3A
• Long March 3B
• Long March 3C
• Long March 4
• Long March 4A
• Long March 4B
• Long March 4C
• Long March 5
• Long March 6
• Long March 7
• Long March 8
• Long March 9 (In development)
• Long March 10 (In development)
• Long March 11
• Long March 12
• Kuaizhou
• Kaituozhe
Exploration programs
• Shuguang (cancelled)
• CMS (human spaceflight)
• Chang'e (lunar exploration)
• Tiangong (space station)
• Tianwen (interplanetary exploration)
Projects and missions
Science
Planetary science
• Chang'e 1 (2007–09)
• Chang'e 2 (2010–present)
• Yinghuo 1† (2011)
• Chang'e 3 (2013–present)
• Chang'e 5-T1 (2014–present)
• Yutu rover (2013–2016)
• Chang'e 4 (2018–present)
• Yutu-2 rover (2018–present)
• Tianwen-1 (2020–present)
• Chang'e 5 (2020–present)
• Zhurong rover (2021–present)
• Interstellar Express (2024)
• Chang'e 6 (2025)
• Tianwen-2 (2025)
• Chang'e 7 (2026)
• Tianwen-3 (2028)
• Tianwen-4 (2029)
Astronomy and
cosmology
• DAMPE (2015–present)
• HXMT (2017–present)
• GECAM (2020–present)
• CHASE (2021–present)
• ASO-S (2022–present)
• Einstein Probe (2023)
• SVOM (2024)
• Xuntian (2024)
• Space Solar Telescope
Earth observation
• CSES (2018–present)
• Double Star (2003–07)
• Gaofen Series (2013–present)
• Haiyang Series (2002–present)
• TanSat (2016–present)
• Yaogan Series (2006–present)
• Ziyuan Series (CBERS) (1999–present)
• SMILE (2025)
Human
spaceflight
Uncrewed expeditions
• Shenzhou 1
• Shenzhou 2
• Shenzhou 3
• Shenzhou 4
• Shenzhou 8
Crewed expeditions
• Shenzhou 5
• Shenzhou 6
• Shenzhou 7
• Shenzhou 9
• Shenzhou 10
• Shenzhou 11
• Shenzhou 12
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• Shenzhou 14
• Shenzhou 15
• Shenzhou 16
• (List of Chinese astronauts)
Space laboratories and cargos
• Tiangong 1 (2011–2018)
• Tiangong 2 (2016–2019)
• Tianzhou 1 (2017)
• Tianzhou 2 (2021)
• Tianzhou 3 (2021)
• Tianzhou 4 (2022)
• Tianzhou 5 (2022)
• Tianzhou 6 (2023)
Tiangong space station modules
• Tianhe (2021–present)
• Wentian (2022–present)
• Mengtian (2022–present)
Navigation
• BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS)
Telecommunications
• Apstar Series (1994–present)
• Chinasat Series (1994–present)
• Queqiao (2018–present)
• Tiandu 1 and 2 (2024–present)
• Tianlian I (2008–present)
• Tianlian II (2019–present)
• Queqiao 2 (2024–present)
Technology
demonstrators
• Chinese reusable experimental spacecraft (2020)
• FSW Program (1969–2006)
• QUESS (2016–present)
• Shijian Series (1971–present)
• XPNAV 1 (2016–present)
Related
• Lanyue Lunar Lander
• Future missions marked in italics. Failed missions marked with † sign
21st-century space probes
Active space probes
(deep space missions)
Sun
• Parker Solar Probe
• Solar Orbiter
Moon
• ARTEMIS
• CAPSTONE
• Chandrayaan-2
• Chang'e 3
• Chang'e 4 (Yutu-2 rover)
• Chang'e 5
• Danuri
• Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter
• Queqiao
• Queqiao 2
• Tiandu 1 and 2
• Chang'e 6
• ICUBE-Q
Mars
• Emirates Mars Mission
• ExoMars TGO
• Mars Express
• 2001 Mars Odyssey
• MAVEN
• MRO
• MSL Curiosity rover
• Tianwen-1
• Mars 2020
• Perseverance rover
Other planets
• BepiColombo
• Mercury
• Akatsuki
• Venus
• Juno
• Jupiter
• Juice
• Jupiter
Minor planets
• Chang'e 2
• Hayabusa2 / MINERVA-II
• Lucy
• New Horizons
• OSIRIS-REx
• Psyche
Interstellar space
• Voyager 1
• Voyager 2
Completed after 2000
(by termination date)
2000s
• 2001
• NEAR Shoemaker
• Deep Space 1
• 2003
• Pioneer 10
• Galileo
• Nozomi
• 2004
• Genesis
• 2005
• Huygens
• 2006
• Mars Global Surveyor
• 2008
• Phoenix
• 2009
• Chang'e 1
• Ulysses
• Chandrayaan-1
• SELENE
• LCROSS
2010s
• 2010
• Hayabusa
• MER Spirit rover
• 2011
• Stardust
• 2012
• GRAIL
• 2013
• Deep Impact
• 2014
• LADEE
• Venus Express
• Chang'e 5-T1
• 2015
• MESSENGER
• PROCYON
• IKAROS
• 2016
• Rosetta / Philae
• Yutu rover
• ExoMars Schiaparelli
• 2017
• LISA Pathfinder
• Cassini
• 2018
• MASCOT
• Dawn
• Longjiang-1
• 2019
• MarCO
• MER Opportunity rover
• Beresheet
• Longjiang-2
• Chandrayaan-2 / Pragyan rover
2020s
• 2020
• Chang'e 5
• 2022
• Double Asteroid Redirection Test
• Mangalyaan
• InSight
• 2023
• Hakuto-R Mission 1
• Luna 25
• Chandrayaan-3 / Pragyan rover
• Zhurong rover
• 2024
• Peregrine Mission One
• Ingenuity helicopter
• SLIM
• IM-1
• List of Solar System probes
• List of lunar probes
• List of extraterrestrial orbiters
• List of space telescopes
← 2006
Orbital launches in 2007
2008 →
January
• Cartosat-2, SRE-1, Lapan-TUBsat, Pehuensat-1
• Progress M-59
• NSS-8 | 23169 | 3 |
February
• Beidou-1D
• THEMIS A, THEMIS B, THEMIS C, THEMIS D, THEMIS E
• IGS Radar 2, IGS Optical 3V
March
• ASTRO, CFESat, FalconSAT-3, MidSTAR-1, NEXTSat, STPSat-1
• Skynet 5A, INSAT-4B
April
• Soyuz TMA-10
• Anik F3
• Hai Yang 1B
• Compass-M1
• EgyptSat 1, Saudisat-3, SaudiComsat-3, SaudiComsat-4, SaudiComsat-5, SaudiComsat-6, SaudiComsat-7, CP-3, CP-4, CAPE-1, Libertad 1, AeroCube 2, CSTB-1, MAST
• AGILE, AAM
• NFIRE
• AIM
May
• Astra 1L, Galaxy 17
• Progress M-60
• NigComSat-1
• Yaogan 2, Zheda PiXing 1
• Globalstar 65, Globalstar 69, Globalstar 71, Globalstar 72
• Sinosat-3
June
• Kosmos 2427
• COSMO-1
• STS-117 (ITS S3/4)
• Ofek-7
• TerraSAR-X
• USA-194
• Genesis II
• Kosmos 2428
July
• SAR-Lupe 2
• Zhongxing 6B
• DirecTV-10
August
• Progress M-61
• Phoenix
• STS-118 (ITS S5, SpaceHab LSM)
• Spaceway-3, BSAT-3a
September
• INSAT-4CR
• JCSAT-11
• Kosmos 2429
• Kaguya (Okina, Ouna)
• Foton-M No.3, YES2
• WorldView-1
• CBERS-2B
• Dawn
October
• Intelsat 11, Optus D2
• Soyuz TMA-11
• USA-195
• USA-196
• Globalstar 66, Globalstar 67, Globalstar 78, Globalstar 70
• Kosmos 2430
• STS-120 (Harmony)
• Chang'e 1
• Kosmos 2431, Kosmos 2432, Kosmos 2433
November
• SAR-Lupe 3, Rubin-7
• USA-197
• Yaogan 3
• Skynet 5B, Star One C1
• Sirius 4
December
• Globus-1M No.11L
• COSMO-2
• USA-198
• Radarsat-2
• USA-199
• Horizons-2, Rascom-QAF 1
• Progress M-62
• Kosmos 2434, Kosmos 2435, Kosmos 2436
Launches are separated by dots ( • ), payloads by commas ( , ), multiple names for the same satellite by slashes ( / ).
Crewed flights are underlined. Launch failures are marked with the † sign. Payloads deployed from other spacecraft are (enclosed in parentheses). | 23169 | 4 |
Chang'e 2
Chang'e 2 ( /tʃæŋˈʌ/; simplified Chinese: 嫦娥二号; traditional Chinese: 嫦娥二號; pinyin: Cháng'é èr hào) is a Chinese uncrewed lunar probe that was launched on 1 October 2010. [3] It was a follow-up to the Chang'e 1 lunar probe, which was launched in 2007. Chang'e 2 was part of the first phase of the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program, and conducted research from a 100-km-high lunar orbit in preparation for the December 2013 soft landing by the Chang'e 3 lander and rover. [4][5] Chang'e 2 was similar in design to Chang'e 1, although it featured some technical improvements, including a more advanced onboard camera. Like its predecessor, the probe was named after Chang'e, an ancient Chinese moon goddess.
Chang'e 2
Chang'e 2 mockup displayed at Beijing Air and Space Museum
Mission typeLunar orbiter
Asteroid flyby
Technology demonstration
OperatorCNSA
COSPAR ID2010-050A
SATCAT no.37174
Mission durationPlanned: 6 months
Final: ~4 years
Spacecraft properties
BusDFH-3
Launch mass2,480 kg[1]
Start of mission
Launch date1 October 2010, 10:59 (2010-10-01UTC10:59Z) UTC
RocketChang Zheng 3C
Launch siteXichang LC-2
End of mission
Last contact2014[2]
Orbital parameters
Reference systemHeliocentric
Lunar orbiter
Orbital insertion6 October 2010, 03:06 UTC
Orbital departure8 June 2011
Flyby of 4179 Toutatis
Closest approach13 December 2012, 08:30 UTC
Distance3.2 kilometres (2.0 mi)
Instruments
CCD-improved stereo camera
Laser altimeter
Gamma/X-ray spectrometers
Microwave detector
Chinese Lunar Exploration Program
After completing its primary objective, the probe left lunar orbit for the Earth–Sun L2 Lagrangian point, to test the Chinese tracking and control network, making the China National Space Administration the third space agency after NASA and ESA to have visited this point. [6] It entered orbit around L2 on 25 August 2011, and began transmitting data from its new position in September 2011. [7][8] In April 2012, Chang'e 2 departed L2 to begin an extended mission to the asteroid 4179 Toutatis,[9][10] which it successfully flew by in December 2012. [11] This success made China's CNSA the fourth space agency to directly explore asteroids, after NASA, ESA and JAXA. As of 2014, Chang'e 2 has travelled over 100 million km from Earth,[12] conducting a long-term mission to verify China's deep-space tracking and control systems. [13] Contact with the spacecraft was lost in 2014 as its signal strength weakened due to distance. [2] The probe is expected to return to Earth's vicinity sometime around 2027. [14]
Overview
The Chinese Lunar Exploration Program is designed to be conducted in four [15] phases of incremental technological advancement: The first is simply reaching lunar orbit, a task completed by Chang'e 1 in 2007 and Chang'e 2 in 2010. The second is landing and roving on the Moon, as Chang'e 3 did in 2013 and Chang'e 4 did in 2019. The third is collecting lunar samples from the near-side and sending them to Earth, a task Chang'e 5 completed in 2020 and Chang'e 6 will repeat the same task. The fourth phase consists of development of a robotic research station near the Moon's south pole. [15][16][17] The program aims to facilitate a crewed lunar landing in the 2030s and possibly build an outpost near the south pole. [18]
Design
Chang'e 2 was the backup of the Chang'e 1 probe and it had been modified for its own mission. [19] While Chang'e 1 operated in a 200-km orbit, Chang'e 2 flew at only 100 km, allowing for higher-resolution images and more precise science data. The probe also possessed a higher-resolution camera, being able to resolve features as small as 1 metre (3.3 ft) across from orbit. According to Qian Huang of the Shanghai Astronomical Observatory and Yong-Chun Zheng of the NAOC, the spacecraft also had a shorter Earth-to-Moon cruise time of 5 days, rather than 12. The probe's launch rocket had two more boosters to accomplish this more direct route to the Moon. [20] Furthermore, its laser altimeter's footprint was smaller than Chang'e 1's, achieving 5-meter vertical accuracy in its estimate of the Moon's radius. It also pulsed more frequently – five times per second rather than just once per second, as Chang'e 1's altimeter did. Additionally, the probe's main camera had a spatial resolution of 10 metres (33 ft), rather than 120 metres (390 ft). The total cost of the Chang'e 2 mission was approximately CN¥900 million ($125 million). [21]
Late in the mission, Chang'e 2's orbit was lowered to an elliptical one, with the same apolune (100 km) as Chang'e 1, but with a perilune of only 15 km. Tracking for the mission was performed with an X-band radio capability, which was not available for Chang'e 1. Zheng remarked that "the mission goals of Chang'e 2 were focused into the high resolution image for the future landing site of CE-3 lunar lander and rover. The success of Chang'e 2 provided an important technical basis for the successful implementation of China's future lunar exploration,"[20] and the Queqiao relay satellite was based on Chang'e 2 design. [22]
Mission summary
Launch
Wikinews has related news:
• China launches Chang'e 2 lunar probe
Chang'e 2 was launched on 1 October 2010 at 10:59:57 UTC aboard a Long March 3C rocket from Xichang Satellite Launch Center in Xichang, Sichuan. [3] The launch of the probe coincided with China's National Day on 1 October, in a symbolic celebration of the country's 61st communist anniversary. [23]
Lunar mission
The spacecraft entered an orbit with a perigee of 200 km and an apogee of 380,000 km, and separated from the carrier rocket as planned. It was the first time that a Chinese lunar probe directly entered an Earth-to-Moon transfer orbit without orbiting the Earth first. [24] After the launch, Chang'e 2 arrived in its lunar orbit within 4 days and 16 hours. Later, the probe lowered its orbit to 100 km (62 mi), with a perilune of 15 km (9.3 mi). [25] Chang'e 2 entered its 100 km working orbit on 9 October 2010 after three successful brakings. [26] On 8 November 2010, the Chinese government announced the success of all of Chang'e 2's mission objectives,[27] and published lunar surface images with a resolution of up to 1.3 metres (4.3 ft). [28] In February 2012, the Chinese government released a complete lunar map constructed from Chang'e 2's data, claiming that it was the highest-resolution map of the entire Moon yet recorded. [29] The full dataset, including the map with resolutions of 7, 20 and 50 m, and elevations model with resolutions of 20 and 50 m, is available for free download since April 2018. [30]
L2 mission
On 8 June 2011, Chang'e 2 completed its extended mission, and left lunar orbit for the Earth–Sun L2 Lagrangian point, to test the Chinese tracking and control network. [31] The probe reached L2 on 25 August 2011 at 23:27 Beijing time (14:27 UTC) after a 77-day cruise, becoming the first object ever to reach the L2 point directly from lunar orbit, and travelling further than any previous Chinese space probe. [8] The probe beamed its first batch of data from L2 in September 2011. [7] Though it was expected to remain at L2 until the end of 2012, it departed on an extended mission in April 2012. [7][8][9][32]
4179 Toutatis mission
According to Ouyang Ziyuan's report to the 16th Conference of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chang'e 2 departed from L2 on 15 April 2012, and began a mission to the asteroid 4179 Toutatis. [33] The flyby was successfully achieved on 13 December 2012 at 16:30:09 Beijing Time (08:30:09 GMT). [34] Close-up images of the asteroid, with a resolution of up to 10 metres (33 ft) per pixel, were later published online. | 23170 | 0 |
[35] The flyby was the first time an uncrewed spacecraft had imaged the asteroid so closely. Chang'e 2 came as close as 3.2 kilometres (2.0 mi) to Toutatis, and took pictures of the asteroid at a relative velocity of 10.73 kilometres (6.67 mi) per second. [36] China thus became the fourth space agency to conduct a successful mission to an asteroid, after NASA, ESA and JAXA.
Deep-space journey
As of 2016, Chang'e 2 has reached a distance of over 200 million km from Earth; potentially, it has enough fuel remaining to continue functioning up to a distance of 300 million km, according to the China Aerospace Corporation. Contact with the probe was lost in 2014, however, due to weakening signal strength. [2] It is estimated that Chang'e 2 will return to the Earth's vicinity around 2027. [14]
See also
• Chinese Lunar Exploration Program
• Chang'e 1
• Chang'e 3 / Yutu rover
• Chang'e 4 / Yutu-2
• Chang'e 5-T1
• Chang'e 5
• Chang'e 6
• List of asteroids visited by spacecraft
• Robotic exploration of the Moon
References
1. "Chang'e 2" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved November 30, 2022.
2. "深空测控网：为"天问一号"指路" [Deep Space Measurement and Control Network: Guiding the Way for "Tianwen-1"]. Xinhua News Agency (in Chinese). 25 September 2020. Archived from the original on 13 January 2021. Retrieved 22 January 2021.
3. Stephen Clark (1 October 2010). "China's second moon probe dispatched from Earth". Spaceflight Now. Retrieved 1 October 2010.
4. Bodeen, Christopher (27 November 2009). "China to launch second lunar probe next October". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 2 December 2009. Retrieved 27 November 2009.
5. Leonard David (19 June 2013). "China Readying 1st Moon Rover for Launch This Year". Space.com. Retrieved 23 July 2013.
6. SpaceDaily. "China's second moon orbiter Chang'e-2 goes to outer space". XNA. 10 June 2011.
7. "Chinese space craft travels 1.7 mn km deep into space". India Times. 21 September 2011. Retrieved 17 October 2011.
8. "Chang'e 2 reaches liberation point 2". Xinhua. 27 August 2011. Retrieved 21 November 2011.
9. Lakdawalla, Emily (14 June 2012). "Chang'E 2 has departed Earth's neighborhood for.....asteroid Toutatis!?". Retrieved 15 June 2012.
10. Lakdawalla, Emily (15 June 2012). "Update on yesterday's post about Chang'E 2 going to Toutatis". Planetary Society. Retrieved 16 June 2012.
11. Lakdawalla, Emily (14 December 2012). "Chang'E 2 imaging of Toutatis succeeded beyond my expectations!". Planetary.org. Retrieved 16 December 2012.
12. "Backgrounder: Timeline of China's lunar program". Xinhua. CCTV English. 26 November 2013. Archived from the original on 13 December 2013. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
13. "嫦娥二号进入最远深空". SpaceXploration Blog. 14 June 2013. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
14. Jones, Andrew (16 April 2021). "China to launch a pair of spacecraft towards the edge of the solar system". SpaceNews. Retrieved 16 April 2021. Wu added that the 2010 Chang'e-2 lunar orbiter, which later conducted a flyby of asteroid Toutatis, is expected to return to the vicinity of the earth around 2027.
15. Chang'e 4 press conference. CNSA, broadcast on 14 January 2019.
16. China's Planning for Deep Space Exploration and Lunar Exploration before 2030. (PDF) XU Lin, ZOU Yongliao, JIA Yingzhuo. Space Sci., 2018, 38(5): 591-592. doi:10.11728/cjss2018.05.591
17. A Tentative Plan of China to Establish a Lunar Research Station in the Next Ten Years. Zou, Yongliao; Xu, Lin; Jia, Yingzhuo. 42nd COSPAR Scientific Assembly. Held 14–22 July 2018, in Pasadena, California, USA, Abstract id. B3.1-34-18.
18. China lays out its ambitions to colonize the moon and build a "lunar palace". Echo Huang, Quartz. 26 April 2018.
19. "NASA - NSSDCA - Spacecraft - Details". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2018-12-21.
20. "China to launch Chang'E 2 on Friday, October 1". www.planetary.org. 2010-09-28. Retrieved 2011-11-20.
21. Robert Pearlman (1 October 2010). "China launches lunar probe Chang'e II". collectSPACENews. Archived from the original on 5 April 2012. Retrieved 3 October 2010.
22. Future Chinese Lunar Missions: Chang'e 4 - Farside Lander and Rover. David R. Williams, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. 7 December 2018.
23. Stumme, Susan (2 October 2010). "China launches second lunar probe". Agence France-Presse. Archived from the original on February 20, 2014. Retrieved 3 October 2010.
24. "China's 2nd lunar probe Chang'e-2 blasts off". Xinhua. 1 October 2010. Archived from the original on October 4, 2010. Retrieved 1 October 2010.
25. Rui C. Barbosa (1 October 2010). "Long March 3C successfully launches Chang'e-2, China's second lunar probe". NASASpaceflight.com. Retrieved 1 October 2010.
26. "China's second lunar probe completes final braking, enters working orbit". Xinhua News Agency. 9 October 2010. Archived from the original on 12 October 2010. Retrieved 18 November 2010.
27. "China announces success of Chang'e-2 lunar probe mission". Xinhua News Agency. 8 November 2010. Archived from the original on 11 November 2010. Retrieved 18 November 2010.
28. "Chang'e 2 local image maps first published". Sina.com.cn. 8 November 2011. Retrieved 20 November 2011.
29. Tariq Malik (10 February 2012). "China unveils best Moon map yet from lunar orbiter". Space.com. Retrieved 31 March 2012.
30. "Data publishing and information service system of lunar exploration program". Archived from the original on 2018-12-03. Retrieved 2018-12-13.
31. "China's second moon orbiter Chang'e-2 goes to outer space". XNA/SpaceDaily. 10 June 2011. Retrieved 16 June 2013.
32. "What's up in the solar system in September 2011". www.planetary.org. The Planetary Society. 31 August 2011. Archived from the original on 23 November 2011. Retrieved 20 November 2011.
33. Bill Gray (25 August 2012). "Chang'e 2: The Full Story". The Planetary Society. Retrieved 28 October 2012.
34. The Ginger-shaped Asteroid 4179 Toutatis: New Observations from a Successful Flyby of Chang'e-2 (Report). Nature.com. December 12, 2013. Retrieved December 31, 2022.
35. "Chang'E 2 Images of Asteroid Toutatis". www.planetary.org. The Planetary Society. 13 December 2012. Retrieved 13 February 2015.
36. "China's space probe flies by asteroid Toutatis". China Daily. 15 December 2012. Archived from the original on 15 December 2012. Retrieved 13 February 2015.
External links
• Lunar mission timeline. NASA.
• Recent Lunar missions. NASA.
• "Exploring the Moon: A history of lunar discovery from the first space probes to recent times". | 23170 | 1 |
IanRidpath.com.
• "Five amazing engineering camera videos from Chang'E 2" (includes lunar imagery, thruster firings, and solar panel deployment). Planetary Society.
Spacecraft missions to the Moon
Exploration
programs
• American
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Active
missions
Orbiters
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• 2
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Landers
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Flybys
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Past
missions
Crewed landings
• Apollo 11
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• (List of Apollo astronauts)
Orbiters
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• 19
• 22
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Impactors
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Landers
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Rovers
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• 2
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• (Chandrayaan-3)
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Sample return
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Flybys
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Planned
missions
Artemis
• Artemis 2 (2025)
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CLPS
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CLEP
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Others
• Hakuto-R M2 (2024)
• DESTINY+ (2025)
• Beresheet 2 (2025)
• ispace M3 (2026)
• Lunar Pathfinder (2026)
• Cislunar Explorers (2020s)
• CU-E3 (2020s)
• MoonRanger (2020s)
• International Lunar Research Station (late 2020s)
Proposed
missions
Robotic
• Lunar Polar Exploration Mission
• ALINA
• Artemis-7
• Blue Moon
• BOLAS
• Garatéa-L
• ISOCHRON
• LunaNet
• Lunar Crater Radio Telescope
• McCandless
• Moon Diver
Crewed
• DSE-Alpha
• Boeing Lunar Lander
• Lockheed Martin Lunar Lander
• Lunar Orbital Station
Cancelled /
concepts
• Altair
• Baden-Württemberg 1
• #dearMoon project
• European Lunar Explorer
• First Lunar Outpost
• International Lunar Network
• LEO
• LK
• Lunar-A
• Lunar Lander
• Lunar Mission One
• Lunar Observer
• Lunokhod 3
• MoonLITE
• MoonRise
• OrbitBeyond
• Project Harvest Moon
• Prospector
• Resource Prospector
• SELENE-2
• Ukrselena
• XL-1
Related
• Colonization of the Moon
• Google Lunar X Prize
• List of lunar probes
• List of missions to the Moon
• List of artificial objects on the Moon
• List of species that have landed on the Moon
• Lunar resources
• Apollo 17 Moon mice
• Moon landing conspiracy theories
• Third-party evidence for Apollo Moon landings
• Apollo 11 anniversaries
• List of crewed lunar landers
• Missions are ordered by launch date. Crewed missions are in italics.
Spacecraft missions to minor planets and comets
• List of minor planets and comets visited by spacecraft
• List of artificial objects on extraterrestrial surfaces
Active
• New Horizons (multiple flybys)
• OSIRIS-APEX (orbiter)
• Hayabusa2♯ (lander)
• Lucy (multiple flybys)
• LICIACube (flyby)
• Psyche (orbiter)
Past
Flybys
• Cassini–Huygens
• Chang'e 2
• Clementine†
• CONTOUR†
• Deep Impact
• EPOXI
• Deep Space 1
• Galileo
• Halley Armada
• Giotto
• Sakigake
• Suisei | 23170 | 2 |
• Vega 1
• Vega 2
• International Cometary Explorer
• NEA Scout†
• NEAR Shoemaker
• Pioneer 7
• PROCYON†
• Rosetta
• Stardust
• Ulysses
Orbiters
• Dawn
• NEAR Shoemaker
• Rosetta
• Timeline
Landers
• Hayabusa
• MINERVA†
• Hayabusa2
• MASCOT
• Rover-1A / HIBOU
• Rover-1B / OWL
• Rover-2†
• NEAR Shoemaker
• Philae
Impactors
• Deep Impact
• DART
Sample return
• Hayabusa
• Hayabusa2
• Stardust
• OSIRIS-REx
Planned
• Hera (orbiter, 2024)
• AIDA
• DESTINY+ (multiple flybys, 2025)
• Tianwen-2 (multiple flybys and sample return, 2025)
• MBR Explorer (multiple flybys and orbiter, 2028)
• Comet Interceptor (flyby, 2029)
Proposed
• ASTER (orbiter, 2021)
• Athena (flyby of Pallas, 2022)
• Shensuo (flybys, 2024)
• Centaurus (multiple flybys, 2026–2029)
• Chimera (orbiter, 2025)
• CORSAIR (sample return)
• HAMMER (nuclear impactor concept)
• MANTIS (multiple flybys)
• OKEANOS (multiple flybys and sample return, 2026)
• World Is Not Enough (spacecraft refueling concept)
• Interstellar Probe (flyby, 2030–2042)
Cancelled or
not developed
• AGORA
• AIM
• Asteroid Redirect Mission
• CAESAR
• Castalia
• Clementine 2
• Comet Hopper
• CONDOR
• CRAF
• Don Quijote
• Hayabusa Mk2
• Janus
• MAOSEP
• Marco Polo
• New Horizons 2
• Vesta
Related
• Asteroid belt
• Asteroid capture
• Asteroid mining
• Colonization of asteroids
• Ceres
• Pluto
• Exploration
• Small Solar System bodies
• Near-Earth object
• Trans-Neptunian object
• Colonization
• Trojan
• Vesta
• Probes are listed in chronological order of launch. † indicates mission failures.
Chinese Lunar Exploration Program
• China National Space Administration
• Chinese space program
Missions
• Chang'e 1 (Oct 2007)
• Chang'e 2 (Oct 2010)
• Chang'e 3 (Dec 2013)
• Yutu rover
• Chang'e 5-T1 (Oct 2014)
• Queqiao (relay satellite, May 2018)
• Chang'e 4 (Dec 2018)
• Yutu-2 rover
• Chang'e 5 (Nov 2020)
• Queqiao 2 (relay satellite, Mar 2024)
• Tiandu 1 and 2
• Chang'e 6 (May 2024)
• Chang'e 7 (2026)
• Chang'e 8 (2028)
Launch vehicles
• Long March 3A
• Long March 3B
• Long March 3C
• Long March 5
• Long March 8
Facilities
• Xichang Satellite Launch Center
• Wenchang Spacecraft Launch Site
People
• Zhang Qingwei
• Ouyang Ziyuan
• Ma Xingrui
• Ye Peijian
• Category
• Commons
Chinese spacecraft
Earth observation
• Double Star (joint with ESA)
• Fengyun
• Gaofen
• FSW
• Huanjing
• HY
• Jilin
• Shiyan
• SMMS
• TanSat
• Tansuo
• Tianhui
• Yaogan
• Ziyuan
Communication and engineering
• Dong Fang Hong
• FH-1
• Apstar
• APMT
• Asiasat
• ChinaSat
• ChinaStar
• HKSTG
• LGSP
• OlympicSat
• Shijian
• Sinosat
• Tiantong 1
• Tsinghua-1
• Xiwang 1
Data relay satellite system
• Queqiao and Queqiao 2
• Tiandu 1 and 2
• Tianlian Constellation
Satellite navigation system
• BeiDou-1
• BeiDou-2
• Beidou-3
Astronomical observation
• ASO-S
• CHASE
• DAMPE
• GECAM
• HXMT
• Kuafu
• Longjiang-2
• Queqiao
• Lobster Eye Imager for Astronomy
• Einstein Probe (joint with ESA)
• SST
• SVOM
• Xuntian
• SMILE
Lunar exploration
• Chinese Lunar Exploration Program
• Chang'e 1
• Chang'e 2
• Chang'e 3
• Yutu
• Chang'e 5-T1
• Chang'e 4
• Yutu-2
• Chang'e 5
• Chang'e 6
• Chang'e 7
• Chang'e 8
Planetary exploration
• Yinghuo-1
• Chang'e 2
• Tianwen-1
• Zhurong
• Shensuo
• Tianwen-2
• Tianwen-3
• Tianwen-4
Microsatellites
• Fengniao
• Xinyan
Future spacecraft in italics.
Chinese space program
• China National Space Administration (CNSA)
• China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation
• China Manned Space Agency
• People's Liberation Army Astronaut Corps
Spaceports and landing sites
• Jiuquan
• Taiyuan
• Wenchang
• Xichang
• Siziwang Banner (landing site)
Launch vehicles
• Long March 1
• Long March 2
• Long March 3
• Long March 3A
• Long March 3B
• Long March 3C
• Long March 4
• Long March 4A
• Long March 4B
• Long March 4C
• Long March 5
• Long March 6
• Long March 7
• Long March 8
• Long March 9 (In development)
• Long March 10 (In development)
• Long March 11
• Long March 12
• Kuaizhou
• Kaituozhe
Exploration programs
• Shuguang (cancelled)
• CMS (human spaceflight)
• Chang'e (lunar exploration)
• Tiangong (space station)
• Tianwen (interplanetary exploration)
Projects and missions
Science
Planetary science
• Chang'e 1 (2007–09)
• Chang'e 2 (2010–present)
• Yinghuo 1† (2011)
• Chang'e 3 (2013–present)
• Chang'e 5-T1 (2014–present)
• Yutu rover (2013–2016)
• Chang'e 4 (2018–present)
• Yutu-2 rover (2018–present)
• Tianwen-1 (2020–present)
• Chang'e 5 (2020–present)
• Zhurong rover (2021–present)
• Interstellar Express (2024)
• Chang'e 6 (2025)
• Tianwen-2 (2025)
• Chang'e 7 (2026)
• Tianwen-3 (2028)
• Tianwen-4 (2029)
Astronomy and
cosmology
• DAMPE (2015–present)
• HXMT (2017–present)
• GECAM (2020–present)
• CHASE (2021–present)
• ASO-S (2022–present)
• Einstein Probe (2023) | 23170 | 3 |
• SVOM (2024)
• Xuntian (2024)
• Space Solar Telescope
Earth observation
• CSES (2018–present)
• Double Star (2003–07)
• Gaofen Series (2013–present)
• Haiyang Series (2002–present)
• TanSat (2016–present)
• Yaogan Series (2006–present)
• Ziyuan Series (CBERS) (1999–present)
• SMILE (2025)
Human
spaceflight
Uncrewed expeditions
• Shenzhou 1
• Shenzhou 2
• Shenzhou 3
• Shenzhou 4
• Shenzhou 8
Crewed expeditions
• Shenzhou 5
• Shenzhou 6
• Shenzhou 7
• Shenzhou 9
• Shenzhou 10
• Shenzhou 11
• Shenzhou 12
• Shenzhou 13
• Shenzhou 14
• Shenzhou 15
• Shenzhou 16
• (List of Chinese astronauts)
Space laboratories and cargos
• Tiangong 1 (2011–2018)
• Tiangong 2 (2016–2019)
• Tianzhou 1 (2017)
• Tianzhou 2 (2021)
• Tianzhou 3 (2021)
• Tianzhou 4 (2022)
• Tianzhou 5 (2022)
• Tianzhou 6 (2023)
Tiangong space station modules
• Tianhe (2021–present)
• Wentian (2022–present)
• Mengtian (2022–present)
Navigation
• BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS)
Telecommunications
• Apstar Series (1994–present)
• Chinasat Series (1994–present)
• Queqiao (2018–present)
• Tiandu 1 and 2 (2024–present)
• Tianlian I (2008–present)
• Tianlian II (2019–present)
• Queqiao 2 (2024–present)
Technology
demonstrators
• Chinese reusable experimental spacecraft (2020)
• FSW Program (1969–2006)
• QUESS (2016–present)
• Shijian Series (1971–present)
• XPNAV 1 (2016–present)
Related
• Lanyue Lunar Lander
• Future missions marked in italics. Failed missions marked with † sign
21st-century space probes
Active space probes
(deep space missions)
Sun
• Parker Solar Probe
• Solar Orbiter
Moon
• ARTEMIS
• CAPSTONE
• Chandrayaan-2
• Chang'e 3
• Chang'e 4 (Yutu-2 rover)
• Chang'e 5
• Danuri
• Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter
• Queqiao
• Queqiao 2
• Tiandu 1 and 2
• Chang'e 6
• ICUBE-Q
Mars
• Emirates Mars Mission
• ExoMars TGO
• Mars Express
• 2001 Mars Odyssey
• MAVEN
• MRO
• MSL Curiosity rover
• Tianwen-1
• Mars 2020
• Perseverance rover
Other planets
• BepiColombo
• Mercury
• Akatsuki
• Venus
• Juno
• Jupiter
• Juice
• Jupiter
Minor planets
• Chang'e 2
• Hayabusa2 / MINERVA-II
• Lucy
• New Horizons
• OSIRIS-REx
• Psyche
Interstellar space
• Voyager 1
• Voyager 2
Completed after 2000
(by termination date)
2000s
• 2001
• NEAR Shoemaker
• Deep Space 1
• 2003
• Pioneer 10
• Galileo
• Nozomi
• 2004
• Genesis
• 2005
• Huygens
• 2006
• Mars Global Surveyor
• 2008
• Phoenix
• 2009
• Chang'e 1
• Ulysses
• Chandrayaan-1
• SELENE
• LCROSS
2010s
• 2010
• Hayabusa
• MER Spirit rover
• 2011
• Stardust
• 2012
• GRAIL
• 2013
• Deep Impact
• 2014
• LADEE
• Venus Express
• Chang'e 5-T1
• 2015
• MESSENGER
• PROCYON
• IKAROS
• 2016
• Rosetta / Philae
• Yutu rover
• ExoMars Schiaparelli
• 2017
• LISA Pathfinder
• Cassini
• 2018
• MASCOT
• Dawn
• Longjiang-1
• 2019
• MarCO
• MER Opportunity rover
• Beresheet
• Longjiang-2
• Chandrayaan-2 / Pragyan rover
2020s
• 2020
• Chang'e 5
• 2022
• Double Asteroid Redirection Test
• Mangalyaan
• InSight
• 2023
• Hakuto-R Mission 1
• Luna 25
• Chandrayaan-3 / Pragyan rover
• Zhurong rover
• 2024
• Peregrine Mission One
• Ingenuity helicopter
• SLIM
• IM-1
• List of Solar System probes
• List of lunar probes
• List of extraterrestrial orbiters
• List of space telescopes
← 2009
Orbital launches in 2010
2011 →
January
• Compass-G1
• Globus-1M No.12L
February
• Progress M-04M
• STS-130 (Tranquility, Cupola)
• SDO
• Intelsat 16
March
• Kosmos 2459 / GLONASS-M 731, Kosmos 2460 / GLONASS-M 732, Kosmos 2461 / GLONASS-M 735
• GOES-15 / EWS-G2
• Yaogan 9A, Yaogan 9B, Yaogan 9C
• EchoStar XIV
April
• Soyuz TMA-18
• STS-131 (Leonardo MPLM)
• CryoSat-2
• GSAT-4
• Kosmos 2462
• USA-212
• SES-1
• Kosmos 2463
• Progress M-05M
May
• STS-132 (Rassvet, ICC-VLD)
• Akatsuki, IKAROS (DCAM-1, DCAM-2), Shin'en, Waseda-SAT2, Hayato, Negai ☆''
• Astra 3B, COMSATBw-2
• USA-213
June
• SERVIS-2
• Compass-G3
• Badr-5
• Dragon Spacecraft Qualification Unit
• STSAT-2B
• Shijian XII
• Prisma, Picard, BPA-1
• Soyuz TMA-19
• TanDEM-X
• Ofek-9
• Arabsat-5A, Chollian
• Progress M-06M
July
• EchoStar XV
• Cartosat-2B, AlSat-2A, StudSat, AISSat-1, TIsat-1
• Compass-IGSO1
August
• Nilesat 201, RASCOM-QAF 1R
• Yaogan 10
• USA-214
• Tian Hui 1
September
• Kosmos 2464, Kosmos 2465, Kosmos 2466
• Chinasat-6A
• Gonets-M No.2, Kosmos 2467, Kosmos 2468
• Progress M-07M
• Michibiki
• USA-215
• Yaogan 11, Zheda Pixing 1B, Zheda Pixing 1C
• USA-216 | 23170 | 4 |
• Kosmos 2469
October
• Chang'e 2
• Shijian 6G, Shijian 6H
• Soyuz TMA-01M
• XM-5
• Globalstar 73, Globalstar 74, Globalstar 75, Globalstar 76, Globalstar 77, Globalstar 79
• Progress M-08M
• Eutelsat W3B, BSat 3B
• Compass-G4
November
• Meridian 3
• Fengyun 3B
• COSMO-4
• SkyTerra-1
• STPSat-2, USA-220 / FASTSAT (NanoSail-D2), USA-221 / FalconSat-5, USA-222 / FASTRAC-1, USA-222 / FASTRAC-2, USA-218 / RAX, USA-219 / O/OREOS
• USA-223 / Orion 7
• Chinasat 20A
• Intelsat 17, HYLAS-1
December
• Glonass-M No.39, Glonass-M No.40, Glonass-M No.41
• SpaceX COTS Demo Flight 1, Mayflower, SMDC-ONE 1, QbX-1, QbX-2, Perseus 000, Perseus 001, Perseus 002, Perseus 003
• Soyuz TMA-20
• Compass-IGSO2
• GSAT-5P
• KA-SAT
Launches are separated by dots ( • ), payloads by commas ( , ), multiple names for the same satellite by slashes ( / ).
Crewed flights are underlined. Launch failures are marked with the † sign. Payloads deployed from other spacecraft are (enclosed in parentheses). | 23170 | 5 |
Hiroshi Abe (astronomer)
Hiroshi Abe (安部 裕史, Abe Hiroshi, born 1958) is a Japanese amateur astronomer affiliated with the Yatsuka Observatory. [2] He is noted for numerous discoveries, including his 2007 discovery of the Nova Vulpeculae,[3] and 28 numbered minor planets during 1993–1999. [1]
Minor planets discovered: 28 [1]
see § List of discovered minor planets
The main-belt asteroid 5379 Abehiroshi, discovered by Osamu Muramatsu in 1991 is named in his honor. [4] The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 28 July 1999 (M.P.C. 35482). [5]
List of discovered minor planets
7097 Yatsuka8 October 1993list [A]
7837 Mutsumi11 October 1993list [A]
(8099) 1993 TE8 October 1993list [A]
8113 Matsue21 April 1996list [B]
8114 Lafcadio24 April 1996list
8120 Kobe2 November 1997list
8725 Keiko5 October 1996list
9985 Akiko12 May 1996list [B]
11322 Aquamarine23 August 1995list
11682 Shiwaku3 March 1998list
13176 Kobedaitenken21 April 1996list [B]
13643 Takushi21 April 1996list
14535 Kazuyukihanda1 September 1997list
16760 Masanori11 October 1996list
21262 Kanba24 April 1996list [B]
28340 Yukihiro13 March 1999list
29431 Shijimi12 April 1997list
35286 Takaoakihiro14 October 1996list
(43996) 1997 QH22 August 1997list
48778 Shokoyukako1 September 1997list
48779 Mariko1 September 1997list
49699 Hidetakasato3 November 1999list
58622 Setoguchi2 November 1997list [A]
(65783) 1995 UK17 October 1995list
(90925) 1997 RK58 September 1997list
120735 Ogawakiyoshi7 October 1997list
134402 Ieshimatoshiaki1 September 1997list
136824 Nonamikeiko8 September 1997list
Co-discovery made with:
A S. Miyasaka
B R. H. McNaught
See also
• List of astronomers § H. Abe
• List of minor planet discoverers § H. Abe
References
1. "Minor Planet Discoverers (by number)". Minor Planet Center. 28 October 2018. Retrieved 19 February 2019.
2. Takei, Dai; Tsujimoto, Masahiro; Drake, Jeremy; Ness, Jan-Uwe; Kitamoto, Shunji (July 13–20, 2008). "Suzaku Observations of the V458 Vulpeculae". 37th COSPAR Scientific Assembly. Montréal, Canada. p. 3131. Bibcode:2008cosp...37.3131T.
3. Martin Mobberley (2008). Cataclysmic Cosmic Events and How to Observe Them. Springer. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-387-79945-2.
4. Schmadel, Lutz D. (2007). "(5379) Abehiroshi". Dictionary of Minor Planet Names – (5379) Abehiroshi. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. p. 460. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-29925-7_5172. ISBN 978-3-540-00238-3.
5. "MPC/MPO/MPS Archive". Minor Planet Center. Retrieved 21 July 2016.
Authority control databases
International
• VIAF
National
• Japan
Other
• IdRef | 23171 | 0 |
Masaru Arai
Masaru Arai (新井 優, Arai Masaru, born 1952) is a Japanese amateur astronomer and a discoverer of minor planets and comets. [2]
Minor planets discovered: 45 [1]
see § List of discovered minor planets
He is credited by the Minor Planet Center with the discovery of 45 minor planets during 1988–1991, all in collaboration with astronomer Hiroshi Mori. [1] On 5 January 1991, he has also discovered Comet Arai, C/1991 A2. [3][4]
The main-belt asteroid 21082 Araimasaru, discovered by Tsutomu Hioki and Shuji Hayakawa at Okutama in 1991, was named in his honor. [2] Naming citation was published on 6 January 2003 (M.P.C. 47301). [5]
List of discovered minor planets
3823 Yorii10 March 1988list [A]
3996 Fugaku5 December 1988list [A]
4262 DeVorkin5 February 1989list [A]
4291 Kodaihasu2 November 1989list [A]
4495 Dassanowsky6 November 1988list [A]
4901 Ó Briain3 November 1988list [A]
(5732) 1988 WC29 November 1988list [A]
(5746) 1991 CK5 February 1991list [A]
(5913) 1990 BU21 January 1990list [A]
6299 Reizoutoyoko5 December 1988list [A]
(6325) 1991 EA114 March 1991list [A]
6380 Gardel10 February 1988list [A]
(6638) 1989 CA2 February 1989list [A]
(6703) 1988 CH10 February 1988list [A]
(6704) 1988 CJ10 February 1988list [A]
6709 Hiromiyuki2 February 1989list [A]
(6823) 1988 ED112 March 1988list [A]
(6900) 1988 XD12 December 1988list [A]
(7409) 1990 BS21 January 1990list [A]
(7417) 1990 YE19 December 1990list [A]
(7522) 1991 AJ9 January 1991list [A]
(7570) 1989 CP5 February 1989list [A]
(7576) 1990 BN21 January 1990list [A]
(7643) 1988 VQ16 November 1988list [A]
(8484) 1988 VM210 November 1988list [A]
(8506) 1991 CN5 February 1991list [A]
(9952) 1991 AK9 January 1991list [A]
10776 Musashitomiyo12 February 1991list [A]
(11038) 1989 EE18 March 1989list [A]
11515 Oshijyo12 February 1991list [A]
(12255) 1988 XR17 December 1988list [A]
13017 Owakenoomi18 March 1988list [A]
(15737) 1991 CL5 February 1991list [A]
(16431) 1988 VH16 November 1988list [A]
(16432) 1988 VL210 November 1988list [A]
(16526) 1991 DC17 February 1991list [A]
(19979) 1989 VJ2 November 1989list [A]
(20001) 1991 CM5 February 1991list [A]
(21017) 1988 VP3 November 1988list [A]
(23479) 1991 CG5 February 1991list [A]
(39537) 1990 VV212 November 1990list [A]
(43773) 1989 AJ4 January 1989list [A]
(48436) 1989 VK2 November 1989list [A]
(52269) 1988 CU13 February 1988list [A]
(65677) 1989 EB11 March 1989list [A]
Co-discovery made with: A H. Mori
References
1. "Minor Planet Discoverers (by number)". Minor Planet Center. 16 November 2016. Retrieved 3 January 2017.
2. Schmadel, Lutz D. (2006). "(21082) Araimasaru [2.57, 0.31, 6.0]". Dictionary of Minor Planet Names – (21082) Araimasaru, Addendum to Fifth Edition: 2003–2005. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. p. 164. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-34361-5_1884. ISBN 978-3-540-34361-5.
3. "JPL Small-Body Database Browser: C/1991 A2 (Arai)". Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Retrieved 3 January 2017.
4. British Astronomical Association (2008). British Astronomical Association circular.
5. "MPC/MPO/MPS Archive". Minor Planet Center. Retrieved 3 January 2017.
External links
• Yorii Observatory, instruments and discoveries (in Japanese)
• COMET ARAI (1991b), IAUC 5157, 7 January 1991
• COMET ARAI (1991b), IAUC 5170, 18 January 1991 | 23172 | 0 |
You-Hua Chu
You-Hua Chu (朱有花, born in 1953) is a Taiwanese astronomer. [1] She has served as the director of the Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Academia Sinica and the chair of the Department of Astronomy at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Her main research areas are interactions between the interstellar medium and stars and observations of planetary systems in the post main sequence stages.
You-Hua Chu
Born
You-Hua Chu
1953
Taiwan
NationalityTaiwan
CitizenshipUnited States
Alma materNational Taiwan University (1975), University of California at Berkeley (1981)
Scientific career
FieldsAstronomy
InstitutionsInstitute of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Academia Sinica; Department of Astronomy, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Websitehttps://www.asiaa.sinica.edu.tw/people/cv.php?i=yhchu
Life
You-Hua Chu graduated from Taipei First Girls' High School in 1971 and from the Physics Department of National Taiwan University in 1975. In 1981, she obtained a Ph.D. in astronomy from the University of California, Berkeley. [2]
From 2005 to 2011, she served as chair of the Department of Astronomy at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,[3] where she is currently a professor emeritus. [4]
In September 2014, You-Hua Chu became the director of the Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Academia Sinica. She was the first female astronomer to fill this position. [5]
You-Hua Chu has two daughters and a son.
Honors and awards
Between 2009 and 2012, You-Hua Chu was president of Division VI (Interstellar Matter) of the International Astronomical Union. [6] She received the Outstanding Alumni Award from Department of Physics in the National Taiwan University in 2016. [7] In February 2021, You-Hua Chu was elected as American Astronomical Society (AAS) Fellow. [8][9] On 16 June 2021, the International Astronomical Union named asteroid 461981 "You-Hua Chu" in recognition of her astronomical achievements. [10] During the 2022 Scientific Assembly Meeting of the Astronomical Society of the Republic of China (Taiwan) on October 2, the Society presented the 6th Heaven Quest Award to You-Hua Chu. On that occasion, the National Central University presented her the asteroid inscription for her outstanding contributions to astronomical research. [11] In December 2022, You-Hua Chu was elected Fellow of the Physical Society of Taiwan. [12][13] In April 2023, the Canadian Astronomical Society choose her as the 2023 R.M. Petrie Prize Lecturer in view of her strong leadership and expertise. [14]
Research
You-Hua Chu studies interactions between stars and the interstellar medium, using multi-wavelength observations from radio to gamma rays. For example, stars of different types (massive O-type stars, evolved Wolf-Rayet stars, young white dwarfs) blow a strong wind able to carve bubbles in the interstellar medium. Such bubbles can appear around single (or a few stars) but also around clusters where the collective stellar action creates large structures called "superbubbles" or "supershells". You-Hua Chu has pioneered the studies of such features in several ways. She notably helped identifying them,[15] derived their kinematics with optical spectra to constrain the energy feedback and physics at the interfaces,[16] and analyzed in detail their X-ray emission. [17] In this context, she was the first to report on the presence of X-rays from the central star as well as hot (1.7 MK), diffuse gas associated to Cat's eye planetary nebula. [18]
Her work was publicized in several press releases. [18][19][20][21][22][23]
You-Hua Chu studies the origins of Type Ia supernovae. It is not clear whether Type Ia supernovae originate from the single degenerate scenario or the double degenerate scenario. If a surviving companion or the circumstellar medium from the progenitor’s mass loss is detected, the origin of single degenerate scenario for a Type Ia supernova can be affirmed. You-Hua Chu organized a team to use the Hubble Space Telescope to search for a surviving companion star within Type Ia supernova remnants in the Large Magellanic Cloud. [23][24][25] The results show that the single degenerate scenario for Type Ia supernovae can be more prevalent than people previously thought in the Milky Way.
Professional and academic societies
• Member, American Astronomical Society
• Member, International Astronomical Union
• Member, Astronomical Society of Republic of China (Taiwan)
References
1. "Chu, You-Hua". Institute of Astronomy & Astrophysics, Academia Sinica. 1 May 2015. Retrieved 10 September 2023.
2. "朱有花教授小檔案". ahpst.net.cn (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 29 June 2006.
3. "A History Of Astronomy at Illinois". astro.illinois.edu. Retrieved 11 September 2023.
4. "You-Hua Chu". Astronomy at Illinois. Retrieved 10 September 2023.
5. "ASIAA - Introduction". www.asiaa.sinica.edu.tw. Retrieved 7 September 2023.
6. IAU. "IAU You-Hua Chu membership". IAU member.
7. "國立臺灣大學物理系首頁". 國立臺灣大學物理學系 (in Chinese). Retrieved 7 September 2023.
8. "ASIAA - Newsreleases". www.asiaa.sinica.edu.tw. Retrieved 7 September 2023.
9. "AAS Names 31 New Fellows for 2021". aas.org. 2 February 2021. Retrieved 10 September 2023.
10. Minor planet center. "(461981) Chuyouhua = 2006 VO81". Minor planet center. Retrieved 7 September 2023.
11. "| 2022 ASROC Annual Meeting". www.asroc.org.tw. Retrieved 7 September 2023.
12. "ASIAA - Newsreleases". www.asiaa.sinica.edu.tw. Retrieved 7 September 2023.
13. Xoops, Bonnie. "2022台灣物理學會各類獎項得獎名單 - 學會公告 - 新聞訊息 - 台灣物理學會". www.ps-taiwan.org (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Retrieved 7 September 2023.
14. "CASCA 2023 Petrie lecturer". CASCA.
15. "Galactic ring nebulae associated with Wolf-Rayet stars. VIII. Summary and atlas". ADS. Bibcode:1983ApJS...53..937C.
16. "Kinematic Structure of the 30 Doradus Giant H II Region". ADS. Bibcode:1994ApJ...425..720C.
17. "X-Rays from Superbubbles in the Large Magellanic Cloud". ADS. Bibcode:1990ApJ...365..510C.
18. "Chandra Reveals The X-Ray Glint In The Cat's Eye". CXC.
19. "Roasted and Shredded by a Stellar Sidekick". CXC.
20. "Supernova remnant menagerie". HST.
21. "Hubble studies generations of star formation in neighbouring galaxy". HST.
22. "Hubble peers inside a celestial geode". HST.
23. "Search for stellar survivor of a supernova explosion". HST.
24. [email protected]. "Search for stellar survivor of a supernova explosion". www.spacetelescope.org. Retrieved 8 September 2023.
25. Chuan-Jui Li; et al. (2017). "Physical Structures of the Type Ia Supernova Remnant N103B". The Astrophysical Journal. 836 (1): 85. arXiv:1701.05852. Bibcode:2017ApJ...836...85L. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/836/1/85.
Authority control databases: Academics
• ORCID | 23173 | 0 |
Hiroshi Mori (astronomer)
Hiroshi Mori (森 弘, Mori Hiroshi, born 1958) is a Japanese amateur astronomer and discoverer of minor planets. [2]
Minor planets discovered: 45 [1]
see § List of discovered minor planets
The Minor Planet Center credits him with the discovery of 45 numbered minor planets in collaboration with amateur astronomer Masaru Arai at Yorii Observatory during 1988–1991. [1]
The main-belt asteroid 19190 Morihiroshi, discovered by Japanese astronomers Tsutomu Hioki and Shuji Hayakawa in 1992, was named in his honor. [2] Naming citation was published on 6 January 2003 (M.P.C. 47301). [3]
List of discovered minor planets
3823 Yorii10 March 1988list [A]
3996 Fugaku5 December 1988list [A]
4262 DeVorkin5 February 1989list [A]
4291 Kodaihasu2 November 1989list [A]
4495 Dassanowsky6 November 1988list [A]
4901 Ó Briain3 November 1988list [A]
(5732) 1988 WC29 November 1988list [A]
(5746) 1991 CK5 February 1991list [A]
(5913) 1990 BU21 January 1990list [A]
6299 Reizoutoyoko5 December 1988list [A]
(6325) 1991 EA114 March 1991list [A]
6380 Gardel10 February 1988list [A]
(6638) 1989 CA2 February 1989list [A]
(6703) 1988 CH10 February 1988list [A]
(6704) 1988 CJ10 February 1988list [A]
6709 Hiromiyuki2 February 1989list [A]
(6823) 1988 ED112 March 1988list [A]
(6900) 1988 XD12 December 1988list [A]
(7409) 1990 BS21 January 1990list [A]
(7417) 1990 YE19 December 1990list [A]
(7522) 1991 AJ9 January 1991list [A]
(7570) 1989 CP5 February 1989list [A]
(7576) 1990 BN21 January 1990list [A]
(7643) 1988 VQ16 November 1988list [A]
(8484) 1988 VM210 November 1988list [A]
(8506) 1991 CN5 February 1991list [A]
(9952) 1991 AK9 January 1991list [A]
10776 Musashitomiyo12 February 1991list [A]
(11038) 1989 EE18 March 1989list [A]
11515 Oshijyo12 February 1991list [A]
(12255) 1988 XR17 December 1988list [A]
13017 Owakenoomi18 March 1988list [A]
(15737) 1991 CL5 February 1991list [A]
(16431) 1988 VH16 November 1988list [A]
(16432) 1988 VL210 November 1988list [A]
(16526) 1991 DC17 February 1991list [A]
(19979) 1989 VJ2 November 1989list [A]
(20001) 1991 CM5 February 1991list [A]
(21017) 1988 VP3 November 1988list [A]
(23479) 1991 CG5 February 1991list [A]
(39537) 1990 VV212 November 1990list [A]
(43773) 1989 AJ4 January 1989list [A]
(48436) 1989 VK2 November 1989list [A]
(52269) 1988 CU13 February 1988list [A]
(65677) 1989 EB11 March 1989list [A]
Co-discovery made with:
A M. Arai
See also
• List of minor planet discoverers § H. Mori
References
1. "Minor Planet Discoverers (by number)". Minor Planet Center. 4 September 2016. Retrieved 3 January 2017.
2. Schmadel, Lutz D. (2006). "(19190) Morihiroshi [2.73, 0.09, 6.4]". Dictionary of Minor Planet Names – (19190) Morihiroshi, Addendum to Fifth Edition: 2003–2005. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. p. 134. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-34361-5_1485. ISBN 978-3-540-34361-5.
3. "MPC/MPO/MPS Archive". Minor Planet Center. Retrieved 20 July 2016.
External links
• (in Japanese) Hiroshi Mori's list of asteroids found at Yorii Observatory
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• CiNii | 23174 | 0 |
Yasuo Tanaka (astronomer)
Yasuo Tanaka (田中 靖郎, Tanaka Yasuo, 18 March 1931 – 18 January 2018) was a Japanese astrophysicist and a member of the Japan Academy. He was professor emeritus at the University of Tokyo and Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS) (part of JAXA) in Kanagawa, Japan and guest scientist at the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics in Garching, Germany.
Yasuo Tanaka
Born(1931-03-18)18 March 1931
Osaka, Japan
Died18 January 2018(2018-01-18) (aged 86)
Alma materOsaka University
Known forPioneer in X-ray astronomy
Scientific career
FieldsAstrophysics
Institutions
• University of Tokyo
• Nagoya University
He was a pioneer in X-ray astronomy, leading the development and operation of the Ginga, Tenma, and ASCA satellites. [1] He died on 18 January 2018. [2]
Awards and honors
Awards
• Toray Science and Technology Prize (1989)
• Imperial Prize of the Japan Academy (1993)
• James Craig Watson Medal (1994)
• Foreign Associate, National Academy of Sciences (1998)[1]
• Bruno Rossi Prize (2001)
• Person of Cultural Merit (2011)
Named after him
• Asteroid 4387 Tanaka
Other
• Foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (1989)[3]
• The American Astronomical Society named him an Honorary Member (2012)
References
1. "Tanaka, Yasuo". National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 3 February 2010.
2. Yasuo Tanaka (1932–2018)
3. "Y. Tanaka". Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. Archived from the original on 14 February 2016. Retrieved 14 February 2016.
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• IdRef | 23175 | 0 |
Wei Pu
Wei Pu (Chinese: 衛朴; Wade-Giles: Wei P'u) was a Chinese astronomer and politician of the Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD). He was born a commoner, but eventually rose to prominence as an astronomer working for the imperial court at the capital of Kaifeng. [1] Wei became a trusted colleague of the famous Song polymath statesman and scientist Shen Kuo (1031-1095 AD), who served as the head official for the Bureau of Astronomy, and worked on various projects with Wei Pu.
Achievements at court
When Shen Kuo became the Supervisor of the Directorate of Astronomy in 1072 AD, Wei Pu became Shen's protégé, and was eager to partake in Shen's ideal reforms to the Chinese calendar system. [1] With the aid of many different scholars and a large assortment of gathered books written on astronomy, Shen and Wei embarked on this enormous project. [1] With the aid of Wei Pu, Shen planned to make a series of nightly astronomical observations over a period of five years. [1] To allow more accurate astronomical observations and recordings, Shen Kuo improved the technical designs of the rotating armillary sphere, the gnomon, the clepsydra clock, and the sighting tube. [2] Shen Kuo calibrated the standard diameter of the sighting tube's width, hence allowing the observation of the pole star indefinitely (which had shifted since the time of Zu Geng in the 5th century). [2] With these, Shen and Wei attempted to predict the mean speeds of the planets as well as the accurate positions of the planets in their orbits. [3] They established a system of observing and recording on a star map the exact coordinates of the planets, done three times a night for a total of five years. [3] Shen Kuo made a cosmological hypotheses in explaining the variations of planetary motions, including the concept of retrogradation. [4] On the other hand, Wei Pu realized that the old calculation technique for the mean sun was inaccurate compared to the apparent sun, since the latter was ahead of it in the accelerated phase of motion, and behind it in the retarded phase. [5] Hence, he incorporated solar motion into the eclipse theory. [5]
The Song Dynasty astronomers of Wei's day still retained the lunar theory and coordinates of the earlier Tang astronomer, mathematician, and mechanical engineer Yi Xing (683-727 AD), which after 350 years had devolved into a state of considerable error. [3] To fix this, Shen and Wei kept similar astronomical records, three times a night over five years, for the orbital path of the moon. [3] Wei and Shen's work was deeply opposed by the officials and fellow astronomers at court, who were offended by their insistence that the coordinates of the renowned Yi Xing were inaccurate. [6] The elite, well-educated ministers and leading astronomers were also insulted by the fact that Wei Pu was born a commoner, yet held more expertise in his field than many of them. [7] When Wei and Shen made a public demonstration using the gnomon to prove the doubtful wrong, the other ministers reluctantly agreed to correct the lunar error. [6] Although correcting the lunar error was a success, the other ministers and officials eventually dismissed Wei and Shen's recorded course plotting of planetary motions, while the court relied upon the inefficient and older model. [8] This meant that only the very worst errors were corrected for planetary motion, and in his disappointment, Shen wrote, "How sad that the backbiting of that bunch of calendar-makers could have kept him from bringing his art to fruition! "[7]
See also
• Science and technology of the Song Dynasty
Notes
1. Sivin, III, 6.
2. Sivin, III, 17.
3. Sivin, III, 18.
4. Sivin, III, 16.
5. Sivin, III, 19.
6. Sivin, III, 18-19.
7. Sivin, II, 73.
8. Sivin, III, 7.
References
• Sivin, Nathan (1995). Science in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections. Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing.
Further reading
• Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
External links
• The complete chapter on Shen Kuo in Nathan Sivin's book
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• Guo Shoujing (1231–1316) | 23176 | 1 |
Spica
Spica is the brightest object in the constellation of Virgo and one of the 20 brightest stars in the night sky. It has the Bayer designation α Virginis, which is Latinised to Alpha Virginis and abbreviated Alpha Vir or α Vir. Analysis of its parallax shows that it is located 250±10 light-years from the Sun. [3] It is a spectroscopic binary star and rotating ellipsoidal variable; a system whose two stars are so close together they are egg-shaped rather than spherical, and can only be separated by their spectra. The primary is a blue giant and a variable star of the Beta Cephei type.
Spica
Location of Spica (circled)
Observation data
Epoch J2000 Equinox J2000
Constellation Virgo
Pronunciation /ˈspaɪkə/ or /ˈspiːkə/[1][2]
Right ascension 13h 25m 11.579s[3]
Declination −11° 09′ 40.75″[3]
Apparent magnitude (V) +0.97[4] (0.97–1.04[5])
Characteristics
Spectral type B1III-IV + B2V[6]
U−B color index −0.94[4]
B−V color index −0.23[4]
Variable type β Cep + Ellipsoidal[5]
Astrometry
Radial velocity (Rv)+1.0[7] km/s
Proper motion (μ) RA: −42.35±0.62[3] mas/yr
Dec.: −30.67±0.37[3] mas/yr
Parallax (π)13.06 ± 0.70 mas[3]
Distance250 ± 10 ly
(77 ± 4 pc)
Absolute magnitude (MV)−3.55 (−3.5/−1.5)[8]
Orbit[9]
Period (P)4.0145±0.0001 d
Semi-major axis (a)28.20±0.92 R☉
Eccentricity (e)0.133±0.017
Inclination (i)63.1±2.5°
Periastron epoch (T)2,454,189.4±0.02
Argument of periastron (ω)
(secondary) 255.6±12.2°
Details[9]
Primary
Mass11.43±1.15 M☉
Radius7.47±0.54 R☉
Luminosity20,512+5,015
−4,030 L☉
Surface gravity (log g)3.71±0.10 cgs
Temperature25,300±500 K
Rotational velocity (v sin i)165.3±4.5 km/s
Age12.5 Myr
Secondary
Mass7.21±0.75 M☉
Radius3.74±0.53 R☉
Luminosity2,254+1,166
−768 L☉
Surface gravity (log g)4.15±0.15 cgs
Temperature20,900±800 K
Rotational velocity (v sin i)58.8±1.5 km/s
Other designations
Spica, Azimech, Spica Virginis, α Virginis, Alpha Vir, 67 Virginis, BD−10°3672, FK5 498, HD 116658, HIP 65474, HR 5056, SAO 157923, CCDM 13252-1109[10]
Database references
SIMBADdata
Spica, along with Arcturus and Denebola—or Regulus, depending on the source—forms the Spring Triangle asterism, and, by extension, is also part of the Great Diamond together with the star Cor Caroli.
Nomenclature
In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)[11] to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016[12] included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which included Spica for this star. It is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names. [13] The name is derived from the Latin spīca virginis "the virgin's ear of [wheat] grain". It was also anglicized as Virgin's Spike.
α Virginis (Latinised to Alpha Virginis) is the system's Bayer designation. Johann Bayer cited the name Arista.
Other traditional names are Azimech /ˈæzɪmɛk/, from Arabic السماك الأعزل al-simāk al-ʼaʽzal 'the unarmed simāk (of unknown meaning, cf. Eta Boötis); Alarph, Arabic for 'the grape-gatherer' or 'gleaner', and Sumbalet (Sombalet, Sembalet and variants), from Arabic سنبلة sunbulah "ear of grain". [14]
In Chinese, 角宿 (Jiǎo Xiù), meaning Horn (asterism), refers to an asterism consisting of Spica and ζ Virginis. [15] Consequently, the Chinese name for Spica is 角宿一 (Jiǎo Sù yī, English: the First Star of Horn). [16]
In Hindu astronomy, Spica corresponds to the Nakshatra Chitrā. The first month of lunisolar calendar is named after the asterism of Chaitrā in which Spica is the notable star.
Observational history
As one of the nearest massive binary star systems to the Sun, Spica has been the subject of many observational studies. [17]
The Nakshatra Sukta of the ancient Indian Vedas mentions Spica (Chitra) as one of the 27 stars used to identify the sections of the sky the sun appears to revolve around. Spica is used to identify the asterism against which the sidereal year in the Hindu luni-solar calendars is referenced to begin.
Spica is believed to be the star that gave Hipparchus the data that led him to discover the precession of the equinoxes. [18] A temple to Menat (an early Hathor) at Thebes was oriented with reference to Spica when it was built in 3200 BC, and, over time, precession slowly but noticeably changed Spica's location relative to the temple. [19] Nicolaus Copernicus made many observations of Spica with his home-made triquetrum for his researches on precession. [20][21]
Observation
Spica is 2.06 degrees from the ecliptic and can be occulted by the Moon and sometimes by planets. The last planetary occultation of Spica occurred when Venus passed in front of the star (as seen from Earth) on November 10, 1783. The next occultation will occur on September 2, 2197, when Venus again passes in front of Spica. [22] The Sun passes a little more than 2° north of Spica around October 16 every year, and the star's heliacal rising occurs about two weeks later. Every 8 years, Venus passes Spica around the time of the star's heliacal rising, as in 2009 when it passed 3.5° north of the star on November 3. [23]
A method of finding Spica is to follow the arc of the handle of the Big Dipper (or Plough) to Arcturus, and then continue on the same angular distance to Spica. This can be recalled by the mnemonic phrase, "arc to Arcturus and spike to Spica. "[24][25]
Stars that can set (not in a circumpolar constellation for the viewer) culminate at midnight—noticeable where viewed away from any polar region experiencing midnight sun—when at opposition, meaning they can be viewed from dusk until dawn. This applies to α Virginis on 12 April, in the current astronomical epoch. [26]
Physical properties
Spica is a close binary star whose components orbit each other every four days. They stay close enough together that they cannot be resolved as two stars through a telescope. The changes in the orbital motion of this pair results in a Doppler shift in the absorption lines of their respective spectra, making them a double-lined spectroscopic binary. [27] Initially, the orbital parameters for this system were inferred using spectroscopic measurements. Between 1966 and 1970, the Narrabri Stellar Intensity Interferometer was used to observe the pair and to directly measure the orbital characteristics and the angular diameter of the primary, which was found to be (0.90 ± 0.04) × 10−3 arcseconds, and the angular size of the semi-major axis of the orbit was found to be only slightly larger at (1.54 ± 0.05) × 10−3 arcseconds. [8]
Spica is a rotating ellipsoidal variable, which is a non-eclipsing close binary star system where the stars are mutually distorted through their gravitational interaction. | 23177 | 0 |
This effect causes the apparent magnitude of the star system to vary by 0.03 over an interval that matches the orbital period. This slight dip in magnitude is barely noticeable visually. [28] Both stars rotate faster than their mutual orbital period. This lack of synchronization and the high ellipticity of their orbit may indicate that this is a young star system. Over time, the mutual tidal interaction of the pair may lead to rotational synchronization and orbit circularization. [29]
Spica is a polarimetric variable, first discovered to be such in 2016. [30] The majority of the polarimetric signal is the result of the reflection of the light from one star off the other (and vice versa). The two stars in Spica were the first ever to have their reflectivity (or geometric albedo) measured. The geometric albedos of Spica A and B are, respectively, 3.61 percent and 1.36 percent,[31] values that are low compared to planets.
The MK spectral classification of Spica is typically considered to be an early B-type main-sequence star. [32] Individual spectral types for the two components are difficult to assign accurately, especially for the secondary due to the Struve–Sahade effect. The Bright Star Catalogue derived a spectral class of B2III-IV for the primary and B4-7V for the secondary,[6] but later studies have given various different values. [33][34]
The primary star has a stellar classification of B2III-IV. [35] The luminosity class matches the spectrum of a star that is midway between a subgiant and a giant star, and it is no longer a main-sequence star. The evolutionary stage has been calculated to be near or slightly past the end of the main-sequence phase. [34] This is a massive star with more than 10 times the mass of the Sun and seven times its radius. The bolometric luminosity of the primary is about 20,500 times that of the Sun, and nine times the luminosity of its companion. [9] The primary is one of the nearest stars to the Sun that has enough mass to end its life in a Type II supernova explosion. [36][37] However, since Spica has recently left the main sequence, this event is not likely to occur for several more million years.
The primary is classified as a Beta Cephei variable star that varies in brightness over a 0.1738-day period. The spectrum shows a radial velocity variation with the same period, indicating that the surface of the star is regularly pulsating outward and then contracting. This star is rotating rapidly, with a rotational velocity of 199 km/s along the equator. [27]
The secondary member of this system is one of the few stars whose spectrum is affected by the Struve–Sahade effect. This is an anomalous change in the strength of the spectral lines over the course of an orbit, where the lines become weaker as the star is moving away from the observer. [17] It may be caused by a strong stellar wind from the primary scattering the light from secondary when it is receding. [38] This star is smaller than the primary, with about 4 times the mass of the Sun and 3.6 times the Sun's radius. [27] Its stellar classification is B4-7 V, making this a main-sequence star. [35]
In culture
Both a rocket and crew capsule designed and under development by Copenhagen Suborbitals, a crowd-funded space program, is named Spica. Spica aims to make Denmark the first country to launch its own astronaut to space after Russia, the US and China. [39]
Spica is one of the Behenian fixed stars. In his Three Books of Occult Philosophy, Cornelius Agrippa attributes Spica's kabbalistic symbol to Hermes Trismegistus.
See also
• Lists of astronomical objects
References
1. "How to pronounce Spica". Retrieved 2017-02-19.
2. "Main definitions of spica in English". Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on September 29, 2016. Retrieved 2018-02-19.
3. van Leeuwen, F. (2007). "Validation of the new Hipparcos reduction". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 474 (2): 653–664. arXiv:0708.1752. Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20078357. S2CID 18759600. Vizier catalog entry
4. Ducati, J. R. (2002). "VizieR Online Data Catalog: Catalogue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system". CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2237: 0. Bibcode:2002yCat.2237....0D.
5. Ruban, E. V.; Alekseeva, G. A.; Arkharov, A. A.; Hagen-Thorn, E. I.; Galkin, V. D.; Nikanorova, I. N.; Novikov, V. V.; Pakhomov, V. P.; Puzakova, T. Yu. (2006). "Spectrophotometric observations of variable stars". Astronomy Letters. 32 (9): 604. Bibcode:2006AstL...32..604R. doi:10.1134/S1063773706090052. S2CID 121747360.
6. Bright Star Catalogue. Yale University Observatory. 1982.
7. Wilson, Ralph Elmer (1953). "General Catalogue of Stellar Radial Velocities". Carnegie Institute Washington D.C. Publication. Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington. Bibcode:1953GCRV..C......0W.
8. Herbison-Evans, D.; Hanbury Brown, R.; Davis, J.; Allen, L. R. (1971). "A study of alpha Virginis with an intensity interferometer". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 151 (2): 161–176. Bibcode:1971MNRAS.151..161H. doi:10.1093/mnras/151.2.161.
9. Tkachenko, A.; et al. (May 2016), "Stellar modelling of Spica, a high-mass spectroscopic binary with a β Cep variable primary component", Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 458 (2): 1964–1976, arXiv:1601.08069, Bibcode:2016MNRAS.458.1964T, doi:10.1093/mnras/stw255, S2CID 26945389
10. "V* alf Vir -- Variable Star of beta Cep type". SIMBAD. Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg. Retrieved 2010-04-13.
11. "IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)". Retrieved 22 May 2016.
12. "Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No. 1" (PDF). Retrieved 28 July 2016.
13. "IAU Catalog of Star Names". Retrieved 28 July 2016.
14. Richard Hinckley Allen. "Star Names - Their Lore and Meaning". Retrieved 2018-08-15.
15. 陳久金 (2005). 中國星座神話 (in Chinese). 五南圖書出版股份有限公司. ISBN 978-986-7332-25-7.
16. "AEEA 天文教育資訊網, Activities of Exhibition and Education in Astronomy" (in Chinese). National Museum of Natural Science, Taiwan. Retrieved 2018-08-15.
17. Riddle, R. L.; Bagnuolo, W. G.; Gies, D. R. (December 2001). "Spectroscopy of the temporal variations of α Vir". Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society. 33: 1312. Bibcode:2001AAS...199.0613R.
18. Evans, James (1998). The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. Oxford University Press. p. 259. ISBN 978-0-19-509539-5.
19. Allen, Richard Hinckley (2003). Star Names and Their Meanings. Kessinger Publishing. p. 468. ISBN 978-0-7661-4028-8.
20. Rufus, W. Carl (April 1943). "Copernicus, Polish Astronomer, 1473–1543". Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. 37 (4): 134. Bibcode:1943JRASC..37..129R.
21. Moesgaard, Kristian P. (1973). "Copernican influence on Tycho Brahe". In Jerzy Dobrzycki (ed.). The reception of Copernicus' heliocentric theory: proceedings of a symposium organized by the Nicolas Copernicus Committee of the International Union of the History and Philosophy of Science. | 23177 | 1 |
Toruń, Poland: Studia Copernicana, Springer. ISBN 90-277-0311-6.
22. "Earth-Sky Tonight, March 26, 2010". Archived from the original on July 7, 2011. Retrieved 2018-08-15.
23. Breit, Derek C. (March 12, 2010). "Diary of Astronomical Phenomena 2010". Poyntsource.com. Retrieved 2010-04-13.
24. Rao, Joe (June 15, 2007). "Arc to Arcturus, Speed on to Spica". Space.com. Retrieved 14 August 2018.
25. "Follow the arc to Arcturus, and drive a spike to Spica | EarthSky.org". earthsky.org. April 8, 2018. Retrieved 14 August 2018.
26. Ephemeris table. In-the-Sky.org. Dominic C. Ford, 2011–2020; Cambridge UK.
27. Harrington, David; Koenigsberger, Gloria; Moreno, Edmundo; Kuhn, Jeffrey (October 2009). "Line-profile Variability from Tidal Flows in Alpha Virginis (Spica)". The Astrophysical Journal. 704 (1): 813–830. arXiv:0908.3336. Bibcode:2009ApJ...704..813H. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/704/1/813. S2CID 17955730.
28. Morris, S. L. (August 1985). "The ellipsoidal variable stars". Astrophysical Journal, Part 1. 295: 143–152. Bibcode:1985ApJ...295..143M. doi:10.1086/163359.
29. Beech, M. (August 1986). "The ellipsoidal variables. III - Circularization and synchronization". Astrophysics and Space Science. 125 (1): 69–75. Bibcode:1986Ap&SS.125...69B. doi:10.1007/BF00643972. S2CID 125499856.
30. Cotton, D. V.; et al. (January 2016). "The linear polarization of Southern bright stars measured at the parts-per-million level". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 455 (2): 1607–1628. arXiv:1509.07221. Bibcode:2016MNRAS.455.1607C. doi:10.1093/mnras/stv2185. S2CID 11191040.
31. Bailey, Jeremy; Cotton, Daniel V.; Kedziora-Chudczer, Lucyna; De Horta, Ain; Maybour, Darren (2019-04-01). "Polarized reflected light from the Spica binary system". Nature Astronomy. 3 (7): 636–641. arXiv:1904.01195. Bibcode:2019NatAs...3..636B. doi:10.1038/s41550-019-0738-7. S2CID 131977662.
32. Johnson, H. L; Morgan, W. W (1953). "Fundamental stellar photometry for standards of spectral type on the Revised System of the Yerkes Spectral Atlas". The Astrophysical Journal. 117: 313. Bibcode:1953ApJ...117..313J. doi:10.1086/145697.
33. Popper, Daniel M (1980). "Stellar Masses". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 18: 115–164. Bibcode:1980ARA&A..18..115P. doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.18.090180.000555.
34. Odell, A. P (1980). "The structure of Alpha Virginis. III - the pulsation characteristics". The Astrophysical Journal. 236: 536. Bibcode:1980ApJ...236..536O. doi:10.1086/157771.
35. Schnerr, R. S.; et al. (June 2008). "Magnetic field measurements and wind-line variability of OB-type stars". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 483 (3): 857–867. arXiv:1008.4260. Bibcode:2008A&A...483..857S. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20077740. S2CID 53454915.
36. Kaler, Jim. "Spica". Stars. Retrieved 2010-04-15.
37. Firestone, R. B. (July 2014), "Observation of 23 Supernovae That Exploded <300 pc from Earth during the past 300 kyr", The Astrophysical Journal, 789 (1): 11, Bibcode:2014ApJ...789...29F, doi:10.1088/0004-637X/789/1/29, 29.
38. Gies, Douglas R.; Bagnuolo, William G. Jr.; Penny, Laura R. (April 1997). "Photospheric Heating in Colliding-Wind Binaries". Astrophysical Journal. 479 (1): 408. Bibcode:1997ApJ...479..408G. doi:10.1086/303848.
39. "Spica Capsule". Copenhagen Suborbitals. Retrieved 10 April 2021.
Constellation of Virgo
• List of stars in Virgo
Stars
Bayer
• α (Spica)
• β (Zavijava)
• γ (Porrima)
• δ (Minelauva)
• ε (Vindemiatrix)
• ζ (Heze)
• η (Zaniah)
• θ
• ι (Syrma)
• κ (Kang)
• λ (Khambalia)
• μ
• ν
• ξ
• ο
• π
• ρ
• σ
• τ
• υ
• φ (Elgafar)
• χ
• ψ
• ω
Flamsteed
• 4 (A1)
• 6 (A2)
• 7 (b)
• 10
• 11
• 12
• 13
• 14
• 16 (c)
• 17
• 20
• 21 (q)
• 25 (f)
• 27
• 28
• 31 (d1)
• 32 (d2)
• 33
• 34
• 35
• 37
• 38
• 39
• 41
• 44 (k)
• 46
• 48
• 49
• 50
• 53
• 54
• 55
• 56
• 57
• 58
• 59 (e)
• 61
• 62
• 63
• 64
• 65
• 66
• 68 (i)
• 69
• 70
• 71
• 72
• 73
• 74 (l)
• 75
• 76 (h)
• 77
• 78 (o)
• 80
• 81
• 82 (m)
• 83
• 84
• 85
• 86
• 87
• 88
• 89
• 90 (p)
• 92
• 94
• 95
• 96
• 97
• 103
• 104
• 106
• 108
• 109
• 110
• 1 Ser (M Ser)
• 2 Ser
Variable
• R
• S
• W
• RS
• RT
• SS
• ST
• SW
• TW
• TY
• UU
• UV
• UW
• UY
• XX
• AG
• AH
• AL
• AW
• AX
• AZ
• BB
• BF
• BH
• BK
• CE
• CS
• CU
• CX
• DK
• DL
• DM
• DT
• EP
• EQ
• ET
• FF
• FG
• FL | 23177 | 2 |
• FO
• FS
• FT
• FW
• GL
• GK
• GR
• GW
• HS
• HT
• HU
• HV
• HW
• IM
• IN
• IP
• IQ
• IS
• IV
• LN
• NN
• NY
• OU
• PP
• PX
• QS
• QZ
HR
• 4478
• 4484
• 4510
• 4533
• 4544
• 4580
• 4587
• 4591
• 4598
• 4613
• 4657
• 4722
• 4741
• 4770
• 4772
• 4805
• 4837
• 4856
• 4877
• 4896
• 4901
• 4935
• 4957 (g)
• 4959
• 4960
• 4986
• 5013
• 5014
• 5031
• 5033
• 5037
• 5053
• 5059
• 5078
• 5086
• 5106 (y)
• 5114
• 5178
• 5183
• 5205
• 5233
• 5258
• 5272
• 5275
• 5276
• 5277
• 5283
• 5307
• 5317
• 5322
• 5332
• 5341
• 5342
• 5344
• 5353
• 5368
• 5384
• 5392
• 5418
• 5424
• 5496
• 5536
• 5584
• 5631
HD
• 102195 (Flegetonte)
• 102329
• 104078
• 104755
• 106038
• 106252
• 106270
• 106315
• 106515
• 107148
• 107794
• 109271
• 112495
• 114783
• 116429
• 119130
• 122577
• 124973
• 125490
• 125612
• 126614
• 128563
• 130322 (Mönch)
• 133600
Other
• EC 14012-1446
• G 64-12
• Gliese 486
• Gliese 514
• HAT-P-26
• HAT-P-27
• HE 1219-0312
• K2-19
• K2-229
• PG 1323-086
• PG 1325+101
• PSR B1257+12 (Lich)
• Qatar-2
• Ross 128
• SDSS J121209.31+013627.7
• SDSS J1229+1122
• ULAS J133553.45+113005.2
• WASP-16
• WASP-24
• WASP-37
• WASP-39 (Malmok)
• WASP-54
• WASP-55
• WASP-85
• WASP-107
• WASP-157
• WD 1145+017
• Wolf 485A
• Wolf 489
Exoplanets
• χ Virginis b
• 38 Virginis b
• 61 Virginis b
• c
• 70 Virginis b
• e Virginis b
• Gliese 536 b
• HD 102195 b (Lete)
• HD 106252 b
• HD 107148 b
• HD 114783 b
• HD 125612 b
• c
• d
• HD 126614 Ab
• HD 130322 b (Eiger)
• HR 5183 b
• K2-229b
• KELT-21b
• PSR B1257+12 A (Draugr)
• B (Poltergeist)
• C (Phobetor)
• Ross 128 b
• WASP-16b
• WASP-24b
• WASP-39b (Bocaprins)
• WASP-85 Ab
• WASP-107b
• WD 1145+017 b
Star clusters
• HVGC-1
• Koposov 1
• NGC 5634
Nebulae
• Abell 36
Galaxies
Messier
• 49
• 58
• 59
• 60
• 61
• 84
• 86
• 87
• 89
• 90
• 104 (Sombrero Galaxy)
NGC
• 3776
• 3817
• 3818
• 3833
• 3843
• 3848
• 3849
• 3852
• 3863
• 3876
• 3907
• 3907B
• 3914
• 3915
• 3952
• 3976
• 3976A
• 3979
• 4006
• 4012
• 4029
• 4030
• 4043
• 4044
• 4045
• 4045A
• 4058
• 4063
• 4067
• 4073
• 4075
• 4077
• 4079
• 4082
• 4083
• 4107
• 4116
• 4119
• 4123
• 4129
• 4139
• 4164
• 4165
• 4168
• 4176
• 4178
• 4179
• 4180
• 4191
• 4193
• 4197
• 4200
• 4201
• 4202
• 4206
• 4207
• 4215
• 4216
• 4223
• 4224
• 4233
• 4234
• 4235
• 4240
• 4241
• 4246
• 4247
• 4249
• 4252
• 4255
• 4257
• 4259
• 4260
• 4261
• 4264
• 4266
• 4267
• 4268
• 4269
• 4270
• 4273
• 4276
• 4277
• 4279
• 4281
• 4282
• 4285
• 4287
• 4289
• 4292
• 4292A
• 4294
• 4296
• 4297
• 4299
• 4300
• 4301
• 4305
• 4306
• 4307
• 4309
• 4309A
• 4313
• 4316
• 4318
• 4320
• 4324
• 4326
• 4330
• 4333
• 4334
• 4339
• 4341
• 4342
• 4343
• 4348
• 4351
• 4352
• 4353
• 4356
• 4360
• 4365
• 4366
• 4368
• 4370
• 4371
• 4376
• 4378
• 4380
• 4385 | 23177 | 3 |
• 4387
• 4388
• 4390
• 4402
• 4403
• 4404
• 4410
• 4411
• 4412
• 4413
• 4415
• 4416
• 4417
• 4418
• 4420
• 4422
• 4423
• 4424
• 4425
• 4428
• 4429
• 4430
• 4431
• 4432
• 4433
• 4434
• 4436
• 4440
• 4442
• 4445
• 4451
• 4452
• 4453
• 4454
• 4457
• 4458
• 4461
• 4464
• 4465
• 4466
• 4467
• 4469
• 4470
• 4476
• 4478
• 4480
• 4482
• 4483
• 4484
• 4486A
• 4486B
• 4487
• 4488
• 4491
• 4492
• 4493
• 4496
• 4496B
• 4497
• 4503
• 4504
• 4517
• 4517A
• 4518
• 4518B
• 4519
• 4519A
• 4520
• 4522
• 4526
• 4527
• 4528
• 4531
• 4532
• 4533
• 4535
• 4535A
• 4536
• 4538
• 4541
• 4543
• 4544
• 4546
• 4550
• 4551
• 4564
• 4567
• 4568
• 4570
• 4576
• 4577
• 4578
• 4580
• 4581
• 4584
• 4586
• 4587
• 4588
• 4592
• 4593
• 4596
• 4597
• 4598
• 4599
• 4600
• 4602
• 4604
• 4606
• 4607
• 4608
• 4612
• 4620
• 4623
• 4626
• 4628
• 4629
• 4630
• 4632
• 4636
• 4637
• 4638
• 4639
• 4640
• 4640B
• 4641
• 4642
• 4643
• 4647 (Arp 116)
• 4653
• 4654
• 4658
• 4660
• 4663
• 4664
• 4666
• 4668
• 4671
• 4674
• 4678
• 4680
• 4682
• 4684
• 4688
• 4690
• 4691
• 4694
• 4697
• 4698
• 4699
• 4700
• 4701
• 4703
• 4705
• 4708
• 4713
• 4716
• 4717
• 4718
• 4720
• 4731
• 4731A
• 4733
• 4734
• 4739
• 4742
• 4746
• 4753
• 4754
• 4757
• 4759A
• 4760
• 4761
• 4762
• 4764
• 4765
• 4766
• 4770
• 4771
• 4772
• 4773
• 4775
• 4777
• 4778
• 4779
• 4780
• 4780A
• 4781
• 4784
• 4786
• 4790
• 4791
• 4795
• 4796
• 4799
• 4803
• 4808
• 4809
• 4810
• 4813
• 4818
• 4820
• 4822
• 4823
• 4825
• 4829
• 4830
• 4836
• 4838
• 4843
• 4845
• 4847
• 4855
• 4856
• 4862
• 4863
• 4866
• 4877
• 4878
• 4880
• 4885
• 4887
• 4888
• 4890
• 4897
• 4899
• 4900
• 4902
• 4904
• 4915
• 4918
• 4920
• 4924
• 4925
• 4928
• 4933
• 4933C
• 4939
• 4941
• 4942
• 4948
• 4948A
• 4951
• 4958
• 4969
• 4975
• 4981
• 4984
• 4989
• 4990
• 4991
• 4992
• 4995
• 4996
• 4997
• 4999
• 5006
• 5010
• 5013
• 5015
• 5017
• 5018
• 5019
• 5020
• 5022
• 5027
• 5028
• 5030
• 5031
• 5035
• 5036
• 5037
• 5038
• 5039
• 5044
• 5046
• 5047
• 5049
• 5050
• 5054
• 5058
• 5059
• 5060
• 5066
• 5068
• 5071
• 5072
• 5073
• 5075
• 5076
• 5077
• 5079
• 5080
• 5084
• 5087
• 5088
• 5094
• 5095
• 5097
• 5099
• 5104
• 5105
• 5106
• 5111
• 5115
• 5118
• 5119
• 5122
• 5125
• 5129
• 5130
• 5132
• 5133
• 5134
• 5136
• 5137
• 5146
• 5147
• 5148
• 5159
• 5165
• 5167
• 5170
• 5171
• 5174
• 5176
• 5177
• 5178
• 5179
• 5181
• 5183
• 5184
• 5185
• 5186
• 5191
• 5192
• 5196
• 5197
• 5202 | 23177 | 4 |
• 5203
• 5207
• 5208
• 5209
• 5210
• 5211
• 5212
• 5213
• 5221
• 5222
• 5224
• 5226
• 5227
• 5230
• 5231
• 5232
• 5235
• 5241
• 5245
• 5246
• 5247
• 5252
• 5254
• 5261
• 5270
• 5285
• 5300
• 5306
• 5324
• 5327
• 5329
• 5331
• 5334
• 5335
• 5338
• 5339
• 5343
• 5345
• 5348
• 5356
• 5360
• 5363
• 5364
• 5366
• 5369
• 5373
• 5374
• 5382
• 5384
• 5386
• 5387
• 5392
• 5400
• 5420
• 5442
• 5468
• 5470
• 5472
• 5476
• 5478
• 5491A
• 5491B
• 5493
• 5496
• 5501
• 5506
• 5507
• 5510
• 5521
• 5534
• 5537
• 5549
• 5551
• 5552
• 5554
• 5555
• 5560
• 5563
• 5566
• 5569
• 5573
• 5574
• 5575
• 5576
• 5577
• 5584
• 5599
• 5604
• 5618
• 5619
• 5619C
• 5636
• 5638
• 5645
• 5652
• 5661
• 5668
• 5674
• 5679
• 5679A
• 5679C
• 5679D
• 5680
• 5690
• 5691
• 5692
• 5701
• 5705
• 5713
• 5718
• 5719
• 5725
• 5733
• 5738
• 5740
• 5746
• 5750
• 5765
• 5765B
• 5770
• 5774
• 5775
• 5776
• 5806
• 5811
• 5813
• 5814
• 5831
• 5838
• 5839
• 5845
• 5846
• 5846A
• 5847
• 5848
• 5850
• 5854
• 5855
• 5864
• 5865
• 5869
Other
• A1689-zD1
• Abell 1835 IR1916
• Arp 240 (NGC 5257 and NGC 5258)
• Arp 271 (NGC 5426 and NGC 5427)
• BR 1202-0725
• 3C 273
• 3C 279
• 3C 298
• 4C 04.42
• Eyes Galaxies
• GR 8
• IC 1011
• IC 1101
• IC 3038
• IC 3078
• IC 3246
• IC 3258
• IC 3275
• IC 3328
• IC 3625
• IC 3686
• IC 4223
• IRAS 12212+0305
• IRAS 13197−1627
• LEDA 1245565
• M60-UCD1
• Markarian 50
• Markarian 1318
• PG 1216+069
• PG 1244+026
• PG 1254+047
• PG 1307+085
• PG 1416−129
• PG 1426+015
• PKS 1148-001
• PKS 1167+014
• PKS 1217+023
• PKS 1229−021
• PKS 1302−102
• PKS 1335−127
• PKS 1402-012
• PKS 1402+044
• PKS 1405−076
• QSO B1208+1011
• QSO B1243−072
• QSO B1246−057
• QSO B1331+170
• RXJ1242−11
• SMM J14011+0252
• UM 448
• UM 461
• UM 462
Galaxy clusters
• Abell 1644
• Abell 1650
• Abell 1651
• Abell 1689
• Abell 1750
• Abell 1835
• Abell 2029
• Abell 2147
• HCG 62
• IRAS 13218+0552
• MKW 4
• NGC 5044 group
• RX J1347.5−1145
• Virgo Cluster
Astronomical events
• GRB 930131
• GRB 030328
• GRB 050408
• GRB 050801
• GRB 080310
• North Polar Spur
• SN 1960F
• SN 1981B
• SN 1990B
• SN 1990N
• SN 1991T
• SN 1991bg
• SN 1994D
• SN 1999br
• SN 2002cx
• SN 2007bi
• SN 2020jfo
• U1.11
Category | 23177 | 5 |
11 Lacertae
11 Lacertae is a star in the northern constellation of Lacerta. It is visible to the naked eye as a faint orange-hued star with an apparent visual magnitude of 4.46. [3] It lies at a distance of about 333[2] light years and has an absolute magnitude -0.54. [6] The object is moving closer to the Earth with a heliocentric radial velocity of −10.9 km/s. [5]
11 Lacertae
11 Lacertae in optical light
Observation data
Epoch J2000 Equinox J2000
Constellation Lacerta[1]
Right ascension 22h 40m 30.85881s[2]
Declination +44° 16′ 34.7042″[2]
Apparent magnitude (V) 4.46[3]
Characteristics
Spectral type K2.5 III[4]
U−B color index +1.36[3]
B−V color index +1.33[3]
Astrometry
Radial velocity (Rv)−10.91±0.09[5] km/s
Proper motion (μ) RA: +94.426[2] mas/yr
Dec.: +11.606[2] mas/yr
Parallax (π)9.80 ± 0.26 mas[2]
Distance333 ± 9 ly
(102 ± 3 pc)
Absolute magnitude (MV)−0.54[6]
Details[7]
Mass1.38 M☉
Radius27.70 R☉
Luminosity204 L☉
Surface gravity (log g)1.93[8] cgs
Temperature4,352[8] K
Metallicity [Fe/H]−0.19[8] dex
Rotational velocity (v sin i)8[9] km/s
Age3.2 Gyr
Other designations
11 Lac, BD+43° 4266, HD 214868, HIP 111944, HR 8632, SAO 52251[10]
Database references
SIMBADdata
This is an evolved giant star with a stellar classification of K2.5 III. [4] It is a red clump giant, meaning it is fusing helium in its core after passing through the red giant branch. [7] The star is 3.2 billion years old with 1.38 times the mass of the Sun and has expanded to 27.7 times the Sun's radius. [7] It is radiating 204[7] times the Sun's luminosity from its enlarged photosphere at an effective temperature of 4,352 K.[8]
References
1. Roman, N. G. (1987). "Identification of a Constellation from a Position". Retrieved 2006-12-26.
2. Van Leeuwen, F. (2007). "Validation of the new Hipparcos reduction". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 474 (2): 653–664. arXiv:0708.1752. Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20078357. S2CID 18759600.
3. Ducati, J. R. (2002). "VizieR Online Data Catalog: Catalogue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system". CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2237. Bibcode:2002yCat.2237....0D.
4. Keenan, Philip C.; McNeil, Raymond C. (1989). "The Perkins catalog of revised MK types for the cooler stars". Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 71: 245. Bibcode:1989ApJS...71..245K. doi:10.1086/191373.
5. Famaey, B.; et al. (2005), "Local kinematics of K and M giants from CORAVEL/Hipparcos/Tycho-2 data. Revisiting the concept of superclusters", Astronomy and Astrophysics, 430: 165–186, arXiv:astro-ph/0409579, Bibcode:2005A&A...430..165F, doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20041272, S2CID 17804304.
6. Anderson, E.; Francis, Ch. ; Niedzielski, A. (2012). "XHIP: An extended hipparcos compilation". Astronomy Letters. 38 (5): 331. arXiv:1108.4971. Bibcode:2012AstL...38..331A. doi:10.1134/S1063773712050015. S2CID 119257644.
7. Adamczyk, M.; Deka-Szymankiewicz, B.; Niedzielski, A. (2016). "Masses and luminosities for 342 stars from the PennState-Toruń Centre for Astronomy Planet Search". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 587: A119. arXiv:1510.07495. Bibcode:2016A&A...587A.119A. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201526628. S2CID 119299522.
8. Maldonado, J.; Villaver, E.; Niedzielski, A. (2016). "Evolved stars and the origin of abundance trends in planet hosts". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 588: A98. arXiv:1602.00835. Bibcode:2016A&A...588A..98M. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201527883. S2CID 119212009.
9. Bernacca, P. L.; Perinotto, M. (1970). "A catalogue of stellar rotational velocities". Contributi Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova in Asiago. 239 (1): 1. Bibcode:1970CoAsi.239....1B.
10. "11 Lac". SIMBAD. Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg. Retrieved 2019-02-01.
Constellation of Lacerta
• List of stars in Lacerta
• Lacerta in Chinese astronomy
Stars
Bayer
• α
• β
Flamsteed
• 1
• 2
• 4
• 5
• 6
• 8
• 9
• 10
• 11
• 12
• 13
• 14
• 15
• 16
Variable
• U
• CP
• DI
• DK
• EV
• EW
• V424
HR
• 8485
Other
• ADS 16402
Exoplanets
• HAT-P-1b
Star clusters
• NGC 7209
• NGC 7243
Galaxies
NGC
• 7250
Other
• BL
• 3C 449
• 3C 452
Category | 23178 | 0 |
Seki Takakazu
Seki Takakazu (関 孝和, c. March 1642 – December 5, 1708),[1] also known as Seki Kōwa (関 孝和),[2] was a Japanese mathematician and author of the Edo period. [3]
kizaru
Ink painting of Seki Takakazu, from the Japan Academy archives in Tokyo.
Born1642(?)
Edo or Fujioka, Japan
DiedDecember 5, 1708 (Gregorian calendar)
Japan
NationalityJapanese
Other namesSeki Kōwa
Scientific career
FieldsMathematics
Seki laid foundations for the subsequent development of Japanese mathematics, known as wasan. [2] He has been described as "Japan's Newton". [4]
He created a new algebraic notation system and, motivated by astronomical computations, did work on infinitesimal calculus and Diophantine equations. Although he was a contemporary of German polymath mathematician and philosopher Gottfried Leibniz and British polymath physicist and mathematician Isaac Newton, Seki's work was independent. His successors later developed a school dominant in Japanese mathematics until the end of the Edo period.
While it is not clear how much of the achievements of wasan are Seki's, since many of them appear only in writings of his pupils, some of the results parallel or anticipate those discovered in Europe. [5] For example, he is credited with the discovery of Bernoulli numbers. [6] The resultant and determinant (the first in 1683, the complete version no later than 1710) are attributed to him.
Seki also calculated the value of pi correct to the 10th decimal place, having used what is now called the Aitken's delta-squared process, rediscovered later by Alexander Aitken.
Seki was influenced by Japanese mathematics books such as the Jinkōki. [7]
Biography
Not much is known about Seki's personal life. His birthplace has been indicated as either Fujioka in Gunma Prefecture, or Edo. His birth date ranges from 1635 to 1643.
He was born to the Uchiyama clan, a subject of Ko-shu han, and adopted into the Seki family, a subject of the shōgun. While in Ko-shu han, he was involved in a surveying project to produce a reliable map of his employer's land. He spent many years in studying 13th-century Chinese calendars to replace the less accurate one used in Japan at that time.
Career
Chinese mathematical roots
His mathematics (and wasan as a whole) was based on mathematical knowledge accumulated from the 13th to 15th centuries. [8] The material in these works consisted of algebra with numerical methods, polynomial interpolation and its applications, and indeterminate integer equations. Seki's work is more or less based on and related to these known methods.
Chinese algebraists discovered numerical evaluation (Horner's method, re-established by William George Horner in the 19th century) of arbitrary-degree algebraic equation with real coefficients. By using the Pythagorean theorem, they reduced geometric problems to algebra systematically. The number of unknowns in an equation was, however, quite limited. They used notations of an array of numbers to represent a formula; for example, $(a\ b\ c)$ for $ax^{2}+bx+c$.
Later, they developed a method that uses two-dimensional arrays, representing four variables at most, but the scope of this method was limited. Accordingly, a target of Seki and his contemporary Japanese mathematicians was the development of general multivariable algebraic equations and elimination theory.
In the Chinese approach to polynomial interpolation, the motivation was to predict the motion of celestial bodies from observed data. The method was also applied to find various mathematical formulas. Seki learned this technique, most likely, through his close examination of Chinese calendars.
Competing with contemporaries
In 1671, Sawaguchi Kazuyuki (沢口 一之), a pupil of Hashimoto Masakazu (橋本 正数) in Osaka, published Kokon Sanpō Ki (古今算法記), in which he gave the first comprehensive account of Chinese algebra in Japan. He successfully applied it to problems suggested by his contemporaries. Before him, these problems were solved using arithmetical methods. In the end of the book, he challenged other mathematicians with 15 new problems, which require multi-variable algebraic equations.
In 1674, Seki published Hatsubi Sanpō (発微算法), giving solutions to all the 15 problems. The method he used is called bōsho-hō. He introduced the use of kanji to represent unknowns and variables in equations. Although it was possible to represent equations of an arbitrary degree (he once treated the 1458th degree) with negative coefficients, there were no symbols corresponding to parentheses, equality, or division. For example, $ax+b$ could also mean $ax+b=0$. Later, the system was improved by other mathematicians, and in the end it became as expressive as the ones developed in Europe.
In his book of 1674, however, Seki gave only single-variable equations resulting from elimination, but no account of the process at all, nor his new system of algebraic symbols. There were a few errors in the first edition. A mathematician in Hashimoto's school criticized the work, saying "only three out of 15 are correct." In 1678, Tanaka Yoshizane (田中 由真), who was from Hashimoto's school and was active in Kyoto, authored Sanpō Meiki (算法明記), and gave new solutions to Sawaguchi's 15 problems, using his version of multivariable algebra, similar to Seki's. To answer criticism, in 1685, Takebe Katahiro (建部 賢弘), one of Seki's pupils, published Hatsubi Sanpō Genkai (発微算法諺解), notes on Hatsubi Sanpō, in which he showed in detail the process of elimination using algebraic symbols.
The effect of the introduction of the new symbolism was not restricted to algebra. With it, mathematicians at that time became able to express mathematical results in more general and abstract way. They concentrated on the study of elimination of variables.
Elimination theory
In 1683, Seki pushed ahead with elimination theory, based on resultants, in the Kaifukudai no Hō (解伏題之法). To express the resultant, he developed the notion of the determinant. [9] While in his manuscript the formula for 5×5 matrices is obviously wrong, being always 0, in his later publication, Taisei Sankei (大成算経), written in 1683-1710 with Katahiro Takebe (建部 賢弘) and his brothers, a correct and general formula (Laplace's formula for the determinant) appears.
Tanaka came up with the same idea independently. An indication appeared in his book of 1678: some of equations after elimination are the same as resultant. In Sanpō Funkai (算法紛解) (1690? ), he explicitly described the resultant and applied it to several problems. In 1690, Izeki Tomotoki (井関 知辰), a mathematician active in Osaka but not in Hashimoto's school, published Sanpō Hakki (算法発揮), in which he gave resultant and Laplace's formula of determinant for the n×n case. The relationships between these works are not clear. Seki developed his mathematics in competition with mathematicians in Osaka and Kyoto, at the cultural center of Japan.
In comparison with European mathematics, Seki's first manuscript was as early as Leibniz's first commentary on the subject, which treated matrices only up to the 3x3 case. The subject was forgotten in the West until Gabriel Cramer in 1750 was brought to it by the same motivations. Elimination theory equivalent to the wasan form was rediscovered by Étienne Bézout in 1764. Laplace's formula was established no earlier than 1750.
With elimination theory in hand, a large part of the problems treated in Seki's time became solvable in principle, given the Chinese tradition of geometry almost reduced to algebra. In practice, the method could founder under huge computational complexity. Yet this theory had a significant influence on the direction of development of wasan. After the elimination is complete, one is left to find numerically the real roots of a single-variable equation. Horner's method, though well known in China, was not transmitted to Japan in its final form. So Seki had to work it out by himself independently. He is sometimes credited with Horner's method, which is not historically correct. He also suggested an improvement to Horner's method: to omit higher order terms after some iterations. This practice happens to be the same as that of Newton–Raphson method, but with a completely different perspective. Neither he nor his pupils had, strictly speaking, the idea of derivative.
Seki also studied the properties of algebraic equations for assisting in numerical solution. | 23179 | 0 |
The most notable of these are the conditions for the existence of multiple roots based on the discriminant, which is the resultant of a polynomial and its "derivative": His working definition of "derivative" was the O(h) -term in f(x + h), which was computed by the binomial theorem.
He obtained some evaluations of the number of real roots of a polynomial equation.
Calculation of pi
Part of a series of articles on the
mathematical constant π
3.1415926535897932384626433...
Uses
• Area of a circle
• Circumference
• Use in other formulae
Properties
• Irrationality
• Transcendence
Value
• Less than 22/7
• Approximations
• Madhava's correction term
• Memorization
People
• Archimedes
• Liu Hui
• Zu Chongzhi
• Aryabhata
• Madhava
• Jamshīd al-Kāshī
• Ludolph van Ceulen
• François Viète
• Seki Takakazu
• Takebe Kenko
• William Jones
• John Machin
• William Shanks
• Srinivasa Ramanujan
• John Wrench
• Chudnovsky brothers
• Yasumasa Kanada
History
• Chronology
• A History of Pi
In culture
• Indiana pi bill
• Pi Day
Related topics
• Squaring the circle
• Basel problem
• Six nines in π
• Other topics related to π
Another of Seki's contributions was the rectification of the circle, i.e., the calculation of pi; he obtained a value for π that was correct to the 10th decimal place, using what is now called the Aitken's delta-squared process, rediscovered in the 20th century by Alexander Aitken.
Legacy
The asteroid 7483 Sekitakakazu is named after Seki Takakazu.
Selected works
In a statistical overview derived from writings by and about Seki Takakazu, OCLC/WorldCat encompasses roughly 50+ works in 50+ publications in three languages and 100+ library holdings. [10]
• 1683 – Kenpu no Hō (驗符之法) OCLC 045626660
• 1712 – Katsuyō Sanpō (括要算法) OCLC 049703813
• Seki Takakazu Zenshū (關孝和全集) OCLC 006343391, collected works
Gallery
• Seki on a 1992 stamp, taken from an Edo era ink drawing
• Memorial to Seki, with stele and statue
• Seki's grave marker outside Jyōrin-ji temple in Tokyo
See also
• Sangaku, the custom of presenting mathematical problems, carved in wood tablets, to the public in Shinto shrines
• Soroban, a Japanese abacus
• Japanese mathematics
• Napkin ring problem
Notes
1. Selin, Helaine. (1997). Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures, p. 890
2. Selin, p. 641., p. 641, at Google Books
3. Smith, David. (1914) A History of Japanese Mathematics, pp. 91-127. , p. 91, at Google Books
4. Restivo, Sal P. (1992). Mathematics in Society and History: Sociological Inquiries,, p. 56, at Google Books
5. Smith, pp. 128-142. , p. 128, at Google Books
6. Poole, David. (2005). Linear algebra: a Modern Introduction, p. 279. , p. 279, at Google Books; Selin, p. 891.
7. 鳴海風「和算」『東京人』第321号、都市出版、52-56頁、2013年2月3日。
8. 和算の開祖 関孝和 ("Seki Takakazu, founder of Japanese mathematics"), Otonanokagaku. June 25, 2008. Seki was greatly influenced by Chinese mathematical books Introduction to Computational Studies (1299) by Zhu Shijie and Yang Hui suan fa (1274-75) by Yang Hui. (とくに大きな影響を受けたのは、中国から伝わった数学書『算学啓蒙』(1299年)と『楊輝算法』(1274-75年)だった。)
9. Eves, Howard. (1990). An Introduction to the History of Mathematics, p. 405.
10. WorldCat Identities: 関孝和 ca. 1642-1708
References
• Endō Toshisada (1896). History of mathematics in Japan (日本數學史史, Dai Nihon sūgakush). Tōkyō: _____. OCLC 122770600
• Horiuchi, Annick. (1994). Les Mathematiques Japonaises a L'Epoque d'Edo (1600–1868): Une Etude des Travaux de Seki Takakazu (?-1708) et de Takebe Katahiro (1664–1739). Paris: Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin. ISBN 9782711612130; OCLC 318334322
• Howard Whitley, Eves. (1990). An Introduction to the History of Mathematics. Philadelphia: Saunders. ISBN 9780030295584; OCLC 20842510
• Poole, David. (2005). Linear algebra: a Modern Introduction. Belmont, California: Thomson Brooks/Cole. ISBN 9780534998455; OCLC 67379937
• Restivo, Sal P. (1992). Mathematics in Society and History: Sociological Inquiries. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 9780792317654; OCLC 25709270
• Sato, Kenichi. (2005), Kinsei Nihon Suugakushi -Seki Takakazu no jitsuzou wo motomete. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press. ISBN 4-13-061355-3
• Selin, Helaine. (1997). Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Dordrecht: Kluwer/Springer. ISBN 9780792340669; OCLC 186451909
• David Eugene Smith and Yoshio Mikami. (1914). A History of Japanese Mathematics. Chicago: Open Court Publishing. OCLC 1515528 Alternate online, full-text copy at archive.org
External links
• Sugaku-bunka
• O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Takakazu Shinsuke Seki", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
Authority control databases
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• FAST
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People
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Other
• SNAC
• IdRef | 23179 | 1 |
Hong Kong Observatory
The Hong Kong Observatory is a weather forecast agency of the government of Hong Kong. The Observatory forecasts the weather and issues warnings on weather-related hazards. It also monitors and makes assessments on radiation levels in Hong Kong and provides other meteorological and geophysical services to meet the needs of the public and the shipping, aviation, industrial and engineering sectors.
Hong Kong Observatory
香港天文台
Agency overview
Formed2 March 1883 (1883-03-02)[1]
Headquarters134A Nathan Road, Tsim Sha Tsui, Kowloon, Hong Kong
Employees315 (March 2018)[2]
Annual budget381.4m HKD (2019–20)[2]
Agency executive
• Dr. Cheng Cho-ming, Director of the Hong Kong Observatory
Parent agencyEnvironment and Ecology Bureau
Websitewww.hko.gov.hk
www.weather.gov.hk
Hong Kong Observatory
Chinese香港天文台
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinXiānggǎng Tiānwéntái
Yue: Cantonese
Yale RomanizationHēung góng tīn màhn tòih
JyutpingHoeng1 gong2 tin1 man4 toi4
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Overview
The Observatory was established on 2 March 1883 as the Hong Kong Observatory by Sir George Bowen, the 9th Governor of Hong Kong, with William Doberck (1852–1941) as its first director. Early operations included meteorological and magnetic observations, a time service based on astronomical observations and a tropical cyclone warning service. The Observatory was renamed the Royal Observatory Hong Kong (Chinese: 皇家香港天文台) after obtaining a Royal Charter in 1912. [1] The Observatory adopted the current name and emblem in 1997 after the transfer of Hong Kong's sovereignty from the UK to China.
The Hong Kong Observatory was built in Tsim Sha Tsui, Kowloon in 1883. Observatory Road in Tsim Sha Tsui is so named based on this landmark. However, due to rapid urbanisation, it is now surrounded by skyscrapers. As a result of high greenhouse gas emissions, the reflection of sunlight from buildings and the surfaces of roads, as well as the reduced vegetation, it suffers from a heat island effect. This was demonstrated by the considerable increase in average temperatures recorded by the Observatory between 1980 and 2005. In 2002, the Observatory opened a resource centre on the 23rd Floor of the nearby Miramar Tower, where the public can buy Hong Kong Observatory publications and access other meteorological information.
Buildings in the observatory
1883 building
This building, built in 1883, is a rectangular two-storey plastered brick structure. It is characterised by arched windows and long verandas. It now houses the office of the directorate and serves as the centre of administration of the Observatory. [3] The building is a declared monument of Hong Kong since 1984. [4][5]
The Hong Kong Observatory Headquarters
This building is next to the 1883 Building; the Centenary Building, used as The Hong Kong Observatory Headquarters, was erected in 1983 as a commemoration of the centennial service of the Observatory. [6]
Directors
Over the years, the observatory has been led by | 23180 | 0 |
# Name Tenure Start Tenure End Length of Tenure Notes
1 William Doberck 2 March 1883 12 September 1907 24 years and 195 days
• First Director
• Longest serving Director
2 Frederick George Figg 13 September 1907 13 June 1912 4 years and 275 days
3 Thomas Folkes Claxton 14 June 1912 8 July 1932 20 years and 25 days
• Second Director to serve over 20 years
4 Charles William Jeffries 9 July 1932 20 June 1941 8 years and 347 days
5 Benjamin Davis Evans 21 June 1941 30 April 1946 4 years and 314 days
• Director through Japanese occupation
6 Graham Scudamore Percival Heywood 1 May 1946 7 April 1956 9 years and 343 days
7 Ian Edward Mein Watts 8 April 1956 23 August 1965 9 years and 138 days
8 Gordon John Bell 24 August 1965 16 January 1981 15 years and 146 days
9 John Edgar Peacock 17 January 1981 14 March 1984 3 years and 58 days
• Last British Director
10 Patrick Sham Pak 15 March 1984 25 May 1995 11 years and 72 days
• First local Hong Kong Chinese Director
11 Robert Lau Chi-kwan 26 May 1995 21 December 1996 1 year and 210 days
12 Lam Hung-kwan 22 December 1996 13 March 2003 6 years and 82 days
• Director through the Handover
13 Lam Chiu-ying 14 March 2003 10 May 2009 6 years and 58 days
14 Lee Boon-ying 11 May 2009 13 April 2011 1 year and 338 days
15 Shun Chi-ming 14 April 2011 14 February 2020 8 years and 307 days
16 Cheng Cho-ming 15 February 2020 Incumbent 4 years, 120 days
[7]
Observatory logo
From 1885 to 1948, the HKO used the coat of arms of the United Kingdom in various styles for its logo but in 1949, this was changed to a circular escutcheon featuring pictures of weather observation tools, with the year 1883 at the bottom and a St Edward's Crown at the top. In 1981, the logo was changed to the old coat of arms, and in 1997, with the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong, the current logo was introduced to replace the colonial symbols.
Outreach activities and publicity
The Friends of the Observatory, an interest group set up in 1996 to help the Observatory to promote Hong Kong Observatory and its services to the public, provide science extension activities in relation to the works of the Observatory and foster communication between the Observatory and the public, now has more than 7,000 individual and family members in total. Activities organised for the Friends of the Observatory include regular science lectures and visits to Observatory's facilities. Newsletters (named 談天說地) were also published for members once every four months. Voluntary docents from this interest group lead a "HKO Guided Tour" to let the public who applied for visit in advance to visit the headquarters of the Observatory, and learn about the history, environment and meteorological science applied by the Observatory.
The Observatory regularly organises visits for secondary school students. This outreach programme was extended to primary school students, the elderly and community groups in recent years. Talks are also organised in primary schools during the winter time, when officials are less busy in the severe climate issues and watchouts. A roving exhibition for the public was also mounted in shopping malls in 2003. To promote understanding of the services provided by the Observatory and their benefits to the community, over 50 press releases were issued and 7 media briefings were held in 2003. From time to time, the Observatory also works closely with schools for a series of events, including with the Geography Society of PLK Vicwood KT Chong Sixth Form College between 2008 and 2009.
See also
• Central Weather Bureau (Taiwan)
• China Meteorological Administration
• Climate of Hong Kong
• Hong Kong rainstorm warning signals
• Hong Kong Time
• Hong Kong tropical cyclone warning signals
• Macao Meteorological and Geophysical Bureau
References
1. "History of the Hong Kong Observatory". Hong Kong Observatory. 20 May 2011. Retrieved 7 August 2011.
2. "Head 168 – HONG KONG OBSERVATORY" (PDF). Hong Kong Observatory. Brand Hong Kong. Retrieved 14 October 2019.
3. Hong Kong Observatory
4. "Hong Kong Observatory, Tsim Sha Tsui". Antiquities and Monuments Office. Government of Hong Kong. Retrieved 22 September 2013.
5. "Annex I Listing of Declared Monuments". Environmental Protection Department. Government of Hong Kong. 1 January 1999. Archived from the original on 28 October 2009. Retrieved 10 March 2013.
6. Hong Kong Observatory: Buildings
7. "The Directors". www.hko.gov.hk. Retrieved 8 September 2023.
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Metallicity
In astronomy, metallicity is the abundance of elements present in an object that are heavier than hydrogen and helium. Most of the normal currently detectable (i.e. non-dark) matter in the universe is either hydrogen or helium, and astronomers use the word "metals" as convenient shorthand for "all elements except hydrogen and helium". This word-use is distinct from the conventional chemical or physical definition of a metal as an electrically conducting solid. Stars and nebulae with relatively high abundances of heavier elements are called "metal-rich" in astrophysical terms, even though many of those elements are nonmetals in chemistry.
Origin
See also: Stellar nucleosynthesis and Big Bang nucleosynthesis
The presence of heavier elements results from stellar nucleosynthesis, where the majority of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium in the Universe (metals, hereafter) are formed in the cores of stars as they evolve. Over time, stellar winds and supernovae deposit the metals into the surrounding environment, enriching the interstellar medium and providing recycling materials for the birth of new stars. It follows that older generations of stars, which formed in the metal-poor early Universe, generally have lower metallicities than those of younger generations, which formed in a more metal-rich Universe.
Stellar populations
Observed changes in the chemical abundances of different types of stars, based on the spectral peculiarities that were later attributed to metallicity, led astronomer Walter Baade in 1944 to propose the existence of two different populations of stars. [1] These became commonly known as population I (metal-rich) and population II (metal-poor) stars. A third, earliest stellar population was hypothesized in 1978, known as population III stars. [2][3][4] These "extremely metal-poor" (XMP) stars are theorized to have been the "first-born" stars created in the Universe.
Common methods of calculation
Astronomers use several different methods to describe and approximate metal abundances, depending on the available tools and the object of interest. Some methods include determining the fraction of mass that is attributed to gas versus metals, or measuring the ratios of the number of atoms of two different elements as compared to the ratios found in the Sun.
Mass fraction
Stellar composition is often simply defined by the parameters X, Y, and Z. Here X represents the mass fraction of hydrogen, Y is the mass fraction of helium, and Z is the mass fraction of all the remaining chemical elements. Thus
$X+Y+Z=1$
In most stars, nebulae, HII regions, and other astronomical sources, hydrogen and helium are the two dominant elements. The hydrogen mass fraction is generally expressed as $\ X\equiv {\tfrac {m_{\mathsf {H}}}{M}}\ ,$ where M is the total mass of the system, and $\ m_{\mathsf {H}}\ $ is the mass of the hydrogen it contains. Similarly, the helium mass fraction is denoted as $\ Y\equiv {\tfrac {m_{\mathsf {He}}}{M}}~.$ The remainder of the elements are collectively referred to as "metals", and the metallicity – the mass fraction of elements heavier than helium – is calculated as
$Z=\sum _{e>{\mathsf {He}}}{\tfrac {m_{e}}{M}}=1-X-Y~.$
For the surface of the Sun (symbol $\odot $), these parameters are measured to have the following values:[5]
DescriptionSolar value
Hydrogen mass fraction$\ X_{\odot }=0.7381\ $
Helium mass fraction$\ Y_{\odot }=0.2485\ $
Metallicity$\ Z_{\odot }=0.0134\ $
Due to the effects of stellar evolution, neither the initial composition nor the present day bulk composition of the Sun is the same as its present-day surface composition.
Chemical abundance ratios
The overall stellar metallicity is conventionally defined using the total hydrogen content, since its abundance is considered to be relatively constant in the Universe, or the iron content of the star, which has an abundance that is generally linearly increasing in time in the Universe. [6] Hence, iron can be used as a chronological indicator of nucleosynthesis. Iron is relatively easy to measure with spectral observations in the star's spectrum given the large number of iron lines in the star's spectra (even though oxygen is the most abundant heavy element – see metallicities in HII regions below). The abundance ratio is the common logarithm of the ratio of a star's iron abundance compared to that of the Sun and is calculated thus:[7]
$\left[{\frac {\mathsf {Fe}}{\mathsf {H}}}\right]~=~\log _{10}{\left({\frac {N_{\mathsf {Fe}}}{N_{\mathsf {H}}}}\right)_{\star }}-~\log _{10}{\left({\frac {N_{\mathsf {Fe}}}{N_{\mathsf {H}}}}\right)_{\odot }}\ ,$
where $\ N_{\mathsf {Fe}}\ $ and $\ N_{\mathsf {H}}\ $ are the number of iron and hydrogen atoms per unit of volume respectively, $\odot $ is the standard symbol for the Sun, and $\star $ for a star (often omitted below). The unit often used for metallicity is the dex, contraction of "decimal exponent". By this formulation, stars with a higher metallicity than the Sun have a positive common logarithm, whereas those more dominated by hydrogen have a corresponding negative value. For example, stars with a $\ {\bigl [}{\tfrac {\mathsf {Fe}}{\mathsf {H}}}{\bigr ]}_{\star }\ $ value of +1 have 10 times the metallicity of the Sun (10+1); conversely, those with a $\ {\bigl [}{\tfrac {\mathsf {Fe}}{\mathsf {H}}}{\bigr ]}_{\star }\ $ value of −1 have 1/10, while those with a $\ {\bigl [}{\tfrac {\mathsf {Fe}}{\mathsf {H}}}{\bigr ]}_{\star }\ $ value of 0 have the same metallicity as the Sun, and so on. [8]
Young population I stars have significantly higher iron-to-hydrogen ratios than older population II stars. Primordial population III stars are estimated to have metallicity less than −6, a millionth of the abundance of iron in the Sun. [9][10] The same notation is used to express variations in abundances between other individual elements as compared to solar proportions. For example, the notation $\ {\bigl [}{\tfrac {\mathsf {O}}{\mathsf {Fe}}}{\bigr ]}\ $ represents the difference in the logarithm of the star's oxygen abundance versus its iron content compared to that of the Sun. In general, a given stellar nucleosynthetic process alters the proportions of only a few elements or isotopes, so a star or gas sample with certain $\ {\bigl [}{\tfrac {\mathsf {? }}{\mathsf {Fe}}}{\bigr ]}_{\star }\ $ values may well be indicative of an associated, studied nuclear process.
Photometric colors
Astronomers can estimate metallicities through measured and calibrated systems that correlate photometric measurements and spectroscopic measurements (see also Spectrophotometry). For example, the Johnson UVB filters can be used to detect an ultraviolet (UV) excess in stars,[11] where a smaller UV excess indicates a larger presence of metals that absorb the UV radiation, thereby making the star appear "redder". [12][13][14] The UV excess, δ(U−B), is defined as the difference between a star's U and B band magnitudes, compared to the difference between U and B band magnitudes of metal-rich stars in the Hyades cluster. [15] Unfortunately, δ(U−B) is sensitive to both metallicity and temperature: If two stars are equally metal-rich, but one is cooler than the other, they will likely have different δ(U−B) values[15] (see also Blanketing effect[16][17]). To help mitigate this degeneracy, a star's B−V color index can be used as an indicator for temperature. Furthermore, the UV excess and B−V index can be corrected to relate the δ(U−B) value to iron abundances. [18][19][20]
Other photometric systems that can be used to determine metallicities of certain astrophysical objects include the Strӧmgren system,[21][22] the Geneva system,[23][24] the Washington system,[25][26] and the DDO system. [27][28]
Metallicities in various astrophysical objects
Stars
At a given mass and age, a metal-poor star will be slightly warmer. Population II stars' metallicities are roughly 1/1000 to 1/10 of the Sun's $\left(\ {\bigl [}{\tfrac {\mathsf {Fe}}{\mathsf {H}}}{\bigr ]}\ ={-3.0}\ ...\ {-1.0}\ \right)\ ,$ but the group appears cooler than population I overall, as heavy population II stars have long since died. | 23181 | 0 |
Above 40 solar masses, metallicity influences how a star will die: Outside the pair-instability window, lower metallicity stars will collapse directly to a black hole, while higher metallicity stars undergo a type Ib/c supernova and may leave a neutron star.
Relationship between stellar metallicity and planets
A star's metallicity measurement is one parameter that helps determine whether a star may have a giant planet, as there is a direct correlation between metallicity and the presence of a giant planet. Measurements have demonstrated the connection between a star's metallicity and gas giant planets, like Jupiter and Saturn. The more metals in a star and thus its planetary system and protoplanetary disk, the more likely the system may have gas giant planets. Current models show that the metallicity along with the correct planetary system temperature and distance from the star are key to planet and planetesimal formation. For two stars that have equal age and mass but different metallicity, the less metallic star is bluer. Among stars of the same color, less metallic stars emit more ultraviolet radiation. The Sun, with eight planets and nine consensus dwarf planets, is used as the reference, with a $\ {\bigl [}{\tfrac {\mathsf {Fe}}{\mathsf {H}}}{\bigr ]}\ $ of 0.00. [29][30][31][32][33]
HII regions
Young, massive and hot stars (typically of spectral types O and B) in HII regions emit UV photons that ionize ground-state hydrogen atoms, knocking electrons and protons free; this process is known as photoionization. The free electrons can strike other atoms nearby, exciting bound metallic electrons into a metastable state, which eventually decay back into a ground state, emitting photons with energies that correspond to forbidden lines. Through these transitions, astronomers have developed several observational methods to estimate metal abundances in HII regions, where the stronger the forbidden lines in spectroscopic observations, the higher the metallicity. [34][35] These methods are dependent on one or more of the following: the variety of asymmetrical densities inside HII regions, the varied temperatures of the embedded stars, and/or the electron density within the ionized region. [36][37][38][39]
Theoretically, to determine the total abundance of a single element in an HII region, all transition lines should be observed and summed. However, this can be observationally difficult due to variation in line strength. [40][41] Some of the most common forbidden lines used to determine metal abundances in HII regions are from oxygen (e.g. [OII] λ = (3727, 7318, 7324) Å, and [OIII] λ = (4363, 4959, 5007) Å), nitrogen (e.g. [NII] λ = (5755, 6548, 6584) Å), and sulfur (e.g. [SII] λ = (6717, 6731) Å and [SIII] λ = (6312, 9069, 9531) Å) in the optical spectrum, and the [OIII] λ = (52, 88) μm and [NIII] λ = 57 μm lines in the infrared spectrum. Oxygen has some of the stronger, more abundant lines in HII regions, making it a main target for metallicity estimates within these objects. To calculate metal abundances in HII regions using oxygen flux measurements, astronomers often use the R23 method, in which
$R_{23}={\frac {\ \left[\ {\mathsf {O}}^{\mathsf {II}}\right]_{3727~\mathrm {\AA} }+\left[\ {\mathsf {O}}^{\mathsf {III}}\right]_{4959~\mathrm {\AA} +5007~\mathrm {\AA} }\ }{{\Bigl [}\ {\mathsf {H}}_{\mathsf {\beta }}{\Bigr ]}_{4861~\mathrm {\AA} }}}\ ,$
where $\ \left[\ {\mathsf {O}}^{\mathsf {II}}\right]_{3727~\mathrm {\AA} }+\left[\ {\mathsf {O}}^{\mathsf {III}}\right]_{4959~\mathrm {\AA} +5007~\mathrm {\AA} }\ $ is the sum of the fluxes from oxygen emission lines measured at the rest frame λ = (3727, 4959 and 5007) Å wavelengths, divided by the flux from the Balmer series Hβ emission line at the rest frame λ = 4861 Å wavelength. [42] This ratio is well defined through models and observational studies,[43][44][45] but caution should be taken, as the ratio is often degenerate, providing both a low and high metallicity solution, which can be broken with additional line measurements. [46] Similarly, other strong forbidden line ratios can be used, e.g. for sulfur, where[47]
$S_{23}={\frac {\ \left[\ {\mathsf {S}}^{\mathsf {II}}\right]_{6716~\mathrm {\AA} +6731~\mathrm {\AA} }+\left[\ {\mathsf {S}}^{\mathsf {III}}\right]_{9069~\mathrm {\AA} +9532~\mathrm {\AA} }\ }{{\Bigl [}\ {\mathsf {H}}_{\mathsf {\beta }}{\Bigr ]}_{4861~\mathrm {\AA} }}}~.$
Metal abundances within HII regions are typically less than 1%, with the percentage decreasing on average with distance from the Galactic Center. [40][48][49][50][51]
Galaxies
In November 2022, astronomers, using the Hubble Space Telescope, discovered one of the most metal-poor galaxies known. This nearby dwarf galaxy, 20 million ly away and 1,200 ly across, is named HIPASS J1131–31 (nicknamed the "Peekaboo" Galaxy). [52][53] According to one of the astronomers, "Due to Peekaboo's proximity to us, we can conduct detailed observations, opening up possibilities of seeing an environment resembling the early universe in unprecedented detail. "[54]
See also
• Cosmos Redshift 7, a galaxy that reportedly contains Population III stars
• Galaxy formation and evolution
• GRB 090423, the most distant seen, presumably from a low-metallicity progenitor
• Metallicity distribution function
References
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44. McGaugh, Stacy S. (October 1991). "HII region abundances - Model oxygen line ratios". The Astrophysical Journal. 380: 140. Bibcode:1991ApJ...380..140M. doi:10.1086/170569. ISSN 0004-637X.
45. Pilyugin, L.S. (April 2001). "On the oxygen abundance determination in HII regions". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 369 (2): 594–604. arXiv:astro-ph/0101446. Bibcode:2001A&A...369..594P. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20010079. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 54527173.
46. Kobulnicky, Henry A.; Zaritsky, Dennis (1999-01-20). "Chemical Properties of Star-forming Emission-Line Galaxies atz=0.1–0.5". The Astrophysical Journal. 511 (1): 118–135. arXiv:astro-ph/9808081. Bibcode:1999ApJ...511..118K. doi:10.1086/306673. ISSN 0004-637X. S2CID 13094276.
47. Diaz, A.I. ; Perez-Montero, E. (2000-02-11). "An empirical calibration of nebular abundances based on the sulphur emission lines". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 312 (1): 130–138. arXiv:astro-ph/9909492. Bibcode:2000MNRAS.312..130D. doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2000.03117.x. ISSN 0035-8711. S2CID 119504048.
48. Shaver, P.A. ; McGee, R.X. ; Newton, L.M. ; Danks, A.C.; Pottasch, S.R. (1983-09-01). "The galactic abundance gradient". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 204 (1): 53–112. Bibcode:1983MNRAS.204...53S. doi:10.1093/mnras/204.1.53. ISSN 0035-8711.
49. Afflerbach, A.; Churchwell, E.; Werner, M. W. (1997-03-20). "Galactic abundance gradients from infrared fine-structure lines in compact HII regions". The Astrophysical Journal. 478 (1): 190–205. Bibcode:1997ApJ...478..190A. doi:10.1086/303771. ISSN 0004-637X.
50. Pagel, J.; Bernard, E. (1997). Nucleosynthesis and Chemical Evolution of Galaxies. Cambridge University Press. p. 392. Bibcode:1997nceg.book.....P. ISBN 978-0-521-55061-1.
51. Balser, Dana S.; Rood, Robert T.; Bania, T.M. ; Anderson, L.D. (2011-08-10). "HII region metallicity distribution in the Milky Way disk". The Astrophysical Journal. 738 (1): 27. arXiv:1106.1660. | 23181 | 3 |
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52. Karachentsev, J.D. ; et al. (12 November 2022). "Peekaboo: The extremely metal poor dwarf galaxy HIPASS J1131-31". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 518 (4): 5893–5903. arXiv:2212.03478. doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3284. Retrieved 17 December 2022.
53. Villard, Ray (6 December 2022). "Peekaboo! A tiny, hidden galaxy provides a peek into the past - tucked away in a local pocket of dark matter, a late-blooming dwarf galaxy looks like it belongs in the early universe". Hubblesite.org (Press release). NASA. Retrieved 18 December 2022.
54. Parks, Jake (16 December 2022). "Hubble spots a nearby galaxy that looks like it belongs in the early universe - The extremely metal-poor galaxy, nicknamed 'Peekaboo', relatively recently emerged from behind a fast-moving star". Scientific American. Retrieved 17 December 2022.
• Salvaterra, R.; Ferrara, A.; Schneider, R. (2004). "Induced formation of primordial low-mass stars". New Astronomy. 10 (2): 113–120. arXiv:astro-ph/0304074. Bibcode:2004NewA...10..113S. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.258.923. doi:10.1016/j.newast.2004.06.003. S2CID 15085880.
• Heger, A.; Woosley, S.E. (2002). "The nucleosynthetic signature of population III". Astrophysical Journal. 567 (1): 532–543. arXiv:astro-ph/0107037. Bibcode:2002ApJ...567..532H. doi:10.1086/338487. S2CID 16050642.
Further reading
• Kuhn, Karl F.; Koupelis, Theo (2004). Quest of the Universe (Fourth ed.). Canada: Jones and Bartlett. p. 593. ISBN 0-7637-0810-0.
• Bromm, Volker; Larson, Richard B. (2004). "The first stars". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 42 (1): 79–118. arXiv:astro-ph/0311019. Bibcode:2004ARA&A..42...79B. doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.42.053102.134034. S2CID 119371063.
Stars
• List
Formation
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• Herbig Ae/Be
• T Tauri
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Evolution
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Remnants
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Nucleosynthesis
• Deuterium burning
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Structure
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Properties
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Earth-centric
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• Stars portal | 23181 | 4 |
Night
Night or nighttime is the period of darkness when the Sun is below the horizon. The opposite of nighttime is daytime. Sunlight illuminates one side of the Earth, leaving the other in darkness. Earth's rotation causes the appearance of sunrise and sunset. Moonlight, airglow, starlight, and light pollution dimly illuminate night. The duration of day, night, and twilight varies depending on the time of year and the latitude. Night on other celestial bodies is affected by their rotation and orbital periods. The planets Mercury and Venus have much longer nights than Earth. On Venus, night lasts 120 Earth days. The Moon's rotation is tidally locked, rotating so that the near side of the Moon always faces Earth. Nightfall across the near the side of the Moon results in the lunar phases visible from Earth.
Organisms respond to the changes brought by nightfall, including darkness, increased humidity, and lower temperatures. Their responses include direct reactions and adjustments to circadian rhythms, governed by an internal biological clock. These circadian rhythms, regulated by exposure to light and darkness, affect an organism's behavior and physiology. Animals more active at night are called nocturnal and have adaptations for low light, including different forms of night vision and the heightening of other senses. Diurnal animals are active during the day and sleep at night; mammals, birds, and some others dream while asleep. Fungi respond directly to nightfall and increase their biomass. With some exceptions, fungi do not rely on a biological clock. Plants store energy produced through photosynthesis as starch granules to consume at night. Algae engage in a similar process, and cyanobacteria transition from photosynthesis to nitrogen fixation after sunset. In arid environments like deserts, plants evolved to be more active at night, with many gathering carbon dioxide overnight for daytime photosynthesis. Night-blooming cacti rely on nocturnal pollinators such as bats and moths for reproduction. Light pollution disrupts the patterns in ecosystems and is especially harmful to night-flying insects.
Historically, night has been a time of increased danger and insecurity. Many daytime social controls dissipated after sunset. Theft, fights, murders, taboo sexual activities, and accidental deaths all became more frequent due in part to reduced visibility. Cultures have personified night through deities associated with some or all of these aspects of nighttime. The folklore of many cultures contains "creatures of the night," including werewolves, witches, ghosts, and goblins, reflecting societal fears and anxieties. The introduction of artificial lighting extended daytime activities. Major European cities hung lanterns housing candles and oil lamps in the 1600s. Nineteenth-century gas and electric lights created unprecedented illumination. The range of socially acceptable leisure activities expanded, and various industries introduced a night shift. Nightlife, encompassing bars, nightclubs, and cultural venues, has become a significant part of urban culture, contributing to social and political movements.
Astronomy
A planet's rotation causes nighttime and daytime. When a place on Earth is pointed away from the Sun, that location experiences night. The Sun appears to set in the West and rise in the East due to Earth's rotation. [1] Many celestial bodies, including the other planets in the solar system, have a form of night. [1][2]
Earth
The length of night on Earth varies depending on the time of year. Longer nights occur in winter, with the winter solstice being the longest. [3] Nights are shorter in the summer, with the summer solstice being the shortest. [3] Earth orbits the Sun on an axis tilted 23.44 degrees. [4] Nights are longer when a hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun and shorter when a hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun. [5] As a result, the longest night of the year for the Northern Hemisphere will be the shortest night of the year for the Southern Hemisphere. [5]
Night's duration varies least near the equator. The difference between the shortest and longest night increases approaching the poles. [6] At the equator, night lasts roughly 12 hours throughout the year. [7] The tropics have little difference in the length of day and night. [6] At the 45th parallel, the longest winter night is roughly twice as long as the shortest summer night. [8] Within the polar circles, night will last the full 24 hours of the winter solstice. [5] The length of this polar night increases closer to the poles. Utqiagvik, Alaska, the northernmost point in the United States, experiences 65 days of polar night. [9] At the pole itself, polar night lasts 179 days from September to March. [9]
Over a year, there is more daytime than nighttime because of the Sun's size and atmospheric refraction. The Sun is not a single point. [10] Viewed from Earth, the Sun ranges in angular diameter from 31 to 33 arcminutes. [11] When the center of the Sun falls level with the western horizon, half of the Sun will still be visible during sunset. Likewise, by the time the center of the Sun rises to the eastern horizon, half of the Sun will already be visible during sunrise. [12] This shortens night by about 3 minutes in temperate zones. [13] Atmospheric refraction is a larger factor. [10] Refraction bends sunlight over the horizon. [13] On Earth, the Sun remains briefly visible after it has geometrically fallen below the horizon. [13] This shortens night by about 6 minutes. [13] Scattered, diffuse sunlight remains in the sky after sunset and into twilight. [14]
There are multiple ways to define twilight, the gradual transition to and from darkness when the Sun is below the horizon. [15] "Civil" twilight occurs when the Sun is between 0 to 6 degrees below the horizon. Nearby planets like Venus and bright stars like Sirius are visible during this period. [16] "Nautical" twilight continues until the Sun is 12 degrees below the horizon. [17] During nautical twilight, the horizon is visible enough for navigation. [18] "Astronomical" twilight continues until the Sun has sunk 18 degrees below the horizon. [16][19] Beyond 18 degrees, refracted sunlight is no longer visible. [19] The period when the sun is 18 or more degrees below either horizon is called astronomical night. [17]
Similar to the duration of night itself, the duration of twilight varies according to latitude. [19] At the equator, day quickly transitions to night, while the transition can take weeks near the poles. [19] The duration of twilight is longest at the summer solstice and shortest near the equinoxes. [20] Moonlight, starlight, airglow, and light pollution create the skyglow that dimly illuminates nighttime. [21][22] The amount of skyglow increases each year due to artificial lighting. [21]
Other celestial bodies
Night exists on the other planets and moons in the solar system. [1][2] The length of night is affected by the rotation period and orbital period of the celestial object. [23] The lunar phases visible from Earth result from nightfall on the Moon. [24] The Moon has longer nights than Earth, lasting about two weeks. [23] This is half of the synodic lunar month, the time it takes the Moon to cycle through its phases. [25] The Moon is tidally locked to Earth; it rotates so that one side of the Moon always faces the Earth. [26] The side of the Moon facing away from Earth is called the far side of the Moon and the side facing Earth is called the near side of the Moon. During lunar night on the near side, Earth is 50 times brighter than a full moon. [27] Because the Moon has no atmosphere, there is an abrupt transition from day to night without twilight. [28]
Night varies from planet to planet within the Solar System. Mars's dusty atmosphere causes a lengthy twilight period. The refracted light ranges from purple to blue, often resulting in glowing noctilucent clouds. [29] Venus and Mercury have long nights because of their slow rotational periods. [30] The planet Venus rotates once every 243 Earth days. [31] Because of its unusual retrograde rotation, nights last 116.75 Earth days. [32] The dense greenhouse atmosphere on Venus keeps its surface hot enough to melt lead throughout the night. [33][34] Its planetary wind system, driven by solar heat, reverses direction from day to night. Venus's winds flow from the equator to the poles on the day side and from the poles to the equator on the night side. [35][36] On Mercury, the planet closest to the Sun, the temperature drops over 1,000 °F (538 °C) after nightfall. [37]
The day-night cycle is one consideration for planetary habitability or the possibility of extraterrestrial life on distant exoplanets. [38] Some exoplanets, like those of TRAPPIST-1, are tidally locked. Tidally locked planets have equal rotation and orbital periods, so one side experiences constant day, and the other side constant night. In these situations, astrophysicists believe that life would most likely develop in the twilight zone between the day and night hemispheres. [39][40]
Biology
Living organisms react directly to the darkness of night. [42] Light and darkness also affect circadian rhythms, the physical and mental changes that occur in a 24-hour cycle. | 23182 | 0 |
[43] This daily cycle is regulated by an internal "biological clock" that is adjusted by exposure to light. [43] The length and timing of nighttime depend on location and time of year. [44] Organisms that are more active at night possess adaptations to the night's dimmer light, increased humidity, and lower temperatures. [45]
Animals
Animals that are active primarily at night are called nocturnal and usually possess adaptations for night vision. [46] In vertebrates' eyes, two types of photoreceptor cells sense light. [47] Cone cells sense color but are ineffective in low light; rod cells sense only brightness but remain effective in very dim light. [48] The eyes of nocturnal animals have a greater percentage of rod cells. [47] In most mammals, rod cells contain densely packed DNA near the edge of the nucleus. For nocturnal mammals, this is reversed with the densely packed DNA in the center of the nucleus, which reduces the scattering of light. [49] Some nocturnal animals have a mirror, the tapetum lucidum, behind the retina. This doubles the amount of light their eyes can process. [50]
The compound eyes of insects can see at even lower levels of light. For example, the elephant hawk moth can see in color, including ultraviolet, with only starlight. [46] Nocturnal insects navigate using moonlight, lunar phases, infrared vision, the position of the stars, and the Earth's magnetic field. [51] Artificial lighting disrupts the biorhythms of many animals. [52] Night-flying insects that use the moon for navigation are especially vulnerable to disorientation from increasing levels of artificial lighting. [53] Artificial lights attract many night-flying insects that die from exhaustion and nocturnal predators. [54] Decreases in insect populations disrupt the overall ecosystem because their larvae are a key food source for smaller fish. [55] Dark-sky advocate Paul Bogard described the unnatural migration of night-flying insects from the unlit Nevada desert into Las Vegas as "like sparkling confetti floating in the beam's white column". [56]
Some nocturnal animals have developed other senses to compensate for limited light. Many snakes have a pit organ that senses infrared light and enables them to detect heat. Nocturnal mice possess a vomeronasal organ that enhances their sense of smell. Bats heavily depend on echolocation. [57] Echolocation allows an animal to navigate with their sense of hearing by emitting sounds and listening for the time it takes them to bounce back. [57] Bats emit a steady stream of clicks while hunting insects and home in on prey as thin as human hair. [58]
People and other diurnal animals sleep primarily at night. [59] Humans, other mammals, and birds experience multiple stages of sleep visible via electroencephalography. [60] The stages of sleep are wakefulness, three stages of non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREM) including deep sleep, and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. [61] During REM sleep, dreams are more frequent and complex. [62] Studies show that some reptiles may also experience REM sleep. [63] During deep sleep, memories are consolidated into long-term memory. [64] Invertebrates most likely experience a form of sleep as well. Studies on bees, which have complex but unrelated brain structures, have shown improvements in memory after sleep, similar to mammals. [65]
Compared to waking life, dreams are sparse with limited sensory detail. Dreams are hallucinatory or bizarre, and they often have a narrative structure. [66] Many hypotheses exist to explain the function of dreams without a definitive answer. [66] Nightmares are dreams that cause distress. The word "night-mare" originally referred to nocturnal demons that were believed to assail sleeping dreamers, like the incubus (male) or succubus (female). [67] It was believed that the demons could sit upon a dreamer's chest to suffocate a victim, as depicted in John Henry Fuseli's The Nightmare. [67]
Fungi
Fungi can sense the presence and absence of light, and the nightly changes of most fungi growth and biological processes are direct responses to either darkness or falling temperatures. [44] By night, fungi are more engaged in synthesizing cellular components and increasing their biomass. [68] For example, fungi that preys on insects will infect the central nervous system of their prey, allowing the fungi to control the actions of the dying insect. During the late afternoon, the fungi will pilot their prey to higher elevation where wind currents can carry its spores further. The fungi will kill and digest the insect as night falls, extending fruiting bodies from the host's exoskeleton. [69] Few species of fungi have true circadian rhythms. [44] A notable exception is Neurospora crassa, a bread mold, widely used to study biorhythms. [70]
Plants
During the day, plants engage in photosynthesis and release oxygen. By night, plants engage in respiration, consuming oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide. [71] Plants can draw up more water after sunset, which facilitates new leaf growth. [72] As plants cannot create energy through photosynthesis after sunset, they use energy stored in the plant, typically as starch granules. [73] Plants use this stored energy at a steady rate, depleting their reserves almost right at dawn. [73] Plants will adjust their rate of consumption to match the expected time until sunrise. This avoids prematurely running out of starch reserves,[73] and it allows the plant to adjust for longer nights in the winter. [74] If a plant is subjected to artificially early darkness, it will ration its energy consumption to last until dawn. [74]
Succulent plants, including cacti, have adapted to the limited water availability in arid environments like deserts. [75] The stomata of cacti do not open until night. [76] When the temperature drops, the pores open to allow the cacti to store carbon dioxide for photosynthesis the next day, a process known as crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM). [76][77] Cacti and most night-blooming plants use CAM to store up to 99% of the carbon dioxide they use in daily photosynthesis. [78][79] Ceroid cacti often have flowers that bloom at night and fade before sunrise. [80] As few bees are nocturnal, night-flowering plants rely on other pollinators including moths, beetles, and bats. [81] These flowers rely more on the pollinators' sense of smell with strong perfumes to attract moths and foul-smelling odors to attract bats. [82]
Eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms that engage in photosynthesis are also affected by nightfall. Like plants, algae will switch to taking in oxygen and processing energy stored as starch. [83][84] Cyanobacteria, also known as blue algae, switch from photosynthesis to nitrogen fixation after sunset,[85] and they absorb DNA at a much higher rate. [86]
Culture
History and technology
Before the industrial era, night was a time of heightened insecurity. [87] Fear of the night was common but varied in intensity across cultures. [88] Dangers increased due to lower visibility. Injuries and deaths were caused by drowning and falling into pits, ditches, and shafts. [89] People were less able to evaluate others after dark. [90] Due to nocturnal alcohol consumption and the anonymity of darkness, quarrels were more likely to escalate to violence. In medieval Stockholm, the majority of murders were committed while intoxicated. [91] Crime and fear of crime increased at night. [92] In pre-industrial Europe, ciminals disguised themselves with hats, facepaint, or cloaks. Thieves would trip pedestrians with ropes laid across streets and dismount horse riders using long poles extended from the roadside shadows. They used "dark lanterns" where light could be shined through a single side. Gangs were uncommon except for housebreaking. [93] The increased humidity of night was deemed the result of vapors and fumes. [94] Changes in the night sky were interpreted as significant omens. [95]
Many daytime religious, governmental, and local social controls dissipated after nightfall. [96] Fortified Christian communities announced the coming darkness with horns, church bells, or drums. This alerted residents—like peasants working the fields—to return home before the city gates shut. [97] The English engaged in a daily process of "shutting in", where valuables were brought into homes before they were bolted, barred, locked, and shuttered. [98] Many English and European towns attempted to impose curfews during the medieval period and gradually loosened the restrictions via exceptions. [99] Prayer and folk magic were more common by night. [100] Amulets were hung to ward off nightmares, spells were cast against thievery, and pig hearts were hung in chimneys to block demons from traveling down them. [101] The common phrase "good night" has been shortened from "God give you a good night. "[100] In Ottoman Istanbul, the royal palaces shifted to projecting nocturnal power through large parties lit by lanterns, candles, and fireworks. [102] Though alcohol was forbidden for Muslims, after dark, Turkish Muslims went to the bars and taverns beyond the Muslim areas. [103]
The night has long been a time of increased sexual activity, especially in taboo forms such as premarital, extramarital, gay, and lesbian sex. | 23182 | 1 |
[104] In colonial New England courtship, young unmarried couples practiced bundling before marriage. The couples would lie down in the woman's bed, her family would wrap them tightly with blankets, and they would spend the night together this way. Some families took precautions to prevent unintended pregnancies, like sleeping in the same room, laying a large wooden board between the couple, or pulling a single stocking over both of their daughter's legs. [105] Historian Roger Ekirch described pre-industrial night as a "sanctuary from ordinary existence. "[106]
Lantern
Gas
The first street lights in Europe were suspended lanterns that housed candles or lamps. Much brighter gas lighting was developed in the 1800s. [107]
Artificial lighting expanded the scope of acceptable work and leisure after dark. [108] In the 1600s, the major European cities introduced streetlights. These were lit by lamplighters each evening outside of the summer months. [109] Early street lights were metal and glass enclosures housing candles or oil lamps. They were suspended above streets or mounted on posts. [110] The use of artificial lighting led to an increase in acceptable nightlife. [111] In more rural areas, night remained a period of rest and nocturnal labor. [112] Young adults, the urban poor, prostitutes, and thieves benefited from the anonymity of darkness and frequently smashed the new lanterns. [113] Gas lighting was invented in the 1800s. A gas mantle was over ten times brighter than an oil lamp. [114] Gas lighting was associated with the creation of regular police forces. [115] In England, police departments were tasked with maintaining the gas lights, which became known as "police lamps". [116] Daytime routines were further pushed back into the night by the electric light bulb—invented in the late 19th century—and the widespread usage of newer timekeeping devices like watches. [117] Electric lights created night shifts for traditionally daytime fields, like India's cotton industry, and created opportunities for working adults to attend night school. [118]
Before the widespread usage of artificial lighting, sleep was typically split into two major segments separated by about an hour of wakefulness. [119] During this midnight period, people engaged in prayer, crimes, urination, sex, and, most commonly, reflection. [120] Without exposure to artificial light, studies show that people revert to sleeping in two separate intervals. [121]
Folklore and religion
Diverse cultures have made connections between the night sky and the afterlife. [122] Many Native American peoples have described the Milky Way as a path where the deceased travel as stars. The Lakota term for the Milky Way is Wanáǧi Thacháŋku, or "Spirit's Road". [123] In Mayan mythology, the Milky Way's dark band is the Road of Xibalba, the path to the underworld. [123] Unrelated cultures share a myth of a star-covered sky goddess who arches over the planet after sunset, like Citlālicue, the Aztec personification of the Milky Way. [124][125] The elongated Egyptian goddess Nut and N!adima from Botswana are said to consume the Sun at dusk. [126] In the Ancient Egyptian religion, the Sun then travels through the netherworld inside Nut's body, where it is reborn at dawn. [126]
Many cultures have personified the night. [127] Ratri is the star-covered Hindu goddess of the night. [128] In the Icelandic Prose Edda, night is embodied by Nótt. [129] Ratri and Nött are goddesses of sleep and rest, but it's common for personifications to be associated with misfortune. [127] In Aztec Mythology, Black Tezcatlipoca, the "Night Wind", was associated with obsidian and the nocturnal jaguar. [130][131] In his "Precious Owl" manifestation, the Aztecs regarded Tezcatlipoca as the bringer of death and destruction. [130] The Aztecs anticipated an unending night when the Tzitzimīmeh, skeletal female star deities, would descend to consume all humans. [132] In classical mythology, the night goddess Nyx is the mother of Sleep, Death, Disease, Strife, and Doom. [133] In Jewish culture and mysticism, the demon Lilith embodies the emotional reactions to darkness including terror, lust, and liberation. [134]
Nighttime in the pre-industrial period, often called the "night season", was associated with darkness and uncertainty. [135] Various cultures have regarded the night as a time when ghosts and other spirits are active on Earth. [136] When Protestant theologians abandoned the concept of purgatory, many came to view reported ghost sightings as the result of demonic activity. [137] In the sixteenth century, Swiss theologian Ludwig Lavater began attempting to explain reported spirits as mistakes, deceit, or the work of demons. [138] The idea of night as a dangerous, dark, or haunted time persists in modern urban legends like the vanishing hitchhiker. [139][140]
Many times in the night season, there have been certain spirits heard softly going or spitting or groaning, who being asked what they were have made answer that they were the souls of this or that man and that they now endure extreme torments. [141]
— Ludwig Lavater, Of Ghosts and Spirits Walking by Night
In folklore, nocturnal preternatural beings like goblins, fairies, werewolves, pucks, brownies, banshees, and boggarts have overlapping but non-synonymous definitions. [142] The werewolf—and its francophone variations the loup-garou and rougarou—were believed to be people who transformed into beasts at night. [143][144] In West Africa and among the African diaspora, there is a widespread tradition of a type of vampire who removes their human skin at night and travels as a blood-sucking ball of light. Variation includes the feu-follet, Surinamese asema, and Caribbean sukuyan, Ashanti obayifo, and Ghanian asanbosam. [145][146] The medieval fear of night-flying European witches was influenced by the Roman strix. [147] The Romans described the strix as capable of changing between a beautiful woman and an owl-shaped monster. [148] Common themes among these mythical nocturnal entities include hypersexuality, predation, shapeshifting, deception, mischief, and malice. [149]
Nightlife
Nightlife is a collective term for entertainment that is available and generally more popular from the late evening into the early hours of the morning. [150] It includes pubs, bars, nightclubs, parties, live music, concerts, cabarets, theatre, cinemas, and shows. Nightlife entertainment is often more adult-oriented than daytime entertainment. [151] People who prefer to be active during the night-time are called night owls. [152] Sociologists have argued that vibrant city nightlife scenes contribute to the development of culture and political movements. David Grazian cites as examples the development of beat poetry, musical styles including bebop, urban blues and early rock, and the importance of nightlife for the development of the gay rights movement in the United States kicked off by the riots at the Stonewall Inn nightclub in Greenwich Village, Lower Manhattan, New York City. [153] Research conducted by Euromonitor International indicates a growing demand for unique, immersive nightlife experiences among millennials and Generation Zero. [154]
Art
Literature
In literature, night is often associated with mysterious, hidden, dangerous, and clandestine activities. [155] Since the Age of Enlightenment, nocturnal settings have been a frequent place for passionate chaos as a counterbalance to the rationality present during the day. [156] In Gothic fiction, this absence of rationality offered a space for lust and terror. [157] Ottoman literature portrayed night as a time for forbidden or unrequited love. [158] Night and day were long depicted as opposite conditions. [159] The electric light, the industrial revolution, and shift work brought many aspects of daily life into the night. [155] The author Charles Dickens lived in London during the time of gas lighting and compared the unstable separation between the waking and sleeping city, to the unstable separation he perceived between dream and delusion. [160][161] Night in contemporary literature offers liminal settings, such as hospitals and gas stations, that contain some aspects of daily life. [155]
Night fell, while Helga Crane in the rushing swiftness of a roaring elevated train sat numb. It was as if all the bogies and goblins that had beset her unloved, unloving, and unhappy childhood had come to life with tenfold power to hurt and frighten. [162]
— Nella Larsen, Quicksand
Film and photography
Directly filming at night is rarely done. Film stocks and video cameras are much less sensitive to low light environments than the human eye. [163] During the silent film era, night scenes were filmed during the day in black and white. [164] The sections of the monochrome film reel with exterior night scenes were soaked in an acidic dye, that tinted the whole scene blue. [165][166] "Day for night" is a set of cinematic techniques that simulate a night scene while filming in daylight. They include underexposing to the soften scene, using a graduated neutral-density filter to mute lighting, and setting up the artificial lighting to amplify shadows in the background. | 23182 | 2 |
[167] Lower budget films are more likely to use day for night shooting, larger budget films are more likely to film at night with artificial lighting. [167] Cinematographers have used tinting, filters, color balance settings, and physical lights to color night scenes blue. [168] In low light, people experience the Purkinje effect which causes reds to dim so that more blue is perceived. As light decreases towards total darkness, the human eye has more scotopic vision, relying more rod cells and less able to perceive color. [169][164]
Night photography can capture the natural colors of night by increasing the exposure time, or length of time captured in the photography. [170] Longer exposures open the possibility for photographers to use light painting to selectively illuminate a scene. [171] Digital photography can also make use of high-ISO settings, which increase the sensitivity to light, to take shorter exposure shots. This makes it possible to capture moving subjects without turning their movements into a blur. [172]
See also
• Earth's shadow
• Night aviation regulations in the US
• Night sky
• Nocturne
• Olbers' paradox
• Night in paintings (Western art)
• Night in paintings (Eastern art)
Notes
1. Lunar Planetary Institute n.d.
2. Bolles 2024c.
3. Greene 2003, p. 31.
4. Dobrijevic 2022, "What Causes the Summer Solstice".
5. Dobrijevic 2022.
6. UCSB 2015.
7. Steiger & Bunton 1995, "Night and Day".
8. Steiger & Bunton 1995, "Twilight".
9. Mulvaney 2024.
10. Greene 2003, p. 33.
11. Gaherty 2013.
12. Katz 2021.
13. McClure 2024.
14. Shubinski 2023.
15. Greene 2003, p. 86.
16. Mason 1933, p. 690.
17. Ottewell 2019.
18. Kher & Bikos n.d.
19. Shubinski 2023, "In twilight".
20. Greene 2003, pp. 86–87.
21. Sokol 2023.
22. Flanders 2008, "Natural".
23. David 2022.
24. Bolles 2024c, "The View From Home".
25. Greene 2003, p. 43.
26. Gunn n.d.
27. Plait 2023.
28. Greene 2003, p. 84.
29. Atkinson 2024.
30. Planetary Society n.d., "Solar Day Length".
31. Margot et al. 2021, p. 676.
32. Williams 2017.
33. Planetary Society n.d., "Global Average Temperature".
34. Bolles 2024b.
35. Svedhem et al. 2007, pp. 629–630.
36. Gohd 2021.
37. Bolles 2024a.
38. Clery 2017.
39. Walla 2019.
40. Lewis 2023.
41. Iglesias et al. 2018, p. 17.
42. Dunlap & Loroso 2018, p. 515.
43. BRAIN 2004, "Sleep and Circadian Rhythms".
44. Dunlap & Loroso 2018, p. 517.
45. Borges 2018, "Abstract".
46. Gaston et al. 2012, p. 1261.
47. Jacobs 2009, p. 2961.
48. Shen 2012.
49. Cell 2009.
50. Greene 2003, p. 147.
51. Danthanarayana 1986, p. 3.
52. Edwards 2018, p. 241.
53. Pennisi, Benthe & Haberland 2021, p. 556.
54. Pennisi, Benthe & Haberland 2021, p. 557.
55. Pennisi, Benthe & Haberland 2021, pp. 556–557.
56. Edwards 2018, p. 239.
57. Edwards 2018, p. 238.
58. Langley 2021, "Bat signals".
59. Moorcroft 2005, p. 33.
60. Vorster & Born 2015, p. 108.
61. Patel et al. 2024, "Mechanism".
62. Hoel 2021, "Introduction".
63. Dunham 2016.
64. Vorster & Born 2015, p. 115.
65. Vorster & Born 2015, p. 113.
66. Hoel 2021, "Contemporary Theories of Dreams".
67. Harris 2004, pp. 439–440.
68. Dunlap & Loroso 2018, p. 528.
69. Lovett & Leger 2018, pp. 935–936.
70. Dunlap & Loroso 2018, pp. 515–517.
71. Fricke 2020, p. 1152.
72. Fricke 2020, p. 1154.
73. Scialdone & Howard 2015, p. 1.
74. Scialdone & Howard 2015, p. 2.
75. Hewitt 1997, p. 10.
76. Hewitt 1997, p. 12.
77. Herrera 2009, p. 645.
78. Borges, Somanathan & Kelber 2016, p. 399.
79. Herrera 2009, p. 646.
80. Hewitt 1997, pp. 60–61.
81. Borges, Somanathan & Kelber 2016, p. 404.
82. Hewitt 1997, p. 13.
83. Carnegie Institution 2014.
84. Lutz n.d.
85. Coombs 2006.
86. Leitch 2020.
87. Edwards 2018, p. 36.
88. Ekirch 2005, p. 5.
89. Ekirch 2005, pp. 23–27.
90. Ekirch 2005, p. 8.
91. Ekirch 2005, p. 46.
92. Ekirch 2005, pp. 31–33.
93. Ekirch 2005, pp. 31–40.
94. Ekirch 2005, pp. 12–16.
95. Ekirch 2005, p. 9.
96. Ekirch 2005, pp. 59, 88.
97. Ekirch 2005, p. 61.
98. Ekirch 2005, pp. 91–93.
99. Ekirch 2005, pp. 63–65.
100. Ekirch 2005, pp. 97–99.
101. Ekirch 2001, p. 357.
102. Wishnitzer 2014, pp. 521–522.
103. Wishnitzer 2014, p. 523.
104. Ekirch 2005, pp. 191–197.
105. Ekirch 2005, pp. 197–202.
106. Ekirch 2005, p. xxvi.
107. Koslofsky 2011.
108. Koslofsky 2011, p. 2.
109. Ekirch 2005, pp. 72–73.
110. | 23182 | 3 |
Koslofsky 2011, pp. 130–136.
111. Koslofsky 2011, pp. 155–156.
112. Koslofsky 2011, p. 201.
113. Koslofsky 2011, pp. 162–165.
114. Ekirch 2005, p. 331.
115. Ekirch 2005, pp. 331–335.
116. Ekirch 2005, p. 335.
117. Duijzings & Dušková 2022, p. 2.
118. Kumar 2022, pp. 55, 67–68.
119. Ekirch 2001, p. 364.
120. Ekirch 2001, pp. 370–373.
121. Ekirch 2001, p. 367.
122. Graur 2024, pp. 37–40.
123. Graur 2024, p. 39.
124. Graur 2024, pp. 37–38.
125. Klein 2000, p. 51.
126. Graur 2024.
127. Ekirch 2005, p. 4.
128. Jordan 2014, p. 264.
129. Byock 2006, p. 19.
130. Cartwright 2013.
131. Maestri 2019.
132. Klein 2000, p. 17.
133. Bronfen 2013, pp. 405, 424.
134. Hammer n.d., p. 1.
135. Ekirch 2005, Preface.
136. Hutton 2017, p. 128.
137. Bennett 1999, pp. 140–143.
138. Bennett 1999, p. 141.
139. Hyde 2021.
140. Mikkelson 1999.
141. Bruce 2016, p. 222.
• Ostling & Forest 2014, pp. 561–562;
• Ekirch 2005, pp. 17–19;
• Hutton 2017, p. 230.
143. Ransom 2015.
144. Pasarić 2015, p. 241.
145. Jenkins 2013.
146. Pasarić 2015, pp. 239–241.
147. Hutton 2017, p. 69.
148. Hutton 2017, pp. 69–70.
149. Hutton 2017, pp. 234–242.
150. "Nightlife - Definition of nightlife by Merriam-Webster". merriam-webster.com. Archived from the original on 18 June 2015. Retrieved 18 June 2015.
151. Oldenburg 1999.
152. Klein 2008, p. 20.
153. Grazian 2009, pp. 908–917.
154. "Global Nightlife Tourism: Trends Shaping the Industry". Euromonitor International. 2021.
155. Boyer 2019.
156. Bronfen 2013, pp. 343–344.
157. Bronfen 2013, p. 227.
158. Wishnitzer 2014, p. 518.
159. Boyer 2019, "It's plain as night and day. ".
160. Dickens 2012.
161. Beaumont 2014, p. 120, "[...] takes place in the realm of the unnight, a liminal zone between the waking and sleeping city, and between the waking sleeping state of mind."
162. Larsen 1971, p. 63.
163. Rabiger 2014, p. 88.
164. Edwards 2018, p. 180.
165. Read 2009, pp. 13, 20.
166. Kramer 2015, "Tinting and Toning".
167. Hurkman 2013, p. 31.
168. Hurkman 2013, p. 43.
169. Hurkman 2013, pp. 43–44.
170. Keimig 2012, pp. xxiv, 22.
171. Keimig 2012, p. 225.
172. Keimig 2012, pp. 104, 118.
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External links
• Media related to Night at Wikimedia Commons
• Quotations related to Night at Wikiquote
• The dictionary definition of night at Wiktionary
• International Night Studies Network
Parts of a day
Daytime
• Morning
• Noon
• Afternoon
• Evening
Twilight
• Dawn
• Sunrise
• Sunset
• Dusk
• Blue hour
Night
• Midnight
• Witching hour
• Brahmamuhurtha
Related
• Belt of Venus
• Golden hour
• Terminator
• Daylight
• Moonlight
• Midnight sun
• Polar night
• Zodiacal light
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